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BUILDING 
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HORACE  H.  RACUUn 

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BUILDING 
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The  Catholic  Encyclopedia 


VOLUME    SIX 

Fathers-Gregory 


■      ^■-  rf  i 


i§ 


:i 


THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN    INTERNATIONAL   WORK   OF   REFERENCE 

ON     THE     CONSTITUTION,    DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC    CHURCH 


EDITED  BY 

CHARI£S  G.  HERBERMANN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

EDWARD  A.  PACE,  Ph.D.,  D.D.        CONDfe  B.  FALLEN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

THOMAS  J.  SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN   J.  WYNNE,  S.J. 

ASSISTED  BY  NUMEROUS  COLLABORATORS 


FIFTEEN  VOLUMES  AND  INDEX 
VOLUME  VI 

SPECIAL    EDITION 

tmcZB  THS  AUSPICES  OF 

THE  KNIGHTS  OF  COLUMBUS  CATHOUC  TRUTH  COMMITTEE 


Hew  fforft 
THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  PRESS,  INC 


3\ 


Nihil  Obstat,  September  1,  1909 
REMY  LAFORT,  S.T.D. 


GBNBOB 


Imprimatur 

•frJOHN  CARDINAL  FARLEY 

ARCHBISHOP  or  NBW  TOBX 


Copyright,  1909 
By  Robert  Appleton  Company 

Copyright^  1913 
By  the  encyclopedia  PRESS,  INC 

The  articles  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  for  The  Catholic 
Encyclopedia  and  are  protected  by  copyright.    All  rights,  includ- 
ing the  right  of  translation  and  reproduction,  are  reserved. 


if  533/ 


Contributors  to  the  Sixth  Volume 


I 

J 


AHERNE,  CORNELIUS.  Professor  of  New  Tes- 
tament Exegesis,  Rector,  St.  Joseph's  Coii- 
LBGE,  Mill  Hill,  London:  GalatianB,  Epistle 
to  the. 

ALBERS.  P.,S.J.,  Maastricht,  Holland:  Gorkiun, 
The  Martyrs  of. 

AlD^SY,  ANTAL,  Ph.D.,  Archivist  of  the  Li- 
brary OF  the  National  Museum,  Budapest: 
Gran^  Archdiocese  of. 

ALSTON,  G.  CYPRIAN.  O.S.B.,  Downside  Abbey, 
Bath,  England:  Fontenelle,  Abbey  of;  Font- 
froide.  Abbey  of;  Gall,  Abbey  of  Saint;  Gar- 
land; Gaudete  Sunday;  General  Chapter;  Glebe; 
Goacelin. 

ARENDZEN,  J.  P.,  8.T.D.,  M.A.  (Cantab.),  Pro- 
fessor eF  Holy  Scripture,  S;r.  Edmund's 
College,  Ware,  England:  Gabriel  Sionita; 
Gnosticiain. 

ASTRAiN,  ANTONIO,  S.J.,  Madrid:  Francis  Xav- 
ier,  Saint. 

AVELING,  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  London:  Form; 
Free-Tliinkers. 

BARBIERI,  REMIGIO  GUIDO,  Titular  Bishop 
OF  Thbodosiopolis,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Gi- 
braltar:  Gibraltar,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

BARNES,  ARTHUR  STAPYLTON,  M.A.  (Oxon. 
AND  Cantab.),  Cambridge,  England:  Glabrio, 
Manius  Acilius. 

BARRETT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Buckie,  Scot- 
land: Fort  Augustus  Abbey;  Graham,  Patrick. 

t  BARRY,  ALBERT,  C.SS.R.,  Limerick,  Ireland: 
FumisB,  John. 

BENIGNI,  UMBERTO,  Professor  of  Ecclesias- 
tical History,  Pont.  Collegio  Urbano  di 
Propaganda,  Rome:  Ferentino,  Diocese  of; 
Fermo,  Archdiocese  of;  Ferrara,  Archdiocese  of; 
Fiesole,  Diocese  of;  Florence.  Archdiocese  of; 
Foggia,  Diocese  of;  Foligno,  Diocese  of;  Fori), 
Diocese  of;  Fossano,  Diocese  of;  Fossombrone, 
Diocese  of;  Frascati.  Diocese  of;  Gaeta,  Arch- 
diocese of;  Gallijpoli,  Diocese  of;  Galluppi, 
Pasquale;  Galtelli-Nuoro,  Diocese  of;  Genoa, 
Archdiocese  of;  Gerace,  Diocese  of;  Giberti, 
Gian  Matteo;  Giobcrti,  Vincenzo;  Gii^genti, 
Dioc^of;  Gonzaga,  Ercole;  Gonzaea,  Scipione; 
Grassis,  Paris  de;  Gravina  and  Montepeloso, 
Diocese  of. 

BERGH,  FREDERICK  THOMAS,  O.S.B.,  Abbot 
OF  St.  Augustine's,  Carshalton,  Surrey, 
England:  Genuflexion. 


BEWERUNGE,  H.,  Professor  of  Church  Music, 
St.  Patrick's  College,  Maynooth,  Dublin: 
Gregorian  Chant. 

BTHTi,  MICHAEL,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Ecglbsiasti- 
CAL  History,  Collegio  San  Bonaventura, 
QuARAccm,  Florence:  Fraticelli;  Friars  Minor, 
Order  of;  Gerardus  Odonis. 

BOOTHMAN,  C.  T..  Kingstown,  Ireland:  Fita- 
herbert,  Maria  Anne;  Glanville,  Ranulf  de. 

BOUDINHON,  AUGUSTE-MARIE,  S.T.D.,  D.C.L., 
Director,  "Canonistb  Contemporain",  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law,  Institut  Catholiqub, 
Paris:  Foigery,  Foiger;  Formularies;  Gibert, 
Jean-Pierre;  Glaire,  Jean-Baptiste;  Glosses, 
Glossaries,  Glossarists. 

BRANN,  HENRY  A.,  D.D.,  New  York:  Grace, 
William  Russell. 

BRAUN,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Bbllbyub,  Lttxbmburg: 
Gloves,  Episcopal. 

BR£hIER,  L0UIS-REN£,  professor  of  Ancient 
AND  Medieval  History,  University  of  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, Puy-de-D8me,  France:  Foul- 
que  de  Neuillyj  Freroso,  Federifo;  Froissart, 
Jean;  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos;  GooSrey  of  Bouil- 
lon. 

BRIAULT,  MAURICE,  C.S.SP.,  Fabib:  Gaboon, 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

BROCK,  HENRY  M.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Physics, 
Holy  Cross  College,  Worcester^  Massachu- 
setts: Ferdinand,  Blessed;  Feuillet,  Louis; 
Fixlmillner,  Placidus;  Fontana,  Felice;  FOrster, 
Arnold;  Forster,  Thomas^  Ignatius  Maria;  Fres- 
nel,  Augustin-Jean;  Gerbillon,  Jean-Francois. 

BROWN,  CHARLES  FRANCIS  WEMYSS,  Loch- 
ton  Castle,  Perthshire,  Scotland:  Gandol- 
phy.  Peter;  Gervase,  George;  Gold  well,  Thomas; 
Gotner,  John;  Gradwell,  Robert. 

BURKE,  EDMUND,  B.A\>  Instructor  in  Latin, 
College  op  the  City  of  New  York:  Filelfo, 
Francesco;  Forcellini,  Egidio;  Fust,  John. 

BURTON,  EDWIN,  S.T.D.,  F.S.  Hist.  Soc.,  Vice- 
President,  St.  Edmund's  College,  Ware, 
England:  Fenn,  John;  Finch,  John,  Venerable; 
Fitzalan,  Henry;  Fitzherbert,  Sir  Anthony; 
Fleming,  Richard;  Fletcher,  John;  Floyd,  John; 
Formby,  Henry;  Fowler,  John;  Gardiner, 
Stephen;  Geoffrey  of  Dunstable;  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth;  Gerard,  Archbishop  of  York;  Ger- 
vase  of  Canterbury;  Gesta  Romanorum;  Goffe, 
Stephen;  Goss,  Alexander;  Grant,  Thomas; 
Green,  Thomas  Louis. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  SIXTH  VOLUME 


BUTLER,  RICHARD  URBAN,  O.S.B.,    Downside    D' ALTON,  E.  A.,    M.R.I. A.,    Athbnbt,   Irblakii: 
Abbbt,  Bath,  England:  Gilbertines,  Order  of;  Fitzpatrick.   William  John;   Fleming,  Patrick; 


Gilbert  of  Sempringham,  Saint. 


Gidway  and  IGlmacduagh,  Diocese  of. 


^^^B^Bi^^i^'Vo^?' P^SZ"    DEBUCHY,  PAUL,  8,3,.LrrrJ..,Esom^,B^_ 


Abbey,   Birmingham,  England:    Feckenham, 
John  de. 


gium:   Gagliardi,  AchiUe;   Gaudier,  Antome  le; 
Gisbert,  Blaise. 


^^Sik^dd^^^'  N»' Y^'"^  ^^"^^    DEGERT.  ANTOINR  LL.D.,  EDm,E,  "La  Rimi. 

DELaGaSCOIGNE' yPROrBSSORGFLATnfLlTEBA- 


CASANOVA,  GERTRUDE,  O.S.B.,  Stanbrook 
Abbet,  Worcester,  England:  Gertrude  the 
Great,  Saint;  Gertrude  van  der  Oosten,  Vener- 
able. 

CA8ARTELLI,  L.  C,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  op  Salpord, 
England:  GentUi,  Aloysius. 


TURB,  Institut  Cathouqub.  Toulousb:  F4ne- 
Ion,  Fran9ois  de  Salignac  de  la  Mothe;  Gallican- 
ism. 

DELAMARRE,  LOUIS  N.,  Ph.D.,  Inbtbuctor  in 
French,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York: 
Fauriel,  Charles-Claude;  Florian^  Jean-Pierre 
Claris;  Gebhart,  Emile;  Gilbert,  Nicolas-Joseph^ 
Laurent;  Giraud  de  Bomeil. 


CHAPMAN,  JOHN,  CS.B^B.A.  (Oxon.),  Prior  of 
St.  Thomas's  Abbey,  Erdington,  Birmingham, 
England:     Fathers   of   the   Church;    Fessler,    DELANY,   JOSEPH,   S.T.D.,    New   York:    Fear 


Joseph;  Firmilian^  Bishop  of  Csesarea;  Fulffen- 
tius,  Fabius  Claudius  Goraianus,  Saint;  Gauden- 
tins.  Saint;  Gennadius  I,  Saint. 


(from  moral  standpoint);  Gluttony;  Good  Faith. 
DE  SMEDT,  CH.,  S.J.,  Brusbbib:    Gamans,  Jean. 


CLEARY,  GREGORY,  O.F.M.,  S.T.L.,  J.U.L.,  Pro-    DEVINE,  ARTHUR,  C.P.,  Professor  of  Thbol- 


fessor  of  Moral  Theology  and  Canon  Law, 
St.  Isidore's  College,  Rome:  Friar. 


OGY,    St.     Saviour's    Retreat.    Broadway, 
Worcestershire,  England:   Gabriel  Possenti, 

CLEARY,  HENRY  W.,  Editor,   **Nbw  Zealand  blessed. 

Tablet",  DuNBDiN,  New  Zealand:   Goulbum,  DEVITT,  E.  J.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Psychology, 

Diocese  of.  Georgetown  UNivsRsmr,  Washington  :George- 

CLUGNET,    JOSEPH-LfiON-TIBURCE,    Lirr.L.,  *^^  Umversity. 

Paris:  Gatianus,  Saint;  gemrd.  Saint,  Abbot  of  mnnEEN,  MICHAEL   FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,    Pro- 

Brppie;   Gerard,  Samt,  Bishop  of  Toul;   Goar,  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  Theology,  ^t.  Mary's  Uni- 

°*"^^'  VBRsiTY,  Baltimore:  Good,  The  Highest. 

COFFEY,  PETER,  S.T.L.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  T^Ti^x^xn?  xri?    Ttrrk     ttti     t^..»t.«»«^  »»« 

PhilJ)sophy. St. Patoick's ColLegb, Maynooth,  ^^^ffi,^ J?;'A^'' o^^'il'A. ^'f^S^  ^J^ 

Dublin:  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^;  Goc&rey  of  Fonl  Legisiaturb   of   Quebec:    Fr^ette,   Louis- 

taines.  Honors. 

COLEMAN,  AMBROSE,  O.P.,   M.R.I.A^  St.  Sav-  DONOVAN,  STEPHEN  M.,  O.F.M.,  Wamngton: 

iour's  Priory,  Dublin:  Felix  III,  ^aint.  Pope;  Berber,   Nicolaus;    Fonseca,  Jos^  Ribeiro  da; 

Felix  of  Nola,  Saint.                                                          »          *-    »  T?^««^«     H..a«.a       A«f..n,«    /l.^.      T?ro«^ia    Holon«« 


CONNOLLY,  ARTHUR  THEODORE,  B.D.,  Bos- 
ton:  Fitton,  James. 

COOREMAN,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  V.G.,  General  Mana- 
ger OF  THE  Schools  of  the  Dioces^e  of  Galle, 
Ceylon:  Galle,  Diocese  of. 

CORBETT,  JOHN,  S.J.,  New  York:  Gradual 
Psalms. 


Fonseca  Soares,  Antonio  da;    Francis  Solanus, 
Saint;  Frassen,  Claude;  Gaudentius  of  Brescia. 

DOUMIC,  REN£,  Member  of  the  French  Academy, 
Literary  'and  Dramatic  Critic,  "Revue  dbs 
Deux  Mondes",  Paris:  French  Iiiterature. 

DRISCOLL,  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  New  York:  Firma- 
ment; Gog  and  Magog;  Golden  Calf. 

DRISCOLL,  JOHN  THOMAS,  M.A.,  S.T.L.,  Fonda, 
New  York:   Fetishism. 


CORDIER,  HENRI,  Professor  at  the  School  for 

^^^S."!!^  ^"^^^  Languages,  Paris:    Gaubil,    ^,3.   mANOEL  F.  X.,    Prinqpal,    Antonio    db 
^  ''"*''  .  SouzA  School,  Mazagon,  Bombay,  India:  Gar- 

cia, Gonsalo,  Saint. 


Antome. 

CRAM,  RALPH  ADAMS,  F.R.G.S.,  F.  Am.  Inst. 
Architects,  Presidbnt,  Boston  Society  of 
Architects,  Boston:   Gothic  Architecture. 

CREUTZBERG.  HEINRICH  AUGUST.  Ph.D., 
Krbfeld,  Germany:.  George  the  Bearaed. 


DUBRAY,  CHARLES  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.B.,  Ph.  D^  Pro- 
fessor OF  Philosophy,  Marist  College.  Wash- 
ington: Franchi,  Ausonio;  Gaultier,  Aloisius- 
Edouard-CamiUe;  G^pyn,  Nicolas;  G^rando, 
Joseph-Marie  de;  Ginoulhiac,  Jacques-Marie- 
CRIVELLI.CAMILLUS,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Gen-  Achule;   Girard,  Jean-Baptiste. 

BRAL  History,  Instituto  Cibntifico,  City  of 

Mexico:  Figueroa,  Francisco  Garcia  de  la  Rosa;    DUNFORD,    DAVID,    Diocesan    Inspector    of 
G6mara,  Francisco  L6pez  de.  Schools,   Hoddesdon,   Hertfordshire,   Eng- 

land:  Fear  (in  Canon  Law);  Foundation*  Gar- 

CUTHBERT,  FATHER,  O.S.F.C.,   Crawley,   Sus-  dellini,  Aloisio;  Funeral  Dues;  Gavantus,  Bwto- 

SEX.  England:  FeHx  of  Cantalice,  Saint;  Fidelia  lommeo. 

of  oigmaringen,  Saint;  Francis  of  Paula.  Saint; 

Fytch,  WilUam  Benedict;    Gennings,  Edmund    DUNN,  ARCHIBALD  JOSEPH,  F.S.S.,  F.R.  Hist. 
and  John.  Soc,  London:  Feilding,  Rudolph  William  BasiL 

vi 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  SIXTH  VOLUME 


DUNN,  JOSEPH,  Ph.D.,  Pbofbasor  of  Celtic  Lan- 
guage AND  LiTEBATURB,  CATHOLIC  UnIYEBSITT 

or  Amebica,  Washington:  FilHuciuB,  Fduc. 

Ea>MONDS,  COLUMBA,  O.S.B.,  Fobt  Augustus, 
Scotland:  Gildas,  Saint. 

ENGELHARDT,  ZEPHYRIN,  O.F.M..  Watson- 
YiLLB,  Califobnia:  Friars  Minor  in  America. 

EWING,  JOHN  GILLESPIE.  M.A.,  San  Juan, 
PoBTo  Rico:  Gillespie,  Eliza  Maria;  Gillespie, 
Neal  Henry. 

FANNING,  WILLIAM  H.  W.,  S.J.,  Pbofebsor  of 
Chubch  Histobt  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Louis 
Uniyebsitt,  St.  Louis:  Filial  Church;  Foniin, 
Ecclesiastical. 

FAVREAU,  J.  ARTHUR,  Secbetabt,  Qocitrt  His- 
TOBiQUE  Fbanco-AmJsbicaine,  Boston:  French 
Catholics  in  the  United  States. 

FENLON,  JOHN  F.,  S.S.,  S.T.D.,  Pbbsidbnt,  St. 
Austin's  College,  Bbookland,  Distbict  of 
Columbia,  Pbofessob  of  Sacbed  Sgbiptube, 
St.  Mabt's  Seminabt,  Baltimobe:  Fouard, 
Constant;   Goeeelin,  Jean-Edm^Auguste. 

FISCHER,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Pbofessob  of  Geog- 
bapht  and  Histobt,  Stella  Matutina  Col- 
lege, FeldkiAch,  Austbia:  FiUastre,  Guillaume. 

FTTA  Y  COLOMER,  FIDEL,  S.J.,  Membeb  of  the 
RoTAL  Academy  of  Histobt^  Madbid:  Funchal, 
Diocese  of;  Granada,  Archdiocese  of. 

FORD,  JEREMIAH  D.  M.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Pbofessob 
OF  Fbencb  and  Spanish  Languages,  Habvabd 
Univebsity,  Cambbidge,  BIassachusetts:  Fer- 
reira^  Antonio;  Filicaja,  Vincenzo  da;  Folengo, 
Teomo;  Gallego,  Juan  Nicasio^  Garcilasso  de  la 
Vega;  Giraldi,  Giovanni  Battista;  Giusti,  Giu- 
seppe; Goldoni,  Carlo;  Gomes  De  Amorim,  Fran- 
cisco; Gonsalo  de  Beroeo;  Goui,  Carlo. 

FORTESCUE,  ADRIAN,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Letch- 
woBTH,  Hebtfobdshibe,  ENGLAND :  Gennadius 
II,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople;  Gennadius  of 
Marseilles:  George  Hamartolus;  Georgius  Syn- 
cellus;  Gloria  in  Excelsis  Deo;  Gospel  in  the 
Liturgyj  Gradual;  Greece;  Greek  Rites. 

FOURNET,  PIERRE-AUGUSTE,  S.S.,  M.A.,  Pbo- 
FEssoB  OF  Histobt,  CoLLi:GB  de  Montb£al, 
Montbeal:  Gal,  Saint;  Galland,  Antoine; 
Gaume,  Jean-Joseph;  Gousset,  Thoinas-Mari&- 
Joseph. 

FOX,  JAMES  J.,  S.T.D.,  Pbofessob  of  Philosopht, 
St.  Thomas's  College,  Washington:  Glory; 
Good. 

FOX,  WILLIAM,  B.S.,  M.E.,  Associate  Pbofessob 
OF  Physics,  College  of  the  City  of  New  Yobk: 
Faye,  Herv^Augu8te-Etieim&-Albans;  Fizeau, 
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis;  Foucault,  Jean-Bert- 
rand-L^n;  Fraunhofer,  Joseph  von;  Galvani, 
Luigi. 


FUREY,  JOHN,  U.S.N.,  Rbubed,  Bbooklyn,  New 
Yobk:  Grasse,  Fran^ois-Joseph-Paul  de. 

GEMELLI,  AG08TIN0,  O.F.M.,  M.D.C.M.,  Hon- 
OBABY  Pbofessob  of  Histology,  Pbofessob  or 
Pastobal  Medicine,  Dibectob,  "Rivist4  ar 
FiLosoFiA  Neo-scolastica",  Milan:  FortuaBto 
of  Brescia. 

GERARD,  JOHN,  S.J.,  F.L.S.,  London:  Galflei, 
Galileo. 

GEUDENS,  FRANCIS  MARTIN,  CPb^jm.,   Abbot 

TiTULAB  OF  BaBUNGS,  CoBPUS  ChBISTI  PBIOBTy 

Manchesteb,   England:    Floreffe.  Abbey  of; 
Frigolet,  Abbey  of;  Goffine,  Leonara. 

GIETMANN,  GERARD,  S.J.,  Teacheb  of  Classical 
Languages  and  Esthetics,  St.  Ignatius  Col- 
lege, Valkenbubg,  Holland:  Fdhrich,  Joseph; 
Ghiberti,  Lorenso  di  Cione;  Girardon,  FranycMS. 

GIGOT,  FRANCIS  E.,S.T.D.,  Pbofessob  of  Sacbed 
ScBiPTUBE,  St.  Joseph's  Seminaby,  Dunwoodie, 
New  Yobk:  Gabbatfaaj  Gad;  Gamaliel;  Qed* 
eon;  Generation;  Gentiles;  Glosses,  Scriptund; 
Gospel  and  Gospels. 

GILLET,  LOUIS,  Pabis:  Ferrari,  Gaudensio;  Feti, 
Domenico;  Flandrin,  Jean-Hippolyte;  FouqusA^ 
Jehan;  Francia  (Francesco  Raioolini) :  Fromen- 
tin,  Eugdne;  Ghirlandajo  (Domenico  oi  Touuubd 
BigordO;  (xiotto  di  Bondone;  Giulio  RomaAo; 
Gossaert,  Jan. 

GILMARTIN,  THOMAS  P.,  S.T.D.,  Vice-Peek- 
DENT,  St.  Patrick's  College,  Maynooth,  Dttb- 
un:  Good  Friday. 

GOYAU,  GEORGES,  Associate  Editob.  "Revue 
DES  Deux  Mondes",  Pabis:  Fescn,  Joseph; 
Fleury,  Andr^Hercuie;  France;  Francis  I, 
Kin^  of  France;  Fr^jus,  Diocese  of;  (jaUia 
Christiana;  Gap,  Diocese  of. 

GRATTAN-FLOOD.  WILLIAM  H.,  M.R.I.  A.,Mus.D^ 
RosEMOuNT,  ESnniscobthy,  Ibeland:  Fenn, 
Diocese  of;  Finan^  Saint;  Finnian  of  Movilk, 
Saint;  Fintan,  Saints;  Fothad^  Saint;  Govld, 
Saint;  Giordani,  Tommaso;  Giovanelli,  Ruggi* 
.   ero;  Gobban  Saer. 

GREANEY,  JOHN  J.,  S.T.L.,  Pittsbubg,  Pennbtl- 
yania:  Fitzralph,  Richard. 

GUfiRIN,  CHARLES,  Prefect  Apostolic,  Gha»- 
DAI  a,  Africa:  Ghardaia,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 

HAGEN,  JOHN  G.,  S.J.,  Vatican  Obsebvatobt, 
Rome:   Gassendi,  Pierre. 

HAMMER,  BONAVENTURE^  O.F.M.,  Lafaybtd^ 
Indiana:  Fort  Wayne,  Diocese  of. 

HANDLEY,  MARIE  LOUISE,  New  Yobk:  Gasser 
von  Valhom,  Joseph. 

HARTIG,  OTTO,  Assistant  Libbabian  or  thb 
Royal  Libbaby,  Munich:  Gama,  Vasco  da; 
Geography  and  the  Church;  Glarean,  Heniy. 

• 

HASSETT,  MAURICE  M.,  S.T.D.,  Habbisbubo, 
Pennsylvania:  Fish,  Symboliem  of  the;  Fob- 
sors;    Graffiti. 


FUENTES,  VENTURA,  B.A..    M.D.,    Instbuctob, 
College  of  the  City  of  New  Yobk:  Fem^des 
de  Palencia,  Diego;  Feyj6oyMontcnejH'o,  Benito    HEALY,  JOHN,  S.T.D.,    LL.D.,    M.R.LA.,    Abgb- 
Jer6nimo;  Figueroa,  Francisco  de;  Fl6rez,  En-  bishop  op  Tuam,  Senatob  of  the  Royal  Ujq- 

rique;  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  (The  Inca).  vebsity  of  Ibeland:  Glendalou^^  School  oi. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  SIXTH  VOLUME 


HEALY,  PATRICK  J.,    S.T.D.,    Assistant    Pro-    JOYCE,  GEORGE  HAYWARD,  S.J.,  M.A.  (Oxon.), 


FEssoR  OF  Church  History,  Catholic  Univer- 
sity OF  America,  Washington:  Faustus  of  Ries; 
Felicisaimus;  Firmicus  Matemus;  Flavia  Domi- 
tilla;  Fulgentius  Ferrandus. 

HECKMANN,  FERDINAND,  O.F.M.,  Teacher  of 
Latin  and  Greek^  Franciscan  Monastery, 
Washington;  Ferdinand  III,  Saint. 

HERBERMANN,  CHARLES  G.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
Litt.  D.,  K.S.G.,  Professor  of  Latin  Language 
AND  Literature,  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York:  Frank,  Michael  Sigismund. 

HIND,  GEORGE  ELPHEGE,  O.S.B.,  Glamorgan- 
shire, Wales:  Faversham  Abbey;  Folkestone 
Abbey;  Fountains  Abbey;  Fumess  Abbey. 

HOEBER,  KARL,  Ph.D.,  Editor,  "Volkszei- 
tung"  and  "Axademische  MonatsblXtter", 
Cologne:  Galerius,  Valerius  Maximianus;  Gal- 
lienus,  Publius  Licinius  E^gnatius;  Graz,  Uni- 
versity of. 

HOFFMANN,  ALEXIUS,  O.S.B.,  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, CoLLEGEYiLLE,  MINNESOTA:  Feder,  Jo- 
hann  Michael;  Feilmoser,  Andreas  Benedict; 
Fenebeig,  John  Michael  Nathanael. 

HOLWBCK,  FREDERICK  G.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri: 
Feasts,  Ecclesiastical. 


Professor  of  Logic,   Stonyhurst  College, 
Blackburn,  England:    Fundamental  Articles. 

KAMPERS,  FRANZ,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Medie- 
val AND  Modern  Church  History,  University 
OF  Breslau:  Frederick  I;  Frederick  II:  Ger- 
many, from  the  beginning  to  1556;  Godfrey  of 
Viterbo. 

KEILEY,  JARVIS,  M.A.,  Grantwood,  New  Jbb- 
bey:   Georgia. 

KELLY,  BLANCHE  M.,  New  York:  Ferrer,  Ra- 
fael; Gerona,  Diocese  of;  Granada,  University 
of;  Grftssel,  Lorenz. 

KELLY,  LEO  A.,  Ph.B.,  Rochester,  New  York: 
Frankfort,  Council  of. 

KIRSCH,  JOHANN  PETER,  S.T.D.,  Domestic 
Prelate,  Professor  of  Pathology  and  Chris- 
tian Archjeology,  University  of  Fribouro. 
Switzerland:  Felicitas,  Saint;  Felicitas  ana 
Perpetua.  Saints;  Felix  I,  Saint,  Pope;  Felix  II, 
Pope;  Felix  IV,  Pope;  Felix  V,  Antipope; 
Flaccilla.  iEHia*  Fleury,  Claude;  Florentina, 
Saint;  Flonis;  Formosus,  Pope;  Forty  Martyrs; 
Four  Crownea  Martyrs;  Fribourg,  University 
of;  Fridolin,  Saint;  Fulcran,  Saint*  Fulgentius, 
Saint;  FUntkirchen,  Diocese  of;  Funk,  Franx 
Xaver  von;  Galletti,  Pietro  Lrngi*  Gaudiosus, 
Bishop  of  Tarasona;  Germanus  tl  Saint;  Gobe- 
linus,  Person;  Gdrres,  Guido;  Gdrres,  Johann 
Joseph;  Gregory  X,  Blessed,  Pope. 


HUDLESTON,  GILBERT  ROGER,  O.S.B.,  Down- 
side   Abbey,    Bath,    England:     Glastonbury    KITTELL,  FERDINAND,  LORETTO,  Pbnnbyi/. 
Abbey;  Gregory  I,  Saint,  Pope.  vania:  Gallitzin,  Demetrius  Augustine. 

HULL,  ERNEST  R.,  S.J.,  Editor,  "The  Exam- 
iner", Bombay,  India:   Goa,  Archdiocese  of. 


HUNT,  LEIGH,  Professor  of  Art^  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York:^  Gaillard,  Claude- 
Ferdinand;  Giocondo,  Fra  Giovanni;  Giorgione; 
Goya  y  Lucientes,  Francisco  Jos6  de. 

HUNT,  THOMAS  JOHN,  Dublin:  Goyai,  Diocese 
of. 


KLAAR,  KARL,  Government  Archivist,  lNivt>- 
bruck:  Ferdinand  II. 

KURTH,  GODEFROID.  Director.  Belgian  His- 
torical Institute^^ome:  Frankenbeing,  Johann 
Heinrich;  Franks,  The;  Fredegarius;  Granvelle, 
Antoine  Perrenot  de. 

LADEUZE,  PAULIN,  S.T.D.,  Rector,  Univbrsity 
OF  Louvain:   Goossens,  Pierre-Lambert. 


HUNTER-BLAIR,  Sir  D.  O.,  Bart.,  O.S.B.,  M.A.,    LAFLAMME,  J.  K.  L.,  EDiroR-iN-CmEF, "  L'Aciton 


Oxford:  Foreman,  Andrew ;  Free  Church  of  Sootp 
land;  Gillis,  James. 

HUONDER,  ANTHONY,  S. J.,  Editor,  "Katho- 
uscHE  Missionen",  Bellevue,  Luxemburg: 
Fridelli,  Xaver  Ehrenbert;  Fritz,  Samuel. 

HYDE,  DOUGLAS,  LL.D.,  Litt.D.,  M.R.I.A., 
Frenchfark,  Co.  Roscommon,  Ireland:  Four 
Masters,  Annab  of  the. 

ISENBERG,  ANTHONY  FRANCIS,  Editor, 
"Morning  Star'',  New  Orleans,  Louisiana: 
Gayarr^,  Charles  Etienne  Arthur. 

JAROSSEAU,  ANDRfe,  O.M.  Cap.,  Titular  Bishop 
OF  SoATRA,  Vicar  Apostouc  of  Galla,  Harar, 
Abyssinia:  Galla,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

JARRETT,  BEDE,  O.P.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  S.T.L.,  St. 
Dominic's  Priort,  London:   Feudalism. 

JENNER,  HENRY,  F.8.A..  Late  of  the  British 
Museum,  London:  Gallican  Rite,  The. 


JEROME,  MOTHER  MARY,  DoTLB,   New   York: 
Felician  Sisters. 


Sociale",  Quebec:    French  Catholics  in  the 
United  States. 

LALANDE,  LOUIS,  S.J.,  Montreal,  Canada: 
F^lix,  C^lestin-Joseph;  Fishier,  Esprit;  Fray- 
ssinous,  Denis  de;  Freppel,  Charles-Emile. 

LAUCHERT,  FRIEDRICH,  Ph.D.,  Aachen:  Feb- 
ronianism;  Geissel,  Johannes  von;  Gerhoh  of 
Reichersberg;  Granderath,  Theodor. 

LAURENTIUS,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Canon  Law,  St.  Ignatius  CollegEj  Valken- 
BURO,  Holland:  Fiscal  Procurator;  Fiscal  of  the 
Holy  Office. 

LAVIGNE,  DAVID  E.,  Editor,  "La  Tribune", 
WooNsocKET,  Rhode  Island:  French  Catholics 
in  the  United  States. 

LEBRUN,  CHARLES,  C.J.M.,  S.T.D..  Superior, 
Holy  Heart  Seminary,  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia: 
Good  Shepherd,  Our  Lady  of  Charity  of  the. 

LECLERCQ,  HENRI,  O.S.B.,  London:  Ferri^res, 
Abbey  of;  Fire,  Liturgical  Use  of;  Flavigny, 
Abbey  of;  Gams,  Pius  Bonifacius;  Gerbert, 
Martm;  Goar,  Jacques;  Grace  at  Meals;  Gran- 
colas,  Jean. 


▼m 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  SIXTH  VOLUME 


MANN,  HORACE  K.,  Headmasteb,  St,  Cuth- 
bert's  Grammar  School,  Nbwcabtlb-on-Ttnb, 
England:  Gregory  II,  Saint,  Pope;  Gregory  III, 
Saint,  Pope;  Gregoiy  IV,  Pope;  GregpTy  V, 
Pope;  Gregory  VI,  rope;  Gr^ory  VI,  Anti- 
pope. 

MARIQUE,  PIERRE  JOSEPH,  Instructor  in 
French,  College  of  the  City  op  New  York: 
F6val,  Paul-Henri-Corentin;  Flanders;  Fleuriot, 

LENNOX,  PATRICK  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  Professor  Z6naide-Marie-Anne. 

?f.^?i?.^L^j:i^r '^  MEDnj^J^^,^GREAT  Fali.,  Montana:  Gx^t 


LEJAT,  PAUL,  Fellow  of  the  University  of 
France,  Professor,  Catholic  University  of 
Paris:  Fortunatus,  Venantius  Honorius  Cle- 
mentianus;  Caret,  Jean;  Garland,  John;  Gaul, 
Christian. 

LENHART,  JOHN  M.,  CM.Cap.,  Lector  of  Philos- 
ophy, St.  Fideus  Monastery,  Victoiua, 
Kansas:  Forbes,  John. 


uc    University 
Gower,  John. 


LINDSAY,  LIONEL  ST.  GEORGE,  B.Sc^  Ph.D., 
Editor-in-Chief,  "La  Nouvellb  France", 
Quebec:  Frontenac,  Louis  de  Buade;  Gameau, 
Frangois-Xavier;  Gamier,  Charles;  Gasp^, 
Philippe  Aubert  de;  Goupil,  Ren6;  Gravier, 
Jacques. 

UNS.  JOSEPH,  Freiburg  m  Breisgau,  Germany: 
Frankfort-on-the-Main;  Freibui]g  (City.  Arch- 
diocese, University);  Fulda,  Diocese  ot;  Ger- 
many, Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Northern;  Geaellen- 
vereine;  Gnesen-rosen,  Archdiocese  of. 

LOUGHLIN,  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Philadelphia: 
Friends,  Society  of;  Gelasius  11,  Pope;  Gregory 
VIII,  Pope;  Gregory  VIII,  Antipope. 

MAAS,  A.  J.,  S.J.,  Rector,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Filioque;  Forer,  Laurenz;  Gene- 
alogy (in  the  Bible);  Genealogy  of  Christ;  Gib- 
bona»  John;  Gibbons,  Richard. 

MacAULEY,  PATRICK  J.^  Belfast,  Ireland: 
Gagarin,  Ivan  Sergejewitch;  Gi£fora,  William; 
Gonnelieu,  JMme  de. 

MacCAFFREY,  JAMES,  S.T.L.,  Ph.D.,  St.  Pat- 
rick's  College,  Matnooth,  Dublin:  Fleming, 
Thomas;  French,  Nicholas;  Giraldus  Cam- 
brensis. 

MacERLEAN,  ANDREW  A.,  New  York:  Fin- 
barr,  Saint;  Garzon,  Diocese  of:  Genevieve, 
Saint;  George  Pisides;  Germain^  Saint,  Bishop 
of  Auxerre;  Germain,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Paris; 
Giffard,  Bonaventure;  Gilbert,  Sir  John  Thomas; 
Glaber,  Raoul;  Goajira,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of; 
Goodman,  Godfrey. 

McMAHON,  ARTHUR  L.,  O.P.,  St.  Dominic's 
Priory,  San  Francibco:  Fern,  Vincent;  Gali- 
lee; Gravina,  Dominic. 

MACPHERSON,  EWAN,  New  York:  Garofa  Moi^ 
eno,  Gabriel. 

MAERE,  R.,  S.T.D.^  Professor  of  Christian 
Abcmoloot,  Umversity  of  Louvain:  Garruccii 
Raffaele. 

MAES,  CAMILLUS  P.,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Coving- 
ton, Kentucky:  Flaget,  Benedict  Joseph;  For- 
bin-Janson,  -  Charles  -  Auguste  -  Marie  -  Joseph, 
Comte  de. 

ICAGNIER,  JOHN,  C.SS.R.,  Rome;  Gerard  Majella, 
Saint. 

MAHER,  mCHAEL,  S.J.,  Lrrr.D.,  MA.  (London), 
DiBBcroR  OF  Studies  and  Professor  of  Pbda- 
ooGiGB,  Stonyhurst  Colleoe,  Blagkburn, 
England:   Free  Will* 


MEEHAN,  THOMAS  F.,  New  York:  Fita-Simons, 
Thomas;  Foresters,  Catholic  Orders  of;  Foster, 
John  Gray;  Galveston,  Diocese  of;  Garesch^, 
Julius  Peter;  Gaston,  William;  Gerald  ton,  Dio- 
cese of;  Grand  Rapids,  Diocese  of;  Green  Bay, 
Diocese  of. 

MEIER,  GABRIEL,  O.S.B.,  Einsiedeln,  Switzer- 
land: Fructuosus  of  Braga,  Saint;  Fructuosus 
of  Tarragona,  Saint. 

MEISTERMANN,  BARNABAS,  O.F.M.,  Lector, 
Convent  of  S.  Salvator,  Jerusalem:  Geth- 
semani. 

MERSHMAN,  FRANCIS,  O.S.B.,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
of  Moral  Theology,  Canon  Law,  and  Liturgy, 
St.  John's  University,  Collbgeville,  Minne- 
sota: Felix  and  Adauctus.  Saints;  Feria;  Fla- 
beUum;  Funeral  Pall;  Galla,  Saint;  Gallicanus, 
Saints;  Gamier,  Jean;  Genesius  (1.  Genesius, 
a  comedian  at  Rome^  2.  Genesius  of  Aries;  3. 
Genesius^  Bishop  oi  Clermont;  4.  GenesiusL 
Count  of  Clermont;  5.  Genesius,  Archbishop  oi 
Lyons);  Gervasius  and  Protasius,  Saints;  Gott- 
schalk.  Saint. 

MOONEY,  JAMES^  United  States  ErHNOLorasT, 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington:  Flat- 
head Indians;   Ghost  Dance. 


MORICE 
Canada 


,  A.G.,  O.M.I.,  St.  Boniface,  Manitoba, 
lda:   Garin,  Andr^. 


MUELLER,  XJLRICH  F.,  C.PP.S.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  St.  Charles  Borromeo  Seminary, 
Carthagena,  Ohio:  Gaspare  del  Bufalo,  Blessed. 

MULCAHY,  CORNELIUS,  Professor  of  Rhetoric, 
St.  Patrick's  College,  Maynooth,  Dublin: 
Fergus,  Saint;  Fiacc,  Saint;  Fiacre,  Saint;  Fur- 
sey,  Ssont;  Germaine  Cousin,  Saint. 

MURPHY,  JOHN  F.  X.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Faustinus  and  Jovita,  Saints;  FilH- 
ucci,  Vincenzo;  Fonseca,  Pedro  da;  Franzelin, 
Johann  Baptist;  Frowin,  Blessed;  Gelasius  I, 
Saint,  Pope;  Giles,  Saint;  Gordianus  and  Epi- 
machus.  Saints;  Gorgonius,  Saint. 

BiYERS,  EDWARD,  M.A.  (Cantab.),  Professor  of 
Dogmatic  Theology  and  Patrology,  St.  Ed- 
mund's College,  Ware,  England:  Gelasius  of 
Cyzicus;  George  of  Trebizond;  GifiFard,  God- 
frey;  Giffard,  William. 

OBRECHT,  EDM0ND,0.C.R«Geth8EMani  Abbey, 
Kentucky:  Feuillants;  Florians,  The;  G^ramb, 
Ferdinand  de;  Gervaise,  Francis- Armand; 
Gethsemani,  Abbey  of  Our  Lady  of. 

O'BRIEN,  JOHN  JOSEPH,  Ph.D.,  College  of  St. 
Thomas,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota:  Gibault,  Pierre. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  SIXTH  VOLUME 

0E8TREICH,   THOBiAS,  O.S.B.,    Pkopbssor    of  RANDOLPH,     BARTHOLOMEW,     CM.,     MJl., 

Chubch  Hibtobt  and  Sacred  Scripture,  Mart-  Teacher  of  Philobophy  and  Church  Histort,  * 

HELP    Abbey,    Belmont,    North    Carolina:  St.  John's  College.  Brooklyn,  New  York: 

Florilegia;  Gregory  VII,  Saint,  Pope.  Frands  R^^  Clet,  Blessed. 

O'KANE,  MICHAEL  M.,  O.P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.L.,  Luc-    REINHOLD,    GREGOR,    Freiburq  im  Brexsgau, 
brick,  Ireland:  Feuix  of  Valois,  Saint.  Germany:  GOrz,  Archdiocese  of. 

* 

OLIGER,  LIVARIU8,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Church  REMY,  ARTHUR  F.  J.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Adjunct  Pro- 
fessor of  Germanic  Philology.  Columbia 
University,  New  York:  Feuchtersieben,  Ernst 
von;  Flodoard;  Friedrich  von  Hausen;  German 
Literature;  Gottfried  von  Strasburg :  Grail,  The 
Holy. 


History,  Collegio  S.  Antonio.  Rome:  Feuar- 
dent,  Fran9ois;  Francis,  Rule  of  Saint. 

OTT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the 
History  of  Philosophy,  St.  John's  Univer- 
sity, College viLLE,  Minnesota:  Forster,  Fro- 
benius:  Fulbert  of  Chartres;  FOrstenbeig,  Franz 
Friednch  Wilhelm  von;  Gebhard  of  Constance; 
Gemblours;  G^nebrard,  Gilbert;  Gerberon, 
Gabriel:^  Gertrude  of  Aldenbeig,  Blessed; 
Gertruae  of  Hackebom;  Gertrude  of  Nivelles. 
Saint;  Gil  de  Albomoz,  Alvarez  Carillo;  Gil  ot 
Santarem,  Blessed;  Gottschalk  of  Orbais;  GOtt- 
weig,  Abbey  of ;  Gr^ory  IX,  Pope;  Gr^oryXI, 
Pope. 

OTTEN,  JOSEPH,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania: 
Gounod,  Charles-Frangois. 

PAOLI,  FRANCESCO,  S.J.,  Rome:  Frances  of 
Rome,  Saint;  Francis  Caracciolo,  Saint;  Giu- 
seppe Maria  Tommasi,  Blessed. 

PARKINSON,  HENRY,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Rector, 
OscoTT  College,  Birmingham,  England: 
Fitter,  Daniel. 

PERNIN,  RAPHAEL,  O.S.F.S.,  Albano-Lahalb, 
Italy:  Frauds  de  Sales,  Saint. 

PHILLIMORE,  JOHN  SWINNERTON,  M.A. 
(OxoN.),  Professor  of  Humanities,  Univer- 
sity OF  Glasgow:  Glasgow,  University  of. 

PLASSMAN,  THOMAS,  O.F.M^  Ph.D.,  S.T.D., 
Rome:  Francis  of  Fabriano,  Blessed;  Galatino, 
Pietro  Colonna. 


RICEABY,  JOHN.  S.J.,  Professor  of  Ethics, 
Stonyhurst  College,  Blackburn,  England: 
Fortitude. 

RITCHIE,  JOHN  CANON,  Diocesan  Secretary, 
Glasgow:  Glasgow,  Archdiocese  of. 

ROBINSON,  PASCHAL,  O.F.M.,  Washington: 
Fioretti  di  S.  Francesco  d'Assisi;  Franciscan 
Order;  Francis  of  Assist,  Saint. 

ROCK,  P.  M.  J.,  Louisville,  Kentucky:  Golden 
Rose. 

ROY,  J.  EDMOND,  Litt.D.,  F.R.S.C.,  Officer  of 
THE  French  Academy,  OrrAWA,  Canada:  Fer- 
land,  Jean-Baptiste-Antoine. 

RUDGE,  FLORENCE  MARIE,  M.A.,  Youngs- 
town,  Ohio:  Faunt,  Lawrence  Arthur:  Femioi- 
dez,  Antonio;  Femdndes,  Juan;  Finglow.  John, 
Venerable;  Flavian,  Saint:  Fontbonne,  Jeanne; 
Good  Samaritan,  Sisters  of  the. 

RYAN,  JOHN  A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Moral 
Theology,  St.  Paul  Seminary,  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota:  Foundling  Asylums. 

SALEMBIER,  LOUIS,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Church 
History,  University  of  Lille:  Gerson,  Jean  le 
Charlier  de. 


POHLE,  JOSEPH^.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.C.L.,  Professor  SALSMANS,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Moral 

OF  Dogmatic  Theology,  University  of  Bres-  Theology  and  Canon  Law,  Jesuit  College, 

LAu:  Grace;  Grace,  Controversies  on.  Louvain:   G^nicot,   Edward;    Gobat,    George; 

Gonzales  de  SantaUa,  Thyrsus. 

POLLEN,  JOHN  HUNGERFORD,  S.J.,  London: 

Fitzherbert,  Thomas;   Fitzsimon,  Henry;   Foi>  SAUER,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Editor,  "Rundschau", 

tesoue,    Adrian.    Blessed;     Freeman,    William,  Professor  of  Theology,  University  of  Frei- 

Venerable;  Frideswide,  Saint;  Garlick,  Nicholas,  bxtrg,  Germany:  Ferstd,  Heinrich  Freiherr  von; 

Venerable;    Garnet,  Henry;    Garnet^  Thomas,  Fontana,  Domenico. 

Venerable;  Gerard,  John;  Gerard.  Myles;  Geiv 

ard,  Richard;  German  Gardiner,  Blessed;  Good-  SAUVAGE,  G.  M.,  C.S.C.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Professor 


man.  John,  Venerable;    Gordon  Riots;    Green, 
Hugn,  Venerable. 

PONCELET,  ALBERT,  S.J.,  BRUSSSiii:  Gall,  Saint. 

POOLE.  THOMAS  H.,  New  York:  Fontana,  Carlo; 
Galdei,  Alessandro;  Gau,  Franz  Christiaii;  Gaulli, 
Giovanni  Battista. 

POPE,  HUGH,  O.P.,  Hawkesyard  Priory,  Rugb- 
LEY,  EIngland:  Gabriel,  Archangel. 

POTAMIAN,  BROTHER,  F.S.C.,  D.Sc.  (London), 
Professor  of  Physics,  Manhattan  College, 
New  York:    Gordon,  Andrew. 


OF  Dogmatic  Theology,  Holy  Cross  College, 
Washington:  Fideism;  Gerdil.  Hyacinthe-Sig- 
iamond;  Gratry,  Auguste-Josepn-Aiphonse. 

SCANNELL,  THOMAS  B.  CANON,  S.T.D.,  Editor, 
"Catholic  Dictionary",  Weybridge,  Eng- 
land: Frequent  Communion;  Gift,  Supernatural; 
Gordian,  Roman  Emperors;  Gratian,  Roman 
Emperor. 

SCHAEFER,  FRANCIS  J.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
FESSOR  OF  Church  History,  St*  Paul  Semi- 
nary, St.  Paul,  Minnesota:  Gassner,  Johann 
Joseoh;  Geoffrey  of  Clairvaux;  Geoffrey  of 
Venddme. 


QUTNN,  STANLEY  J.,  New  York:  Fremin,  James;    SCHEID,  N.,  S. J.,  Stella  Matutina  College,  Feld- 
Gamier,  Julien;  Gilbert  Islands,  Vicariate  Apos-  kirch,    Austria:     Geiler    von    Kaysersbeig, 

tolic  of.  Johann. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  SIXTH  VOLUME 


SCHIRP,  FRANCIS  M.,  Ph.D.,  Instructob,  Loyola  THURSTON,  HERBERT,  S.J.,   London:    Fodb, 

School,  New  York:    Germans  in  the  United  Feast  of;  Forty  Hours' Devotion;  FraotioPania; 

States.  Geoi^e,  Saint. 

SCHLAGER,   HEINRICH    PATRICIU8,   Harbb-  TIERNEY,  JOHN  J.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  Pkofbssob  of 


VSLD.  LzcHTBNVooRDE,  HOLLAND:  FeueT,  Fran- 

S>is-Xayier  de;  Ficker,  Julius;  Gallandi,  Andrea; 
allitain,  Ad^e  Amalie;  Gervase  of  Tilbury; 
GfrOrer,  August  Friedrich;  Giannone,  Pietro; 
Gnmdidier,   rhilippe-'Andr6;    Gratius,   Ortwin. 

SCHROEDER,  JOSEPH^.P.,    Immaculate   Con- 
ception  College,   Washington:    Franeb  of 


SCRIFTUBE  AND  SEMITIC  STUDIES,  Mt.  St.  MaRT^S 

College,  Emmitbbubg,  Maryland:    Flagella* 
tion. 

TOKE,  LESLIE  ALEXANDER  ST.  LAURENCE, 
B.A.,  Stratton-on-the-Fosse,  near  Bath, 
England:  Flagellants:  Fonte-Avellana;  Godrio 
I;  Godrio  II. 


Vittona;    Fmnck,  Kaspar-    Galura,  ^mhard;    TONER,  PATRICK  J.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Gasian^,  Pietro  Blana;  Qonet,  Jean  Baptiste;  ^^^  Theology,  fer.  PATicK's  College, 

Grata,  Peter  Aloys.  nooth,  Dublin:  Gahan,  William;  God. 


Dog* 
Mat- 


SCHUMACHER,  ^TTHEW  C.S.C.,  Ph.D.,  S/r.B.,    TURNER^  WILLIAM^  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Gallo- 
Director  of  Studies,  Univebsitt  of  Notre  ^^y,  Scotland:  Galloway,  Diocese  of. 

Dame,  Indiana:  Ficino,  Marsilio. 


SCULLY,  VINCENT  JOSEPH,  C.R.L.,  St.  Ives, 
Cornwall,  England:  Gerhard  of  Zatpheiu 

SHIPMAN,  ANDREW  J.,  M.A.,  LL.M.,  New  York: 
Glagolitic;  Greek  Catholics  in  the  United  States; 
Grrak  Orthodox  Church  in  America. 

SLATER,  T.,  S  J.,  St.  Bextno's  College,  St.  Asaph, 
Wales:  Fraud;  Gambling. 

8L0ANE,  THOMAS  CCONOR,  M.A.,  E.M.,  Ph.D., 
New  York:  Fuchs,  Johann  Nepomuk  von. 

SMITH,  HENRY  IGNATIUS,  O.P.,  Washington: 
Fumo,  Bartolommeo. 

SMITH,  JOSEPH  H.,  S.J.,  Brooklyn  College, 
Brooklyn,  New  York:  Gallifet,  Joseph  de. 

SMITH,  SYDNEY  F.,  S.J.,  London:  Gallwey,  Peter. 

SOLLIER,  JOSEPH  FRANCIS,  S  Jl.,  S.T.D.,  San 
Francisco:  Gerbet,  Olympe-PhHippe;  Godet  des 
Marais. 

SORTAIS,  GASTON,  S.J.,  Assistant  Editor, 
*' Etudes",  Paris:  Gozsoli. 

SOUVAY,  CHARLES  L.,  CM.,  LL.B.,  S.T.D., 
Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Holy  Scripture  and  He- 
brew, Kbnrick  "Seminary,  St.  Louis:  First- 
Bom;  First-Fruits;  Fringes;  Geography,  Bibli- 
cal. 


TURNER,  WILLIAM,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Logic  and  the  History  of  Philosophy,  Cath- 
olic University  of  America,  Washington: 
Fredegis  of  Tours;  Gerard  of  Cremona. 

URQUHART,  FRANCIS  FORTESCUE,  M.A.,  Lec- 
turer in  Modern  History,  Baluol  College, 
Oxfobd:  Florence  of  Worcester;  Gilbert  Foliot. 

VAILH^,  SIM£0N,  A.A.,  Membeb  of  the  Russian 
Abchjbological  Institute  of  Constantinople, 
Pbofessor  of  Sacred  Scripture  and  History 
at  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Kadi-Keui, 
Constantinople:  Flavias;  Flaviopolis;  Fogar- 
as.  Archdiocese  of;  Fumi;  Fussola;  Galmla; 
Gadara;  Gangra;  Gargara;  Gasa;  Gerasa;  Ger- 
manicia;  Gennanieopolis;  Germia;  Gerrha; 
Gezireh;  Gibail  and  Batrun;  Gindanis;  Girba; 
Gordos;  Gortyna;  Gratianopolis;  Greek  Church. 

VAN  CLEEF,  AUGUSTUS,  New  York:  Gegen- 
bauer,  Josef  Anton  von. 

VAN  DEN  GHEYN,  GABRIEL,  President  of  the 
Historical  and  Archsological  Society  of 
Ghent,  Secretary  of  the  Provincial  Com- 
mission OF  Monuments^  Inspector  of  Con- 
vents, Ghent:  Ghent,  Diocese  of. 

VAN  DER  ESSEN,  LfiON,  Litt.D.,  Ph.D.,  Col- 
lIkse  du  Pape,  Lou  vain,  Belgium:  Florence, 
Council  of;  Foillan,  Saint;  G^ry,  Saint;  Ghis- 
lain.  Saint;  Gondulphus  of  Mets;  Gondulphusof 
Tongres;   Gondulphus,  Saint. 


SPAHN,  MARTIN,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Modern  VAN  HOVE,  A.,  J.C.D.,  Professor  of  Church  His- 
History,  University  of  Strasbubo:  Germany  I?»y  ^^  Canon  Law^  Univebsity  of  Louvain: 

(1666  to  1871;  The  New  German  Empire).  Ferraris,    Lucius;     Giraldi,    Ubaldo;     Gratian, 

Johannes;  Gravina,  Giovanm  Vmcenao. 

8PILLANE,  EDWARD  P.,  S.J.,  Associate  Editor,  ., . ..  r^i^rror^v  t?t3  a  xir-To  a  t     i>  r.^ 

"AmerJca",    New    York:     Finotti,    Joseph  VAN  ORTROY,  FRANCK,  S.J.,  Brussels:    Fran- 
Fisher,  Philip.  cis  de  Geronimo,  Samt. 

OTEELE,  FRANCESCA  M.,  Stroud,  Gloucester-  VEALE,    JAMES,    S.T.D.,    Mandarin,    Florida: 


SHIRE,    England:     Flete,    William;     Gabriel, 
Brothers  of  Saint. 


Florida. 
VELLA,  ANTONIO,  Gozo,  Mai/ta:  Goso,  Diocese  of. 


STUART,  JANET,  R.S.H.,  Superior  Vicar,  Con-    vONIER,  ANSCAR,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.,  Abbot  of  Buck- 

VENT  OF  THE  SaCRED  HeaRT,  RoEHAMPTON,  ~  '_     »     _ 

London:     Galitzin,    Elizabeth;     Goets,    Maiie 
Josephine;  Gramont,  Eugenie  de. 

STUDART,  GUILHERME,  BAR^O  DE,  CbarX, 
Brazil:  Fortaleza,  Diocese  of. 

SUAU,  PIERRE,  S.J.,  Tournax,  Bszxiium:  Francis 
Borgia,  Saint. 


FAST,  BucKFASTLEiGH,  ENGLAND :    Fleury,  Ab- 
bey of. 

WALSH,  REGINALD,  O.P.,  S.T.D,,  Rome:  Friends 
of  God. 

WARD,  Mgr.  BERNARD,  Pbesidbnt,  St.  Ed- 
mund's College,  Ware,  England:  Flanagan, 
Thomas. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  SIXTH  VOLUME 


WARREN,  KATE  MARY,  Lecturer  in  English 
Literature  under  University  of  London  at 
Westfield  College,  Hamfstead,  London: 
Forrest,  William;  Fullerton,  Lady  Georgiana 
Charlotte. 

WEBER,  N.  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.L.,  Professor  of  Church 
HiSTORT,  Marist  College,  Washington:  Fel- 
biger,  Johann  Ignax  von. 

WEBSTER,  RAYMUND,  0.S.B^  M.A.  (Oxon.), 
Downside  Abbey.  Bath.  England:  Fonte- 
vrault,  Order  and  Abbey  of;  Grandmont|  Abbey 
and  Order  of. 

WELCH,  SIDNEY  READ,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.P., 
Editor.  "Catholic  Magazine  for  South 
Africa*',  Cape  Town:  Good  Hope,  Eastern 
Vicariate  of  the  Cape  of;  Good  Hope,  Western 
Vicariate  of  the  Cape  of. 


WILHELM,  BALTHASAR,  S.J.,  Stella  Matutina 
College,  Feldeirch,  Austeua:  Galien,  Joseph. 

WILLIAMSON,  GEORGE  CHARLES,  Litt.D., 
London:  Flemael,  Bertholet;  Foppa,  Ambrogio^ 
Franceechlni,  Mare 'Antonio;  Franco,  Giovanni 
Battista;  Gaddi,  Antonio,  Giovanni  and  Taddeo; 
Gallait,  Louis;  Genga,  Girolamo;  Gentile  da 
Fabriano;  Giordano,  Luca. 

WINTERSGILL.  H.  G.,  New  York:  Flathens,  Biatt- 
hew,  Veneraole;  Fredoli,  Berenger. 

WTTTMANN,  PIUS.  Ph.D  Rbichsarchivrat, 
Munich:  Finl^a,  Grand  Duchy  of;  Greenland. 

ZIMMERMAN,  BENEDICT,  O.D.C.,  St.  Luke's 
Priory,  Wincanton,  Somerset,  England: 
Frances  d'Amboise,  Blessed;  Gaicta,  Airne; 
Gratian,  Jerome. 


Hi 


Tables  of  Abbreviations 

The  following  tables  and  notes  are  intended  to  guide  readers  of  The  Catholic  Enctclopbdia  in 
interpreting  those  abbreviations,  signs,  or  technical  phrases  which,  for  economy  of  space,  will  be  most  fre- 
quently used  in  the  work.    For  more  general  information  see  the  article  Abbreviations,  Eoclesiabtical. 


I. — General  Abbreviationb. 

a article. 

ad  an. at  the  year  (Lat.  ctd  annum), 

an.,  ann the  year,  the  years  (Lat.  annus, 

ann^, 

ap in  (Lat.  apud), 

art article. 

Assyr. Assyrian. 

A.  S Anglo-Saxon* 

A.  V Authorized  Version  (i.e.  tr.  of  the 

Bible  authorized  for  use  in  the 
*  Anglican  Church — ^the  so-called 

"King  James",  or  "Ftotestant 

Bible"), 

b bom. 

Bk Book. 

Bl Blessed. 

C,  c about  (Lat.  circa);  canon;  chap- 

ter; compagnie. 

can canon. 

cap. chapter  (Lat.  caput — used  only 

in  Latin  context). 

of.  •  •  • compare  (Lat.  confer), 

cod. codex. 

col column. 

ooncL conclusion. 

const.,  constit.  . .  .Lat.  constUuHo, 

cur& by  the  industry  of. 

d died. 

diet dictionary  (Fr.  dictionnaire), 

disp. Lat.  disputatio. 

diss Lat.  diasertatio. 

dist Lat.  dutinctio. 

D.  V Douay  Version. 

ed.,  edit edited,  edition,  editor. 

£p.;Epp letter,  letters  (Lat.  epiatola). 

Ft, French. 

gen. genus. 

Gr. Greek. 

H.  E.,  Hist.  Ecd.  .Ecclesiastical  History. 

Heb.,  Hebr Hebrew. 

ib.,  ibid in  the  same  place  (Lat.  ibidem). 

Id. the  same  person,  or  author  (Lat. 

idem). 


inf. below  (Lat.  infra). 

It Italian. 

1.  c.,loc.  cit at  the  place  quoted  (Lat.  loco 

citato), 

Lat Latin. 

lat latitude. 

lib book  (Lat.  liber), 

long longitude. 

Mon Lat.  Monumenta, 

MS.,  MSS manuscript,  manuscripte. 

n.,  no number. 

N.  T New  Testament. 

Nat National. 

Old  Fr.,  O.  Fr. .  .  .Old  French. 

op.  cit in  the  work  quoted  (Lat.  opere 

citato). 

Ord Older. 

O.  T Old  Testament. 

p.,  pp. : page>  pages,   or  (in  Latin  ref- 
erences) para  (part). 

par. paragraph. 

passim in  various  places. 

pt part. 

Q Quarterly    (a    periodical),    e.g. 

"Church  Quarterly". 

Q*»  QQ->  quaest. . .  .question,  questions  (Lat.  qucsstio), 

q.  V which  [title]  see  (Lat.  quod  vide). 

Rev Review  (a  periodicjal). 

R.S Rolls  Series. 

R.  V Revised  Version. 

S.,  SS Lat.    Sanctus,    SancH,    "Saint", 

"Saints" — used  in  this  Ency- 
clopedia only  in  Latin  context. 

Sept Septuagint. 

Sess Session. 

Skt Sanskrit. 

Sp Spanish. 

sq.,  sqq following  page,  or  pages   (Lat. 

sequens), 

St.,  Sts Saint,  Saints. 

sup Above  (Lat.  supra). 

s.  V Under   the    corresponding   title 

(Lat.  sub  voce). 

tom volume  (Lat.  tomus). 


xiii 


TABLES  OF  ABBREVIATIONS. 


tB» translation  or  translated.  By  it- 
self it  means  "English  translar 
tion"|  or  "translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  ".  Where  a  translation 
IS  into  any  other  langaage,  the 
language  is  stated. 

tr.y  tract tractate. 

T.  •  • see  (Lat.  vide). 

Yen Venerable. 

VoL Volume. 

n. — ^Abbbeyiationb  of  TnuB. 

Acta  S3 Ada  Sanctorum  (Bollandists). 

Ann.  pont.  cath Battandier,  Annuairs  pontifical 

catkoHque, 

BibL  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.GilIow,  Bibliographical  Diction* 

aiy  of  the  English  Catholics. 

Diet.  Christ.  Antiq.  •  .Smith    and   Cheetham   (ed.)> 

Dictionaiy  of  Christian  An- 
tiquities. 


Diet.  Christ.  Biog.  . .  Smith  and  Waoe  (ed.),  Diction- 
ary of  Christian  Biography. 
Diet,  d'arch.  chr^t..  .Cabrol  (ed.),  Dictionnain  dVir- 

dUologiechrUimneotdehhB^ 
gie. 

Diet  dethfioL  oath.  .Vacant  and  Mangenot  (ed.), 

Dictionnaire      de     thiologi$ 

eaihoUque. 
Diet  Nat  Biog.  ....  Stephen  and  Lee  (ed.),  Diction- 

aiy  of  National  Biography. 
Hast.,  Diet  of  the 
Bible HastingB  (ed.)»  A  Dictionary  of 

the  Bible. 
IQrchenlez. Wetzer  and  W^te,Kirehmdexi' 

con, 

P.  G Migne  (ed.),  Patrea  OrmcL 

P.  L Migne  (ed.),  PaireB  LoHnL 

Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  Vigourouz  (ed.),  Didumnaire  d$ 

la  Bibl$. 


NoTB  L— Liiie  Rooiaa  nmnenb  standinc  aloM  indioato  volnmea.  Small  Roraaa  mmiflnb  standinc  alone 
ohai>tan.  Arabic  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  paces.  In  other  casss  the  divisions  axe  explicitly  stated.  Thus  **  Rashdall. 
Universities  of  EuropCt  I.  ix"  refers  the  roader  to  the  ninth  chapterof  the  first  volume  of  that  work;  **I,P>ix"  would  indicate  the 
ninth  page  of  the  preface  of  the  same  volume. 

Nora  II. — ^Where  St.  Thomas  (Aquinas)  is  cited  without  the  name  of  any  particular  work  the  rsference  is  always  to 
*8umma  Tlieolagica"  (not  to  "Summa  Fhilosophia")*  The  divisions  of  the  *'Summa  TlieoL"  axe  indicated  by  a  system  which 
may  best  be  understood  by  the  fallowing  example:  "I-II,  Q.  vi,  a.  7,  ad  2  am"  rafers  the  reader  to  the  tev^nih  article  of  the 
riaih  question  in  the  fint  part  of  tlie  Moond  part,  in  the  response  to  the  §eoond  objection. 

Nora  UI. — ^The  abbreviations  employed  for  the  various  boolu  of  the  Bible  are  obvious.  Eccleyastieus  is  indicated  by 
Beebu.^  to  distinguish  it  from  Eodesiastes  (JBeeUt.).  It  should  also  be  noted  that  I  and  II  Kings  in  D.  V.  correspond  to  I  and  II 
Samuel  in  A.  v.;  and  I  and  11  Par.  to  I  and  11  CSironides.  Where,  in  the  spelling  of  a  proper  name,  there  is  a  marked  difference 
between  the  D.  V.  and  the  A*  V.,  the  form  found  in  the  latter  is  added,  in  parent heem 


XIV 


Full  Page  Illustrations  in  Volume  VI 

Frontispiece  in  Colour      '  paob 

Ffinelon — Portrait  by  Joseph  Vivien 36 

Cathedral,  Ferrara 46 

Votivkirche,  Vienna 50 

Cathedral,  Fiesole 70 

Pope  Leo  XII  Carried  in  Procession  in  St.  Peter's — ^Vemet 88 

Florence 110 

The  Cathedral  of  Florence Ill 

Church  of  San  Mercuriale,  Forli 136 

Fountains  Abbey,  Ripon,  England 160 

France 178 

The  Virgin  with  Sts.  Francis  Borgia  and  Stanislaus  Kostka— ^Deferrari 216 

St.  Francis  of  Assisi 217 

Assisi 228 

Mary's  Journey  through  the  Hill  Country — Ftihrich 312 

Ponte  Vecchio,  Florence 332 

Facade,  St.  John  Lateran,  Rome 342 

Germany 492 

The  Castelf ranco  Altar-Piece — Giorgione 564 

Giotto — ^Frescoes  in  Santa  Croce,  Florence ^ . . .  565 

Elnglish  Gothic  Interiors 676 

English  Gothic  Exteriors 677 

Michael  PalsBologus  as  One  of  the  Magi — Gozzoli 688 

The  Acropolis,  Athens :  .* 740 


Maps 

France 188 

Palestine  in  the  Old-Testament  Period 428 

Palestine  in  the  Time  of  Christ 432 

Fra  Mauro's  Map  of  thi  World  (1459) 450 

Germany 514 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


F 


Fathers  of  the  Ohnrch.— The  word  Father  is 
used  in  the  New  Testament  to  mean  a  teacher  of  spiri- 
tual things,  by  whose  means  the  soul  of  man  is  bom 
again  into  the  likeness  of  Christ:  ''For  if  you  have 
ten  thousand  instructors  in  Christ,  yet  not  many 
fathers.  For  in  Christ  Jesus,  by  the  gpspel,  I  have  be^ 
gotten  you.  Wherefore  I  beseech  you,  be  ^e  followers 
of  me,  as  I  also  am  of  Christ"  (I  Cor.,  iv,  15,  16; 
cf.  Gal.,  iv,  19).  The  first  teachers  of  Christianity 
seem  to  be  collectively  spoken  of  as  "the  Fathers 
(II  Peter,  iii,  4).  Thus  St.  Irenseus  defines  that  a 
teacher  is  a  father,  and  a  disciple  is  a  son  (iv,  41, 2),  and 
BQ  says  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  I.  i,  1).  A 
bishop  is  emphatically  a  "father  in  Christ  ,  both  be- 
cause it  was  he,  in  early  times,  who  baptized  all  his 
flock,  and  because  he  is  Uie  chief  teacher  of  his  church. 
But  he  is  also  regarded  by  the  early  Fathers,  such  as 
Heeesippus,  Iienseus,  and  Tertullian,  as  the  recipient 
of  the  tradition  of  his  predecessors  in  the  see,  and  con- 
Bec]uentlY  as  the  witness  and  representative  of  the 
faith  of  his  Church  before  Cathohcitv  and  the  world. 
Hence  the  expression  "the  Fathers'^ comes  naturally 
to  be  applied  to  the  holy  bishops  of  a  preceding  age, 
whether  of  the  last  generation  or  further  back,  since 
they  are  the  parents  at  whose  knee  the  Church  of  to- 
da^  was  taught  her  belief.  It^  is  also  applicable  in  an 
eminent  way  to  bishops  sitting  in  council, "  the  Fathers 
of  Nicsea",'^theFathersof  Trent".  Thus  Fathers  have 
learnt  from  Fathers,  and  in  the  last  resort  from  the 
Apostles,  who  are  sometimes  called  Fathers  in  this 
sense:  "They  are  your  Fathers",  says  St.  Leo,  of  the 
Princes  of  the  Apostles,  speaking  to  the  Romans;  St. 
Hilary  of  Aries  calls  them  sancii  vatres;  Clement  of 
Alexandria  says  that  his  teachers,  trom  Greece,  Ionia, 
Coele-Syria,  E^pt,  the  Orient,  Assyria,  Palestine,  re- 
spectively, hsui  nanded  on  to  him  the  tradition  of 
blessed  teaching  from  Peter,  and  James,  and  John, 
and  Paul,  receiving  it  "  as  son  from  father". 

It  follows  that,  as  our  own  Fathers  are  the  predeces- 
sors who  have  tai^t  us,  so  the  Fathers  of  tne  whole 
Church  are  especially  the  earlier  teachers,  who  in- 
structed her  in  the  teaching  of  the  Apostles,  during 
her  infancy  and  first  growth.  It  is  difficult  to  define 
the  first  age  of  the  Church,  or  the  age  of  the  Fathers. 
It  is  a  common  habit  to  stop  the  study  of  the  early 
Church  at  the  Council  of  Cnalcedon  in  451.  "The 
Fathers"  must  undoubtedly  include,  in  the  West,  St. 
Gr^ory  the  Great  (d.  604),  and  in  the  East,  St.  John 
Damascene  (d.  about  754).  It  is  frequently  said  that 
St.  Bernard  (d.  1153)  was  the  last  of  the  Fathers,  and 
Migne's  "  PatroloRia  Latina"  extends  to  Innocent  III, 
haltine  only  on  the  verge  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
while  nis  "  Patrologia  Grseca"  goes  as  far  as  the  Coun- 
cil of  Florence  (1438-9).  These  limits  are  evidently 
too  wide.  It  wfll  be  best  to  consider  that  the  ereat 
merit  of  St.  Bernard  as  a  writer  lies  in  his  resemblance 
in  styie  and  matter  to  the  greatest  among  the  Fathers, 
in  spite  of  the  difference  of  period.  St.  Isidore  of 
Seyille  (d.  636)  and  the  Venerable  Bede  (d.  735)  are 
VI.— 1 


to  be  classed  among  the  Fathers,  but  they  may  be  said 
to  have  been  bom  out  of  due  time,  as  St.  Theodore 
the  Studite  was  in  the  East. 

The  Appeal  to  the  Fathers. — ^Thus  the  use  of  the 
term  Fathers  has  been  continuous,  yet  it  could  not  at 
first  be  employed  in  precisely  the  modem  sense  of 
Fathers  of  the  Church.  In  early  da^rs  the  expression 
referred  to  writers  who  were  then  quite  recent.  It  is 
still  applied  to  those  writers  who  are  to  us  the  an- 
cients, but  no  longer  in  the  same  way  to  writers  who 
are  now  recent.  Appeals  to  the  Fathers  are  a  sub- 
division of  appeals  to  tradition.  In  the  first  half  of 
the  second  centiiry  begin  the  appeals  to  the  sub-Apos- 
tolic age:  Papias  appeals  to  the  presbyters,  and 
through  them  to  the  Apostles.  Haifa  century  later 
St.  Irenseus  supplements  this  method  by  an  appeal  to 
the  tradition  handed  down  in  every  Church  by  tne  suc- 
cession of  its  bishops  (Adv.  Hser.,  Ill,  i-iii),  and  Ter- 
tullian clinches  this  argument  by  the  observation  that 
as  all  the  Churches  agree,  their  tradition  is  secure,  for 
they  could  not  all  have  strayed  by  chance  into  the 
same  error  (Prsescr.,  zxviii).  The  appeal  is  thus  to 
Churches  and  their  bishops,  none  but  bishops  being  the 
authoritative  exponents  of  the  doctrine  of  their 
Churches.  As  late  as  341  the  bishops  of  the  Dedica- 
tion Coimcil  at  Antioch  declared:  "  We  are  not  follow- 
ers of  Arius;  for  how  could  we,  who  are  bishops,  be 
disciples  of  a  priest?" 

Yet  slowly,  as  the  appeals  to  the  presbyters  died 
out,  there  was  arising  bv  the  side  of  appeals  to  the 
Churches  a  third  method:  the  custom  of  appealing  to 
Christian  teachers  who  were  not  necessarily  bishops. 
While,  without  the  Church,  Gnostic  schools  were  sub- 
stituted for  churches,  within  the  Churchy  Catholic 
schools  were  growing  up.  Philosophers  like  Justin 
and  most  of  the  numerous  second-century  apoloeists 
were  reasoning  about  religion,  and  the  great  catecheti- 
cal school  of  ^exandria  was  j^thering  renown.  Great 
bishops  and  saints  like  Dionysius  of  Alexandria, 
Gre^ry  Thaumaturgus  of  Pontus,  Firmilian  of  Cappa- 
docia,  and  Alexander  of  Jerusalem  were  proud  to  be 
disciples  of  the  priest  Origen.  The  Bishop  Cyprian 
called  daily  for  the  works  of  the  priest  Tertullian  with 
the  words  "Give  me  the  master".  The  Patriarch 
Athanasius  refers  for  the  ancient  use  of  the  word 
6/taoi6ato9,  not  merely  to  the  two  Dionysii,  but  to  the 
priest  Theognostus.  Yet  these  priest-teachers  are 
not  yet  called  Fathera,  and  thegreatest  among  them, 
Tertullian,  Clement,  Origen,  Hippolytus,  Novatian, 
Lucian,  happen  to  be  tiiu^  with  neresy ;  two  became 
antipopes;  one  is  the  rather  of  Arianism;  ^another 
was  condemned  by  a  general  council.  In  each  cs^ 
we  might  apply  the  words  used  b^  St.  Hilary  of  Ter- 
tullian: "Sequenti  errors  detraxit  scriptis  probabili- 
bus  auctoritatem"  (Comm.  in  Matt.,  v,  1,  cited  by 
Vincent  of  L^rins,  24), 

A  fourth  form  of  appeal  was  better  founded  and  of 
enduring  value.  Eventually  it  appeared  that  bishops 
as  well  as  priests  were  fallibfe.    In  the  second  century 

I 


FATHERS                                 2  FATHEBB 

the  bishops  were  orthodox.    In  the  third  they  were  we  remember  that  Jerome  in  a  fit  of  irritation,  fifteen 

often  found  wanting.    In  the  fourth  they  were  the  vears  before,  had  written  to  Augustine  (Ep.  c^): 

leaders  of  schisms,  and  heresies,  in  the  Meletian  and  "  Do  not  excite  against  me  the  silly  crowd  of  tne  ignor- 

Donatist  troubles  and  in  the  long  Arian  strug^e,^  in  ant.  who  venerate  you  as  a  bishop,  and  receive  you 

which  few  were  found  to  stand  firm  against  the  msidi-  witn  the  honour  due  to  a  prelate  wnen  you  declaim  in 

ous  persecution  of  Constantius.    It  came  to  be  seen  the  Church,  whereas  they  think  little  of  me,  an  old 

that  the  true  Fathers  of  the  Church  are  those  Catholic  man,  nearly  decrepit,  in  my  monastery  in  the  solitude 

teachers  who  have  persevered  in  her  conmiimion,  and  of  the  coimtry." 

whose  teaching  has  been  recognized  as  orthodox.    So  In  the  second  book  "Contra  Julianum ",  St.  Au^us- 

it  came  to  pass  that  out  of  the  four  "  Latin  Doctors"  tine  again  cites  Ambrose  frequently,  and  Cypnan, 

one  is  not  a  bishop.    Two  other  Fathers  who  were  not  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Hilary,  Chrysostom;  in  ii,  37,  he 

bishops  have  been  declared  to  be  Doctors  of  the  recapitulates  the  nine  names  (omitting  coimcils  and 

Church,  Bede  and  John  Damascene,  while  among  the  pop^),  adding  (iii,  32)  Innocent  and  Jerome.    A  few 

Doctors  outside  the  patristic  period  we  find  two  more  years  later  the  Semipelagians  of  Southern  Gaul,  who 

priests,  the  incomparable  St.  Bernard  and  the  great-  were  led  by  St.  Hilary  of  Aries,  St.  Vincent  of  L^rins, 

est  of  all  theologians,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.    Nay,  few  and  Bl.  Cassian,  refuse  to  accept  St.  Augustine's 

writers  had  such  great  authority  in  the  Schools  of  the  severe  view  of  predestination  b^use  "  contrarium 

middle  ages  as  the  layman  Boethius,  many  of  whose  putant   patrum   opinion!   et   ecclesiastico   sensui". 

definitions  are  still  conunonplaces  of  theologv.  Their  opponent  St.  Prosper,  who  was  trying  to  convert 

Similarly  (we  may  notice  in  passing)  the  name  them  to  Augustinianism,  complains:  '' Obstinationem 

"Father",  which  originally  belonged  to  pishops,  has  suamvetustatedefendunt"  (Ep.  inter  Aug.  ccxxv,  2), 

been  as  it  were  delegated  to  priests,  especially  as  min-  and  they  said  that  no  ecclesiastical  writer  had  ever 

isters  of  the  Sacrament  of  Penance,    it  is  now  a  form  before  mterpreted  Romans  quite  as  St.  Augustine 

of  address  to  all  priests  in  Spain,  in  Ireland,  and,  of  re-  did — which  was  probably  true  enough.    The  interest 

cent  years,  in  England  and  the  United  States.  of  this  attitude  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  was,  if  not  new, 

ndiraf  or  ndirirat.  Pope,  was  a  term  of  respect  for  emi-  at  least  more  definite  than  any  earlier  appeal  to  an- 
nent  bishops  (e.  g.  in  letters  to  St.  Cyprian  and  to  St.  tiquity.  Through  most  of  the  fourth  century,  the 
Aueustine, — neitner  of  these  writers  seems  to  use  it  in  controversy  with  the  Arians  had  turned  upon  Scrip- 
addressing  other  bishops,  except  when  St.  Augustine  ture,  and  appeals  to  past  authority  were  few.  But 
writes  to  Rome).  Eventually  the  term  was  reserved  the  appeal  to  the  Fathers  was  never  the  most  imposing 
to  the  bishops  of  Rome  and  Alexandria;  yet  in  the  loct»^Aeo2a{^icu«,  for  they  could  not  easily  be  assembled. 
East  to-day  every  priest  is  a  "pope".  The  Aramaic  so  as  to  form  an  absolutely  conclusive  test.  On  the 
abba  was  used  from  early  times  for  the  superiors  of  other  hand  up  to  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  there 
religious  houses.  But  throueh  the  abuse  of  granting  were  practically  no  infallible  definitions  available, 
abbess  in  commendam  to  seculars,  it  has  become  a  po-  except  condemnations  of  heresies,  chiefly  by  popes, 
lite  title  for  all  secular  clerics,  even  seminarists,  in  By  the  time  that  the  Arian  reaction  under  Valens 
Italy,  and  especially  in  France,  whereas  all  religious  caused  the  Eastern  conservatives  to  draw  towards  the 
who  are  priests  are  addressed  as  "Father".  orthodox,  and  prepared  the  restoration  of  orthodoxy 

We  receive  only,  says  St.  Basil,  what  we  have  been  to  power  by  Tneodosius,  the  Nipene  decisions  were 

taught  by  the  Holy  Fathers;  ana  he  adds  that  in  his  begmning  to  be  looked  upon  as  sacrosanct,  and  that 

Church  of  Csesarea  the  faith  of  the  holy  Fathers  of  council  to  be  preferred  to  a  imique  position  above  all 

Nicsea  has  long  been  implanted  (Ep.  cxl,  2).     St.  others.    By  430,  the  date  we  have  reached,  the  Creed 

Greeory  Nazianzen  declares  that  he  holds  fast  the  we  now  say  at  Mass  was  revered  in  the  East,  whether 

teaching  which  he  heard  from  the  holy  Oracles,  and  rightly  or  wron^y,  as  the  work  of  the  150  Fathers  of 

was  taught  by  the  holy  Fathers.    These  Cappadocian  Constantinople  m  381,  and  there  were  also  new  papal 

saints  seem  to  be  the  nrst  to  appeal  to  a  real  catena  of  decisions,  especially  the  tradoria  of  Pope  Zosmius, 

Fathers.    The  appeal  to  one  or  two  was  already  com-  which  in  418  had  been  sent  to  all  the  bishops  of  the 

mon  enoufi^ ;  but  not  even  the  learned  Eusebius  had  world  to  be  signed. 

thought  of  a  long  string  of  authorities.  St.  Basil,  for  It  is  to  living  authority,  the  idea  of  which  had  thus 
example  (De Spir.  S.,  ii,  29),  cites  for  the  formula  "  with  come  to  the  fore,  that  St.  Prosper  was  appealing  in  his 
the  Holy  Ghost "  in  the  doxology.  the  example  of  Ire-  controversy  with  the  Lerinese  school.  When  he  went 
nsus,  Clement  and  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  Dionysius  to  Gaul,  in  431,  as  papal  envoy.  Just  after  St.  Augus- 
of  Rome,  Eusebius  of  Cssarea,  Origen,  Africanus,  tine's  death,  he  replied  to  their  cTifficulties.  not  by  re- 
the  preces  Ivcemaria  said  at  the  lightixig  of  lamps,  iterating  that  saint's  hardest  arguments,  but  by  tak- 
Athenagoras,  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  Firmilian,  ing  with  him  a  letter  from  Pope  St.  Celestine,  in  which 
Meletius.  In  the  mth  century  this  method  became  a  St.  Augustine  is  extolled  as  having  been  hdd  by  the 
stereotyped  custom.  St.  Jerome  is  perhaps  the  first  pope's  predecessors  to  be  "  inter  maeistros  optimos". 
writer  to  try  to  establish  his  interpretation  of  a  text  by  '  No  one  is  to  be  allowed  to  depreciateliim,  but  it  is  not 
a  string  of  exesjgetes  (Ep.  cxii,  ad  Aug.) .  PauUnus,  the  said  thafr  every  word  of  his  is  to  be  followed.  The  dis- 
deacon  and  biograpner  of  St.  Ambrose,  in  the  libellus  turbers  had  appealed  to  the  Holy  See,  and  the  reply  is 
he  presented  against  l^e  Pelagians  to  Pope  Zosimus  in  "  Desinat  incessere  novitas  vetustatem"  (Let  novelty 
417,  quotes  Cyprian,  Ambrose,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  cease  to  attack  antiquity!).  An  appendix  is  added,  not 
andf  the  decrees  of  the  late  Pope  Innocent.  In  420  St.  of  the  opinioi^  of  ancient  Fathers,  out  of  recent  popes, 
Augustine  quotes  Cyprian  and  Ambrose  a^inst  the  since  the  very  same  monks  who  thought  St.  Augustine 
same  heretics  (C.  duas  Epp.  Pel.,  iv).  Julian  of  Ec-  went  too  far,  professed  (savs  the  appendix)  "  that  they 
lanimi  quoted  Chrysostom  and  Basil;  St.  Augustine  followed  and  approved  only  what  the  most  holy  See  c» 
replies  to  him  in  421  (Contra  Julianum,  i )  with  the  Blessed  Apostle  Peter  sanctioned  and  taueht  by 
Iremeus,  Cyprian,  Reticius,  Olympius,  Hilary,  Am-  the  ministry  of  its  prelates".  A  list  therefore  tollowB 
brose,  the  decrees  of  African  councils,  and  aliove  all  of  "the  judgments  of  the  rulers  of  the  Roman  Church  "^ 
Popes  Innocent  and  Zosimus.  In  a  cdebrated  pas-  to  which  are  added  some  sentences  of  African  councils, 
sage  he  argues  that  these  Western  writers  are  more  "  which  indeed  the  Apostolic  bishops  made  their  own 
than  sufficient,  but  as  Julian  had  appealed  to  the  Ea^t,  when  they  approved  them".  To  these  inviolabiles 
to  the  Blast  he  shall  go,  and  the  saint  adds  Gregory  sanctioned  (we  might  rouchly  render  "infallible  utter- 
Nazianzen,  Basil,  Synod  of  Diospolis,  Chrysostom.  ances")  prayers  iwed  in  the  sacraments  are  appended 
To  these  he  adds  Jerome  (c.  xxxiv) :  "  Nor  should  you  "  ut  legem  credendi  lex  statuat  supplicandi " — a  f  re- 
think Jerome,  be<»iuse  he  was  a  priest,  is  to  be  de-  ouently  misquoted  phrase — and  in  conclusion^  it  is 
ipised",  and  adds  a  eulogy.    This  is  amusing,  when  aeclared  that  these  testimonies  of  the  Apostohc  See 


FATHERS 


FATHERS 


are  sufficient,  "  so  that  we  consider  not  to  be  Catholic 
at  all  whatever  shall  appear  to  be  contrary  to  the  de- 
cisions we  have  cited  .  Thus  the  decisions  of  the 
Apostolic  See  are  put  on  a  very  different  level  from  the 
views  of  St.  Augustine,  just  as  that  saint  always  drew 
a  sharp  distinction  between  the  resolutions  of  African 
councils  or  the  extracts  from  the  Fathers,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  decrees  of  Popes  Innocent  and  Zosimus 
on  the  other. 

Three  years  later  a  famous  document  on  tradi- 
tion and  its  use  emanated  from  the  Lerinese  school, 
the  "Commonitorium"  of  St.  Vincent.  He  whole- 
heartedly accepted  the  letter  of  Pope  Celestine,  and  he 
quoted  it  as  an  authoritative  and  irresistible  witness  to 
his  own  doctrine  that  where  quod  vbiquey  or  universir 
UUf  is  uncertain,  we  must  turn  to  quod  semper j  or  an^ 
HqmUu.  Nothing  could  be  more  to  his  purpose  than 
the  pope's:  '' Desinat  incessere  novitas  vetustatem". 
The  oecumenical  Coimcil  of  Ephesus  had  been  held  in 
the  same  year  that  Celestine  wrote.  Its  Acts  were  be- 
fore St.  Vincent,  and  it  is  clear  that  he  looked  upon 
both  pope  and  council  as  decisive  authorities.  It 
was  necessary  to  establish  this,  before  turning  to 
his  famous  canon,  fiukl  vbiquef  quod  semper,  quod 
ab  omnOma — otherwise  universitaa,  antiquitaSf  con- 
sensio.  It  was  not  a  new  criterion,  else  it  would  have 
committed  suicide  by  its  very  expression.  But  never 
had  the  doctrine  be^  so  admiraoly  phrased,  so  limp- 
idly  explained,  so  adequately  exemplified.  Even  the 
law  of  the  evolution  of  dogma  is  denned  by  Vincent  in 
language  which  can  hardly  be  surpassed  for  exactness 
and  vigour.  St.  Vincents  triple  test  is  wholly  mis- 
understood if  it  is  taken  to  be  the  ordinary  rule  of 
faith.  Like  all  Catholics  he  took  the  ordinary  rule  to 
be  the  living  magisterium  of  the  Church,  and  he  as- 
sumes that  the  formal  decision  in  cases  of  doubt  lies 
with  the  Apostolic  See,  or  with  a  general  council. 
But  cases  ofdoubt  arise  when  no  such  decision  is  forth- 
coming. Then  it  is  that  the  three  tests  are  to  be  ap- 
plied, not  simultaneously,  but,  if  necessary,  in  succes- 
sion. 

When  an  error  is  found  in  one  comer  of  the  Church, 
then  the  first  test,  universUaSf  quod  vbique,  is  an  unan- 
swerable refutation,  nor  is  there  any  need  to  examine 
further  (iii,  7,  8).  But  if  an  error  attacks  the  whole 
Church,  then  ankquitaSf  quod  semper  is  to  be  appealed 
to,  that  is,  a  consensus  existii^  before  the  novelty 
arose.  Still,  in  the  previous  penod  one  or  two  teach- 
ers, even  men  of  great  fame,  may  have  erred.  Then 
we  betake  ourselves  to  quod  ab  omnibus,  consensio,  to 
the  many  against  the  few  (if  possible  to  a  ^neral 
council:  if  not,  to  an  examination  of  writings). 
Those  few  are  a  trial  of  faith  "  ut  tentet  vos  Dominus 
Deus  vester  "  (Deut.,  xiii,  1  sqq.).  So  Tertullian  was  a 
magna  ienUdio;  so  was  Orieen — indeed  the  greatest 
temptation  of  sdl.  We  must  know  that  whenever  what 
is  new  or  imheard  before  is  introduced  by  one  man 
beyond  or  against  all  the  saints,  it  pertains  not  to  re- 
limon  but  to  temptation  (xx,  49).  Who  are  the 
''Baints"  to  whom  we  appeu?  The  reply  is  a  defini- 
tion of  "Fathers  of  the  Church"  eiven  with  all  St. 
Vincent's  inimitable  accuracy:  "Inter  se  majorem 
consulat  interrogetque  sententias,  eorum  dumtaxat 
quifdiversis  licet  temporibus  et  locis,  in  unius  tamen  eo- 
desia  CaJthoUca  communione  et  fide  permanentes,  magia- 
tri  probabiUs  exstilerunt;  et  quicquid  non  unus  aut 
duo  tantum,  sed  omnes  pariter  uno  eodemque  con- 
sensu aperte,  frequenter,  perseveranter  tenuisse, 
scripsisse,  docuisse  co^overit,  id  sibi  quoaue  intelli- 

fit  absque  ulla  dubitatione  credendum'*  (iii,  8). 
his  unambiguous  sentence  defines  for  us  what  is  the 
right  way  of  appealing  to  the  Fathers,  and  the  itali- 
cised words  perfectly  explain  what  is  a  "Father": 
"Those  alone  who,  though  in  diverse  times  and 
places,  yet  persevering  in  the  communion  and  faith 
of  the  one  Catholic  Church,  have  been  approved 
teachers." 


The  same  result  is  obtained  by  modem  theologians, 
in  their  definitions;  e.  s.  Fessler  thus  defines  what 
constitutes  a  "Father  .  (1)  orthodox  doctrine  and 
learning;  (2)  holiness  of  life;  (3)  (at  the  present 
day)  a  certain  antic^uity.  The  criteria  by  which  we 
juQge  whether  a  writer  is  a  "Father''  or  not  are:  (1) 
citation  by  a  general  council,  or  (2)  in  public  Acts  of 
popes  addressed  to  the  Church  or  concerning  Faith; 
(3)  encomium  in  the  Roman  Martyrolo^  as  sancti- 
tate  et  doctrina  insignis";  (4)  public  reading  in 
Churches  in  early  centuries;  (5)  citation,  with  praise, 
as  an  authority  as  to  the  Faith  by  one  of  the  more 
celebrated  Fathers.  Early  authors,  though  belonging 
to  the  Church,  who  fail  to  reach  this  standard  are 
simply  ecclesiastical  writers  ("Patrologia",  ed.  Jimg- 
mann,  ch.  i,  §11).  On  the  other  hand^  where  the 
appeal  is  not  to  the  authority  of  the  writer,  but  his 
testimony  is  merely  required  to  the  belief  of  nis  time, 
one  writer  is  as  good  as  another,  and  if  a  Father  is 
cited  for  this  purpose,  it  is  not  as  a  Father  that  he  is 
cited,  but  merely  as  a  witness  to  facts  well  known  to 
him.  For  the  history  of  dogma,  therefore,  the  works  of 
ecclesiastical  writers  who  are  not  only  not  approved, 
but  even  heretical,  are  often  just  as  valuable  as  those 
of  the  Fathers.  On  the  other  hand^  the  witness  of 
one  Father  is  occasionally  of  great  weight  for  doctrine 
when  taken  singly,  if  he  is  teaching  a  subject  on  which 
he  is  recognized  by  the  Church  as  an  especial  author- 
ity, e.  g.,  St.  Athanasius  on  the  Divinityof  the  Son,  St. 
Augustine  on  the  Holy  Trinity,  etc.  There  are  a  few 
cases  in  which  a  general  council  has  given  approba- 
tion to  the  work  of  a  Father,  the  most  important  being 
the  two  letters  of  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  which  were 
read  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus.  But  "  the  authority 
of  single  Fathers  considered  in  itself'',  says  Franselin 
(De  Traditione,  thesis  xv),  "is  not  infallible  or  per- 
emptory; though  piety  and  sound  reason  SLoree  that 
the  theological  opinions  of  such  individuals  should 
not  be  treated  lightly,  and  should  not  without 
great  caution  be  interpreted  in  a  sense  which  clashes 
with  the  common  doctrine  of  other  Fathers."  The 
reason  is  plain  enough;  they  were  holy  men,  who  are 
not  to  be  presumed  to  have  intended  to  swerve  from 
the  doctrine  of  the  Church,  and  their  doubtful  utter- 
ances are  therefore  to  be  taken  in  the  best  sense  of 
which  they  are  capable.  If  they  cannot  be  explained 
in  an  orthodox  sense,  we  have  to  admit  that  not  the 
greatest  is  immime  from  ignorance  or  accidental  error 
or  obscurity.    But  on  the  use  of  the  Fathers  in  theolo- 

Slcal  questions,  the  article  Tradition  and  the  ordinary 
o^atic  treatises  on  that  subject  mlist  be  consulted, 
as  it  is  proper  here  only  to  deal  with  the  historical 
development  of  their  use.  The  subject  was  never, 
treatea  as  a  part  of  dogmatic  theolofl^  until  the  rise 
of  what  is  now  commonly  caUed  "Theologia  funda- 
mentalist, in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  founders  of 
which  are  Melchior  Canus  and  Bellarmine.  The  for- 
mer has  a  discussion  of  the  use  of  the  Fathers  in 
deciding  questions  of  faith  (De  locis  theologicb,  vii). 
The  Protestant  Reformers  attacked  the  authority  oi 
the  Fathers.  The  most  famous  of  these  opponents  is 
Dallsus  (Jean  DaiU^,  1594-1670,  "Traits  de  Temploi 
des  saints  P^res",  1632;  in  Latin  "De  usu  Patrum", 
1656) .   But  their  objections  are  long  since  forgotten. 

Having  traced  the  development  of  the  use  of  the 
Fathers  up  to  the  period  of  its  frequent  employment, 
and  of  its  formal  statement  by  St.  Vincent  of  L^rins, 
it  will  be  well  to  give  a  glance  at  the  continuation  of 
the  practice.  We  saw  that,  in  434,  it  was  possible  for 
St.  Vincent  (in  a  book  which  has  been  most  unreason- 
ably taken  to  be  a  mere  polemic  aeainst  St.  Augustine 
— ^a  notion  which  is  amply  refutea  by  the  use  made  in 
it  of  St.  Celestine's  letter)  to  define  the  meaning  and 
method  of  patristic  appeals.  From  that  time  onward 
they  are  very  common.  In  the  Council  of  Ephesus, 
431,  as  St.  Vincent  points  out,  St.  Cyril  presented  a 
series  of  quotations  from  the  Fathers,  tQv  ikyurrdruv  xal 


FATHERS  4  FATHERS 

^uardrtaw  waripiap  Kal  iirunc6wup  xal  ita^ipup  fULpii^w.  Ixxiii).  Florilegia  and  catens  became  common  from  the 
which  were  read  on  the  motion  of  Flavian,  Bishop  of  fifth  century  onwards.  They  are  mostly  anonsrmous. 
Philippi.  They  were  from  Peter  I  of  Alexandria,  but  those  in  the  East  which  go  under  the  name  ot 
Martyr,  AthanasiuSi  Popes  Julius  and  Felix  (forgeries),  (Ecumenius  are  well  known.  Most  famous  of  all 
Theophilus,  Cyprian,  Ambrose,  Gregory  Nasianzen,  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  was  the  ''Glossa  ordin- 
Basil,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Atticus,  Amphilochius.  On  aria"  attributed  to  Walafrid  Strabo.  The  "Catena 
the  other  hand  Eutyches,  when  tried  at  Constanti-  aurea"  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  is  still  in  use.  (See 
nople  by  St.  Flavian,  in  449,  irefused  to  accept  either  Caten je,  and  the  valuable  matter  collected  by  Turner 
Fathers  or  councils  as  authorities,  confining  himself  to  in  Hastings,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  V,  521.) 
Holy  Scripture,  a  position  which  horrified  his  judges  St.  Augustine  was  earl^r  recogcdsed  as  the  first  of 
(see  EuTTCHEs).  In  the  following  year  St.  L^  sent  the  Western  Fathers,  with  St.  Ambrose  and  St. 
his  legates,  Abundius  and  Asterius,  to  Constantinople  Jerome  by  his  side.  St.  Grerory  the  Great  was  added, 
with  a  list  of  testimonies  from  Hilary,  Athanasius,  and  these  four  became  "  the  Latin  Doctors".  St.  Leo, 
Ambrose^  Augustine,  ChxyBostom,  Theophilus,  Greg-  in8omewa3rs  the  greatest  of  theologians,  was  excluded, 
ory  Nazianaen,  Basil,  C^ril  of  Alexandria.  They  both  on  account  of  the  paucity  of  his  writings,  and  by 
were  signed  in  that  city,  but  were  not  produced  at  the  the  fact  that  his  letters  had  a  far  hieher  authority  as 
Council  of  Chalcedon  m  the  following  year.  Thence-  papal  utterances.  In  the  East  St.  John  Chrysostom 
forward  the  custom  is  fixed,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  has  always  been  the  most  popular,  as  he  is  the  most 
^ve  examples.  However,  that  of  the  sixth  council  voluminous,  of  the  Fathers.  With  the  great  St.  Basil, 
m  680  is  miportant:  Pope  St.  Agatho  sent  a  long  the  father  of  monachism,  and  St.  Gregory  Nasianzen, 
series  of  extracts  from  Rome^  and  the  leader  of  the  famous  for  the  puritv  of  his  faith,  he  made  up  the 
Monothelites,  Macarius  of  Antioch,  presented  another,  triumvirate  called  "  the  three  hlerarchs",  familiar  up 
Both  sets  were  carefully  verified  from  the  library  of  to  the  present  day  in  Eastern  art.  St.  Athanasius 
the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  and  sealed.  It  was  added  to  these  by  the  Westerns,  so  that  four 
should  be  noted  that  it  was  never  m  such  cases  thought  might  answer  to  four.  (See  Doctobs  of  the  Church.) 
necessary  to  trace  a  doctrine  back  to  the  earhest  It  will  be  observed  that  many  of  the  writers  rejected 
tunes;  St.  Vincent  demanded  the  proof  of  the  Church's  in  the  Gelasian  list  lived  and  died  in  Catholic  corn- 
belief  before  a  doubt  arose — this  is  his  notion  of  munion,  but  incorrectness  in  some  part  of  their 
anHquiUu;  and  in  conformity  with  this  view,  the  writings,  e.  g.  the  Semipelagian  error  attributed  to 
Fathers  quoted  by  councils  and  popes  and  Fathers  Cassian  and  Faustus,  the  chiuasm  of  the  ^conclusion  of 
are  for  the  most  psxi  recent  (Petavius,  De  Incam.,  Victorinus's  commentary  on  the  Apocalypse  (St. 
XIV,  15, 2-5).  Jerome  issued  an  expurgated  edition,  the  onTv  one 
In  the  last  years  of  the  fifth  century  a  famous  docu-  in  print  as  yet),  the  unsoundness  of  the  lost  "  Hypo- 
ment,  attributed  to  Popes  Gelasius  and  Hormisdas,  typoees"  of  Clement,  and  so  forth,  prevented  such 
adds  to  decrees  of  St.  Damasus  of  382  a  list  of  books  writers  from  being  spoken  of,  as  Hilary  was  by  Jerome, 
which  are  approved,  and  another  of  those  disapproved,  ''inoffenso  pede  percurritur".  As  lul  the  more  iin- 
In  its  present  form  the  list  of  approved  Fathers  com-  portant  doctrines  of  the  Church  (except  that  of  the 
prises  Cyprian,  Gregory  Nazianxen.  BasU^  Athanasius,  Canon  and  the  Inspiration  of  Scripture)  may  be  proved, 
Chrysostom,  Theopnilus,  Hilary,  Cfyril  of  Alexandria  or  at  least  illustrated,  from  Scripture,  the  widest 
(wanting  in  one  MS.),  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Jerome,  office  of  tradition  is  the  interpretation  oi  Scripture, 
Prosper,  Leo  C'  every  iota"  of  the  tome  to  Flavian  is  and  the  authority  of  the  Fathers  is  here  of  very  great 
to  be  accepted  under  anathema),  and  "  also  the  trea-  importance.  Nevertheless  it  is  only  then  necessarily  to 
tisesof  all  orthodox  Fathers,  who  deviated  in  nothm^  be  followed  when  all  are  of  onemind:  "Nemo^ 
from  the  feUowshi]  '  "'  *  '  ^  '^^  '  -  --  -  •  -n-^  -• 
were  not  separal 
but  were  participators 


the  end  of  their  life  in  her  communion:  also  the    cam  imquam  nisi  juxta  unanimum  consensum  Patrum 

1         All  A* t»  L I  Li J !_' • •_• Ii    _A    i^i.' A^i ^»       rwn^^   fr«*;^--.    ri^..»^:i 


ius,  and  Juvencus  are  praised.    Rufinus  and  Orieen  pretari." 
are  rejected.    Eusebius^s"  History  "and  "Chronicle"        A  consensus  of  the  Fathers  is  not,  of  course,  to 

are  not  to  be  condemned  altogether,  though  in  another  be  expected  in  very  small  matters:    ''Qua  tamen 

part  of  the  list  they  appear  as  "apocrypha"  with  antiqua  sanctorum  patrum  consensio  non  m  omnibus 

TertulUan,  Lactantius,  Africanus,  Ciommodian,  Cle-  divinse  legis  qusstiunculis,  sed  solum^  certe  prsecipue 

ment  of  Alexandria,  Amobius,  Cassian,  Victorinus  of  in  fidei  R«ula  magno  nobis  studio  et  investiganda  est 

Pettau,  Faustus,  and  the  works  of  heretics,  and  forged  et  sequenda"  (Vincent,  xxviii,  72).    This  is  not  the 

Scriptural  documents.    The  later  Fathers  constantly  method,  adds  St.  Vincent,  against  widespread  and 

usea  the  writings  of  the  earUer.    For  instance,  St.  inveterate  heresies,  but  rather  against  novelties,  to 

Caesarius  of  Aries  drew  freety  on  St.  Augustine's  ser-  be  applied  directly  they  appear.     A  better  instance 

mons,  and  embodied  them  m  collections  of  his  own;  could  nardly  be  given  than  the  way  in  which  Adop- 

St.  Gregory  the  Great  has  largely  founded  himself  on  tionism  was  met  oy  the  Coimcil  of  Frankfort  in  794, 

St.  Augustine:  St.  Isidore  rests  upon  all  his  prede-  nor  could  the  principle  be  better  expressed  than  by 

oessors;  St.    John   Damascene's   mat   work   is   a  the  Fathers  of  the  Coimcil:  "Tenete  vos  intra  termi- 

synthesis  of  patristic  theology.    St.  Bede's  sermons  nos  Patrum,  et  nolite  novas  versare  c[usstiunculas; 

are  a  cento  from  the  greater  Fathers.    Eugippius  made  ad  nihilum  enim  valent  nisi  ad  subversionem  audien- 

a  selection  from  St.  Au^tine's  writings,  which  had  an  tium.   Sufficit  enim  vobis  sanctorum  Patrum  vestigia 

immense  vogue.    Cassiodorus  made  a  collection  of  sequi^  et  illorum  dicta  firma  tenere  fide.    lUi  enim  in 

select  commentaries  by  various  writers  on  all  the  Dommo  nostri  exstiterunt  doctores  in  fide  et  duo^ 

books  of  Holy  Scripture.     St.  Benedict  especially  tores  ad  vitam;  quorum  et  sapientia  Spiritu  Dei 

recommended  patristic  study,  and  his  sons  have  ob-  plena   libris   legitur   inscripta,   et   vita   mentoruro 

Served  his  advice:  "Ad  pertectionem  conversationis  miraculis  clara  et  sanctissima;  quorum  animse  apud 

qui    festinat,    sunt    doctrina    sanctorum    Patrum,  Deum  Dei  Filium,  D.  N.  J.  C.  pro  ma^o  pietatis 

quarum  observatio  perducat  hominem  ad  celsitu-  labore  regnant  in  cslis.    Hoe  ereo  tota  animi  virtute, 

dinem  perfectionis  .  .  .  quia  liber  sanctorum  catholi-  toto  oaritatis  affectu  sequimini,  beatifflimi  fratres,  ut 

eorum  Patrum   hoc  non  resonat,   ut   recto  cursu  horum  inooncussa  firmitate  _  doctrinis   adhierentes, 

perveniamus  ad  creatorem  nostrum?"  (SanetRegula,  consortium  8etem»  beatitudinis  .  •  •  cum  illis  har 


FATHERS                               5  FATHBBS 

here  mereamini  in  celis''  ("Synodica  ad  Episc."  in  persecutions.    We  must  not  fllwajs  accept  the  view 

Mansi,  XIII,  897-8).   And  an  excellent  act  of  faith  in  given  to  outsiders  by  the  apologistsi  as  representiiu; 

the  tradition  of  the  Church  is  that  of  Charlema^e  the  whole  of  the  Christianity  they  knew  and  practiseo. 

(ibid.y  902)  made  on  the  same  occasion:  **Ap06tolic8B  The  apologies  of  Quadratus  to  Hadrian,  of  Aristo  of 

sedi  et  antiquis  ab  initio  nascentis  ecclesiae  et  cath-  Pella  to  the  Jews,  of  Miltiades,  of  ApoUinaris  of 

olicis    traditionibus    tota    mentis    intentione,    tota  Hierapolis,  and  of  Melito  of  Sardis  are  lost  to  us.   But 

cordis  alacritate,  me  conjim^.    Quicquid*  in  illorum  we  stul  possess  several  of  greater  importance.    That 

legitur  libris,  qui  divino  Spiritu  afflati,  toti  orbi  a  of  Aristides  of  Athens  was  presented  to  Antoninus 

Deo  dhristo  dati  sunt  doctores,  indubitanter  teneo:  Pius,  and  deals  principally  with  the  knowledge  of  the 

hoe  ad  salutem  anims  meie  sufficere  credens^  quoa  true  God.     The  fine  apolog3r  of  St.  Justin  with  its 

sacratissimiB   evangelics   veritatis   pandit   historia,  appendix  is  above  all  interesting  for  its  description  of 

quod  apostolica  in  suis  epbtolis  confiirmat  auctoritas^  the  Litui^  at  Rome  c.  150.    His  aiguments  against 

quod  eximii  Sacrse  Scripture  tractatores  et  prsecipm  the  Jews  are  found  in  the  well-composed  "Dialogue 

ChristiansB   fidei   doctores   ad    perpetuam   posteris  with  Tr^ho''    where  he  speaks  of  the  Apostolic 

scnptum  reliquerunt  memoriam.  authorship  of  tne  Apocalypse  in  a  manner  which  is  of 

ChAasincATios    of     Patristic    Writings. — ^In  first-rate  unportance  in  the  mouth  of  a  man  who  was 

order  to  get  a  good  view  of  the  patristic  neriod,  the  converted  at  Ephesus  some  time  before  the  year  132. 

Fathers  may  be  divided  in  various  ways.   One  favour-  The  "Apology''  of  Justin's  Syrian  disciple  Tatian  is  a 

ite  method  is  by  periods;  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  less  conciliatory  work,  and  its  author  fell  into  her- 

till  325;  the  Great  Fathers  of  the  fourth  century  and  esy.    Athenaeoras,  an  Athenian  (c.  177),  addressed  to 

half  the  fifth  (325-451);  and  the  later  Fathers.    A  Marcus  Aureaus  and  Commodus  an  eloquent  refuta- 

more  obvious  division  is  into  Easterns  and  Westerns,  tion  of  the  absurd   calumnies  against  Christians, 

and  the  Easterns  will  comprise  writers  in  Greek^  Syriac,  Theophilus,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  about  the  same  date, 

Armenian,  and  Coptic.    A  convenient  division  into  wrote  three  books  of  apology  addressed  to  a  certain 

smaller  groups  will  be  by  periods,  nationalities  and  Autolycus. 

character  of  writings;  for  in  the  East  and  West  there  (3)  All  these  works  are  of  considerable  literary 

were  many  races,  and  some  of  the  ecclesiastical  writers  ability.    This  is  not  the  case  with  the^  great  Latin 

are  apologists,  some  preachers,  some  historians,  some  apoloey  which   closely  foUows  them  in  date,  the 

commentators,  and  so  forth.  "  Apologeticus"  of  Tertullian,  which  is  id  the  uncouth 

A.  After  (1)  the  Apostolic  Fathers  come  in  the  and  untranslatable  language  affected  by  its  author, 
second  centiuy  (2)  the  Greek  apobgists,  followed  by  Nevertheless  it  is  a  woric  ci  extraordinary  genius,  in 
(3)  the  Western  apologists  somewhat  later,  (4)  the  interest  and  value  far  above  all  the  rest,  and  for 
Gnostic  and  Marcionite  heretics  with  their  apocry-  energy  and  boldness  it  is  incomparable.  His  fierce 
phal  Scriptures,  and  (5)  the  Catholic  replies  to  them.  "  Ad  Scapulam"  is  a  warning  addressed  to  a  perse- 

B.  The  third  century  gives  us  (1)  the  Alexandrian  cuting  proconsul.  "Adversus  Judsos"  is  a  title 
writers  of  the  catechetical  school,  (2)  the  writers  of  which  explains  itself.  The  other  Latin  apologists  are 
Asia  Minor  and  (3)  Palestine,  and  the  first  Western  later.  The  "Octavius"  of  Minudus  Fehx  is  as  pol- 
writers,  (4)  at  Rome,  Hippolytus  (in  Greek),  and  ished  and  gentle  as  Tertullian  is  rough.  Its  date  is 
Novatian,  (5)  the  great  African  writers,  and  a  few  uncertain.  If  the  "Apologeticus"  was  well  calculated 
others.                                     ^  to  infuse  courage  into  the  persecuted  Christian,  the 

C.  The  fourth  century  opens  with  (1)  the  apolo-  "Octavius"  was  more  likely  to  impress  the  inquiring 
getic  and  the  historical  works  of  Eusebius  of  Csesarea.  pagan,  if  so  be  that  more  flies  are  caught  with  noney 
with  whom  we  may  class  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  ana  than  with  vinegar.  With  these  works  we  may  mention 
St.  Epiphanius,  (2^  the  Alexandrian  writers  Athana-  the  much  later  Lactantius,  the  most  perfect  of  all  in 
sius,  Didymus,  and  others,  (3)  the  Cappadocians,  (4)  literary  form  ("  Divinse  Institutiones  ,  c.  305-10,  and 
the  Antiochenes,  (5)  the  Syriac  writers.  In  the  West  "  De  Mortibus  persecutorum",  c.  314).  Greek  apolo- 
we  have  (6)  the  opponents  of  Arianism,  (7)  the  gies  probably  later  than  the  second  century  are  the 
Italians,  includine  Jerome,  (8)  the  Africans,  and  (9)  "Imsiones"  of  Hermias.  and  the  very  beautiful 
the  Spanish  and  Gallic  writers.  "Epistle"  to  Dic^netus.   (4)  The  heretical  writings  of 

D.  The  fifth  century  gives  us  (1)  the  Nestorian  the  second  century  are  mostly  lost.  The  Gnostics  nad 
controversy,  (2)  the  Eutychian  controversy,  including  schools  and  philosophized ;  their  writers  were  numerous, 
the  Western  St.  Leo;  (3)  the  historians.  In  the  West  Some  curious  works  have  come  down  to  us  in  Coptic. 
(4)the8choolofL6rins,  (5)  the  letters  of  the  popes.  The  letter  of  Ptolemseus  to  Flora  in  Epiphanius  is 

E.  The  sixth  century  and  the  seventh  give  us  less  almost  the  only  Greek  fragment  of  real  importance, 
important  names  and  they  must  be  grouped  in  i^  Marcion  founded  not  a  school  but  a  Church,  and  his 
more  mechanical  way.  New  Testament,  consisting  of  St.  Luke  and  St.  Paul, 

A.    (1)  If  we  now  take  these  groups  in  detail  we  is  preserved  to  some  extent  in  the  works  written 

find  the  letters  of  the  chief  Apoistohc  Fathers,  St.  against  him  by  Tertullian  and  Epiphanius.    Of  the 

Clement,  St.  Ignatius,  and  St.  Polycarp,  venerable  writings  of  Greek  Montanists  and  of  other  early  here- 

not  merely  for  their  antiquity,  but  for  a  certain  sim-  tics,  almost  nothing  remains.   The  Gnostics  composed 

plicity  ana  nobility  of  thought  and  style  which  is  very  a  quantity  of  apocryphal  Gospels  and  Acts  of  individ- 

movine  to-  the  reader.    Tneir  quotations  from  the  ual  Apostles,  large  portions  of  which  are  preserved. 

New  Testament  are  quite  free.     They  offer  most  mostly  in  frs^gments,  in  Latin  revisions,  or  in  Syriac, 

important  information  to  the  historian,  though  in  Coptic.  Arabic,  or  Slavonic  versions.   To  these  are  to 

somewhat  homceopathic  quantities.    To  these  we  add  be  adaed  such  well-known  forgeries  as  the  letters  of 

the  Didache  (q.  v.),  probably  the  earliest  of  all;  the  Paul  to  Seneca,  and  the  Apocalypse  of  Peter,  of  which 

curious  allegorizins  anti-Jewish  epistle  which  goes  a  fragment  was  recently  found  m  the  Faytim. 

under  the  name  of  Barnabas;  the  Shepherd  of  Hennas,  (5)  Replies  to  the  attacks  of  heretics  form,  next  to 

a  rather  dull  series  of  visions  chiefly  connected  with  the  apologetic  against  heathen  persecutors  on  the  one 

penance  and  pardon,  composed  by  the  brother  of  Pope  hand  and  Jews  on  the  other,  the  characteristic  Catho- 

Piua  I,  and  long  appended  to  the  New  Testament  as  of  lie  literature  of  the  second  century.    The  "  Syntagma  " 

almost  canonical  importance.    The  works  of  Papias,  of  St.  Justin  against  all  heresies  is  lost.    llariier  yet, 

the  disciple  of  St.  John  and  Aristion,  are  lost,  all  but  St.  Papias  (al^ady  mentioned)  had  directed  his  ef- 

a  few  precious  f ra^ents.  forts  to  the  refutation  of  the  rising  errors,  and  the  same 

(2^  The  apologists  are  most  of  them  philosophic  preoccupation  is  seen  in  St.  Ignatius  and  St.  Polycarp. 

in  their  treatment  of  Christianity.    Some  of  their  Hegeeippus,  a  converted  Jew  of  Palestine,  journeyed 

works  were  presented  to  emperors  in  order  to  disarm  to  Connth  and  Rome,  where  he  stayed  from  the  epvh 


FATHEB8 


FATHEB8 


copate  of  Anicetus  till  that  of  Eleutherius  (c.  160-180), 
with  the  intention  of  refuting  the  novelties  of  the 
Gnostics  and  Marcionites  by  an  appeal  to  tradition. 
His  work  is  lost.  But  the  great  work  of  St.  Irenaeus  (c. 
180)  against  heresies  is  founded  on  Papias,  Hegesippus, 
and  Justin,  and  gives  from  careful  investigation  an 
account  of  many  Gnostic  systems,  together  with  their 
refutation.  His  appeal  is  less  to  Scripture  than  to  the 
tradition  which  tne  whole  Catholic  Church  has  re- 
ceived and  handed  down  from  the  Apostles,  through 
the  ministry  of  successive  bishops,  and  particularly  to 
the  tradition  of  the  Roman  Church  founded  by  Peter 
and  Paul. 

By  the  side  of  Iremeus  must  be  put  the  Latin  Ter- 
tullian,  whose  book  "Of  the  Prescriptions  Against 
Heretics"  is  not  only  a  masterpiece  of  argument,  out  is 
almost  as  effective  against  modem  heresies  as  against 
those  of  the  early  Church.  It  is  a  witness  of  extraor- 
dinary importance  to  the  principles  of  unvarying  tradi- 
tion which  the  Catholic  Church  has  always  professed, 
and  to  the  primitive  belief  that  Holy  Scripture  must 
be  interpreted  by  the  Church  and  not  by  private  in- 
dustry. He  uses  Irensus  in  this  work,  and  his  po- 
lemical books  against  the  Valentinians  and  the  Mar- 
cionites borrow  freely  from  that  saint.  He  is  the  less 
persuasive  of  the  two,  because  he  is  too  abrupt,  too 
clever,  too  anxious  for  the  sl^test  controversial  ad- 
vantage, without  thought  of  the  easy  replies  that 
might  he  made.  He  sometimes  prefers  wit  or  hard 
hitting  to  solid  argument.  At  this  period  controver- 
sies were  beginning  within  the  Church,  the  most  im- 
portant being  the  question  whether  Easter  could  be 
celebrated  on  a  weekday.  Another  burning  question 
at  Rome,  at  the  turn  of  the  century,  was  the  doubt 
whether  the  prophesying  of  the  Montanists  could  be 
approved,  and  yet  another,  in  the  first  years  of  the 
third  oentuiT^,  was  the  controversy  with  a  group  of 
opponents  oi  Montanism  (so  it  seems),  who  denied  the 
authenticity  of  the  writings  of  St.  John,  an  error  then 
quite  new. 

B.  (1)  The  Church  of  Alexandria  already  in  the  sec- 
ond century  showed  the  note  of  learning,  together  with 
a  habit  borrowed  from  the  Alexandrian  i^ws,  espe- 
cially Philo.  of  an  allegorizing  interpretation  of  Scnp- 
ture.  The  latter  characteristic  is  already  found  in  the 
''Epistle  of  Barnabas",  which  may  be  of  Alexandrian 
origin.  Pantsenus  was  the  first  to  make  the  Cate- 
chetical school  of  the  city  famous.  No  writings  of 
his  are  extant,  but  his  pupil  Clement,  who  taught  in 
l^e  school  with  Pantsenus,  c.  180,  and  as  its  head,  c. 
180-202  (died  c.  214),^  has  left  a  considerable  amount 
of  rather  lengthy  disquisitions  dealing  with  my- 
thology, mystical  theology,  education,  social  observ- 
ances, and  all  other  things  in  heaven  and  on  earth. 
He  was  followed  by  the  great  Origen,  whose  fame 
spread  far  and  wide  even  among  the  heathen.  The 
remains  of  his  works,  though  they  fill  several  volumes, 
are  to  a  ereat  extent  only  in  free  Latin  translations, 
and  bear  but  a  small  ratio  to  the  vast  amoimt  that  has 
perished.  The  Alexandrians  held  as  firmly  as  any 
Catholics  to  tradition  as  the  rule  of  faith,  at  least  in 
^eory,  but  beyond  tradition  they  allowed  themselves 
to  speculate,  so  that  the  "Hypotjrposes"  of  Clement 
have  been  almost  entirely  lost  on  account  of  the  errors 
which  found  a  place  in  them,  and  Origen's  works  fell 
under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  though  their  author  lived 
the  life  of  a  saint,  and  died,  shortly  after  the  Decian 
persecution,  of  the  sufferings  he  had  undergone  in  it. 

The  disciples  of  Origen  were  many  and  eminent.  The 
library  founded  by  one  of  them,  St.  Alexander  of  Jeru- 
salem, was  precious  later  on  to  Eusebius.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  school  were  St.  Dionysius  "the 
Great"  of  Alexandria  and  St.  Gregory  of  Neocxesarea 
in  Pontus,  known  as  the  Wonder-Worker,  who,  like  St. 
Nonnosus  in  the  West,  was  said  to  have  moved  a 
mountain  for  a  short  distance  by  his  prayers.  Of  the 
writings  of  these  two  saints  not  very  much  is  extant. 


(2)  Montanism  and  the  paschal  question  brought  Asia 
Minor  down  from  the  leading  position  it  held  in  the 
second  century  into  a  very  inferior  rank  in  the  third. 
Besides  St.  Gregory,  St.  Methodius  at  the  end  of  that 
century  was  a  polished^  writer  and  an  opponent  of 
Origenism — ^his  name  is  consequently  passed  over 
without  mention  by  the  Origenist  historian  Eusebius. 
We  have  his  "Banquet"  in  Greek,  and  some  smaller 
works  in  Old  Slavonic. 

(3)  Antioch  was  the  head  see  over  the  "Orient",  in- 
cludmg  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  as  well  as  Palestine 
and  Phoenicia^  but  at  no  time  did  this  form  a  compact 

gatriarchate  like  that  of  Alexandria.  We  must  group 
ere  writers  who  have  no  connexion  with  one  anoUier 
in  matter  or  style.  Julius  Africanus  lived  at  Em- 
maus  and  composed  a  chronography,  out  of  which  the 
episcopal  lists  of  Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch,  and 
a  ^reat  deal  of  other  matter,  have  been  preserved  for 
us  in  St.  Jerome's  version  of  the  Chronicle  of  Eusebius, 
and  in  Byzantine  chronographers.  Two  letters  of  his 
are  of  interest,  but  the  fnigments  of  his  ''Kestoi"  or 
" Girdles"  are  of  no  ecclesiastical  value;  they  contain 
much  curious  matter  and  much  that  is  objectionable. 
In  the  second  half  of  the  third  century,  perhaps  to- 
wards the  end  of  it,  a  great  school  was  established  at 
Antioch  by  Lucian,  who  was  martyred  at  Nicomedia 
in  312.  He  is  said  to  have  been  excommunicated 
under  three  bishops,  but  if  this  is  true  he  had  been  long 
restored  at  the  time  of  his  martyrdom.  It  is  quite  un- 
certain whether  he  shared  the  errors  of  Paul  of  Samo- 
sata  (Bishop  of  Antioch,  deposed  for  here^  in  268-9). 
At  all  events  he  was — ^however  unintentionally — the 
father  of  Arianism,  and  his  pupils  were  the  leaders  of 
that  heresy:  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  Arius  himself, 
with  Menophantus  of  Ephesus,  Athanasius  of  Anazar- 
bus,  and  the  only  two  bishops  who  refused  to  sicn  the 
new  creed  at  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  Theoenis  of  Nicsea 
and  Maris  of  Chalcedon,  besides  the  scandalous  bishop 
Leontius  of  Antioch  and  the  Sophist  Asterius.  At 
Csesarea,  an  Origenist  centre,  flourished  under  another 
martyr^  St.  Pamphilus,  who  with  his  friend  Eusebius, 
a  certam  Ammonius,  and  others,  collected  the  works  of 
Origen  in  a  long-famous  library,  corrected  Origen's 
''  Hexapla".  and  did  much  editing  of  the  text  both  of 
the  Old  ana  the  New  Testcunents. 

(4)  We  hear  of  no  writings  at  Rome  except  in  Greek, 
until  the  mention  of  some  small  works  in  Latin,  by 
Pope  St.  Victor,  which  still  existed  in  Jerome's  aay. 
Hippolytus,  a  Roman  priest,  wrote  from  c.  200  to  235, 
and  always  in  Greek,  though  at  Carthage  Tertullian 
had  been  writing  before  this  in  Latin,  n  Hippolytus 
is  the  author  of  the  "Philosophumena"  he  was  an 
antipope,  and  full  of  unreasonmg  enmity  to  his  rival 
St.  Callistus;  his  theology  makes  the  Word  proceed 
from  God  by  His  Will,  distinct  from  Him  in  substance, 
and  beoommg  Son  by  becoming  man.  There  is  noth- 
ing Roman  in  the  theology  of  this  work ;  it  rather  con- 
nects itself  with  the  Greek  apologists.  A  great  part  of 
a  large  commentary  on  Daniel  and  a  work  against 
Noetus  are  the  only  other  important  remains  of  this 
writer,  who  was  soon  forgotten  in  the  West,  thougjh 
fragments  of  his  works  turn  up  in  all  the  Eastern  lan- 
guages. Parts  of  his  chronography,  perhaps  his  last 
worK,  have  survived.  Another  Roman  antipope, 
Novatian,  wrote  in  ponderous  and  studied  prose  witn 
metrical  endings.  Some  of  his  works  have  come  down 
to  us  under  the  name  of  St.  Cyprian.  Like  Hippoly- 
tus, he  made  his  rigorist  views  the  pretext  for  his 
schism.  Unlike  Hippoljrtus,  he  is  qmte  orthodox  in 
his  principal  work,  "  De  Trinitate". 

(5)  The  apologetic  works  of  Tertullian  have  been 
mentioned.  The  earlier  were  written  by  him  when  a 
priest  of  the  Church  of  Carthage,  but  about  the  year 
200  he  was  led  to  believe  in  the  Afontanist  prophets  of 
Phrygia,  and  he  headed  a  Montanist  schism  at  Car- 
tha^.  Many  of  his  treatises  are  written  to  defend  his 
position  and  his  rigorist  doctrines,  and  he  does  so 


PATHBB8 


with  considerable  violence  and  with  the  clever  and 
hastv  argumentation  which  is  natural  to  him.  The 
placid  flow  of  St.  Cyprian's  eloquence  (Bishop  of  Car- 
thage, 249-58)  is  a  ffe&t  contrast  to  that  of  his  "  mas- 
ter .  The  short  treatises  and  large  correspondence  of 
this  saint  are  all  concerned  with  local  questions  and 
needs,  and  he  eschews  all  speculative  theology.  From 
this  we  gain  the  more  light  on  the  state  of  the  Church, 
on  its  government,  and  on  a  number  of  interesting  ec- 
clesiastical and  social  matters.  In  all  the  patristic 
period  there  is  nothing,  with  the  exception  of  Euse- 
Bius's  history,  which  tells  us  so  much  about  the  earl^ 
Church  as  the  small  volume  which  contains  St.  Cypn- 
an's  works.  At  the  end  of  the  century  Amobius,  tike 
Cyprian  a  convert  in  middle  age,  and  like  other  Afri- 
cans, TertuUian^  Cyprian,  Lactantius,  and  Augustine, 
a  former  rhetorician,  composed  a  dull  apologr.  Lac- 
tantius carries  us  into  the  fourth  century.  He  was  an 
elegant  and  eloquent  writer,  but  like  Amobius  was  not 
a  well-instructed  Christian. 

C.  (1)  The  fourth  century  is  the  great  age  of  the 
Fathers.    It  was  twelve  years  old  when  Constantine 

gublished  his  edict  of  toleration,  and  a  new  era  for  the 
hristian  reli^on  began.  It  is  ushered  in  bv  Eusebius 
of  CiBsarea.  with  his  great  apologetic  works  *  Prsepara- 
tio  Evangeuca"  and  "Demonstratio  Evangelica",  which 
show  the  transcendent  merit  of  Christianitv,  and  his 
still  {p-eater  historical  works,the  "Chronicle''  (the  Greek 
original  is  lost)  and  the  "History",  which  has  gathered 
up  the  fragments  of  the  age  of  persecutions,  ana  has  pre- 
served to  us  more  than  half  of  all  we  know  about  the 
heroic  ages  of  the  Faith.  In  theology  Eusebius  was  a 
follower  of  Origen,  but  he  rei  ected  the  eternity  of  Crea- 
tion and  of  the  L<^gp6,  so  tnat  he  was  able  to  re^rd 
the  Arians  with  considerable  cordiaUty.  The  original 
form  of  the  pseudo-Clementine  romance,  with  its  long 
and  tiresome  dialogues,  seems  to  be  a  work  of  the  very 
beginning  of  the  centurv  against  the  new  develop- 
ments of  neathenism,  and  it  was  written  either  on  the 
Phoenician  coast  or  not  far  inland  in  the  Syrian  neigh- 
bourhood. Replies  to  the  greatest  of  the  pagan  at- 
tacks, that  of  Porphyry,  become  more  frequent  after 
the  pagan  revival  under  Julian  (361-3) ,  and  they  occu- 
plecl  the  lat>our8  of  many  celebrated  writers.  St.  Cy- 
nl  of  Jerusalem  has  left  us  a  complete  series  of  instruc- 
tions to  catechumens  and  the  baptized,  thus  supplying 
us  with  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  religious  teaching 
imputed  to  the  people  in  an  important  Church  of  the 
E^t  in  the  middle  of  the  fourtn  century.  A  Pales- 
tinian of  the  second  half  of  the  century,  St.  Epipha- 
nius,  became  Bishop  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus,  ai^d  wrote  a 
learned  history  of  all  the  heresies.  He  is  unfortu- 
nately inaccurate,  and  has  further  made  great  difficul- 
ties for  us  by  not  naming  his  authorities.  He  was  a 
friend  of  St.  Jerome,  and  an  uncompromising  oppo- 
nent of  Origeqi;nn. 

(2)  The  Alexandrian  priest  Arius  was  not  a  product 
of  the  catechetical  school  of  that  city,  but  of  the 
Lucianic  school  of  Antioch.  The  Alexandrian  ten- 
dency was  quite  opposite  to  the  Antiochene,  and  the 
Alexandrian  bishop,  Alexander,  condemned  Arius  in 
letters  still  extant,  in  which  we  gather  the  tradition  of 
the  Alexandrian  Church.  There  is  no  trace  in  them 
of  Origenism,  the  head-quarters  of  which  had  long  been 
at  Csesarea  in  Palestine,  in  the  succession  Theoctistus, 
Pamphilus,  Eusebius.  The  traditioa  of  Alexandria 
was  rather  that  which  Dionysius  the  Great  had  re- 
ceived from  Pope  Dionysius.  Three  years  after  the 
Nicene  Council  (325),  St.  Athanasius  be^n  his  long 
episcopate  of  forty-five  years.  His  writings  are  not 
very  voluminous,  oeing  either  controversial  theolo^ 
or  apologetic  memoirs  of  his  own  troubles,  but  their 
theological  and  historical  value  is  enormous,  on  ac- 
count of  the  leading  part  taken  by  this  truly  great  man 
in  the  fifty  years  ofnght  with  Ananism.  The  head  of 
the  catechetical  school  during  this  half-century  was 
Didymus  the  Blind,  an  Athanasian  in  his  doctrine  of 


the  Son,  and  rather  clearer  even  than  his  patriarch  in 
his  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  but  in  many  other  points 
carrying  on  the  Origenistic  tradition.  Here  may  be 
also  mentioned  by  the  way  a  rather  later  writer ^  Syne- 
sius  of  Cyrene,  a  man  of  philosophical  and  hterary 
habits,  who  snowed  energy  and  sincere  piety  as  a 
bishop,  in  spite  of  the  rather  pag^n  character  of  his 
culture.    His  lettere  are  of  great  interest. 

(3)  The  second  half  of  the  century  is  illustrated  by 
an  illustrious  triad  in  Cappadocia,  St.  Basil,  his  friend 
St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  his  brother  St.  Gregory  of 
Nyssa.  They  were  the  main  workers  in  the  return  of 
the  East  to  orthodoxy.  Their  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
is  an  advance  even  imon  that  of  Didymus,  and  is  very 
near  indeed  to  the  Roman  doctrine  which  was  later 
embodied  in  the  Athanasian  creed.  But  it  had  taken 
a  long  while  for  the  East  po  assimilate  the  entire  mean- 
ing of  the  orthodox  view.  St.  Basil  showed  great 
pKatience  with  those  who  had  advanced  less  far  on  the 
right  road  than  himself,  and  he  even  tempered  his  lan- 
guage so  as  to  conciliate  them.  For  fame  of  sanctity 
scarcely  any  of  the  Fathers,  save  St.  Gregory  the 
Wonder-Worker,.orSt.  Augustine,  has  ever  equalled 
him.  He  practised  extraordinary  asceticism,  and  his 
family  were  all  saints.  He  composed  a  rule  for 
monks  which  has  remained  practically  the  only  one  in 
the  East.  St.  Gr^ry  had  far  less  character,  but 
equal  abilities  and  Teaming,  with  greater  elo<}uence. 
The  love  of  Origen  which  persuaded  the  friends  m  their 
youth  to  publish  a  book  of  extracts  from  his  writinra 
had  Uttle  influence  on  their  later  theoloj;y;  that  of  St. 
Gregory  in  particular  is  renowned  for  its  accuracy  or 
even  inerrancy.  St.  Gregorv  of  Nyssa  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  full  of  Oriffenism.  The  classical  culture  and 
literary  form  of  the  Cappadocians,  united  to  sanctity 
and  orthodoxy,  makes  tnem  a  unique  group  in  the  hisn 
tory  of  the  Church. 

(4)  The  Antiochene  school  of  the  fourth  century 
seemed  given  over  to  Arianism,  until  tiie  time  when 
the  great  Alexandrians,  Athanasius  and  Didymus, 
were  dying,  when  it  was  just  reviving  not  merely  into 
orthodoxy,  but  into  an  efflorescence  oy  which  tne  re- 
cent glory  of  Alexandria  and  even  of  Cappadocia 
was  to  be  surpassed.  Diodorus,  a  monk  at  Antioch 
and  then  Bishop  of  Tarsus,  was  a  noble  supporter  ci 
Nicene  doctrine  and  a  great  writer,  though  the  larger 
part  of  his  works  has  perished.  His  friend  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia  was  a  learned  and  judicious  commenta- 
tor in  the  literal  Antiochene  style,  but  unfortunately 
his  opposition  to  the  heresy  of  Apollinarius  of  Laodi- 
oea  carried  him  into  the  opposite  extreme  of  Nestori- 
anism — ^indeed  the  pupil  Nestorius  scarcely  went  so 
far  as  the  master  Theodore.  But  then  Nestorius  re- 
sisted the  judgment  of  the  Church,  whereas  Theodore 
died  in  Catholic  communion,  and  was  the  friend  of 
saints,  including  that  crowning  glory  of  the  Antiochene 
school,  St.  John  Chrysostom,  whose  greatest  sermons 
were  preached  at  Antioch,  before  he  became  Bishop  of 
Constantinople.  Chrysostom  is  of  course  the  chief  of 
the  Greek  Fathera,  the  first  of  all  commentators,  and 
the  first  of  all  orators  whether  in  East  or  West.  He 
was  for  a  time  a  hermit,  and  remained  ascetic  in  his 
life;  he  was  also  a  fervent  social  reformer.  His 
gjrandeur  of  character  makes  him  worthy  of  a  place  be- 
side St.  Basil  and  St.  Athanasius. 

As  Basil  and  Gregpry  were  formed  to  oratory  by  the 
Christian  Prolueresius^  so  was  Chrsnsostom  by  the 
heathen  orator  Libamus.  In  the  classical  Gregory 
we  may  sometimes  find  the  rhetorician;  in  Chrysos- 
tom never;  his  amazing  natural  talent  prevents  his 
needing  the  assistance  ofart,  and  though  training  had 
preceded,  it  has  been  lost  in  the  flow  of  ener^tio 
thought  and  the  torrent  of  words.  He  is  not  afraid  c^ 
repeatinjg  himself  and  of  nedecting  the  rules,  for  he 
never  wishes  to  be  admired.  But  only  to  instruct  or  to 
persuade.  But  even  so  great  a  man  has  his  limiti^ 
tions.    He  has  no  speculative  interest  in  philosophy 


rATHBBS 


FATHBBS 


or  theolofly,  though  he  is  learned  enough  to  be  abso- 
lutely orthodox.  He  is  a  holv  man  and  a  practical 
man,  so  that  his  thou^ts  are  full  of  piety  and  beauty 
and  wisdom;  but  he  is  not  a  thinker.  None  of  the 
Fathers  has  been  more  imitated  or  more  read;  but 
there  is  little  in  his  writings  which  tsan  be  said  to  have 
moulded  his  own  or  future  times,  and  he  cannot  come 
for  an  instant  into  competition  With  Orijgen  or  Augus- 
tine for  the  first  place  among  ecclesiastical  writers. 

(5)  Syria  in  the  fourth  century  produced  one  great 
writer,  St.  Ephraem,  deacon  of  Edessa  (30&-73). 
Most  of  his  writings  are  poetry;  his  commentaries  are 
in  prose,  but  the  remains  of  these  are  scantier.  His 
homilies  and  hymns  are  all  in  metre,  and  are  of  very 
great  beauty.  Such  tender  and  loving  piety  is  hardly 
found  elsewhere  in  the  Fathers.  The  twenty-three 
homilies  of  Aphraates  (326^-7),  a  Mesopotamian 
bishop,  are  of  great  interest. 

(6)  St.  Hilary  of  Poitiers  is  the  most  famous  of  the 
earlier  opponents  of  Arianism  in  the  West.  He  wrote 
commentaries  and  polemical  works,  including  the 
great  treatise  "De  Trinitate"  and  a  lost  historical 
work.  His  style  is  affectedly  involved  and  obscure, 
but  he  is  nevertheless  a  theologian  of  considerable 
merit.  The  very  name  of  his  treatise  on  the  Trinity 
shows  that  he  approached  the  dogma  from  the  West- 
em  point  of  view  of  a  Trinity  in  Unity,  but  he  has 
lareely  employed  the  works  of  Origen,  Athanasius. 
and  other  Easterns.  His  exegesis  is  of  the  allegorical 
type.  Until  his  dav,  the  only  g^t  Latin  Father  was 
St.  Cyprian^  and  Hilary  had  no  rival  in  his  own  genera- 
tion. Lucifer,  Bishop  of  Calaris  in  Sardinia,  was  a 
very  rude  controversialist,  who  wrote  in  a  popular  and 
almost  uneducated  manner.  The  Spanisira  Gregory 
of  Illiberis.  in  Southern  Spain,  is  only  now  beginning 
to  receive  his  due,  since  l5om  A.  Wilmart  restored  to 
him  in  1908  the  important  so-called  "Tractatus  Ori- 
genis  de  libris  SS.  Scriptune",  which  he  and  Batiffol 
had  published  in  1900,  as  genuine  works  of  Origen 
translated  by  Victorinus  of  Pettau.  The  commenta- 
ries and  anti-Arian  works  of  the  converted  rhetorician, 
Marius  Victorinus,  were  not  successful.  St.  Eusebius 
of  VercellsB  has  left  us  only  a  few  letters.  The  date  of 
the  short  discourses  of  Zeno  of  Verona  is  uncertain. 
The  fine  letter  of  Pope  Julius  I  to  the  Arians  and  a 
few  letters  of  Libenus  and  Damasus  are  of  great 
interest. 

The  greatest  of  the  opponents  of  Arianism  in  the 
West  is  St.  Ambrose  (d.  397).  His  sanctity  and  his 
great  actions  make  him  one  of  the  most  imposing  fig- 
ures in  the  patristic  period.  Unfortunately  the  style 
of  his  writings  is  often  unpleasant,  being  affected  and 
intricate,  witnout  being  correct  or  artistic.  His  exe- 
gesis is  not  merely  of  the  most  extreme  alle^rical 
kind,  but  so  fanciful  as  to  be  sometimes  positively 
absurd.  And  yet,  when  off  his  guard,  he  speaks  with 
genuine  and  touching  eloquence;  he  produces  apo- 
phthegms of  admirable  brevity,  and  without  being  a 
deep  uieologian,  he  shows  a  wonderful  profundity  of 
thought  on  ascetical,  moral,  and  devotional  matters. 
Just  as  his  character  demands  our  enthusiastic  admira- 
tion, so  his  writing  ^in  our  affectionate  respect,  in 
spite  of  their  very  irntating  defects.  It  is  easv  to  see 
that  he  is  very  well  read  in  tne  classics  and  in  Christian 
writers  of  East  and  West,  but  his  best  thoughts  are  all 
his  own. 

(7)  At  Rome  an  original,  odd,  and  learned  writer 
composed  a  commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  and  a 
series  of  questions  on  {he  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
He  is  usually  spoken  of  as  Ambrosiaster,  and  may 
perhaps  be  a  converted  Jew  named  Isaac,  who  later 
apostatised.  St.  Damasus  wrote  verses  which  are 
poor  poetry  but  interesting  where  they  give  us  infor- 
mation about  the  martyrs  and  the  catacombs.  His  sec- 
retary for  a  time  was  St.  Jerome,  a  Pannonian  bybirth, 
a  Roman  by  ba^ytism.  This  learned  Father, "Doctor 
maximus  in  Sacris  Scripttiris",  is  very  well  known  to 


us,  for  almost  all  that  he  wrote  is  a  revelation  of  hmi- 
selF.  He  teUs  the  reader  of  his  inclinations  and  his 
antipathies,  his  enthusiasms  and  his  irritations,  his 
friendships  and  his  enmities.  If  he  is  often  out  of  tem- 
per, he  is  most  human,  most  affectionate,  most  ascetic, 
most  devoted  to  orthodoxy,  and  in  many  ways  a  very 
lovable  character;  for  if  he  is  quick  to  take  offence, 
he  is  easily  appeased,  he  is  laborious  beyond  ordinal^ 
endurance,  and  it  is  against  heresy  that  his  an^r  is 
usually  kindled.  He  lived  all  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
in  a  retreat  at  Bethlehem,  surrounded  by  loving  dis- 
ciples, whose  untiring  devotion  shows  that  the  saint  was 
by  no  means  such  a  roug^  diamond,  one  might  say 
such  an  ogre,  as  he  is  often  represented.  He  nad  no 
taste  for  jmilosophy,  and  seldom  gave  himself  time  to 
think,  but  he  r^d  and  wrote  ceaselessly.  His  many 
commentaries  are  brief  ^md  to  the  point,  full  of  infor- 
mation, and  the  product  of  wide  leadine.  His  great- 
est work  was  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament 
from  the  Hebrew  into  Latin.  He  carried  on  the 
textual  labours  of  Origen,  Pamphilus.  and  Eusebius, 
and  his  revision  of  the  Latin  Gospels  snows  the  use  of 
adinirablv  pure  Greek  MSS.,  though  he  seems  to  have 
expendeci  less  pains  on  the  rest  of  the  New  Testament. 
He  attacked  heretics  with  much  of  the  cleverness,  all 
the  vivacity,  and  much  more  than  the  eloquence  and 
effectiveness  of  Tertullian.  He  used  the  like  weai>on8 
against  any  who  attacked  him,  and  especially  against 
his  friend  Rufinus  during  their  passing  period  of 
hostility. 

If  he  is  only  "perhaps"  the  most  learned  of  the 
Fathers,  he  is  beyond  doubt  the  greatest  of  prose 
writers  among  them  all.  We  cannot  compare  his 
enei^  and  wit  with  the  originality  and  polish  of 
Cicero,  or  with  the  delicate  perfection  of  Piato,  but 
neither  can  they  or  any  other  writer  be  compared  with 
Jerome  in  his  own  sphere.  He  does  not  attempt  flints 
of  imagination,  musical  intonation,  word-pain tmg; 
he  has  no  flow  of  honeved  language  like  Cyprian,  no 
torrent  of' phrases  like  Cnrysostom ;  he  is  a  writer,  not 
an  orator,  and  a  learned  and  classical  writer.  But 
such  letters  as  his,  for  astonishing  force  and  liveliness, 
for  point,  and  wit,  and  terse  expression,  were  never 
written  before  or  since.  There  is  no  sense  of  effort, 
and  though  we  feel  that  the  language  must  have  been 
studied,  we  are  rarely  tempt^  to  call  it  studied 
lan^age,  for  Jerome  knows  the  strange  secret  of 
polishing  his  steel  weapons  while  they  are  still  at  a 
white  heat,  and  of  hurling  them  before  they  cool.  He 
was  a  dangerous  adversary,  and  had  few  scruples  in 
taking  every  possible  advantage.  He  has  the  unfor- 
tunate defect  of  his  extraordinary  swiftness,  that  he 
is  extremely  inaccurate,  and  his  historical  statements 
need  careful  control.  His  biographies  of  the  hermits, 
his  words  about  monastic  life,  vircinity,  Roman  faith, 
our  Blessed  Lady,  relics  of  saints,  have  exereised  great 
influence.  It  has  only  been  known  of  late  years  that 
Jerome  was  a  preacher;  the  little  extempore  dis- 
courses published  b^  Dom  Morin  are  fml  of  his 
irrepressible  personality  and  his  careless  learning. 

(8)  Africa  was  a  stranger  to  the  Arian  strugple, 
being  occupied  with  a  battle  of  its  own.  Donatism 
(311-411)  was  for  a  long  time  paramount  in  Numidia, 
and  sometimes  in  other  parts.  The  writings  of  the 
Donatists  have  mostly  perished.  About  370  St.  Op- 
tatus  published  an  effective  conth>versial  work  against 
them.  The  attack  was  carried  on  by  a  yet  greater 
controversialist,  St.  Augustine,  with  a  marvellous 
success,  so  that  the  inveterate  schism  was  practically 
at  an  end  twenty  years  before  that  saint's  death.  So 
happy  an  event  turned  the  eyes  of  all  Christendom  to 
the  orilliant  protagonist  of  the  African  Catholics,  who 
had  already  dealt  crushing  blows  at  the  Latin  Mani- 
chflean  writers.  From  417  till  his  death  in  431,  he 
was  en^tged  in  an  even  greater  conflict  with  the 
philosopnical  and  naturalistic  heresy  of  Pelagius  and 
Cslestius. .  In  this  he  was  at  first  asnsted  by  the  aged 


9 


rATHBBS 


Jerome;  the  popes  oondemned  the  innovators  and  the 
emperor  legislated  a^inst  them.  If  St.  Augustine  has 
the  unique  fame  of  naving  prostrated  three  heresies, 
it  is  bc^cause  he  was  as  anxious  to  persuade  as  to  refute. 
He  was  peihaps  the  greatest  oontroversialiBt  the 
world  has  ever  seen.  Besides  this  he  was  not  merely 
the  greatest  philosopher  among  the  Fathers,  but  he 
was  the  only  great  philosopher.  His  purely  theolo- 
gical works,  especially  his  De  Trinitate",  are  unsur- 
passed for  depth,  grasp,  and  clearness,  among  early 
ecclesiastical  writers,  whether  Eastern  or  Western. 
As  a  philosophical  theol<^ian  he  has  no  superior, 
except  his  own  son  and  disciple,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas. 
It  is  Drobably  correct  to  say  that  no  one,  except  Aris- 
totle, nas  exeroised  so  vast,  so  prof  oimd,  and  so  benefi- 
cial an  influence  on  European  tnoug^t. 

Augustine  was  himself  a  Platonist  throu^  and 
through.  As  a  commentator  he  cared  little  for  the 
letter,  and  everything  for  the  spirit,  but  his  harmony 
of  the  Gospels  shows  that  he  could  attend  to  history 
and  detail.  The  allegorizinjB;  tendencies  he  inherited 
from  his  spiritual  father.  Amoroso,  oanr^  him  now  and 
tiien  into  extravagances,  but  more  often  he  rather 
soars  than  commentates,  and  his  **  In  Genesim  ad  lit- 
teram",  and  his  treatises  on  the  Psalms  and  on  St. 
John,  are  works  of  extraordinary  power  and  interest, 
and  quite 'Worthy,  in  a  totally  cufferent  style,  to  rank 
with  Chrysostom  on  Bfatthew.  St.  Augustine  was  a 
professor  of  rhetoric  before  his  wonderful  conversion; 
but  like  St.  Cyprian,  and  even  more  than  St.  Cyprian, 
he  put  aside,  as  a  Christian,  all  the  artifices  of  oratory 
which  he  knew  so  well.  He  retained  correctness  of 
grammar  and  perfect  good  taste,  together  with  the 
power  of  speaking  and  writins  with  ease  in  a  style  of 
masterly  simplicity  and  of  dignified  thou^  almost 
colloquial  plamness. 

Nothing  could  be  more  individual  than  this  style  of 
St.  Auf^ustine's,  in  which  he  talks  to  the  reader  or  to 
God  with  perfect  openness  and  with  an  astonishing, 
often  almost  exasperating,  subtlety  of  thou^t.  He* 
had  the  power  of  seeing  all  round  a  subject  and 
through  and  through  it,  and  he  was  too  conscientious 
not  to  use  this  gift  to  the  uttermost.  Large-minded 
and  far-seeing,  he  was  also  very  learned.  He  mastered 
Greek  only  m  later  life,  in  order  to  make  himself 
familiar  with  the  works  of  the  Eastern  Fathers.  His 
"  De  Civitate  Dei"  shows  vast  stores  of  reading;  still 
more,  it  puts  him  in  the  first  place  among  SLpologists. 
Before  his  death  (431)  he  was  the  object  of  extraor- 
dinary veneration.  He  had  founded  a  monastery 
at  Tagaste,  which  supplied  Africa  with  bishops,  and 
he  liv^  at  Hippo  with  his  clergy  in  a  common  life,  to 
which  the  Regular  Canons  of  later  days  have  always 
looked  as  their  model.  The  great  Dominican  Order, 
the  Au^ustinians,  and  numberiess  congregations  of 
nuns  still  look  to  him  as  their  father  and  legisla- 
tor. His  devotional  works  have  had  a  vogue  second 
only  to  that  of  another  of  his  spiritual  sons,  Thomas  k 
Kempis.  He  had  in  his  lifetime  a  reputation  for 
miracles,  and  his  sanctity  is  felt  in  all  his  writings,  and 
breathes  in  the  story  of  his  life.  It  has  been  remarked 
that  there  is  about  this  many-sided  bishop  a  certain 
S3rmmetry  which  makes  him  an  almost  faultless  model 
of  a  holy,  wise,  and  active  man.  It  is  well  to  remem- 
ber that  he  was  essentially  a  penitent. 

(9)  In  Spain,  the  spreat  poet  Frudentius  surpassed 
all  his  predecessors,  ofwhom  the  best  had  been  Juven- 
cus  and  the  almost  pasan  ihetorician  Ausonius.  The 
curious  treatises  oi  the  Spanish  heretic  Priscillian 
were  disoovered  only  in  1889.  In  Gaul  Rufinus  of 
Aquileia  must  be  mentioned  as  the  very  free  transla- 
tor of  Origen,^  etc.,  and  of  Eusebius^  "  History", 
which  he  continued  up  to  his  own  date.  In  South 
Italy  his  friend  PauHnusof  Nola  has  left  us  pious 
poems  and  elaborate  letters. 

D.  (1)  The  fragments  of  Nestorius's  writings  have 
been  ooUected  by  Loofd.    Some  of  them  were  pre- 


served by  a  disciple  of  St.  Augustine,  Marius  Mercator, 
who  made  two  collections  of  documents,  concerning 
Nestorianism  and  Pelagianism  respectively.  Th< 
great  adversary  of  Nestorius,  St.  Cynl  of  Alexandriai 
was  opposed  by  a  yet  greater  writer,  Theodoret,  Bishop 
of  Cyrus.  Cynl  is  a  very  voluminous  writer,  and  hu 
long  commentaries  in  the  mystical  Alexandrian  vein 
do  not  much  interest  modem  readers.  But  his  princi- 
pal letters  and  treatises  on  the  Nestorian  question 
show  him  as  a  theologian  who  has  a  deep  spiritual 
insight  into  the  meaning  of  the  Incarnation  and  its 
effect  upon  the  human  race — ^the  lifting  up  of  man 
to  union  with  God.  We  see  here  the  influence  of 
Egyptian  asceticism,  from  Anthony  the  Great  (whose 
li^St.  Athanasius  wrote),  and  the  Macarii  (one  of 
whom  left  some  valuable  works  in  Greek),  and  Pa- 
chomius,  to  his  own  time.  In  their  asoetical  systems, 
the  union  with  God  by  contemplation  was  naturally 
the  end  in  view^  but  one  is  surprised  how  little  is  made 
by  them  of  meditation  on  the  life  and  Passion  of  Christ. 
It  is  not  omitted,  but  the  tendency  as  with  St.  (}yril 
and  with  the  Monophysites  who  beueved  they  followed 
him,  is  to  think  rather  of  the  Godhead  than  of  the 
Manhood.  The  Antiochene  school  had  exaggerated 
the  contrary  tendency,  out  of  opposition  to  Apollin- 
arianism,  which  made  Christ  s  Manhood  mcom- 
plete,  and  they  thought  more  of  man  united  to  God 
than  of  God  made  man.  Theodoret  undoubtedly 
avoided  the  excesses  of  Theodore  and  Nestorius,  and 
his  doctrine  was  accepted  at  last  by  St.  Leo  as  ortho- 
dox, in  spite  of  his  earlier  persistent  defence  of 
Nestorius.  His  histoi^  of  the  monks  is  less  valuable 
than  the  earlier  writings  of  eyewitnesses — Palladius 
in  the  East,  and  Rufinus  and  afterwards  Cassian  in 
the  West*.  But  Theodoret 's  ''History"  in  continua- 
tion of  Eusebius  contains  valuable  information.  His 
apologetic  and  controversial  writings  are  the  works  of 
a  good  theologian.  His  masterpieces  are  his  exegeti- 
cal  works,  which  are  neithet  oratory  like  those  of 
Chrysostom,  nor  exaggeratedly  literal  like  those  of 
Theodore.  With  him  the  great  Antiochene  school 
worthily  closes,  as  the  Alexandrian  does  with  St  Cyril. 
Togjether  with  these  ^reat  men  may  be  mentioned  St. 
Cynl's  spiritual  adviser,  St.  Isidore  of  Pelusium, 
whose  2O00  letters  deal  chiefly  with  allegorical  exe- 
gesis, the  commentary  on  St.  Mark  by  Victor  of 
Antioch,  and  the  introduction  to  the  interpretation 
of  Scripture  by  the  monk  Hadrian,  a  manual  of  the 
Antiocnene  method. 

(2)  The  Eutychian  controversy  produced  no  great 
works  in  the  East.  Such  works  of  the  Monophysites 
as  have  survived  are  in  Syriao  or  Coptic  versions. 
(3)  The  two  Constantinopoiitan  historians,  Socrates 
and  Sozomen,  in  spite  of  errore,  contain  some  data 
which  are  precious,  since  many  of  the  sources  which 
they  used  are  lost  to  us.  With  Theodoret^  their  con- 
temporary, they  form  a  triad  just  in  the  middle  of  the 
century.  St.  Nilus  of  Sinai  is  the  chief  among  many 
ascetical  writers.  (4)  St.  Sulpicius  Severus,  a  Gallic 
noble,  disciple  and  biographer  of  the  great  St.  Martin 
of  Tours,  was  a  classical  scholar,  and  showed  himself 
an  el^nt  writer  in  his  '^  Ecclesiastical  History". 
The  school  of  L^rins  produced  many  writere  besides 
St.  Vincent.  We  may  mention  Eucherius,  Faustus, 
and  the  great  St.  Caesarius  of  Aries  (543) .  CHher  Gallic 
writers  are  Salvian,  St.  Sidonius  Apollinaris,  Genna- 
dius,  St.  Avitus  of  Vienne,  and  Julianus  Pcnnerius. 
(5)  In  the  West,  the  series  of  papal  decretals  b^ns 
with  Pope  Siricius  (384-98).  Of  the  more  important 
popes  Isirge  numbers  of  letters  have  been  preserved. 
Those  of  the  wise  St.  Innocent  I  (401-17),  the  hot- 
headed St.  Zosimus  (417-8),  and  the  severe  St.  Celee- 
tine  are  perhaps  the  most  important  in  the  first  half  of 
the  century;  in  the  second  half  those  of  Hilarus,Sim- 

Slicius,  and  above  all  the  learned  St.  Gelasius  (492-6). 
[idway  in  the  century  stands  St.  Leo,  the  greatest  of 
the  early  popes,  whose  steadfastness  and  aancti^ 


10 


FATHERS 


saved  Rome  from  Attila,  and  the  Romans  from  Gen- 
seric.  He  could  be' unbending  in  the  enunciation  of 
principle;  he  was  condescendmg  in  the  condoning  of 
breaches  of  discipline  for  the  sake  of  peace,  and  he  was 
a  skilful  di];>lomatist.  His  sermons  and  the  dogmatic 
letters  in  his  large  correspondence  show  him  to  us  as 
the  most  lucid  of  all  theologians.  He  is  clear  in  his 
expression,  not  because  he  is  superficial,  but  because  he 
has  thou^t  clearly  and  deeply.  He  steers  between 
Nestorianism  and  Eutychianism,  not  by  using  subUe, 
distinctions  or  elaborate  arguments,  but  by  statins 

Slain  definitions  in  accurate  words.  He  condemnea 
[onothelitism  by  anticipation.  His  style  is  careful, 
with  metrical  cadences.  Its  majestic  rh^hms  and 
its  sonorous  closes  have  invested  the  Latm  language 
with  a  new  splendour  and  dignity. 

E.  (1)  In  the  sixth  century  the  large  correspondence 
of  Pope  Honnisdas  is  of  the  highest  interest.  That 
century  closes  with  St.  Gregory  tne  Great,  whose  cele- 
brated ''Registrum"exceeds  in  volume  many  times  over 
the  collections  of  the  letters  of  other  early  popes.  The 
Epistles  are  of  great  variety  and  throw  hght  on  the 
varied  interests  of  the  ereat  pope's  life  and  the  vcLried 
events  in  the  East  and  West  of  his  time.  His  "  Morals 
on  the  Book  of  Job"  is  not  a  literal  commentary,  but 
pretends  only  to  illustrate  the  moral  sense  underlsring 
the  text.  With  all  the  strangeness  it  presents  to  mod- 
em notions,  it  is  a  work  fuU  of  wisdom  and  instruction. 
The  remarks  of  St.  Gregory  on  the  spiritual  life  and  on 
contemplation  are  of  special  interest.  Aa  a  theolo- 
gian he  IS  original  only  in  that  he  combines  all  the  tra- 
ditional theolo^  of  the  West  without  adding  to  it. 
He  commonly  Tollows  Augustine  as  a  theologian,  a 
commentator  and  a  preacner.  His  sermons  are  ad- 
mirably practical;  they  are  models  of  what  a  good 
sermon  should  be.  After  St.  Gregory  there  are  some 
ereat  popes  whose  letters  are  worthy  of  study,  such  as 
Nicholas  I  and  John  VIII;  but  these  and  the  many 
other  late  writers  of  the  West  belone  properly  to  the 
medieval  period,  St.  Gregory  of  Tours  is  certainly 
medieval,  out  the  learned  Bede  is  quite  patristic.  His 
great  history  is  the  most  faithful  and  perfect  history  to 
be  found  in  the  early  centuries.  (2)  In  the  East,  the 
latter  half  of  the  fifth  century  is  very  barren.  The 
sixth  century  is  not  much  better.  The  importance  of 
Leontius  of  Bvsantium  (died  c.  543)  for  the  history  of 
dogma  has  only  lately  been  realized.  Poets  and  hagi- 
ographers,  chroniclers,  canonists,  and  ascetical  writers 
succeed  each  other.  Cateme  bv  way  of  commentaries 
are  the  order  of  the  dajr.  St.  Maximus  Confessor,  An- 
astasius  of  Mount  Sinai,  and  Andrew  of  Caesarea  must 
be  named.  The  first  of  these  commented  on  the 
works  of  the  pseudo-Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  which 
had  probably  first  seen  the  li^t  towards  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century.  St.  John  of  Damascus  (c.  750)  closes 
the  patristic  period  with  his  polemics  against  heresies, 
his  exegetical  and  ascetical  writing,  his  beautiful 
hymns,  and  above  all  his  "Fountam  of  Wisdom ", 
which  is  a  compendium  of  patristic  theolo^  and  a 
kind  of  anticipation  of  scholasticism.  Indeed,  the 
''Summse  Theologicse"  of  the  Middle  Ages  were 
founded  on  the  ''Sentences"  of  Peter  Lombard,  who 
had  taken  the  skeleton  of  his  work  from  this  last  of  the 
Greek  Fathers. 

Characteristics  op  Patristic  Writings. — (a) 
CommerUariea, — It  has  been  seen  that  the  literal  school 
oi  exegesis  had  its  home  at  Antioch,  while  the  allegori- 
cal school  was  Alexandrian,  and  the  entire  West,  on 
the  whole,  followed  the  allegorical  method,  mingling 
literalism  with  it  in  various  degrees.  The  suspicion  of 
Arianism  has  lost  to  us  the  fourth-century  writers  of 
the  Antiochene  school,  such  as  Theodore  of  Heraclea 
and  Eusebius  of  Emesa,  and  the  charge  of  Nestorianism 
has  caused  the  commentaries  of  Diodorus  and  Theo- 
dore of  Mopsuestia  (for  the  most  part)  to  disappear. 
The  Alexandrian  school  has  lost  yet  more  heavily,  for 
little  of  the  great  Origen  remains  except  in  fragments 


and  in  unreliable  versions.  The  great  Antiochenes, 
Chrysostom  and  Theodoret,  have  a  real  grasp  of  the 
sense  of  the  sacred  text.  They  treat  it  with  reverence 
and  love,  and  their  explanations  are  of  deep  value,  be- 
cause the  language-  of  the  New  Testament  was  theil 
own  tongue,  so  that  we  modems  cannot  afford  to 
neglect  their  comments.  On  the  contrary,  Origen, 
the  moulder  of  the  allegorising  type  of  commentary, 
who  had  inherited  the  Philonic  tradition  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Jews,  was  essentially  irreverent  to  the  in- 
spired authors.  The  Old  Testament  was  to  him  full 
of  errors,  Hes,  and  blasphemies,  so  far  as  the  letter  was 
concerned,  and  his  defence  of  it  against  the  pagans, 
the  Gnostics,  and  especially  the  MarcioniteSj  was  to 

Soint  only  to  the  spiritual  meaning.  Theoretically  he 
istinguished  a  triple  sense,  the  somatic,  the  psychic, 
and  the  pneumatic,  following  St.  Paul's  trichotomy; 
but  in  practice  he  mainly  gives  the  spiritual,  as  op- 
posed to  the  corporal  or  hteral. 

St.  Augustine  sometimes  defends  the  Old  Testa- 
ment against  the  Manichasans  in  the  same  style,  and 
occasionally  in  a  most  unconvincing  manner,  but  with 
great  moderation  and  restraint.  In  his  "De  Genesi 
ad  litteram"  he  has  evolved  a  far  more  effective 
method,  with  his  usual  brilliant  ori^ality,  and  he 
shows  tnat  the  objections  brought  against  the  truth  of 
the  first  chapters  of  the  book  invariably  rest  upon  the 
baseless  assumption  that  the  objector  has  found  the 
true  meaning  of  the  text.  But  Orieen  applied  his 
method,  thoi^  partially,  even  to  the  New  Testament, 
and  regarded  the  Evangelists  as  sometimes  false  in  the 
letter,  but  as  saving  the  truth  in  the  hidden  spiritual 
meaning.  In  this  point  the  good  feeling  of  Christians 
prevented  his  being  followeo.  But  the  brilliant  ex- 
ample he  gave,  of  running  riot  in  the  fantastic  exeg^ds 
which  his  metnod  encouraged,  had  an  unfortunate  in- 
fluence. He  is  fond  of  giving  a  variety  of  applications 
to  a  single  text,  and  his  promise  to  hold  nothing  but 
what  can  be  proved  from  Scripture  becomes  illusory 
when  he  shows  b^  example  that  any  part  of  Scripture 
mav  mean  anything  he  pleases.  The  reverent  temper 
of  later  writers,  and  especially  of  the  Westerns,  pre- 
ferred to  represent  as  tne  true  meaning  of  the  sacred 
writer  the  allegoiy  which  appeared  to  them  to  be  the 
most  obvious.  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine  in 
their  beautiful  works  on  the  Psalms  rather  spiritual- 
ize, or  moralize,  than  allegorize,  and  their  imaginative 
interpretations  are  chiefly  of  events^  actions,  num- 
bers, etc.  But  almost  all  allegorical  interpretation  is 
so  arbitrary  and  depends  so  much  on  the  caprice  of 
the  exegete  that  it  is  difficult  to  conciliate  it  with  rev- 
erence, however  one  may  be  dazzled  bv  the  beauty  of 
much  of  it.  An  alternative  way  of  defending  the  Old 
Testament  was  exco^tated  by  the  ingenious  author  of 
the  pseudo-Clementines;  he  asserts  that  it  has  been 
depraved  and  interpolated.  St.  Jerome's  learning 
has  made  his  exegesis  uniaue;  he  frequently  gives  al- 
ternative explanations  ana  refers  to  the  authors  who 
have  adopted  them.  From  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century  onwards,  second-hand  commentaries  are  uni- 
versal in  East  and  West,  and  originality  almost  en- 
tirely disappears.  Andrew  of  Cssarea  is  perhaps  an 
exception,  tor  he  commented  on  a  book  which  was 
scarcely  at  all  read  in  the  East,  the  Apocalypse. 

Discussions  of  method  are  not  wanting.  Clement 
of  Alexandria  gives  "traditional  methods",  the  lit- 
eralj  typical,  moral,  and  prophetical.  The  tradition  is 
obviously  from  Rabbimsm.  We  must  admit  that  it 
has  in  its  favour  the  practice  of  St.  Matthew  and 
St.  Paul.  Even  more  than  Origen,  St.  Augustine 
theorized  on  this  subject.  In  his  "De  Doctrina 
Christiana  "  he  gives  elaborate  rules  of  exe^is.  Else- 
where he  distinguishes  four  senses  of  Scripture:  his- 
torical, etiological  (economic),  analogical  (where  N. 
T.  explains  O.T.),  and  allegorical  ("De  Util.  Cred.", 
3;  cf.  "De  Vera  Rel.",  50).  The  book  of  rules  com- 
posed by  the  Donatist  Tichonius  has  an  analog  in  the 


11 


nmUer  ''canons"  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  by  Priscillian. 
Hadrian  ol  Antioch  was  mentioned  above.  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  compares  Scripture  to  a  river  so 
shallow  that  a  lamb  can  walk  in  it,  so  deep  that  an 
elephant  can  float.  (Pref .  to  "  Morals  on  Job  ") .  He 
distingidshes  the  historical  or  literal  sense,  the  moral, 
and  me  allegorical  or  typical.  If  the  Western 
Fathers  are  f ancif uL  yet  tnis  is  better  than  the  ex- 
treme litoiUism  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  who  ro- 
fused  to  all^orise  even  the  Canticle  of  Canticles. 

(b)  Preachers, — ^We  have  sermons  from  the  Greek 
Church  much  earlier  than  from  the  Latin.  Indeed, 
ScKBomen  tells  us  that,  up  to  his  time  (c.  450),  there 
were  no  public  sermons  in  the  churches  at  Rome. 
This  seems  almost  incredible.  St.  Leo's  sermons  are, 
however,  the  first  sermons  certainly  preached  at 
Rome  wnich  (lave  reached  us,  for  those  ot  Hippolytus 
were  all  in  Greek;  unless  the  homily  "  Ad  versus  Alea- 
tores"  be  a  sermon  by  a  Novatian  antipope.  The 
series  of  Latin  preachers  begins  in  the  midole  of  the 
fourth  century.  The  so-ctdled  "Second  Epistle  6f 
St.  Clement"  is  a  homily  belonging  possibly  to  the 
second  century.  Many  of  the  commentaries  of  Origen 
are  a  series  of  sermons,  as  is  the  case  later  with  all 
Chrysostom's  commentaries  and  most  of  Augustine's. 
In  many  cases  treatises  are  composed  of  a  course  of 
sermons,  as,  for  instance,  is  the  case  for  tome  of  those 
of  Ambrose,  who  seems  to  have  rewritten  his  sermons 
after  delivery.  The  "  De  Sacramentis"  mav  possibly 
be  the  version  bv  a  shorthand-writer  of  tne  course 
which  the  saint  himself  edited  under  the  title  ''De 
Mysteriis".  In  any  case  the  ''De  Sacramentis" 
(whether  by  Ambrose  or  not)  has  a  freshness  and 
naiveU  which  is  wanting  in  the  certainly  authentic 
"De  Mysteriis".  Similarly  the  great  courses  of  ser- 
mons preached  by  St.  Chrysostom  at  Antioch  were 
evidently  written  or  corrected  by  his  own  hand,  but 
those  he  delivered  at  Constantinople  were  either  hur- 
riedly corrected,  or  not  at  all.  His  sermons  on 
Acts,  which  have  come  down  to  us  in  two  quite  dLsh 
tinct  texts  in  the  MSS.,  are  probably  known  to  us  only 
in  the  forms  in  which  they  were  taken  down  by 
two  different  tachy^phers.  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen 
complains  of  the  importunity  of  these  shorthand- 
writers  (Orat.  xxxii),  as  St.  Jerome  does  of  their  in- 
capacity (Ep.  Ixxi,  5).  Their  art  was  evidently 
highly  perfected,  and  specimens  of  it  have  come  down 
to  us.  They  were  officially  employed  at  councils  (e.  g. 
at  the  ^reat  conference  with  the  Donatists  at  Car- 
thage, m  411,  we  hear  of  them).  It  appears  that 
niany  or  most  of  the  bishops  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus, 
in  449,  had  their  own  shorthand-writers  with  them. 
The  method  of  taking  notes  and  of  amplifying  re- 
ceives nilustration  from  the  Acts  of  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  of  27  April.  449,  at  which  the  min- 
utes were  examined  which  nad  been  taken  down  by 
tachygraphers  at  the  council  held  a  few  weeks  earlier. 

Ifany  of  St.  Augustine's  sermons  are  certainly  from 
shorthand  notes.  As  to  others  we  are  uncertain,  for 
the  style  of  the  written  ones  is  often  so  colloquial  that 
it  is  difficult  to  get  a  criterion.  -  The  sermons  of  St. 
Jerome  at  Bethlehem,  published  by  Dom  Morin,  are 
from  shorthand  reports,  and  the  discourses  themselves 
were  unprepa^  conferences  on  those  portions  of  the 
Psalms  or  of  the  Gospels  which  had  been  sung  in  the 
liturgy.  The  speaker  has  clearly  often  been  preened 
by  another  priest,  and  on  the  Western  Christmas  Day, 
which  his  community  alone  is  keeping,  the  bishop  is 

5 resent  and  will  speak  last.  In  fact  the  pilgrim 
Stheria  tells  us  that  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tunr,  all  the  priests  present  spoke  in  turn,  if  they  chose, 
ana  the  bishop  last  of  all.  Such  improvised  com- 
ments are  far  indeed  from  the  oratorical  discourses  of 
St.  Gregory  Naziansen,  from  the  lofty  flights  of  Clirysos- 
tom,  from  the  torrent  of  iteration  that  characterizes 
the  short  sermons  of  Peter  Chrysologus,  from  the  neat 
phrases  of  Maximus  of  Turin,  and  the  ponderous 


ihythms  of  Leo  the  Great.  The  eloquence  of  these 
Fathers  need  not  be  here  described.  In  the  West  we 
may  add  in  the  fourth  century  Gaudentius  of  Brescia; 
several  small  collections  of  interesting  sermons  appear 
in  the  fifth  century;  the  sixth  opens  with  the  numer- 
ous collections  made  by  St.  Csesarius  for  the  use  of 
preachers.  There  is  practically  no  edition  of  the 
works  of  this  eminent  and  practical  bishop.  St. 
Gregory  (apart  from  some  fanciful  exegesis)  is  the 
most  practical  preacher  of  the  West.  Nothing  could 
be  more  admirskble  for  imitation  than  St.  Chrysostom. 
The  more  ornate  writers  are  less  safe  to  copy.  St.  Au- 
gustine's stvle  is  too  personal  to  be  an  example,  and 
few  are  so  learned,  so  great,  and  so  ready,  that  they 
can  venture  to  speak  as  simply  as  he  often  does. 

(c)  TTriters.— The  Fathers  do  not  beloi^  to  the 
strictly  classical  period  of  either  the  Greex  or  the 
Latin  language;  but  this  does  not  imply  that  they 
wrote  bad  Latin  or  Greek.  The  conversational  form 
of  the  Koiri  or  common  dialect  of  Greek,  which  is 
foimd  in  the  New  Testament  and  in  many  papyri,  is 
not  the  language  of  the  Fathers,  except  of  the  very 
earliest.  For  the  Greek  Fathers  write  m  a  more  clas- 
sicizing stvle  than  most  of  the  New  Testament  writers : 
none  of  them  uses  quite  a  vulgar  or  ungrammatical 
Greek,  while  some  Atticize,  e.  g.  the  Cappadocians  and 
Synesius.  The  Latin  Fathers  are  often  less  classical. 
Tertullian  is  a  Latin  Carlyle;  he  knew  Greek,  and 
wrote  books  in  that  language^  and  tried  to  introduce 
ecclesiastical  terms  into  Latin.  St.  Cyprian's  "Ad 
Donatum",  probably  his  first  Christian  writixig,  shows 
an  Apuleian  preciosity  which  he  eschewed  in  all  his 
other  works,  but  whicn  his  biographer  Pontius  has  imi- 
tated and  exaggerated.  Men  like  Jerome  and  Augus* 
tine,  who  had  a  thorough  knowledge  of  classical  litera- 
ture, would  not  employ  tricks  of  style,  and  cultivated 
a  manner  which  should  be  correct,  out  simple  and 
straightforward;  yet  their  style  could  not  have  been 
what  it  was  but  for  their  previous  study.  For  the 
spoken  Latin  of  all  the  patristic  centuries  was  very 
different  from  the  written.  We  get  examples  of  the 
vulgar  tongue  here  and  there  in  the  letters  of  Pope 
Cornelius  as  edited  by  Mercati,  for  the  third  century, 
or  in  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  in  W5lfflin's  or  Dom 
Morin's  editions,  for  the  sixth.  In  the  latter  we  get 
such  modemlBms  as  cor  murmuranUm,  post  guibus, 
cum  responsoria  sua,  which  show  how  the  confusing 
^nders  and  cases  of  the  classics  were  disappearing 
into  the  more  reasonable  simplicity  of  Italian.  Some 
of  the  Fathers  use  the  rhythmical  endings  of  the  "  cur- 
sus"  in  their  prose;  some  have  the  later  accented 
endings  which  were  corruptions  of  the  correct  proso- 
dical  ones.  Familiar  examples  of  the  former  are  in 
the  older  Collects  of  the  Mass;  of  the  latter  the  Te 
Deum  is  an  obvious  instance. 

(d)  East  and  West, — Before  speaking  of  the  theologi- 
cal characteristics  of  the  Fatners,  we  have  to  tske 
into  account  the  great  division  of  the  Roman  Empire 
into  two  languages.  Language  is  the  great  separator. 
When  two  emperors  divided  the  Empire,  it  was  not 
quite  according  to  language;  nor  were  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal divisions  more  exact,  since  the  great  nrovince  of 
Illyricura,  including  Macedonia  ana  all  Greece,  was 
attached  to  the  W^  through  at  least  a  large  part  of 
the  patristic  period^  and  was  governed  by  the  arch- 
bishop of  Th^salomca,  not  as  its  exarch  or  patriarch, 
but  as  papal  legate.  But  in  considering  the  literary 
productions  of  the  age,  we  must  class  them  as  Latin 
or  Greek,  and  this  is  wnat  will  be  meant  here  by  West- 
em  and  Eastern.  The  understanding  of  the  relations 
between  Greeks  and  Latins  is  often  obscured  by  cer- 
tain prepossessions.  We  talk  of  the  "unchanging 
East  ,  of  the  philosophical  Greeks  as  opposed  to  the 
practical  Romans,  of  the  reposeful  thought  of  the 
Oriental  mind  over  against  the  rapidity  and  orderiy 
classification  which  characterizes  Western  intelligence. 
All  this  is  very  misleading,  and  it  is  important  to  go 


12 


back  to  the  facts.  In  the  first  place,  the  East  was 
converted  far  more  ra[>idly  than  the  West.  When 
Gonstantine  made  Christianitv  the  established  re- 
ligion of  both  empires  from  323  onwards^  there  was  a 
striking  contrast  between  the  two.  In  the  West 
paganism  had  everywhere  a  very  laige  majoritv. 
except  possibly  in  Africa.  But  in  the  Greek  wond 
Christianity  was  quite  the  equal  of  the  old  reli- 
gions in  influence  and  numbers;  in  the  great  cities  it 
might  even  be  predominant,  and  some  towns  were 
practically  Christian.  The  stoiy  told  of  St.  Gregory 
the  Wonder- Worker,  that  he  found  but  seventeen 
Christians  in  Neocaesarea  when  he  became  bishop,  and 
that  he  left  but  seventeen  panms  in  the  same  city 
when  he  died  (c.  270-5),  must  l)e  substantially  true. 
Such  a  story  in  the  West  would  be  absurd.  The 
villages  of  the  Latin  countries  held  out  for  long,  and 
the  pagani  retained  the  worship  of  the  ola  pods 
even  alter  they  were  all  nominally  Christianised. 
In  Phrygia,  on  the  contrary,  entire  viUa^  were 
Christian  long  before  Constantine,  though  it  is  true 
that  elsewhere  some  towns  were  still  heathen  in  Ju- 
lian's day — Gaza  in  Palestine  is  an  exaxnple;  but  then 
Maiouma,  the  port  of  Gaza,  was  Christian. 

Two  consequences,  amongst  others,  of  this  swift 
evangelization  of  the  Elast  must  be  noticed.  In  the 
first  place,  while  the  slow  progress  of  the  West  was 
favourable  to  the  preservation  of  the  unchanged  tra- 
dition, the  quick  conversion  of  the  East  was  accom- 
panied by  a  rapid  development  which,  in  the  sphere 
of  dogma,  was  nasty,  unec^ual,  and  fruitful  of  error. 
Secondly^  the  Eastern  religion  partook,  even  during 
the  heroic  age  of  persecution,  of  the  evil  which  the 
West  felt  so  deeply  after  Constantine,  that  is  to  say, 
of  the  crowding  into  the  Chureh  of  multitudes  who 
were  only  half  Christianized,  because  it  was  the  fash- 
ionable ming  to  do,  or  because  a  part  of  the  beautks 
of  the  new  religion  and  of  the  abisurdities  of  the  old 
were  seen.  We  have  actually  Christian  writers,  in 
East  and  West,  such  as  Arnobius,  and  to  some  extent 
Lactantius  and  Julius  Africanus,  who  show  that  they 
are  only  half  instructed  in  the  Faith.  This  must  have 
been  lai^ly  the  case  among  the  people  in  the  East. 
Tradition  in  the  East  was  less  r^rded,  and  faith  was 
less  deep  than  in  the  smaller  Western  communities. 
Again^  the  Latin  writers  begin  in  Africa  with  Tertul- 
lian,  just  before  the  third  century,  at  Rome  with 
Novatian,  just  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  and 
in  Spain  and  Gaul  not  till  the  fourth.  But  the  Elast 
had  writers  in  the  first  century,  and  numbers  in  the 
second;  there  were  Gnostic  and  Christian  schools  in 
the  second  and  third.  There  had  been,  indeed^  Greek 
writers  at  Rome  in  the  first  and  second  centuries  and 
part  of  the  third.  But  when  the  Roman  Chureh  be- 
came Latin  they  were  forgotten;  the  Latin  writers 
did  not  cite  Clement  and  Hennas;  they  totally  forgot 
Hippolytus,  except  his  chronicle,  and  his  name  became 
merely  a  theme  for  legend. 

Though  Rome  was  powerful  and  venerated  in  the 
second  century,  and  though  her  tradition  remained 
unbroken,  the  break  in  her  literature  is  complete. 
Latin  literature  is  thus  a  century  and  a  half  youn^ 
than  the  Greek;  indeed  it  is  practically  two  centuries 
and  a  half  yoim^.  Tertullian  stands  alone,  and  he 
became  a  heretic.  Until  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century  there  had  appeared  but  one  Latin  Father  for 
the  spiritual  reading  of  the  educated  Latin  Christian, 
and  it  is  natural  that  the  sUchometry.  edited  (perhaps 
semi-officially)  under  Pope  Liberius  for  the  control  of 
booksellers'  prices,  gives  the  works  of  St.  Cyprian  as 
well  as  the  books  of  the  Latin  Bible.  This  tmique 
position  of  St.  Cyprian  was  still  recognized  at  the 
besnning  of  the  fifth  century.  From  Cj^rian  (d.  258) 
to  Hilary  there  was  scarcely  a  Latin  book  that  could 
be  recommended  for  popular  reading  except  Lactan- 
tius's  "  De  mortibus  pereecutorum",  and  there  was  no 
theology  at  all.   Even  a  little  later,  the  commentaries 


of  Victorinus  the  Rhetorician  were  valueless,  and 
those  of  Isaac  the  Jew  (7)  were  odd.  The  one  vigorous 
period  of  Latin  literature  is  the  bare  century  which 
ends  with  Leo  (d.  461).  During  that  century  Rome 
had  been  repeatedly  captured  or  threatened  liy  bar- 
barians; Anan  Vandals,  besides  devastating  Italy 
and  Gaul,  had  almost  destroyed  the  Catholicism  of 
Spain  and  Africa;  the  Christian  British  had  beeoi 
murdered  in  the  English  invasion.  Yet  the  West  had 
been  able  to  rival  the  East  in  output  and  in  eloquence, 
and  even  to  surpass  it  in  learning,  depth,  and  variety. 
The  elder  sister  knew  little  of  these  productions,  but 
the  West  was  supplied  with  a  considerable  body  of 
translations  from  the  Greek,  even  in  the  fourth  century. 
In  the  sixth,  Cassiodorus  took  care  that  the  amount 
should  be  increased.  This  gave  the  Latins  a  larger 
outlook,  and  even  the  decay  oi  leamine  which  Cassi- 
odorus and  Aeapetus  coula  not  remedy,  and  which 
Pope  Ag^tho  deplored  so  humbly  in  his  letter  to  the 
Greek  council  fA  680,  waa  reststed  with  a  certain  per- 
sistent vigour. 

At  Constantinople  the  means  of  learning  were 
abundant,  and  there  were  many  authore;  yet  there 
is  a  gradual  decline  till  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
more  notable  writera  are  like  flickere  amid  dying 
embere.  There  were  chroniclers  and  chronographers, 
but  with  little  originality.  Even  the  monastery  of 
Studium  is  hardly  a  literary  revival.  There  is  in  the 
East  np  enthusiasm  like  that  ctf  Cassiodorus,  of  Isidore, 
of  Alcuin,  amid  a  barbarian  world.  Photius  had 
wonderful  libraries  at  his  disposal,  yet  Bede  had  wider 
learning,  and  probably  knew  more  of  the  East  than 
Photius  did  of  the -West.  The  industrious  Irish 
schools  which  propagated  learning  in  every  part  of 
Europe  had  no  parallel  in  the  Oriental  world.  It  was 
after  the  fifth  century  that  the  East  b^n  to  be 
"  unchanging  "•  And  as  the  bond  with  the  West  grew 
less  and  less  continuous,  her  theology  and  literature 
became  more  and  more  mummified;  whereas  the 
lAtin  world  blossomed  anew  with  an  Anselm,  subtle 
as  Augustine,  a  Bernard^  rival  to  Chrysostom,  an 
Aquinas,  prince  of  theologians.  Hence  we  observe  in 
the  early  centuries  a  twofold  movement,  which  must 
be  spoken  of  separately:  an  Eastward  movement ^of 
theology,  by  which  the  West  imposed  her  dogmas  on 
the  reluctant  East,  and  a  Westward  movement  in 
most  practical  things^-organization,  liturgy,  as- 
cetics, devotion — ^by  which  the  West  assimilated  the 
swifter  evolution  of  the  Greeks.  We  take  first  the 
theological  movement. 

(e)  Theology. — ^Throughout  the  second  century  the 
Greek  portion  of  Christendom  bred  heresies.  The 
multitude  of  Gnostic  schools  tried  to  introduce  all 
kinds  of  foreign  elements  into  Christianity.  Those 
who  taught  and  believed  them  did  not  start  from  a 
belief  in  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation  such  as  we 
are  accustomed  to.  Mareion  formed .  not  a  school,  but 
a  Chureh;  his  Christology  was  very  far  removed  from 
tradition.  The  Montanists  made  a  schism  which  re- 
tained the  traditional  beliefs  and  practices,  but  asserted 
a  new  revelation.  The  leaden  of  all  the  new  views 
came  to  Rome,  and  tried  to  gain  a  footing  there;  all 
were  condemned  and  excommunicated.  At  the  end  of 
the  century,  Rome  got  all  the  East  to  agree  with  her 
traditional  rule  that  Easter  should  be  kept  on  Sunday. 
The  Churches  of  Asia  Minor  had  a  different  custom. 
One  of  their  bishops  protested.  But  they  seem  to 
have  submitted  almost  at  once.  In  the  first  decades 
of  the  third  century,  Rome  impartially  repelled 
opposing  heresies,  those  which  identified  the  three 
Persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity  with  only  a  modal  distinc- 
tion (Monarehians,  Sabelhans,  "Patripassians"),  and 
those  who,  on  the  contraiy,  made  Chnst  a  mere  man, 
or  seemed  to  ascribe  to  the  Word  of  God  a  distinct 
being  from  that  of  the  Father.  This  last  conception, 
to  our  amazement,  is  assumed,  it  would  appear,  by 
the  early  Greek  apologists,  thoughin  varying  language; 


FATHEBa 


13 


FATHEBS 


Athenagoras  (who  aa  an  Athenian  may  have  been  in 
relation  with  the  West)  is^he  only  one  who  asserts 
the  Unit]^  of  the  Trinity.  Hippolytus  (somewhat 
diversely  in  the  "Contra  Noetum'' and  in  the  'Thilo- 
sophmnena,"  if  they  are  both  his)  taught  the  same 
divisicm  of  the  Son  from  the  Father  as  traditional, 
and  he  records  that  Pope  Callistus  condenmed  him 
as  a  Ditheist. 

Origen.  like  many  of  the  others,  makes  the  pro- 
cession of  the  Word  depend  upon  His  office  ol  Creator; 
and  if  he  is  orthodox  enough  to  make  the  procession 
an  eternal  and  necessary  one,  this  is  only  because  he 
regurds  Creation  itself  as  necessary  and  eternal.  His 
pupil,  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  in  combatinj;  the 
saoeUians,  who  admitted  no  real  distinctions  m  the 
Godhead,  manifested  the  characteristic  weakness  of 
the  Greek  thec^ogy,  but  some  of  his  own  Egyptians 
were  miore  correct  than  their  patriarch,  and  appealed 
to  Rome.  The  Alexandrian  listened  to  the  Koman 
Dionjnsius,  for  all  respected  the  unchanging  tradition 
and  unblemished  orthodoxy  of  the  See  of  Peter;  his 
apolopy  accepts  the  word  "consiibetantial",  and  he 
explams,  no  doubt  sincere!  v,  that  he  had  never  meant 
anything  else;  but  he  had,  learnt  to  see  more  clearly, 
without  recognising  how  unfortunately  worded  were 
his  earlier  arguments.  He  was  not  present  when  a 
council,  mainly  of  Origenists,  justly  condemned  Paul 
of  Samosata  (268);  and  these  bishops,  holding  the 
traditional  Elastem  view^  refused  to  use  the  word 
"consubstantial"  as  bemg  too  like  SabeUianism. 
The  Arians,  disciples  of  Lucian,  rejected  (as  did  the 
more  moderate  Eusebius  of  Csesarea)  the  eternity  of 
Creation,  and  they  weie  logical  enough  to  argue  that 
consequently  "  there  was  (before  time  was)  when  the 
Word  was  not",  and  that  He  was  a  creature.  All 
Christendom  was  horrified;  but  the  East  was  soon 
appeased  by  vague  explanations,  and  after  Niciea, 
real,  undisguised  Arianism  hardly  showed  its  head  for 
nearly  forty  years.  The  highest  point  of  orthodoinr 
that  the  East  could  reach  is  shown  in  the  admirable 
lectures  oi  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem.  There  is  one  God, 
he  teaches,  that  is  the  Father,  and  His  Son  is  equal  to 
Him  in  all  things,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  is  adored  with 
Them;  we  cannot  separate  Them  in  our  worship.  But 
he  does  not  ask  himself  how  there  are  not  three  Gods; 
he  will  not  use  the  Nicene  word  "  consubstantial ",  and 
he  never  susKests  that  there  is  one  Godhead  common 
to  the  three  Persons. 

If  we  turn  to  the  Latins  all  is  different.  The  essen- 
tial Monotheism  of  Christianity  is  not  saved  in  the 
West  by  saying  there  is  ''one  God  the  Father",  as 
in  all  the  EJastem  creeds,  but  the  theologians  teach 
the  tmity  of  the  Divine  essence,  in  which  subsist  three 
Persons.  If  Tertullian  and  Novatian  use  subordi- 
nationist  language  of  the  Son  (perhaps  borrowed  from 
the  East),  it  is  of  little  consequence  in  comparison 
with  their  main  doctrine,  that  there  is  one  substance 
of  the  Father  and  of  ^the  Son.  Callistus  excommuni- 
cates equally  those  who  deny  the  distinction  of 
Persons,  and  those  who  refuse  to  assert  the  unity  oi 
substance.  Pope  Dionymus  is  shocked  that  his  name- 
sake did  not  use  the  word  "consubstanti^" — ^this  is 
more  than  sixty  years  before  Nicsea.  At  that  great 
council  a  Western  bishop  has  the  first  place,  with  two 
Roman  priests,  and  the  result  of  the  discussion  is 
that  the  Roman  word  "consubstantial"  is  imposed 
upon  an.  In  the  East  the  coimcil  is  succeeded  by  a 
comroiracy  of  silence;  the  Orientals  will  not  use  the 
word.  Even  Alexandna,  which  had  kept  to  the  doc- 
trine of  Dionysius  of  Rome,  is  not  convmced  that  the 
polie^  was  eopd,  and  Athanasius  spends  his  life  in 
fighting  for  Nic«a,  yet  rarelv  uses  the  crucial  word. 
It  takes  half  a  century  for  the  Easterns  to  digest  it: 
and  when  they  do  so,  they  do  not  make  the  most  or 
its  meaning.  It  is  curious  how  little  interest  even 
Athanaaiufl  shows  in  the  Unity  of  the  Trinity,  which 
he  icareely  mentions  except  when  quoting  tne  Dio- 


nysii;  it  isDidymus  and  the  Cappadodans  who  word 
Trinitarian  doctrine  in  the  manner  since  consecrated 
by  the  centuries — three  hypostases,  one  usia;  but 
this  is  merely  the  conventional  translation  ol  the 
ancient  Latin  formula,  though  it  was  new  to  the  East. 

If  we  look  back  at  tne  three  centuries,  second,  third, 
and  fourth,  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  we  shall 
see  that  the  Greek-Gpeaking  Church  taught  the  Divin- 
ity of  the  Son,  and  Tnree  inseparable  Persons,  and  one 
God  the  Father,  without  being  able  philosophicallv  to 
harmonise  these  conceptions.  The  attempts  which 
were  made  were  sometunes  condemned  as  heresv  in 
the  one  direction  or  the  oiher,  or  at  best  arrived  at 
unsatLsfactory  and  erroneous  explanations,  such  as  the 
distinction  of  the  A6yos  MABerot  and  the  hinto^ 
rpo^piK^t  or  the  assertion  of  the  eternity  of  Creation. 
Ihe  Latin  Chureh  preserved  always  the  simple  trar 
dition  of  three  distinct  Persons  and  one  divine  Essence. 
We  must  judge  the  Easterns  to  have  started  from  a 
less  perfect  tradition,  for  it  would  be  too  harsh  to 
accuse  them  of  wilfully  perverting  it.  But  they  show 
their  love  of  subtle  distinctions  at  the  same  time  that 
they  lay  bare  their  want  of  philosophical  grasp.  The 
common  people  talked  theoloj^  in  the  streets;  but 
the  professional  theologians  did  not  see  that  the  root 
of  religion  is  the  tmity  of  God,  and  that,  so  far,  it  is 
better  to  be  a  Sabellian  than  a  Semi-Arian.  There  is 
something  mytholo^cal  about  their  conceptions, 
even  in  the  case  of  Ongen,  however  important  a  tninker 
he  may  be  in  comparison  with  other  ancients.  His 
conceptions  of  Christianity  domiziated  the  East  for 
some  time,  but  an  Origenist  Christianity  would  never 
have  influenced  the  modem  worid. 

The  Latin  conception  of  theological  doctrine,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  by  no  means  a  mere  adherence  to 
an  uncomprehended  tradition.  The  Latins  in  each 
controversy  of  these  eariy  centuries  seized  the  main 
point,  and  preserved  it  at  all  hazards.  Never  for  an 
mstant  did  they  allow  the  unity  of  God  to  be  obscured. 
The  equality  of  the  Son  and  his  consubstantiality 
were  seen  to  be  necessary  to  that  imity.  The  Platon- 
ist  idea  of  the  need  of  a  mediator  between  the  trans- 
cendent God  and  Creation  does  not  entan^e  them,  for 
they  were  too  clear-headed  to  suppose  that  tnere 
could  be  anything  half-way  between  tne  finite  and  the 
infinite.  In  a  word,  the  Latins  are  phflosophers,  and 
the  Easterns  are  not.  The  East  can  speculate  and 
wrangle  about  theology,  but  it  cannot  ^rasp  a  laige 
view.  It  is  in  accordance  with  this  that  it  was  in  the 
West,  after  all  the  struggle  was  over,  that  the  Trini- 
tarian doctrine  was  completely  systematized  by 
Augustine;  in  the  West,  that  the  Athanasian  creed 
was  formulated.  The  same  story  repeats  itself  in  the 
fifth  century.  The  philosophical  heresy  of  Pelagius 
arose  in  the  West^^d  in  the  West  only  could  it  have 
been  exoreized.  The  schools  of  Antioch  and  Alexan- 
dria each  insisted  on  one  side  of  the  question  as  to  the 
union  of  the  two  Natures  in  the  Incarnation ;  the  one 
School  fell  into  Nestorianism,  the  other  into  Euty- 
chianism,  though  the  leaders  were  orthodox.  But 
neither  Cyril  nor  the  great  Theodoret  was  able  to 
rise  above  the  controversy,  and  express  the  two 
complementaiy  truths  in  one  consistent  doctrine. 
They  held  what  St.  Leo  held;  but,  omitting  their 
interminable  arauments  and  proofs,  the  Latin  writer 
words  the  true  doctrine  once  for  all,  because  he  sees  it 
philosophically.  No  wonder  that  the  most  popular 
of  the  Eastern  Fathers  has  always  been  untheologi(»kl 
(}hnrsostom,  whereas  the  most  popular  of  the  Western 
Fathers  is  the  philosopher  Augustine.  Whenever 
the  East  was  severed  from  the  West,  it  contributed 
nothing  to  the  elucidation  and' development  of  dogma, 
and  when  united,  its  contribution  was  mostly  to 
make  difficulties  for  the  West  to  unravel. 

But  the  West  has  continued  without  oeasine  its 
work  of  exposition  and  evolution.  After  the  mth 
century  there  is  not  much  development  or  definitkni 


FATHSBS 


U 


FATHERS 


in  the  patristic  period;  the  do^aa  defined  needed 
only  a  reference  to  antiquity.  But  again  and  again 
Rome  had  to  impose  her  dogmas  on  Byzantium — Sl9, 
680,  and  786  are  famous  dates,  when  the  whole  East- 
em  Church  had  to  accept  a  papal  document  for  the 
sake  of  reunion,  and  the  mtervals  between  these  dates 
supply  lesser  instances.  The  Eastern  Church  had 
always  possessed  a  traditional  belief  in  Roman  tra- 
dition and  in  the  duty  of  recourse  to  the  See  of  Peter; 
the  Arians  expressed  it  when  they  wrote  to  Pope  Julius 
to  deprecate  interference — Rome,  thejr  said,  was 
"  the  metropolis  of  the  faith  from  the  beginning".  In 
the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  centuries  the  lesson  had 
been  learnt  thoroughly,  and  the  East  proclaimed 
the  papal  prerogatives,  and  appealed  to  them  with  a 
fervour  which  experience  had  tau^t  to  be  in  place. 
In  sud^  a  sketch  as  this,  all  elements  cannot  be  taken 
into  consideration.  It  is  obvious  that  Eastern  the- 
olo^  had  a  great  and  varied  influence  on  Latin 
Christendom.  But  the  essential  truth  remains  that 
tiie  West  thought  more  clearlv  than  the  East,  while 
preserving  with  greater  faithfulness  a  more  explicit 
tradition  as  to  cardinal  dogmas,  and  that  the  West 
imposed  her  doctrines  and  her  definitions  on  the  East, 
and  repeatedly,  if  necessary,  reasserted  and  reimposed 
them. 

(f)  Discipline^  Liturgy^  Ascetics, — According  to 
tradition,  tne  multiplication  of  bishoprics,  so  that 
each  city  had  its  own  bishop,  b^an  in  tne  province  of 
Asia,  under  the  direction  of  St.  John.  The  develop- 
ment was  imeven.  There  may  have  been  but  one  see 
in  Egypt  at  the  end  of  the  second  century,  though 
there  were  large  numbere  in  all  the  provinces  of  Aiua 
Minor,  and  a  great  many  in  Phoenicia  and  Palestine. 
Groupings  uncter  metropolitan  sees  began  in  that  cen* 
tury  m  the  East,  and  in  the  third  century  this  ormni- 
zation  was  recognized  as  a  matter  of  course.  Over 
metropolitans  are  the  patriarchs.  This  method  of 
groupmg  spread  to  the  West.  At  first  Africa  had  the 
most  numerous  sees;  in  the  middle  of  the  third 
century  there  were  about  a  hundred,  and  they  quickly 
increased  to  more  than  four  times  that  number.  But 
each  province  of  Africa  had  not  a  metropolitan  see; 
only  a  presidency  was  accorded  to  the  senior  bishop, 
except  in  Prooonsularis,  where  Carthage  was  the 
metropolis  of  the  province  and  her  bishop  was  the  fiirst 
of  all  Africa.  His  r^ts  were  undefined,  though  his 
influence  was  great.  But  Rome  was  near,  and  the  pope 
had  certainly  far  more  actual  power,  as  well  as  more 
recognized  ri^t,  than  the  primate;  we  see  this  in 
Tertullian's  time,  and  it  remains  true  in  spite  of  the 
resistance  of  Cyprian.  The  other  countries,  Italy, 
Spain,  Gaul,  were  gradually  organized  according  to 
the  Greek  model,  and  the  Greek  names,  metropolis, 
pa^rtarcA,  were  aaopted.  Councils  were  held  early 
m  liie  West.  But  disciplinary  canons  were  first 
enacted  in  the  East.  St.  Qyprian's  large  councils 
passed  no  canons,  and  that  saint  considered  that  each 
bishop  is  answerable  to  God  alone  for  the  government 
of  his  diocese ;  in  other  words,  he  knows  no  canon  law. 
The  foundation  of  Latin  canon  law  is  in  the  canons  of 
Eastern  coimcils,  which  open  the  Western  collections. 
In  spite  of  this,  we  need  not  suppose  the  East  was 
more  regular,  or  better  governed,  tnan  the  West,  where 
the  popes  guarded  oroer  and  justice.  But  the  East 
had  laj^r  communities,  and  they  had  developed  more 
fully,  and  therefore  the  need  arose  earlier  there  to 
commit  definite  rules  to  writing. 

The  florid  taste  of  the  East  soon  decorated  the 
liturgy  with  beautiful  excrescences.  Many  such  ex- 
cellent practices  moved  Westward;  the  Latin  rites 
boiTOweid  prayers  and  songs^  antiphons,  antiphonal 
singing,  the  use  of  the  alleluia,  of  the  doxok>^,  etc. 
If  the  East  adopted  the  Latin  Christmas  Day,  the 
West  imported  not  merely  the  Greek  Epiphany,  but 
feast  after  feast,  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh 
oenturies.    llie  West  joined  in  devotion  to  Eastern 


martyrs.  The  special  honour  and  love  of  Our  Lady  is 
at  first  characteristic  of  the  East  (except  Antiodi), 
and  then  conquers  the  West.  The  parcelling  of  the 
bodies  of  the  saints  as  relics  for  devotional  purposes, 
spread  all  over  the  West  from  the  East;  only  Rome 
held  out,  until  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great, 
against  what  might  be  thought  an  irreverence  rather 
than  an  honour  to  the  saints .  If  the  first  three  centur- 
ies are  full  of  pilgrimages  to  Rome  from  the  East^et 
from  the  fourtn  century  onward  West  joins  with  Elast 
in  making  Jerusalem  the  principal  goal  of  such  pious 
journeys;  and  these  voyagers  Drought  back  much 
knowledge  of  the  East  to  the  most  distant  parts  of  the 
West.  Monasticism  began  in  Egypt  witn  Paul  and 
Anthony,  and  spread  from  Egypt  to  Syria;  St.  Atha- 
nasius  brought  the  knowledge  of  it  to  the  West,  and 
the  Western  monachism  of  Jerome  and  Augustine,  of 
Honoratus  and  Martin,  of  Benedict  and  Columba, 
always  looked  to  the  East,  to  Anthony  and  Pachomius 
and  Hilarion,  and  above  all  to  Basil,  for  its  most  per- 
fect models.  Edifying  literature  in  the  form  of  the 
lives  of  the  saints  b^LU  with  Athanasius,  and  was 
imitated  by  Jerome.  But  the  Latin  writers,  Rufinus 
and  Cassian,  gave  accounts  of  Eastern  monachism, 
and  Palladius  and  the  later  Greek  writers  were  early 
translated  into  Latin.  Soon  iudeed  there  were  lives 
of  Latin  saints,  of  which  that  of  St.  Martin  was  the 
most  famous,  but  the  year  600  had  almost  come  when 
St.  Gr^^ry  the  Great  felt  it  still  necessary  to  protest 
that  as  good  mi^t  be  found  in  Italy  as  in  Egjypt  and 
Syria,  and  published  his  dialogues  to  prove  his  point, 
by  supplying  edifying  stories  of  his  own  country  to 
put  beside  the  older  histories  o :  the  monks.  It  would 
be  out  of  place  here  to  go  more  into  detail  in  these 
subjects.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  West 
borrowed,  with  open-minded  simplicity  and  humility, 
from  the  elder  East  all  kinds  of  practical  and  useful 
ways  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  m  the  Christian  life. 
The  converse  influence  in  practical  matters  of  West  on 
East  was  naturally  very  small. 

.  (g)  Historical  Materials. — The  principal  ancient 
historians  of  the  patristic  period  were  mentioned 
above.  They  cannot  always  be  completely  trusted. 
The  continuators  of  Eusebius,  that  is,  Rufinus,  So- 
crates, Sozomen,  Theodoret,  are  not  to  be  compared 
to  Eusebius  himself,  for  that  industrious  prelate  has 
fortunately  bequeathed  to  us  rather  a  collection  of 
invaluable  materials  than  a  history.  His  ''Life"  or 
rather  "Panegyric  of  Constantine"  is  less  remarkable 
for  its  contents  than  for  its  politic  omissions.  Euse- 
bius found  his  materials  in  the  library  of  Painphilus 
at  Csesarea,  and  still  more  in  that  left  by  Bishop 
Alexander  at  Jerusalem.  He  cites  earlier  collections 
of  documents,  the  letters  of  Dionysius  of  Corinth. 
Dionysiusof  Alexandria,  Serapion  of  Antioch,  some  of 
the  epistles  sent  to  Pope  Victor  by  councils  through- 
out the  Chureh,  besides  employing  earlier  writers  of 
history  or  memoirs  such  as  rapias,  H^^ippus,  Apol- 
lonius,  an  anonymous  opponent  of  the  Montanists,  the 
**  Little  Labyrinth  "of  Hippolytus  (?),  etc.  TTie  princi- 
pal additions  we  can  still  make  to  these  precious  rem- 
nants are,  first,  St.  Iren£eus  on  the  heresies;  then  the 
works  of  Tertullian,  full  of  valuable  information  about 
the  controversies  of  his  own  time  and  place  and  the 
customs  of  the  Western  Chureh,  and  containing  also 
some  less  valuable  information  about  earlier  matters 
— less  valuable,  because  Tertullian  is  singularly 
careless  and  dencient  in  historical  sense.  Next,  we 
possess  the  correspondence  of  St.  Qyprian,  comprising 
letters  of  African  councils,  of  St.  Cornelius  and  others, 
braides  those  of  the  saint  himself.  To  all  this  frag- 
mentary information  we  can  add  much  from  St.  Epi- 
phanius,  something  from  St.  Jerome  and  also  from 
rhotius  and  Byzantine  chronographers.  The  whole 
Ante-Nicene  evidence  has  been  catalogued  with  won- 
derful industry  by  Hamack,  with  tiie  help  of  Preu- 
Bchen  and  others,  in  a  book  of  1021  pages,  the  fisrt 


FATBXS8 


15 


volume  of  his  invaluable  "  History  of  Early  Christian 
Literature".  In  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  St. 
Epiphanius's  book  on  heresies  is  learned  but  confused; 
it  is  most  annoying  to  think  how  useful  it  would  have 
been  had  its  pious  author  quoted  his  authorities  by 
name,  as  Euseoius  did.  As  it  is,  we  can  with  difficulty, 
if  at  all,  discover  whether  his  sources  are  to  be  depended 
on  or  not.  St.  Jerome's  lives  of  illustrious  men 
are  carelessly  put  together,  mainly  from  Eusebius, 
but  with  adaitional  imormation  of  great  value,  where 
we  can  trust  its  accuracy.  Gennadius  of  Marseilles 
continued  this  work  with  great  profit  to  us.  The 
Western  cataloguers  of  heresies,  such  as  Philastrius, 
,  Prsedestinatus,  and  St.  Augustine,  are  less  useful. 

Collections  of  documents  are  the  most  important 
matter  of  all.  In  the  Arian  controversy  the  oolleo- 
tions  published  by  St.  Athanasius  in  his  apologetic 
works  are  first-rate  authorities.  Of  those  put  together 
by  St.  Hilaiy  only  fragments  survive.  Another  dos- 
sier by  the  Homoiousian  Sabinus,  Bishop  of  Heraclea, 
was  known  to  Socrates,  and  we  can  trace  its  use  by 
him.  A  collection  of  documents  connected  with  the 
origins  of  Donatism  was  made  towards  the  beginning 
of  tne  fourth  century,  and  was  appended  by  St.  Optar 
tus  to  his  great  work.  Unfortunately  only  a  part  is  pre- 
served; but  much  of  the  lost  matter  is  auoted  by 
Optatus  and  Augustine.  A  pupil  of  St.  Augustine, 
Marius  Mercator,  happened  to  be  at  Constantinople 
during  the  Nestorian  controversyi  and  he  formed  an 
interesting  collection  of  pUces  juslificativea.  He  put 
together  a  corresponding  set  of  papers  bearing  on 
the  Pelagian  controversy.  Iren»us,  Bishop  of  "l^i^re, 
amassed  documents  bearine  on  Nesstorianism,  as  a 
brief  in  his  own  defence.  These  have  been  preserved 
to  us  in  the  reply  of  aa  opponent,  who  has  added  a 
zreat  number.  Another  kmd  of  collection  is  that  of 
fetters.  St.  Isidore's  and  St.  Augustine's  are  im- 
mensely numerous,  but  bear  little  upon  history.  There 
is  far  more  historical  matter  in  those  (for  instance)  of 
Ambrose  and  Jerome,  Basil  and  Chrysostom.  Those 
of  the  popes  are  numerous,  and  of  first-rate  value;  and 
the  larse  collections  of  them  also  contain  letters  ad- 
dressed to  the  popes.  The  correspondence  of  Leo  and 
of  Hormisdas  is  very  complete.  Besides  these  collec- 
tions of  papal  letters  and  the  decretals,  we  have  sepa- 
rate collections,  of  which  two  are  important,  the  (3ol- 
lectio  Avellana,  and  that  of  Stephen  of  Larissa. 

Councils  supply  another  great  historical  source, 
lliose  of  Niccea,  Sardica,  Constantinople,  have  left  us 
no  Acts,  only  some  letters  and  canons.  Of  the  later 
oecumenical  councils  we  have  not  only  the^  detailed 
Acts,  but  also  numbers  of  letters  connected  with  them. 
Many  smaller  councils  have  also  been  preserved  in  the 
later  collections;  those  made  by  Ferrandus  of  Car- 
thage and  Dionysius  the  Little  deserve  special  mention. 
In  many  cases  the  Acts  of  one  council  are  preserved 
by  another  at  which  they  were  read.  For  example,  in 
418,  a  Council  of  Carthage  recited  all  the  canons  of 
former  African  plenary  councils  in  the  presence  of  a 
papal  legate;  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  embodies  all 
the  Acts  of  the  first  session  of  the  Robber  Council  of 
Ephesus,  and  the  Acts  of  that  session  contained  the 
Acts  of  two  synods  of  Constantinople.  The  later  ses- 
sions of  the  Robber  Council  (preserved  only  in  Synac) 
contain  a  number  of  documents  concerning  inquiries 
and  trials  of  prelates.  Much  information  of  various 
kinds  has  been  derived  of  late  years  from  Syriac  and 
Coptic  sources,  and  even  from  the  Arabic,  Armenian, 
Persian,  Ethiopic  and  Slavonic.^  It  is  not  necessary  to 
speak  here  of  the  patristic  writings  as  sources  for  our 
koowled^  of  Churoh  organization,  ecclesiastical  geog- 
raphy, litursies,  canon  law  and  procedure,  archsecu- 
o^,  etc.  The  sources  are,  however,  much  the  same 
for  all  these  branches  as  for  history  proper. 

PATRi»nc  Study. — (1)  Editors  of  the  Fathers, — ^The 
earliest  histories  of  patristic  literature  are  those 
contained  in  Eusebius  and  in  Jerome's  ^De  viris 


illustribus".  They  were  followed  by  Gennadius,  who 
continued  Eusebius,  by  St.  Isidore  of  Seville,  and  by 
St.  Ildephonsus  of  Toledo.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
best  known  are  Sigebert  of  the  monastery  of  Gem- 
bloux  (d.  1112),  and  Trithemius,  Abbot  of  Sponheim 
and  of  WQrzbure  (d.  1516).  Betw^n  these  come  an 
anonymous  monk  of  Melk  (Melliceusis,  c.  1135)  and 
Honorius  of  Autun  (1122-5).  Ancient  editors  are  not 
wanting;  for  instance,  many  anonymous  works,  like 
the  Pseudo-Clementines  and  Apostolic  Constitutions, 
have  been  remodelled  more  than  once ;  the  translators 
of  Origen  (Jerome,  Rufinus,  and  unknown  persons) 
cut  out,  altered,  added;  St.  Jerome  published  an 
expurgated  edition  of  Victorinus  "On  the  Apoca- 
lypse'.  Pamphilus  made  a  list  of  Origen's  writings, 
and  Possidlus  did  the  same  for  those  of  Augiistine. 

The  great  editions  of  the  Fathers  began  when  printing 
had  become  common.  One  of  the  earliest  editors  was 
Faber  Stapulensis  (Lefdvre  d'Estaples),  whose  edition 
of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  was  published  in  1498. 
The  Belgian  Pamdle  (1536^87)published  much.  The 
controversialist  Feuaident,  a  Franciscan  (1539-1610) 
did  some  good  editing.  The  sixteenth  century  pro- 
duced gigantic  works  of  history.  The  Protestant 
''Centuriators"  of  Magdeburg  described  thirteen 
centuries  in  as  many  volumes  (1559-74).  Cardinal 
Baronius  (1538-1607)  replied  with  his  famous  "  Annar 
les  Ecclesiastici",  reachine  to  the  year  1198  (12  vols., 
1588-1607).  Marguerin  de  la  Bigne,  a  doctor  of  the 
Sorbonne  (1546-§9),  published  his  ''Bibliotheca 
yeterum  Patrum"  (9  vols.,  1577-9)  to  assist  in  refut- 
ing the  Centuriators. 

The  great  Jesuit  editors  were  almost  in  the  seven- 
teenth century;  Gretserus  (1562-1625),  Fronto  Du- 
c«us  (Fronton  du  Due,  155^1624).  Andreas  Schott 
(1552-1629),were  diligent  editors  of  tne  Greek  Fathers. 
The  celebrated  Sirmond  (1559^1651)  continued  to 
publish  Greek  Fathers  and  councils  and  much  else, 
from  the  age  of  51  to  92.  Denis  Petau  (Petavius, 
1583-1652)  edited  Greek  Fathers,  wrote  on  chronol- 
ogy, and  produced  an  incomparable  book  of  historical 
theology,  "De  theologicis  do^atibus"  (1644).  To 
these  may  be  added  the  ascetic  Halloix  (1572-1656), 
the  uncritical  Chifilet  (1592-1682),  and  Jean  Gamier, 
the  historian  of  the  Pelagians  (d.  1681).  The  greatest 
work  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  is  the  publication  of  the 
''Acta  Sanctorum  ,  which  has  now  reached  the  be- 
ginning of  November,  in  64  volumes.  It  was  planned 
by  Rosweyde  (1570-1629)  as  a  large  collection  of  lives 
of  sainto;  but  the.foimder  of  the  work  as  we  have  it  is 
the  famous  John  van  BoUand  (1596-1665).  He  was 
joined  in  1643  by  Henschenius  and  Papebrochius 
(1628-1714),  and  thus  the  Society  of  Bollandiste 
be^m,  and  continued,  in  spite  of  tne  suppression  of 
the  Jesuits,  until  the  French  Revolution,  1794.  It 
was  happily  revived  in  1836  (see  Bollandists). 
Other  Catholic  editors  were  Gerhard  Voss  (d.  1609), 
AlbaspinsBus  (De  I'Aubespine,  Bishop  of  Orldans, 
157^1630),  Rigault  (1577-1654),  and  the  Sorbonne 
doctor  Cotelier  (1629-86).  The  Dominican  Comb^fis 
(1605-79)  edited  Greek  Fathers,  added  two  volumes 
to  de  la  Bigne's  collection,  and  made  colkctions  of 
patristic  sermons.  The  layman  Valesius  (de  Valois, 
160^70)  was  of  great  eminence. 
.  Among  Protestante  may  be  mentioned  the  contro- 
versialist aericus  (Le  C^ero,  1657-1736);  Bishop  Fell 
of  Oxford  (1625-86).  the  editor  of  (}yprian.  with  whom 
must  be  claissed  Bishop  Pearson  ana  Doawell;  Grabe 
(1666-1711),  a  Prussian  who  settled  in  England;  the 
Calvinist  Basnage  (1653-1723).  The  famous  Galilean 
Etienne  Baluze  (1630-1718),  was  an  editor  of  great 
industry.  The  Proven5al  Franciscan,  Pagi,^  pub- 
lished an  invaluable  commentary  on  Baronius  in 
1^9-1705.  But  the  greatest  historical  achievement 
was  that  of  a  secular  priest,  Louis  Le  Nain  de  Tille- 
mont,  whose  *'  Histoire  des  Empereurs"  (6  vols.,  1690) 
and  ^'M^moires  pour  servir  k  1 'histoire  eccl^siastique 


16 

des  six  premiers  siddes"  (16  vols.,  1693)  have  never  etc.,  as  well  as  the  ''Collectio  Amplissima"  of  oouneili. 

been  superseded  or  equalled.    Other  historians  are  A  general  conspectus  shows  us  tne  Jesuits  taking  the 

Cardinal  H.   Noris   (1631-1704);  Natalis  Alexander  lead  c.   1590>1650,  and  the  Benedictines  working 

(1639-1725),  a  Dominican;  Fleurv  (in  French,  1690>  about  1680-1750.    The  French  are  alwavs  in  the  first 

1719).   To  these  must  be  added  the  Protestant  Arch-  place.    There  are  some  sparse  names  of  eminence  in 

bishop  Ussher  of  Dublin   (1580-1656),  and  many  Frotestant  England;  a  few  in  Germany;  Italy  takes 

canonists,  such  as  Van  Espen,  Du  Fm.  1a  Marca,  and  the  lead  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Christianus  Lupus.    The  Oratorian  Tnomassin  wrote  The  great  literary  histories  of  Bellarmine,  Fabricius, 

on  Christian  antiquities  (1619-95) ;  the  En^ish  Bii^-  Du  Fin,  Cave,  Oudin,  Schram,  Lmnper,  Ziegelbauer, 

ham  composed  a  ^reat  work  on  the  same  subject  (1708--  and  Schoenemann  will  be  found  below  in  the  biblio- 

22).    Holstein  (1596-1661\  a  convert  from  Frotestant-  g^raphy.    The  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  was 

ism,  was  librarian  at  the  Vatican,  and  published  col-  singularly   barren   of   patristic    study;  nevertheless 

lections  of  docimients.  The  Oratorian  J.  Mozin  (1597-  there  were  marks  of  the  commencement  of  the  new 

1659)  published  a  famous  work  on  the  history  of  Holy  era  in  which  Germany  tiJces  the  lead.    The  second 

orders,  and  a  confused  one  on  that  of  penance.    The  half  of  the  nineteenth  was  exceptionally  and  increas- 

chief  patristic  theologian  among  English  Protestants  in^ly  prolific.    It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  the  chief 

is  Bisnop  Bull,  who  wrote  a  reply  to  Fetavius's  views  editors  and  critics.    New  matter  was  poured  forth  by 

on  the  development  of  dogma,  entitled  "Defensio  Cardinal  Mai  (1782-1854)  and  Cardinal  Pitra  (1812- 


-on 


fidei  Niceen^e"  (1685).  The  Greek  Leo  Allatius  (1586-  89),  both  prefects  of  the  Vatican  Library.    Inedita  in 

1669),  custos  of  the  Vatican  Library,  was  almost  a  such  Quantities  seem  to  be   found  no  more,  but 

second  Bessarion.    He  wrote  on  dogma  and  on  the  isolatea  discoveries  have  come  frequently  and  still 

ecclesiastical  books  of  the  Greeks.    A  centurv  later  come;  Eastern  libraries,   such   as  those  of  Mount 

the  Maronite  J.  S.  Assemani  (1687-1768)  published  Athos  and  Patmos,  Constantinople,  and  Jerusalem, 

amon^  other  works  a  ''Bibliotheca  Orientalis''  and  and  Moimt  Sinai,  have  yielded  unknown  treasures, 

an  edition  of  Ephrem  Sjrrus.     His  nephew  edited  an  while  the  Syriac,  Coptic,  Armenian,  etc.,  have  supplied 

immense  collection  of  liturgies.    The  chief  liturgiolo-  manv  losses  supposed  to  be  irrecoverable.    The  sands 

QBt  of  the  seventeenth  century  is  the  Blessed  Cardinal  of  Egypt  have  given  something,  but  not  much,  to 

Tommasi,  a  Theatine  (1649-1713,  beatified  1803),  the  patrology. 

type  of  a  saintlv  savant.  The  greatest  boon  in  the  way  of  editing  has  been  the 

The  great  Benedictines  form  a  group  bv  them-  two  great  patrologies  of  the  Abb^  Migne  (1800-75). 

selves,  for  (ai)art  from  Dom  Calmet,  a  Biblical  scholar,  This  energetic  man  put  the  works  of  all  the  Greek  and 

and  Dom  Ceillier.  who  belonged  to  the  Congregation  Latin  Fathers  withm  easv  reach  by  the  "  Patrologia 

of  St-Vannes)  all  were  of  the  Congregation  of  St-  Latina"  (222  vols.,  including  4  vols,  of  indexes)  and 

Maur,  the  learned  men  of  which  were  drafted  into  the  the  "Patroloda  Grseca"  (161  vols\     llie  Ateliers 

Abbey  of  St-Germain-des-Pr6s  at  Paris.    Dom  Luc  Catholiques  which  he  founded  produced  wood-carv- 

d'Ach^rv  (1605-85)  is  the  founder  {"  Spicilegium",  13  ing,  pictures,  organs,  etc.,  but  prmting  was  the  special 

vols.);  Dom  Mabillon  (1632^1707)  is  the  greatest  name,  work.    The  workshops  were  destroyed  by  a  disas- 

but  he  was  mainly  occupied  with  the  eariy  Middle  trous  fire  in  1868,  and  the  recommencement  of  the  work 

Ages.  Bernard  de  Montfaucon  (1655-1741)  has  almost  was  made  impossible  by  the  Franco-German  war. 

equal  fame  (Athanasius,  Hexapla  of  Origen,  Chrys-  The  ''Monumenta  Germanise'',  be^un  by  the  Berlin 

oetom.  Antiquities,  Paueographv).    Dom  (Constant  librarian  Pertz,  was  continued  with  vigour  under 

^1654-1721)  was  the  principal  collaborator,  it  seems,  the  most  celebrated  scholar  of  the  century,  Theodor 

in  the  great  edition  of  St.  Augustine  (1679-1700;  also  Mommsen.    Small  collections  of  patristic  works  are 

letters  of  the  Popes,  Hilary).    Dom  Garet  (Cassiodo-  catalogued  below.     A  new  edition  of  the   Latin 

rus,  1679\  Du  Friche  (St  Ambrose,  1686-90),  Martia-  Fathers  was  undertaken  in  the  sixties  by  the  Academy 

nay  (St.  Jerome,  1693-1706,  less  successful),  Delarue  of  Vienna.    The  volumes  published  up  till  now  have 

(Origen,  1733-59),  Maran  (with  Tout^,  Cyril  of  Jem-  been  uniformly  creditable  works  which  call  up  no 

salem,  1720;  alone,  Uie  Apologists,  1742;  Gregory  particular  enthusiasm.    At  the  present  rate  of  pro- 

Nazianzen,  unfinished),  Massuet  (Ireiueus,  1710),  Ste-  S!^^  some  centuries  will  be  needed  for  the  great  work. 

Marthe  (Gregory  Uie  Great,  1705),  Julien  Gamier  (St.  The  Berlin  Academy  has  commenced  a  more  modest 

Basil,  1721-2^,  Ruinart  (Acta  Martyrum  sincera,  1689,  task,  the  re-editing  of  the  Greek  Ante-Nicene  writers. 

Victor  Vitensis,  1694,andGregory  of  Tours  and  Frede-  and  the  energy  of  Adolf  Hamack  is  ensuring  rapid 

Sir,  1699),  are  all  well-known  names.  The  works  of  publication  and  real  success.   The  same  indefatigable 

art^ne  (1654-1739)  on  ecclesiastical  and  monastic  student,  with  von  Gebhardt,  edits  a  series  of  ''Texte 

rites  (1690  and  1700-2)  and  his  collections  of  anecdota  und  Untersuchimgen",  which  have  for  a  iMurt  of  their 

(1700,  1717.  and  1724-33)  are  most  voluminous;  he  object  to  be  the  organ  of  the  Berlin  editors  of  the 

was  assistea  by  Durand.     The  great  historical  works  Fathere.    The  series  contains  many  valuable  studies, 

of  the  Benedictines  of  St-Maur  need  not  be  mentioned  with  much  that  would  hardly  have  been  published  in 

here,  but  Dom  Sabatier 's  edition  of  the  Old  Latin  Bible,  other  countries. 

and  the  new  editions  of  Du  Cange's  pessaries  must  be        The  Cambridge  series  of  "Texts  and  Studies"  is 

noted.  For  the  great  editors  of  collections  of  ooimcils  younger  and  proceeds  more  slowly,  but  keeps  at  a 

see  under  the  names  mentioned  in  the  bibliography  rather  higher  level.    There  should  he  mentioned  also 

of  the  article  on  Councils.  the  Italian  ''Studii  e  Testi",  in  which  Mercati  and 

In  the  eighteenth  century  may  be  noted  Arch-  Pio  Franchi  de'  Cavalieri  collaborate.    In  England,  in 

bishop  Potter  (1674-1747,  Clement  of  Alexandria),  spite  of  the  slight  revival  of  interest  in  patristic 

At  Rome  Arevalo  (Isidore  of  Seville,  1797-1803);  studies  caused  by  the  Oxford  Movement,  the  amount 

Gallandi,  a  Venetian  Oratorian  (Bibliotheca  vete-  of  work  has  not  been  ^at.    For  learning  perhaps 

rum    Patrum,    1765-81).     The    Veronese    scholare  Newman  is  really  first  m  the  theological  questions, 

form  a  remarkable  group.    The  historian  Maifei  (for  As  critics  the  Cambridge  School,  Westcott,  Hort,  and 

our  purpose  his  "anecoota  of  Cassiodorus"  are  to  above  all  Lightfoot,  are  second  to  none.    But  the 

be  notea,  1702),  Vallarsi  (St.  Jerome,  1734-42,  a  amount  edited  has  been  very  small,  and  the  excellent 

mat    work,    and    Rufinus.    1745),    the    brothers  "Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography"  is  the  only 

Ballerini  (St.  Zeno,  1739;  bt.  Leo,  1753-7,  a  most  great  work  published.    Until  1898  there  was  abso- 

remarkable   production),  not   to  speak    of    Bian*  lutely  no  organ  for  patristic  studies,  and  the  "  Jour- 

chini,  who  published  codices  of  the  Old  Latin  Gospels,  nal  of  Theological  Studies"  founded  in  that  year 

and  the  Dominican  Mansi,  Arehbishop  of  Lucca,  who  would  have  found  it  difficult  to  survive  financially 

Rhedited  Baronius.  Fabricius,  Thomassinus,  Baluze,  without  the  help  of  the  Oxford  University  Press.  But 


VATHEB8 


17 


there  has  been  an  increase  of  interest  in  these  subjects 
of  late  yeare,  both  amon^  Protestants  and  Catholics, 
in  England  and  in  the  United  States.  Catholic  France 
has  lately  been  coming  once  more  to  the  fore,  and  is 
very  neaiiy  level  with  Germany  even  in  output. 
In  the  last  fifty  years,  arelueology  has  added  much  to 
patristic  studies;  in  this  sphete  the  greatest  name  is 
that  of  De  Rossi. 

(2)  The  Study  of  the  Fathera.^The  helps  to  studj, 
such  as  Patrologies,  lexical  information,  literary  his- 
tories, are  mentioned  below. 

CoLLBcnoNs: — The  chief  oollectioiui  of  the  Fathers  are  the 
foUowinc:  db  la  Bionb,  BMiotKeca  SS.  PP.  (8  voLb.  fol.,  Paris, 
1575,  and  App.,  1579;  4th  ed..  10  vols.,  1624,  with  Auctortum, 

2  vols.,  1624.  and  Suppl.,  1639,  5th  and  6th  edd.,  17  vols,  fol., 
7644  and  1654);  this  great  work  is  a  supplement  of  over  200 
writings  to  the  editions  till  then  published  of  the  Fathers;  en- 
larged ed.  by  Univ.  or  Coloonc  (Cologne,  1618,  14  vols.,  and 
Asp.,  1622);  the  Colc^e  ed.  enlarged  by  100  writings,  m  27 
folio  vols.  (Lyons,  1677).  Combefis,  unBca-LaiiruB  PcUrum 
Bibliotheea  novum  Auctarium  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1648),  and  Auo- 
tarium  novianmum  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1672);  D'  AcHiar,  Veterum 
aliqud  acriplorum  Spieiiegium  ^13  vols.  4to,  Paris,  1655-77,  and 

3  vols.  fol..  1723),  mostly  oS  writings  Uter  than  patristic  period, 
as  is  also  the  case  with  Baluzb,  Miacellanea  (7  vols.  8vo,  Paris, 
1678-1715);  r»-ed.  by  Mamsi  (4  vols,  fol.,  Lucca,  1761-4):  Sib- 
MOND,  Opera  varia  nunc  primum  eoUeela  (5  vols,  fol.,  Paris, 
1696,  and  Venice,  1728);  Mubatorz,  Anecdote  from  the  Am- 
broaian  Libr.  at  Milan  (4  vols.  4to,  Milan,  1697-8;  Padua, 
1713);  Idbm,  Aneedola  gnaea  (Padua,  1709);  Orabb,  SpiciU' 
0itfm  of  Fathers  of  the  first  and  second  centuries  (Oxford,  1698- 
9,  17(X),  and  enlarged.  1714);  Galz«andi,  BibL  vet,  PP.,  an  en- 
larged edition  of  the  Lyons  ed.  of  de  U  Bigne  (14  vols,  fol.,  VeQ- 
ioe,  1765-88,  and  index  publ.  at  Bologna,  1863) — nearly  all  the 
eontents  are  reprinted  in  Mignb;  ObbrthCr,  8S.  Patrum  opera 
n^emiea  de  verttaU  rdioiania  chrut.  c  Oent.  el  Jud.  (21  vols.  8vo, 
WQriburg,  1777-94);  Idbm,  Opera  omnia  SS.  Patrum  Latin- 
OTum  (13  ycAb,,  WQriburg,  1789-91);  Routh,  Reiiquia  aaermt 
■eeond  and  third  centuries  (4  vols..  ()xford,  1814-18;  in  5  vols., 
1846^);  Idbm,  Scrivtorum  eccL  opuacula  pnscipua  (2  vols.,  Ox- 
ford, 1832.  3rd  vol.,  1858);  Mai,  Senplorum  veterum  nova 
ceUeetio  (unpubl.  matter  from  Vatican  MSS..  10  vols.  4to.  1825- 
38);  Idbm.  S-aicSLegium  Romanum  (10  vols.  8vo,  Rome,  1839- 
44);  Idbm,  Nova  Patrum  Bibliotheea  (7  vols.  4to,  Rome,  1844- 
54;  vol.  8  o(Mn|4eted  by  Ck>zzA-Luzi,  1871,  vol.  9  by  Coesa- 
Luu,  1888,  App.  ad  opera  ed.  ab  A.  Maio,  Rome,  1871,  App. 
ailera,  1871).  A  few  ecd.  writings  in  Mai's  Claaaid  aiuiorea 
(10  vols.,  Rome,  1828-38);  CAiLLAn,  CoUectio  edecta  SS.  Ecele- 
net  Patrum  (133  vols.  sm.  8vo,  Paris,  1829-42);  Gbrsdobf, 
BibL  Patrum  eed.  tat.  edecta  (13  vols.,  Leipiig,  1838-47);  the 
Oxford  Bibliotheea  Patrum  reached  10  vols.  (Oxford,  1838-55); 
PrrBA,  SvieHegium  Soleemenae  (4  vols.  4to,  Paris^  1852-8). 
The  number  of  these  various  collections,  in  addition  to  the 
works  of  the  great  Fathers,  made  it  difficult  to  obtain  a  com- 
plete set  of  patristic  writings.  Mionb  supplied  the  want  by 
collecting  almost  all  the  foregoing  ((Bxcept  the  end  of  Uie  last 
mentioned  work,  and  Mai's  later  volumes)  into  his  complete 
editions:  Patroloma  eiiraua  eomj^etua.  Seriee  latina  (to  Innocent 
III,  A.  D.  1300,  221  vols.  4to,  mduaing  four  vols,  of  indexes, 
1844-55),  Seriee  tfrfBeo-latina  (to  the  Council  of  Florence. 
A.  D.  1438-9.  161  vols.  4to,  1857-66,  and  another  rare  vol.  of 
additions,  1866);  the  Seriee  fraiea  wslb  a\ao  published,  in  Latin 
odI v,.in  81  vols. ;  Uiere  is  no  mdex  in  the  Senea  graca;  an  alpha- 
betical list  of  contents  by  Scholabios  (Athens,  1879,  useiul); 
other  publications,  not  included  in  Migne,  by  Pitra,  are  Juria 
eodeeiaetici  Qrcecarum  hiet.  d  monum.  (2  vols.,  Rome.  1864-8): 
AnaUda  eaera  (6  vols.,  numbered  I,  II.  III.  IV,  VI,  VIII.  Paris, 
1876-^84);  Analeda  eaera  d  daeeiea  (Paris.  1888};  Anaieda 
novieeunot  medieval  (2  vols.,  1885-8);  the  new  edition  of  Latin 
Fathers  is  called  Corpue  eeriptorum  ecdeeiaelicorum  latinorumt 
editum  eoneUio  d  impeneie  Aoademia  litterarum  Ccnareoe  Vindo' 
boneneie  <Vienna,  1866,  8vo,  in  progress);  and  of  the  Greek 
Fathers:  Die  griediiechen  airietlichen  Sehriftetdler  der  eralen 
drei  Jahrhunderten,  herauegeoeben  von  der  KirMenv&ter-Kommie- 
eion  der  Kdnigl.  preueeiadien  Akad.  der  Wiee.  (Berlin,  1897, 
large  8vo,  in  progress).  Of  the  Monumenia  Oermania  htdorioat 
one  portion,  the  Auctoree  antiquiaaimi  (Berlin,  1877-98),  con- 
tains works  of  the  sixth  century  which  connect  themselves  with 
patrology.  Small  modem  collections  are  Hubtbb,  SS.  Pairum 
opueeuia  ededa,  with  a  few  good  notes  (Innsbruck,  1st  series,  48 
vols.,  1868-«5,  2nd  series,  6  vols..  1884-92)— these  little  books 
have  been  deservedly  popular;  KrOobb,  Sammhino  auage- 
tpahUer  MrcA«i-  und  dogmengeeehichtlicher  Queilenachriften 
CFreiborg,  1891 — );  Rauschbn,  FloriUgium  patriatieum,  of 
first  and  second  centuries  (3  fasc.,  Bonn,  1904-5);  Cambridge 
patridic  texte  (L  The  Five  Theol.  Oral,  of  Oreg.  Naz.,  ed.  Mason, 
1899;  II.  TheCateeh.  Or.  of  Oreg.  Nyaaen.,  ed.  Sbawlbt.  1903; 
DwnwnueAlex.,  ed.  PBX/rRB,  1904,  in  progress);  Vissini,  BibL 
SS.  PP.  Theologiat  tironibue  d  univerao  dero  accomodata  (Rome, 
1901 —  in  prosreas);  LiBmiAMN,  Kleine  Texte,  fUr  theol.  Vor- 
leeungen  und  Uebunqen  (twenty-five  numbera  have  appeared  of 
about  16  pp.  each,  Bonn,  1902—  in  progress);  an  English  ed. 
Off  the  same  (Cambridge.  1903 — );  Textea  et  documenta  pour 
VHude  hidorique  du  chrieOanieme,  ed.  Hbmmbb  and  Lbjat 
(texts,  French  tr.,  and  notes,  Paris,  in  progress — an  admirable 
series). 

ImnA: — ^For  Greek  and  Latin  writera  up  to  Eusebius,  the 
index  to  Harnack,  Oeaeh.  der  altehr.  LiU.,  I:  for  the  Latin 
wfitsn  of  first  six  centuries.  Aumbbb,  Ihifia  Ubrorum  PP.  lot. 

VI.— 2 


(Vienna,  1865);   and  up  to  1200.  Vatabso,  fwUia  PP.  aUth 
Tumque  acriplorum  eed.  to^-S^  vols.,  Vatican  press.  1906-8). 

LiTBRABY  HisTORiBs: — ^The  first  is  Bbllabminb,  De  Seriptoru 
bua  ecdeaiaaticia  (Rome,  1613,  often  reprinted;  with  additions 
by  Labbb,  Paris,  1660,  and  by  Oddin.  Paris.  1686);  Da  Pik 
BibliothiilueuniveraeUedeaauteura  ecdie.  (61  vols.  8vo.or  19  vols. 
4to,  Paris.  1686.  etc.);  this  was  severely  criticised  by  the  Bene* 
dictine  Pbtitdidibb  and  by  the  Oratonan  Simon  \Critiaue  de  la 
Bibl.  dee  auteura  eecL  publ.  par  M.  E.  Dupin,  Pans,  1730),  and 
Du  Pin's  work  was  put  on  the  Index  in  1757;  Fabricxub,  Bihlio' 
Iheca  Oraca,  eive  notitia  Scriptorum  veterum  Orcaeorum  (Ham- 
buKf  1705-28,  14  vols.;  new  ed.  by  Hablbb,  Hamburjc,  1790- 
1809.  12  vols.,  embraces  not  quite  11  vols,  of  the  original  ed.; 
index  to  this  ed..  Leipsip.  1838) — this  great  work  is  really  a 
vast  collection  of  materials;  Fabricius  was  a  Protestant  (d. 
1736);  he  made  a  smaller  collection  of  the  Latin  lit.  hist.,  BtoL 
Latina,  eive  nU,  ear.  veU.  laU.  (1697,  1708,  1712,  etc..  ed.  by 
Ebnbbti.  3  vols.,  Leipzig.  1773-4).  and  a  continuation  for  Uie 
Middle  Ages  (1734-6,  5  vols.);  the  whole  was  re-edited  by 
Manbi  (6  vols..  Padua,  1754.  and  Florence,  1858-9);  Lb 
Noubbt,  Apparatua  ad  Biblioth.  Max.  vett.  Pair.  (2  vols, 
fol.,  Pans.  1703-15),  deals  with  Greek  Fathers  of  Uie  second 
century  and  with  Latin  apologists;  Cbiujbr.  Hid.  ginirale  da 
auteura  eaerie  d  eocUa.  (trom  Moses  to  1248,  23  vols.,  Paris, 
1729-63;  Table  gin.  dee  Mat.,  by  Rondbt.  Paris.  1782:  newed. 
16  vols..  Paris.  1858-69);  Schram,  Analyaia  Operum  SS.  PP.  d 
Scriptorum  eodea.  (Vienna,  1780-96,  18  vols.^  a  valuable  work); 
Ldmpbb,  Hid.  T%eologieo<ritica  de  vitA  ecnptia  atque  dodrina 
SS.  PP.  d  ear,  ecd.  trium  primorum  eoec.  (Vienna.  1783-99.  13 
vols.;  a  compilation,  but  good);  the  Anglican  Cavb  published 
a  fine  work.  Scriptorum  ecd.  hidoria  literaria  (London.  1688; 
best  ed.,  Oxford,  1740-3);  Oudin,  a  Premonstratennan,  who 
became  a  Protestant,  Commenlariue  de  Scrurioribua  ecd. 
(founded  on  Bellarmine,  3  vols,  fol.,  Leipsig,  1722).  On  the 
editions  of  the  Latin  Fathers,  Schqbnbmann,  Bibliotheea  hie- 
torico4itteraria  Patrum  Latinorum  a  Teri,  ad  Oreg,  Af.  d  laid. 
Hiap.  (2  vols.,  Ldpxis,  1792-4). 

PATBOiiOaiBs  (smaUer  works): — Gbrhabd,  Patroloaia  (Jena, 
1653);  HClsbmann,  Patrologia  (Leipsig.  1670);  Olbarius, 
Abacua  Patrologieua  (Jena,  1673);  these  are  old-fashionea 
Protestant  books.  German  Cathohc  works  are:  Goldwitcbb, 
BMiographie  der  KinJienvdter  und  Kirchenldirer  (Landshut, 
1828) ;  Idbm.  Patrolapie  verhunden  mi  Patridik  (Nuremberg, 
1833-4);  the  older  distinction  in  Germany  between  patrology, 
the  knowledge  of  the  Fathen  and  their  use.  and  patristic,  the 
science  of  the  theology  of  the  Fathers,  is  now  somewhat  anti- 
quated; BussB,  Orundriaa  der  chr.  Lit.  (MQnster,  1828-9); 
MAhlbr,  Patrologie,  an  important  posthumous  work  of  this 
sreat  man,  giving  the  first  three  centuries  (Ratisbon,  1840); 
Pbruanbdbb,  Bibliotheoa  patridiea  (2  vols.,  landshut,  1841- 
4);  Fbsslbb,  hutitutioneaPatrotogiaf  (Innsbruck,  1851),  a  new 
ed.  by  Junomann  is  most  valuable  (Innsbruck,  1890-6):  Alsog, 
Orundriaa  der  Patrologie  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1866  and  1888); 
same  in  French  by  Bbixt  (Paris,  1867);  Nibscbl,  Handbuch 
der  Patrelogie  und  Patridik  (Mains,  1881-5};  RbsbXntat.  Conk' 
pendium  Patrohgiea  d  PatriatioB  (Funfkirchen  in  Hungary, 
1894);  Cabvajal,  IndUutionee  Patrologict  (Oviedo,  1906); 
Babdbnhbwbb,  Patrologie  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1894;  new  ed. 
1901) — this  is  at  present  by  far  the  best  handbook;  Uie  author 
is  a  professor  in  the  Cath.  theo.  faculty  of  the  Univ.  of  Munich; 
a  French  tr.  by  Godbt  and  Vbrschaffbl.  Lea  Piree  de  VEgliae 
(3  vols.,  Paris,  1899);  an  Italian  tr.  by  A.  Mbbcati  (Rome,  1903); 
and  an  Englidi  tr.  with  the  bibliography  brou^t  up  to  date,  by 
Shahan  (Freiburg  im  Br.  and  St.  Louis,  19081;  smaller  works, 
insufficient  for  advanced  students,  but  excellent  for  ordinarv 
purposes,  are:  Schmid,  Orundlinien  der  Patrologie  (1879;  4th 
ed..  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1895);  an  Engl.  tr.  revised  by  Schobbl 
(Freiburg.  1900);  Swbtb  of  (Tambr^ge,  Patridic  Study  (Lon- 
don, 1902). 

Hibtobibb  or  thb  Fatbbbb: — It  is  unneceasary  to  catalogue 
here  all  the  genoral  histories  of  the  Church,  lat^c  and  smiall. 
from  Baronius  onwards;  it  will  be  sufficient  to  ^ve  some  of 
those  which  deal  specially  with  Uie  Fathen  and  with  ecclesia»' 
tical  literature.  The  first  and  chief  is  the  incomparable  work 
of  TiLLBMONT,  Mhnoirea  pour  aervir  h  Fhiatoire  ecd.  dee  eix 
vremiera  aikdee  (Paris,  1693-1712, 16  vols.,  and  other  editions); 
MABibcHAi*,  Conoordance  dee  SS.  Ptrea  de  rEgHae,  Oreee  d  La^ 
tina,  a  harmony  of  their  theology  (2  vols..  Paris,  1739):  BXhb, 
Die  ehriatlid^-rihniache  Litteratur  (4th  vol.  of  Geach.  der  rdji»- 
iedun  Litt.,  Karlsruhe,  1837;  a  new  ed.  of  the  first  portion, 
1872);  ScHANS,  Oeach.  der  rOm.  LiU.,  Part  III  (Munich,  1896), 
117-324;  Ebbbt,  Oeach.  der  chriaUich-lateiniachen  LiU.  (Leipsig, 
1874;  2nd  ed.,  1889);  Anciennea  liUSraturea  chrdiennea  iia  m- 
bliothique  de  Venaeignement  de  Vhid.  ecd..  Puis):  I;  Batitfol, 


1904);  Idbm,  VEapagne  chrdienne  (2nd  ed.,  1906);  Bauffoi^ 
L*4oli8e  naiaaante  d  le  Catholiciame,  a  fine  apologetic  account  of 
the  development  of  the  Church,  from  the  witness  of  the  Fathen 
of  the  firet  three  centuries  (Pkris,  1909);  of  general  histories  the 
best  is  DncHBBNB.  Hid.  aneienne  de  VEgiiae  (2  vols,  have  ap- 
peared, Paris.  1906-7):  finally,  the  first  place  is  being  taken 
among  histories  of  the  Fathen  t>y  a  work  to  be  completed  in  six 
volumes,  Babdbnhbwbb,  OeadiuJUe  der  allkwrhlidien  Litteratur 
(I,  to  A.  d.  200,  Freiburg  im  Br..  1902;  II.  to  a.  d.  300.  1903). 
The  following  are  Protestant:  Nbwman.  The  ChurA  af  the 
Fathera  (London.  1840,  etc.);  Donaldson,  A  critiad  hidory  ef 
Chridian  lit.  .  .  .  to  the  Nicene  Council:  I;  The  Apodolte 
Fathera,  H  and  III;  The  Apologiata  (London,  1864-6 — unsym- 
pathetic): Bright,  The  Age  of  the  Fathera  (2  vols.,  London, 
1903);  ZdCKLBR.  Geadt.  der  thebloaiachen  LiU.  {Patrietik) 
(Ndrdlingen,  1889);  Cruttwbll,  A  Literary  Hidory  ef  Bariy 


FATHEBS 


^    18 


FAUBIEL 


Chruttianiiu  .  .  .  Nieene  Period  (2  vols.,  London,  1893); 
KrC'OBR,  Gesch.  der  aUchrullichen  Litt.  in  den  enlen  5  Jahrh. 
(Freiburg  im  Br.  and  Leipiig,  1805-7);  tr.  Gillbt  (New  York, 
1897) — this  is  the  best  modem  German  Prot.  history.  The  fol- 
io-wing consists  of  materials:  A.  Harnack,  Geachichte  der 
aUchr.  LiU.  bis  Euaebiua,  1,  Die  Ueberlieferung  (Leipzig,  1803: 
this  vol.  enumerates  ail  the  known  worlcs  of  each  wnter,  and  all 
ancient  references  to  them,  and  notices  the  MSS.);  II,  1  (1807), 
and  II,  2  (1004),  Die  Chronolooie,  discussing  the  date  of  each 
writing;  the  latter  Greek  period  is  dealt  with  by  Kbumbacbsr, 
Getchiehte  der  bytantiniscnen  LiU.  BtT-USS  (2na  ed.  with  assist- 
ance from  Ehrhard,  Munich,  1807).  The  following  oollected 
series  of  studies  must  be  added:  Texte  itnd  Untereumungen  tur 
Gesdiichie  der  aUehritUieKen  LiU..  ed.  von  Gbbbardt  and  A. 
Harnack  (1st  series,  15  vols.,  Ldpsig,  1883-07.  2nd  series, 
Neue  Foloe,  14  vols.,  1807-1007,  in  progress) — the  editors  are 
DOW  Harnack  and  Schmidt:  Robinson,  Texta  and  Sludiet 
(Cambridge,  1801 — in  progress);  Ehrhard  and  M&LLBR,S/ras*- 
burger  theologiacKe  Studien  (12  vols.,  Freiburg  im  Br..  1804 — in 
progress);  Ehrhard  and  'KatBCH.Fonchungm  mr  chrutl.  LiU, 
una  Doffmengeachichle  (7  vols.,  raderbom,  in  raofl^vss);  La 
Pensie  diritienne  (Paris,  in  projErees);  Studii  e  Teatt  (Yatioan 

g-ess,  in  progress).  Ot  histories  of  development  of  dogma, 
arnack,  Doffmenoeachicf^e  (3  vols.,  3rd  ed..  1804-7,  a  new  ed. 
is  in  the  press;  French  tr.,  Paris,  1808;  Engl,  tr.,  7  vols.,  Edin- 
bur^,  1804-0),  a  very  clever  and  rather  '* viewy"  work; 
LooFB,  Leitfaden  zum  Studium  der  D.  G.  (Halle,  1880;  3rd  ed., 
1803);  Sbbbbro,  LeAr6.  der  D,  G.  (2  vols.,  Erlangen,  1805). 
oonservative  Protestant:  Idbm,  Gnmdriu  der  D.  G.  (1000:  2nd 
ed.,  1005),  a  smaller  work:  Schwanb,  Dogmenoeachiekte,  Catho- 
lic (2nd  ed.,  1802,  etc.;  French  tr.,  Paris,  1003-4);  Bbthunb- 
Baxbr,  Introdutium  to  early  Hietory  of  Doctrine  (London,  1003) ; 
TiXBRONT,  Hieloire  dee  Dogmea:  I,  Im  t/Uologie  tniti-nicienn§ 
(Paris,  1005— excellent):  and  others. 

Pbilolooical."— On  tne  common  Greek  of  Uie  early  period  see 
MouLTON.  Gramnuxr  of  N.  T.  Greek:  I,  Prolegomena  (3rd  ed., 
Edinburgn.  1009),  ana  references;  on  the  literary  Greek,  a.  d. 
1-250,  oCHifiD,  Der  AUiciemue  von  Dion.  Hal.  bia  auf  den 
gweiten  PhUoatraiua  (4  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1887-0);  Thumb,  Die 
griechiache  Svrache  im  ZeitaUer  dea  Hdleniamua  (Strasburg, 
1001).  Besiaes  the  Theaaurua  of  Stbphanus  (latest  ed.,  8  vols., 
fol.,  Paris,  1831-65)  and  lexicons  of  classical  and  Biblical 
Greek,  special  dictionaries  of  later  Greek  are  Du  Canob,  Gloa- 
aarium  ad  acriptorea  media  et  infima  groBcitatia  (2  vols.,  Lyons, 
1688,  and  new  ed.,  Breslau,  1800^1);  Sophocubs,  Greek  Letican 
of  the  Roman  and  Bytaniine  Pervoda^  lUBr-lWO  (3rd  ed..  New 
York,  1888);  words  wanting  in  Stephanua  and  in  Sophocles  are 
collected  by  Kumanudbb  (2.  A.  KovfAayovJi|f ).  Zvi^ayuvif  Ac|«My 
«9i}o'avpt<rrMi'  iv  rol%  cAAi^ytKotv  A«{ucoif  (Athens,  18s3);  gen- 
eral remarks  on  Byiantine  Greek  in  Krumba^chbr,  op.  eii.  On 
patristic  Latin,  KorrMANB,  Geach.  dea  Kirchenlateina:  I,  Entate- 
hung  ,  .  .  bia  auf  Aupuatinua-Hieronymua  (Breslau,  1870^1); 
NoBDKSt  Die  antike  Kunatnroaa  (Leipsig,  1808),  II;  there  is  an 
immense  number  of  studies  of  the  language  of  particular 
Fathers  [e.  g.  Hoppb  on  Tertullian  (1807);  Watson  (1806)  and 
Batard  (1002)  on  Cyprian;  GoBi;rCBR  on  Jerome  (1884); 
Rbonbr  on  Augustine  (1886),  etc.],  and  indicea  latinilalia  to  the 
volumes  of  the  Vienna  Corpua  PP.  lait.:  Traubb,  QueUen  und 
Unterauehungen  tur  UU.  Phu.  dea  MiUdaUera,  I  (Munich,  1006); 
much  will  be  found  in  Archiv  fftr  lot.  Lexicograpkiet  ed.  WdupF- 
UN  (Munich,  began  1884). 

Translations: — Library  of  the  Fathera  of  the  Holy  Caiholie 
Churcht  tranalaled  by  membera  of  the  Engliah  Ch.  (by  Pubbt, 
Nbwman,  etc.),  (45  vols.,  Oxford,  1832-~0.  Robbbts  and 
Donaldson,  The  Ante-Nicene  Chriatian  Library  (24  vols., 
Edinburgh,  1866-72:  new  ed.  by  Coxa,  Buffalo,  1884-6,  with 
Richardson's  excellent  BibliograTphioal  Synopaia  as  a  Suppl., 
1887);  Schaff  AND  Wacb,  A  Select  Library  of  Nieene  and  poet- 
Nieene  Fathera  of  theChr.  Ch.,  with  good  notes  (14  vols.,  Buffalo 
and  New  York,  1886-00,  and  2nd  series,  1000,  in  progress). 

Enctclopbdias  and  Diction ARiBs:—-SuiCBR,  Theaaurua  < 


deaiaaticuat  a  patrHma  gnecia  ordine  alphabetieo  ezAt&erw  qua- 
cumque  phraaeat  ritua^  dogmata^  haereaea  el  huiuamodi  cUia  apeo- 
tant  (2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1682;  again  1728;  and  Utrecht, 
1746):  Hoffmanns,  Bibhographiachea  Lexicon  der  geaammten 
Liu.  der  Griechen  (3  vols..  2nd  ed.,  Leipxig,  1838-45):  the  arti- 
cles on  earlv  Fathers  and  heresies  in  ttieEncuelopaaia  Britan- 
nica  (8th  ed.)  are,  many  of  them,  by  Hamaclc  and  still  worth 
reading;  Wbtzbr  and  Wbltb,  Kirchenlex.,  ed.  Hbrobn- 
Bi5thbr,  and  then  by  Kaulbn  and  others,  12  vols.,  one  vol.  of 
index  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1882-1003) :  Hbrsoo,  ReaUneuklopOdie 
far  prol.  TheoL  und  Kirche,  3rd  ed.  by  Hauck  (21  vols.,  1806- 
1008);  Vacant  and  Manobnot,  Diet,  de  Thiol,  eath.  (Paris,  in 
progress);  Cabrol,  Did.  darchMogie  dir.  el  de  lilurgie  (Paris,  in 
progress);  Baudrillart,  Did.  d^hial.  el  de  gSogr.  ocdiaiaatiquea 
(Paris,  in  progress):  Smith  and  Wacb,  A  Dtdionary  of  Chriatian 
Biography,  is  very  full  and  valuable  (4  vols.,  London,  1877-87). 
(jBNbral  Books  of  Rbfbrbncb: — Imo,  De  Bibliotheeia  et 
Calenia  Patrum,  gives  the  contents  of  the  older  collections  of 
Fathers  which  were  enumerated  above  (Leiprig,  1707);  Idbm, 
Schediaama  de  audoribua  qui  de  acriptoribua  eodeaiaatieia  egemnt 
(Leipsig,  1711);  Dowung,  NdUta  acriptorum  8S.  PP.  .  .  . 
qua  in  eoUedionibua  Aneedotorum  poet  annum  MDCC  in  lucem 
edUia  eontinentur  (a  continuation  ot  Imo's  De  Bibl.  el  Cat.,  Ox- 
ford, 1830);  an  admirable  modem  work  is  Ehrhard,  Die 
altehriaUiehe  LiU.  und  ihre  Erforachung  aeit  1890:  I,  AUgemeine 
Ueberaiehl,  1980-4  (Freiburg  im  Br..  1804);  II,  Ante-Nieene  lit., 
1884-1000  (1000);  the  bibliographies  in  the  works  of  Harnack 
and  of  Bardbnhbwbr  (see  above)  are  excellent;  for  Ante- 
Nicene  period,  Richardson,  B^liographieal  Synopaia  (in  extra 
vol.  of  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  Buffalo,  1887);  for  the  whole 
period,  Chbvalibr.  R&pertoire  dea  aoureea  hiatoriquea  du  moyen-' 
Age:  BuhbiUiographie,  gives  names  of  persons  (2nd  ed.,  Piris, 


1881;  Kroll  and  Gurutt,  JahreaberidU  fUr  klaaaiaehe  AUer^ 
thumawiaaenadiaft  (both  Protestant);  Bihlmbtbr,  Hagio- 
graphiadier  JahreaberidU  for  1004-6  (Kempten  and  Munich, 
lOOB).  A  very  complete  bibliography  app«irs  quarterly  in  the 
Revue  d'hial.  ecd.  (Louvain,  since  1000),  with  index  at  end  of 
year;  in  this  publ.  the  names  of  all  Reviewa  dealing  with  patris- 
tic matters  will  be  found. 

John  Chapman. 
Fathers  of  tfie  Faith  of  JasoB.    See  Paccanar- 

ISTB. 

Fathers  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  See  Holt 
Sepulchre,  Fathers  of  the. 

Fathers  of  the  Oratory.    See  Oratorians. 

Faunt,  Lawrence  Arthur,  a  Jesuit  theologian;  b. 
1554;  d.  at  Wilna,  Poland,  28  February,  1590-91. 
After  two  years  at  Merton  College,  Oxford  (1568-70) 
under  the  tuition  of  John  Potts,  a  well-known  philoso- 
pher, he  went  to  the  Jesuit  collc^  at  Louvain  where  he 
took  his  B.A.  After  some  time  spent  in  Paris  he 
entered  the  University  of  Munich  under  the  patronage 
of  Duke  William  of  Bavaria,  orooeeding  M.A.  The 
date  of  his  entrance  into  the  Society  of  Jesus  is  dis- 
puted, some  authorities  giving  1570,  others  1575,  the 
year  in  which  he  went  to  the  fkigliBh  CoUege^  Rome, 
to  pursue  his  studies  in  theology.  It  is  certam,  how- 
ever, that  on  the  latter  occasion  he  added  Lawrence  to 
his  baptismal  name,  Arthur.  He  was  soon  made  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  and  attracted  the  favourable  atten- 
tion of  Gregory  XIII,  who,  on  the  establishment  of  the 
Jesuit  college  at  Poeen  in  1581,  appointed  him  rector. 
He  was  also  professor  of  Greek  there  for  three  years, 
of  moral  theoloey  and  controversy  for  nine  more,  ana 
was  held  in  highest  repute  among  both  ecclesiastical 
and  secular  authorities.  His  chief  theological  works 
are:  ''De  Christi  in  terris  Ecclesia,  qusenam  et  penes 
quos  existat"  (Posen,  1584);  "Coense  Lutheranorum 
et  Calvinistarum  oppugnatio  ac  CathoUcae  Eucharis- 
tiffi  defensio"  (Posen,  1586);  "Apologia  libri  sui  de 
invocatione  ac  veneratione  Sanctorum"  (Cologne, 
1589). 

CooPBR  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.  s.  v.;  Qzllow,  Bibl.  Did.  Eng. 
Calh.  s.  v.;  Hustbh,  Nomendator. 

F.  M.  RUDGB. 

Fanriel,  Charles-Claude,  historian,  b.  at  St- 
Etienne,  France,  27  October,  1772 :  d.  at  Paris,  15  July. 
1844.  He  studied  first  at  the  Oratorian  College  of 
Toumon,  then  at  Lyons.  He  served  in  the  army  of 
the  Pyr^n^Bs-Orientales.  Under  the  Directory  Fouch^, 
an  ex-Oratorian,  attached  him  to  his  cabinet  as  pri- 
vate secretary.  Under  the  Empire,  he  refused  office  in 
order  to  devote  all  his  time  to  study.  Fauriel  adopted 
the  new  ideas  of  the  Philosophers  and  the  principles 
of  the  Revolution,  but  repudiated  them  in  part  in  the 
later  years  of  his  life.  He  was  an  intense  worker  and 
knew  Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  German,  English,  San- 
skrit, and  Arabic.  It  was  he  who  made  the  merits  of 
Ossian  and  Shakespeare  known  to  the  French  public, 
and  spread  in  France  the  knowledge  of  German  litera- 
ture, which  had  been  previously  looked  upon  as  unim- 
portant. He  was  one  of  the  nrst  to  investigate  Ro- 
mance literature,  and  the  originality  of  his  views  in  this 
direction  soon  popularized  this  new  studv.  He  also 
gathered  the  remnants  of  the  ancient  Basque  and 
Celtic  languages.  The  first  works  he  published  were 
a  translation  of  "La  Parth^n^ide"  (Paris,  1811),  an 
idyllic  epic  b^  the  Danish  poet,  Baggesen,  and  of  the 
tragedv  of  his  friend  Manzoni,  "  II  Conte  di  Carma- 
gnola  (Paris,  1823).  The  numerous  linguistic  and 
archaeological  contributions  which  he  wrote  for  various 
magazines  won  for  him  a  G;reat  reputation  among 
scholars;  it  was  said  of  him  that  "he  wss  the  man  of 
the  nineteenth  century  who  put  in  circulation  the  most 
ideas,  inaugurated  the  ereatest  number  of  branches  of 
study,  ana  gathered  tne  greatest  number  of  new 


rAusraras                    19  favsrsham 

results    in   historical   science"    (Revue  des    Deux  returned  to  the  monastery  of  L^rins  to  renew  his 

Mondes,   15  Dec.,  1853).     The  publication  of   the  fervour.    He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  monasticism 

"Chants  populaires  de  la  Gr^ce  modeme",  text  and  and  established  man^r  monasteries  in  his  diocese.    In 

translation   (Paris,   1824-25),  at    a  moment  when  spite  of  his  activity  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties  as 

Greece  was  struggling  for  her  independence,  made  him  bishop,  he  participated  in  all  the  theological  discussions 

known  to  the  general  public.     In  1830  a  chair  of  of  his  time  and  l>ecame  known  as  a  stem  opponent  of 

foreign  literature  was  created  for  him  at  the  University  Arianism  in  all  its  forms.    For  this,  and  also^  it  is  said, 

of  Paris.  He  studied  specially  the  Southern  literatures  for  his  view,  stated  below,  of  the  corporeity  of  the 

and  Provencal  poetry.    His  lectures  were  published  human  soul,  he  incurred  the  enmity  of  Euric,  King  of 

after  his  death  under  the  title  of  **  Histoire  de  la  po^ie  the  Visigoths,  who  had  gained  possession  of  a  lar^ 

provencale"  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1846).    In  order  to  study  portion  of  Southern  Gaul,  and  was  banished  from  his 

more  aeeply  the  origins  of  French  civilization  he  see.    His  exile  lasted  eignt  years,  during  which  time 

wrote ''  Histoire  de  la  Gaule  m^ridionale  sous  la  domina-  he  was  aided  by  loyal  friends.    On  the  death  of  Euric 

tion  des  oonqu^rants  germains"  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1836),  he  resumed  his  lablours  at  the  head  of  his  diocese  and 

onl^r  a  part  of  a  vaster  work  conceived  by  him.  The  continued  there  until  his  death.    Throughout  his  life 

merit  ot  these  works  caused  him  to  be  elected  (1836),  Faustus  was  an  uncompromising  adversary  of  Pela- 

to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres.  ejus,  whom  he  styled  PeAxfer,  and  eaually  decided  in 

He  contributed  also  to  the  "Histoire  Litt^raire  de  la  his  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  Preaestination  which 

France",  commenced  by  the  Benedictines  and  taken  he  styled  "erroneous,  blasphemous,  heathen,  iatal- 

up  after  the  Revolution  by  the  Institute  of  France,  istic,  and  conducive  to  immorality".    This  doctrine  in 

Having  been  named  assistant  curator  of  the  MSS.  of  its  most  repulsive  form  had  been  expounded  by  a 

the  Royal  Library,  he  published  an  historical  poem  in  presbvter  named  Lucidus  and  was  oonaemned  by  two 

Provengal  verse  (with  a  translation  and  introduction),  s]poa8,  Aries  and  Lyons  (475).    At  the  request  of  the 

dealing  with  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses.  bishops  who  composed  these  synods,  ana  especially 

OuiaioADT,  N^»  hutorique  surlavieet  Uairavaux  deM.C.  Leontius  of  Arles,  Faustus  Wrote  a  work,  "  Libri  duo 

i^±S'!SiW ^^V^fSI^'^^iL'^^'lI^L^Z  depj**^ ^\!^  kmnaruB  mentis  libero aAitno;\  in 

Deux  Mondes  (Fbris,  15  May  and  1  June,  1845).  which  he  refuted  not  only  the  doctrmes  of  the  Predes- 

Louis  N.  Delamarre.  tinarians  but  also  those  of  Pelagius  (P.  L.,  LVIII. 

783).    The  work  was  marred,  however,  by  its  decided 

FanstinaB  and  JoTita»  Saints  and  Martyrs,  mem-  Semipelagianism,  for  several  years  was  bitteriy  at- 

bers  of  a  noble  family  of  Brescia;  the  elder  brother,  tacked,  and  was  condemned  by  the  Synod  of  Orange 

Faustinus,  being  a  priest,  the  younger,  a  deacon,  in  529  (Denzinger,  Enchiridion,  Freibui^,   1908,  no. 

For  their  fearless  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  they  were  174sqq.— oldno.  144;  P.  L.,  XLV,  1785;Mansi,  VIII, 

arrai^ed  before  tne  Emperor  Hadrian,  who,  first  at  712).    Besides  this  error,  Faustus  maintained  that  the 

Brescia,  later  at  Rome  and  Naples,  subjected  them  to  humair  soul  is  in  a  certain  sense  corporeal,  God  alone 

frightful  torments,  after  which  they  were  beheaded  at  being  a  pure  spirit.    The  opposition  to  Faustus  was 

Brescia  in  the  year  120,  according  to  the  BoUandists,  not  fully  developed  in  his  lifetime  and  he  died  with  a 

though  Allard  (Histoire  des  Persicutions  pendant  les  well-merited  reputation  for  sanctitv.    His  own  flock 

Deux  Premiers  Sidcles,  Paris,  1885)  places  the  date  as  considered  him  a  saint  and  erected  a  basilica  in  his 

early  as  118.    The  many  ''Acts"  of  these  saints  are  honour.    Faustus  wrote  also:  ''Libri  duo  de  Spiritu 

chiefly  of  a  legendary  character.    Fedele  Savio,  S.J.,  Sancto"  (P.  L.,  LXII,  9),  wrongl^r  ascribed  to  the 

the  most  recent  writer  on  the  subject,  calls  in  question  Roman  deacon  Paschasius.    His  'HLiibellus  parvus  ad- 

nearly  every  fact  related  of  them  except  their  exist-  versus  Arianos  et  Maoedonianos",  mentioned  by  Gen- 

ence  and  martyrdom,  which  are  too  well  attested  by  nadius,  seems  to  have  perished.    His  correspondence 

their  inclusion  in  so  many  of  the  early  martyrologies  (epishdce)  and  sermons  are  best  foimd  in  the  new  and 

and  their  extraordinary  cult  in  their  native  city,  of  excellent  edition  of  the  works  of  Faustus  by  Engel- 

which  from  time  immemorial  they  have  been  ^e  chief  brecht,  "Fausti  Reiensis  prseter  sermones  pseudo- 

Eatrons.    Rome,   Bologna  and  Verona  share  with  Eusebianos  opera.    Accedunt  Ruricii  Epistuls"  in 

irescia  the  possession  of  their  relics.    Their  feast  is  "Corpus  Scrip,  eccles.  lat.",  vol.  XXI  (Vienna,  1891). 

celebrated  on  15  Feb.,  the  traditional  date  of  their  ^Koch.  ^  «•  Fauatu$  BuekoJ  wm  RieM  (Stuttgart,  l^); 

vnav^t7wl/\vm  WOBTKB,  Zur  DoffmengeswwUe  des  Semipdagtaniamiu  (Mana- 

^Tj^axr    Q/u>    a              r     rx        j    j       oo   «        ^'       m   r     u  t«^   1900).   IIj   BaBDRNHKWRR   (tr.  ShJ^n).  PotfOloffl/   (Fm- 

ylrta  55   V.M8;  Savio.  ZgLWI«rf^S5^  burg  and  6t.  touis.  1908),  (JOO  sq.     For  hia  Sennons  see  Bbbg- 

IniheAnaUetaBoUandvmaiBruaae^,  1896).  XV.  5. 113.377.  mann,  Studien  m  einer  kriiiachen  Su^Uuna  der  sadgaUisdten 


MANN,  istuaten  m  emer  icntucnen  iStcntuna  aer  ttuiqauts 
PredigUiteratur  dot  S,  und  6.  Jahrhunderta  (Leipsig.  1898), 
.  m  ••.«  _.         «      m,  MoBiN  in  Revue  BhUdietine  (1892),  IX,  49-61.    Cf .  also  Casb- 

ranstas  of  MileviB.     See  MANICHiBANS.  noys  in  LHcL  Chriet,  Biog,,  8.  V. 


John  F.  X.  MurphT.  PrediiaitenUur  dee  S,  und  6.  Jahrhunderta  (Leipsig.TSii).  and 

K,  49-61,    d.alfloCAZ 

Patrick  J.  Hbalt. 
FaoBtas  of  Biei,  Bishop  of  Riez  {Rhegium)  in 
Southern  Gaul  (Provence),  the  best  known  and  most  Favanham  Abbayi  a  former  Benedictine  monas- 
distinguished  defender  of  Semipelagianism,  b.  be-  tery  of  the  Cluniao  Congregation  situated  in  the 
tween  405  and  410,  and  according  to  his  oontempo-  County  of  Kent  about  nine  miles  west  of  Canterbury, 
raries,  Avitus  of  Vienne  andSidonius  ApoUinaris,  in  the  It  was  founded  about  1147  by  King  Stephen  and  his 
island  of  Britain;  d.  between  490  and  495.  Nothing,  Queen  Matilda.  Clarimbald.  we  prior  of  Bermondsey, 
however,  is  known  about  his  early  life  or  his  education,  and  twelve  other  monks  of  the  same  abbey  were  trans- 
He  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been  a  lawyer  but  ferred  to  Faversham  to  form  the  new  community; 
owine  to  the  influence  of  his  mother,  f ame^  for  her  sane-  Clarimbald  was  appointed  abbot.  It  was  dedicated  to 
tity,  ne  abandoned  secular  pursuits  while  still  a  young  Our  Saviour  and  endowed  with  the  manor  of  Faver- 
man  and  entered  the  monastery  of  L^rins.  Here  he  sham.  In  the  church,  which  was  completed  about 
was  soon  ordained  to  the  priesthood  and  because  of  his  1251,  Stephen  and  Matilda,  the  founders,  were  buried 
extraordinary  piety  was  chosen  (432)  to  be  head  of  the  and  also  their  eldest  son  Eustace,  Earl  of  Boulogne, 
monastery,  in  succession  to  Maximus  who  had  become '  We  read  c/t  chapels  in  the  church  dedicated  to  Our 
Bishop  of  Riez.  His  career  as  abbot  lasted  about  Lady  and  St.  Anne.  Henry  II  confirmed  all  grants 
twenty  or  twenty-five  years  during  which  he  attained  and  privileges  conferred  by  Stephen,  adding  others  to 
a  high  reputation  for  his  wonderful  ^ts  as  an  extem-  them,andaTlthesewereagainconfirmedtothemonksby 
pore  preacher  and  for  his  stem  asceticism.  After  the  Kings  John  and  Henry  III.  The  abbots  had  their  seat  in 
death  of  Maximus  he  became  Bishop  of  Riez.  This  Parliament  and  we  find  them  in  attendance  at  thirteen 
elevation  did  not  make  any  chan^  m  his  manner  of  several  parliaments  during  the  reigns  of  Edward  land 
life;  he  continued  his  ascetic  practices,  and  frequently  Edward  11,  but  on  account  of  their  reduced  state  and 


20 


FEAR 


poverty,  they  ceased  to  attend  after  the  18th,  Edward 
II.  It  appears  that  some  bitterness  existed  for  a 
considerable  time  between  the  monks  and  the  people 
of  Faversham,  who  complained  of  the  abbey's  imposts 
and  exactions.  Among  these  grievances  were  claims, 
by  way  of  composition,  for  allowing  the  inhabitants 
to  send  their  swine  to  pannage,  for  exposing  their 
goods  for  sale  in  the  market,  and  for  the  hberty  of 
brewing  beer.  Twenty-two  abbots  are  known  to  us; 
the  last  was  John  Shepey,  alias  Castelocke,  who,  on  10 
December,  1534,  along  with  the  sacristsin  and  four 
monks,  is  said  to  have  signed  the  Act  of  Supremacy. 
On  8  July,  1538,  the  abbey  was  surrendered  to  the 
king,  at  which  time  the  annual  revenue  was  about 
£350.  Henry  VIII  gave  the  house  and  site  to  John 
Wheler  for  twenty-one  years  at  an  annual  rent  of  £3 
18s.  8d.  Afterwards  the  property  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  Sir  Thomas  Cheney,  warden  of  the  Cinque 
Ports.  Later  it  was  owned  by  Thomas  Ardem  and 
subsequ^itly  came  to  belong  to  the  family  of  Sondes. 
The  two  entrance  gates  were  standing  a  century  ago, 
but  had  to  be  taken  down  on  account  of  their  ruinous 
condition.  At  the  present  day  there  is  nothing  left 
except  some  portions  of  the  outer  walls. 

Tanksb,  Notitia  Monaattea  (London,  1787),  s.  v.  Kent; 
SoDTHOUBB,  Monattieon  Favenhamiente  (London,  1671); 
Lvwu,  Hilary  of  Favenham  (London,  1727);  Duodalb, 
Moiuui,  Aniflieanum  (London.  1846).  IV,  668. 

G.  E.  Hind. 
FawkaSi  Gut.    See  Gunpowdeb  Plot. 

Faya,  HBRvlhAnausTE-EnENNB-ALBANs,  astron- 
omer, b.  at  Saint-Beno!V<lu-Sault  (Indre,  Fruice),  1 
Oct.,  1814;  d.  at  Paris,  4  July.  1902.  The  son  of  a  civil 
engineer,  he  entered  the  E^cole  Polytechnique  in  1832 
to  prepare  for  a  similar  career.  He  left  the  school  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  second  ]^ear  and  went  to  Holland. 
In  1836  he  entered  the  Paris  Observatoiy  as  a  pupil. 
There,  in  1843,  he  discovered  the  periodic  comet  bear- 
ing his  name.  This  discovery  gained  for  him  the  Prix 
Lalande.  ^  As  early  as  1847  he  was  elected  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  From  1848  to  1854  he 
taught  geodesy  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  and  then 
went  to  Nancy  as  rector  of  the  ac^idemy  and  professor 
of  astronomy.  In  1873  he  was  called  to  succeed  De- 
launay  in  the  chair  of  astronomy  at  the  Ecole  Polytech- 
nique, where  he  worked  and  lectured  until  1893.  He 
held  other  official  positions:  inspector-general  of  sec- 
ondary education  (1857):  member  (1862)  and  later 
(1876)  president  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes;  for 
a  few  weeks  only,  minister  of  public  instruction,  then 
inspector-general  of  higher  education  (1877)  ;and  mem- 
ber of  the  superior  coimcil  of  public  instruction  (1892). 
Chewier  of  the  L^on  of  Honour  in  1843,  he  became 
officer  in  1855  and  commander  in  1870.  He  was 
honoured  with  other  decorations  and  by  election  to 
the  membership  of  the  principal  European  academies 
and  societies. 

Faye's  fame  rests  both  on  his  practical  and  on  his 
theoretical  work.  He  improved  the  methods  of  astro- 
nomical measurement,  invented  the  zenithal  collimator, 
suggested  and  applied  photography  and  electricity  to 
astronomy,  and  dealt  with  proolems  of  physical  as- 
tronomy, the  shape  of  comets,  the  spots  of  the  sun, 
meteors,  etc.  Credit  is  given  by  him  as  well  as  by  his 
friends  to  the  great  influence  of  his  wife,  whom  he  met 
on  his  early  trip  to  Holland.  His  religious  nature 
finds  corroboration  in  his  knowled^  of  the  wonders 
of  the  universe.  Ccdi  enarrarU  glortam  Dei,  he  quotes 
in  ''Sur  1 'engine  du  Monde",  and  goes  on  to  say:  "We 
run  no  risk  of  deceiving  ourselves  in  considering  it  [the 
Superior  Intelligence]  the  author  of  all  thin^,  m  refer- 
ring to  it  those  splendours  of  the  heavens  which  aroused 
our  thoughts;  and  finally  we  are  ready  to  understand 
and  accept  the  traditional  formula:  Uod,  Father  Al- 
mighty, Oeator  of  heaven  and  earth".  He  con- 
tributed over  400  m^moires  and  notes  to  the ''  Gomptes 
rendus",    the    "Bulletin  de  la  soci6t^  astronomi- 


que",  "Monthly  Notices  of  the  R.  A.  S.",  and  "Aa- 

tronomische  Nachrichten".     His  larger  works  are: 

"Cburs  d'astronomie  de  T^ole  polytechnique"  (Paris, 

1883) ;  Humbolt's  "  Cosmos ' ',  tr.  by  Faye  and  Galusky 

(Paris,    1849-59);   "Cours  d'astropomie   nautique" 

(Paris,  1880) ;  "Sur  Tprigine  du  monde"  (Paris.  1885). 

LoBWT  in  Cid  et  Tern  (BnisBels,  1902);  PoiNCABft  in  Bvl* 

letin  de  la  SocUU  aairon.  de  France  (Paris,  1902);  The  ObMrm- 

tory,  files  (London),  July,  1902;  Nature,  files  (London).  17  July, 

William  Fox. 
Faymn.    See  Egtft.    • 

Fear  (in  Canon  Law),  a  mental  disturbance  caused 
by  the  perception  of  instant  or  future  danger.  Since 
fear,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  diminishes  freedom  of  ac- 
tion, contracts  entered  into  through  fear  may  be  j  udged 
invalid;  similarly  fear  sometimes  excuses  from  the 
application  of  the  law  in  a  particular  case ;  it  also  excuses 
from  the  penalty  attached  to  an  act  contrary  to  the 
law.  The  cause  of  fear  is  found  in  oneself  or  in  a  natural 
cause  (intrinsic  fear)  or  it  is  found  in  another  person 
(extrinsic  fear) .  Fear  may  be  grave,  such  for  inistance 
as  would  influence  a  steadfast  man,  or  it  may  be  slight, 
such  as  would  affect  a  person  of  weak  will.  In  onier 
that  fear  may  be  considered  grave  certain  conditions 
are  requisite:  the  fear  must  be  grave  in  itself,  and  not 
merelv  in  the  estimation  ot  tne  person  fearing;  it 
must  be  based  on  a  reasonable  foundation ;  the  threats 
must  be  possible  of  execution;  the  execution  of  the 
threats  must  be  inevitable.  Fear,  again,  is  either  just 
or  unjust,  according  to  the  justness  or  otherwise  of  the 
reasons  which  lead  to  the  use  of  fear  as  a  compelling 
force.  Reverential  fear  is  that  which  mav  exist  be- 
tween superiors  and  their  subjects.  Grave  fear  dimin- 
ishes will  power  but  cannot  be  said  to  totally  take  it 
away,  except  in  some  very  exceptional  cases.  Sli^t 
fear  (metus  ievis)  is  not  considered  even  to  diminish 
the  will  power,  hence  the  legal  expression  ''Foolish 
fear  is  not  a  just  excuse". 

The  following  cases  may  be  taken  as  examples  to 
illustrate  the  manner  in  which  fear  affects  contracts, 
marriage,  vows,  etc..  made  under  its  influence.  Grave 
fear  excuses  from  tne  law  and  the  censure  attached 
thereto,  if  the  law  is  ecclesiastical  and  if  its  non-obser- 
vance will  not  militate  against  the  public  good,  tiie 
Faith^  or  the  authoritv  of  the  Church;  but  n  there  is 
question  of  the  natural  law,  fear  excuses  only  from  the 
censure  (Commentators  on  Decretals,  tit.  *'  De  his  ous 
vi  metusve  caus&  fiunt";  Schmalz^rueber,  tit.  "De 
sent,  excomm."  n.  79).  Fear  that  u  grave, extrinsic, 
unjust,  and  inflicted  with  a  view  to  forcing  consent, 
nullifies  a  marriage  contract,  but  not  if  the  fear  be  only 
intrinsic.  The  burden  of  proof  lies  with  the  person 
who  claims  to  have  acted  through  fear.  Reverential 
fear,  if  it  be  also  extrinsic,  i.  e.,  accompanied  by  blows, 
threats,  or  strong  entreaty,  and  aimed  at  extorting 
consent,  will  also  invalidate  marriage.  Qualified  as 
just  stated,  fear  is  a  diriment  impediment  of  marriage 
when  coupled  with  violence  or  threats  (via  et  metuS), 
For  further  details  see  any  manual  of  Canon  Law,  e.  g., 
Santi-Leitner,  "Prslect.  Jur.  Can."  (Ratisbon,  1905), 
IV,  66-59;  Heiner,  "Kathol.  Eherecht"  (MQnster, 
1905),  82-86;  also  Ploch,  "  De  Matr.  vi  ac  metu  oon- 
tracto"  (1853).  For  the  history  of  this  impediment 
see  Esmein,  "Lemariage  en  droit  canonique"  (Paris, 
1891),!,  309;  11,252;  also Freisen,  ''Gesch.deskanon. 
Eherechtsetc."  (Tttbmgen,  1888). 

Resignation  of  office  extorted  by  unjust  fear  is 
generally  considered  to  be  valid,  but  may  be  rescinded 
unless  the  resignation  has  been  confirmed  by  oath. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  fear  has  been  justlv  brought  to 
bear  upon  a  person,  the  resignation  holds  goml  (S. 
Cong.  Cone.  24  April,  1880).  Ordinatbn  received 
under  erave  and  unjust  fear  is  valid,  but  the  obliga- 
tions of  the  order  are  not  contracted  unless  there  is 
subsequent  spontaneous  acceptance  of  the  obligation 
(Sanchez,  "De  matrim-".  VIL  Disp.  zzix  n.5).    In 


21  FEASTS 

audi  cams  if  freedom  is  desired  the  Holy  See  should  be  much,  however,  as  they  are  accompanied  by  a  more  or 

petitioned  for  a  diroensation  (S.  Gong.  Cone.  13  Aug.,  less  vehement  repugnance,  they  are  said  to  be  in  a 

1870).   The  same  holds  good  with  r^ud  to  the  vows  limited  and  partial  sense  involuntary. 
of  reUflOous  profession,  and  all  o^er  vows  made  under        The  practical  inference  from  this  teaching  is  that 

the  mnuenoe  of  fear  which  is  grave,  extrinsic,  unjust  an  evil  act  having  otherwise  the  bad  eminence  of  griev- 

or  reverential  (see  Vow).   In  English  law,  on  proof  of  ous  sin  remains  such,  even  though  done  out  of  serious 

force  and  fear,  the  law  restores  the  parties  to  the  fear.   This  is  true  when  the  transgression  in  question 

contract  to  the  position  in  which  they  were  before  it  is  against  the  natural  law.   In  the  case  of  obligatbns 

was  entered  into,  and  will  find  the  constraining  party  emerging  from  positive  precepts,  whether  Divine  or 

liable  to  damages  as  reparation  for  any  injury  done  to  human,  a  serious  and  well-founoed  dread  may  often 

the  party  constrained.    The  maxim  of  the  common  operate  as  an  excuse,  so  that  the  failure  to  comply 

law  is  that  "  What  otherwise  would  be  good  and  just,  with  ^e  law  under  such  cireumstances  is  not  regaraed 

if  sought  by  force  or  fraud  becomes  bad  and  unjiist. ''  as  sinful.    The  lawgiver  is  not  presumed  to  have  it  in 

See  Consent;  Contract;  Violence.  mind  to  impose  an  heroic  act.    This,  however,  does 

Taunton,  Im  cfth€Chtareh,B.  v.  F«ir  (London,  1906);  Bab-  not  hold  good  when  the  catering  to  such  a  fear  would 

1S?^c;-.5;^7^&:;-'^Q''Ji-^fSU^ffl'i^  ^volve  conaWerable  damage  to  the  common  weal, 

ralw  (Brtu,  1902):  Fnub.  De  imped.  H  disp,  nuur.  (Louyain.  Thus,  for  instance,  a  pansh  pnest,  m  a  parish  visited 

1893);  Laubbntius,  huL  Jur,  eocL  (Freiburs,  1903),  nn.  61&-  by  a  pestilence,  is  boimd  by  the  law  of  residence  to 

*^'  TkAWTT^  -nTTiLTi..^T>«x  ^tay  at  his  post,  no  matter  what  his  apprehensions 

UAViD  UUNPORD.  ^^y  ^    j^  ^^^j^^  ^  ^  ^^^  j^^^  ^y^^  attrition,  or 

Fear  (from  Moral  Standpoint),  an  unsettlement  sorrow  for  sin  even  though  it  be  the  fruit  of  dread 

of  soul  consequent  upon  the  apprehension  of  some  inspired  by  the  thought  of  eternal  punishment,  is  not 

present  or  future  danger.    It  is  here  viewed  from  the  in  any  sense  involuntary.    At  least  it  must  not  be  so, 
moral  sta 
reckoned 

human   aCw,   m»    nv>.«  »«  wuva^m^  «»•  «ru«y^uftBvwv»A.vivtE>\^  avi.  &'        \f  ^-' 

failing  to  comply  with  positive  law,  particularly  if  the  ana  ^^^  giving  up  of  sinful  attachment  is  an  unre- 
law  be  of  human  origin.  Lastly,  it  is  here  considered  in  servedly  good  and  reasonable  thing.  Hence  there^  w 
so  far  as  it  impugns  or  leaves  intact,  in  the  court  of  con-  no  room  for  tiiat  concomitant  regret,  or  dishke,  with 
science,  and  without  regard  to  explicit  enactment,  the  ''^hich  other  thmgs  are  done  through  fear, 
validity  of  certain  deliberate  engagements  or  contracts.  ,  It  is,  of  wurse,  needless  to  observe  that  in  what  has 
The  divisbn  of  fear  most  commonly  in  vogue  among  been  said  hitherto  we  have  been  referrmg  always  to 
theologians  is  that  by  which  they  distinguish  serious  what  is  done  as  a  result  of  fear,  not  to  what  takes  place 
fear  (metus  gravis),  and  trifling  fear  (metua  levis),  merely  in,  or  with,  fear.  A  vow  taken  out  of  fear  pro- 
The  first  is  such  as  grows  out  of  the  discernment  of  duced  by  natural  causes,  such  as  a  threatened  ship- 
some  formidable  impending  peril:  if  this  be  really,  wreck,  is  valid;  but  one  extorted  as  the  effect  of  fear 
and  without  qualification,  of  large  proportions,  then  unjustly  applied  by  another  is  invalid;  and  this  last  is 
the  fear  is  said  to  be  absolutely  great ;  otherwise  it  is  probably  true  even  when  the  fear  is  trifling,  if  it  be  the 
only  relatively  so,  as  for  instance,  when  account  is  sufficient  motive  for  making  the  vow.  The  reason  is 
taken  of  the  greater  susceptibility  of  certain  classes  of  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  such  a  promise  being  ao- 
persons,  such  as  old  men,  women,  and  children.  Tri-  ceptable  to  Almighty  God.  So  far  as  natural  law  is  con- 
fling  fear  is  that  which  arises  from  being  confronted  cemed,  fear  does  not  invalidate  contracts.  Neverthe- 
with  harm  of  inconsiderable  dimensions,  or,  at  any  less,whenoiieof  the  parties  has  suffered  duress  at  the 
rate,  of  whose  happening  there  is  only  a  slender  likeli-  liands  of  the  other,  the  contract  is  voidable  within  the 
hood.  choosing  of  the  one  so  injured.  As  to  marriage,  unless 
It  is  customary  also  to  note  a  fear  in  which  the  the  fear  prompting  its  solemnisation  is  so  extreme  as 
element  of  reverence  is  uppermost  (metua  reveren-  to  take  away  the  use  of  reason,  the  common  teaching 
Halts),  which  has  its  source  m  the  desire  not  to  offend  is  that  such  consent,  having  regard  for  the  moment 
one's  parents  and  superiors.  In  itself  this  is  reputed  to  onljr  to  the  natural  law,  would  be  binding.  Its  stand- 
be  but  trifling,  although  from  cireumstances  it  may  ing  in  ecclesiastical  law  is  discussed  in  another  article 
easfly  rise  to  the  dignity  of  a  serious  dread.  A  crite-  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  mere  insensibility  to  fear, 
rion  rather  uniformly  employed  by  moralists,  to  having  its  rgot  whether  in  stolidity,  or  pjride,  or  want 
determine  what  really,  and  apart  from  subjective  con-  of  a  proper  rating  of  even  temporal  things,  is  not  a 
ditions  is,  a  serious  fear,  is  that  contained  in  this  valuable  character  asset.  On  the  contrary,  it  repre- 
assertion.  It  is  the  feeling  which  is  calculated  to  sents  a  vicious  temper  of  soul,  and  upon  occasion  its 
influence  a  solidly  balanced  man  (cadere  in  virum  product  may  be  notably  sinful. 
confaniem),  Another  important  classification  is  that  ^Sc^iST'SUif ^  b!?S;«m" 
of  fear  which  comes  from  some  source  withm  the  opus  Thnt^icurn  Monie  (Prato,  1898);  Gbnioot,  Theologim 
person,  for  example,  that  which  is  created  by  the  Moralu  huhtiUioneM  (Louvain,  1898). 
knowledge  that  one  has  contracted  a  fatal  disease;  Joseph  F.  Delant. 
and  fear  which  comes  from  without,  or  is  produced.  Feast  of  the  Ass.  See  Asses,  Feast  of. 
namely,  by  some  cause  extrinsic  to  the  terror-stricken  »...♦  ^#  *i,^  »^i«  o^  v^^r^  !?-*»«  »* 
subject.  In  the  last  named  instance  the  cause  may  be  '•"*  ®'  ^*  '^"-  ^  ^^"'  ^^"^  °'- 
either  natural,^  such  as  probable  volcanic  eruptions,  or  Feasts  (Lat.  Festum ;  Gr.  io/nH),  Eoclbbiastical,  oi 
recosnisable  in  the  attitude  of  some  free  agent.  Holy  Days,  are  days  which  are  celebrated  in  commem- 
FinaUy  it  may  be  observed  that  one  may  have  been  oration  of  the  sacred  mysteries  and  events  recorded 
submitted  to  the  spell  of  fear  either  justly  or  unjustly,  in  the  history  of  our  redemption,  in  memory  of  the 
according  as  the  one  who  provokes  this  passion  Virgin  Mother  of  Christ,  or  of  His  apostles,  martyre, 
remains  within  his  rights,  or  exceeds  them,  in  so  doing,  andsaints,  by  special  services  and  rest  from  work.  A 
Actions  done  under  stress  of  fear,  unless  or  course  it  be  feast  not  only  commemorates  an  event  or  person,  but 
so  intense  as  to  have  dethroned  reason,  are  accounted  idso  serves  to  excite  the  spiritual  life  by  reminding  us 
thelegitimateprogenyof  the  human  will,  or  are,  as  the  of  the  event  it  commemorates.  At  certain  houre 
theologians  say,  sunply  voluntary,  and  therefore  Jesus  Christ  invites  us  to  His  vineyard  (Matt.,  xx,  1- 
imputable.  The  reason  is  obvious.  Such  acts  lack  15);  He  is  bom  in  our  hearts  at  Christmas;  on  Good 
neither  adequate  advertence  nor  sufficient  consent,  Friday  we  nail  ourselves  to  the  cross  wiUi  Him;  at 
even  thoud[i  the  latter  be  elicited  only  to  avoid  a  Easter  we  rise  from  the  tomb  of  sin;  and  at  Pentecost 
greater  evB  or  one  conceived  to  be  greater.    Inas-  we  receive  the  piftg  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Every  religion 


22 


FSA8T8 


has  its  feastsy  but  none  has  such  a  rich  and  judiciously 
constructed  system  of  festive  seasons  as  the  Ca^ohc 
Church.  The  succession  of  these  seasons  forms  the 
ecclesiastical  year,  in  which  the  feasts  of  Our  Losd 
form  the  groimd  and  framework,  the  feasts  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  and  the  Saints  the  ornamental  tracery. 

Prototypes  and  starting-points  for  the  oldest  eccles- 
iastical feasts  are  the  Jewish  solemnities  of  Easter  and 
Pentecost.  Together  with  the  weekly  Lord's  Day, 
they  remained  the  only  universal  CJnristian  feasts 
down  to  the  third  century  (Tertullian, "  De  bapt."  19: 
Origen,  "Contra  Celsum^  VIII,  22).  Two  feasts  of 
Our  Lord  (Epiphany,  Christmas)  were  added  in  the 
fourth  centuiyj  then  came  the  feasts  ctf  the  Apostles 
and  martyrs,  m  particular  provinces;  later  on  also 
those  of  some  confessors  (St.  Martin,  St.  Gregoiv) ;  in 
the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  feasts  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  were  added.  After  the  triumph  of  Christianity, 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  the  sessions  of  the 
civil  courts  were  prohibited  on  all  feasts,  also  the 
games  in  the  circus  and  theatrical  performances,  in 
order  to  give  an  opportunity  to  all  to  hear  Mass.  In 
the  coiu^se  of  centuries  the  ecclesiastical  calendar 
expanded  considerably,  because  in  earlier  ages  every 
bishop  had  a  right  to  establish  new  feasts.  Later  on  a 
reduction  of  feasts  took  place,  partly  by  regular 
ecclesiastical  legislation,  piB^tly  m  consequence  of 
revolutions  in  State  and  Church.  The  Statutes  of 
Bishop  Sonnatius  of  Reims  (see  Calendar,  III,  163), 
in  620,  mention  eleven  feasts:  the  Statutes  of  St. 
Boniface  ("Statuta'',  Mansi  XII,  383),  nineteen  days, 
"tn  qu^ms  9abbatizandum"f  i.  e.,  days  of  rest.  In 
Eni^land  (ninth  century)  the  feasts  were  confined  to 
Christmas,  Epiphany,  three  days  of  Easter,  Assump- 
tion, Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  St.  Gregory,  and  All  Saints. 
Before  the  re^^  of  King  Edgar  (959-75),  three  festi- 
vals of  the  B.  V.  Mary,  and  the  davs  kept  in  honour 
of  the  Apostles  were  added;  in  tne  tenth  year  of 
Ethelred  (989).  the  feast  of  St.  Edward  the  Martyr 
(18  March),  ana  in  the  reign  of  Canute,  or  Cnut  (1017- 
35),  that  of  St.  Dunstan  (19  May),  were  added.  The 
feasts  in  the  Statutes  of  Lanfranc  (d.  1089)  are  (]uite 
numerous,  and  are  divided  into  three  classes  (Migne, 
P.  L.,  CL,  472-78). 

The  Decree  of  Gratian  (about  1150)  mentions  forty- 
one  feasts  besides  the  diocesan  patronal  celebrations; 
the  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX  (about  1235)  mention 
forty-five  public  feasts  and  Holy  Davs,  which  means 
eighty-five  days  when  no  work  coufd  be  done,  and 
ninety-five  days  when  no  court  sessions  could  be  held. 
In  many  provinces  eight  days  after  Easter,  in  some 
also  the  week  after  Pentecost  (or  at  leasts  four  days), 
had  the  sabbath  rest.  From  the  thirteenth  to 
the  eighteenth  century  there  were  dioceses  in  which 
the  Holy  Days  and  Sundays  amounted  to  over  one 
himdred,  not  counting  the  feasts  of  particular  mon- 
asteries and  churches.  In  the  Byzantine  empire 
there  were  sixty-six  entire  Holy  Days  (Constitution  of 
Manuel  Comnenus,  in  1166),  exclusive  of  Sundays,  and 
twenty-seven  half  Holy  Days.  In  the  fifteenth  century, 
Gerson,  Nicolas  de  Cl6manges  and  others  protested 
against  the  multiplication  of  feasts,  as  an  oppression  of 
the  poor,  and  proximate  occasions  of  excesses.  The 
long  needed  reduction  of  feast  days  was  made  by  Urban 
Vin  (Univeraa  per  orbem,  13  Sept.,  1642).  There 
remained  thirty-six  feasts  or  eiehty-nve  days  free  from 
labour.  Pope  Urban  limited  tne  right  of  the  bishops 
to  establish  new  Holy  Days;  this  right  is  now  not 
abrogated,  but  antiquated.  A  reduction  for  Spain 
by  Benedict  XIII  (1727)  retained  onlv  seventeen 
feasts;  and  on  the  nineteen  abrogated  Holy  Days  only 
the  hearine  of  Mass  was  obligatory.  This  reduction 
was  extended  (1748)  to  Sicily.  For  Austria  (1745) 
the  number  had  been  reduced  to  fifteen  full  Holy 
Days;  but  since  the  hearing  of  Mass  on  the  abrogated 
feasts,  or  half  Holy  Days,  and  the  fast  on  the  vigils  of 
the  Apostles  were  poorly  observed,  Clement  XIV 


ordered  that  sixteen  full  feasts  should  be  observed ;  he 
did  away  with  the  half  Holy  Days,  which  however 
continued  to  be  observed  in  the  rural  districts  (peasant 
Holy  Days,  Bauemfeiertage).  The  parish  priests  have 
to  say  Mass  for  the  people  on  all  the  abrogated  feasts. 
The  same  reduction  was  introduced  into  Bavaria  in 
1775,  and  into  Spain  in  1791 ;  finally  Pius  VI  extended 
this  provision  to  other  countries  and  provinces. 

By  the  French  revolution  the  ecclesiastical  calendai 
had  oeen  radically  abolished,  and  at  the  reorganization 
of  the  French  Church,  in  1806,  only  four  feasts  were 
retained:  Christinas,  the  Ascension,  the  Assumption, 
and  All  Saints ;  the  other  feasts  were  transferred  to  Sun- 
day. This  reduction  was  valid  also  in  Belgiiim  and  in 
Germany  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  For  the  Cath- 
olics in  England  Pius  VI  (19  March,  1777)  established 
the  followinglist  of  feasts:  Easter  and  Pentecost  two 
days  each,  Christmas^  New  Year's  Day,  Epiphany, 
Ascension,  Corpus  Chnsti,  Annunciation,  Assumption,  ^ 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  St.  George,  and  All  Saints.  After 
the  restoration  of  the  hierarchy  (1850),  the  Annun- 
ciation, St.  George,  and  the  Monday  after  Easter  and 
Pentecost  were  abolished.  Scotland  keeps  also  the  feast  - 
of  St.  Andrew,^  Ireland  the  feasts  of  St.  Patrick  and 
the  Annunciation.  In  the  United  States,  the  number 
of  feasts  was  not  everywhere  the  same ;  the  Council  of 
Baltimore  wanted  only  four  feasts,  but  the  decree  was 
not  api)roved  by  Rome;  the  third  Plenary  Council 
of  Baltimore  (1884),  by  a  general  law,  retained  six 
feasts:  Christmas,  New  Year's  Day,  Ascension. 
Assumption,  the  Immaculate  Conception,  and  All 
Saints.  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  and  Corpus  Christi  were 
transferred  to  the  next  following  Sunday.  In  the  city 
of  Rome  the  following  feasts  are  of  ciouble  precept 
(i.e. of  hearing  Mass, and  rest  from  work):  Christmas, 
New  Year's  Day,  Epipjhany,  Purification,  St.  Joseph, 
Annunciation^  Ascension,  St.  Philip  Neri  (26  May), 
Corpus  Christi,  Nativity  of  the  B.  V.  M.,  All  Saints, 
Conception  of  the  B.Y.M.,  St.  John  the  Evangelist. 
The  civil  law  in  Italy  acknowledges:  Epiphany,  Ascen- 
sion, Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  Assumption,  Nativity, 
Conception,  Christmas,  and  the  patronal  feasts. 

The  Greek  Church  at  present  observes  the  following 
Holy  Days :  Nativity  of  Mary ,  Exaltation  of  the  Cross 
(14  Sept.),  St.  Demetrius  (26  Oct.),  St.  Michael  (8 
Nov.),  ilntrance  of  Mary  into  the  Temple  (21  Nov.), 
St.  Nicholas  (6  Dec.),  Conception  of  St.  Anne  (9  Dec), 
Nativity  of  Christ.  Commemoration  of  Mary  (26  Dec.), 
St.  Stephen  (27  Dec.),  Circumcision  (1  Jan.),  Epiph- 
any, the  Doctors  St.  Basil,  St.  Gregory,  St.  John 
Chrysostom  (30  Jan.),  the  Meetine  of  Christ  and 
Simeon  (2  Febr.),  Annunciation,  St.  George  (23  Apr.), 
Nativity  of  St.  John,  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  St.  Elias 
(20  July),  Transfiguration  (6  Aug.),  Assumption, 
Beheading  of  St.  John  (29  Aug.),  the  Monday  after 
Easter  and  Pentecost,  Ascension  of  Christ,  and  the 
patronal  feasts.  The  Russians  have  only  nine  ecclesi- 
astical Holy  Days  which  do  not  fall  on  a  Sunday,  viz.: 
Nativity,  Epiphany,^  Ascension,  Transfiguration, 
Purification,  Annunciation,  Assunoption,  Presenta- 
tion of  Maiy  (21  Nov.),  and  the  Exaltation  of  the 
Cross.  But  they  have  fifty  festivals  (birthdays,  etc.) 
of  the  imperial  family,  on  which  days  not  even  a 
f  imeral  can  be  held. 

Division  of  Fe  A8T8.-^Feasts  are  divided  :(a)  Accord- 
ing to  external  celebration  (JeriaHo):  (1)  festa  fori,  or 
feasts  of  precept,  with  double  obligation,  to  rest  from 
work  and  to  hear  Mass;  (2)  festa  chorij  wnich  are  kept 
only  in  the  liturgy,  by  the  celebration  of  Mass,  and  the 
recitation  of  the  Divine  Office.  Besides  these  there 
were,  and  still  are,  in  some  dioceses  (e.  g.  in  Holland), 
the  Half  Holy  Days,  on  which  the  people  after  having 
heard  Mass  can  do  servile  work  (Candlemas,  Nativity 
of  Mary,  and  the  Immaculate  Conception,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Utrecht). 

(b)  According  to  extension:  (1)  Universal  feasts, 
celebrated  everywhere,  at  least  in  the  Latin  Church: 


FEASTS 


23 


FEBB0NIAMI8M 


s 


(2)  Particular  feasts,  celebrated  only  by  certain 
religious  orders,  countries,  provinces,  dioceses  or 
towns.  These  latter  are  either  prescribed  by  the 
general  rubrics,  like  the  patronal  feasts,  or  are 
specially  approved  by  the  Apostolic  See,  and  pre- 
scrSbed  by  bishops  or  synods,  tor  particular  countries 
or  dioceses  (Jeata  pro  altquibtui  locis  in  the  Breviary). 
The  universal  feasts  are  contained  in  the  Koman 
Calendar. 

(c)  According  to  their  position  in  the  calendar: 
1)  Movable  feasts,  which  always  fall  on  a  certain 
lay  of  the  week,  depending  on  the  date  of  Easter,  or 

the  position  of  the  Sunday,  e.  g.  Ascension  of  Christ 
(forty  days  after  Easter),  or  the  feast  of  the  Holy 
Rosary,  the  first  Sunday  of  October;  (2)  Immovable 
feasts,  whidi  are  fixed  to  a  certain  date  of  the  month, 
e.  g.  Christmas,  25  December.  In  the  Armenian 
CSiurch  all  the  feasts  of  the  year  are  movable,  except 
six:  Epiphany,  Purification  (14  Febr.),  Annunciation 
(7  April),  Nativity  (8  Sept.),  Presentation  (21  Nov.), 
and  (8  Dec.)  Conception  of  Mar^  (Tondini,  ''Calen- 
drier  liturgiq  ue  de  la  Nation  Arm^nienne",  Rome,  1006) . 

(d)  Accoraing  to  the  solemnity  of  the  office  or  rite 
(see  Calendar  and  Duplex).  Since  the  thirteenth 
century  there  are  three  kinds  of  feasts:  festum  simplex, 
aemidupiex,  and  diiplex,  all  three  reflated  by  the 
recitation  of  Ihe  Divine  Office  or  Sreviary.  The 
simple  feast  commences  with  the  chapter  {capUulum) 
of  First  Vespers,  and  ends  with  None.  It  has  three 
lessons  and  takes  the  psalms  of  Matins  from  the 
ferial  office;  the  rest  of  the  office  is  like  the  semi- 
double.  The  semidouble  feast  has  two  Vespers,  nine 
lessons  in  Matins«  and  ends  with  Complme.  The 
antiphons  before  tne  psalms  are  only  intoned.  In  the 
Mass,  the  semidouble  has  alwavs  at  least  three  ^'ora- 
tiones"  or  prayers.  On  a  double  feast  the  antiphons 
are  sung  in  their  entirety,  before  and  after  the  psalms. 
In  Lauds  and  Vespers  there  are  no  suffragia  of  the 
saints,  and  the  Mass  has  only  one  ''oratio''  (if  there 
be  no  commemoration  prescribed).  The  ordinary 
double  feasts  are  called  duplicia  minora;  occurring 
with  feasts  of  a  higher  rank,  they  can  be  simplified, 
except  the  octave  days  of  some  feasts  and  the  feasts 
of  tiie  Doctors  of  the  Church,  which  are  transferred. 
The  feasts  of  a  higher  rank  are  the  duplicia  majora 
(introduced  by  Clement  VIII),  the  dupUda  secundce 
dastis  and  the  duplicia  primce  dassia.  Some  of  the 
latter  two  classes  are  kept  with  octaves.  Before  the 
reformation  of  the  Breviary  by  Pius  V  (1566-72),  the 
terms  by  which  the  solemnity  of  a  feast  could  be 
known  were,  in  many  churches,  very  different  from 
the  terms  we  use  now.  We  give  a  few  examples  from 
Grot^end,  "Zeitrechnung",  etc.  (Hanover,  1891-98, 
II-III):  ChuTi  "Festum  summum,  plenum  officium 
trium  lectionum,  commemoratio."  Havelber;^:  **  Fes- 
tum  summum,  semisummum,  secundum,  tertium,  no- 
vem  majus,  novem  minus,  compulsatio  3  lect.,  anti- 

Shona."  Halle:  ^'Festum  prsepositi,  apostolicum. 
ominicale,  9  lect.,  compulsatio  3  lect.^  antiphona.'' 
Breslau:  **  Festum  Triplex,  duplex,  9  lectionum,  3  lect., 
commemoratio."  Carthusians: "  Festum  Candelarum, 
capituli,  12  lect.,  missa,  commemoratio."  Lund: 
"Festum  Prselatorum,  canonicorum,  vicariorum,  du- 
plex, simplex,  9  lect.,  3  lect.,  memoria." 

Some  of  the  religious  orders  which  have  their  own 
breviar^^  cBd  not  adopt  the  terms  now  used  in  the 
Roman  Breviary.  For  example,  the  Cistercians  have 
the  following;  terminology:  "Festum  sermonis  majus, 
Bbrmonis  mmus,  duarum  missarum  majus,  2  miss, 
minus,  12  lectionum,  3  lect.  commemoratio."  The 
Dominicans:  "Totum  duplex,  duplex,  simplex.  3  lect., 
memoria."  The  Carmelites:  *'  Duplex  majus  I.  classis 
solemnis,  dupl.  maj.  I.  cl.,  duplex  majus  2.  classis,  du- 

Slex  minus  I.  classis,  duplex  minus  2.  classis,  semi- 
uplex,  simplex,  simplicissimum." 
Among  the  feasts  of  the  same  rite  there  is  a  difTer- 
^oe  in  dignity.    There  are  (1)  primary  feasts  which 


commemorate  the  principal  mysteries  of  our  zeligbny 
or  celebrate  the  death  of  a  saint ;  (2)  secondary  feasts, 
the  object  of  which  is  a  particular  feature  of  a  mystery, 
e.  g.  the  feast  of  the  Crown  of  Thorns,  of  the  relics  of 
a  saint  or  of  some  miracle  worked  by  him,  e.  g.  the 
feast  of  the  translation  of  St.  Stephen,  the  Apparition 
of  Our  Ladv  of  Guadalupe.  The  list  of  primary  and 
secondary  teasts  has  been  determined  by  a  decree  of 
the  Sacred  Con^gation  of  Rites  (22  Aug.,  1893),  and 
IB  found  in  the  mtroduction  to  the  Roman  Breviary. 
(3)  Within  the  two  classes  mentidhed  the  feasts  of 
Christ  take  the  first  place,  especially  those  with  privi- 
leged vigils  and  octaves  (diristmas,  Epiphany, 
Easter,  Pentecost,  and  Corpus  Christi);  then  follow 
the  feasts  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Holy  Angels,  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  St.  Joseph,  the  Apostles  and  Evange- 
lists, and  the  other  saints. 

DuCHBBNB.  Origines  du  CuUe  ChrMim  (Pftris,  1889);  tr.  Mo- 
Clubb  (London,  1904);  Kxllnbr,  Hearlclogu  (tr.  London, 
1909);  Probst,  lAtwmie  dsa  vierim  JahrK  (MQnster,  1893); 
BiLuMBB,  OesehiehU  dea  Breoien  (Freiburg,  1895);  Bintbrim, 
Dmkwtkrdigkeilen  (Mains,  1829);  Linoard,  Antigtiitiea  of  the 
Anglo-^Saxcn  Chtardi  (London.  1858);  Maxxiouan,  Pbxncb  or 
Saxont,  Pradect.  de  LUurpiia  Orientalibua  (Freiburg,  1908); 
KirdUidiea  HandHexikan  (MQnater,  1907);  KvroienlexiKcn  (Frei- 
burg. 1886),  IV;  NiLLBB,  Kalendaritan  manualet  etc.  (Inna- 
bruck,  1897);  Mobibot,  InMructUmB  wr  Ua  fitea  de  Vannie 
(Paris,  1908). 

F.  G.  HOLWBCK. 

Feasts  among  the  Jews.  See  Atonement;  Bib- 
lical Antiquities;  Dedication;  Jubilee;  Paso* 
over;  Pentecost;  Purim;  Sabbath;  Tabernacles; 
Trumpets. 

Fabronianism,  the  politico-ecclesiastical  system 
outlined  by  Johann  Nikolaus  von  Hontheim,  Auxili- 
ary Bishop  of  Trier,  under  the  pseudonym  Justinus 
Febronius,  in  his  work  entitlea  "Justmi  Febronii 
Juris  consulti  de  Statu  Ecclesise  et  l<^tim&  potestate 
Romani  Pontificis  Uber  singularis  aa  reuniendos  dis^ 
sidentes  in  religione  christianos  ccHnpositus"  (Bullioni 
apud  Guillehnum  Evrardi,  1763;  in  reality  the  work 
was  published  by  Esslinger  at  Frankf  ort-on-the-Main) . 
Takmg  as  a  basis  the  Gallican  principles  which  he  had 
imbib^  from  the  canonist  Van  Espen  while  pursuing 
his  studies  in  Louvain,  Hontheim  advanced  along  the 
same  lines,  in  spite  of  many  inconsistencies,  to  a  radi- 
calism far  outstripping  traditional  Gallicanism.  He 
develops  in  this  work  a  theorv  of  ecclesiastical  organi- 
zation founded  on  a  denial  of  the  monarchical  consti- 
tution of  the  Church.  The  ostensible  purpose  was  to 
facilitate  the  reconciliation  of  the  Protestant  bodies 
with  the  Church  by  diminishing  the  power  of  the  Holy 
See. 

According  to  Febronius  (cap.  i),  the  power  of  the 
keys  was  entrusted  b]^  Christ  to  the  whole  bod^  of  the 
Church,  which  holds  it  principaliter  et  radicalUer,  but 
exercises  it  through  her  prelates,  to  whom  only  the  ad- 
ministration of  this  power  is  conmiitted.  Amon^ 
these  the  pope  comes  nrst,  though  even  he  is  subordi- 
nate to  the  Church  as  a  whole.  The  Divine  institu- 
tion of  the  primacy  in  the  church  is  acknowled^jed 
(cap.  ii),  but  Febronius  holds  that  its  connexion  with 
the  Roman  See  does  not  rest  on  the  authority  of 
Christ,  but  on  that  of  Peter  and  the  Church,  so  that 
the  Church  has  the  power  to  attach  it  to  another  see. 
The  power  of  the  pope,  therefore,  should  be  confined  to 
those  essential  rights  inherent  in  the  primacy  which 
were  exercised  by  the  Holy  See  durine  the  first  ei£[ht 
centuries.  The  pope  is  the  centre  with  which  the  m- 
dividuid  Churches  must  be  united.  He  must  be  kept 
informed  of  what  is  taking  place  everjrwhere  througn- 
out  the  Church,  that  he  may  exercise  the  care  de- 
manded by  his  office  for  the  preservation  of  unity.  It 
is  his  duty  to  enforce  the  observance  of  the  canons  in 
the  whole  Church;  he  has  the  authority  to  promulgate 
laws  in  the  name  of  the  Church,  and  to  depute  legates 
to  exercise  his  authority  as  pnmate.  His  power,  as 
head  of  the  whole  Church,  however,  is  of  an  adminis- 
t^tiVe  ^d  upifjying  character^  rather  than  a  power  of 


FEBBONIANIBM 


24 


nSBBONIAHISM 


jurisdiction.  But  since  the  ninth  century^  chiefly 
through  the  influence  of  th<)  False  Decretals  ot  Pseudo- 
Isidore,  the  constitution  of  the  Church  has  undergone 
a  complete  transformation,  in  that  the  papal  autnor- 
itv  has  been  extended  beyond  proper  Dounds  (cap. 
ill).  By  a  violation  of  justice,  questions  which  at  one 
time  were  left  to  the  decision  of  provincial  synods  and 
metropolitans  ^raduallv  came  to  be  reserved  to  the 
Holy  dee  (cap.  iv),  as,  for  instance,  the  condenmation 
of  heresies,  the  confirmation  of  episcopal  elections,  the 
naming  of  coadjutors  with  the  right  of  succession,  the 
transfer  and  removal  of  bishops,  the  establishment  of 
new  dioceses,  and  the  erection  of  metropolitan  and 
primatial  sees.  The  pope,  whose  infallibility  is  ex- 
pressly denied  (cap.  v),  cannot,  on  his  own  authority, 
without  a  council  or  the  assent  of  the  entire  episco- 
pate, give  forth  any  decisions  on  matters  of  faith  of 
universal  obUgation.  Likewise  in  matters  of  disci- 
pline, he  can  issue  no  decrees  affecting  the  whole  body 
oi  the  faithful;  the  decrees  of  a  general  council  have 
binding  power  only  after  their  acceptance  by  the  indi- 
vidual churches.  Laws  once  promulgated  cannot  be 
altered  at  the  pope's  will  or  pleasure.  It  is  also  denied 
that  the  pope,  by  the  nature  and  authority  of  the 
primacy,  can  receive  appeals  from  the  whole  Church. 
According  to  Febronius,  the  final  court  of  appeal  in 
the  Church  is  the  oecumenical  council  (cap.  vi),  the 
rights  of  which  exclude  the  pretended  monarchical 
constitution  of  the  Church.  The  pope  is  subordinate 
to  the  general  council;  he  has  neither  the  exclusive  au- 
thority to  summon  one,  nor  the  right  to  preside  at  its 
sessions,  and  the  conciliar  decrees  do  not  need  his  rati- 
fication. (Ecumenical  councils  are  of  absolute  neces- 
sity, as  even  the  assent  of  a  majority  of  bishops  to  a 
papal  decree,  if  given  by  the  individuals,  outside  a 
council,  does  not  constitute  a  final,  irrevocable  decis- 
ion. Appeal  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council  is  jus- 
tified by  the  superiority  of  the  council  over  the  pope. 
According  to  the  Divine  institution  of  the  episcopate 
(cap.  vii),  all  bishops  have  equal  rights;  they  do  not 
receive  ^eir  power  of  jurisdiction  from  the  Holy  See. 
It  is  not  within  the  province  of  the  pope  to  exercise 
ordinary  episcopal  functions  in  dioceses  other  than 
that  of  Kome.  The  papal  reservations  regarding  the 
granting  of  benefices,  annates,  and  the  exemption  of 
religious  orders  are  thus  in  conflict  with  the  primitive 
law  of  the  Church,  and  must  be  abolished.  Having 
shown^  as  he  believes,  that  the  existing  ecclesiasticsu 
law  with  reference  to  papal  power  is  a  distortion  of 
the  orimnal  constitution  of  the  Church,  due  chiefly  to 
the  False  Decretals,  Febronius  demands  that  the 
primitive  discipline,  as  outlined  by  him,  be  every- 
where restored  (cap.  viii) .  He  then  suggests  as  means 
for  bringing  about  this  reformation  (cap.  ix),  that  the 
people  snaU  be  properly  enlightened  on  this  subject, 
that  a  general  council  with  full  freedom  be  held,  that 
national  synods  be  convened,  but  especially  that 
Catholic  rulers  take  concerted  action,  with  the  co- 
operation and  advice  of  the  bishops,  that  secular 
princes  avail  themselves  of  the  Regium  Placet  to  resist 

Eapal  decrees,  that  obedience  be  openly  refused  to  a 
tgitimate  extent,  and  finally  that  secular  authority  be 
appealed  to  through  the  AppeUatio  ab  abuau.  The 
last  measures  reveal  the  real  trend  of  Febronian  prin- 
ciples; Febronius,  while  ostensibly  contending  for  a 
hiteer  independence  and  greater  authority  for  the 
bifflaope,  seeks  only  to  render  the  Churches  of  the  differ* 
ent  countries  less  dependent  on  the  Holy  See,  in  order 
to  facilitate  the  establishment  of  national  Churches  in 
these  states,  and  reduce  the  bishops  to  a  condition  in 
which  they  would  be  merely  servile  creatures  of  the 
civil  power.  Wherever  an  attempt  was  made  to  put 
his  ideas  into  execution,-  it  proceeoed  along  these  Unes. 
The  book  was  formally  condemned,  27  February, 
1764,  by  Clement  XIII.  By  a  Brief  of  21  May,  1764, 
the  pope  reouired  the  German  episcopate  to  suppress 
the  work.    Ten  prelates,  among  them  the  Elector  of 


Trier,  complied.  Meanwhile  no  steps  had  been  taken 
against  the  author  personally,  who  was  well  Imown  in 
Rome.  Despite  the  ban  of  the  Church,  the  book,  har- 
monising as  it  did  with  the  spirit  of  the  times,  had  a 
tremendous  success.  A  second  edition,  revised  and 
enlarged,  was  issued  as  earlv  as  1765;  it  was  reprinted 
at  Venice  and  Zurich,  ana  translations  appeared  in 
German,  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese. 
In  the  three  later  volumes^  which  Hontheim  issued  as 
supplementaiy  to  the  origmal  work,  and  numbered  II 
to  IV  (Vol.  II,  Frankfort  and  Leipsig,  1770;  Vol.  Ill, 
1772;  Vol.  IV,  Parts  1  and  2, 1773-74),  he  defended  it, 
under  the  name  of  Febronius  and  various  other  pseu- 
donyms, against  a  series  of  attacks.  Later  he  pub- 
lished an  aorid^ent  under  the  title:  ''Justinus  Fe- 
bronius abbreviatus  et  emendatus"  (Colore  and 
Frankfort,  1777).  In  addition  to  the  "  Judicium  aca^ 
demicum  "  of  the  University  of  Cologne  (1765),  refuta- 
tions appeared  from  a  laree  numb^  of  Catholic  au- 
thors, tne  most  important  oeing:  Ballerini,  "De  vi  ao 
ratione  primatus  Komanorum  Pontificum  et  de  ip- 
sorum  imallibilitate  in  definiendis  controversiis  fidei" 
(Verona,  1766);  Idem,  '*De  potestate  ecclesiastic^ 
Sumraorum  Pontificum  et  Conciliorum  eeneralium 
liber,  una  cum  vindiciis  auctoritatis  ponti&iis  contra 
opus  Just.  Febronii  (Verona,  1768;  Augsburg,  1770; 
new  ed.  of  both  works,  Mtknster  in  W.,  1845,  1847); 
Zaccaria,  "  Antif ebronio,  ossia  apologia  polemico- 
storica  del  primato  del  Papa,  contra  la  dannata  opera 
di  Giust.  Febronio"  (2  vols.,  Pesaro,  1767;  2nd  ed.,  4 
vols.,  Cesena,  1768-70;  tr.  German,  Reichenbe^ger. 
Augsburg,  1768);  Idem,  '' Antifebronius  vindicatus" 
(4  vols.,  Cesena,  1771-2);  Idem,  "In  tertium  Justini 
Febronii  tomum  animad  versiones  Romano-catholicsB  " 
([Rome,  1774);  Mamachi,  "Epistolse  ad  Just.  Febron- 
ium  de  ratione  regendss  christianffi  reipublicse  deque 
legitimd  Romani  Pontificis  potestate"  (3  vols.,  Rome, 
1776-78).  There  were,  besides,  refutations  written 
.  from  the  Protestant  standpoint,  to  repudiate  the  idea 
that  a  diminution  of  the  papal  power  was  all  that  was 
necessary  to  bring  the  Protestants  back  into  union 
with  the  Church,  for  instance  Karl  Fri^rich  Bahrdt, 
''Dissertatio  de  eo,  an  fieri  possit,  ut  sublato  Pontificio 
imperio  reconciHentur  Dissidentes  in  reli^one  Chris- 
tiani''  (Leipzig,  1763),  and  Johann  Friedrich  Bahrdt, 
''De«Roman&  E<^lesi&  irreconciliabiU"  (Leipiig, 
1767) ;  Karl  Gottl.  Hofmann,  "  Prograinma  contmena 
examen  regulte  exegeticae  ex  Vincentio  Lerinensi  in 
Febroniorepetitse"  (Wittenberg,  1768). 

The  first  nl^asures  against  the  author  were  taken 
bv  Pius  VI,  who  urged  Clemens  Wenseslaus,  Elector 
of  Trier,  to  prevail  on  Hontheim  to  recall  the  work. 
Only  after  prolonged  exertions,  and  after  a  retrac- 
tation, coucned  in  general  terms,  had  been  adjudged 
unsatisfactory  in  Rome,  the  elector  forwarded  to 
Rome  Hontheim's  emended  recantation  (15  Novem- 
ber, 1778).  This  was  communicated  to  the  car- 
dinals in  consistory  by  Pius  VI  on  Christmas  Day. 
That  this  retractation  was  not  sincere  on  Hontheim's 
part  is  evident  from  his  subsec[uent  movements. 
That  he  had  bv  no  means  relinquished  his  ideas  ap- 
pears from  his  'Justini  Febronii  Jcti.  Commentarius  m 
suam  Retractationem  Pio  VI.  Pont.  Max.  Kalendis 
Nov.  anni  1778  submissam"  (Frankfort,  1781;  Ger- 
man ed.,  Augsburg,  1781),  written  for  the  purpose  of 
justifying  his  position  before  the  public.  Meanwhile, 
notwithstanding  the  prohibition,  the  ''Febronius 
had  produced  its  pernicious  effects,  which  were  not 
checked  bv  the  retractation.  The  ideas  advanced  in 
the  work,  being  in  thorough  accord  with  the  absolutis- 
tie  tendencies  of  civil  rulers,  were  eagerly  accepted  by 
the  Catholic  courts  and  governments  of  France,  the 
Austrian  Netherlands,  Spain  and  Portugal,  Venice, 
Austria,  and  Tuscany;  and  they  received  further  de« 
velopment  at  the  hands  of  court  theologians  and  can- 
onists who  favoured  the  scheme  of  a  national  Church. 
Among  the  advocates  of  the  theory  of  Febronianism 


FEBEONIUS 


25 


FEOXEMHAM 


in  Germany,  mention  should  be  made  of  the  Trier  pro- 
fessor, Franz  Anton  Haubs,  "Themata  ex  historic 
«ccle6ia8tic&  de  hierarchic  saerC  primorum  V  sseculo- 
rum"  (Trier,  1786);  "Systema  primie vum.de  potea- 
tate  episcopali  ej  usque  applicatio  ad  episcopalia 
quiedam  jura  in  specie punctationibus  I.  II.  et  IV.  con- 
fipressus  Emsani  exposita"  (Trier,  1788);  and  Wilhelm 
Joseph  Castello,  '' Dissertatio  historica  de  variis 
cauais,  queis  accidentalis  Romani  Pontificis  potestas 
successive  ampUata  fuit"  (Trier,  1788).  It  was  the 
Austrian  canonists,  however,  who  contributed  most 
towards  the  compiliation  of  a  new  law  code  regulating 
the  relations  of  Church  and  State,  which  was  reduced 
to  practice  under  Joseph  II.  Especially  noteworthy 
as  oeine  conceived  in  this  spirit  were  the  textbooks  on 
canon  law  prescribed  for  the  Austrian  imiversities, 
and  compiled  bv  Paul  Joseph  von  Riegger,  "  Institu- 
tiones  juris  ecclesiastici"  (4  vols.,  Vienna,  1768-72; 
frequentl]^  reprinted) ^  and  Pehem,  "  Praelectiones  in 
jus  ecclesiasticum  universum  *',  also,  in  a  more  pro- 
nounced way,  the  work  of  Johann  Valentin  Eybel, 
"Introductio  in  jus  ecclesiasticum  Catholicorum"  (4 
vols.,  Vienna,  1777;  placed  on  the  Index,  1784). 
The  first  attempts  to  give  Febronian  principles  a 

Practical  application  was  made  in  Germany  at  the 
dblens  Conference  of  1769,  where  the  three  ecclesias- 
tical Electors  of  Mamz.  Cologne,  and  Trier,  throu^ 
their  delegates,  and  under  the  directions  of  Hontheim, 
compiled  a  list  of  thirty  grievances  against  the  Roman 
See,  in  consonance  with  the  principles  of  the  "  Febro- 
nius"  (Gravamina  trium  Ajchiepiscoporum  Electo- 
rum,  Moguntinensis,  Trevirensis  et  Coloniensis  contra 
Curiam  Apostolicam  anno  1769  ad  Cssarem  de- 
lata;  printed  in  Le  Bret,  "Magazin  zum  Gebrauch 
der  Staaten-  und  Kirchengeschichte  ",  Pt.  VIII,  Ulm, 
1783,  pp.  1-21).  More  significant  was  the  Ems  Con- 
gress of  1786,  at  which  the  three  ecclesiastical  electors 
^nd  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Salzburg,  in  imitation  of  the 
Ck>blenz  Congress,  and  in  conformity  with  the  basic 
principles  of  the  ''Febronius",  made  a  fresh  attempt 
to  readjust  the  relations  of  the  German  Church 
with  Rome,  with  a  view  to  securing  for  the  former 
a  ^^eater  measure  of  iadependence;  they  also  had 
their  representatives  draw  up  the  Ems  Punctation  in 
twenty-three  articles;  they  achieved,  however,  no 
practical  results.  An  attempt  was  made  to  realize 
the  principles  of  the  "Febronius"  on  a  laree  scale  in 
Austria,  where  under  Joseph  II  a  national  Church  was 
established  according  to  the  plan  outlined.  Efforts  in 
the  same  direction  were  made  by  Joseph's  brother 
Leopold  in  his  Grand-Duchy  of  Tuscany.  The  reso- 
lutions adopted  at  the  Synod  of  Pistoia,  under  Bishop 
Scipio  Ricci,  alonp  these  lines,  were  repudiated  by  the 
majority  of  the  bishops  of  the  country. 

Mkiib,  Fdironiua^  Weihbischaf  Johann  Nicciaua  vcn  Hani- 
kekn  vnd  tein  Widerruf  (Tabingen,  1880.  2nd  ed.,  1885).  anti- 
Ronmn;  KONTZioaR.  F^bronitu  el  U  Fibrontaniamem  Mimoirea 
eourontU$  el  auiree  mimairea  ptMiia  par  VAcad^ie  Royale  dee 
edencee.  dee  leltree  el  dee  beaux-arle  de  Belgique^  Vol.  XLIV 
(BruaselB,  1891).  also  anti-Roman;  StOmpbr,  Die  kirchenrecht- 
iiehen  Ideen  dee  FAronitte,  inaucural  dissertation  presented  to 
the  faculty  of  jurisprudenoe  ana  political  economy  of  the  Uni- 
rersitv  of  WQrxburg  (Aschaffenburs,  1908).  Catholic:  R6acH. 
Dae  Kirchenreehl  im  ZeUaUer  der  AufhUirung,  I:  Der  Febronian- 
iemue  in  Arehivf.  kalh.  Kirehmrechl,  LXXXIII  (Mains,  1903). 
446-82, 620-62.  Also  Walch JV«uMte  Relioione^eechiehU,  Pt.  I 
(Lemgo,  1771).  145-98:  Pt.  VI  (1777),  175-208:  Pt.  VH  (1779), 
103-240.  453-64:  Pt.  VIII  (1781).  529-42:  Bri^weehed  zwieehen 
wetland  ikrer  DuroUaueAl  dem  Herm  Kurfnrelen  von  Trier, 
Ctemene  Wemeelaue  und  dem  Herm  Weihbiechof  Nik.  von  Hont- 
Knm  Qber  doe  Bueh,Juet.  Febronii  de  etalu  Bcdeeia  (Frankfort, 
1813):  Pbilups.  Kirchenreeht  (Ratisbon,  1848),  III.  365-74; 
Mabx.  Oeedi.  dee  Ertttqu  Trier  (Trier,  1864),  V,  90-129;  BrOck. 
Die  raiionalialiechen  Beetrebunqen  im  kalholiechen  Deutechland 
(Mains.  1865);  von  Schui/ts.  IHe  Oeech,  der  Qitdlen  imd  lAl. 
dee  eanonieehen  Reehte  (Stuttgart,  1880).  Vol.  Ill,  Pt.  I.  193- 
205;  Bbuabhmxm  in  HietorMir^iliaike  BlAUer,  LXXXVI 
(1880),  529-44;  Kbaub  iq  AUgemetne  Deutache  Biographie,  s.  v. 
HonAeim;  BrOck  in  KinJienlex.,  s.  v.  Hontheim;  Anon.,  Nel- 
Ur,  Hontheim  vnd  CUmena  Wentealaua  (Die  Anf&nge  der  febro- 
nianiachen  Hikreaie)  in  KathUik,  I  (1891),  537-57;  II,  19-39; 
ZoLUCB,  Febrontus  in  HtMeache  Abhandlungen  aur  neueren 
Qeaehiehie,  XLIV  (HaUe.  1906). 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 


Febronios,  JusTmus.    See  Febrgnianism. 

Feckenham,  John  de,  last  Abbot  of  Westmin- 
ster, and  confessor  of  the  Faith;  b.  in  Feckenham 
Forest,  Worcestershire,  in  1515(7),  of  poor  parents 
named  Howman;  d.  at  Wisbech  Castle,  16  Oct., 
1585.  He  became  a  Benedictine  monk  at  Evesham, 
and  studied  at  Gloucester  Hall,  Oxford  (B.D.,  11  June, 
1539),  returned  to  Evesham  to  teach  junior  monks  till 
the  dissolution,  27  Jan.,  1540,  when  he  received  a  pen- 
sion of  15  marks.  Rector  of  Solihull,  Worcestershire 
(15447-1554),  he  became  known  as  an  orator  and  con- 
troversialist. He  was  domestic  chaplain  to  Bishop 
Bell  of  Worcester  till  1543,  and  then  to  Bonner  of 
London  till  1549.  He  was  sent  to  theTower  by  Oran- 
mer  for  defending  the  Faith,  but  in  1551  was  "bor- 
rowed out  of  prison"  to  hold  public  disputations  with 
the  new  men,  e.  g.  with  Jewel  and  Hooper.  Again 
relegated  to  the  Tower,  he  was  released  by  Queen 
Mary,  5  Sept.,  1553,  and  was  much  employed  as  a 
preacher  in  London ;  he  was  advanced  to  benefices,  and 
m  March,  1554,  made  dean  of  St.  Paul's.  He  showed 
great  mildness  to  the  heretics,  many  of  whom  he  con- 
verted, and  saved  others  from  the  stake.  He  pre- 
pared Lady  Jane  Grey  for  death,  thou^  he  could  not 
convince  her  of  her  errors,  as  he  did  Sir  John  Cheke, 
the  king's  tutor.  Feckenham  interceded  for  Elizar 
beth  after  Wvatt's  rebellion,  obtaining  her  life  and 
subsequent  release.  He  took  the  degree  of  D.D.  at  Ox- 
ford, May,  1556,  and  on  7  Sept.,  1556,  was  appointed 
abbot  of  the  royal  Abbey  of  Westminster,  restored  to 
the  order  by  the  queen.  The  Benedictines  took  pos- 
session on  21  November  (since  known  as  dies  memo- 
rabUi8)f  and  the  abbot  was  installed  on  29  November, 
beginning  his  rule  over  a  community  of  about  twenty- 
ei^t,  gathered  from  the  dissolved  abbees.  He  suc- 
cessfully defended  in  Parliament,  11  Feo.,  1557,  the 
threatened  privfleges  of  sanctuary,  and  restored  the 
shrine  of  the  Confessor  in  his  abbey  church. 

Elizabeth  at  her  accession  offered  (November,  1558) 
to  preserve  the  monastery  if  he  and  his  monks  would 
accept  the  new  religion,  out  Feckenham  steadily  re- 
fused, bravely  and  eloquently  defending  the  old  Faith 
in  Parliament  and  denouncing  the  sacrilegious  inno- 
vations of  the  Anglicans.  He  gave  sanctuary  to 
Bishop  Bonner,  and  quietly  went  on  planting  trees 
while  awaiting  the  expulsion,  which  took  place  12 
July,  1559.  He  ^nerously  resigned  a  large  part  of 
the  money  due  hmi  to  the  dean  who  succeeded  him. 
Nevertheless,  in  May,  1560,  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower 
''for  rafling  against  the  chan^  that  had  been  made". 
Three  years  later  he  was  given  into  the  custody  of 
Home,  the  intruded  Bishop  of  Winchester,  but  in 
1564  he  was  sent  back  to  the  Tower,  his  episcopal 
jaOer  having  failed  to  pervert  him.  Feckenham  him- 
self said  that  he  preferred  the  prison  to  the  pseudo- 
bishop's  palace.  In  1571  he  prepared  his  fellow-pris- 
oner. Blessed  John  Storey,  for  death,  and  a  little  later 
was  sent  to  the  Marshalsea.  In  the  Tower  he  and  his 
fellow-confessors  had  been  "haled  by  the  arms  to 
Church  in  violent  measure,  against  our  wills,  there  to 
hear  a  sermon,  not  of  persuading  us  but  of  railing 
upon  us."  He  was  released  on  baU,  17  July,  1574, 
after  fourteen  years'  confinement,  and  lived  in  Hol- 
bom,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  works  of  charity. 
He  encouraged  boys  in  manly  sports  on  Sundays,  pre- 
ferring that  they  should  practise  archery  rather  tnan 
attend  the  heretical  services.  But  falling  ill,  he  was 
permitted  to  go  to  Bath,  where,  in  1576,  he  built  a  hos- 
pice for  poor  patients  and  dia  much  good.  But  his 
zeal  for  tne  Faith  excited  fresh  rancour,  and  in  1577  he 
was  committed  to  the  custody  of  Cox,  Bishop  of  E3y, 
who  was  requested  to  bring  him  to  conformity.  Feck- 
enham's  so-called  "Confession"  (British  Museum, 
Lansdowne  MSS.,  No.  30,  fol.  199)  shows  how  egro- 
gjouslyCox  failed,  and  in  1580  he  petitioned  the  coun- 
cil to  remove  the  abbot,  who  was  accordingly  sent  to 


FED£B 


26 


FEILMOSXB 


Wisbech  Castle^  a  dismal  prison  belonging  to  the  Bish- 
op of  Ely,  which  he  shared  with  Watson,  Bishop  of 
Lincoln,  and  other  confessors.  Here  he  died  a  holy 
death,  fortified  by  the  Sacred  Viaticum,  and  was 
buried  in  Wisbech  Church.  He  was  worn  out  by  an 
imprisonment  of  twenty-three  years  for  conscience' 
sake;  a  striking  example  of  Elizabeth's  ingratitude. 
Protestant  writers  unite  in  praising  his  virtues,  es- 
pecially his  kindness  of  heart,  gentleness,  and  charity 
to  the  poor.  Even  Burnet  calls  him  ''a  charitable 
and  generous  man".  His  best-known  work  is  a^inst 
Home,  "The  Declaration  of  such  Scruples  and  Stays 
of  Conscience  touching  the  Oath  of  Supremacy",  etc. 
He  also  wrote  ''Caveat  Emptor",  a  caution  against 
buying  abbey  lands,  and  a  commentary  on  the  P^ms, 

but  these  are  lost. 

Most  complete  life  in  Taunton,  EnMiBh  Black  Monks  of  St, 
Benedict  (Ix>Ddoa,  1897);  Bbadlby  in  Did,  Nat.  Bioa.,  s.  v.,  with 
Bpod  bibliography;  Wood,  Athena  Oxon.^  II,  222;  Weldon, 
Chronolomcal  Uotea  on  Enn^ieh  Congregatxon  O.  8.  B.  (Stan- 
brook  Abbey,  1881);Gillow,  BiU.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  II;  Oabqubt. 
L(ut  Abb(4  of  GlaaUmbury  and  other  Eesaye  (London,  1908),  s.  v. 
Fedcenham  at  Bath:  Stapleton  {vert  Habpsfzeu)),  Counter' 
blast  to  Mr.  Homes  voyne  blaste  against  Mr.  Feekenham  (Lou- 
vain,  1567);  Retneb,  ApostokUus  Benedictinorum  in  Antfiid 
(Douai.  1626);  State  Papers.  Elizabeth,  Domestic,  XXII, 
XXXVI,  CXIV.  CXXXI,  CiXXII.  CXLIII,  etc.;  Dixon, 
History  of  the  Church  of  England  (London,  1891),  IV,  V. 

Bedb  Camm. 

Feder,  Johann  Michael,  German  theologian,  b.  25 
May,  1753,  at  Oellingen  in  Bavaria;  d.  26  July,  1824,  at 
Wttrzburg.  He  studied  in  the  episcopal  seminary  of 
WUrzburg  from  1772-1777;  in  the  latter  year  he  was 
ordained  priest  and  promoted  to  the  licentiate  in  the- 
olo^.  For  several  years  Feder  was  chaplain  of  the 
Juhus  hospital;  in  1785  he  was  appointed  extraordi- 
nary professor  of  theology  and  Oriental  languages  at 
the  University  of  Warzburg;  was  created  a  Doctor  of 
Divinity  in  1786;  director  of  the  tiniversity  library, 
1791;  ordinary  professor  of  theology  and  censor  of 
theological  pubhcations,  1795.  After  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  University  of  WQrzburg,  1803-4,  ne  was 
appointed  chief  librarian,  resigning  the  professorship 
ot  theologjr  in  1805.  Shortly  after  his  removal  from 
office  as  librarian,  November,  1811,  he  suffered  a 
stroke  of  apoplexy,  from  which  he  never  fully  re- 
covered. Feder  was  a  prolific  writer,  editor,  and 
translator,  but  was  imbued  with  the  liberal  views  of 
his  time.  His  most  meritorious  work  is  a  revision  of 
Dr.  Heinrich  Braun's  German  translation  of  the  Bible 
(1803),  2  vols.  This  revision  served  as  the  basis  for 
Dr.  Allioli's  well-known  translation.  He  also  trans- 
lated the  writings  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (1786) ;  the 
sermons  of  St.  Chrysostom  on  Matthew  and  John,  in 
conjunction  with  the  unfortunate  Eulogius  Schneider 
(1786-88);  Theodoret's  ten  discourses  on  Divine 
Providence  (1788);  Gerard's  lectures  on  pastoral 
duties  (1803);  de  Bausset's  life  of  F^nelon  (1809-12), 
3  vols.,  and  the  same  author's  life  of  Bossuet  (1820) ; 
Fabert's'' Meditations"  (1786).  He  was  editor  of  the 
''Magazin  zur  Bef5rderung  des  Schulwesens"  (1791- 
97),  3  vols.,  of  the  "Prakt.-theol.  Magazin  far  katho- 
lische  Geistliche"  (1798-1800),  and  of  the  ''WOrz- 
burger  Gelehrten  Anzeigen''  (1788-92).  He  also 
wrote  several  volumes  of  sermons. 

HuRTBR,  Nomendator:  Buchbbrobr,  Kirchl.  HandUxikon,  I; 
ScHRdoL  in  Kirchenlex.,  a,  v.;  Binder,  Realencyclopasdie 
(1847);  BrOck.  OeschichU  der  hath,  Kirche  in  DeuUchland 
(Mains,  1902).  I. 

Alexius  Hoffmann. 
Feehan,  Daniel  F.   See  Fall  River,  Diocese  of. 

Fees  (Honoraria),  Ecclesiastical.  See  Mass; 
Offering;  Sacraments;  Stipend. 

Feilding,  Rudolph  William  Basil,  eighth  Earl  of 
Denbigh,  and  ninth  Earl  of  Desmond,  b.  9  AprU,  1823 ; 
d.  1892.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  Ck)llefle  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  Mas- 
ter ofArts.  He  was  received  into  the  Church  in  1850. 
and  took  an  active  part  in  many  Catholic  works  of 


charity  under  Cardinal  Wiseman.  As  Viscount  Feild- 
in^  he  was  appointed  honorary  treasurer, Jointly  with 
Viscount  Campden  and  Mr.  Archibald  J.  Dunn,  of  the 
Peter's  Pence  Association.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
courage^  and  independence  of  character,  qualities 
needed  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  when 
the  English  Protestant  mind  was  much  inflamed  in 
consequence  of  the  establishment  of  the  Catholic  hier- 
archy in  England.  As  a  thanksgiving  for  his  conver- 
sion, he  built  the  Franciscan  monastery  at  Pentasaphy 
North  Wales. 

Archibald  J.  Dunn. 

Feilire  of  Aengns  the  Ouldee.    See  Aengus. 

Feilmoser,  Andreas  Benedict,  theologian  and 
Biblical  scholar,  b.  8  April,  1777,  at  Hopfgarten,  Tyrol; 
d.  at  Tubingen,  20  July,  1831,  studied  at  Salzburg 
from  1789  to  1794,  took  a  two  years'  course  in  phUoso- 
phy  at  the  University  of  Innsbruck  (1794-96),  and 
entered  the  Benedictme  Order  at  Fiecht,  Tyrol,  in 
September,  1796.  At  this  abbey  he  studied  the  Orien- 
tal languages  under  pom  Georg  Maurer,  a  monk  of  St. 
George^  Abbey,  Villingen.  For  his  theological  studies 
he  was  sent  to  Villingen,  where  he  again  neard  Dom 
Maurer  and  Dom  Gottfried  Lumper,  both  eminent 
s«bolars.  Returning  to  Fiecht  in  1800^  he  taught 
Biblical  exegesis  and  was  ordained  priest  m  1801 ;  late 
in  the  same  vear  he  was  appointed  master  of  novices, 
in  1^2  professor  of  Christian  ethics  and  in  1803  ot 
ecclesiastical  history.  A  number  of  theses  which  he 
published  in  1803  aroused  the  suspicions  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical authorities  of  the  Diocese  of  Brixen.  The 
Abbot  of  Fiecht  was  sharplv  rebuked  for  permitting 
Feilmoser  to  teach  unsound  doctrine.  In  1804  ap- 
peiu^ed  Feilmoser's  "Animadversiones  in  historiam 
ecclesiasticam",  which  did  not  meet  the  approval  of 
the  diocesan  authorities,  who  threatened,  in  case  Fefl- 
moser  did  not  desist  from  advancing  dangerous  opin- 
ions, to  institute  proceedings  against  the  abbot.  To 
Feilmoser's  request  for  a  specification  of  the  objection- 
able passages  m  his  writings  no  reply  was  made,  but 
the  entire  matter  was  reported  to  the  emperor  at 
Vienna.  An  investigation  instituted  by  order  of  the 
emperor  resulted  favourably  for  Feilmoser.  He  was, 
nevertheless,  removed  from  the  ofl^ce  of  master  of 
novices  and  in  1806  was  made  assistant  in  the  parish 
of  Achenthal.  By  the  Treaty  of  Presbure  (26  Dec, 
1805)  Tyrol  was  cut  off  from  Austria  ana  became  a 
part  of  Bavaria.  The  new  Government,  in  November, 
1806,  apppinted  him  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
and  of  mtroduction  to  the  Old  Testament  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Innsbruck.  The  monastery  of  Fiecht  hav- 
ing been  suppressed  in  1807,  he  left  the  order.  At 
Innsbruck  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theol- 
ogy in  1808  and  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  New- 
l^tament  exeeesiB.  During  the  l^rrolese  insurrection, 
August,  1809^  ne,  with  a  number  of  other  professors, 
was  taken  prisoner  and  carried  to  Pusterthal  by  order 
of  Andreas  Hofer.  In  1810  he  returned  to  Inns- 
bruck; in  1811  he  was  made  professor  of  catechetics, 
in  1812  of  Latin  and  Greek  philology,  and  in  1817 
was  reappointed  professor  of  rl^ew-l^tament  exege- 
sis in  the  face  of  much  opposition.  About  this  time 
the  old  charges  against  him  were  revived,  and  in  1818 
he  was  bitterly  attacked  in  an  anonymous  work  pub- 
lished at  Augsbure.  He  was  denied  the  opportunity 
of  publicly  defending  himself,  inasmuch  as  the  im- 
penal  censor  at  Vienna,  on  17  July.  1819,  decided  that, 
since  the  anonymous  work  was  puolished  in  a  foreign 
country,  it  was  under  Austrian  censure  and  must  be 
regarded  as  non-existent.  On  25  AprU,  1820,  he  was 
formally  appointed  a  professor  at  the  University  of 
Tubingen,  where  he  continued  to  teach  New-Testa- 
ment exegesis  until  his  death. 

He  wrote:  "Sfttse  aus  der  christlichen  Sittenlehre 
far  die  dffentliche  Pnlfung  in  dem  Benedictinerstifte  zu 
Fiecht"  (Innsbruck,  1803);  "  SftUse  aus  der  Einleitung 


FELBIQXB                               27  FEXJOISSZMUS 

in  die  BQcher  des  alten  Bundes  und  den  hebr&ischen  biger's  too  mechanical  method  was  the^uae  of  tableB 

AlterthQmem"  (Innsbruck,  1803);  ''Animadversiones  containing  the  initials  of  the  words  which  expressed 

inhiBtoriamecclesiasticam"(Inn8bruckyl803);''S&tze  the  lesson  to  be  imparted.    Other  features  were  the 

aus  der  Einleitung  ia  die  BQcher  des  neuen  Bundes  substitution  of  class-instruction  for  individual  instruc- 

und  der  bibl.  Hermeneutik"  (Innsbruck.  1804);  "£in-  tion  and  the  practice  of  questioning  the  pupils.    He 

leitung  in  die  BQcher  des  neuen  Bundes  '  (Innsbruck,  aimed  at  raismg  the  social  standing,  financial  condi- 

1810);  ''Auszug  des  hebr.  ^prachlehre  nach  Jahn"  tion,  and  professional  qtialification  of  the  teaching 

(Innsbruck,  1812) ;  "  Die  Verketzerun^ssucht"  (Rett-  body,  and  at  giving  a  friendly  character  to  the  mutuiu 

well.  1820).    His  principal  work,  ''Einleitung  in  die  relations  between  teacher  and  pupil.    For  a  list  of  his 

BOcner  des  neuen  Bundes",  published  in  a  revised  78  publications,  which  are  mainly  of  a  pedagogical- 

edition  (Tabingen,  1830),  is  inaccurate  and  was  praised  character,  see  Panholzer's  "  Methodenbuch  "  (46-66). 

far  beyond  its  due.     He  also  contributed  papers  and  „  Volkmer.  Jofumn  lomuvon  Fdbvaer  (HabelBchwerdt.  l^); 

criticisms  to  the  "Annalen  der^rreichi^sU  Lit-  iTS^'^'/^h^^S^rL^^t'^-^^^F 

teratur  und  Kunst"  and  the  "  Theologische  Quartal-  Rioenschaftm,  Wiawnschaften  u.  Bezeigen  rechtaehaWener  Schul- 

Bchrift"  of  Tubingen.     His  exegetical  writings  are  few^  (2d  ed.,  Paderbora^  1906);  Wiluamb.  ijia^^ 

mfluenced  by  the  rationalistic  sp&it  of  his  day.    He  f  .^gC^^^SSS?;  llrel' ^^^^^^ 

denied  the  genuineness  of  the  Comma  Johanneum  and  I^,  j^  Wbbbb. 

maintained  that  the  Books  of  Job,  Jonas,  Tobias,  and 

Judith  are  merely  didactic  poems.  Feldkirch.    See  Brixen. 

HuBTBB,  Nomendator;  Wbi/tb  in  Kirehenlex.^  m.  v.;    Scrip-  «.  «.   .      «   <^         oi        * 

tores  O.S,B.  (Vienna,  1881);    Wackxrnsll.  Beda  Weber  (Inns-  FeliClftlUStB.     See  AdoPTIONISM. 

brock.  18»3);   Theol.  OvaHaUchnft  (TQbingen,  1831);  Gwbin*  «  „  ,        «.              ^     «    —     .         ,    •  ^-  *, 

in  BucBBBBaBB,  KinM,  Handiexikon,  s.  v.  Feliclaa  Sisters,  O.  8.  F.»  foimded  21  November, 

Alexius  Hoffmann.  1855,  at  Warsaw,  Poland,  by- Mother  Mary  Angela, 

under  the  direction  of  Father  Honorat,  O.  M.  Cap.  On 

Felbiffer,  Johann  Iqnaz  von,  a  German  educar  their  suppression,  in  1864,  by  the  Russian  Govern- 

tional  reformer,  pedagogical  writer,  and  canon  regular  ment  they  transferred  the  mother-house  to  Cracow, 

of  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine,  b.  6  January,  1724,  at  Austria.    In  the  province  of  Cracow  there  are  forty- 

GroBS-Glogau  in  Silesia;  d.  17  May,  1788,  at  Presburg  four  houses  of  this  congregation,  and  in  the  United 

in  Hungary.    He  was  the  son  of  a  postmaster,  who  States,  where  the  first  foundation  was  made  in  1874, 

had  been  ennobled  by  Emperor  Charles  VI.    The  there  are  two  provinces,  820  choir  and  lay  sisters,  100 

death  of  his  parents  constramed  him,  after  studying  novices,  168  postulants;  in  charge  of  87  schools  with 

theology  at  the  University  of  Breslau,  to  accept  (1744)  36,700  pupils,  6  orphanages  iinth   416   inmates,  2 

the  position  bf  teacher  in  a  private  family.    In  1746  homes  for  the  aged,  an  emigrant  home,  working  girls' 

he  joined  the  Order  of  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Angus-  home,  and  a  day  nursery. 

tine  at  Sagan  ia  Silesia,  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1748,  Mother  Mart  Jerome. 
and  ten  years  later  became  abbot  of  the  monastery  of 

Sagan.    Noting  the  sad  condition  of  the  local  Catholic  Felidssimos,  a  deacon  of  Carthage  who,  in  the 

schools,  he  strove  to  remedy  the  evil  by  publishiog  his  middle  of  the  third  century,  headed  a  short-lived  but 

first  school-ordinance  in  1761.    During  a  private  joui>  dangerous  schism,  to  which  undue  doctrinal  import- 

n^  to  Berlin,  in  1762,  he  was  favourably  impressed  ance  has  been  siven  by  a  certain  class  of  writers, 

with  Hecker's  Realschule  and  Hfthn's  method  of  in-  Neander,  Ritschl,  Hamack,  and  others,  who  see  in  it 

structing  by  initials  and  tables  (LUeral-  or  Tabellenr  '' a  presbyterial  reaction  against  episcopal  autocracy". 

meUiode),  and  became  an  enthusiastic  propagator  of  Of  the  chief  figure  in  the  revolt,  Felicissimus,  not  much 

this  method.    A  school-ordinance  for  tne  dependen-  can  be  said.    The  movement  of  which  he  was  after- 

cies  of  the  monasteiy  of  Sag^  was  issued  in  1763,  a  wards  the  leader  originated  in  the  opposition  of  five 

teachers'  college  was  established,  and  Felbiger's  school-  presbyters  of  the  church  in  Carthage  to  St.  C3rprian'8 

reforms  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  Catholics  and  election  as  bishop  of  that  see.    One  of  these  presby- 

iSrotestants  alike.    He  was  supported  by  the  Silesian  ters,  Novatus,  selected  Felicissimus  as  deacon  of  his 

minister  von  Schlabrendorff,  and  at  the  latter's  re-  church  in  the  district  called  Mons,  and  because  of  the 

qum,  fliter  a  second  journey  to  Berlin  he  elaborated  a  importance  of  the  office  of  deacon  in  the  African 

general  school-ordinance  for  the  Catholic  elementiuy  Church,  Felicissimus  became  the  leader  of  the  mal- 

schools  in  Silesia  (1765).    Three  graded  catechisms,  contents.    The  opposition  of  this  faction,  however, 

the  joint  work  of  the  prior  and  the  abbot  of  Sagan,  an-  led  to  no  open  rupture  until  after  the  outbreak  of  the 

peared  in  1766  under  the  title,  ''Silesian  Catechism^',  Decian  persecution  in  250^  when  St.  C3rprian  was  com- 

and  enjoyed  a  wide  circulation.    The  death  of  von  pelled  to  flee  from  the  city.    His  absence  created  a 

Schlabrendorff  in  1769  marked  the  end  of  the  Silesian  situation  favourable  to  his  adversaries,  who  took  ad- 

^vemment's  educational  efforts.    Felbiger's  su^es-  vantage  of  a  division  already  existing  in  regard  to  the 

tions  were  heeded,  however,  by  King  Frederick  II  in  meth(»s  to  be  followed  in  dealing  with  those  who  had 

the  regulations  issued  (1774)  for  Silesian  higher  schools,  apostatized  {lapsi)  during  persecution  and  who  after- 

At  the  request  of  the  empress,  Maria  Theresa,  he  re-  wards  sought  to  be  readmitted  to  Christian  fellowship, 
geared  to  Vienna  in  1774,  and  was  appointed  General  It  was  easy  under  the  ciroumstances  to  arouse  much 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  all  tne  German  lands  hostility  to  C3rprian,  because  he  had  followed  an  ex- 
of  her  dominions.  The  same  year  he  published  his  tremely  rigorous  poUcy  in  dealing  with  those  lapm. 
general  school-ordinance,  and  in  1775  his  most  impor-  The  crisis  was  reached  when  St.  Cyprian  sent  from  his 
tant  pedagogical  production:  "Methodenbuch  fUr  place  of  hiding  a  commission  consisting  of  two  bishops 
Lehrer  der  oeutschen  Schulen".  His  school-reform  and  two  priests  to  distribute  alms  to  those  who  had 
was  copied  by  Bavaria  and  other  German  lands  and  been  ruined  during  the  persecution.  Felicissimus,  re- 
was  not  without  influence  on  Russia.  Considerable  garding  the  activities  of  these  men  as  an  encroach- 
opposition,  aroused  by  Felbiger's  arbitrariness,  deveJ-  ment  on  the  prero^tives  of  his  office,  attempted  to 
oped  in  Austria  against  his  plan  of  founding  special  frustrate  their  mission.  This  was  reported  to  St.  C^r* 
schools  for  the  neglected  instruction  of  soldiers,  prian,  who  at  once  excommunicatea  him.  Felicissi- 
Maria  Theresa,  however,  always  remained  his  faithful  mus  immediately  gathered  around  him  all  those  who 
protectress.  But  his  strictly  religious  principles  of  were  dissatisfied  with  the  bishop's  treatment  of  the 
education  displeased  Joseph  II,  who  deprived  mm  of  lapsi  and  proclaimed  an  open  revolt.  The  situation 
his  position,  assigned  him  to  his  provostship  at  Pres-  was  still  further  complicated  by  the  fact  that  the 
huif^  and  advised  him  to  look  after  educational  inter-  thirty  years'  peace  preceding  the  Decian  persecution 
ests  in  Hungary  (1782) .    The  chief  peculiarity  of  Fel-  had  caused  much  laxity  in  the  Church,  and  that  on  the 


nZJOITAS                             28  FELI0ITA8 

first  outbreak  of  hoetilities  multitudes  of  Christians  Moreover,  apart  from  the  present  fonn  of  the  Acts, 

had  openly  apostatised,  or  resorted  to  the  expedient  of  various  details  have  been  called  in  question.    Thus,  u 

purchasing  certificates  from  the  venal  officials,  attest-  Felicitas  were  really  the  mother  of  the  seven  martyrs 

m^  their  compliance  with  the  emperor's  edict.   Besides  honoured  on  10  July,  it  is  strange  that  her  name  does 

this  the  custom  of  readmitting  apostates  to  Christian  not  appear  in  the  well-known  f  ourth-centurv  Roman 

fellowship,  if  they  could  show  tickets  from  confessors  calendar.    Her  feast  is  first  mentioned  in  the  ''Mar- 

or  martyrs  in  their  behalf,  had  resulted  in  widespread  tyrologium  Hieronymianum  ",  but  on  a  different  day 

scandals.  (23  Nov.).    It  is,  however,  historicallv  certain  that 

While  St.  Cyprian  was  in  exile  he  did  not  succeed  in  she,  as  well  as  the  seven  martyrs  called  her  sons  in  the 

checking  the  revolt  even  though  he  wisely  refrained  Acts,  suffered  for  the  Christian  Faith.    From  a  very 

from  excommunicating  those  who  differed  from  him  in  early  date  her  feast  was  solemnly  celebrated  in  the 

regard  to  the  treatment  of  the  lapsi.    After  his  return  Roman  Church  on  23  November,  for  on  that  day 

to  Carthage  (251)  he  convoked  a  synod  of  bishops,  Gregory  the  Great  delivered  a  homily  in  the  basilica 

priests,  and  deacons,  in  which  the  sentence  of  excom-  that  rose  above  her  tomb*    Her  body  then  rested  in 

munication  against  FeUcissimus  and  the  heads  of  the  the  catacomb  of  Maximus;  in  that  cemetery  on  the 

faction  was  reaffirmed,  and  in  which  definite  rules  Via  Salaria  all  Roman  itineraries,  or  guides  to  the 

were  laid  down  regarding  the  manner  of  readmitting  burial-places  of  martyrs,  locate  her  buriid-place,  speci- 

the  lapsi.    The  sentence  against  FeUcissimus  and  his  fying  tnat  her  tomb  was  in  a  churoh  above  tlus  cata- 

followers  did  not  deter  them  from  appearing  before  comb  (De  Rossi,  Roma  sotterranea,  I,  176-77),  and 

another  council,  which  was  held  in  Cartnaee  the  follow-  that  the  body  of  her  son  Silanus  was  also  there.    The 

ing  year,  and  aemanding  that  the  case  oe  reopened,  crypt  where  Felicitas  was  laid  to  rest  was  later  en- 

Their  demand  was  refui^,  and  they  sought  to  profit  larged  Into  a  subterranean  chapel,  and  was  redis- 

by  the  division  in  the  Roman  Churoh  which  had  arisen  covered  in  1885.    A  seventh-century  fresco  is  yet 

from  similar  causes,  except  that  in  this  case  the  charge  visible  on  the  rear  wall  of  this  chapel,  representing  in  a 

of  laxity  was  levelled  against  the  orthodox  party,  group  Felicitas  and  her  seven  sons,  ana  overhead  the 

This  proceeding  and  the  tact  that  the  Coimcil  of  Car-  figure  of  Christ  bestowing  upon  them  the  eternal 

thage  had  deciaed  with  so  much  moderation  in  regard  crown. 

to  the  lapsi,  modifying  as  it  did  the  rigoristic  policy  of  Certain  historical  references  to  St.  Felicitas  and  her 

Cyprian  by  a  judicious  compromise,  soon  aetached  sons  antedate  the  aforesaid  Acts,  e.  g.  a  fifth-century 

from  FeUcissimus  aU  his  followers,  and  the  schism  sermon  of  St.  Peter  Chrysolcgus  (Sermo  cxxxiv,  in 

disappeared.  P.  L.,  LIL  565)  and  a  metricalepitaph  either  written 

•,*i2S**^^?'  ^"*-  ^-.4^^^/"^  P^^^\SF'^P^\}S9}'rrJj  by  Pope  Damasus  (d.  384)  or  composed  shortly  after 

l^?^^i.i:^;^M*S3^H^^^,'kl^i^i;^^  Ws  tin»  and  suggeated  by  hia  poem  in  pmiae  of  the 

U»7),  ISa-lSO;  Idem  in  Diet.  Chriat,  Biog.,  s.  v.  martyr: — 

Patrick  J.  Hbalt.  Discite  quid  meriti  pnestet  pro  rege  feriri; 

Femina  non  timuit  gladium,  cum  natis  obivit, 

F^dtaSy  Saint,  Martyr. — ^The  earliest  list  of  the  Confessa  Christum  meruit  per  sncula  nomen. 

Roman  feasts  of  martyrs,  known  as  the  "Depositio  [Learn  how  meritorious  it  is  to  die  for  the  King 

Martyrum  "and  dating  from  the  time  of  Pope  Libenus,  (Christ) .    This  woman  feared  not  the  sword,  but  per- 

L  e.  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  (Rumart,  ished  with  her  sons.   She  confessed  Christ  and  mented 

Acta  smoera,  Ratisbon,  p.  632),  mentions  seven  mar-  an    eternal    renown.— Ihm,    Damasi    Epigrammata 

tyrs  whose  feast  was  kept  on  10  July.    Their  remains  (Leipzig,  1895),  p.  45.1   We  possess,  therefore,  confir- 

had.been  deposited  m  four  deferent  catacombs,  vis.  m  mation  lor  an  ancient  Roman  tradition,  independent  of 

three  cemetenes  on  ^e  Via  Salaria  and  m  one  on  the  the  Acts,  to  the  effect  that  the  FeUcitas  who  reposed  in 

Via  Appia.    Two  of  the  martyrs,  Fehx  and  Philip,  re-  the  catacomb  of  Maximus,  and  whose  feast  the  Roman 

posed  m  the  catacomb  of  PnsciUa;  Martial,  Titahs  Church  commemorated  23  Nov.,  suffered  martyrdom 

and  Alexander,  in  the  CowFietenum  Jordanorum;  Sil-  with  her  sons;  it  does  not  record,  however,  any  details 

anus  (or  Silvanus)  m  the  catacomb  of  Maxunus,  and  concerning  these  sons.    It  may  be  recalled  that  the 

Januarius  in  that  of  Praetextatus.    To  the  name  of  tomb  of  St.  Silanus,  one  of  the  seven  martyrs  (10  July), 

Silanus  is  added  the  statement  that  his  body  was  adjoined  that  of  St.  Felicitas  and  was  likewise  hon- 

stolenbytheNovatians(^ttncSaanummartyremiVora-  oured:   it  is  quite  possible,  therefore,  that  tradition 

ttont  fwraH  turU).    In  the  Acts  of  these  martyrs,  that  goon  identified  the  sons  of  St.  FeUcitas  with  the  seven 

certamly  existed  m  the  sixth  century,  since  Gregory  martyrs,  and  that  this  formed  the  basis  for  the  extant 

the  Great  refers  to  them  m  his    Homihie  super  Evan-  Acts.    The  tomb  of  St.  Januarius  in  the  catacomb  of 

geUa"  (Lib.  I.  hom.  ui,  in  P.  L.,  LXXVI,  1087),  it  is  Praetextatus  belongs  to  the  end  of  the  second  century, 

stated  that  aU  seven  were  sons  of  Felicitas,  a  noble  to  which  period,  therefore,  the  martyrdoms  must  be- 

Roman  lady.    According  to  these  Acts  Felicitas  and  long,  probably  under  Marcus  Aurelius.   If  St.  Felicitas 

her  seven  sons  were  imprisoned  because  of  their  Chns^  djd  not  suffer  martjrrdom  on  the  same  occasion  we 

tian  Faith,  at  the  instigation  of  pa^n  priests,  during  have  no  means  of  determining  the  time  of  her  death, 

the  reign  of  Emperor  Antoninus.    Before  the  prefect  in  an  ancient  Roman  edifice  near  the  ruins  of  the 

PubUus  they  adhered  firmly  to  their  reUgion,  and  were  Baths  of  Titus  there  stood  in  early  medieval  times  a 

delivered  over  to  fom-  judges,  who  condemned  them  chapel  in  honour  of  St.  Felicitas.    A  faded  paintmg  in 

to  various  modes  of  death.    The  division  of  the  mar-  this  chapel  represents  her  with  her  sons  just  as  in  the 

tyre  among  four  judges  corresponds  to  the  four  places  above-mentioned  fresco  m  her  crypt.    Her  feast  is 

of  their  bunal.     St.  Fehcitas  herself  was  buned  m  celebrated  23  Nov 

the  catacomb  of  Maximus  on  the  Via  Salaria,  beside  ^vir^j,^.  Acta  »i^era  maHimsm  (Ratisbon.  i860).  72-74; 

SlUinus.  Acta  SS.,  July.  Ill,  5^18;   BMiotheoa  haoiomvhica  laHna,  I, 


Ologists  have  considered  them,  though  not  m  their  Bbmi  aur  lea  mppcrta  de  FEoliee  t^rUienne  avecTEtairomain 

present  form  corresponding  entirely  to  the  original,  pendant  lee  troie  premien  aiMee  (l^rto.  1MB),  187-217;   Du- 

w*  m  fliiWdjinnA  hskZ^  nn  m»ninnp  nrnitAmnnrArv  rM».  »0UHCQ,  Oeela  MaHyrum  romatne  (Pan*.  1900).  I,  223-24;  Da 

yet  m  suDstance  oasea  on  genuine  contemporary  rec-  •  j^^gg,  BuUettmo  di  archeU.  erUt  (1884-85).  i4»-84;  Fohrbr, 

Ords.     Recent  mvest^tions  of  FQhrer,  however  (see  Bin  Beitmg  zur  Ldeung  der  FdicUaetraoe  (FreUnc.  1890); 

below),  have  shown  this  opinion  to  be  hardly  tenable.  Imm..  ^^  Fdjeitaefraoe  (Uipiis*  1894):   KentmM,  Hmh 

The  earUest  recension  of  thj«e  Acta,  edited  by  Ruinart.  ??^feg^fi^;  T.^'^cSTZS  ^£S!S^r^{&: 

does  not  antedate  the  sixth  century,  and  appeare  to  i903),  388-400. 
be  based  not  on  a  Roman,  but  on  a  Greek  original.  J.  P.  Krasca. 


TKUCITAS 


29 


FELIX 


Valieitas  and  Perpetua,  Saints,  martyrsi  suf- 
fered at  Carthage,  7  March,  203,  together  with  three 
companions,  Revocatus,  Saturus,  and  Satuminus. 
The  details  of  tiie  martyrdom  of  these  five  confessors 
in  the  North  African  Church  have  reached  us  through  a 
genuine,  contemporary  description,  one  of  the  most 
affecting  accounts  of  the  glorious  warfare  of  Christian 
martyrdom  in  ancient  times.  By  a  rescript  of  Septi- 
mius  Severus  (193-211)  all  imperial  subjects  were  for- 
bidden under  severe  penalties  to  become  Christians. 
In  consequence  of  this  decree,  five  catechumens  at 
Carthage  were  seized  and  cast  into  prison,  viz.  Vibia 
Perpetua.  a  young  married  lady  of  noble  birth;  the 
slave  Fehcitas,  and  her  fellow-slave  Revocatus,  also 
Satuminus  and  Secundulus.  Soon  one  Saturus,  who 
deliberately  declared  himself  a  Christian  before  the 
judge,  was  also  incarcerated.  Perpetua's  father  was 
a  pagan;  her  mother,  however,  and  two  brothers  were 
Christians,  one  being  still  a  catechumen;  a  third 
brother,  the  child  Dinocrates,  had  died  a  pagan. 

After  their  arrest,  and  before  they  were  fed  away  to 
prison,  the  five  catechumens  were  baptized.  The  suf- 
ferings of  the  prison  life,  the  attempts  of  Perpetua's 
father  to  induce  her  to  apostatize,  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  martyrs  before  their  execution,  the  visions  of  Satu- 
rus and  Ferpetua  in  their  dungeons,  were  all  faithfully 
committed  to  writing  by  the  last  two.  Shortly  after  the 
death  of  the  martyrs  a  zealous  Christian  added  to  this 
document  an  account  of  their  execution.  The  dark- 
ness of  their  prison  and  the  oppressive  atmosphere 
seemed  frightud  to  Perpetua,  whose  terror  was  in- 
creased by  anxie^  for  her  young  child.  Two  deacons 
suoceedea,  by  sufficiently  bribing  the  jailer,  in  gaining 
admittance  to  the  imprisoned  Christians  and  allevi- 
ated somewhat  their  sufferings.  Perpetua's  mother 
also,  and  her  brother,  yet  a  catechumen,  visited  them. 
Her  mother  brought  in  her  arms  to  Perpetua  her  little 
son,  whom  she  was  permitted  to  nurse  and  retain  in 
prison  with  her.  A  vision,  in  which  she  saw  herself 
asoendine  a  ladder  leading  to  green  meadows,  where 
a  flock  of  sheep  was  browsing,  assured  her  of  her  ap- 
proaching maitjrrdom. 

A  few  S&yB  later  Perpettia's  father,  hearing  a  rumour 
that  the  trial  of  the  imprisoned  Christians  would  soon 
take  place,  aeain  visited  their  dungeon  and  besought 
her  by  everytning  dear  to  her  not  to  put  this  disgrace 
on  his  name;  but  Perpetua  remained  steadfast  to  her 
Faith.  The  next  day  the  trial  of  the  six  confessors 
took  place,  before  the  Procurator  Hilarianus.  All  six 
resolutely  confessed  their  Christian  Faith.  Perpetua's 
father,  carrying  her  child  in  his  arms,  approached  her 
again  and  attempted,  for  the  last  time,  to  induce  her 
to  apostatize;  ihe  procurator  also  remonstrated  with 
her  but  in  vain.  She  refused  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods 
for  the  safety  of  the  emperor.  The  procurator  there- 
upon had  the  father  removed  by  force,  on  which  occa- 
sion he  was -Struck  with  a  whip.  The  Christians  were 
then  condemned  to  be  torn  to  pieces  by  wild  beasts, 
for  which  they  gave  thanks  to  God.  In  a  vision  Per- 
petua saw  her  brother  Dinocrates,  who  had  died  at  the 
early  age  of  seven,  at  first  seeming  to  be  sorrowful  and 
in  pain,  but  shortly  thereafter  nappy  and  healthy. 
Another  apparition,  in  which  she  saw  herself  fighting 
with  a  savage  Ethiopian,  whom  she  conquered,  made 
it  clear  to  her  that  she  would  not  have  to  do  battle 
with  wild  beasts  but  with  the  DeviL  Saturus,  who 
also  wrote  down  his  visions,  saw  himself  and  Peipetua 
transported  by  four  angels,  towards  the  East  to  a 
beautiful  garcien,  where  they  met  four  other  North 
African  Christians  who  had  suffered  martyrdom  dur- 
ing the  same  persecution,  viz.  Jocundus,  Satuminus, 
Artaxius,  and  Quintus.  He  also  saw  in  this  vision 
Bishop  Optatus  of  Carthage  and  the  priest  Aspasius, 
who  prayed  the  martyrs  to  arrange  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween them.  In  the  meanwhile  the  birthday  festival 
of  the  Emperor  Geta  approached,  on  which  occasion 
the  condemned  Christians  were  to  fight  with  wild 


beasts  in  the  military  games;  they  were  therefore 
transferred  to  the  pnson  in  the  camp.  The  jailer 
Pudens  had  learnt  to  respect  the  confessors,  and  he 
permitted  other  Christians  to  visit  them.  Perpetua's 
lather  was  also  admitted  and  made  another  fruitless 
attempt  to  pervert  her. 

Secundulus,  one  of  the  confessors,  died  in  prison. 
Felicitas,  who  at  the  time  of  her  incarceration  was  with 
child  (in  the  eighth  month),  was  apprehensive  that 
she  would  not  be  permitted  to  suffer  martjrrdom  at  the 
same  time  as  the  others,  since  the  law  forbade  the  exe- 
cution of  pregnant  women.  She  prayed  God  to  per- 
mit her  to  die  with  her  companions.  Happily,  two 
days  before  the  games  she<^ve  birth  to  a  daughter, 
who  was  adopted  oy  a  Christian  woman.  On  7  March, 
the  five  confessors  were  led  into  the  amphitheatre. 
At  the  demand  of  the  pagan  mob  they  were  first 
scourged;  then  a  boar,  a  bear,  and  a' leopard,  were  set 
at  the  men,  and  a  wild  cow  at  the  Women.  Wounded 
by  the  wild  animals,  they  gave  each  other  the  kiss  of 
peace  and  were  then  put  to  the  sword.  Their  bodies 
were  interred  at  Carthage.  Their  feast  day  was  sol- 
emnly commemorated  even  outside  Africa.  Thus 
under  7  March  the  names  of  Felicitas  and  Perpetua  are 
entered  in  the  PhilocaUan  calendar,  i.  e.  the  calendar 
of  martyrs  venerated  publicly  in  the  fourth  century  at 
Rome.  A  magnificent  basUica  was  afterwards  erected 
over  their  tomb,  the  Basilica  Majorum*  that  the  tomb 
was  indeed  in  tnis  basilica  has  lately  been  proved  by 
P^re  Delattre,  who  discovered  there  an  ancient  in- 
scription bearing  the  names  of  the  martyrs. 

Tne  feast  of  these  saints  is  still  celebrated  on  7 
March.  The  Latin  description  of  their  martjrrdom  was 
discovered  by  Holstenius  and  published  by  Poussines. 
Chapters  iii-x  contain  the  narrative  and  the  visions 
of  Perpetua;  chapters  xi-xiii  the  vision  of  Saturus; 
chapters  i,  ii  and  xiv-xxi  were  written  by  an  eyewit- 
ness soon  after  the  death  of  the  martjrrs.  In  1890 
Rendel  Harris  discovered  a  similar  narrative  written 
in  Greek,  which  he  published  in  collaboration  with 
Seth  K.  Gifford  (London,  1890).  Several  historians 
maintain  that  this  Greek  text  is  the  original,  others 
that  both  the  Greek  and  Latin  texts  are  original  and 
contemporaryi  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  tne  Latin 
text  is  the  onginal  and  that  the  Greek  is  merely  a 
translation.  Tnat  Tertullian  is  the  author  of  these 
Acts  is  an  unproved  assertion.  The  statement  that 
these  martyrs  were  aU  or  in  part  Montanists  also  lacks 
proof;  at  least  there  is  no  intimation  of  it  in  the  Acts. 

HoLATBNiuB,  Paseio  SS.  MM,  Perpetua  el  FdicUatis^  ed. 
PoflsiNus  (Rome,  1663);  Ruinart,  Acia  eincera  mariurum 
(Ratisbon,  1859)«  137  sqq.;  Ada  SS.,  March,  I,  633-38:  Har- 
Bxs  AND  GirroRD,  The  Acta  of  Martyrdom  af^  Perpetua  and  Fetid' 
taa  (London,  1890):  Robinbon,  The  Paaeion  of  S.  PerpHua  in 
TexUand  Sludiea.l  (Cambridge,  1891),  2;  Franchi  db^  Caval- 
ISRI,  La  Paaeio  SS.  Perpetua  et  Felicitatu  in  R&m.  Ouarttdeehr., 
sapplement  V  (Rome,  1896);  BMioiheea  HagioQramioa  Latina, 
ed.  BoLLANDiBTS.  II,  964;  Arudeeta  BoUandiana  (1892).  100-02, 
369-72;  Orsx,  Dteaertatio  apdogetica  pro  88.  Perpetua,  Fdicita- 
tie  et  eoeiorum  martyrum  orMoooxid /Florence,  1728);  Pxujdt, 
Lea  martvra  d^AfriQue,  Hiatoire  de  Ste  Perpitue  et  de  aea  com- 
poffnona  (Paris.  1885) ;  AubA,  Lea  actea  dea  SS,  FAiciU,  PerpOue 
el  de  leura  compaonona  in  Lea  chrHiena  dona  VEwpire  Remain 
(Paris,  1881),  509-25;  Nbumann.  Der  rOmiache  Stoat  und  die 
iUlpemeine  Kirche,  1  (Leipxig,  1890),  170-76,  299-3(X):  Allaro, 
Htatoire  dea  peraicutvona,  II  (Paris,  1886),  96  sqq.;  Moncbaux, 
Hiatoire  littiraire  de  VAfrique  ehritienne,  I  (Paris,  1901),  70-96; 
Dblattrb,  La  BaaUioa  Maiorum,  tombeau  dea  sS,  PerpHue  el 
F&ieiU  in  Comptea-rendua  de  VAcadhnie  dea  Inaeriptiona  et 
Bdlea-Lettrea  (1907).  516-31. 

J.  P.  KiBSCH. 

Felinus.    See  Sanded,  Felina-Maria. 

Felix  I,  Saint,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d. 
274.  Early  in  269  he  succeeded  Saint  Dionysius  as 
head  of  the  Roman  Church.  About  this  time,  there 
arrived  at  Rome,  directed  to  Pope  Dionysius,  the  re- 
port of  the  Synod  of  Antioch  which  in  that  very  year 
had  deposed  the  local  bishop,  Paul  of  Samosata,  for 
his  heretical  teachings  concerning  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  (see  Antioch).  A  letter,  probably  sent  by 
Felix  to  the  East  in  response  to  the  synodal  report, 


FELIX 


30 


oontaining  an  exposition  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
was  at  a  utter  date  interpolated  in  the  interest  of  his 
sect  by  a  follower  of  ApoUinaris  (see  Afollinarian- 
ism).  This  spurious  document  was  submitted  to  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  in  431  (Mansi,  ''Coll.  cone",  IV, 
1188;  cf.  Hamacky  "Geschichte  der  altchristlichen 
literatur",  I,  659  sqq.;  Bardenhewer,  "Geschichte 
der  altkirchlichen  Literatur'^  II,  582  aqX  The  frag- 
ment preserved  in  the  Acts  of  the  council  lays  special 
emphasis  on  the  unity  and  identity  of  the  Son  of  God 
ana  the  Son  of  Man  in  Christ.  The  same  fragment 
gives  Pope  Felix  as  a  martyr;  but  this  detail,  which 
occurs  a^iin  in  the  biosraphy  of  Uie  pope  in  the  "  Liber 
Pontificalis''  (ed.  Duchesne,  I,  58) j  is  unsupported  by 
any  authentic  earlier  evidence  and  is  manifestly  due  to 
a  confusion  of  names.  According  to  the  notice  in  the 
"Liber  Pontificalis^',  Felix  erected  a  basilica  on  the 
Via  Aurelia;  the  l^me  source  also  adds  that  he  was 
buried  there  ("  Hie  fecit  basilicam  in  Via  Aurelia,  ubi 
et  sepultus  est")-  l^e  latter  detail  is  evidently  an 
error,  for  the  fourth  century  Roman  calendar  of  feasts 
says  that  Pope  Felix  was  interred  in  the  Catacomb  of 
St.  Callistus  on  the  Via  Appia  (''III  Kal.  Januarii, 
Felicis  in  Callisti'',  it- reads  m  the  "Depositio  episco- 
porum '  0  •  The  statement  of  the  "  Ldber  Pontificalis ' ' 
concerning  the  pope's  martyrdom  results  obviously 
from  a  confusion  with  a  Roman  martyr  of  the  same 
name  buried  on  the  Via  Aurelia,  and  over  whose  grave 
a  church  was  built.  In  the  Roman  "  Feriale ' '  or  calen- 
dar of  feasts,  referred  to  above,  the  name  of  Felix 
occurs  in  the  list  of  Roman  bishops  (Depositio  episco- 
porum),  and  not  in  that  of  martyrs.  The  notice  m  the 
^'  Liber  Pontificalis"  ascribes  to  this  pope  a  decree  that 
Masses  should  be  celebrated  on  the  tombs  of  martyrs 
("  Hie  constituit  supra  memorias  martyrum  missas 
celebrare").  The  author  of  this  entry  was  evidently 
alluding  to  the  custom  of  celebrating  the  Holy  Sacri- 
fice privately,  at  the  altars  near  or  over  the  tombs  of 
the  martyrs  in  the  crypts  of  the  catacombs  (missa  ad 
corpus)^  while  the  solemn  celebration  of  the  Sacred 
Mystenes  always  took  place  in  the  basilicas  built  over 
the  catacombs.  This  practice,  still  in  force  at  the  end 
of  the  fourth  centurv  (Prudentius,  "Peristephanon". 
XI,  w.  171  sqq.),  dates  apparently  from  tne  period 
when  the  ^reat  cemeterial  basflicas  were  built  in  Rome, 
and  owes  its  origin  to  the  solemn  commemoration  ser- 
vices of  martyrs,  held  at  their  tombs  on  the  anniver- 
sary of  their  burial,  as  early  as  the  third  century. 
Felix  probablv  issued  no  such  decree,  but  the  compiler 
of  the  Liber  Pontificalis ' '  attributea  it  to  him  because 
he  made  no  departure  from  the  custom  in  force  in  his 
time.  According  to  the  above-mentioned  detail  of  the 
"Depositio  episcoporum",  Felix  was  interred  in  the 
catacomb  of  St.  Callistus,  30  December.  In  the  pres- 
ent Roman  Martyroloey  his  name  occurs  30  May,  the 
date  given  in  the  "  Liber  Pontificalis"  as  that  of  his 
death  (///  Kal,  Jun.) ;  it  is  probably  an  error  which 
could  easily  occur  through  a  transcriber  writing  Jun. 
for  Jan« 

Liber  PontificdliSt  ed.  Duchbsnb,  I,  Introd.  oxxv;  text,  158. 
with  the  notes;  Da  Rossi,  Roma  soUerraneat  II,  08-104;  Ada 
SS.,  May,  VII,  236-37:  Lanobn*,  QetchichU  der  rdmiechen 
Kirche  (Bonn,  1881),  I,  365-60;  Alulbd,  HiaUrire  det  perUcw- 
HoM,  III,  243  sqq. 

J.   P.  KlRSCH. 

Felix  n,  Pope  (more  properlv  Antipope),  355-58; 
d.  22  Nov.,  365.  In  355  P<>pc  Liberius  was  banished 
to  Beroea  in  Thrace  by  the  Emperor  Constantius  be- 
cause he  upheld  tenaciously  the  Nicene  definition  of 
faith  and  refused  to  condemn  St.  Athanasius  of  Alex- 
andria (see  Liberius).  The  Roman  clergy  pledged 
itself  in  solemn  conclave  not  to  acknowledge  any  other 
Bishop  of  Rome  while  Liberius  was  alive  ("  Marcellini 
et  Fausti  Libellus  precum",  no.  1:  "Qus  gesta  sunt 
inter  Liberium  et  Felicem  episcopos"  in  "  Collect  io 
Avellana'\  ed.  Gdnther;  Hieronymus,  "Chronicon", 
ad  an.  Abr.  2365).    The  emperor,  however,  who  was 


supplanting  the  exiled  Catholic  bishops  with  bishops 
of  Arian  tendencies,  exerted  himself  to  install  a  new 
Bishop  of  Rome  in  place  of  the  banished  Liberius. 
He  invited  to  Milan  Felix,  archdeacon  of  the  Roman 
Churchj  on  the  latter's  arrival,  Acacius  of  Csesarea  suc- 
ceeded m  inducing  him  to  accept  the  office  from  which 
Liberius  had  been  forcibly  expelled,  and  to  be  conse- 
crated by  Acacius  and  two  otner  Anan  bishops.  The 
majoritv  of  the  Roman  clergy  acknowledged  the  val- 
iditv  of  his  consecration,  but  the  laity  would  have 
notning  to  do  with  him  and  remained  true  to  the  ban- 
ished but  lawful  pope. 

When  Constantius  visited  Rome  in  May,  357,  the 
people  demanded  the  recall  of  their  rightful  bishop 
Liberius,  who,  in  fact,  returned  soon  after  signing  the 
third  formula  of  Sirmium.  The  bishops,  assembled  in 
that  city  of  Lower  Pannonia,  wrote  to  Felix  and  the 
Roman  clergy  advising  them  to  receive  Liberius  in  all 
charity  and  to  put  aside  their  dissensions;  it  was  added 
that  Liberius  and  Felix  should  together  eovem  the 
Church  of  Rome.  The  people  received  tneir  legiti- 
mate pope  with  great  enthusiasm,  but  a  great  commo- 
tion arose  against  Felix,  who  was  finally  driven  from 
the  citv.  Soon  after,  he  attempted^  with  the  help  of 
his  adherents,  to  occupy  the  Basilica  Julii  (Santa 
Maria  in  Trastevere),  but  was  finally  banished  in  per- 
p>etuity  by  unanimous  vote  of  the  Senate  and  the  peo- 
ple. He  retired  to  the  neighbouring  Porto,  where  he 
lived  quietly  till  his  death.  Libenus  permitted  the 
members  of  the  Roman  clergy,  including  the  adher- 
ents of  Felix,  to  retain  their  positions.  Later  l^nd 
confounded  the  relative  positions  of  Felix  and  Li- 
berius. In  the  apocryphal "  Acta  FeUcis ''  and  "  Acta 
Liberii",  as  well  as  in  the  "Liber  pontificalis",  Felix 
was  portrayed  as  a  saint  and  confessor  of  the  true 
Faith.  This  distortion  of  the  true  facts  ori^;inated 
most  probably  through  confusion  of  this  Felix  with 
another  Felix,  a  Roman  martyr  of  an  earlier  date. 

According  to  the  "Liber  Pontificalis",  which  may 

be  registering  here  a  reliable  tradition,  Felix  built  a 

churcn  on  the  Via  Aurelia.    It  is  well  known  that  on 

this  road  was  buried  a  Roman  martyr.  Felix;  hence  it 

seems  not  improbable  that  apropos  of  Doth  there  arose 

a  confusion  (see  Feux  I)  through  which  the  real  story 

of  the  antipope  was  lost  and  he  obtained  in  local 

Roman  history  the  status  of  a  saint  and  a  confessor. 

As  such  he  appears  in  the  Roman  Martyrology  on 

29  July. 

Liber  Pontificalie,  ed.  Duchssns,  I.  In  trod.,  cxxiii  sqq.:  211 
and  notes;  Acta  SS.,  July,  VII.  43-50;  Analecta  BoU.  (1883).  II. 
322-24;  Bibliotheea  hofftoam^ica  IcUina,  I,  430;  Geeta  Liberii, 
ed.  CouaTANT  in  Eptalola  Ronumorum  Pontificum,  I  (Paris, 
1721),  appendix,  89-94;  LeUere  in  difeaa  delV  epitafio  di  aan 
Fdice  // (Rome,  1790);  Paoli,  Diasertationi  eu  aan  Felice  II 
papa  e  maHyre  (Rome,  1790) ;  DOllxnobr,  Papatfabdn  dea  MiUd' 
altera  (2nd  ed.),  126-45;  Lanobn,  Geaehichle  der  rUmxacKen 
Kirche,  I.  471  sqq.;  Duchsbnb,  Hiatoire  ancienne  de  VEgliae,  II 
(Paris,  1907),  290  sqq.,  452  sqq.  ^    ^    „ 

J.  P.   KiBSCH. 

Felix  m,  Smnt,  Pope  (483-492),  b.  of  a  Roman 
senatorial  family  and  said  to  have  been  an  ancestor  of 
Saint  Gregory  the  Great.  Nothing  certain  is  known  of 
Felix,  till  ne  succeeded  St.  Simplicius  in  the  Chair  of 
Peter  (483).  At  that  time  the  Church  was  still  in  the 
midst  of  her  long  conflict  with  the  Eutychian  heresy. 
In  the  pr^eding  year,  the  Emperor  Zeno,  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  Acacius,  the  perfidious  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, had  issued  an  edict  known  as  the  Henoticon 
or  Act  of  Union,  in  which  he  declared  that  no  symbol 
of  faith,  other  than  that  of  Nice,  with  the  additions  of 
381,  should  be  received.  The  edict  was  intended  as  a 
bond  of  reconciliation  between  Catholics  and  Euty- 
chians,  but  it  caused  greater  conflicts  than  ever,  and 
split  the  Church  of  the  East  into  three  or  four  parties. 
As  the  Catholics  everywhere  spumed  the  edict,  the 
emperor  had  driven  the  Patriarchs  of  Antioch  and 
Alexandria  from  their  sees.  Peter  the  Tanner,  a  noto- 
rious heretic,  had  again  intruded  himself  into  the  See  of 


31 

Antiochy  and  Peter  Mongus,  who  was  to  be  the  real  their  privileges  b^  the  civil  power.  A  royal  edict, 
source  of  trouble  during  the  pontificate  of  Felix,  had  drawn  up  by  Cassiodorus  in  terms  of  the  deepest  re- 
seized  that  of  Alexandria,  in  his  first  synod  Felix  ex-  spect  for  the  papal  authority,  confirmed  the  ancient 
communicated  Peter  the  Tanner,  who  was  likewise  custom  that  eveiy  civil  or  criminal  charge  of  a  layman 
condemned  by  Acacius  in  a  synod  at  Constantinople,  against  a  cleric  should  be  submitted  to  tne  pope,  or  to 
In  484,  Felix  also  excommunicated  Peter  Mongus — ^an  an  ecclesiastical  court  appointed  by  him.  A  nne  of 
act,  which  brought  about  a  schism  between  East  and  ten  pounds  of  gold  was  imposed  as  a  punishment  for 
W^,  that  was  not  healed  for  thirty-five  years.  ,This/  the  violation  <h  this  order,  and  the  money  thus  ob- 
Peter,  being  a  time-server  and  of  a  crafty  disposition,  tained  was  to  be  distributed  amongst  the  poor  by  the 
ingratiated liimself  with  the  emperor  and  Acacius  by  pope  (Cassiodorus,  "  VariaB",  VIII,  n.  24,  ed.  Momm- 
suMcribing  to  the  Henotioon,  and  was  thereupon,  to  sen,  ''Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Auctores  antiquiss.",  XII, 
the  displeasure  of  many  of  the  bishops,  admitted  to  255).  The  pope  received  as  a  gift  from  Amalasuntha 
communion  by  Acacius.  two  ancient  edifices  in  the  Roman  Forum,  the  Temple 
Felix,  having  convened  a  synod,  sent  legates  to  the  of  Romulus,  son  of  the  Emperor  Maxentius,  and  the 
emperor  and  Acacius,  with  the  request  that  they  adjoining  Templum  sacrcB  urhis,  the  Roman  land- 
should  expel  Peter  Mongus  from  Alexandria  and  that  registry  office.  The  pope  converted  the  buildings  into 
Acacius  himself  should  come  to  Rome  to  explain  his  the  Church  of  SS.  Cosmas  and  Damian,  which  still  ex- 
conduct.  The  legates  were  detained  and  imprisoned ;  ists  and  in  the  apse  of  which  is  preserved  the  large  and 
then,  urged  by  threats  and  promises,  they  held  com-  magnificent  mosaic  executed  by  order  of  Felix,  the 
munion  with  the  heretics  by  distinctly  uttering  the  figure  of  the  pope,  however,  bein^  a  later  restoration 
name  of  Peter  in  the  reading  of  the  sacred  diptychs.  (see  Cosmas  and  Damian).  Felix  also  took  part  in 
When  their  treason  was  made  known  at  Rome  by  the  so-called  Semipelagian  conflict  in  Southern  Gaul 
Simeon,  one  of  the  "Aooemeti"  monks,  Felix  con-  concerning  the  nature  and  efficiency  of  grace.  He  sent 
vened  a  synod  of  seventy-seven  bishops  in  the  Lateran  to  the  bishops  of  those  parts  a  series  of  '"Capitula  ",  re- 
&isilica,  m  which  Acacius  as  well  as  the  papal  legates  garding  ^ce  and  free  will,  compiled  from  Scripture 
were  excommunicated.  Supported  by  the  emperor,  and  the  Fathers.  These  capitula  were  published  as 
Acacius  disregarded  the  excommunication,  removed  canons  at  the  Synod  of  Orange  (529).  In  addition 
the  pope's  name  from  the  sacred  diptychs,  .and  re-  Felix  approved  the  work  of  Csesarius  of  Aries  against 
maineci  in  the  see  till  his  death,  which  took  place  one  Faustus  of  Riez  on  grace  and  free  will  (De  gratia  et 
or  two  years  later.  His  successor  Phravitas,  sent  mes-  libero-arbitrio).  Rendered  anxious  by  the  political 
sengers  to  Felix,  assuring  him  that  he  would  not  hold  dissensions  of  the  Romans,  many  of  wliom  stood  for 
communication  with  Peter,  but,  the  pope  learning  the  interests  of  Bysantium,  whde  others  supported 
that  this  was  a  deception,  the  schism  continued.  Peter  Gothic  rule,  Felix  IV,  when  he  fell  seriously  ill  in  the 
bavins  died  in  the  meantime,  Euthymius,  who  sue-  year  530,  wished  to  ensure  the  peace  of  the  Roman 
oeedea  Phra vitas,  also  sought  communion  with  Rome,  Church  by  naming  his  successor.  Having  given  over 
but  the  pope  refused,  as  Euthymius  would  not  remove  to  Archdeacon  Boniface  his  pallium,  he  made  it  known 
the  names  of  his  two  predecessors  from  the  sacred  publicly  that  he  had  chosen  Boniface  to  succeed  him, 
diptychs.  The  schism,  known  as  the  Acacian  Schism,  and  that  he  had  apprised  the  court  of  Ravenna  of  his 
was  not  finally  healed  till  518  in  the  rei^  of  Justinian,  action  ("Neues  Archiv",  XI,  1886,  367;  Duchesne. 
In  Africa,  the  Arian  Vandals,  Genseric  and  his  son  "Liber  Pontificalis",  I,  282,  note  4).  Felix  IV  died 
Huneric,  had  been  persecuting  the  Church  for  more  soon  afterwards,  but  in  the  papal  election  which  fol- 
than  50  years  and  had  driven  many  Catholics  into  lowed  his  wishes  were  disregarded  (see  Boniface  II). 
exile.  When  peace  was  restored,  numbers  of  those  The  feast  of  Felix  IV  is  celebrated  on  30  January.  The 
who  through  fear  had  fallen  into  heresy  and  had  been  day  of  his  death  is  imcertain,  but  it  was  probably 


Lanoin,  (?•- 
OusAR,  Geachiehte 


mamed  firm,  they  appealed  to  Felix,  who  convened  a  ^chtcMe  derrthntachmKtnne.i.i^  uhmar.  ^eacMente 

-.».^^  :«  40*7  ^..^a^XTo  i^*4-^m*^  4^k'.'K;ali»na  *>f  Afm^o  RofM  utid  dtT  P(ip9te  tm  MxU^aUer  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1901),  I, 

synod  in  487,  and  sent  a  letter  to  the  bishops  of  Africa,  jgg         493  ^,^13.  Hoj^^Die  Dengru&an  der  NaehfUgm' 

expoundmg  the  conditions  under  which  they  were  to  dunh  die  P&pste  OPribowg,  1892),  29  sqq. 
be  received  back.    Felix  died  in  492,  having  reigned  J.  P.  Kibsch. 

ei^t  years,  eleven  months  and  twenty-three  days. 


Jhiber  PontiUalu.ed,  Duchmnb  (Paris.  1886).  I,  ,252-693;  PoliX  V  (AmaDEUS  OF  SaVOY),  AnTI-POPB  (1440- 

Babmbt,  in  I>ic<.  CArui.  Btogr.,  8.  v.;  £ vaoriub,  Jscetes.  fiMf.,  iaaq\    u    a  n-^     iqqq.  ^l    a*^  nirJoillA    7  To»*      iari 

431-694;  (tr.  I>ondon.  1864^?.  367;  Acta  SS..  Feb..  III.  607;  ii^^)»  J^/  ^  ^«C-»  ^^83  J  d.  at  Ripaille,  7  Jan.,  1461. 

AuBXANDBR.  Hist.  EccUs.  (Venice,  1776).  V.  9:  Flbury.  Hist.  The  schismatic  Ck>uncu  of  Basle,  having  declared  the 

Bed^.,  IV.  xxw,  53;  Obbi.  Siaria  ^cda.,Xiy'm,  27-29;  rfghtful  pope,  Eugene  IV,  deposed,  proceeded  immo- 

RoHRBACHBR,  Hitt.  EccUa.  (Li^gB,  1860),  VIII,  382;    D61/-  ^!tx^t„  SuU*u^  S^^*i^^  Jif  ««  ^T>*i  ^rva  /a^w^  iIaot« 

LiNOBB,  HUl.  of  the  Church  (Lbndon.  1840).  II.  172:  BaAoniub,  diately  With  the  election  of  an  anti-pope  (see  Basle, 

Annalee  Bed.  ad  annum;  Acta  Jurie  Pontif.  (Pans.  1869),  X,  (COUNCIL  OF).     Wishing  tO  secure  additional  mnuence 

786-95.  Ambrose  Colbman.  and  increased  financial  support,  they  turned  their  at- 
tention towards  the  rich  and  powerful  prince,  Duke 
Feliz  IV,  Pope  (526-630). — On  18  May,  626,  Pope  Amadeus  VIII  of  Savoy.  Amadeus  had  exercised 
John  I  (q.  V.)  died  in  prison  at  Ravenna,  a  victim  of  over  his  dependencies  a  mild  and  equitable  swav,  and 
the  angry  suspicions  of  Theodoric,  the  Arian  king  of  had  evincea  a  great  zeal  for  the  interests  of  the  d^urch, 
the  Gotlis.  When,  throXigh  the  powerful  influence  of  especially  in  connexion  with  the  Western  Schism  re- 
this  ruler,  the  cardinal-priest,  Felix  of  Samnium,  son  of  «irding  the  papal  succession,  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
Castorius,  was  brought  forward  in  Rome  as  John's  sue-  Councu  of  Constance.  Emperor  Sigismund  had  shown 
cessor,  the  clergy  and  laitv  gelded  to  the  wish  of  the  his  appreciation  of  this  ruler's  services  by  raising,  in 
Gothic  king  and  chose  ^Felix  pope.  He  was  conse-  1416,  the  former  county  of  Savoy  to  the  status  of  a 
crated  Bishop  of  Rome  12  July,  626,  and  took  advan-  duchy,  and  in  1422  conferred  on  Amadeus  the  county 
tage  of  the  favour  he  enjoyed  at  the  court  of  Theodoric  of  Geneva.  On  the  death  of  his  wife,  Maria  of  Bur- 
to  further  the  interests  of  the  Roman  Church,  dis-  gundy,  Duke  Amadeus  resolved  to  lead  henceforth  a 
chiu'ging  the  duties  of  his  office  in  a  most  worthy  man-  Rfe  of  contemplation,  without  however  entirely  resign- 
ner.  (m  30  August,  626,  Theodoric  died,  and,  his  ing  the  government  of  his  territories.  He  api)ointed 
grandson  Athalaric  being  a  minor,  the  government  his  son  Ludwig  regent  of  the  duchy,  and  retired  to 
was  conducted  by  Athalaric's  mother  Amalasuntha,  Ripaille  on  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  where^  in  company 
dauehter  of  Theodoric  and  favourably  disposed  to-  with  five  knights  whom  he  had  formed  mto  an  Order 
wards  the  Catholics.  To  the  new  ruler  the  Roman  of  St.  Maurice,  he  led  a  semi-monastic  life  in  accord- 
clergy  addressed  a  complaint  on  the  usurpation  of  ance  with  a  rule  drawn  up  by  himself. 


32 


Amadeus  had  been  in  close  relations  with  the  schts- 
matio  Ck>uncil  of  Basle;  and  was  elected  pope,  30 
October,  1439,  by  the  electoral  college  of  that  coiincil, 
includix^  one  cardinal  (d'Allemand  of  Aries),  eleven 
bishojM,  seven  abbots,  five  theologians,  and  nine 
canonists.  After  long  negotiations  with  a  deputation 
from  the  council,  Amadeus  acquiesced  in  the  election, 
5  Feb.,  1440,  completely  renouncing  at  the  same  time 
all  further  participation  in  the  government  of  his 
duchy.  Ambition  and  a  certain  fantastic  turn  of  char- 
acter induced  him  to  take  this  step.  He  took  the 
name  of  Felix  V,  and  was  solemnly  consecrated  and 
crowned  by  the  Cardinsd  d'Allemand,  24  July,  1440. 
Eugene  IV  had  already  excommunicated  nim,  23 
March,  at  the  Ck>uncil  of  Florence.  Until  1442,  the 
famous  ^neas  Sylvius  Piccolomini,  later  Pius  II,  was 
the  anti-pope's  secretary.  This  renewal  of  the  schism 
ruined  any  surviving  prestige  of  the  Basle  assembly, 
just  closed  at  Constance.  Subsequently,  Amadeus 
took  up  his  residence  in  Savoy  and  Switzerland;  his 
efforts  to  surround  himself  with  a  curia  met  with  little 
success :  many  of  those  whom  he  named  cardinals  de- 
cUsed  the  dignity.  He  found  general  recognition  only 
in  Savoy  and  Switzerland,  but  his  claims  were  also 
recognized  by  the  Dukes  of  Austria,  Ty^^i  ^^'^ 
Bayem-MQnchen,  the  Count-Palatine  of  Simmem. 
the  Teutonic  Order,  some  orders  in  Germany  and 
some  universities,  hitherto  adherents  of  Basle.  He 
was  soon  embroiled  in  a  quarrel  with  the  Council 
of  Basle  concerning  his  rights  and  the  distribution  of 
revenues.  The  rightful  pope,  Eugene  IV,  and  his  suc- 
cessor Nicolas  V  (1^7),  who  were  universally  recog- 
nized from  the  first  in  Spain  and  Poland,  found  their 
claims  even  more  widely  admitted  in  France  and  Ger- 
many. In  1442,  Felix  left  Basle;  and  on  16  May, 
1443,  occurred  the  last  session  of  the  Basle  assembly. 
Felix,  who  had  for  the  sake  of  its  revenue  assumed  the 
adininistration  of  the  Diocese  of  Geneva,  dune  for  six 
years  more  to  his  usurped  dignity^  but  finally  sub- 
mitted (1449)  to  Nicolas  V,  received  the  title  of 
Cardinal  of  St.  Sabina,  and  was  appointed  permanent 
Apostolic  vicar-general  for  all  the  states  of  the  House 
ot  Savoy  and  for  several  dioceses  (Basle,  Strasburg, 
Qiur,  etc.).    Thus  ended  the  last  papal  schism. 

£nba8  Sylvius*  Commenlarii  de  g^^tia  ConeilU  Baaileenna 
in  Opera  Omnia  (Eule,  1551);  Fka,  Pius  Ih  PonHfex  maximua 

iRome,  1823);  Oabotto,  Lo  SUUo  Sabattdo  da  Amedeo  VIII  ad 
ImmanutU  Filiberto  I  (Turin,  1892);  Monod.  Amedetu  Pacifr 
eua  aeu  de  JS^K^enu  JV  el  Amedei  Sabaudia  dueiSt  in  eua  obedi- 
entia  Felicia  papa  V  nuneupatit  eontrovereiia  ccmmentariua 
(Turin,  1624):  Lbcot  ds  la  Marchb.  AnUdie  VIII  el  son  aij'ow 
h  RipaiUe  in  Revue  dee  oueat.  Hietor.,  1866, 1, 192-203;  Bruchbt. 
Nohce  aur  le  buUaire  de  Pilix  F,  coiMervi  aux  archivea  de  Turin  in 
Mim,  el  docum,  publiia  par  la  SociiU  aavoiaienne.  1898,  XII. 
XXX-XXXIII:  Idbm.  Le  Chdteau  de  RipaiUe  (Paris.  1907); 
Fabtor,  GeachicktederPapalet  4th ed.,  1,317  sqq.;  BAUMOAitTBN, 
IHe  beiien  eraten  KardiniUekoneiatonen  dea  Oegenpapalea  Fdix 
Fin  Rem.  Quarialaehrifl  fiir  ehriail.  AUert  u.  far  Kirdtengeadi., 
1908,  GeMAioUe.  153  sqq.  _  ^^ 

J.  P.  KlBSCH. 

F^liZff  CiuBSTiN-JoBEPH,  French  Jesuit,  b.  at 
Neuville-sur-rEscaut  (Nord),  28  June,  1810;  d.  at 
LQle.  7  Julv,  1891.  He  began  his  studies  under  the 
Brotners  of  Christian  Doctrine,  going  later  to  the 
preparatory  seminary  at  Cambrai,  where  he  com- 
pleted his  secondarjr  studies.  In  1833  he  was  named 
professor  of  rhetonc,  received  minor  orders  and  the 
diaconate,  and  in  1837  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
He  began  his  novioeship  at  Tronchiennes  in  Belgium, 
continued  it  at  Saint- Acheul,  and  ended  it  at  Bruge- 
lettes,  where  he  studied  philosophy  and  the  sciences. 
Having  completed  his  theological  studies  at  Louvain, 
he  was  ordained  in  1842  and  returned  to  Brueelettes 
to  teach  rhetoric  and  philosophy.  His  earliest  Lenten 
discourses,  preached  at  Ath,  and  especially  one  on  true 
patriotism,  soon  won  him  a  brilliant  reputation  for 
eloquence. 

Called  to  Amiens  in  1850,  he  introduced  the  teach- 
ing of  rhetoric  at  the  Collie  de  la  Providence  and 
preached  during  Advent  and  Lent  at  the  cathedral. 


His  oratorical  qualities  becoming  more  and  morB 
evident,  he  was  called  to  Paris.  He  first  preached 
at  St.  Thomas  d'Aquin  in  1851,  and  in  1852  preached 
Lenten  sermons  at  Saint- Germain -des-Pnte,  and 
those  of  Advent  at  Saint-Sulpioe.  It  was  then  that 
Mgr.  Sibour  named  him  to  succeed  the  Dominican, 
Father  Lacordaire,  and  the  Jesuit,  FaUier  de  Ravi- 

Sian  m  the  pulpit  of  Notre-Dame  (1853  to  1870). 
e  became  one  of  its  most  brilliant  orators.  Tlie 
conferences  of  the  first  three  yeats  have  not  been 
published  in  full.  In  1856  Pdre  F^lix  began  the  sub- 
ject which  he  made  the  master- work  of  his  life: 
"Progrds  par  le  Christianisme".  This  formed  the 
matter  of  a  series  of  Lenten  conferences  which  are  pre- 
served for  us  in  fifteen  volumes,  and  which  have  lost 
none  of  their  reality.  True  progress  in  all  its  forms, 
whether  of  the  individual  or  of  tne  family,  in  science, 
art,  morals,  or  government,  is  herein  treated  wiUi 
great  doctrinal  exactness  and  breadth  of  yiew.  The 
practical  conclusions  of  these  conferences  Pdre  Fdlix 
summed  up  eveiv  year  in  his  preaching  of  the  Easter 
retreat,  wnich  nad  been  inaugurated  b^  P^  de 
Ravignan.  This  was  the  side  of  his  ministry  which 
lay  nearest  his  heart.  While  he  was  in  Paris,  and 
especiallsr  during  his  stay  at  Nancy  (1867-1883), 
and  at  Lille  (1883-1891),  the  illustrious  Jesuit  spoke 
in  nearly  all  the  great  cathedrals  of  France  and 
Belgium.  In  1881  he  even  went  to  Copenhagen 
to  conduct  the  Advent  exercises,  and  there  he  held 
a  celebrated  conference  on  authority.  F^ix  founded 
the  Society  of  St.  Michael  for  the  distribution  of  good 
books,  ana  employed  the  leisure  moments  of  his  last 
years  in  the  composition  of  several  works  and  in  the 
revision  of  his  ''Ketraites  k  Notre-Dame",  which  he 
published  in  six  volumes. 

The  eloquence  of  P^re  F^ix  was  characterised  by 
deamess,  vigorous  logic,  unction,  and  pathos,  even  in 
his  reasoning.  He  lacked  imagination  and  the  en- 
thusiasm of  Lacordaire,  but  he  was  more  skilled  in 
dialectic  and  surer  in  doctrine.  His  diction  was  richer 
than  that  of  de  Ravignan,  and  while  he  was  less  di- 
dactic than  Monsabr^  ne  was  more  original.  A  list  of 
his  works  is  given  by  SommervogeL 

Jennbr,  Le  R.  P,  FHiXt  with  the  catalogue  of  Som iibbvoqbl 
as  appendix  (Paris,  1892),  260;  Cohndt,  Le  R.  P.  FAix  in  the 
Btudee  (1801),  Aug.;  PoMTMAonN,  Le  R.  P,  Filix  (Paris, 
1861). 

Louis  Lalande. 


Felix  and  Adanctoe,  Saints,  martyrs  at  Rome, 
303,  under  Diocletian  and  Maximian.  The  Acts,  first 
published  in  Ado's  Martyrologv,  relate  as  follows: 
Felix,  a  Roman  priest,  and  brother  of  another  priest, 
also  named  Felix,  being  ordered  to  offer  sacrifice  to  the 
gods,  was  brought  by  the  prefect  Dracus  to  the  tem- 
ples of  Serapis,  Mercury,  and  Diana.  But  at  the  prayer 
of  the  saint  the  idols  fell  shattered  to  the  groimd.  He 
was  then  led  to  execution.  On  the  way  an  unknown 
person  joined  him,  professed  himself  a  Christian,  and 
also  received  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  The  Christians 
gave  him  the  name  Adauctus  (added).  These  Acts 
are  considered  a  legendary  embellishment  (^  a  mis- 
understood inscription  by  rope  Damasus.  A  Dracus 
cannot  be  found  amon^  the  prefects  of  Rome;  the 
other  Felix  of  the  legenais  St.  Felix  of  Nola;  and  Felix 
of  Monte  Pincio  is  the  sanie  Felix  honoured  on  the 
Garden  Hill.  The  brother  is  imaginary  (Anal.  Boll., 
XVI,  19-29).  Their  veneration,  however,  is  very  old; 
they  are  commemorated  in  the  Sacramentary  of  Greg- 
ory the  Great  and  in  the  ancient  martyrologies.  Their 
church  in  Rome,  built  over  their  graves,  in  the  ceme- 
tery (A  Commodilla,  on  the  Via  Ostiensis,  near  the 
basilica  of  St.  Paul,  and  restored  by  Leo  III,  was  dis- 
covered about  three  hundred  years  ago  and  amin  un- 
earthed in  1905  (CiviltACatt.,  1905,  II,  608).  Leo  IV, 
about  850,  is  said  to  have  given  their  relics  to  Irmen- 
gard,  wife  of  Lothair  I;  she  placed  them  in  the  abbey 
of  canonesses  at  Eschau  in  Alsace.  They  were  brought 


33 


to  the  church  of  St.  Stephen  in  Vienna  in  1361.  The 
heads  are  claimed  by  Anjou  and  Cologne.  According 
to  the  ''Chronicle  of  Andechs"  (DonauwOrth,  1877, 

&69),  H.enry,  the  last  count,  received  the  relics  from 
onorius  lU  and  brought  them  to  the  Abbey  of 
Andechs.    Their  feast  is  kept  on  30  August. 

&rOKBa  in  Did.  Chriat,  Biog.,  b.  v.  Fdix  (217);  Ada  88., 
Aug.,  VI,  545;  Stadubr,  HeUigmlexicon,  8.  v. 

FRANaS  MSBSmCAN. 

Fetiz  of  Oftntalice,  Saint,  Capuchin  friar,  b.  at 
Cantalice,  on  the  north-western  bonier  of  the  Aoruzzi: 
d.  at  Rome,  18  May,  1587.  His  feast  is  celebratea 
amongst  the  Franciscans  and  in  certain  Italian  dioceses 
on  18  May.  He  is  usually  represented  in  art  as  holding 
in  his  arms  the  Infant  Jesus,  because  of  a  vision  he 
once  had,  when  the  Blessed  Vir^n  appeared  to  him 
and  placed  the  Divine  Child  in  his  arms. 

His  parents  were  peasant  folk,  and  very  early  he 
was  set  to  tend  sheep.  When  nine  years  of  age  he  was 
hired  out  to  a  farmer  at  Citt4  Ducale  with  whom  he 
remained  for  over  twen^  years,  first  as  a  shepherd- 
boy  and  afterwards  as  a  farm  labourer.  But  from  his 
earliest  years  Felix  evinced  signs  of  great  holiness, 
spending  all  his  leisure  time  in  prayer,  either  in  the 
cnurch  or  in  some  solitary  place.  A  friend  of  his  hav- 
ing TeaA  to  him  tiie  lives  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Desert, 
Felix  conceived  a  ^at  desire  for  the  eremitical  life, 
but  at  the  same  time  feared  to  live  otherwise  than 
under  the  obedience  of  a  superior.  After  seeking  Ught 
in  prayer,  he  determined  to  ask  admittance  amongst 
the  Capuchins.  At  first  the  friars  hesitated  to  accept 
him^  but  he  eventually  received  the  habit,  in  1543,  at 
Anticoli  in  the  Roman  Province.  It  was  not  without 
the  severest  temptations  that  he  persevered  and  made 
his  profession.  These  temptations  were  so  severe  as 
to  injure  his  bodily  health.  In  1547  he  was  sent  to 
Rome  and  appointed  questor  for  the  community. 
Here  he  remained  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  and  in  fulfilling 
his  lowly  office  became  a  veritable  apostle  of  Rome. 

The  ulfluence  which  he  speedily  gained  with  the 
Roman  people  is  an  evidence  of  the  inherent  power  of 
personal  holiness  over  the  consciences  of  men.  He 
nad  no  learning;  he  could  not  even  read;  yet  learned 
theolo^ans  came  to  consult  him  upon  the  science  of 
the  spiritual  life  and  the  Scriptures.  Whenever  he 
appeared  in  the  streets  of  Rome  vicious  persons  ^w 
aoashed  and  withdrew  from  his  sight.  Sometimes 
Felix  would  stop  them  and  earnestly  exhort  them  to 
Kve  a  better  Ufe;  especiallv  did  he  endeavour  to  re- 
strain ^oung  men.  But  j  udges  and  dignitaries  also  at 
times  incurred  his  rebuke;  he  was  no  respecter  of  per- 
sons when  it  was  a  matter  of  preventing  sin.  On  one 
occasion,  during  a  Carnival,  he  and  St.  Philip  Neri 
organized  a  procession  through  the  streets.  The  Ora- 
torians  headed  the  procession  with  their  crucifix;  then 
came  the  Capuchin  friars;  last  came  Felix  leading  Fra 
Lupo.  a  well-known  Capuchin  preacher,  by  a  rope 
rouna  his  neck,  to  represent  Our  Lord  led  to  judgment 
by  his  executioners.  Arrived  in  the  middle  of  the 
revels,  the  procession  halted  and  Fra  Lupo  preached 
to  the  people.  The  Carnival,  with  its  open  vice,  was 
broken  up  for  that  vear. 

But  Felix's  special  apostolate  was  amongst  the  chil- 
dren of  the  city,  with  whom  his  childlike  simplicity 
made  him  a  special  favourite.  His  method  with  these 
was  to  gather  them  together  in  bands  and,  forming  a 
circle,  set  them  to  sing  canticles  of  his  own  composing, 
by  which  he  taught  them  the  beauty  of  a  good  fife  and 
the  ugliness  of  sin.  These  canticles  became  popular, 
and  frequently,  when  on  his  rounds  in  quest  of  alms, 
Felix  would  be  invited  into  the  houses  of  his  benefac- 
tors and  asked  to  sing.  He  would  •seize  the  oppor- 
tunity to  bring  home  some  spiritual  truth  in  extempo- 
rized verse.  During  the  famine  of  1 580  the  directors  of 
the  city's  charities  asked  his  superiors  to  place  Felix  at 
their  cfisposal  to  collect  alms  for  the  starving,  and  he 
was  untiring  in  his  quest. 
VI.— 3 


St.  Philip  Neri  had  a  deep  affection  for  the  Capuchin 
lay  brother,  whom  he  once  proclaimed  the  greatest 
saint  then  living  in  the  Church.  When  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  sought  St.  Philip's  aid  in  drawing  up  the 
constitutions  <m  his  Oblates,  St.  Philip  took  him  to  St. 
Felix  as  the  most  competent  adviser  in  such  matters. 
But  through  all,  Felix  kept  his  wonderful  humility  and 
simplicitv.  He  was  accustomed  to  style  himself  ''  The 
Ass  of  the  Capuchins".  Acclaimed  a  saint  by  the 
people  of  Rome,  immediately  after  his  death,  he  was 
beatified  by  Urban  VIII  in  1625,  and  canonized  by 
Clement  XI  in  1712.  His  body  rests  under  an  altar 
dedicated  to  him  in  the  church  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception  in  Rome. 

Acta  SS.,  ed.  PAUiii  (Paris.  1866).  18  BCay.  XVII;  BuOanum 
Ord.  F.  M.  Cap.  (Rome.  1740),  I ;  Bovkbiub,  Annal.  Cap,,  ad 
ann.  1587;  Kerb,  A  Son  of  Sainl  Franeia  (London,  KXX)). 

Father  Cuthbebt. 

Feliz  of  Nola»  Saint,  b.  at  Nola,  near  Naples,  and 
lived  in  the  third  century.  After  his  fathers  aeath 
he  distributed  almost  all  his  goods  amongst  the  poor, 
and  was  ordained  priest  by  Maximus,  Bishop  of  Nola. 
In  the  year  250,  when  the  Decian  persecution  broke 
out,  Maximus  was  forced  to  flee.  The  persecutors 
seized  on  Felix  and  he  was  cruelly  scourged,  loaded 
with  chains,  and  cast  into  prison.  One  nignt  an  angel 
appeared  to  him  and  bade  him  go  to  help  Maximus. 
His  chains  fell  off,  the  doors  opened,  and  tne  saint  was 
enabled  to  bring. reUef  to  the  bishop,  who  was  then 
speechless  from  cold  and  hunger.  On  the  persecutors 
making  a  second  attempt  to  secure  Felix,  his  escape 
was  miraculously  effected  by  a  spider  weaving  her  web 
over  the  opening  of  a  hole  into  wnich  he  had  just  crept. 
Thus  deceived,  they  sought  their  prey  elsewhere.   The 

Eersecution  ceased  the  following  ^ear,  and  Felix,  who 
ad  lain  hidden  in  a  dry  well  for  six  months,  returned 
to  his  duties.  On  the  death  of  Maximus  he  was  ear- 
nestly desired  as  bishop,  but  he  persuaded  the  people 
to  choose  another,  his  senior  in  the  priesthood.  The 
remnant  of  his  estate  having  been  confiscated  in  the 
persecution,  he  refused  to  take  it  back,  and  for  his  sub- 
sistence rented  three  acres  of  land,  which  he  tilled  with 
his  own  hands.  Whatever  remained  over  he  gave  to 
the  poor,  and  if  he  had  two  coats  at  anv  time  he  in- 
variably gave  them  the  better.  He  lived  to  a  ripe  old 
age  and  died  14  January  (on  which  da^  he  is  com- 
memorated), but  the  year  of  his  death  is  uncertain. 
Five  churches  were  bmlt  in  his  honour,  outside  Nola, 
where  his  remains  are  kept,  but  some  relics  are  also  at 
Rome  and  Benevento.  St.  Paulinus,  who  acted  as 
porter  to  one  of  these  churches,  testifies  to  numerous 
pilgrima^  made  in  honour  of  FeiJix.  The  poems  and 
letters  ofPaulinus  on  Felix  are  the  source  from  wKich 
St.  Gregory  of  Tours,  Venerable  Bede,  and  the'^priest 
Marcellus  have  drawn  their  bic^raphies  (see  Pauuntjs 
OF  Nola)  .  There  is  another  Felix  of  Nola,  bishop  and 
martyr  under  a  Prefect  Martianus.  He  is  considered 
by  some  to  be  the  same  as  the  above. 

Ada  8S.,  Jan.,  II,  210;  Phillott  in  Did,  Christ.  Biog.,  b,  t. 
Fdix  (186);  Stokss.  ibid.,  b.  v.  Fdix  (122):  Butlbr.  lAvm  ef 
the  SamU,  14  Jan.;  Barxno-Qould,  Livea  of  the  SainU  (London, 

189S),  1, 199-201.  Ambrose  Colebian. 

Feliz  of  Valois,  Saint,  b.  in  1127;  d.  at  Cerfroi,  4 
November,  1212.  He  b  commemorated  20  Novem- 
ber. He  was  sumamed  Valois  because,  according  to 
some,  he  was  a  member  of  the  royal  branch  of  Valois  in 
France ;  aocordins  to  others,  because  he  was  a  native  of 
the  province  of  \^oiB.  At  an  early  age  he  renounced 
his  possessions  and  retired  to  a  dense  forest  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Meaux,  where  he  ^ve  himself  to  prayer  and 
contemplation.  He  was  joined  in  his  retreat  by  St. 
John  ot  Matha.  who  proposed  to  him  the  project  of 
founding  an  order  for  tne  redemption  of  captives. 
After  fervent  prayer,  Felix  in  company  with  John  set 
out  for  Rome  and  arrived  there  in  the  beginning  of  the 
pontificate  of  Innocent  III.  Thev  had  Tetters  of  rec- 
ommendation from  the  Bishop  of  Paris,  and  th6  new 


FKLLEB 


34 


FKNSBERO 


pope  received  them  with  the  utmoet  kindness  and 
lodged  them  in  his  own  palace.  ^  The  project  of  found- 
ing the  order  was  considered  in  several  solemn  con- 
claves of  cardinals  and  prelates,  and  the  pope  after 
fervent  pr^er  decided  tnat  these  holy  men  were  in- 

S^ired  by  God,  and  raised  up  for  the  eood  of  the 
hurch.  He  solemnlv  confirmed  their  order,  which  he 
named  the  Order  of  tne  Holy  Trinity  for  the  Redemp- 
tion of  Captives.  The  pope  commissioned  the  Bishop 
of  Paris  and  the  Abbot  of  St.  Victor  to  draw  up  for  the 
institute  a  rule,  which  was  confirmed  by  the  pope,  17 
December,  1198.  Felix  returned  to  France  to  estab- 
lish the  order.  He  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm, 
and  King  Philip  Au^stus  authorized  the  institute  in 
France  and  fostered  it  by  signal  benefactions.  Marga- 
ret of  Blois  granted  the  order  twenty  acres  of  the  wood 
where  Felix  had  built  his  first  hermitage,  and  on  al- 
most the  same  spot  he  erected  the  famous  monastery 
of  Cerfroi,  the  mother-house  of  the  institute.  Within 
forty  ^ears  the  order  possessed  six  hundred  monas- 
teries m  almost  every  part  of  the  world.  St.  Felix  and 
St.  John  of  Matha  were  forced  to  part;  the  latter  went 
to  Rome  to  found  a  house  of  the  order,  the  church  of 
which,  Santa  Maria  in  Navicelia.  still  stands  on  the 
CaeUan  Hill.  St.  Felix  remained  in  France  to  look 
after  the  interests  of  the  congregation.  He  founded  a 
house  in  Paris  attached  to  the  church  of  St.  Maturinus, 
which  afterwiurds  became  famous  imder  Robert  Gu- 
guin,  master  general  of  the  order.  Though  the  Bull 
of  his  canonization  is  no  longer  extant,  it  is  tiie  con- 
stant tradition  of  his  institute  that  he  was  canonized 
by  Urban  IV  in  1262.  Du  Plessis  tells  us  that  his 
feast  was  kept  in  the  Diocese  of  Meaux  in  1215.  In 
1666  Alexander  VII  declared  him  a  saint  because  of 
immemorial  cult.  His  feast  was  transferred  to  20 
November  by  Innocent  XI  in  1679. 

Du  PLE88I8.  Hial.  de  VMiae  de  3f0au«  (Paris,  1731);  Butlbb. 
Livn  of  the  SainU;  Ada  SS.,  20  Nov. 

Michael  M.  O'Kans. 

FeUer,  Fran^oib-Xavier  de,  author  and  apologist, 
b.  at  Brussels  18  August,  1735;  d.  at  Ratisbon  22  May, 
1802.  He  received  nis  primary  scientific  ^ucation  m 
the  Jesuit  CoUe^  at  Luxemburg,  studied  philosophy 
and  the  exact  sciences  at  Reims,  1752-54,  after  which 
he  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Toumai.  Appointed 
professor  of  humanities  soon  after,  he  edited  the 
^'Musffi  Leodienses"  (Li^ge,  1761),  a  collection  of 
Latin  poems  in  two  volumes  composed  by  his  pupils. 
Later  he  taught  theology  in  various  institutions  of  the 
order  in  Luxemburg  and  Tymau  (Hungary).  After 
the  suppression  of  the  order  he  was  active  as  preacher 
in  Li6ge  and  Luxemburg  until,  at  the  approach  of  the 
French  army  in  1794,  he  emigrated  to  Paderbom  and 
joined  the  local  college  of  the  ex-Jesuits.  After  stay- 
ing there  two  years,  he  accepted  the  invitation  of  the 
Pnnce  of  Hohenlohe  to  come  to  Bavaria  and  join  the 
court  of  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Freisin^  and  Ratisbon, 
Joseph  Konrad  von  Schroffenburg,  with  whom  he  re- 
mained, dividine  his  time  between  Freising,  Ratisbon, 
and  Berchtesgaaen. 

Feller  was  very  amiable  and  talented,  gifted  with 
a  prodigious  memory,  and  combined  diligent  study 
with  these  abilities.  His  superiors  had  given  him 
every  opportunity  during  his  travels  of  cultivating 
all  the  oranches  of  science  then  known,  and  the 
wealth  and  diversity  of  his  writings  prove  that  he 
made  good  use  of  his  advantages.  All  his  writings 
attest  his  allegiance  to  the  Jesuit  Order  and  his  un- 
tiring zeal  for  the  Catholic  religion  and  the  Holy  See. 

Although  he  became  prominent  as  a  literary  man 
only  after  the  suppression  of  his  order,  he  had  pre- 
viously contributed  articles  of  note  to  the  perioaical 
"  La  clef  du  cabinet  des  princes  de  TEurope.  ou  recueil 
historique  et  politique  sur  1^  mati^res  du  temps" 
(Luxemburg,  1760).  During  the  years  1773-1794  he 
^W  the  sole  contributor  to  this  jouroal,  which  com- 


prised in  all  sixty  volumes  and  was,  from  the  first 
mentioned  date  (1773),  published  under  the  title 
"Journal  historique  et  litt(§raire".  Because  he  pub- 
licly denounced  the  illegal  and  despotic  attempts  at 
reform  on  the  part  of  Joseph  II,  the  journal  was  sup- 
pressed in  Austrian  territory  and  was,  consequently^ 
transplanted  first  to  Li^ge  and  then  to  Maastricht. 
Its  principal  articles  were  published  separately  as 
"Melanges  de  politique,  de  morale  chr§tienne  et  de 
litt^rature"  (Louvain,  1822),  and  as  "Cours  de  morale 
chr^tienne  et  de  litt^rature  religieuse''  (Paris,  1826). 
His  next  work  of  importance  is  entitled  "  Dictionnaire 
historique,  ou  histoire  abr6g^  de  tous  les  hommes  qui 
se  sont  fait  un  nom  par  le  g^nie,  les  talents,  les  vertus, 
les  erreurs,  etc.,  depuis  le  commencement  du  monde 
jusqu'&  nos  jours"  (Augsburg,  1781-1784),  6  vols.  He 
shaped  this  work  on  the  model  of  a  similar  one  by 
Chaudon  without  giving  the  latter  due  credit;  he  also 
showed  a  certain  amount  of  prejudice,  for  the  most 
part  lauding  the  Jesuits  as  masters  of  science  and 
underrating  others,  eroecially  those  suspected  of  Jan- 
senistic  tendencies.  This  work  was  frequently  re- 
vised and  republished, e.g.  by  Ecuy,  Ganith,  Henrion, 
P^renn&s,  Simonin,  Weiss,  etc. ;  from  1837  it  appeared 
under  the  title  of  "  Biographic  universelle  ".  His  prin- 
cipal work,  which  first  appreared  under  the  pen-name 
"  Flexier  de  Reval ",  is  '^Cat^chisme  philosophique  ou 
recueil  d'observations  propres  k  d^fendre  la  religion 
chr6tienne  contre  ses  ennemis"  (Li^ge,  1772).  In  his 
treatise,  "Jugement  d'un  ^crivain  protestant  tou- 
chant  le  livre  de  Justinus  Febronius"  (Leipzig,  1770) » 
he  attacked  the  tenets  of  that  anti-papal  writer. 
Many  of  his  works  are  only  of  contemporary  interest. 
Biogmphie  UniveneUe,  XIII,  505;    HuBTBRt  ffomendaior, 

Patbicius  Schlaoeb. 

Felton,  Thomas.    See  Morton,  Robert. 

Feltre,  Diocese  of.  See  Belluno-Feltrb,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

Feneberg,  Johann  Michael  Nathanabl,  b.  in 
Oberdorf,  Allg&u,  Bavaria,  9  Feb.,  1751 ;  d.  12  Oot.^ 
1812.  He  studied  at  Kaufbeuren  and  in  the  Jesuit 
gymnasium  at  Augsburg,  and  in  1770  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  at  Landsberg,  Bavaria.  When  the 
Society  was  suppressed  in  1773,  he  left  the  town,  but 
continued  his  studies,  was  ordained  in  1775  and  ap- 
pointed professor  in  the  gymnasium  of  St.  Paul  at 
Ratisbon.  From  1778-85  he  held  a  modest  benefice  at 
Oberdorf  and  taught  a  private  school ;  in  1785  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  and  poetry  at  the  gym- 
nasium of  Dillingen,  but  was  removed  in  1793,  to- 
gether with  several  other  professors  suspected  of 
feanings  towards  Illuminism.  A  plan  of  studies  drawn 
up  by  him  for  the  gymnasium  brought  him  many 
enemies  also.  He  was  next  given  the  parish  of  Seeg, 
comprising  some  two  thousand  five  hundred  souls,  and 
received  as  assistants  the  celebrated  author  Christoph 
Schmid,  and  X.  Bayer.  He  was  a  model  pastor  in 
every  respect.  Within  a  short  time  he  executed  a 
chart  of  the  eighty-five  villages  in  his  parish,  and  took 
a  census  of  the  entire  district. 

In  the  first  year  of  his  pastoral  service  he  sustained 
severe  injuries  by  a  fall  from  his  horse,  which  necessi- 
tated the  amputation  of  one  leg  just  below  the  knee. 
He  bore  the  operation  without  an  ansstheticj  and  con- 
soled himself  for  the  loss  of  the  limb  by  saying:  Nan 
'pedibusy  sed  corde  diligimua  Deum  (We  love  God  not 
with  our  feet  but  with  our  hearts).  Shortly  after,  his 
relations  with  the  priest  Martin  Boos  led  him  to  be 
suspected  of  false  mysticism.  Boos  had  created  such 
a  sensation  by  his  sermons  that  he  was  coinpelled  to 
flee  for  safety.  He  took  refuge  at  Seeg  with  FenebeiK, 
who  was  a  relation,  and  assisted  him  in  parochial  work 
for  neariv  a  year.  In  the  meantime  he  strove  to  con- 
vert or  ^'awaken''  Feneberg  to  the  higher  Christian 
Ufe,  the  life  of  faith  and  love  to  the  exclusion  of  flood 
works.   Boos's  followers  were  called  the  Erweckteiv, 


nbfiLON 


35 


FinSLON 


BrOder  (Awakened  Brethren).  Among  these  brethren, 
many  of  whom  were  priests,  Feneberg  was  called 
Nathanael  and  his  two  assistants  Markus  and  Silas. 

Boos's  preaching  and  conduct  at  Seeg  was  reported 
to  the  oroinary  of  Augsburg,  and  Feneberg,  with  his 
assistants,  Bayer  and  Siller,  were  also  involved.  In 
Februaiy,  1707,  an  episcopal  commissioner  arrived  in 
Seeg,  and  in  Fenebeig's  absence  seised  all  his  papers, 
private  correspondence  and  manuscripts,  and  carriea 
them  to  Augsbuig.  Fenebers,  with  his  assistants,  ap- 
peared before  an  ecclesiastical  tribunal  at  Augsburg  m 
August,  1797 ;  they  were  required  to  subscribe  to  the 
condemnation  of  ten  erroneous  propositions,  and  then 
pennitted  to  return  to  their  parish.  .They  all  pro- 
tested that  they  had  never  held  any  of  the  propositions 
in  the  sense  implied.  It  does  not  appear  that  Fene- 
berg  was  subsequently  molested  in  this  connexion, 
nor  did  he  ever  fail  to  show  due  respect  and  obedience 
to  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  In  1805  he  resigned 
the  parish  of  Seeg  and  accepted  that  of  V6hringen, 
whicn  was  smaller  but  returned  slightly  better  rev- 
enues. This  appointment  and  the  assistance  of  gener- 
ous friends  enabled  him  to  pav  the  debts  he  had- 
incurred  on  account  of  his  trouole  and  the  political 
disturbances  of  the  time.  For  a  month  before  his 
death  he  suffered  great  bodily  pain,  but  he  prayed 
unceasingly,  and  after  devoutly  receiving  the  sacra- 
ments expired. 

He  remained  friendly  to  Boos  even  after  the  latter's 
condemnation,  and  regretted  that  his  friend,  Bishop 
Sailer,  was  not  more  sympathetic  to  mysticism.  Fene- 
berg  was  a  man  of  singular  piety,  candour,  and  zeal, 
but  failed  to  see  the  dangere  lurking  in  Boos's  pietism. 
Numbers  of  the  disciples  of  Boos — as  many  as  four 
hundred  at  one  time — became  Protestants,  although 
he  himself  remained  nominally  in  the  Church.  Fene- 
beig  is  the  author  of  a  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, which  was  published  by  Bishop  Wittmann  of 

Ratisbon. 

JocHAM  in  Kird^enUz.^  8.  v.;  Habutssl  in  Bdcrbbrgbr, 
KirchL  HandUxikont  s.  v.;  Aichingbr,  Johann  M.  Sailer  (Frei- 
burs  im  Br.,  1865);  BrOck.  Oeach.  der  kath.  Kirche  in  DeutacK- 
Umat  I  (Mains.  1902);  Sailbr,  Aus  Fendtergs  Ltben  (Munich, 
1814);  SiLBBRNAGBL,  Die  kirdienpoliti»dien  u.  rdiffidBtn  Zu- 
ttSnde  im  29,  Jahrkundert  (Landahut,  1901);  Gossnbb,  Bom 
Martin  (Leipsif,  1828);  Bodbmann.  Leben  J.  M.  Feneberga  in 
Sonntaailnblio^ek  (Bielefeld,  1856);  Braun,  Geachichte  der 
BiMthnfe  wm  Ayto^hurg  (Augsburg,  1815).  IV. 

Alexius  Hoffmann. 

Ffoelon,  Francois  de  Saugnac  de  La  Mothe*, 
a  celebrated  French  bishop  and  author,  b.  in  the  Cha- 
teau de  F^nelon  in  P^rigord  (Dordogne),  6  August, 
1651 ;  d.  at  Cambrai,  7  January,  1715.  He  came  of  an 
ancient  fanuly  of  noble  birtn  but  small  means,  the 
most  famous  of  his  ancestors  being  Bertrand  de  Sali- 
fl3iac  (d.  15d9),  who  foUght  at  Metz  under  the  Duke  of 
Guise  and  became  ambassador  to  En^nd ;  also  Fran- 
cois de  Salignac  I,  Louis  de  Salignac  I,  Louis  de  Sali- 
snac  II,  and  Francois  de  Salignac  II,  bishops  of  Sarlat 
between  1567  ancl  1688.  Fenelon  was  the-second  of 
the  three  children  of  Pons  de  Salignac,  Count  de  La 
Mothe-Fdnelon,  by  his  second  wife,  Louise  de  La 
Cropte.  Owing  to  his  delicate  health  F^nelon's  child- 
hood was  passed  in  his  father's  chllteau  under  a  tutor, 
who  succeeded  in  givine  him  a  keen  taste  for  the 
classics  and  a  consiaferable  knowledge  of  Greek  litera- 
ture, which  influenced  the  development  of  his  mind  in 
a  marked  degree.  At  the  a^  of  twelve  he  was  sent 
to  the  neighbouring  University  of  Cahors,  where  he 
studied  rhetoric  and  philosophy,  and  obtained  his  first 
degrees.  As  he  had  already  expresse<i  his  intention  of 
entering  the  Church,  one  of  his  uncles,  Marquis  An- 
toine  de  F^nelon,  a  friend  of  Monsieur  Olier  and  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  sent  him  to  Paris  and  placed  him  in 
the  College  du  Plcssis,  whose  students  followed  the 
course  of  theology  at  the  Sorbonne.  There  F^nelon 
became  a  friend  of  Antoine  de  Noailles,  afterwards 
Gardiiial  and  Archbishop  of  Paris,  and  showed  such  de- 


cided talent  that  at  the  age  of  fifteen  he  was  chosen  to 
preach  a  public  sermon,  in  which  he  acquitted  hiniself 
admirably.  To  facilitate  his  preparation  for  the  priest- 
hood, the  marquis  sent  his  nephew  to  the  S^minaire  de 
SaintrSulpice  (about  1672),  tnen  under  the  direction 
of  Monsieur  Tronson,  but  the  young  man  was  placed  in 
the  small  community  reserved  for  ecclesiastics  whose 
health  did  not  permit  them  to  follow  the  excessive 
exercises  of  the  seminary.  In  this  famous  school, 
of  which  he  always  retained  affectionate  memories, 
F^nelon  was  grounded  not  only  in  the  practice  of  piety 
and  priestlv  virtue,  but  above  all  in  solid  Catnolic 
doctnne,  which  saved  him  later  from  Jansenism  and 
Gallicanism.  Thirty  years  later,  in  a  letter  to  Clement 
XI,  he  congratulates  himself  on  his  training  by  M. 
Tronson  in  the  knowledge  of  his  Faith  and  the  duties 
of  the  ecclesiastical  life.  About  1675  he  was  ordained 
priest  and  for  a  while  thought  of  devoting  himself  to 
the  Eastern  missions.  This  was,  However,  only  a 
passing  inclination.  Instead,  he  joined  the  commu- 
nity ofSaint-Sulpice  and  gave  himself  up  to  the  works 
of  the  priesthood,  especially  preaching  and  catechising. 

In  1678  Harlay  de  Champvallon,  Archbishop  of 
Paris,  entrusted  F^nelon  with  the  directipn  of  the 
house  of  "Nouvelles-Catholiques",  a  community 
foimded  in  1634  by  Archbishop  Jean-FranQois  de 
Gondi  for  Protestant  young  women  about  to  enter  the 
Church  or  converts  who  needed  to  be  strengthened  in 
the  Faith.  It  was  a  new  and  delicate  form  of  aposto- 
late  which  thus  offered  itself  to  F^nelon's  seal,  and 
required  all  the  resources  of  his  theological  knowledge, 
persuasive  eloquence,  and  maaietic  personality.  Witn- 
m  late  years  his  conduct  has  C)een  severely  criticised, 
and  he  has  been  even  called  intolerant,but  these  charges 
are  without  serious  foundation,  and  have  not  been 
accepted  even  by  the  Protestant  authors  of  the  "Ency- 
clop^ie  des  Sciences  Religieuses";  their  verdict  on 
F^nelon  is  "  that  in  justice  to  him  it  must  be  said  that 
in  making  converts  he  ever  employed  persuasion 
rather  than  severity". 

When  Louis  XIv  revoked  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  by 
which  Hennr  IV  had  granted  freedom  of  public  wor- 
ship to  the  Protestants,  missionaries  were  cnosen  from 
among  the  greatest  orators  of  the  day,  e.  g.  Bourda- 
loue,  Fiddlier,  and  others,  and  were  sent  to  those  parts 
of  franco  where  heretics  were  most  numerous,  to 
labour  for  their  conversion.  At  the  suggestion  of  his 
friend  Bossuet,  F^nelon  was  sent  with  five  companions 
to  Saintonge,  where  he  manifested  great  zeal,  though 
his  methods  were  always  temperra  by  gentleness. 
According  to  Cardinal  de  Bausset,  he  induced  Louis 
XIV  to  remove  all  troops  and  all  evidences  of  com- 
pulsion from  the  places  ne  visited,  and  it  is  certain 
that  he  proposed  and  insisted  on  many  methods  of 
which  the  kmg  did  not  approve.  "  When  hearts  are 
to  be  moved  ,  he  wrote  to  Seignelay,  "force  avails 
not.  Conviction  is  the  only  r^  conversion.''  In- 
stead of  force  he  employed  patience,  established 
classes,  and  distributea  New  Testaments  and  cate- 
chisms in  the  vernacular.  Above  all,  he  laid  especial 
emphasis  on  preaching,  provided  the  sermons  were 
*/  by  gentle  preachers  wno  have  a  faculty  not  only  for 
instructing,  but  for  winning  the  confidence  of  their 
hearers".  It  is  doubtless  true,  as  recently  published 
documents  prove,  that  he  did  not  altogether  repudiate 
measures  of  force,  but  he  only  allowed  them  as  a  last 
resource.  Even  then  his  severity  was  confined  to 
exiling  from  their  villages  a  few  recalcitrants,  and  to 
constraining  others  under  the  smsdl  penalty  of  five  sous 
to  attend  the  religious  instructions  in  the  churches. 
Nor  did  he  think  that  preachers  ought  to  advocate 
openly  even  these  measures;  similarly,  he  was  unwill- 
ing to  have  known  the  Catholic  authorship  of  pam- 
phlets against  Protestant  ministers  which  he  proposed 
to  have  printed  in  Holland.  This  was  certaimv  an 
excess  of  cleverness;  but  it  proves  at  least  that  F6ne- 
lon  was  not  in  sympathy  with  that  vague  tolerance 


FteSLON 


36 


FENELON 


•  foiinded  on  scepticism  which  the  eighteenth-century 
rationalists  charged  him  with.  In  such  matters  he 
shared  the  opinions  of  all  the  other  great  Catholics  of 
his  day.  With  Bossuet  and  St.  Augustine  he  held 
that "  to  be  obliged  to  do  ^[ood  is  always  an  advantage, 
and  that  heretics  and  schismatics,  when  forced  to  ap- 
ply their  minds  to  the  consideration  of  truth,  eventu- 
ally lay  aside  their  erroneous  beliefs,  whereas  they 
would  never  have  examined  these  matters  had  not 
authority  constrained  them". 

Before  and  after  his  mission  at  Saintonge,  which 
lasted  but  a  few  months  (1686-1687),  F^nelon  formed 
many  dear  friendships*  Bossuet  was  already  his 
friend;  the  great  bishop  was  at  the  summit  of  his  fame, 
and  was  everywhere  looked  up  to  as  the  oracle  of  the 
Church  of  France.  F^nelon  showed  him  the  utmost 
deference,  visited  him  at  his  country-house  at  Ger- 
migny,  and  assisted  at  his  spiritual  conferences  and 
his  lectures  on  the  Scriptures  at  Versailles.  It  was 
under  his  inspiration,  perhaps  even  at  his  request,  that 
F^nelon  wrote  about  this  time  his  ''Refutation  du 
syst^me  de  Midebranche  sur  la  nature  et  sur  la  gr&ce  ". 
In  this  he  attacks  with  great  vi^ur  and  at  length  the 
theories  qf  the  famous  Oratonan  on  optimism,  the 
Creation,  and  the  Incarnation.  This  treatise,  thou^ 
annotated  by  Bossuet,  F^nelon  considered  it  unwise 
to  publish ;  it  saw  the  light  only  in  1820.  First  among 
the  friends  of  F^nelon  at  this  period  were  the  Due  de 
BeauviUiers  and  the  Due  deChevreuse,  two  influential 
courtiers,  eminent  for  their  piet^,  who  had  married 
two  daughters  of  Colbert,  minister  of  Louis  XIV. 
One  of  these,  the  Duchesse  de  Beauvilliers,  mother  of 
eight  daughters,  asked  F^nelon  for  advice  concerning 
their  education.  His  reply  was  the  "Traits  de  T^du- 
cation  des  filles",  in  which  he  insists  on  education  be- 
^jnning  at  an  earlv  age  and  on  the  instruction  of  girls 
m  all  the  duties  of  their  future  condition  of  life.  The 
religious  teaching  he  recommends  is  one  solid  enough 
to  enable  them  to  refute  heretics  if  necessary.  He 
also  advises  a  more  serious  course  of  studies  than  was 
then  customary.  Girls  ought  to  be  learned  without 
pedantry;  the  form  of  instruction  should  be  concrete, 
sensible,  agreeable,  and  prudent,  in  a  manner  to  aid 
their  natural  abilities.  In  many  ways  his  pedagogy 
was  ahead  of  his  time,  and  we  may  yet  learn  much 
from  him. 

The  Due  de  Beauvilliers,  who  had  been  the  first  to 
test  in  his  own  family  the  value  of  the  "Trait6  de 
I'^ducation  des  filles' ,  was  in  1689  named  sovemor 
of  the  grandchildren  of  Louis  XIV.  He  hastened 
to  secure  F^nelon  as  tutor  to  the  eldest  of  these 
princes,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  It  was  a  most  im- 
portant post,  seeinp  that  the  formation  of  a  future 
King  of  France  la^r  m  his  hands;  but  it  was  not  with- 
out great  difficulties,  owing  to  the  violent,  haughty, 
and  passionate  character  of  his  pupil.  F^neion 
brougnt  to  his  task  a  whole-hearted  z^  and  devotion. 
Eveiything,  down  to  the  Latin  themes  and  versions, 
was  made  to  serve  in  the  tamine  of  this  impetuous 
spirit.  F^nelon  prepared  them  himself  in  order  to 
adapt  them  the  better  to  his  plans.  With  the  same 
object  in  view,  he  wrote  his  "Fables"  and  his  "Dia- 
logues des  Morts  ",  but  especially  his  "  T^l^maque  *\  in 
which  work,  under  the  guise  of  pleasant  fiction,  he 
taught  the  young  prince  lessons  of  self-control,  and*  all 
the  duties  required  by  his  exalted  position.  The  re- 
sults of  this  training  were  wonderful.  The  historian 
SaintrSimon,  as  a  rule  hostile  to  F^nelon,  savs:  "De 
cet  abtme  sortit  un  prince,  affable^  doux,  mod^r^,  hu- 
main,  patient,  humole,  tout  apphau^  k  ses  devoirs.'' 
It  has  been  asked  in  our  day  if  h  4neion  did  not  succeed 
too  well.  When  the  prince  grew  to  man's  estate,  his 
piety  seemed  often  too  refined;  he  was  continually  ex- 
amining himself,  reasoning  for  and  against,  till  he  was 
unable  to  reach  a  definite  decision,  his  will  being  para- 
lysed by  fear  of  doing  the  wrong  thing.  However, 
tnese  defects  of  character,  against  which  F^nelon  in 


his  letters  was  the  first  to  protest,  did  not  show  them- 
selves in  youth.  About  1695  every  one  who  came  in 
contact  with  the  prince  was  in  admiration  at  the 
change  in  him. 

To  reward  the  tutor.  Louis  XTV  gave  him,  in  1694. 
the  Abbey  of  Saint-Vakry,  with  its  annual  revenue  of 
fourteen  thousand  livree.  The  Acad6nue  had  opened 
its  doors  to  him,  and  Madame  de  Maintenon,  the  mor- 
ganatic wife  of  the  king,  began  to  consult  him  on  mat- 
ters of  conscience,  and  on  the  regulation  of  the  house  of 
Saint-Cyr,  which  she  had  just  established  for  the  train- 
ing of  young  girls.  Soon  afterwards  the  archiepisco- 
pal  See  of  Cambrai,  one  of  the  best  in  France,  {&!  var 
cant,  and  the  king  offered  it  to  F^nelon,  at  the  same 
time  expressing  a  wish  that  he  would  continue  to  in* 
struct  tne  Duke  of  Burgundy.  Nominated  in  Febru- 
ary, 1695,'F^nelon  was  consecrated  in  August  of  the 
same  year  by  Bossuet  in  the  chapel  of  Saint-Cyr. 
The  future  of  the  young  prelate  looked  brilliant,  when 
he  fell  into  deep  aisgrace. 

The  cause  ot  F^nelon's  trouble  was  his  connexion 
with  Madame  Guyon,  whom  he  had  met  in  the  society 
of  his  friends,  the  Beauvilliers  and  the  Chevreuses. 
She  was  a  native  of  Orleans,  which  she  left  when 
about  twenty-eig^t  years  old,  a  widowed  mother  of 
three  children,  to  carry  on  a  sort  of  apostolate  of 
mysticism,  under  the  direction  of  Pdre  Lacombe,  a 
Bamabite.  After  many  journeys  to  Geneva,  and 
through  Provence  and  Italy,  she  set  forth  her  ideas  in 
two  works, "  Le  moyen  court  et  facile  de  f aire  oraison  " 
and  "Les  torrents  spirituels'\  In  exaggerated  lan- 
guage characteristic  of  her  visionary  mmd,  she  pre- 
sented a  system  too  evidently  founded  on  the  Quietism 
of  Molinos,  that  had  just  been  condemned  b^  Innocent 
XI  in  1687.  There  were,  however,  great  divergencies 
between  the  two  systems.  Whereas  Molinos  made 
man's  earthly  perfection  consist  in  a  state  of  uninter- 
rupted contemplation  and  love,  which  would  dispense 
the  soul  from  all  active  virtue  and  reduce  it  to  ab- 
solute inaction,  Madame  Guvon  rejected  with  horror 
the  daneerous  conclusions  of  Molinos  as  to  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  necessity  of  offering  positive  resistance  to 
temptation.  Indeed,  in  all  her  relations  with  P^re 
Lacombe,  as  well  as  with  F^nelon,  hei*  virtuous  life  was 
never  called  in  doubt.  Soon  after  her  arrival  in  Paris 
she  became  ac<^uainted  with  many  pious  persons  of 
the  court  and  m  the  city,  among  them  Madame  de 
Maintenon  and  the  Dues  de  Beauvilliers  and  Che- 
vreuse,  who  introduced  her  to  F^nelon.  In  turn,  he 
was  attracted  by  her  piety,  her  lofty  spirituality,  the 
charm  of  her  personality,  and  of  her  books.  It  was 
not  longj  however,  before  the  Bishop  of  Chartres,  in 
whose  diocese  Saint-Cjrr  was,  began  to  unsettle  the 
mind  of  Madame  de  Maintenon  bv  questioning  the  or- 
thodoxy of  Madame  Guyon's' theories.  The  latter, 
thereupon,  begged  to  have  her  works  submitted  to  an 
ecclesiastical  commission  composed  of  Bossuet,  de 
Noailles,  who  was  then  Bishop  of  ChiUonSj  later  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  and  M.  Tronson,  supenor  of  Saint- 
Sulpice.  After  an  examination  which  lasted  six 
months,  the  commission  delivered  its  verdict  in  thirtv- 
four  articles  laiown  as  the  "  Articles  d'Issy  ",  from  the 
place  near  Paris  where  the  commission  sat.  These 
articles,  which  were  signed  by  F^nelon  and  the  Bishop 
of  Chartres,  also  by  the  members  of  the  commission, 
condemned  very  briefly- Madame  Guyon's  ideas,  ana 
gave  a  short  exposition  of  the  Catholic  teaching  on 
prayer.  Madame  Guyon  submitted  to  the  condemna- 
tion, but  her  teaching  spread  in  England,  and  Protes- 
tants, who  have  had  her  books  reprinted,  have  always 
expressed  sympathy  with  her  views.  Cowper  trans- 
lated some  of  her  hymns  into  English  verse;  and  her 
autobiography  was  translated  into  English  by  Thomu 
Digby  (London,  1805)  and  Thomas  Upham  (New 
York,  1848).  Her  books  have  been  long  forgotten  in 
France. 

In  accordance  with  the  decisions  taken  at  Is^,  Bos- 


FfiNELON— PORTRAIT  BY  JOSEPH  VIVIEN 

HEK,     MITNICH 


FBNELON 


37 


fIsnelon 


Buet  now  wrote  his  instruction  on  the  "  Etats^d'ond- 
son",  as  an  explanation  of  the  thirty-four  articles. 
F^nelon  refused  to  sign  it,  on  the  plea  that  his  honour 
forbade  him  to  condemn  a  woman  who  had  already 
b€«n  condemned.  To  explain  his  own  views  of  the 
"Articles  d'Issy",  he  hastened  to  publish  the  "Expli- 
cation des  Maximes  des  Saints",  a  ratlier  arid  treatise 
in  forty-five  articles.  {lach  article  was  divided  into 
two  paragraphs,  one  laying  down  the  true,  the  other 
the  false,  teaching  concerning  the  love  oi  God.  In 
this  work  he  undertakes  to  distinguish  clearlv  every 
step  in  the  upward  way  of  the  spiritual  life.  The  final 
ena  of  the  Cnristian  soul  is  pure  love  of  God,  without 
any  admixture  of  self-interest,  a  love  in  which  neither 
fear  of  punishment  nor  desire  of  reward  has  any  part. 
The  means  to  this  end,  F^nelon  points  out,  are  those 
lon^  since  indicated  by  the  Catholic  mystics,  i.  e.  holy 
indifference,  detachment,  self-abandonment,  passive- 
ness,  throu^  all  of  which  states  the  soul  is  led  by  con- 
templation. F^nelon's  book  was  scaroeljr  published 
when  it  aroused  much  opposition.  The  king,  in  par- 
ticular, was  angry.  He  distrusted  all  religious  novel- 
ties, and^  he  reproached  Bossuet  with  not  having 
warned  him  of  tne  ideas  of  his  grandsons'  tutor.  He 
appointed  the  Bishops  of  Meaux.  Chartres,  and  I^aris 
to  examine  F^nelon^s  work  and  select  passages  for 
condemnation,  but  F^nelon  himself  suomitted  the 
book  to  the  judement  of  the  Holy  See  (27  April,  1697). 
A  vigorous  conflict  broke  out  at  once,  particularly  be- 
tween Bossuet  and  F^nelon.  Attack  and  reply  fol- 
lowed too  fast  for  analysis  here.  The  works  of  F^ne- 
lon  on  the  subject  fill  six  volumes,  not  to  speak  of  the 
646  letters  relating  to  Quietism,  the  writer  proving 
himself  a  skilful  polemical  writer,  deeply  veraed  in 
spiritual  things,  endowed  with  quick  intelligence  and 
a  mental  suppleness  not  always  to  be  clearlv  distin- 

Sished  from  quibbling  and  a  straining  of  the  sense. 
ter  a  long  and  detailed  examination  by  the  consult- 
ors  and  cardinals  of  the  Holy  Office,  lasting  over  two 
years  and  occupying  132  sessions,  "Les  Maximes  des 
Saints"  was  finally  condemned  (12  Miuch,  1699)  as 
containing  propositions  which,  in  the  obvious  mean- 
ing of  the  words,  or  else  because  of  the  sequence  of  the 
thoughts,  were  "temerarious,  scandalous,  ill-sound- 
inff,  offensive  to  pious  ears,  pernicious  in  practice,  and 
false  in  fact".  Twenty-three  propositions  were  se- 
lected as  having  incurred  this  censure,  but  the  pope 
by  no  means  intended  to  imply  that  he  approved  tne 
rest  of  the  book.  F^nelon  submitted  at  once.  "  We 
adhere  to  this  brief",  he  wrote  in  a  pastoral  letter  in 
which  he  made  known  Rome's  decision  to  his  flock, 
"and  we  accept  it  not  only  for  the  twenty-three 
propositions  but  for  the  whole  book,  simply,  abso- 
lutely, and  without  a  shadow  of  reservation. "  Most 
of  his  contemporaries  found  his  submission  adequate, 
edifying,  and  admirable.  In  recent  times,  however, 
scattered  expressions  in  his  letters  have  enabled  a  few 
critics  to  doubt  its  sincerity.  In  our  opinion  a  few 
words  written  impulsively,  and  contradicted  by  the 
whole  tenor  of  tne  writer's  life,  cannot  justify  so 
grave  a  charge.  It  must  be  remembered,  too,  that  at 
the  meeting  of  the  bishops  held  to  receive  the  Brief  of 
condemnation,  F^nelon  declared  that  he  laid  aside 
his  own  opinion  and  accepted  the  judgment  of  Rome, 
and  that  if  this  act  of  submission  seemed  lacking  in 
any  way,  he  was  ready  to  do  whatever  Rome  would 
suggest.  The  Holy  See  never  required  anything  more 
than  the  above-mentioned  spontaneous  act. 

Louis  XIV,  who  had  done  all  he  could  to  bring  about 
the  condemnation  of  the  "Maximes  des  Saints",  had 
already  punished  its  author  by  ordering  him  to  remain 
within  the  limits  of  his  diocese.  Vexed  later  at  the 
publication  of  "  T^l^maque  " .  in  which  he  saw  his  per- 
son and  his  government  suDjected  to  criticism,  the 
king  could  never  be  prevailed  upon  to  revoke  this 
command.  F^nelon  submitted  without  complaint  or 
regret,  and  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  the  care  of  his 


flock.  With  a  revenue  of  two  hundred  thousand 
livres  and  eight  hundred  parishes,  some  of  which  were 
on  Spanish  territory.  Cambrai,  which  had  been  re- 
painea  by  France  onl3r  in  1678,  was  one  of  the  most 
important  sees  in  the  kingdom.  F^nelon  gave  up  sev- 
ersd  months  of  each  year  to  a^  visitation  of  his  archdio- 
cese, which  was  not  even  interrupted  by  the  War  of 
the  Spanish  Succession,  when  opposing  armies  were 
camped  in  various  parts  of  his  territory.  The  cap- 
tains of  these  armies,  full  of  veneration  for  his  person, 
left  him  free  to  come  and  go  as  he  would.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  year  he  spent  in  his  episcopal  palace  at 
Cambrai,  where  with  his  relatives  and  his  friends,  the 
Abb6s  de  Langeron,  de  Chanterac^  and  de  Beaumont, 
he  led  an  uneventful  life,  monastic  in  its  r^;ularity. 
Every  year  he  gave  a  Lenten  course  in  one  or  other 
important  parisa  of  his  diocese,  and  on  the  principal 
feasts  he  preached  in  his  own  cathedral.  His  sermons 
were  short  and  simple,  composed  after  a  brief  medita- 
tion,  and  never  committed  to  writing;  with  the  excep- 
tion of  some  few  preached  on  more  important  occa- 
sions, thev  have  not  been  preserved.  His  dealings 
with  his  clergy  were  always  marked  by  condescension 
and  cordiality.  "His  priests",  says  Saint-Simon, 
"  to  whom  he  made  himself  both  fatner  and  brother, 
bore  him  in  their  hearts."  He  took  a  deep  interest  in 
their  seminary  tn^ining,  assisted  at  the  examination  of 
those  who  were  to  be  ordained,  and  gave  them  con- 
ferences during  their  retreat.  He  presided  over  the 
concursus  for  benefices  and  made  inquiries  among  the 
pastors  concerning  the  qualifications  of  each  candi- 
date. 

F^nelon  was  always  approachable,  and  on  his  walks 
often  conversed  with  those  he  chanced  to  meet.  He 
loved  to  visit  the  peasants  in  their  houses,  interested 
himself  in  their  joys  and  sorrows,  and.  to  avoid  pain- 
ing them,  accepted  the  simple  gftts  ot  their  hospital- 
ity. During  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  the 
doors  of  his  palace  were  open  to  all  the  poor  who  took 
refuge  in, Cambrai.  The  rooms  and  stairways  were 
filled  with  them,  and  hisgardens  and  vestibules  shel- 
tered their  live  stock.  "Se  is  yet  remembered  in  the 
vicinity  of  Cambrai  and  the  peasants  still  give  their 
children  the  name  F^nelon,  as  that  of  a  saint. 

^  Engrossed  as  F^nelon  was  with  the  administration  of 
his  diocese,  he  never  lost  sight  of  the  general  interests 
of  the  Church.  This  became  evident  when  Jansen- 
ism, quiescent  for  nearly  thirty  years,  again  raised  its 
head  on  the  occasion  of  the  famous  Caa  de  Conscience^ 
by  which  an  anonymous  writer  endeavour^  to  put 
new  life  into  the  old  distinction  between  the  ''ques- 
tion of  law"  and  "question  of  fact"  (quesUan  de  droit 
el  question  de  fait),  acknowledging  that  the  Church 
could  legally  condemn  the  famous  five  propositions 
attributed  to  Jansenius,  but  denying  that  she  coiUd 
oblige  any  one  to  beheve  that  they  were  really  to  be 
found  in  the  "Augustinus"  of  that  writer.  F^nelon 
multiplied  publications  of  every  kind  against  the  re- 
viving heresy :  he  wrote  letters,  pastoralinstructions, 
memoirs,  in  French  and  in  Latin,  which  fill  seven 
volumes  of  his  works.  He  set  himself  to  combat  the 
errors  of  the  Cos  de  Conscience,  to  refute  the  theory 
known  as  "  respectful  silence  ",  and  to  enlighten  Clem- 
ent XI  on  public  opinipn  in  France  Pdre  Quesnel 
brought  fresh  fuel  to  the  strife  by  his  "Reflexions 
morales  sur  le  Nouveau  Testament",  which  was  sol- 
emnly condemned  by  the  Bull  "Unigenitus"  (1713). 
F^nelon  defended  this  famous  pontifical  constitution 
in  a  series  of  dialogues  intended  to  influence  men  of 
the  world.  Great  as  was  his  zeal  against  error, 
he  was  always  gentle  with  the  erring,  so  that  Saint- 
Simon  could  say  "  The  Low  Countries  swarmed  with 
Jansenists,  and  his  Diocese  of  Cambrai,  in  partic- 
ular, was  full  of  them.  In  both  places  they  found  an 
ever-peaceful  refuge,  and  were  glad  and  content  to  live 
peaceably  under  one  who  was  their  enemy  with  his  pen. 
They  had  no  fears  of  their  archbishop,  who,  though 


FfeMELOM 


38 


riNELOH 


Opposed  to  their  beliefs,  did  not  disturb  tiieir  tran- 
quiiUty." 

In  spite,  of  the  multiplicity  of  his  labours,  F^elon 
found  time  to  carry  on  an  absorbing  correspondence 
with  his  relatives,  friends,  priests^  and  in  fact  every 
one  who  sought  ms  advice.  It  is  in  this  mass  of  cor- 
respondence, ten  volumes  of  which  have  reached  us, 
that  we  may  see  F6nelon  as  a  director  of  souls. 
People  of  every  sphere  of  life,  men  and  women  of  the 
world,  religious,  soldiers,  courtiers,  servants,  are  here 
met  with,  among  them  Mesdames  de  Maintenon,  de 
Gramont,  de  la  Maisonf ort,  de  Montebron,  de  Noailles, 
members  of  the  Colbert  family,  the  Marauis  de  Sei- 
gnelay,  the  Due  de  Chaulnes,  above  all  the  Dues  de 
Chevreuse  and  de  Beauvilliers,  not  forgetting  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy.  F^nelon  shows  how  well  he  pos- 
sessed all  the  qualities  he  required  from  directors, 
patience,  knowledge  of  the  human  heart  and  the  spir- 
itual life,  equanimity  of  disposition,  firmness,  and 
straightforwardness,  ''together  with  a  quiet  gaiety 
altogether  removed  from  any  stem  or  affected  aus- 
terity''. In  return  he  required  docility  of  mind  and 
entire  submission  of  will.  He  aimed  at  leading  souls 
to  the  pure  love  of  God,  as  far  as  such  a  thine  is  hu- 
manly possible;  for  though  the  errors  of  the ''  Maximes 
des  Saints''  do  not  reappear  in  the  letters  of  direction, 
it  is  still  the  same  F^neion,  with  the  same  tendencies, 
the  same  aiming  at  self-abandonment  and  detach- 
ment from  all  personal  interests,  all  kept,  however, 
within  due  limits;  for  as  he  says  "this  love  of.Goa 
does  not  reauire  all  Christians  to  practise  austerities 
like  those  of  the  ancient  solitaries,  but  merely  that 
they  be  sober,  just,  and  moderate  in  the  use  of  all 
things  expedient'';  nor  does  piety,  ''like  temporal 
affairs,  exact  a  long  and-  continuous  application"; 
"  the  practice  of  devotion  is  in  no  way  incompatible 
with  the  duties  of  one's  state  in  life".  The  desire  to 
teach  lus  disciples  the  secret  of  harmonizing  the  duties 
of  religion  with  those  of  everyday  life  suggests  to  F4ne- 
lon  aU  sorts  of  advice,  sometimes  most  unexpected 
from  the  pen  of  a  director,  especially  when  he  happens 
to  be  dealing  with  his  friends  at  court.  This  has  given 
occasion  to  some  of  his  critics  to  accuse  him  of  ambi- 
tion, and  of  being  as  anxious  to  control  the  State  as  to 
guide  souls. 

It  is  especially  in  the  writings  intended  for  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy  that  his  pohticalideas  are  apparent.  Be- 
sides a  great  number  of  letters,  he  sent  him  through  his 
friends,  the  Dues  de  Beauvilliers  and  de  Chevreuse,  an 
"Examen  de  conscience  sur  les  devoirs  de  la-Roy- 
aut^",  nine  memoirs  on  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession, and  "  Plans  de  Gouvemement,  concreti^s  avec 
le  Due  de  Chevreuse".  If  we  add  to  this  the  " T41^ 
maque  ",  the  "  Lettre  k  Louis  XIV  ",  the  "  Essai  sur  le 
Gouvemement  civil",  and  the  "M^moires  sur  les  pre- 
cautions k  prendre  apr^  la  mort  du  Due  de  Bour- 
gogne",  we  nave  a  complete  exposition  of  F^nelon's 
political  ideas.  We  shall  indicate  only  the  points  in 
which  they  are  original  for  the  period  when  tliey  were 
written.  F^nelon^  ideal  government  was  a  mon- 
archy limited  by  an  aristocracy.  The  king  was  not  to 
have  absolute  power;  he  was  to  obey  the  laws,  which 
he  was  to  draw  up  with  the  co-operation  of  the  nobil- 
ity; extraordinary  subsidies  were  to  be  levied  only 
with  the  consent  of  the  people.  At  other  times  he 
was  to  be  assisted  by  the  States-General^  which  was  to 
meet  every  three  vears,  and  by  provincial  assemblies, 
all  to  be  advisorv  bodies  to  the  kmg  rather  than  repre- 
sentative assemblies.  The  State  was  to  have  charge 
of  education;  it  was  to  control  public  manners  by 
sumptuary  legislation  and  to  forbid  both  sexes  unsuit- 
able mamages  (nUsaUiancea) .  The  temporal  arm  and 
the  spiritualarm  were  to  be  independent  of  each  other, 
but  to  afford  mutual  support.  His  ideal  state  is  out- 
lined with  much  wisdom;  in  his  political  writing  are 
to  be  found  many  observations  remarkably  judicious, 
but  also  not  a  little  Utopianism. 


Ftoelon  also  took  much  interest  in  literature  and 
philosophy.  Monsieur  Dacier,  perpetual  secretaiy  to 
the  Academic  Fran9ai8e,  having  rec^uested  him,  in  the 
name  of  that  body,  to  furnish  him  with  his  views  on  the 
works  it  ought  to  undertake  when  the  "  Dictionnaire" 
was  finished,  F^nelon  replied  in  his  "  Lettre  sur  les  oc- 
cupations de  r Academic  Fran9ai8e  ",  a  work  still  much 
admired  in  France.  This  letter,  which  treats  of  the 
French  tongue,  of  rhetoric,  poetry,  historv,  and  an- 
cient and  modem  writers,  exhibits  a  well-balanced 
mind  acquainted  with  all  the  masterpieces  of  antiq- 
uity, alive  to  the  charm  of  simpUcity,  attached  to 
classical  traditions,  yet  discreetly  open  to  new  ideas 
(especially  in  history;,  also,  however,  to  some  chimeri- 
cal theories,  at  least  concerning  things  poetical.  At 
this  very  time  the  Due  d'Ori^ans,  the  future  re^nt, 
was  consulting  him  on  quite  different  subjects.    This 

Eirince,  a  sceptic  through  circumstances  rather  than 
y  any  force  of  reasoning,  profited  by  the  appearance 
of  F^nelon's  "  Traits  de  1  existence  de  Dieu '  to  adc  its 
author  some  questions  on  the  worship  due  to  God,  the 
immortality  <m  the  soul,  and  free  will.  F^nelon  re- 
plied in  a  series  of  letters,  only  the  first  three  of  which 
are  answers  to  the  difficulties  proposed  by  the  prince. 
Toother  they  form  a  continuation  of  the  "TVait^  de 
I'existence  de  Dieu",  the  first  part  of  which  had  been 
published  in  1712  without  F^nelon's  knowledge.  The 
second  part  appeared  only  in  1718,  after  its  author's 
death.  Thougn  an  almost  forgotten  work  of  his 
youth,  it  was  received  with  much  approval,  and  was 
soon  translated  into  English  and  German.  It  is  from 
his  letters  and  this  treatise  that  we  learn  something 
about  the  philosophy  of  F^nelon.  It  borrows  from 
both  St.  Augustine  and  Descartes.  For  F^nelon  the 
strongest  arguments  for  the  existence  of  God  were 
those  based  on  final  causes  and  on  the  idea  of  the  in- 
finite, both  developed  along  broad  lines  and  with 
much  literary  charm,  rather  than  with  precision  or 
originality. 

F^nelon's  last  years  were  saddened  bv  the  death  of 
his  best  friends.  Towards  the  end  of  1710  he  lost 
Abb6  de  Langeron,  his  lifelong  companion;  in  Febru- 
ary, 1712,  his  pupU,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  died.  A 
few  months  later  the  Due  de  Chevreuse  was  taken 
away,  and  the  Due  de  Beauvilliers  followed  in  August, 
17 14.  F^nelon  survived  him  only  a  few  months,  mak- 
ing a  last  request  to  Louis  XIV  to  appoint  a  successor 
firm  against  Jansenism^  and  to  favour  the  introduc- 
tion of  Sulpicians  into  his  seminary.  With  him  disap- 
peared one  of  the  most  illustrious  members  of  the 
French  episcopate,  certainly  one  of  the  most  attrac- 
tive men  of  his  age.  He  owed  his  success  solely  to  his 
great  talents  andf  admirable  virtues.  The  renown  he 
enjoyed  during  life  increased  after  his  death.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  his  fame  among  Protestants  was 
largely  due  to  his  opposition  to  Bossuet,  and  among 
the  pnilosophers  to  the  fact  that  he  opposed  and  was 
punished  by  Louis  XIV.  F^nelon  is  therefore  for 
them  a  precursor  of  their  own  tolerant  scepticism  and 
their  infidel  philosophy,  a  forerunner  of  Rousseau, 
beside  whom  they  placed  him  on  the  facade  of  the 
Pantheon.  In  our  days  a  reaction  has  set  in,  due  to 
the  cult  of  Bossuet  and  the  publication  of  F^nelon's 
correspondence,  which  has  brou^t  into  bolder  relief 
the  contrasts  ot  his  character^  showing  him  at  once  an 
ancient  and  a  modem,  Christian  and  profane,  a  mystic 
and  a  statesman,  democrat  and  aristocrat,  eentle  and 
obstinate,  frank  and  subtle.  He  would  perhaps  have 
seemed  more  human  in  our  eyes  were  he  a  lesser  man; 
nevertheless  he  remains  one  of  the  most  attractive, 
brilliant,  and  puzzling  figures  that  the  Catholic  Church 
has  ever  proaueed. 

The  most  convenient  and  best  edition  of  F^nelon's 
works  is  that  begun  by  Lebel  at  Versailles  in  1820  and 
completed  at  Paris  by  Lecl^re  in.  1830.  It  comprises 
twenty-two  volumes,  besides  eleven  volumes  of  let- 
ters, m  all  thirty-three  volumes,  not  including  an 


nmt 


39 


ntU>XKAKD 


index  volume.  The  various  works  are  grouped  un- 
der five  headings:  (1)  Theolop;ical  and  controversial 
works  (Vols.  I-XVI),  of  which  the  principal  are: 
**TniiA  de  Tezistence  et  des  attributs  de  Dieu'';.  let- 
ters on  various  metaphysical  and  religious  subjects | 
"Traits  du  minist^re  des  pasteurs";  ''De  Summi 
Pontificis  auctoritate";  "Refutation  du  syst^me  du 
P.  Malebranche  sur  la  nature  et  la  ar&ce**;  '*  Lettre  k 
TEv^ue  d' Arras  sur  la  lecture  de  TEcriture  Sainte  en 
lan^e  vulgaire";  works  on  Quietism  and  Jansenism. 
(2)Works  on  moral  and  spiritual  subjects  (Vols.  XVII 
and  XVIII):  "Traits  de  F^ducation  des  filles'';  ser- 
mons and  works  on  piety.  (3)  Twenty-foiu:  pastoral 
charges  (Vol.  XVIII) .  (4)  Literary  works  (Vols.  XIX- 
XXn):"DialoguesdesMorts";  "T616maque";  "Dia- 
logues sur  reioquence".  (5)  Political  writing  (Vol. 
XaII)  :  "  E^men  de  conscience  sur  les  devoirs  de  la 
Ro]raut6  " ;  various  memoirs  on  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession;  "  Plans  du  Gouvemement  concertos  aveo 
le  Due  de  Chevreuse".  The  correspondence  includes 
letters  to  friends  at  court,  as  Beauvilliers,  Chevreuse, 
and  the  Duke  of  Burgunay;  letters  of  direction,  and 
letters  on  Quietism.  To  these  must  be  added  the 
"  Explication  des  maximes  des  Saints  sur  la  vie  int^ 
rieure"  (Paris,  1697). 

Da  Ramsat, Hiatoire delavieetdea ouvragea de Findon  (Lon- 
don. 1723);  DB  Baussbt,  HtBtaire  de  FSndan  (Paris,  1808); 
Tabaxaud,  SuppUment  aux  hietoirea  de  Boeattet  et  de  Findan 
(Puis,  1822);  db  Brogue,  Fintlon  h  Cambrai  (Paris,  1884); 
JANBT.  Findon  (Paris,  1892);  CrqusiJ:,  Findan  d  Boaaud  (2 
vols..  Paris,  1894);    t>BJjovi,Fhidon  archevigue  de  Cambrai 

iPans,  1905);  Cagnac,  FineUm  diredeur  de  ecnacience 
FianiBf  1903);  BRtrNBTifeRB  in  La  Grande  Eneydopidie,  s.  v.; 
DBM,  Biudee  erituiuea  aur  rhiatoire  de  la  litUnUure  franpaiae 
(Pfeiris,  1893);  Doubn,  UirUdUrance  de  Findon  (2d  ed.,  Paris, 
1875);  Vbriaqub,  LeUrea  iniditea  de  FineUm  (Paris,  1874); 
Idbm,  Ffndon  Miaaionnaire  (MarsMlles,  1884);  Gubrrixb,  Ma- 
dame Ouycn,  aa  vie,  aa  dodrine^  d  aon  influence  (Organs,  1881); 
Mabboh,  Fhtdon  d  Madame  Ouyon  (Paris,  1907) ;  DxXiPHANQUB, 
FineUm  d  la  dodrine  de  Vamour  pur  (Lille,  19()7) ;  Scannxix, 
FrancoUFindan'mlriah  Bed,  Record,  XI A1901)  1-15,413-132. 

Antoine  Degert. 

Fenn,  James,  Venerable.  See  Hatdock,  George. 

Fenn,  John,  b.  at  Montacute  near  Wells  in  Somer- 
setshire; d.  27  Dec.,  1615.  He  was  the  eldest  brother 
of  Yen.  James  Fenn,  the  mart^rr,  and  Robert  Fenn,  the 
confessor.  After  being  a  chorister  at  Wells  Cathedral, 
he  went  to  Winchester  School  in  1547,  and  in  1550  to 
New  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  elected  fellow  in 
1552.  Next  year  he  became  head  master  of  the  Bur^ 
St.  Edmunds'  grammar-school,  but  was  deprived  of  this 
office  and  also  of  his  fellowship  for  refxising  to  take 
the  oath.i>f  simremacy  under  Elizabeth.  He  there- 
upon went  to  Rome  where  after  four  gears'  studjr  he 
was  ordained  priest  about  1566.  Having  for  a  time 
been  chaplain  to  Sir  William  Stanley's  regiment  in 
Flanders  ne  settled  at  Louvain,  where  he  lived  for 
forty  years.  A  great  and  valuable  work  to  which  he 
contributed  was  the  publication,  in  1583,  by  Father 
John  Gibbons,  S  J.,  of^the  various  accounts  of  the  per- 
secution, under  the  title  "  Concertatio  Ecclesi^e  Calii- 
olicsB  in  Angli&",  which  was  the  groundwork  of  the  in- 
valuable larger  collection  published  by  Bridgewater 
under  the  same  name  in  1588.  He  also  collected  from 
old  En^ish  sources  some  spiritual  treatises  for  the 
Brigettine  nuns  of  Syon.  In  1609,  when  the  English 
Augustinian  Canonesses  founded  St.  Monica's  Priory 
at  Louvain,  he  became  their  first  chaplain  until  in  1611 
when  his  sight  failed.  Even  then  he  continued  to  live 
in  the  priory  and  the  nuns  tended  him  till  his  death. 
Besides  his  "  Vitse  quoriindam  Martyrum  in  AngliA", 
included  in  the  *'  Concertatio ' ',  he  translated  into  Latin 
Blessed  John  Fisher's  "Treatise  on  the  penitential 
Psalms"  (1597)  and  two  of  his  sermons;  he  also  pub- 
lished English  versions  of  the  Catechism  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  Osorio's  reply  to  Haddon's  attack  on  his 
letter  to  Queen  Elizabeth  (1568),  Guerra's  "Treatise 
of  Tribulation",  an  Italian  life  of  St.  Catherine  of 
Sienna  (1609;  1867),  and  Loarte's  "Instructions  How 
to  Meditate  the  Misteries  of  the  Rosarie". 


Pits,  De  lUuatribue  Anolia  Scripioribue  (Paris,  1623):  DodO, 
Church  Hiaiory  (Broaaels,  1737-42),  I,  610;  Wood,  ed.  Buss, 
AthencB  Oxonienaea,  II;  Gillow.  Bt^t.  Did.  Enq.  Cath.,  a.  v.; 
GooPEB  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  n.  v.;  Hamilton.  Chronide  of  the 
Engliah  Auauatinian  Canoneaaea  of  St.  Monica' a,  Louvain 
(London.  1904). 

Edwin  Burton. 
Fenwick,  Benedict.  See  Boston,  Diocese  of. 
Fenwick,  Edward.   See  Cincinnati,  Diocese  ok 

FerboTt  Nicolaus,  Friar  Minor  and  controversial- 
ist,  b.  at  Herbom,  Germany,  in  1485;  d.  at  Toulouse, 
15  April,  1^34.  He  was  macle  provincial  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan province  of  Cologne  and  was  honoured  by  Clem- 
ent VII  with  the  office  of  vicar-general  of  that  branch 
of  the  order  known  as  the  Cismontane  Observance,  in 
which  capacity  he  visited  the  various  provinces  of  the 
order  in  England,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Belgium.  At 
the  instance  of  the  bishops  of  Denmark,  he  was  called 
to  Copenhagen  to  champion  the  Catholic  cause  against 
Danish  Lutneranism,  and  there  he  composed,  in  1530, 
the  "Confutatio  Lutheranismi  Danici",  first  edited  by 
L.  Schmitt,  S.J.,  and  published  at  Quaracchi  (1902),' 
which  earned  for  him  the  sobric^uet  of  Stagefyr  (fire- 
brand) .  Ferber's  principal  work  is  entitled :  Locorum 
communium  ad  versus  nujus  temporis  hsreses  En- 
chiridion", published  at  Cologne  m  1528.  with  addi- 
tions in  1529.  Besides  this  ne  wrote  '^Assertiones 
(XXJXXV  ad  versus  Fr.  Lamberti  paradoxa  impia  "  etc. 
(Cologne,  1526j  and  Paris,  1534);  and  "  Enarrationes 
latinsB  Evangehorum  ouadragesimalium",  preached  in 
German  and  published  in  I^atin  (Antwerp,  1533). 

Schmitt,  Der  Kolner  Theolog  Nicolaua  Stagefyr  und  der 
Framiakaner  Nicolaua  Herbom  (Freiburg,  1896);  Hurtbb, 
Nomenelator  (Innsbruck.  1906),  IX,  1255-56;  Sbaralba,  Sup- 
plementum  ad  acriptorea  Ordinia  Minorum,  556. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Ferdinandy  BuBSSEDy  Prince  of  Portugal  b.  in 
Portugal,  29  September,  1402;  d.  at  Fes^  in  Morocco, 
5  June,  1443.  He  was  one  of  five  sons,  his  mother  be- 
ing Philippa,  daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster, and  his  father  King  John  I^  known  in  history 
for  his  victories  over  the  Moors  and  m  particular  for  his 
conquest  of  Ceuta,  a  powerful  Moorish  stronghold,  and 
his  establishment  of  an  episcopal  see  within  its  walls. 
In  early  life  Ferdinand  suffered  much  from  sickness, 
but  bodily  weakness  did  not  hinder  his  growth  in  roirit, 
and  even  in  his  boyhood  and  youth  he  gave  evidence 
of  remarkable  qualities  of  soul  and  intellect.  With 
great  strength  ol  character  and  a  keen  sense  of  justice 
and  order  he  combined  an  innocence,  gentleness,  and 
charity  which  excited  the  wonder  of  the  royal  court. 
He  had  a  special  predilection  for  prayer  and  for  the 
ceremonies  and  devotions  of  the  Church.  After  his 
fourteenth  year  he  recited  daily  the  canonical  hours, 
rising  at  midnight  for  Matins.  Always  severe  with 
himself,  he  was  abstemious  in  his  diet  and  fasted  on 
Saturdays  and  on  the  eves  of  the  feasts  of  the  Church. 
He  cared  for  the  spiritual  as  well  as  the  corporal 
necessities  of  his  domestics,  while  his  solicitude  for  the 
poor  and  oppressed  was  unbounded.  His  generosity 
towards  the  monasteries  was  impelled  by  his  desire  to 
share  in  their  pravers  and  good  works.  He  had  him- 
self enrolled  for  the  same  reason  in  all  the  pious  con- 
gregations of  the  kinpdom. 

Upon  the  death  of  his  father  in  1433,  his  brother 
Edward  (Duarte)  ascended  the  throne,  while  he  him- 
self received  but  a  small  inheritance.  It  was  then 
that  he  was  induced  to  accept  the  grand-mastership  of 
Avis,  in  order  that  he  nu^t  be  better  able  to  help  the 
poor.  As  he  was  not  a  cleric,  his  brother,  the  king,  ob- 
tained for  him  the  necessary  papal  dispensation.  The 
fame  of  his  charity  went  abroad,  and  Pope  Eugene  IV j 
throu^  the  papal  legate,  offeied  him  the  cardinal's 
hat.  This  he  refusexi,  not  wishing,  as  he  declared,  to 
burden  his  conscience. 

Though  living  a  life  of  great  sanctity  in  the  midst  of 
the  court,  Ferdinand  was  not  a  mere  recluse.   He  was 


FEEDINAHD 


40 


FERDINAND 


also  a  man  of  action^  and  in  his  boyhood  his  soul  was 
stirred  by  the  heroic  campaign  against  Ceuta.  His 
mother,  the  queen,  had  nurtured  the  martial  spirit  of 
her  sons,  and  it  is  even  sai^  that  on  her  deathbed  she 

Save  them  each  a  sword,  charging  them  to  use  it  in 
efence  of  widows^  orphans,  and  their  country,  and  in 
particular  against  unbelievers.  ^  opportunity  soon 
presented  itself.  In  1437  Edward  planned  an  expedi- 
tion against  the  Moors  in  Africa  and  placed  his  broth- 
ers Henry  and  Ferdinand  in  command.  They  set  sail 
22  Aug.,  1437,  and  four  days  later  arrived  at  Ceuta. 
During  the  voyage  Ferdinand  became  dangerously  ill. 
in  conseauence  of  an  abscess  and  fever  which  he  had 
concealed  before  the  departure,  in  order  not  to  delay 
the  fleet.  Through  some  mismanagement  the  Portu- 
guese numbered  only  6000  men,  instead  of  14.000,  as 
ordered  by  the  king.  Though  advised  to  wait  tor  rein- 
forcements, the  two  princes,  impatient  for  the  fray, 
advanced  towards  Tangiers,  to  which  they  laid  siese. 
Ferdinand  recovered  slowly,  but  was  not  able  to  ttuce 
part  in  the  first  battle. 

The  Portuguese  fought  bravely  against  great  odds, 
but  were  finally  compelled  to  make  terms  with  the 
enemy,  agreeing  to  restore  Ceuta  in  return  for  a  safe 
passage  to  their  vessels.  The  Moors  likewise  de- 
manded that  one  of  the  princes  be  delivered  into  their 
hands  as  a  hostage  for  the  delivery  of  the  city.  Ferdi- 
nand offered  himself  for  the  dangerous  post,  and  with  a 
few  faithful  followers,  including  Jofto  Alvarez,  his  sec- 
retary and  later  his  biographer^  b^an  a  painful  cap- 
tivity which  ended  only  with  his  death.  He  was  firat 
brought  to  Arsilla  by  SaUi  ben  Solk,  the  Moorish 
ameer.  In  spite  of  sickness  and  bodily  sufferings,  he 
continued  all  his  devotions  and  showed  great  charity 
towards  his  Christian  fellow-captives.  Henry  at  first 
repaired  to  Ceuta,  where  he  was  ioined  by  his  brother 
John.  Realizing  that  it  would  oe  difficult  to  obtain 
the  royal  consent  to  the  restoration  of  the  fortress, 
they  proposed  to  exchange  their  brother  for  the  son  or 
SaU  ben  SaU,  whom  Henry  held  as  a  hostage.  The 
Moors  scornfully  rejected  tne  proposal,  and  ooth  re- 
turned to  Portugal  to  devise  means  of  setting  the 
prince  free.  Though  his  position  was  perilous  in  the 
extreme,  the  Portuguese  Cortes  refused  to  surrender 
Ceuta,  not  only  on  accoimt  of  the  treachery  of  the 
Moors,  but  because  the  place  had  cost  them  so  dearly 
and  might  serve  as  a  point  of  departure  for  future  con- 
quests. It  was  resolved  to  ransom  him  if  possible. 
Sal^  ben  Sal&  refused  all  offers,  his  purpose  being  to 
recover  his  former  seat  of  government. 

Various  attempts  were  made  to  free  the  prince,  but 
all  proved  futile  and  only  served  to  make  his  lot  more 
unbearable.  On  25  May,  1438,  he  was  sent  to  Fez  and 
handed  over  to  the  cruel  Lazurac,  the  king's  vizier. 
He  was  first  condemned  to  a  dark  dungeon  and,  after 
some  montiia  of  imprisonment,  was  compelled  to  work 
like  a  slave  in  the  roval  gardens  and  stables.  Amid 
insult  and  misery  Ferdinand  never  lost  patience. 
Thou^  often  ui^ed  to  seek  safety  in  flight,  he  refused 
to  abandon  his  companions  and  grieved  more  for  their 
sufferings,  of  which  he  C0IlsideI^Bd  himself  the  cause, 
than  for  nis  own.  His  treatment  of  his  persecutors 
was  respectful  and  dignified,  but  he  would  not  descend 
to  flattery  to  obtain  any  alleviation  of  his  sufferings. 
During  the  last  fifteen  months  of  his  life  he  was  con- 
fined done  in  a  dark  dungeon  with  a. block  of  wood  for 
his  pillow  and  the  stone  floor  for  a  bed.  He  spent 
most  of  his  time  in  prayer  and  in  preparation  for 
death,  which  his  rapidly  f  aiUne  health  warned  him  was 
near  at  hand.  In  May,  1443,  he  was  stricken  ^th  the 
fatal  disease  to  wluch  he  finally  succumbed.  His  per- 
secutors refused  to  chance  his  loathsome  abode,  al- 
though they  allowed  a  physician  and  a  few  faithful 
friends  to  attend  him.  On  the  evening  of  5  June,  after 
making  a  general  confession  and  a  profession  of  faith, 
he  peacefmly  gave  up  his  soul  to  God.  During  the  day 
he  had  confid^  to  his  confessor,  who  frequently  visitea 


him,  that  the  Blessed  Virgin  with  St.  John  and  the 
Archangel  Michael  had  appeared  to  him  in  a  vision. 
Lazurac  ordered  the  body  of  the  prince  to  be  opened 
and  the  vital  organs  removed,  and  then  caused  it  to  be 
suspended  head  downwards  for  four  days  on  the  walls  of 
Fez.  Nevertheless  he  was  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to 
the  constancy,  innocence,  and  spirit  of  prayer  of  his 
royal  victim.  Of  Ferdinand's  companions,  four 
shortlv  afterwards  followed  him  to  the  grave,  one 
joined  the  ranks  ci  the  Moors,  and  the  others  regained 
their  liberty  after  Lazurac's  aeath.  One  of  the  latter, 
Jofto  Alvarez,  his  secretary  and  biographer,  carried  his 
heart  to  Portugal  in  1451,  and  in  1473  his  body  was 
brought  to  Portu^,  and  laid  to  rest  in  the  royal  vault 
at  Batalha  amid  imposing  ceremonies. 

Prince  Ferdinand  has  ever  been  held  in  great  ven- 
eration by  the  Portuguese  on  account  of  his  saintlv  life 
and  devotion  to  country.  Miracles  are  said  to  have 
been  wrought  at  his  intercession,  and  in  1470  he  was 
beatified  by  Paul  II.  Our  chief  authority  for  the  de- 
tails of  his  life  is  Jofto  Alvarez,  already  referred  to. 
Calderon  made  him  a  hero  of  one  of  his  most  remarkable 
dramas,  "El  Principe  Constante  y  M&rtir  de  Portu- 
gal". 

Alvabbi,  in  Acta  SS.,  June,  I;  Oltbrb,  Ltben  dea  tiandhafien 
Printen  (Berlin,  1827);  Dunham,  History  of  Spain  and  Portuoal 
(New  York),  III. 

Henry  M.  Brock. 

Ferdinand  11,  emperor,  eldest  son  of  Archduke 
Karl  and  the  Bavarian  Princess  Maria,  b.  1578;  d.  15 
February,  1637.  In  accordance  with  Ferdinand  I's 
disposition  of  his  possessions,  Styria,  Carinthia,  and 
Camiola  fell  to  his  son  Karl.  As  Karl  died  in  1590, 
when  his  eldest  son  was  only  twelve  years  old,  the 
government  of  these  countries  had  to  be  entrusted  to 
a  regent  during  the  minority  of  Ferdinand.  The  latter 
began  his  stucBes  under  the  Jesuits  at  Graz,  and  con- 
tinued them  in  company  with  Maximilian  of  Bavaria 
at  the  University  of  Ingolstadt,  also  in  charge  of  the 
Jesuits.  According  to  the  testimony  of  his  professors, 
he  displayed  remarkable  diligence,  made  rapid  pro- 
gress in  the  mathematical  sciences,  and  above  all  gave 
evidence  of  a  deeply  religious  spirit.  On  the  comple- 
tion of  his  studies,  he  took  up  the  reins  of  government, 
although  not  yet  quite  seventeen.  Durmg  a  subse- 
quent visit  to  Italy  ne  made  a  vow  in  the  sanctuary  of 
Loreto  to  banish  all  heresy  from  the  territories  which 
might  fall  imder  his  rule.  He  was  of  middle  heieht, 
compact  build,  with  reddish-blonde  hair  and  blue 
eyes.  His  dress  and  the  cut  of  his  hair  sug^tedthe* 
Spaniard,  but  his  easy  bearing  towards  all  with  whom 
he  came  into  contact  was  rather  German  than  Spanish. 
Even  in  the  heat  of  conflict,  a  sense  of  justice  and 
equity  never  deserted  him.  On  two  occasions,  when 
his  tenure  of  power  was  imperilled,  he  was  unflinching 
and  showed  a  true  greatness  of  mind.  Ferdinand  was 
a  man  of.  unspotted  morals,  but  lacking  in  statesman- 
like qualities  and  independence  of  judgment.  He  was 
wont  to  lay  the  responsibility  for  important  measures 
on  his  counsellors  (Freiherr  von  Eggenberg,  Graf  von 
Harrach.  the  Bohemian  Chancel lorTzdencko  von  Lob- 
kowitz,  Cardinal-Prince  Dietrichstein,  etc.).  Liberal 
even  to  prod igality ,  his  exchequer  was  always  low.  In 
pursuance  of  the  principle  laid  down  b^r  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg,  1555  (cuius  regio  eiua  et  rdigio)^  he  estab- 
lished the  Counter-Reformation  in  his  three  duchies, 
while  his  cousin  Emperor  Rudolf  II  reluctantly  rec- 
ognized the  Reformation. 

As  Ferdinand  was  the  only  archduke  of  his  day  with 
sufficient  power  and  ener^  to  take  up  the  struggle 
against  the  estates  then  aiming  at  supreme  power  in 
the  Austrian  hereditary  domains,  the  childless  Em- 
peror Matthias  strove  to  secure  for  him  the  succession 
to  the  whole  empire.  Durine  Matthias's  life,  Ferdi- 
nand was  crowned  Kine  of  Bohemia  and  of  Hungary, 
but,  when  Matthias  diedduring  the  heat  of  the  religious 
war  (20  March,  1619),  Ferdinand's  position  was  en- 


nBDnuND 


41 


nEBDHTAKD 


•MnpAsaed  with  perils.  A  united  army  of  Bohemians  peror,  the  estates  of  the  Lower  S&xon  circle  (Krew) 
and  Sileaians  stobd  before  the  walls  oi  Vienna;  in  the  had  meanwhile  formed  a  confederation,  and  resolved 
city  itaelf  Ferdinand  was  beset  by  the  urgent  demands  under  the  leadership  of  their  head,  King  Christian  IV 
of  the  Lower-Austriaa  estates,  while  the  Bohemian  of  Denmark,  to  oppose  the  emp^r  (1625).  In  faoe 
estates  chose  as  king  in  his  place  the  head  of  the  Prot-  of  this  combination,  the  Catholic  Union  or  League 
estant  Union  in  Germany  (the  Palatine  Frederick  V),  under  Count  Tilly  iUY>ved  too  weak  to  hold  in  check 
who  could  also  count  on  the  support  of  his  fathei^in-  both  its  internal  and  external  enemies;  thus  the  re- 
law,  James  I  of  En^and.  When  the  Austrian  estates  cruitins  of  an  independent  imperial  army  was  indis- 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Bohemians,  and  pensabTe,  though  the  Austrian  exchequer  was  unable 
Bethlen  Gabor,  Prince  of  Transylvaata,  marched  to  meet  the  charge.  However,  Albrecht  von  Wald- 
tnumphantly  through  Hungary  witQ  the  as^tance  of  stein  (usuallv  known  as  Wallenetein),  a  Bohemian 
"  9  Hungarian  evangelical  party,  and  was  crowned  nobleman  wnom  Ferdinand  had  a  short  time  pn- 


king  of  that  country,  the 
eniTof  the  Hapaburg  dy- 
nasty seemed  at  oand.  Not* 
withstanding  these  troubles 
in  his  hereditary  states, 
Ferdinand  was  chosen  Ger- 
man Emperor  by  the  votes 
(rf'  all  the  electors  except 
Bohemia  and  the  Palatinate. 
Spaniards  from  the  Neth- 
.  erlands  occupied  the  Pala- 
tinate, and  the  Cathohc 
League  (Bund  der  katho- 
lischen  FUrsten  Deutsch- 
landB)headed  by  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria  declared  in  his 
favour,  although  to  procure 
this  support  Ferdinand  was 
obliged  to  mortgage  Austria 
to  Maximilian.  On  22  June. 
1619,  the  Imperial  General 
Buquov  repulsed  from  Vi- 
enna the  besieging  Gen- 
eral Thum-  MaQsfeTd  was 
crushed  at  Budweis,  and  on 
8  November,  1620,  the  fate 
of  Bohemia  and  of  Frederick 
V  was  decided  by  the  Battle 
<rf  the  White  Mountain, 
near  Prague. 

The  firm  re-establishment 
of  the  Hapsburg  dynasty 
was  the  signal  for  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Counter- 
Reformation  (a.  V.)  into 
Bohemia.  Ferdinand  an- 
nulled the  privileges  of  the 
estates,  declared  void  the 
concessions  granted  to  the 
Bohemian  Protestants  by 
the  Majestfttsbriet  of  Ru- 
dolf II,. and  punished  the 
hesds  of  the  insurrection 
with  death  and  confiscation 
of  goods.    Protestantism 


o  II 


viously  raised  to  the  di^ty 
of  prince,  offered  to  raise  an 
army  of  40,000  men  at  his 
own  expense.  His  offer  was 
accepted,  and  soon  Wallen- 
stein  and  Tilly  repeatedly 
vanquished  the  Banes. 
Ernst  von  Mansfeld  and 
Christian  of  Brunswick,  the 
leaders  of  the  Protestant 
forces.  On  the  defeat  of 
Christian  at  Luttcr  am  Bar- 
enbei^  (27  August.  1626), 
the  Danish  Duchies  of 
Schleswig  and  Holstein  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  vic- 
torious Tilly,  Christian  was 
compelled  to  make  the 
equitable  peace  of  Lubeck 
on  12  May,  1629,  and  Wal- 
lenstein  was  invested  with 
the  lands  of  the  Dukes  of 
Mecklenburg,  allies  of  Chris- 

Contempoianeouslv,  an 
insurrection  brolie  out 
among  the  Austrian  peas- 
ants for  the  recovery  of  their 
ei^iesiastical  rights  abro- 
^ted  by  the  emperor.  This 
rising  nas  soon  auelled,  but, 
as  Wallenstein  did  not  con- 
ceal his  intention  to  estab- 
lish the  emperor's  rule  in 
Germanv  on  a  more  absolute 
basis,  the  princes  of  the 
empire  were  unceasing  in 
their  complaints,  and  de- 
manded walienstein's  dis- 
missal. The  excitement  of 
the  princes,  especiallj  those 
of  the  Protestant  faith,  ran 
still  higher  when  Ferdinand 
published,  in  1629,  the 
''Edict  of  li 


>o  del  Pruio.  Madrid 

B  exterminated  in  Boheroiaj  Moravia,  and  Lower  which  directed  Protestants  to  restore  all  ecclesiastical 

Austria;  iuSilesiaaione,  on  the  intercession  of  the  Lu-  propertytaken  from theCathoUcs  since  theConvention 

theran  Elector  of  Saxony,  the  Reformers  were  treated  of  Fassau,  in  1552  (2  archbishoprics,  12  bishoprics  and 

with  less  severity.  many  monastic  seigniories,  especially  in  North  Gei^ 

The  establishment  of  a  general  peace  might  perhaps  many).    At  the  meeting  of  tne  princes  in  Ratisbon 

DOW  have  been  possible,  if  the  emperor  hf^  been  pre-  (1630),  when  Ferdinand  wished  to  procure  the  election 

ered  to  return  his  possessions  to  the  outlawed  and  ofhissonasKingof  Rome, tbeprinces headed byMax- 
nished  Palatine  Elector  Frederick.  Atfirst,  Ferdi-  imilian  succeeded  in  prevailing  on  the  emperor  to  re- 
nand  seemed  inclined  to  adopt  this  policy  out  of  eon-  move  Wallenstein.  'Tbecommandof  the  now  reduced 
skteration  for  the  Spanish,  who  did  not  wish  to  give  imperial  troops  was  entrusted  to  Tilly,  who  with  theae 
mortal  offence  to  James  I,  the  father-in-law  of  the  forces  and  those  of  the  League  morcned  against  Mag- 
elector.  However,  the  irritating  conduct  of  Fred-  deburg;  this  city,  formerly  the  see  of  an  archbishop, 
erick  and  the  Protestant  Union,  and  the  wish  to  re-  energetically  opposed  the  execution  of  the  Edict  of 
cover  Austria  by  indemnifying  Maximilian  in  another  Restitution.  Even  before  Wallenslein's  dismissal  on 
way  led  Ferdinand  to  continue  the  war.  Entrusted  4  July,I630,GuBtavus  Adolphus,Kingof  Sweden, had 
with  the  execution  of  the  ban  against  the  Elector  Palo-  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oder,  but,  as  the  Protes- 
tine,  Maximilian  Assisted  by  the  Spaniards  took  poe-  tant  estates  (notably  Brandenburg  and  Saxony)  heai- 
aeasion  of  the  electoral  lands,  and  in  1632  was  himself  tated  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  him,  he  was  unable 
raised  to  the  electoral  dignity.  at  first  to  accomplish  anything  decisive.  When,how- 
Uneasy  at  the  rapidly  increasing  power  of  the  em-  ever,in  Hay,  1631,  Tilly  stormed  and  reduced  to  ashes 


FSaDINAHD  42  FEBQUS 

the  town  of  Magdeburg,  the  Electors  of  Brandenburg  everywhere,  built  churches,  founded  monasteries,  and 

and  Saxony  openly  espoused  the  cause  of  Gustavus  endowed  hospitals.    The  g^test  joys  of  his  life  were 

Adolphus.    After  the  utter  defeat  of  Tilly  at  Breiten-  the  conquests  of  Coniova  (1236)  and  Seville  (1248). 

feld  (September,  1631),  Gustavus  Adolphus  advanced  He  turned  the  great  mosques  of  these  places  into 


through  Thuringia  and  Franconia  to  the  Rhine;  while  thedrals,  dedicating  them  to  the  Blessed  Virgin.  He 
the  Saxon  army  invaded  Bohemia  and  occupied  its  watched  over  the  conduct  of  his  soldiers,  confiding 
capital,  Prague.  In  1632,  the  Swedish  King  mvaded  more  in  their  virtue  than  in  their  valour,  fastea . 
Bavaria.  Tilly  faced  him  on  the  Lech,  but  was  de-  strictly  himself,  wore  a  rough  hairshirt.  and  often 
feated,  and  mortally  wounded.  Gustavus  Adolphus  spent  nis  nights  in  prayer,  especially  betore  battles, 
was  now  master  of  Germany,  the  League  was  over-  Amid  the  tumult  of  the  camp  tie  lived  like  a  religious 
thrown,  and  the  emperor  threatened  in  his  hereditary  in  the  cloister.  The  glory  of  the  Church  and  the  nap- 
domain.  In  this  crisis  Ferdinand  induced  Wallenstein  piness  of  his  people  were  the  two  guiding  motives  of 
to  raise  another  army  of  40,000  men,  and  entrusted  nis  life.  He  rounded  the  Universitvof  Salamanca,  the 
him  with  unlimited  authority.  On  6  November,  1632,  Athens  of  Spain.  Ferdinand  was  buried  in  the  great 
a  battle  was  fought  at  LQtzen  near  Leipzig,  where  cathedral  of  Seville  before  the  ima^  of  the  Blessed 
Gustavus  Adolphus  was  slain,  though  the  Swedish  Virgin,  clothed,  at  his  own  request,  in  the  habit  of  the 
troops  remainea  masters  of  the  battle-field.  Wallen-  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis.  His  body,  it  is  said,  re- 
stein  was  now  in  a  position  to  continue  the  war  with  mains  incorrupt.  Many  miracles  took  place  at  his 
energy,  but  after  the  second  half  of  1633  he  displayed  tomb^  and  Clement  X  canonised  him  in  1671.  His 
an  incomprehensible  inactivity.  The  explanation  is  feast  is  kept  by  the  Minorites  on  the  30th  of  May. 
that  Wallenstein  had  formed  the  resolution  to  betray  _  Lw>,  l^  of  the  S^vU  and  BUued  of  t^  Three  Ordenof^. 


the 


Fmncu  (Taunton,  1886),  II,  300  sq.;    Butler,  Livea  of  the 


emperor  and  with  the  help  of  France  to^ije  S^SSHn^-Ty"^?;  i^^)  •n"'4^«,?ke£"m!^0?ir^ 

Bohemia.     His  plan  miSCamed,  however,  and  led  to  sq..  where  the  Lives  by  his  prime  minister  RoDERiQO  Ximenes, 

his  assassination  at  Eger  on  25  February,  1634.     The  Archbishop  dr  Seville,  and  Luke  or  Tut.  as  weU  as   the 

^•.»«^»^.  v,^A  ««  k<>««^  i««  *u\€M  «nii.i^<i*      rw»  Q7  Aiimio^^  ChronxeonS,  Ferdtnaruh  are  to  be  found;    Wadding,  Annalee 

emperor  had  no  hand  m  this  murder.    Un  27  August  juintmim,  VI,  189-221;  Nob  Sainu  (Quebec,  ISW),  126  sq.; 

of  the  same  year,  the  imperial  army  under  the  em-  QcBni^i}j.lnKtrehefdex.,B.v.'j>KUQST,  La  Vie deS.  Ferdinand, 

peror's  eldest  son,  Ferdinand,  inflicted  so  crushing  a  ^  <*«  CaatOU  etde  Uon  (Paris.  1760);  Fbruba,  Getehidue 

defeat  on  the  Swedes  at  NOnllingen  that  the  Protest-  -Sponien..  Germ.  tr.  (Halle.  1765^-  iT^r^i^Aw 

ants  of  south-western  Germany  turned  for  help  to  J?bbdinand  heckmann. 


Se^^mber,  th^  co^bi^S^^^         si'on  ^i^^  ^'  •  T^e  ^wn  was  in  antiquity  the  chief  place 

*^  J  c2^T^t^tti!j^zX.i!^}^raJ^.J^j^.^^^  Hemici.    Its  ancient  origin  is  borne  out  by  the  numer- 

weiedefeated  al^rttstockl^ytte^^  ^^         j^  ^j  jt^  ^yclo^  walls,  especially  near  the 

France  nowjrev^ed  ite  ««1  poligr  a^^^^^  ^^  ^  the  ancient  fortJ^where  thV«ithidral  now 

powerful  arinjrto  jom  theninTffl  ofHte  eniwror'sf oes.  ^^^^     j^  ^;^^^  ,j       ^  ^^e  kings  there  was  strife  be- 

terdmand  U^^to  mtaMS  tto  e^^^^  t^^  j^^^^  ^^  /erentinum  wlich  then  belonged  to 

Geman  Emprw  (^  Dewmter,  1636)^  a^^  the  Volscians.    The  Consul  Furius  gave  it  over  to  the 

nation  as  King  of  Bohemm  and  Hunp^^^^  g^^j  ^^  •„  ^gj  ^  ^       ^^  ^^^     j^^,^  ^^ 

^"TT^I^JaI^^^^:  Sj^^^JL^^h^i^t  (municipium),  and  shared  thenceforth  the  fortunes  of 

end  of  this  d^mctive  conflict,  knowB  as  the  Thirty  ^         ''i^  j     ^^  attributes  the  first  preaching  of 

Years  War.    In  hwwiUJhe  expiry  pro^^         the  ^^e  Gospel  in  Ferentinum  to  Sts.  Peter  anJPaul;  l£ey 

»¥««»'?''  «^,  t^«  ^^^™  ''!  ♦ ""  •''"^  *°*^  ^  "*■  are  said  to  have  consecrated  St.  Leo  as  its  first  l^ishop. 

divisibihty  of  his  hereditary  states.  ^  .  In  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  the  centurion  Aii- 

dreiaeiofahrioen  Krieaea  (3  vols..  Pracue.  1882);  Klopp.  TOly  also  the  martyrdom  of  St.  EutychlUS  belongs  to  that 

im  dretsaiiriahrioen  Krieoe  (2  vols..  Stuttprty  1861);  Hubbr.  period.    In  tne  time  of  Emperor  Constantine  the 

GeechidUe  Oeelerreiehs  (6  vols..  Prague  and:  ^gP^'j^^*>-  town  had  its  Own  bishop ;  but  the  first  known  to  US  by 

JiABL  iU^AAB.  name  is  Bassus,  present  at  Roman  s^pods,  487  and 

w^.^i«.«j  TTT  a.»„m  Tr:«^  ^f  T^w^r,  ««j  r««o*;i«  492-493.    St.  Redemptus  (about  570)  is  mentioned  in 

„»"tJe^p|i|^F^i^.|3  ^::F^^£r^^oZ^^iL^i^'^ 

^ri^^Bt;?ce[h1^?sl5k^^u^f^*"^''"'  ?o!n'°i  Kr^'if^a  ^^^e^'&S^To^S^f 

sister  of  Blanche,  the  mother  ot  St.  Louis  IX.  xu^  ««*;,v^r«»  "Ui^^^w^  tv.  nL^^,^^  ^.   ,>  io7a\  u».^^ 

crown  his  mother  renounced  in  his  favour,  and  m  1230  j^k^  -Or^^^  /ioo7\  \.,k«  ^^^a^^.^^  ^.^v^^i  al«,J;«^  *^ 

hesucceeded^thec^^^^  SJ^^Ilf F^nc^o  ^ 

civU  stnfe.  since  many  were  opposed  to  the  umon  of  j^j^  jj  ^  ^^^  Emperor  MaxfeSilian. 


«..«..  justice  and  took  the  greatest  care  not  to  over-  g  Convents  for  women. 

burden  his  subjects  with  taxation,  fearmg,  as  he  said,        CAPPBLLrrn.  Le  ehieee  d: Italia,  VI.  391;  Ann.  Bed.  (Rome, 

the  curse  of  onepoor  woman  more  than  a  whole  army  1908). 

of  Saracens.     Following  his  mother's  advice,  Ferdi-  U.  Benigni. 

nand,  in  1219,  married  Patrice,  the  daughter  of  Philip 

of  Swabia,  King  of  Germany,  one  of  the  most  vir-        FergOB,  Saint,  d.  about  730,  known  in  the  Irish 

tuous  princesses  of  her  time.    God  blessed  this  union  martyrologies  as  St.  Fergus  Cruithneach,  or  the  Pict. 

with  seven  children:  six  princes  and  one  princess.  The  Breviary  of  Aberdeen* states  that  he  had  been  a 

The  highest  aims  of  Ferdinand's  life  were  the  propaga-  bishop  for  many  years  in  Ireland  when  he  came  on  a 

tion  of  the  Faith  and  liie  liberation  of  Spain  from  the  mission  to  Alba  with  some  chosen  priests  and  other 

Saracen  yoke.    Hence  his  continual  wars  a^nst  the  clerics.    He  settled  first  near  Strageath,  in  the  present 

Saracens.    He  took  from  them  vast  territones,  Gran-  parish  of  Upper  Stratheam,  in  Upper  Perth,  and 

ada  and  Alicante  alone  remaining  in  their  power  at  the  erected  three  churches  in  that  district.    The  churches 

time  of  his  death.    In  the  most  important  towns  he  of  Strageath,  Blackford,  and  Dolpatrick  are  found 

founded  bishoprics,  re-established  Catholic  worship  there  to-day  dedicated  to  St.  Patrick.    He  next 


43 


evangelued  Caithness  and  established  there  the 
churcnes  of  Wick  and  Halkirk.  Thence  he  crossed  to 
Bachan  in  Aberdeenshire  and  founded  a  church  at 
Lungley,  a  village  now  called  St.  Fergus.  Lastly,  he 
estaSlished  a  church  at  Glammis  in  Forfarshire.  He 
went  to  Rome  in  721  and  was  present  with  Sedu- 
lius  and  twen^  other  bishops  at  a  synod  in  the 
basilica  of  St.  Peter,  convenea  by  Gregory  II.  His 
remains  were  deposited  in  the  church  of  Glammis  and 
were  the  object  of  much  veneration  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  Abbot  of  Scone  transferred  his  head  to 
Scone  church,  and  encased  it  in  a  costly  shrine. 
There  is  an  entry  in  the  accounts  of  the  treasurer  of 
James  IV,  Octol)er,  1503,  "An  offerand  of  13  shillings 
to  Sanct  Fergjus'  heide  in  Scone".  The  churches  of 
Wick,  Glammis,  and  Lungley  had  St.  Fergus  as  their 
patron.  His  festival  is  recorded  in  the  Martyrology  of 
Tallaght  for  the  8th  of  September  but  seems  to  have 
been  observed  in  Scotland  on  the  18th  of  November. 

KexxT  (ed.),  Martvrolom  of  TaUagfU,  33;  O'Hanlon.  Lives 
of  Iriah  Sta.,  8  Sept..  lA,  196;  Breviary  of  Aberdeen,  Latin 
text  (London,  1854);  Sucne,  Ceitic  Scotland  (Edinburgh  1877), 
II.  232. 

Fergus,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Duleek,  d.  778,  mentioned 
by  Duald  MacFirbis,  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters, 
Annals  of  Ulster. 

Fergus^  Saint,  Bishop  of  Downpatrick,  d.  583.  He 
was  sixth  m  descent  from  Coelbad,  King  of  Elrin.  He 
built  a  church  or  monastery  called  Killmbian,  identi- 
fied by  some  as  Killyban,  Co.  Down,  and  afterwards 
was  consecrated  bishop  and  ruled  the  cathedral 
church  of  Druimleithglais  (Down).  He  was  probably 
the  first  bishop  of  that  see.  His  feast  is  kept  on  the 
30th  of  March. 

Ten  saints  of  this  name  are  mentioned  in  the  mar- 
tyrology of  Donegal. 

Colo  AN.  Acta  SS.Hib.,  30  Mar.;  0*Hanu>n,  «p.  eit.,  30  Mar.; 
Lanioan,  Bee,  Hiat.  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1829).  IL  183. 

C.  MuiiCAHT. 

Feria  (Lat.  for  ''free  day")»  &  d&y  on  which  the 
people,  especially  the  slaves,  were  not  obliged  to  work, 
and  on  which  there  were  no  court  sessions.  In  ancient 
Roman  times  the  feriw  jmblicm,  legal  holidays,  were 
either  stuHviBf  recurring  regularly  (e.  g.  the  Saturnalia). 
conceplivce,  i.  e.  movable,  or  imperoHvcB,  i.  e.  appointed 
for  special  occasions.  When  Christianity  spread,  the 
fericB  were  ordered  for  religious  rest,  to  celebrate  the 
feasts  instituted  for  worship  by  the  Church.  The 
faithful  were  obliged  on  those  days  to  attend  Mass  in 
their  parish  church;  such  assemblies  graduidly  led  to 
mercantile  enterprise,  partly  from  necessity  and  partly 
for  the  sake  of  convenience.  This  custom  in  time 
introduced  those  market  gatherings  which  the  Ger- 
mans call  MesseUt  and  the  English  call  fairs.  They 
were  fixed  on  saints'  days  (e.  g.  St.  Barr's  fair,  St. 
Germanus's  fair,  St.  Wenn's  fair,  etc.). 

To-day  the  term  feria  is  used  to  denote  the  days  of 
the  week  with  the  exception  of  Sunday  and  Saturday. 
Various  reasons  are  given  for  this  terminology.  The 
Roman  Breviaiy,  in  the  sixth  lesson  for  31  Dec,  savs 
that  Pope  St.  Silvester  ordered  the  continuance  of  the 
already  existing  custom,  ''that  the  clergy,  daily  ab- 
staining from  earthly  cares,  would  be  free  to  serve 
God  alone''.  Others  believe  that  the  Church  simply 
Christianized  a  Jewish  practice.  The  Jews  frequently 
counted  the  days  from  their  Sabbath,  and  so  we  find  in 
the  Gospels  such  expressions  as  una  SabbaH  and  prima 
Sabbatif  the  first  from  the  Sabbath.  The  early  Chris- 
tians reckoned  the  days  after  Easter  in^this  fashion, 
but,  since  all  the  days  of  Blaster  week  were  holy  days, 
they  called  Easter  Monday,  not  the  first  dav  after 
Easter,  but  the  second  feria  or  feast  day;  ana  since 
every  Sunday  is  the  dies  Dominica,  a  lesser  Easter  day, 
the  custom  prevailed  to  call  each  Monday  a  feria 
BecundOf  and  so  on  for  the  rest  of  the  week. 

The  ecclesiastical  style  of  naming  the  week  days  was 
adopted  by  no  nation  except  ^e  Portuguese,  who 


alone  use  the  terms  Segunda  Feira  etc.  The  old  use 
of  the  word  feria,  for  feast  day,  is  lost,  except  in  the 
derivative  ferioHo,  which  is  equivalent  to  our  of  Migon 
lion.  To-aay  those  days  are  called  ferial  upon  which 
no  feast  is  celebrated.  Feris  are  either  major  6t 
minor.  The  major,  which  must  have  at  least  a  com- 
memoration, even  on  the  highest  feasts,  are  the  feriie 
of  Advent  and  Lent,  the  Ember  days,  and  the  Monday 
of  Rogation  week;  the  others  are  called  minor.  Ot 
the  major  fence  A^  Wednesday  and  the  days  of  Holy 
Week  are  privileged,  so  that  their  office  must  be  taken, 
no  matter  what  feast  may  occur. 

Dublin  Review,  CXXIV,  350;  Wapelhorst.  Convpendivm  8. 
Liturgia  (New  York,  1905);  Hbubbr  in  Kircfienlex.,  8.  v. 

Francis  Mershman. 

•  Ferland,  Jean-Baptistb-Antoinb,  French  Cana- 
dian historian,  b.  at  Montreal,  25  December,  1805;  d. 
at  Quebec,  11  January,  1865.  He  studied  at  the  col- 
lege of  Nicolet  and  was  ordained  priest  14  September, 
1828.  He  ministered  to  country  parishes  until  1841, 
when  he  was  made  director  of  studies  in  the  college  of 
Nicolet.  He  became  its  superior  in  1848.  Being 
named  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  Bishop  of 
Quebec,  he  took  up  his  residence  in  that  city,  where  he 
was  also  chaplain  to  the  English  garrison.  From  his 
college  davs  ne  had  devotea  himself  to  the  study  of 
Canadian  history;  the  numerous  notes  which  he  (Col- 
lected had  made  him  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
the  country.  It  was  not,  however,  until  he  had 
reached  the  age  of  forty  that  he  thought  of  writing  a 
history  of  Caimda.  In  1853  he  published  his  **  Obser- 
vations s\u*  lliistoire  eccl^iastique  du  Canada",  a 
refutation  and  criticism  of  the  work  of  the  Abb^  Bras- 
seur  de  Bourboure ;  it  was  reprinted  in  France  in  1854. 
In  the  latter  year  ne  published  "  Notes  sur  les  rdgistres 
de  Notre-Damede  Quebec", a  second  edition  of  which, 
revised  and  augmented,  appeared  in  the  "  Foyer  Cana- 
dien"  for  1863.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  Canadian  history  at  the  University  of  Laval 
(Quebec),  and  went  at  once  to  France  to  collect  new 
documents  to  perfect  him  in  his  work.  He  returned 
in  1857,  bringing  with  him  valuable  notes.  The  pub- 
lic courses  which  he  delivered  from  1858  to  1862  at- 
tracted large  audiences,  and  his  lectures,  printed  as 
"Cours  d'Histoire  du  Canada",  established  Ferland's 
reputation.  The  first  volume  appeared  in  1861 ;  the 
second  was  not  published  till  after  the  author's  death 
in  1865.  This  work,  written  in  a  style  at  once  simple 
and  exact,  is  considered  authoritative  by  competent 
judg&s.  It  is,  however,  incomplete,  ending  as  it  does 
with  the  conquest  of  Canada  by  the  English  (1759). 
Ferland  aimed  above  all  at  establishing  the  actual 
facts  of  history.  He  desired  also  to  make  known  the 
work  of  the  Catholic  missions.  His  judgments  are 
correct  and  reliable.  Ferland  also  published  in  the 
"Soir^  Canadiennes"  of  1863  the  "Journal  d'un 
voya^  sur  les  c6tes  de  la  Gasp^ie",  and  in  "Utt^ra- 
ture  Canadienne"  for  1863  an  "Etude  sur  le  Labra- 
dor", which  had  previously  appeared  in  the  "  Annales 
de  r Association  pour  la  Propagation  de  la  Foi".  For 
the  "Foyer  Canadien"  of  1863  he  wrote  a  "Vie  de 
Mgr  Plessis",  Bishop  of  Quebec,  translated  later  into 
English. 

1865 
dien, 
Ferland;  Hevue  Canadienne  (1864)»  IV.  &52. 

J.  Edmond  Rot. 

Fermo,  Archdiocese  of  (Firman a),  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Ascoli  Piceno  (Central  Italy).  The  great  antiq- 
uitv  of  the  episcopal  city  is  attested  by  the  remains 
of  its  Cyclopean  walls.  It  was  the  site  of  a  Roman 
colony,  established  in  264  b.  c,  consisting  of  6000  men. 
With  the  Pentapolis  it  passed  in  the  eighth  century 
under  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See  and  underwent 
thenceforth  the  vicissitudes  of  the  March  of  Ancona. 
Under  the  predecessors  of  Honorius  III  the  bishops  of 


and  the  papac]',  Fermo  vaa  several  times  besi^ed  and    Faith  in  1822,  after  the  arrival  of  the  Latin  patriarch, 
capturea;  in  lltBbyArehbishopChriBtianof  Maini,  in     for  whom  he  had  petitioned  the  Holy  See,  publicly 
1192  by  Henry  VI,  in   1208  by  Marcuald,  Duke  of     acknowledged  the  primacy  of  tbe  Roman  See  and 
Ravenita,  in  1241  by  Frederick  II,  in  1245  by  Manfred,    constituted  Catholicism  the  State  religion   rie2e). 
Afto'  this  it  was  governed  by  different  lorda,  who     For  a  time  innumerable  conversions  were  luaae,  the 
ruled  Bfl  more  or  leas  legitimate  vaeeals  of  the  Holy     monarch   in  hia  zeal  resorting  even  to  compulsoiy 
See,  e.  g.   the  Monteverdi,   Giovanni   Visconti,   and     measures.     The  emperor's  son,  however,  took  sides 
with  the  sehismatii»,  headed  a  rebellion,  seised  hia 
father's  throne,   and   reinstalled  the  former  faith, 
proscribinE  the  Catholic  religioa  under  the  penalty  of 
death.    The  missionariee,  on  their  expubion,  found  a 
temporary  protector  in  one  of  the  petty  princes  of  the 
country, 'by  whom,  however,  they  were  soon  aban- 
doned.   Those  who  reached  the  port  of  Massowoh 
were  held  for  a  ransom.    Father  Femdndes,  then  over 
eighty  years  of  age,  was  one  of  those  detuned  aa 
hostage,  but  a  younger  companion  persuaded  the 
paaha  to  substitute  him,  and  Father  Fem^dei  was 
allowed  to  return  to  India,  where  he  ended  his  days. 
On  his  missions  for  the  king  Fatber  Fem&ndes  lid 
traversed  vast  tracts  of  hitherto  unexplored  territory. 
He  translated  various  litur^cal  books  into  Ethiopian, 
and  was  the  author  of  ascetical  and  polemical  works 
against  the  heresies  prevalent  in  Ethiopia. 

MioNi,  Diet,  da  miuumt  caOuligua;    BBMHaa  in   BucH- 
BiBQiB,  KirdUicha  HandUx.,  &  v. 

P.  M.  RtmoE. 

FeniAndei,  Juan,  Jesuit  lay  brother  and  mission- 
ary; b.  at  Cordova;  d.  12  June,  1567,  in  Japan.  In  a 
letter  from  Malacca,  dated  20  June,  1549,  St.  Francis 
Xavier  begs  the  prayers  of  the  Goa  brethren  for  thoae 
fiboat  to  start  on  the  Japanese  misBioQ,  mentioning 
among  them  Juan  Femandei,  a  lay  brother.  On 
their  arrival  in  Japan  Juan  rendered  active  service  in 
the  work  of  evangelizing.  In  September,  1550,  be 
accompanied  St.  Francis  to  Firando  (Hirado),  thence 
to  Amanguchi  (Yamaguchi),  and  on  ia  Miako  (Saikio), 
a  difficult  journey,  from  which  they  returned  to 
Amanguchi,  where  he  was  left  with  Father  Coemo 
Torres  in  charge  of  the  Christians,  when  Francis 
Ta'B  CiTBBDiuL.  FiRHo,  XII  CaHTDST  Started  for  China.    There  is  still  in  the  records  of  the 

Jesuit  college  at  Coimbra  a  lengthy  document  pro- 
Francesco  Sforsa  (banished  1446),  Oliverotto  Dffre-  fesaed  to  be  the  translation  of  an  account  rendered  St. 
dlicci  (murdered  in  1503  by  Casar  Borgia),  who  was  Francis  by  Femindei  of  a  controversy  with  the 
succeeded  by  his  son  Ludovico,  killed  at  the  battle  of  Japanese  on  such  questions  as  the  nature  of  God, 
Monte  Giorgio  ia  1520,  when  Fermo  became  lujain  di-  creation,  thenature  and  immortality  of  thesoul.  The 
rectly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  Boniface  VIir(12!>4-  success  of  Brother  Femiode*  on  this  occasion  in  re- 
1308)  established  a  university  there.  Fermo  is  the  futing  his  Japanese  adversaries  resulted  in  the  ill  will 
birthplace  of  the  celebrated  poet,  Annibale  Caro.  of  the  bonaes,  who  stirred  up  a  rebellion  against  the 

Local  legend  attributes  the  first  preaching  of  the  local  prince,  who  had  become  a  Christian.  The 
Gospel  at  Fermo  to  Sta.  ApolUnaris  and  Maro.  The  missionaries  were  concealed  by  the  wife  of  one  of 
martyrdom  of  ita  bishop,  St.  Alexander,  with  seventy  the  nobles  until  they  were  able  to  resume  their  work 
oompanions,  is  placed  in  the  persecution  of  Decius  of  preaching.  St.  Francis  says  in  one  of  his  letters: 
(250),  and  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Philip  under  Aurelian  "  Joam  Fcmindei,  though  a  simple  layinan,  is  most 
(270-75).  Among  the  noteworthy  bishops  are;  Pas-  useful  on  account  of  the  fluency  of  his  acquaint- 
sinuB^  the  recipient  of  four  letlere  from  Gregory  III;  ^nce  ^^th  the  Japanese  language  and  of  the  aptness 
Cardinal  Domenico  Capranica  (1426);  Sigismondo  andcleameaswilhwhichhetranBlateswhaleverFather 
Zanettini  (1584)^  under  whom  Fermo  was  made  the  Cosmo  su^eets  tohim."  His  humilitv  under  insults 
seat  of  an  archdiocese;  Giambattista  Rinuccini,  nun-  impressed  all,  and  on  one  occasion  resulted  in  thecon- 
cio  in  Ireland;  and  Alessandro  Borgia,  The  suffra-  version  of  a  brilliant  young  Japanese  doctor,  who  later 
gans  of  Fermo  are  Macerata-Tolentiao,  Montalto,  Ri-  became  a  Jesuit  and  one  of  the  shining  hghts  in  the 
patransone,  and  San  Severino.  The  archdiocese  has  Japanese  Church.  Brother  Fem^dei  compiled  the 
(1908)  apopulationof  18.5.000;  147  parishes;  368  seen-  firet  Japanese  grammar  and  lexicon. 
lar  pnests  and  88  regular;  2  male  and  5  female  edaca-  Bmueh  in  BucwnBHaiiH.  KirMicha  Handla..  e.  v.j  Coi*- 
tional  institutions;  6  religious  houses  of  men  and  50  of  ^'^'-.J'"  "'*  "^  ^^'"  "^  '"■  '^'™™  ^-^ 
women;  and  a  Catholic  weekly,  the  "Voce  delle  ""■''■"■ 
Marche".  _  Fomindeid«PKl«nci«,DiEoo,  Spanish  conqueror 

,.,Nr"^i^TIi  FSJ''Horai,"  WT)!' cXtalZni.  &^^^^    and  hUtorian ;  b.  at  Palencia  in  the  eariy  part  of  the 
Finaani  ijatqut  tpiicapit  (Formo,  1783).  '  sixteenth  century.   He  took  up  a  military  career,  and 

U.  BBNiaNI.  went  to  Peru  shortly  after  the  conquest  (about  1545). 
In  1553  and  1554  he  took  part  in  the  civil  struggle 
among  the  Spaniard^  fighting  under  the  banner  of 

i^oon,  c.  .««>,«.  «  v.»n,  ..  ..«......« Alonso  de  Alvarado,  Captain-General  of  Los  Charcoa, 

1602  he  w»  sent  to  India,  whence  two  years  later  he    against  the  rebel  t  rancisco  Uem&ndei  de  Uiion.    Id 


rXBNS 


45 


rEKNB 


155S  Hurtado  de  Mendoia,  Harquese  of  Csflete,  came  of  St.  Mulline  {Ttack  Moling),  County  Carlow.  The 
to  Peni  aa  viceroy,  and  choreed  Fem^dez  to  write  a  ancient  mooaBtery  of  Ferns  included  a  number  of  cells, 
history  of  the  troubles  inwhich  he  had  just  taken  part,  or  oratories,  and  the  cathedral  was  built  in  the  Irish 
He  then  began  his  history  of  Peru,  ana  later,  when  ho  style.  At  present  the  reraains  of  the  abbey  (refounded 
had  returned  to  Spain,  upon  the  HUffiestion  of  Sando-  Cor  Austin  Canons,  in  1160,  byDennot  MacMurrou^) 
val,  Prteident  of  tho^uncil  of  the  uidies,  Fem&ndez  include  a,  round  tower,  about  seventy-five  feet  high. 
enlarged  the  scope  of  bis  work,  and  added  to  it  a  first  in  two  stories,  the  Iowct  of  which  is  qimdrai^gular,  and 
part,  dealingwiUi  the  movements  of  Pizarro  and  his  the  upper  polygonal.  Close  by  ia  the  Holy  Well  of  S' 
followers .^The  whole  work  ^' 

was  published  under  the 
title  "IVimera  y  segunda 
parte  de  la  Historia  del 
Peru"  {Seville,  1571).  Hav- 
ing taken  part  in  many  of 
tiio  events,  and  known  the 
men  who  figured  in  moat  of 
the  ecenes   which    he    de- 


Fenu 


Ferns  was  raided  by  the 
Scandinavians  in  834,  836, 
839, 842,  917,  920,  928,  and 
930,  and  was  burned  in  937. 
St.  Peter's  Church,  Ferns, 
dates  from  about  the  year 
1060,  and  is  of  the  Hib^o- 
Romanesque  at^le,  having 
been  built  by  Bishop  O'Ly- 
i«^rded    as    an    historian  nam.  who  died  in  1002.  The 

WQMe    tostimon;^   is  worth  bishops    were    indilTerently 

styled  as  of  Ferns,  Hy  Kia- 
sellagh,  or  Wexford;  thus, 
Maeleoin  O'Donegan  (d. 
1125)-ia  called  "Bishop  of 
Wexford",  while  Bishop 
O'Cathan  (d.  1135)  is  named 
against  certain  personages.  "Archbishop  of  Hy  Kinsel- 

Whate'ver  the   reason  may     .RDiMsorSaLaEiBlSr.  Sbpulcbbk)  Pudbt.  Wbxtobd     iagh".     This  was  by  reason 

of  the  fact  that  the  bound- 
»  of  the  diocese  are  coextensive  with  the  territory 
that  tike  Council  of  the  Indies  prohibited  the  jirinting    of  Hy  Kinsellagh,  on  which  account  Ferns  includes 
and  sale  of  the  book  in  the  provinces  under  its  juris-    County  Wexford  with  small  portions  of  Wicklow  and 
diction.     A  perusal  of  the  book  conveys  the  impres-     Carlow.      Dermot  HacMurrough,   King  of  Ijeinster, 
a  that  Feradndei  was  a  man  of  sound  judgment,     burned  the  city  of  Ferns  in  1166,  "for  fear  that  the 
"      '■         ■'  '   '  Coonacht  men  would  destroy  hisoastleand  his  house", 

and,  three  years  later,  he  brought  over  a  pioneer  force 
of  Welshmen.  He  died  in  1171,  and,  at  his  own  re- 
quest, was  burled  "  near  the  shrines  of  St.  Maedhc^ 
and  St.  Moling".  The  same  year  Henry  II  of  Eng- 
land landed  m  Ireland,  where  he  remained  for  aix 
the  province  of    months. 

'''  Ailbe  O'MoUoy,  a  Cistercian,  who  ruled  from  1185  to 

1222,   was  the  last 


rnose  testimony  is  worth 
consideration.  Garcilasode 
la  Vega,  the  Peruvian,  who 
quotes  long  passages  from 
Femindez,  fiercely  attacks 
his  story  and  accuses  him  of 
partiality  and  of  animosity 
i^ainst  certain  personages. 
Whatever  the  reason  may 
have  been,  however,  pos- 
sibly because  (rf  the  truth  of  the  story,  the  fact  is, 


who  set  down  the  facts  only  after  a  thorough 
tigation.     The  reproaches  of  the  Inca  historian  may, 
therefore,  be  regarded  as  without  foundation. 

FBMCOTT.fiid^s/CAgisRguMlD/iVulFbilBdelpbia.  tSB2). 

Ventura  FueNTKe. 


r  (Pebnenbis), 
suffragan   of   Dublin. 


FaitU,  Diocese  < 
Leinstfir  (Ireland); 
founded  bySt.Aedan, 
whoee  name  is  popu- 
larlv  known  as  Ho- 
aedn(»,  or  "  Hy  dear 
little  Aedh",  in  598. 
Subaequently,St. 
Aedan  was  given  a 
quasi-supremacy 
over  the  other  bishoi^ 
of  L^UBter,  with  the 
title  of  Ard-E^op, 
or  chief  bishop,  on 
which  account  he  and 
some  of  his  successors  ^ 
have  been  regarded  ■ 
as  having  archiepis- 
copal  powers.  Tlie 
ola  annalists  style 
the  see  Feama-mor- 
Haedhog,  that  is, 
"tiie  great  plain  cs 
the  alder-trees  of  St. 
Moedh(%".  Even  yet 
Hoedhcffi  (Hogue) — 

the  Irish  endearing  form  of  Aedan — is  a  familiar    chai^,   he  acquired    six 
Christian  name  in  the  diocese,  while  it  is  also  perpetu-     the  Ww  of  Ferns.     He  hek 

ated  in  Tubbermogue,  Bovlavogue,  Cromogue,  faland  Sepulchre)  Prioiy,  Wexford  (8  SepUmber  1240), 
Mogue,  etc.  The  bell  and  shrine  of  St.  Aedan  (Breaee  The  appointment  of  a  dean  was  confirmed  by  Clement 
UofUng)  are  to  be  seen  in  the  National  Museum,  TV  (23  August,  126.'>).  Bishop  St.  John  rebuilt  the 
DuUin.  Many  of  his  successors  find  a  place  in  Irish  cathedral  of  Ferns,  which  from  recent  discoveries 
martyrolo^es,  including  8t,  Mochua,  St.  Moling  seems  to  have  been  180  feet  in  length,  with  a  crypt. 
and  St>  Culene.  Of  these  the  most  famous  is  8t.  A  tine  stone  statue  of  St.  Aedan,  evidently  early  Nor- 
Holing,  who  died  13  May,  697.  His  book-shrine  is  man  work,  b  still  preserved,  la  1346  the  castle  of 
among  the  greatest  art  treasures  of  Ireland,  and  his  FemawaBinadearoyalappanage,andconstableswera 
"well    is  stUl  visited,  but  he  is  best  known  as  patron    appointtid  by  the  Orown.  but  it  was  recovered  by  Art 


RuiKS  or  Fbrhi  Abbbt 


Irish  bishop  i 
pre-Ref  ormation  his- 
tory of  Ferns.  He 
attended  the  Fourth 
General  Council  of 
Lateran  (1215)  and 
on  his  return,  formed 
a  cathedral  chapter. 
His  successor,  Bishop 
St.  John,  was  granted 
by  Henry  III  (6  July, 
1226)  a  weekly  mar- 
ket at  Ferns  and  an 
annual  fair,  also  a 
weekly  market  at 
Enniscorthy.  This 
ljishop(8April,1227) 
assigned  the  manor 
of  Enniscorthy  to 
Philip  de  Prender- 
gast,  who  built  a  cas- 
tle, still  in  excellent 
preservation.  In  ex- 
Lgh-lands  forever  for 


FEBEANDUS 


46 


F£&RAJEtA 


MaoMurrough  in  1386.  Patrick  Barret,  who  ruled 
from  1400  to  1415,  removed  the  episcopal  chair  of 
FerD8  to  New  Ross,  and  made  St.  Mary's  his  cathedral. 
His  successor,  Robert  Whitty,  had  an  episcopate  of 
forty  years,  dying  in  February,  1458.  Under  John 
Purcell  (1459-1479),  Franciscan  friars  acquired  a  foun- 
dation in  Enniscorthy,  which  was  dedicated  18  Octo- 
ber, 1460.  Lawrence  Neville  (1479  -1503)  attended  a 
provincial  council  at  Christ  Church  Cathedral,  Dublin, 
on  5  March,  1495.  His  successor,  Ekimund  Comer- 
ford,  died  in  1509,  whereupon  Nicholas  Comyn  was 
elected.  Bishop  (3omyn  resided  at  Fethard  Castle, 
and  assisted  at  the  provincial  councils  of  1512  and 
1518.  He  was  transferred  to  Waterford  and  Lismore 
in  1519.  and  was  replaced  by  John  Purcell,  whose 
troubled  episcopate  ended  on  20  Julv,  1539.  Though 
Bchismatically  consecrated,  Alexander  Devereux  was 
rehabilitated  under  Queen  Mary  as  Bishop  of  Ferns, 
and  died  at  Fethard  Castle  on  6  July,  1566 — the  last 
pre-Reformation  bishop.  Peter  Power  was  appointed 
his  successor  in  1582,  but  the  temporalities  of  the  see 
were  held  by  John  Devereux.  Bishop  Power  died  a 
confessor,  in  exile,  15  December,  1588.  Owing  to  the 
disturbea  state  of  the  diocese  and  the  lack  of  revenue, 
no  bishop  was  provided  till  19  April,  1624,  but  mean- 
time Father  Daniel  O'Drohan,  who  had  to  adopt  the 
aliaa  of  "James  Walshe",  acted  as  vicar  Apostolic 
(1606-1624).  John  Roche  was  succeeded  by  another 
John  Roche,  6  February^,  1644,  who  never  entered  on 
possession,  the  see  being  administered  by  William 
Devereux  from  1636  to  1644.  Dr.  Devereux  was  an 
able  administrator  at  a  trying  period,  and  he  wrote  an 
English  catechism,  which  was  used  in  the  diocese  until 
a  few  years  ago.  Nicholas  French  was  made  Bishop  of 
Ferns  15  September,  1644,  and  died  in  exile  at  Ghent, 
23  August,  1679.  His  episcopate  was  a  remarkable 
one,  and  he  himself  was  a  most  distinguished  prelate. 
Bishop  Wadding  (1678-1691)  wrote  some  charming 
Christmas  carols,  which  are  still  sung  in  Wexford.  His 
successors,  Michael  Rossiter  (1695-1709),  John  Ver- 
don  (1709-1729),  and  the  Franciscan  Ambrose  O'Cal- 
li^han  (1729-1744),  experienced  the  full  brunt  of  the 
penal  laws.  Nicholas  Sweetman  (1745-1786)  was 
twice  imprisoned  on  suspicion  of  ''disloyalty",  while 
James  Caulfield  (1786-1814)  was  destined  to  outlive 
the  "rebellion"  of  '98.  Otoe  of  the  Ferns  priests. 
Father  James  Dixon,  who  was  transported  as  a 
"felon",  was  the  first  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Australia. 
All  the  post-Reformation  bishops  lived  mostly  at 
Wexford  until  1809,  in  which  year  Dr.  Ryan,  coadju- 
tor bishop,  commenced  the  building  of  a  catnedral  in 
Enniscorthy,  which  had  been  assigned  him  as  a  mensal 
parish.  As  Bishop  Caulfield  was  an  invalid  from  the 
year  1809  the  diocese  was  administered  by  Dr.  Ryan, 
who,  with  the  permission  of  the  Holy  See,  transferred 
the  episc(n)al  residence  to  Enniscorthy.  Bishop  Ryan 
died  9  March,  1819,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathe- 
dral. His  successor,  James  Keating  (1819-1849), 
ruled  for  thirty  years,  and  commenced  building  the 
present  cathedral,  designed  ^  Pugin.  Myles  Murphy 
(1850-1856)  and  Thomas  Furlong  (1857-1875)  did 
much  for  the  diocese,  while  Michael  Warren  (1875- 
1884)  is  still  lovingly  remembered. 

From  an  interesting  Relatio  forwarded  to  the  Prop- 
aganda by  Bishop  Caulfield  in  1796,  the  Diocese  of 
Ferns  is  described  as  38  miles  in  length  and  20  in 
breadth,  with  eight  borough  towns,  and  a  chapter  of 
nineteen  members.  In  pre-Reformation  days  it  had 
143  parishes;  17  monasteries  of  Canons  Regular  of  St. 
Augustine;  3  priories  of  Knights  Templars;  2  Cister- 
cian abbeys:  3  Franciscan  friarie»;  2  Austin  friaries; 
1  Carmelite  iriary,  and  1  Benedictine  priory.  It  never 
had  a  nunnery  nor  a  Dominican  friaiy.  (The  Jesuits 
had  a  flourishing  college  in  New  Ross  in  1675.)  The 
population  was  120,000,  of  which  114,000  were  Catho- 
lics, and  there  were  80  priests,  including  regulars. 
There  were  36  parishes,  many  of  which  had  no  curatea. 


At  present  (1909),  the  population  is  108,750.  of 
which  99,000  are  Catholics.  There  are  41  parishes, 
two  of  which  (Wexford  and  Enniscortliy)  are  mensal. 
The  parish  priests  are  39  and  the  curates  are  66,  while 
the  churches  number  92.  The  religious  orders  include 
Franciscans  (one  house),  Aueustiniana  (two  houses), 
imd  Benedictines  (one  house).  The  total  clergy  are 
140.  In  addition^  there  are  14  convents  for  refigious 
women,  and  a  House  of  Missions  (Superior  Father 
John  Rossiter),  as  also  6  Christian  Brothers  schools,  a 
diocesan  colle^,  a  Benedictine  colle^,  and  several 
good  schoob  for  female  pupils.  Enniscorthy  cathe- 
dral was  not  completed  until  1875,  and  the  interior  was 
not  completely  finished  till  1908.  Most  Rev.  Dr.  James 
Browne  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Ferns  14  Septem- 
ber, 1884.  He  was  bom  at  Mayglass,  County  Wex- 
ford in  1842,  finished  his  studies  at  Maynooth  College, 
where  he  was  ordained  in  1865,  and  served  for  nine- 
teen years  as  curate  and  parish  priest  with  conspicuous 
ability. 

CoiiOAN.  Ada  Sand.  H%b.  (Louvain,  1648):  Brknan,  Bed. 
Hist,  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1840);  Rothe,  Analeda,  ed.  Moran 
(Dublin.  1884);  Ware,  Biahopa  of  Ireland,  ed.  Harris  (Dublin. 
1739);  Renehan,  CoUedions  on  Irish  Churdi  Hiatory.  ed. 
McCarthy  (Dublin,  1874),  II;  Grattan-Flood.  Hi»t,  of  £nnt8- 
eorthu  (Enniscorthy.  1898);  Idem,  The  Episcopal  City  of  Ferns 
in  htah  Bed.  Record,  II,  no.  358;  IV.  no.  368;  VI.  no.  380;  Bas- 
set. Wexford  (Dublin.  1885). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 
Femndos.    See  Fulqentius  Ferrandus. 

Ferrara,  Archdiocese  of  (Ferrariensis),  imme- 
diately subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  city,  which  is 
the  capital  of  the  similarlv  named  province,  stands  on 
the  banks  of  the  Po  di  Volano,  where  it  branches  off  to 
form  the  Po  di  Primaro,  in  the  heart  of  a  rich  agricul- 
tural district.  The  origin  of  Ferrara  is  doubtful.  No 
mention  is  made  of  it  before  the  eighth  century.  Un- 
til the  tenth  century  it  followed  the  fortunes  of  Ra- 
venna. In  9S6  it  was  given  as  a  papal  fief  to  Tedaldo, 
Count  of  Canossa,  the  grandfatiier  of  Countess  Ma- 
tilda against  whom  it  rebelled  in  1 1 0 1 .  From  1 1 1 5  it 
was  directly  under  the  pope,  though  often  claimed  by 
the  emperors.  During  this  period  arose  the  commune 
of  Ferrara.  Gradually  the  Salinguerra  family  became 
all-powerful  in  the  city.  They  were  expelled  in  1208 
for  their  fidelity  to  tne  emperor,  whereupon  the  citi- 
zens offered  the  governorship  to  Azzo  VI  d'Este, 
whose  successors  kept  it,  as  he^es  of  the  pope,  until 
1598,  with  the  exception  of  the  brief  penoa  from  1313 
to  1317,  when  it  was  leased  to  the  King  of  Sicily  for  an 
annual  tribute.  Alfonso  I  d'Este,  hoping  to  cast  off 
the  overlordship  of  the  pope,  kept  up  relations  with 
Louis  XII  of  France  long  after  the  League  of  Cambrai 
(1508)  had  been  dissolved.  In  1510  Julius  II  at- 
tempted in  person  to  bring  him  back  to  a  sense  of  duty, 
but  was  not  successful.  In  1519  Leo  X  tried  to^cap- 
ture  the  town  by  surprise,  but  he  too  failed:  in  1522, 
however,  Alfonso  of  nis  own  accord  made  nis  peace 
with  Adrian  VI.  In  1597  Alfonso  II  died  without 
issue  and  named  his  cousin  Cesare  as  his  heir.  Clem- 
ent VIII  refused  to  recognize  hiin  and  sent  to  Fei^ 
rara  his  own  nephew,  Cardinal  Pietro  Aldobrandini, 
who  in  1598  brought  the  town  directly  under  papal 
rule.  In  1796  it  was  occupied  by  the  French,  and  be- 
came the  chief  town  of  the  Bas-Po.  In  1815  it  was 
given  back  to  the  Holy  See,  which  governed  it  by  a 
legate  with  the  aid  of  an  Austrian  garrison.  In  1831 
it  proclaimed  a  provisional  government,  but  the  Aus- 
trian troops  restored  the  previous  civil  conditions, 
which*  lasted  until  1859,  when  the  territory  was  an- 
nexed to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

The  dukes  of  Ferrara,  especially  Alfonso  I  (1505- 
1534)  and  Alfonso  II  (1559-1597),  wtre  generous  pa- 
trons of  literature  and  the  arts.  At  their  court  lived 
Tasso,  Ariosto,  Boiardo,  V.  Strozzi,  G.  B.  Guarini,  the 
historian  Guido  Bentivoglio,  and  others.  It  counted 
many  artists  of  renown,  whose  works  adorn  even  yet  the 
churches  and  palaces  of  the  city,  e.  g.  the  ducal  palace, 


Vj,c< 


FSBRAftI 


47 


nsftEASt 


the  Schifanoia,  Diamanti,  Rovella,  Scrofa^Calcagmni, 
and  otiber  palaces.  The  more  famous  amons  the 
munters  were  Benveauto  Tisi  (Garofalo),  Ercole 
Grandi,  IppoUto  Scarsello,  the  brothers  Dossi,  and 
Girolamo  da  Carpi.  Alfonso  Cittadella,  the  sculptor, 
left  immortal  works  in  the  duomo,  or  cathedral  (Christ 
and  the  Apostles),  and  in  San  Giovanni  (Madonna). 
Churches  of  note  are  the  cathedral,  SS.  Benedetto  and 
Francesco,  San  Domenico  (with  its  beautiful  carved 
choir  stalls  of  the  fourteenth  century).  The  most 
famous  work  of  ecclesiastical  architecture  is  the  mag- 
nificent Certosa.  The  university  was  founded  in  1391 
by  Boniface  IX.  Ferrara  was  the  birthplace  of  Sa- 
vonarola and  of  the  great  theologian,  Silvestro  di  Fer- 
rara, both  Dominicans. 

The  earliest  bishop  of  certain  date  is  Constantine, 
present  at  Rome  in  861 ;  St.  Maurelius  (patron  of  the 
city)  must  have  lived  before  this  time.  Some  think 
that  the  bishops  of  Ferrara  are  the  successors  to  those 
of  Viffonza  (the  ancient  Vicuhabentia).  Other  bish- 
ops ofnote  are  Filippo  Fontana  (1243),  to  whom  Inno- 
cent IV  entrusted  the  task  of  inducing  the  German 
princes  to  depose  Frederick  II;  Blessed  Alberto  Pan- 
doni  (1261)  and  Blessed  Giovanni  di  Toesignano 
(1431);  the  two  Ippolito  d'Este  (1520  and  1550)  and 
Luigi  d'Este  (1553),  all  three  munificent  patrons  of 
learning  and  the  arts;  Alfonso  Rossetti  (1563),  Paolo 
Leoni  (1579),  Giovanni  Fontana  (1590),  and  Lorenzo 
Magalotti  (1628),  all  four  of  whom  eagerly  supported 
the  reforms  of  the  Council  of  Trent;  finally,  the  saintly 
Cardinal  Carlo  Odescalchi  (1823).  Up  to  1717  the 
Archbishop  of  Ravenna  clauned  metropolitan  rights 
over  Ferrara;  in  1735  Clement  XII  rabed  the  see  to 
archiepiscopai  rank,  without  suffragans.  It  has  89 
parishes  and  numbers  130,752  souls;  there  are  two 
educational  institutions  for  hoys  and  six  for  girls,  nine 
religious  houses  of  men  and  mneteen  of  women. 

Cappelletti.  Le  Chiete  fP Italia  (Venice.  1846).  IV,  9-11, 
24-226;  Frxzzi,  Memorie  per  la  Storia  di  Ferrara  (Ferrara, 
1701);  AoNELU,  Ferrara  in  Italia  Artietiea  (Bergamo,  1902). 

Council  of  Fbbrara. — When  Saloniki  (Thessa- 
lonica)  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  (1429)  the  Em- 
peror John  Palieologus  approached  Martin  V,  Eugene 
IV,  and  the  Council  of  Baisle  to  secure  help  against  the 
Turks  and  to  convoke  a  council  for  the  reumon  of  the 
two  Churches,  as  the  only  means  of  efficaciouslv  re- 
sisting Islam.  At  first  it  was  pn^xised  to  hold,  the 
council  in  some  seaport  town  of  Italy;  then  Constanti- 
nople was  suggested.  The  members  of  the  Council  of 
Basle  held  out  for  Basle  or  Avignon.  Finally  (18  SepH 
tember,  1437),  Eugene  IV  decided  that  the  council 
would  be  held  at  Ferrara.  that  city  beine  acceptable  to 
the  Greeks.  The  council  was  opened  8  January,  1438. 
by  Cardinal  Nicol6  Albergati,  and  the  pope  attended 
on  27  January.  The  synodal  officers  were  divided 
into  three  classes:  (1)  the  cardinals,  archbishops,  and 
bishops;  (2)  the  abbots  and  prelates;  (3)  doctors  of 
theology  and  canon  law.  Before  the  arrival  of  the 
Greeks,  proclamation  was  made  that  all  further  action 
bv  the  Council  of  Basle  as  such  would  be  null  and  void. 
The  Greeks,  i.  e.  the  emperor  with  a  train  of  archbish- 
ops, bishops,  and  learned  men  (700  in  all),  landed  at 
Venice  8  February  and  were  cordially  received  and 
welcomed  in  the  pope's  name  by  Ambroeio  iSraversari, 
the  General  of  the  Camaldolese.  On  4  March  the  em- 
peror entered  Ferrara.  The  Greek  bishops  came  a 
little  later.  Questions  of  precedence  and  ceremonial 
(»used  no  small  difficultv.  For  preparatory  discus- 
sions on  all  controverted,  points  a  committee  of  ten 
from  either  side  was  appointed.  Among  them  were 
Marcus  Eugenicus,  Arcnbishop  of  Ephesus;  Bessarion, 
Archbishop  of  Nicsa;  Balsamon;  Siropolos  and  others, 
for  the  Greeks;  while  Cardinals  GiuUano  Cesarini  and 
Nicol6  Albergati,  Giovanni  Turrecremata,  and  others 
represented  the  Latins.  The  Greek  Emperor  pre- 
vented a  discussion  on  the  Procession  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  and  on  the  use  of  leavened  bread.    For  monthis 


the  only  thing -discussed  or  written  about  was  the  e^ 
clesiastical  teaching  on  purgatory.  The  uncertainty 
of  the  Greeks  on  this  head  was  the  cause  of  the  delay. 
The  emperor's  object  was  to  bring  about  a  general 
union  without  any  concessions  on  the  part  of  the 
Greeks  in  matters  of  doctrine.  Everybody  deplored 
the  delay,  and  a  few  of  the  Greeks,  among  them  Mar* 
cus  Eugenicus,  attempted  to  depart  secretly,  but  they 
were  obliged  to  return. 

The  sessions  began  8  October,  and  from  the  opening 
of  the  third  session  the  question  of  the  Procession  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  was  constantly  before  the  council. 
Marcus  Eugenicus  blamed  the  Latins  for  having  added 
the  "Filioque"  to  the  Nicene  Creed  despite  the  pro- 
liibition  of  the  Coimcil  of  Ephesus  (431).  The  cnief 
speakers  on  behalf  of  the  Latms  were  Andrew,  Bishop 
of  Rhodes,  and  Cardinal  Giuliano  Cesarini,  who 
pointed  out  that  the  addition  was  dogmatically  cor- 
rect and  not  at  all  contrary  to  the  prohibition  of  the 
Council  of  Ephesus,  nor  to  the  teaching  of  the  Greek 
Fathers.  Bessarion  admitted  the  orthodoxy  of  the 
"Filioque"  teaching,  but  maintained  it  ought  not  to 
have  been  added  to  the  Creed.  Twelve  sessions  were 
(III-XV)  taken  up  with  this  controversy.  On  both 
sides  many  saw  no  hope  of  an  agreement,  and  once 
more  many  Greeks  were  eager  to  return  home.  Fi- 
nally the  emperor  permitted  his  followers  to  proceed  to 
the  discussion  of  the  orthodoxy  of  the ''  Fihoque  ".  In 
the  meantime  the  people  of  fiorence  had  invited  the 
pope  to  accept  for  nimself  and  the  council  the  hospi- 
tality of  their  city.  They  hoped  in  this  way  to  reap 
ereat  financial  profit.  The  offer  was  accompanied  bv  a 
large  gift  of  money.  Eu^ne  IV,  already  at  a  loss  for 
funds  and  obliged  to  furnish  hospitality  and  money  to 
the  Greeks  (who  had  come  to  Italy  in  the  pope's  own 
fleet),  gladly  accepted  the  offer  of  the  Florentines. 
The  Greeks  on  their  part  agreed  to  the  change.  The 
council  thus  quitted  Ferrara  without  having  accom- 

Slished  anything,  principally  because  the  emperor  and 
[arcus  Eugenicus  did  not  wish  to  reach  an  agreement 
in  matters  of  doctrine.  (See  Florence,  Council  of.) 

Mansi,  cm.  Cone.,  XXIX;  Habdouin.  CM.  Cone.,  IX; 
Hefelb,  KonzUxenpeechiehU  (2Dd  ed.),  VII;  Cboconi,  Studi 
Mtorici  am  eoncUio  di  Fireme  (Florenoe,  1860). 

U.  Benigni. 
Ferrari,  Barthelemt,  Vbnbrablb.    See  Barna- 

BITE8. 

Ferrari,  Gaitdenzio,  an  Italian  painter  and  the 
greatest  master  of  the  Piedmontese  School,  b.  at  Val- 
duggia,  near  Novara,  Italy^  c.  1470;  d.  at  Milan,  31 
January,  1546.  His  work  is  vast  but  poorly  known. 
He  seems  never  to  have  left  hi»  beloved  Piedmont  or 
Lombardy  save  perhaps  on  one  occasion.  He  had 
seen  Leonardo  at  work  in  Milan  (1490-98),  and  had 
learned  from  him  lessons  in  expression  and  in  model- 
ling. But  he  owed  more  to  nis  compatriots  in  the 
North:  to  Bramante  and  Bramantino  in  architec- 
tural details,' above  all  to  Msmtegna,  whose  frescoes  of 
the  "  Life  of  St.  James"  inspired  more  than  one  of  his 
painting  at  Varallo. 

Nothing  is  more  uncertain  than  the  history  of  the 
great  man.  His  earliest  known  works  belong  to  the 
years  1508  and  1511 ;  at  that  time  he  was  about  forty 
years  of  age.  He  would  seem  to  have  been  formed  in 
the  good  old  Milanese  school  of  such  men  as  Borgo- 
gnone,  Zenale,  and  Butinone,  which  kept  aloof  from 
the  brilliant  fashion  in  art  favoured  by  the  court  of  the 
Sforzas,  and  which  prolonged  the  fifteenth  century 
with  its  archaisms  of  expression.  Gaudenzio,  the 
youngest  and  frankest  of  tnis  group,  never  fell  under 
the  influence  of  Leonardo,  and  nenoe  it  is  that  on  one 
point  he  always  held  out  against  the  new  spirit;  he 
would  never  dally  with  the  paganism  or  rationalism  of 
Renaissance  art.  He  was  as  passionately  naturalistic 
as  any  painter  of  his  time,  before  all  else,  however,  he 
was  a  Christian  artist.  He  is  the  only  truly  religious 
master  of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  and  this  trait  it  is 


FERSARIS 


48 


FE&RA&IS 


which  makes  him  stand  out  in  an  age  where  faith  and 
single-mindedness  were  gradually  disappearing,  as  a 
man  of  another  country,  almost  of  another  time. 

When  we  consider  the  works  of  Gaudenzio,  more 
especially  his  earlier  ones,  in  the  light  of  the  fact  that 
the  distnct  in  which  he  was  bom  was  in  the  direct  line 
of  communication  between  North  and  South;  and 
reflect  that  what  might  be  termed  the  "art  traffic" 
between  Germany  and  Italy  was  very  great  in  his 
time,  we  are  forced  to  recognize  that  German  influ- 
ence played  a  considerable  part  in  the  development  of 
his  genius,  in  so  far  at  least  as  his  mind  was  amenable 
to  external  stimuli.  He  is.  in  fact,  the  most  German  of 
the  Italian  painters.  In  tne  heart  of  a  school  where  art 
was  becommg  more  and  more  aristocratic,  he  remained 
the  people's  painter.  In  this  respect  his  personality 
stands  out  so  boldly  amongst  the  Italian  painters  of 
the  time  that  it  seems  natural  to  infer  that  Gaudenzio 
in  his  vouth  travelled  to  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  and 
bathed  long  and  deep  in  its  mystic  atmosphere. 

Like  the  Gothic  masters,  he  is  perhaps  the  only  six- 
teenth-century painter  wno  worked  exclusively  for 
churches  or  convents.    He  is  the  only  one  in  Italy  who 

Sainted  lengthy  sacred  dramas  and  legends  from  the 
ves  of  the  saints:  a"  Passion"  at  Varallo ;  a  "  Life  of 
the  Virgin ' ',  and  a  "  Life  of  St.  Magdalen ' ',  at  Vercelli ; 
and  at  times,  after  the  fashion  of  the  cinquecento,  he 
grouped  many  different  episodes  in  one  scene,  at  the 
expense  of  unity  in  composition,  till  the^  resembled 
the  mysteries,  and  might  be  styled  "sectional  paint- 


ings". He  was  not  aiming  at  art,  but  at  edification. 
Hence  arose  a  certain  ne^gence  of  form  and  a  care- 
lessness of  execution  still  more  pronounced.  The 
"Carrying  of  the  Cross"  at  Cannobio,  the  "Calvary" 
at  Vercelli,  the  "  Deposition"  at  Turin,  works  of  great 
power  in  many  ways,  and  unequalled  at  the  time  in 
Italy  for  pathos  and  feeling,  are  somehow  wanting  in 
proportion,  and  ^ve  one  the  impression  that  the  con- 
ventional groupmg  has  been  departed  from.  The 
soul,  being  filled  as  it  were  with  its  object,  b  oveiv 
powered  by  the  emotions;  and  the  intellect  confesses 
its  inabilitv  to  synthesize  the  images  which  rise 
tumultuously  from  an  over-excited  sensibility.  An- 
other consequence  of  this  peculiarity  of  mental  con- 
formation is,  perhaps,  the  abuse  of  the  materials  at 
his  disposal.  Gaucienzio  never  refrained  from  using 
doubtful  methods,  such  as  ornaments  in  relief,  the  use 
of  gilded  stucco  worked  into  harness,  armour,  into  the 
aureolas,  etc.  And  to  heighten  the  effect  he  does  not 
even  hesitate  to  make  certain  figures  stand  out  in  real, 
palpable  relief;  in  fact  some  of  his  frescoes  are  as 
much  sculpture  as  they  are  painting,  by  reason  of  this 
practice. 

His  history  must  alwajrs  remain  incomplete  until 
we  get  further  enli^tenment  concerning  that  stran^ 
movement  of  the  Pietist  preachers,  which  ended  m 
establishing  (1487-93)  a  great  Franciscan  centre  on 
the  Sacro  Monte  de  Varallo.  It  was  in  this  retreat 
tiiat  Gaudenzio  spent  the  years  which  saw  his  genius 
eome  to  full  maturity;  it  was  there  he  left  his  greatest 
works,  his  "Life  of  Christ"  of  1513,  in  twenty-one 
frescoes  at  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie,  and  other  works 
on  the  Sacro  Monte  dating  between  1523  and  1528. 
It  was  there  that  the  combined  use  of  painting  and 
sculpture  produced  a  most  curious  result.  Fresco  is 
only  used  as  an  ornament,  a  sort  of  background  to  a 
scene  presenting  a  tableau  vivant  of  figures  in  terra- 
cotta. Some  of  the  groups  embrace  no  less  than  thirty 
figures.  Forty  chapels  bring  out  in  this  way  the  prin- 
cipal scenes  in  the  drama  of  the  Incarnation.  Gau- 
denzio is  responsible  for  the  chapels  of  the  Magi,  the 
Piet&.  and  the  Calvary. 

In  nis  subsequent  works,  at  Vercelli  (1530-34)  and 
at  Saronno  (in  the  cupola  of  Santa  Maria  del  Miracoli. 
1535),  the  influence  of  Corremo  is  curiously  blended 
with  the  above-mentioned  ^rman  leanings.  The 
fnehnesB  and  vigour  of  his  inspiration  remain  un- 


touched in  all  their  homel^r  yet  stem  grace.  Hie 
"Assumption"  at  Vercelli  is  perhaps  the  greatest 
lyric  in  Italian  art;  this  lyric  qualitv  in  his  pamting  is 
still  more  intense  in  the  wonderful  '^Glorv  of  Angels", 
in  the  cupola  at  Saronno,  the  most  enthusiastic  ana 
jubilant  symphony  that  an^r  art  has  ever  produced. 
In  all  Correggio's  art  there  is  nothing  more  charming 
than  the  exquisite  sentiment  and  tender  rusticity  (S 
"The  Flight  into  Egypt",  in  the  cathedral  of  Como. 
The  artist's  latest  works  were  those  he  executed  at 
Milan,  whither  he  retired  in  1536.  In  these  paintings, 
the  creations  of  a  man  already  seventy  years  of  age, 
the  vehemence  of  feeling  sometimes  bJecomes  almost 
savage,  the  presentation  of  Us  ideas  abrupt  and  apoc- 
alyptic. His  method  becomes  colossal  and  more  and 
more  careless;  but  still  in  the  "Passion"  at  Santa 
Maria  delle  Grazie  (1542)  we  cannot  fail  to  trace  the 
hand  of  a  master. 

Gaudenzio  was  married  at  least  twice.  By  his  first 
marriage  a  son  was  bom  to  him  in  1509  and  a  dau^ter 
in  1512.  He  married,  in  1528,  Maria  Mattia  della 
Foppa  who  died  about  1540,  shortly  after  the  death  of 
his  son.  These  sorrows  doubtless  affected  the  charac- 
ter of  his  later  works.  Gaudenzio's  immediate  influ- 
ence was  scarcely  appreciable.  His  pupils  Lanino 
and  Della  Cerva  are  extremely  mediocre.  Neverthe- 
less when  the  day  of  Venice's  triumph  came  with  Tin- 
toretto, and  Bologna's  with  the  Carraccis  in  the 
counter-reform  movement,  it  was  the  art  of  Gaudenzio 
Ferrari  that  triumphed  in  them.  The  blend  of  North- 
em  and  Latin  gemus  in  his  work,  so  characteristic  of 
the  artists  of  the  Po  valley,  was  carried  into  the  ate- 
liers of  Bologna  b^  Dion^sius  Calvaert.  It  became 
the  fashion,  displacing,  as  it  was  bound  to  do,  the  in- 
tellectual barrenness  and  artistic  exoticism  of  the 
Florentine  School. 

LoMACXO,  Idea  dd  tempio  ddta  pittura  (Milan,  1684);  Idbm, 
Trattato  ddV  arU  deUa  pittura  (Milan.  1590);  Zuccaro,  11  pauao- 
ffio  per  r  Italia  con  la  dimora  di  Parma  (Bologna.  1668);  BoBr 
DIG  A,  Notisie  intomo  alle  opere  di  O.  rerrari  (Milan,  1821); 
Idbm,  Guida  al  Saero  Monte  di  VaraUo  (1851);  Colombo,  Vita 
ed  opere  di  O,  Ferrari  (Turin,  1881):  Halbbt,  Qaudemio  Fer- 
rari  (London,  1903);  db  Wtzbwa,  Peintrea  ilaliene  iTautrefoie: 
Ecolee  du  Nard  (Paris,  1907). 

Louis  Gillet. 

FerrariSy  Lucixts,  an  eighteenth-century  canonist 
of  the  Franciscan  Order.  The  exact  dates  of  his 
birth  and  death  are  unknown,  but  he  wa^  bom  at 
Solero,  near  Alessandria  in  Northern  Italy.  He  was 
also  professor,  provincial  of  his  order,  and  oonsultor 
of  the  Holy  Omce.  It  would  seem  he  died  before 
1763.  He  is  the  author  of  the  "Prompta  Bibli- 
otheca  canonica,  juridica,  moralis,  theologica,  necnon 
asoetica,  polemica,  rubricistica,  historica  ,  a  veritable 
encyclopedia  of  religious  knowledge.  The  first  edi- 
tion of  this  work  appeared  at  Bologna,  in  1746.  A 
second  edition,  much  enlarged,  also  a  third,  were  pub- 
hshed  by  the  author  himseu.  The  fourth  edition, 
dating  from  1763,  seems  to  have  been  published  after 
his  death.  This,  like  those  which  followed  it,  contains 
the  additions  which  the  author  had  made  to  the  second 
edition  under  the  title  of  addxtionea  aiuioris,  and  also 
other  enlari^ments  (additionea  ex  aliend  manu)  in- 
serted in  their  respective  places  in  the  body  of  the  work 
(and  no  longer  in  the  appendix  as  in  the  former  edi- 
tions) and  supplements.  'The  various  editions  thus 
differ  from  each  other.  The  most  recent  are:  that  of 
the  Benedictines  (Naples,  1844-55),  reproduced  by 
Migne  (Paris,  1861-1863),  and  an  edition  published  at 
Paris  in  1884.  A  new  edition  was  published  at  Rome 
in  1899,  at  the  press  of  the  Propaganda  in  eight  vol- 
umes, with  a  volume  of  supplements,  edited  by  the 
Jesuit,  Bucceroni,  containing  several  dissertations  and 
the  most  recent  and  important  documents  of  the  Holy 
See.  This  supplement  serves  to  keep  up  to  date  the 
work  of  Ferraris,  which  will  ever  remam  »  precious 
mine  of  information,  although  it  is  sometimes  possible 
to  reproach  the  autnor  with  laxism. 


49 

..S?^?fv?^-  ***  '^^  ""**  ^-^  ?~:  *«<^  <.%itt«»rt.  King  Pedro  for  the  beautiful  In&  de  Castro,  an  inoi^ 

1876-80).  III.  831;  VON  Sa..REBmJrmA«te»  IV,  1380  dent  which  has  also  been   splendidly  treated  by 

A.  VAN  novB.  Camoes  in  his  "Lusiadas",  and  has  furnished  the 

Feire,  Vicente,  theologian,  b.  at  Valencia,  Spain;  ^'^'^  ^°'  »*  '^'  **">  Portuguese  and  four  Spanish 

d.  at  Salamanca  in  1682.   le  entered  the  DoiiiScan  P'^^'  '""lfT'*^T'?».°^  compositions  m  forejgn  Un- 

Order  at  Salamanca,  where  he  pursued  his  studies  in  g'»8f  •    ."i***!J^  by  the  requirements  of  the  tEeatre, 

the  Dominican  CoUeie  of  St.  Stephen.    After  teaching  *^«.  P'»y  {«  do^bU^  f"  f""°  Perf«*.  b"t  the  punty 

jTl^r^t-ii  k„7,=^^f^;,-i,/-rf  kj-  ^~i^il ;.,  a.^:-  kl  „Jt  of  >ts  style  and  diction  ensures  its  popularity  with  its 

m  several  houses  of  study  of  his  order  m  Smin,  he  was  author's  compatriots.    It  was  render^  int6  English 

called  from  Burgos  to  Rome,  where  for  eighteen  years  u„  «           -'^  Vooa     >rk_  _iK»   *1™  at^-tlC^^ 

he  was  regens  fimanut  of  the  Dominicii  Coll4»  of  ^^y  ^ff^^."  «»  ^^^\^  The  rather  f r«s  Spaiush  ver^ 

St.  ThoZs  adTjIinervam.    From  Rome  he  weSt  to  «<>"  "^^^J^  was  made  on  the  basis  of  a  "wniwcnpt 

Salamanca,  where  he  became  prior  of  the  convent  and,  '^^J  «^  •^'lif  £??5"'?^  7^^'  **""  ^^  *^  ^*"*"' 

after  three  years  regent  of  studi^  Inhiso^nti^^  ^^Z^^^^^r>^^,„.^ci^.6.J««i^ 

ne  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  best  Ihomists  of  the  3  voU.,  1875);  db  Vasoonceuxm  in  Gb^ber,  Grundrin  dn 

seventeenth  century,  and  posterity  acknowledges  that  romanUchen  PhUolooie  (Straaburg.  1807).  II,  ii,  219;  Braga  in 

his  published  works  possess  extraordinary  fulhiess,  ^^'^^  ^  QuinhentiBtaa  (Oporto.  1871). 

clearness,  and  order,  ne  died  while  publishing  his  com-  JJOBD. 

mentaries  on  the  Summa  Theologica  of  St.  Thomas.  Ferreol,  Saints.    See  Besan{x>n;  Uzes. 

We  have  two  folio  volumes  on  the  Secunda  Secundse,  .i^^  .  -n             a       •  u      •    •               j        1 

covering  the  treatises  of  faith,  hope,  and  charity,  ani  ,    Fewer,  Rafael,  Spamshmissifmapr  and  explore; 

the  ophite  vices,  published  at  rf^me  in  1669;  three  ^^\ Xt^^'^u^'j ?"  l?^£i  t'  ^\^^ ^"^l  ^^^'  ""  ^^uk 

on  the^rima,  publfehed  at  Salamanca,  m  1675,  1676,  ?«  ^^^^  ^^  fe^^  #  T  ^''''  *  '^^a^^'^^'t 

and  1678  res^tively;  and  three  on  the  Priiiia  Sel  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesiw,  and  in  1^3  was^t 

cund«,  down  to  Q.cxiii,  published  at  Salamanca,  Jo  Quito  Ecuador.    In  1601  he  penetrated  thetern- 

1679,  i681,  and  1690.    rfis  confrere  P4na  H  Lermk  ^^  ^^  ^"^  ^l^'^'ufJf^^}^    aJ^^r^'^J^!^^ 

added  to  (i  cxiv  the  treatise  on  merit.  ^^"^  "^  «^^^  ^"^H  ^-  ^^®  ^fP^^^i^f^ISf^r*- 

Qxjtnr  aTo  Echabd,  Script.  Ord.  Prod,,  II.  606:  Antonio.  Within  three  years  the  Indians  of  several  villages  were 

BMiotkeca  Hisp.  Nova  (Madrid.  1783).  II.  261.  SO  Civilized  by  the  mfluence  of  reu^on  that  the  sur- 

A.  L.  McMahon.  rounding  country  was  open  to  colonists. 

In  1605,  at  the  command  of  the  viceroy  of  Quito, 

Ferreira,  Antonio,  poet,  important  both  for  his  Ferrer  went  among  the  uncivilised  tribes  of  the  River 

Ivric  and  his  dramatic  compositions,  b.  at  Lisbon,  Napo.    He  was  well  received  by  the  Indians,  and  on 

Portugal,  in  1528;  d.  there  of  the  plague  in  1569.    He  this  journey,  which  lasted  two  and  a  half  yean,  he 

studied  law  at  Coimbra,  where,  however,  he  gave  no  travelled  3600  miles  into  the  interior,  bringing  back 

less  attention  to  belles-lettres  wan  to  legal  codes,  ar-  with  him  a  chart  of  the  basin  of  the  Napo,  a  map  of 

dently  reading  the  poetnr  of  classic  antiquit^^.    Sue-  the  country  he  had  explored,  and  an  herbarium  wnich 

cessful  in  his  chosen  profession,  he  became  a  judge  of  he    presented    to  the  viceroy.    He  was  appointed 

the  Supreme  Court  at  Lisbon,  and  enjoyed  close  rela-  governor  and  chief  magistrate  of  the  Cofanis,  and 

tions  with  eminent  personages  of  the  court  of  John  received  Uie  title  of  "Uhief  of  the  Missions  of  the 

III.    Ferreira  stands  apart  from  the  great  majority  of  Ck)fanis".    After  a  period  of  rest  at  the  mission  he 

the  Portuguese  poets  of  his  time  in  that  he  never  used  next  journeyed  northward  from  Quito  through  unex- 

Spanish,  but  wrote  constantly  in  his  native  language,  plored  forests,  and  discovered  a  large  lake  and  the 

Vet  he  is  to  be  classed  with  the  reformer^  of  literary  Kiver  Pilcoma^.    In  1610  he  returned  to  his  labours 

taste,  for,  like  Sa  de  Miranda,  he  abandoned  the  old  among  the  Indians,  bending  his  energies  to  the  civiliza- 

native  forms,  to  further  the  movement  of  the  Renais-  tion  of  the  few  tribes  of  the  Cofanis  who  were  not  yet 

sance.    He  manifested  a  decided  interest  in  the  Ital-  within  the  ranee  of  his  influence.    He  met  his  death 

ian  Ivric  measures,  alreadv  given  some  elaboration  by  at  the  hands  of  the  chief  of  one  of  these  tribes,  whom 

SA  de  Miranda,  and  displaved  some  skill  in  the  use  he  had  compelled  to  abandon  polygamy.    The  mur- 

of  the  hendecasyllable.     Tne  sonnet,  the  elegy,  the  derer  was  sudn  in  turn  by  his  tribesmen,  who  were 

idyll,  the  verse  epistle,  the  ode,  and  kindred  forms  he  enraged  on  learning  of  his  deed.    An  extract  from 

cultivated  with  a  certain  felicity,  revealing  not  only  Father  Ferrer's  account  of  his  explorations  was  pub- 

his  study  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  poets,  but  also  a  lished  by  Fr.  Detr6  in  the  "Lettres  Edifiantes",  and 

good  acquaintance  with  the  Greek  and  Latin  masters,  the  same  extract  was  abo  published  by  Father  Ber- 

It  is  by  his  dramatic  endeavours  that  he  attained  to  nard  de  Bologne  in  the  **  Bibliotheca  Societatis  Jesu", 

greatest  prominence,  for  his  tragedy  ''Ines  de  Cas-  but  the  oridnal  manuscript  was  lost  and  has  never 

tro",  in  particular,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  chief  been  published  in  its  entiretv.     Besides  compiling  his 

monuments  of  Portuguese  literature.    He  begEui  his  "Arte  de  la  Lengua  Cofana,'  Father  Ferrer  translated 

work  on  the  drama  wnile  still  a  student  at  Coimbra,  the  catechism  and  selections  from  the  Gospels  for 

writing  there  for  his  own  amusement  his  first  comedy,  every  Sunday  in  the  year  into  the  language  of  the 

"Bristo",  dealing  with  the  old  classic  theme  of  lost  Cofanis.                                     Blanche  M.  Ksllt. 

ffi'S??S?SST;$;r^:^cr^d**L"^SJ^  T«.«,  Vu,o^.  S^.    see  yu,o.^  F.«^ 
made  familiar  by  Shakespeare.    Much  improvement 

in  dramatic  technic^ue  is  evinced  b^  his  second  com-  FerridreSy  Abbbt  of,  situated  in  the  Diocese  of 

ed^,  "O  Cioso",  which  treats  realistically  the  figure  of  Orleans,  department  of  Loiret,  and  arrondissement  of 

a  j^ous  husband.    It  is  considered  as  the  earliest  Montargis.    The  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Ferridres-en- 

character-comedy  in  modem  Europe.    Written  in  GAtinais  has  been  most  unfortunate  from  Hie  point  of 

prose,  it  exhibits  a  clever  use  of  dialogue  and  has  view  of  historical  science,  having  lost  its  archives,  its 

really  comical  scenes.    None  of  the  compositions  of  charters,  and  everything  which  would  aid  in  the  re- 

Ferreira  appeared  in  print  during  his  lifetime  and  the  construction  of  its  history.     Thus  legend  and  cre- 

first  edition  of  his  two  comedies  is  that  of  1622.    An  dulity  have  had  full  play.    But  it  is  interesting  to 

English  translation  of  the  *'  Cioso ' '  made  by  Musgrave  encounter  in  the  work  of  an  obscure  Benedictine  of  the 

was  published  in  1825.    His  tragedy,  "Ines  de  Cas-  eighteenth  century,  Dom  Philippe  Mazoyer,  informni- 

tro",  imitates  in  its  form  the  models  of  i^cient  Greek  tion  perhaps  the  most  accurate  and  circumspect  ob- 

literature,  and  shows  Italian  influence  in  its  use  of  tainaole.    According  to   Dom  Mazoyer  there   was 

blank  verse,  but  it  owes  its  subject-matter  to  native  formerly  at   Ferri^res  a  chapel   dedicated   to   the 

Portuguese  history,  concerning  itself  with  the  love  of  Blessed  Virgin  under  the  title  Notre-Dame  de  Betb- 
VI.- 


FERSTEL 


50 


FESOH 


\6em  de  FerriSres.  With  regard  to  the  foundation  of 
the  abbey,  he  thinks  it  cannot  be  traced  beyond  the 
reign  of  Dagobert  (628-3S),  and  he  rightly  regards  as 
false  the  Acts  of  St.  Savinian  and  the  charter  of 
Qovis,  dated  508,  despite  the  favourable  opinion  of 
Dom  Morin.  Some  have  based  conjectures  on  the 
antiquity  of  portions  of  the. church  oi  Saint-Pierre  et 
Saint-Paul  de  Ferridres,  which  thejr  profess  to  trace 
back  to  the  sixth  century,  but  this  is  completely  dis- 

g roved  by  archaeological  testimonv.  On  the  other 
and  the  existence  ot  the  abbey  about  the  year  630 
seems  certain,  and  rare  docmnents,  such  as  the  diploma 
of  Charles  the  Bald  preserved  in  the  archives  of  Op- 
Idans,  bear  witness  to  its  prosperity.  This  prosper- 
ity reached  its  height  in  the  time  of  the  celebrated 
Loup  (Lupus)  of  l^rridres  (c.  850),  when  the  abbey 
•  became  a  rather  active  literary  centre.  The  library 
must  have  benefited  thereby,  but  it  shared  the  fate  of 
the  monastery,  and  is  represented  to-day  by  rare 
fragments.  One  of  these,  preserved  at  the  Vatican 
library  (Reg.  1573),  recalls  the  memory  of  St.  Aldric 
(d.  836),  Abbot  of  Ferridres  before  he  become  Arch- 
bishop of  Sens.  There  is  here  also  a  loosely  arranged 
catalogue  of  some  of  the  abbots  of  Ferri^res  between 
887  and  987,  which,  imperfect  though  it  is,  serves  to 
rectify  and  complete  that  of  the  '' Gallia  Christiana". 
Amon^  the  last  names  in  the  list  of  the  abbots  of  Fer- 
ri^res  is  that  of  Louis  de  Blanchefort,  who  in  the  fif- 
teenth century  almost  entirely  restored  the  abbey. 
Grievously  tried  during  the  wars  of  religion.  Ferridres 
disappeared  with  all  the  ancient  abbeys  at  the  time  of 
the  Freqch  Revolution.  Its  treasures  and  library 
were  wacrted  and  scattered.  To-day  there  are  only  to 
be  seen  some  ruins  of  the  ancient  monastic  buildings. 
At  the  time  of  the  Concordat  of  1802  and  the  ecclesi- 
astical reorganization  of  France,  Ferri^res  passed  from 
the  Archdiocese  of  Sens  to  the  Diocese  of  Orl^ns. 

Crocrbt,  Origine  miraculeuse  el  histoirt  de  la  chap^e  de 
Nolre-Danu  de  BethlSem,  de  Ferr.  en  GdL  (Orl^ns,  1890);  An- 
nates de  la  Soc,  HUt.  et  Arch,  du  Gdtinais,  IX  (1891).  155-56; 
Gallia  Christiana,  XII,  161-62;  Auvrat,  Deux  manuserits  de 
Fleury-eur-Loire  el  de  Perrikrea  coneervis  au  Vatican  in  Annales 
de  la  Soc.  Hist,  et  Arch,  du  Gdtinaia,  VII  (1889).  45-54;  Stein, 
Lettre  d^un  hhUdictin  aur  VAbbaye  de  Ferrikrea-4jAtinaia,  Ond., 
X  (1892),  387-93;  BfoRiN,  Discoura  des  mirades  fails  en  la 
chappeUe  de  Nostre-Dame  de  BelhUem  (Paris.  1605);  Mobin,  La 
naissance  miraeuleuse  de  la  ehappdle  de  BettUiem  en  France 
(Paris.  1610).  H.  LbcLERCQ. 

Fentel,  Heinrich,  Freiherr  von,  architect; 
with  -Hansen  and  Schmidt,  the  creator  of  modem 
Vienna;  b.  7  Julv,  1828,  at  Vienna;  d.  at  Grinzing, 
near  Vienna,  14  Jul^r,  1883.  His  father  was  a  bank- 
clerk.  After  waverine  for  some  time  between  the 
different  arts,  aU  of  which  possessed  a  strong  attrac- 
tion for  him,  the  talented  youth  finally  decided  on 
ardiitecture.  which  he  studied  at  the  Academy  under 
Van  der  NQll,  Siccardsburg,  and  Rdsner.  After  sev- 
eral years  duringwhich  he  was  in  disrepute  because  of 
his  part  in  the  He  volution,  he  entered  the  atelier  of 
his  uncle.  Stache.  where  he  worked  at  the  votive  altar 
for  the  cnapel  of  St.  Barbara  in  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Stephen  and  co-operated  in  the  restoration  and  con- 
struction of  many  castles,  chiefly  in  Bohemia.  Jour- 
neys of  some  length  into  Germany,  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  England  confirmed  him  in  his  tendency  towards 
Romanticism.  It  was  in  Italy,  however,  where  he 
was  sent  as  a  bursar  in  1854,  that  he  was  converted 
to  the  Renaissance  style  of  architecture.  This  was 
thenceforth  his  ideal,  not  because  of  its  titanic  gran- 
deur, but  because  of  its  beautv  and  s^rnmetrical 
harmony  of  proportion,  realized  pre-eminently  in 
Bramante,  his  favourite  master.  He  turned  from  the 
simplicitv  and  restraint  of  the  Late  Renaissance  to  the 
use  of  polychromy  bv  means  of  graffito  decoration  and 
terra-cotta.  This  device,  adapted  from  the  Early 
Renaissance  and  intendea  to  convey  a  fuller  sense  of 
life,  he  employed  later  with  marked  success  in  the 
Austrian  Museum. 

WhOe  still  in  Italy  he  was  awarded  the  prize  in  the 


competition  for  the  votive  church  (Votivkirche)  of 
Vienna  (1855)  over  seventy-four  contestants,  for  the 
most  part  celebrated  architects.  In  this  masterpiece 
of  modem  ecclesiastical  architecture  he  produced  a 
structure  of  marvellous  symmetry  desired  alons 
strong  architectural  principles,  with  a  simple,  welf 
defined  ground-plan,  a  harmonious  correlation  of 
details,  and  a  sumptuous  scheme  of  decoration 
(1856-79).  After  his  death  this  edifice  was  pro- 
posed by  Sykes  as  a  model  for  the  new  Westminster 
cathedral  m  London.  Another  of  Ferstel's  monu- 
mental works  belonging  to  the  same  period  is  the 
Austro-Hungarian  bank  in  Vienna,  in  the  style  of 
the  Early  Italian  Renaissance  (1855-60)  Tne  ex- 
pansion of  the  city  of  Vienna  enabled  Ferstel, 
with  Eitelberger,  to  develop  civic  archittcture  along 
artistic  lines  (burgomaster's  residence,  stock  ex- 
change^ 1859).  At  the  same  time  he  had  also  the  op- 
portunity of  putting  his  ideas  into  practice  in  a 
number  of  private  dwellings  and  villas  at  BrQnn  and 
Vienna. 

The  more  important  buildings  designed  during  his 
later  years,  passine  over  the  churches  at  BrQnn  and 
SchOnau  near  TepTitz,  reallv  products  of  his  earlier 
activity,  are  the  palace  of  Archduke  Ludwig  Victor, 
his  winter  palace  at  Klessheim,  the  palace  of  Prince 
Johann  Liechtenstein  in  the  Rossau  near  Vienna,  the 
palace  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Lloyd's,  at  Triest,  but 
above  all  the  Austrian  Museum  (completed  in  1871),  a 
masterpiece  of  interior  economy  of  space  with  its  im- 
posing arcaded  court.  Next  to  his  civic  and  ecclesi- 
asticsu  masterpieces  comes  the  Vienna  University,  of 
masterly  construction  with  wonderfully  effective 
stairwavs  (1871-84).  Through  a  technical  error  his 
design  for  the  Berlin  Reichstag  building  received  no 
awaira. 

Ferstel  is  the  most  distinctively  Viennese  of  all 
Viennese  architects;  able  to  give  a  structure  beauty  of 
design  and  harmony  without  prejudice  to  the  purpose 
it  was  to  subserve,  and  this  because  of  his  artistic 
versatility  and  inexhaiistible  imagination.  These 
qualities  also  assured  him  success  as  a  teacher,  and 
were  evident  in  his  memoirs  and  numerous  treatises, 
which  are  masterpieces  of  clearness.  Special  mention 
should  be  made  of  those  which  appeared  in  FOrster's 
architectural  magazine.  In  1866  Ferstel  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  the  Polytechnic  School,  in  1871 
chief  government  inspector  of  public  works 'and  in 
1879  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Freiherr.  At  the  time 
of  his  death  he  was  still  in  the  full  vigour  of  his 
strength. 

Pbcht,  Deutsche  KHruOer  des  19.  Jahrhunderts,  III  (N6rd 
lingen,  1881),  140-70;   Fbrstbl,  in  AUg.  Deulsch.  Biographie 
48,  521  aqg.:   Lt^TEOW  in  suppl.  to  Zeitschrifl  /.   Kunstwissen 
sehaftt  XVni,  658  sqq. j  Hbvkbi,  Oesterreichiaehe  Kunsl  im  19. 
Jhdl.  (Ldpiig.  1903).  II.  141  aqq.  JOSEPH  SaUBR. 

Fesch,  Joseph,  cardinal,  b.  at  Ajaccio,  Corsica,  3 
January,  1763;  d.  at  Rome,  13  May,  1839.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  captain  of  a  Swiss  regiment  in  the  service 
of  Genoa,  studied  at  tlie  seminary  of  Aix,  was  made 
archdeacon  and  provost  of  the  chapter  of  Ajaccio  be- 
fore 1789,  but  was  obliged  to  leave  Corsica  when  his 
family  sided  with  France  against  the  English,  who 
came  to  the  island  in  answer  to  Paoli's  summons.  The 
young  priest  was  half-brother  to  Letizia  Ramolino, 
the  mother  of  Napoleon  I  and  upon  arriving  in  France 
he  entered  the  commissariat  department  of  the  army; 
later,  in  1795,  became  commissary  of  war  under  Bona- 
parte, then  in  command  of  the  Ann^e  d' Italic.  When 
religious  peace  was  re-established,  Fesch  made  a 
month's  retreat  under  the  direction  of  Emery,  the 
superior  of  SaintrSulpice  and  re-entered  ecclesiastical 
life.  During  the  Consulate  he  became  canon  of  Bastia 
and  helped  to  negotiate  the  Concordat  of  1801;  on 
15  August,  1802,  Caprara  consecrated  him  Arch- 
bishop of  Lyons,  and  m  1803  Pius  VII  created  him 
cardinal 


/S''^ 

Q 


FESSLSB 


51 


FESSLSB 


On  4  April,  1803,  Napoleon  appointed  Cardinal 
FeBch  successor  to  Caeault  as  ambassador  to  Rome, 
giving  him  ChAteaubriand  for  secretary.  'The  early 
part  of  his  sojourn  in  the  Eternal  City  was  noted  for 
nis  differences  with  ChAteaubriand  and  his  efforts  to 
have  the  Concordat  extended  to  the  Italian  Republic. 
He  prevailed  upon  Pius  VII  to  ^o  to  Paris  in 
person  and  crown  Napoleon.  This  was  Fesch's 
flreatest  achievement.  He  accompanied  the  pope  to 
France  and,  as  grand  almoner,  blessed  the  marriage 
of  Napoleon  and  Josephine  before  the  coronation  cere- 
mony took  place.  By  a  decree  issued  in  1805,  the 
missionary  institutions  of  Saint-Lazare  and  Saint- 
Sulpice  were  placed  under  the  direction  of  Cardinal 
Fesch,  who,  laden  with  this  new  responsibility,  re- 
turned to  Rome.  In  1806,  after  the  occupation  of 
Ancona  by  French  troops,  and  Napoleon's  letter  pro- 
claiming himself 
Emperor  of  Rome. 
Alquier  was  named 
to  succeed  Fesch 
as  ambassador  to 
Rome.  Returning 
to  his  archiepisco- 
pal  See  of  Lyons, 
the  cardinal  re- 
mained in  close 
touch  with  his 
nephew's  religious 
polic]^  ftnd  strove, 
occasionally  with 
success,  to  obviate 
certain  irreparable 
mistakes.  He  ac- 
cepted the  coadju- 
torahip  to  Dalbcsg, 
prince-primate, 
m  the  See  of  Rat- 
isbon,  but,  in  1808, 
refused  the  em- 
peror's offer  of  the  Archbishopric  of  Paris,  for  which 
he  could  not  have  obtained  canonical  institution.  Al- 
though powerless  to  prevent  either  the  rupture  between 
Nap^eon  and  the  pope  in  1 809  or  the  closing  of  the  semi- 
nanes  of  Saint-Lasare,  Saint-Esprit,  and  the  Missions 
Etrang^reSf  Fesch  nevertheless  managed  to  deter 
Napoleon  from  signing  a  decree  relative  to  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Gallican  Church.  He  consented  to 
bless  Napoleon's  marriage  with  Marie-Louise,  but, 
according  to  the  researches  of  Geoffroy  de  Grand- 
maison,  he  was  not  responsible  to  the  same  extent  as 
the  members  of  the  diocesan  ofjicialiU  for  the  illegal 
annulment  of  the  emperor's  first  marriage. 

In  1809  and  1810  Fesch  presided  over  the  two  eccle- 
siastical commissions  charged  with  the  question  of 
canonical  institution  of  bi^ops,  but  the  proceedings 
were  so  conducted  that  neither  commission  adopted 
any  schismatic  resolutions.  As  its  president,  he 
opened  the  National  Council  of  1811,  but  at  the  verv 
outset  he  took  and  also  administered  the  oath 
Uorma  juramenH  profesaionis  fidei)  required  bv  the 
Bull "  Injunctum  nobis"  of  Pius  IV;  it  was  decided  by 
eight  votes  out  of  eleven  that  the  method  of  canonical 
institution  could  not  be  altered  independently  of  the 
pope.  A  message  containing  the  assurance  of  the 
cardinal's  loyalty,  and  addre»ed  to  the  supreme  pon- 
tiff, then  in  exile  at  Fontainebleau,  caused  Fesch  to  in- 
cur the  emperor's  disfavour  and  to  forfeit  the  subsidv 
of  160,000  florins  which  he  had  received  as  Dalberg  s 
coadjutor.  Under  the  Restoration  and  the  Mon- 
archy of  July,  Fesch  lived  at  Rome,  his  Archdiocese 
of  Lyons  being  in  chuige  of  an  administrator.  He  died 
without  again  returning  to  France  and  left  a  splendid 
collection  of  pictures,  a  part  of  which  was  bequeathed 
to  his  episcopal  city. 

^  As  a  diplomat,  Fesch  sometimes  employed  ques- 
tionable methods.    His  relationship  to  the  emperor 


JoBBFS  Cardinal  Fssgh 


and  his  cardinalitial  dignity  often  made  his  position  a 
difficult  one;  at  least  he  could  never  be  accused  of 
approving  the  violent  measures  resorted  to  by  Napo- 
leon. As  archbishop,  he  was  largely  instrumental  in 
re-establishing  the  Brdthers  of  Christian  Doctrine  and 
recalling  the  Jesuits,  under  the  name  of  Pacanarists. 
The  Archdiocese  of  L^rons  is  indebted  to  him  for  some 
eminently  useful  institutions.  It  must  be  admitted, 
moreover,  that  in  his  pastond  capacity  Fesch  took  a 
genuine  interest  in  the  education  of  priests. 

Ltonnet^  Le  eardinal  Fetch,  arehevipie  de  Lyon,  ptimat  dn 
OauUe  (Pans,  1841);  Cattet,  La  virUi  aw  le  eardtncd  Featsk 
(Lyons.  1842);  lo.,  Dijenee  de  la  vMU  stir  U  eardinal  Feeck  et 
aur  Vadminiatraiian  apaatolique  de  Lyon  (Lyons,  1843);  Ricard, 
Le  cardinal  Feaeh  (Paris,  1803);  Gbandmauon,  NapoUon  el  (et 
oardinattx  noira  (Paxis,  1808). 

Georges  Gotau. 

Fessler,  Josef,  Bishop  of  St.  Pdlten  in  Austria, 
and  secretarv  of  the  Vatican  Council;  b.  2  December, 
1813,  at  Lochau  near  Bregens  in  the  Vorarlberg;  d.  25 
April,  1872.  His  parents  were  peasants.  He  early 
showed  ^at  abilities.  His  classical  studies  were  done 
at  Feldkirch,  his  philosophy  at  Innsbruck,  includii^  a 
year  of  le^  studies,  and  his  theology  at  Brixen.  He 
was  ordamed  priest  in  1837,  and,  s^ter  a  year  as 
master  in  a  school  at  Innsbruck,  studied  for  two  more 
years  in  Vienna.  He  then  became  professor  of  eccle- 
siastical history  and  canon  law  in  the  theological 
school  at  Brixen,  1841-52.  He  publi^ed  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Episcopal  Conference  of  WOrzburg,  in 
1848,  a  useful  little  book  "  Ueber  die  Provincial-(>>ncil- 
ien  und  Didcesan-Synoden"  (Innsbruck,  1849),  and  in 
1850-1  the  well-known  "  Institutiones  Patrologiae, 
quas  ad  frequentiorem  utiliorem  et  faciliorem  ^. 
ratrum  lectionem  promovendam  concinnavit  J.  Fess- 
ler  "  (Innsbruck,  2  vols.,  8vo).  This  excellent  work 
superseded  the  unfinished  books  of  Mobler  and  Per- 
maneder,  and  was  not  surpassed  by  the  subsequent 
works  of  Alsog  and  Nirschl.  In  its  new  edition  by  the 
late  Prof.  Jungmann  of  Louvain  (Innsbruck,  1890-6), 
it  is  still  of  great  value  to  the  student,  in  spite  of  the 
newer  information  given  by  Bardenhewer.  From  1856 
to  1861  Fessler  was  professor  of  canon  law  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna,  atter  making  special  studies  for  six 
months  at  Rome.  He  was  consecrated  as  assistant 
bishop  to  the  Bishop  of  Brixen,  Dr.  Gasser,  on  31 
Marcb,  1862,  and  became  his  vicar-general  for  the 
Vorarlbei^.  On  23  Sept.,  1864,  he  was  named  by  the 
emperor  Bishop  of  St.  P6lten,  not  far  from  Vienna. 
When  at  Rome  in  1867  he  was  named  assistant  at  Uie 
papal  throne.  In  1869  Pope  Pius  IX  proposed  Bishop 
Fessler  to  the  Congregation  for  the  direction  of-  the 
coming  Vatican  Council  as  secretary  to  the  council. 
The  appointment  was  well  received,  the  only  objection 
being  from  Cardinal  Caterini  who  thought  the  choice 
of  an  Austrian  might  make  the  other  nations  jealous. 
Bishop  Fessler  was  informed  of  his  appointment  on 
27  March,  and  as  the  pope  wished  him  to  come  with  all 
speed  to  Rome,  he  arrived  there  on  8  July,  after  hastily 
dispatching  the  business  of  his  diocese.  He  had  a 
pro-secretary  and  two  assistants.  It  was  certainly 
wise  to  choose  a  prelate  whose  vast  and  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Fathers  and  with  ecclesiastical 
history  was  eoualled  only  bv  his  thorough  knowledge  of 
canon  law.  He  seems  to  have  given  universal  satis- 
faction by  his  work  as  secretary,  out  the  burden  was  a 
heavy  one,  and  in  spite  of  his  excellent  constitution  his 
untirmg  labours  were  thou^t  to  have  been  the  cause 
of  his  early  death.  Before  the  council  he  published  an 
opportune  work  "Das  letzte  und  das  n&chste  allge- 
meine  Konxil"  (Freiburg,  1869),  and  after  the  coun- 
cil he  replied  in  a  masterly  brochure  to  the  attack  on 
the  council  by  Dr.  Schulte,  professor  of  canon  law  and 
German  law  at  Prague.  Dr.  Schulte's  pamphlet  on 
the  power  of  the  Roman  popes  over  princes,  countries, 
peoples,  and  individuals,  in  the  light  of  their  acts  since 
the  reign  of  Gregory  VII,  was  very  similar  in  character 


FKTZ 


52 


FETISHISM 


to  the  Vatioanism  pamphlet  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  and 
rested  on  just  the  same  fundamental  misunderstanding 
of  the  dogma  of  Papal  InfalUbility  as  defined  by  the 
Vatican  Council.  The  Prussian  Government  promptly 
appointed  Dr.  Schulte  to  a  professorship  at  Bonn, 
while  it  imprisoned  Catholic  pnests  and  bisnops.  Fess- 
ler's  reply,  ''Die  wahre  und  die  falsche  Unfehlbarkeit 
der  Papste"  (Vienna,  1871),  was  translated  into  French 
by  Cosiquin;  editor  of  "  Le  Francais  ">  and  into  Endish 
by  Father  Ambrose  St.  John,  of  the  Birmineham  Ora- 
tory (The  true  and  false  Infallibility  of  the  Popes, 
London,  1875).  It  is  still  an  exceedingly  valuable 
explanation  of  the  true  doctrine  of  Infallibility  as 
taught  by  the  great  Italian  "Ultramontane"  theolo- 

S'ans,  such  as  &llarmine  in  the  sixteenth  century^  P. 
allerini  in  the  eighteenth,  and  Perrone  in  the  nme- 
teenth.  But  it  was  difi^cult  for  those  who  had  been 
fighting  against  the  definition  to  realize  that  the  "  In- 
fallibihsts  '  had  wanted  no  more  than  this.  Bishop 
Hefele  of  Rottenburg,  who  had  strongly  opposed  the 
definition,  and  afterwards  loyally  accepted  it,  said  he 
entirely  agreed  with  the  knoderate  view  taken  by 
Bishop  Fessler,  but  doubted  whether  such  views  would 
be  accepted  as  sound  in  Rome.  It  was  clear,  one 
would  have  thought,  that  the  secretary  of  the  council 
was  likely  to  know;  and  the  hesitations  of  the  pious 
and  learned  Hefele  were  removed  by  the  warm  Brief  of 
approbation  which  Pius  IX  addressed  to  the  author. 
Anton  Erdingbb,  Dr,  Joseph  Feader,  Biathaf  v.  St,  PdUen, 
ein  IdbenabUd  (Brixen,  1874);  Mxttbbrutsnbr  in  Kiitherdexi- 
ken:  Grandbrath  and  Kirch,  OeathichU  de»  Vatioaniachen 
KontiU  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  2  vols..  1903). 

John  Chapman. 

Fetl,  DoMBNico,  an  Italian  painter;  b.  at  Rome, 
1589;  d.  at  Venice,  1624.  He  was  a  pupil  of  CigpU 
(Ludovico  Cardi,  1559-1613),  or  at  least  was  much  in- 
fluenced by  this  master  during  his  sojourn  in  Rome. 
From  Ihe  end  of  the  sixteentn  century  Rome  a^in 
became  what  she  had  ceased  to  be  after  the  sacK  of 
1527,  the  metropolis  of  the  beautiful.  The  jubilee  of 
the  year  1600  marked  the  triumph  of  the  papacy. 
Art,  seeking  its  pole  now  at  Parma,  now  at  Venice, 
now  at  Bologna,  turning  towards  Rome,  oonoentratea 
itself  there.  Crowds  of  artists  flocked  thither.  This 
was  the  period  in  which  were  produced  the  master^ 
pieces  of  the  Carracci,  Caravaggio,  Domenichino,  Guidb, 
not  counting  those  of  man^  cosmopolitan  artists,  such 
as  the  brothers  Bril,  Elsheuner,  etc.,  and  between  1600 
and  1610  Rubens,  the  great  master  of  the  century, 
paid  three  visits  to  Rome.  This  exceptional  period 
was  that  of  Domenico's  apprenticeship;  the  labour, 
the  uniaue  fermentation  in  the  world  of  art.  resulted, 
as  is  well  known,  in  the  creation  of  an  art  which  in  its 
essential  characteristics  became  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury that  of  all  Europe.  For  the  old  local  and  pro- 
vincial schools  (Florentine^  Umbrian,  etc.)  Rome  nad 
the  privflege  of  substituting  a  new  one  which  was 
characterized  by  its  universaRty.  Out  of  a  mixture  of 
so  many  idioms  and  dialects  she  evolved  an  interna- 
tional language,  the  style  which  is  called  baroque. 
The  discr^it  thrown  on  this  school  should  not  lead 
us  to  ignore  its  grandeur.  In  reality,  the  reorganisa- 
tion of  modem  painting  dates  from  it. 

Domenico  is.  one  of  the  most  interesting  types  of 
this  great  evolution.  Eclecticism,  the  fusion  of  divers 
diaracteristics  of  Correggio.  Barrochi,  Veronese,  was 
already  apparent  in  the  work  of  Cigoli.  To  these  Feti 
added  much  of  the  naturalism  of  Caravaggio.  From 
him  he  borrowed  his  vulgar  types,  his  powerful  mobs, 
his  Bohemians,  his  beg^rs  in  heroic  ra^.  From  him 
also  he  borrowed  his  violent  illuminations^  his  novel 
and  sometimes  fantastic  portrayal  of  the  picturesque, 
his  rare  lights  and  strong  shadows,  his  famous  chia- 
roscuro, which,  nevertheless,  he  endeavoured  to  de- 
velop into  full  daylight  ana  the  diffuse  atmosphere 
of  out-of-doors.  He  did  not  have  time  to  succeed 
completely  in  this.    His  colouring  is  often  dim,  crude, 


and  faded,  though  at  times  it  assumes  a  golden  patina 
and  seems  to  solve  the  problem  of  conveying  mysteri- 
ous atmospheric  effects. 

At  an  early  age  Domenico  went  to  Mantua  with 
Cardinal  Gonzaga,  later  Duke  of  Mantua,  to  whom  he 
became  court  painter  (hence  his  surname  of  Manto- 
vano),  and  he  felt  the  transient  influence  of  Giulio  Ro- 
mano. His  frescoes  in  the  cathedral,  however,  are  the 
least  characteristic  and  the  feeblest  of  his  works. 
Domenico  was  not  a  good  frescoist.  Like  all  modem 
painters  he  made  use  of  oils  too  frequently.  By  de- 
grees he  abandoned  his  decorative  ambitions.  He 
painted  few  altai^pieces,  preference  leading  him  to 
execute  easel  pictures.  For  the  most  part  these  dealt 
with  religious  subjects,  but  conoeivedfin  an  intimate 
manner  for  private  devotion.  Scarcely  any  of  his 
themes  were  historical^  and  few  taken  from  among 
those,  such  as  the  Nativity,  Calvary,  or  the  entomb- 
ment, which  had  been  presented  so  often  by  painters. 
He  preferred  subjects  more  human  and  less  dogmatic, 
more  in  touch  with  daily  life,  romance,  and  poetry. 
He  drew  by  preference  from  tneparables,  as  in  "The 
Labourers  in  the  Vineyard",  "The  Lost  Coin"  (Pitti 
Palace,  Florence),  "The  Good  Samaritan",  "The  Re- 
turn of  the  Prodigal  Son"  (and  others  at  the  Museum 
of  Dresden).  Again  he  chose  picturesque  scenes  from 
the  Bible,  such  as  "Elias  in  the  Wilderness"  (Berlin) 
and  the  history  of  Tobias  (Dresden  and  St.  Peters- 
burg). 

It  is  astonishing  to  End  in  the  canvases  of  this  Ital- 
ian nearly  the  whole  repertoire  of  Rembrandt's  sub- 
jects. They  had  a  common  liking  for  the  tenderest 
parts  of  the  Gospel,  for  the  scenes  of  every  day,  of  the 
"eternal  present",  themes  for  genre  pictures.  But 
this  is  not  all.  Domenico  was  not  above  reproach. 
It  was  his  excesses  which  shortened  his  life.  May  we 
not  assume  that  his  art  is  but  a' history  of  the  sinful 
soul,  a  poem  of  repentance  such  as  Rembrandt  was  to 
present?  There  is  found  in  both  painters  the  sazne 
confidence,  the  same  sense  of  the  divine  Protection  in 
spite  of  sin  (cf.  Feti's  beautiful  picture,  "The  Angel 
Guiuxiian"  at  the  Louvre)^  and  also,  occasionally,  uie 
same  anguish,  the  same  di^;ust  of  the  world  ana  the 
flesh  as  in  that  rare  masterpiece,  " Melancholy",  in  the 
same  museum.  Thus  Domenico  was  in  the  way  of 
becoming  one  of  the  first  masters  of  lyric  painting,  and 
he  was  utilizing  to  the  perfection  of  his  art  all  that  he 
could  learn  at  Venice  when  he  died  in  that  city,  worn 
out  with  pleasure,  at  the  a^  of  thirty-four.  There  is 
no  good  life  of  this  curious  artist.  His  principal 
works  are  to  be  found  at  Dresden  (11  pictures),  St. 

Petersburg,  Vienna,  Florence,  and  Paris. 

Baouonb,  Le  vite  de*  pittore  (Rome,  1642),  155;  Land. 
Sioria  pUtonca  delT  JtcUiana  (Milan,  1809);  tr.  RoacoB  (Lon- 
don, 1847),  I,  471;  II,  339;  Cuarlbs  Blanc,  Iliatoire  dee  pein- 
tres:  Ecole  romaine  (Paris,  a.  d.);  Burckhardt,  Cieerone,  ed. 
BoDB,  Fr.  tr.  (Paris,  1897),  809,  816;  Wobrkann,  Malerei 
(Leipaig,  1888).  III.  233.  LOUIS  GiLLET. 

FetishiBm  means  the  religion  of  the  fetish.  The 
word  fetish  is  derived  throujpi  the  Portuguese  feitigo 
from  the  Latin  jactUxue  (facere,  to  do,  or  to  make), 
signifying  made  oy  art.  artificial  (cf .  Old  English  fetya 
in  Chaucer).  From  facio  are  derived  many  words 
signifying  idol,  idolatry,  or  witchcraft.  Later  Latin 
has  factwrari,  to  bewitch,  and  factttraf  witchcraft. 
Hence  Portuguese  feit^Of  Italian  faiaiuraf  O.  Fr.  fav' 
lure,  meaning  witchcraft,  magic.  The  word  was  prob- 
ablv  first  applie(^  to  idols  and  amulets  made  by  hand 
ana  supposed  to  possess  magic  power.  In  the  early 
^part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Portuguese,  explor- 
mg  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  found  the  natives  using 
small  material  objects  in  their  religious  worship. 
These  they  called  feitigoy  but  the  use  of  the  term  has 
never  extended  beyond  the  natives  on  the  coast. 
Other  names  are  hohsum,  the  tutelary  fetishes  of  the 
Gold  Coast;  miATnan.  a  term  for  a  private  fetish; 
gree-gree  on  the  Liberian  coast;  monda  in  the  Gabun 


FETISHIBM  53 

oountiy ;  bian  among  the  cannibal  Fang;  in  the  Niger  tree,  a  snake,  or  an  idol,  worshipped  the  very  objects 

Delta  ju^ju — possibly  from  the  French  joujou,  i.  e.  a  themselves.    He  regards  the  suggestion  that  these  ob- 

doll  or  toy  (Kingsley) — ^and  grou-groUf  according  to  jects  represented  or  were  even  the  dwelling-place  of 

some  of  the  same  origin,  according  to  others  a  native  some  spiritual  being,  as  an  af terthou^t,  up  to  which 

term,  but  the  natives  say  that  it  is  '^a  white  man's  man  has  grown  in  the  lapse  of  ages.    The  studv  of  the 

word''.    Every  Congo  leader  has  his  m'kisai;  and  in  African  negro  refutes  this  view.    Ellis  writes.  I' Every 

other  tribes  a  word  equivalent  to  "  medidine"  is  used,  native  with  whom  I  have  conversed  on  the  subject  has 

C.  de  Brosses  first  employed  fetishism  as  a  general  laughed  at  the  possibility  of  its  being  supposed  that  he 

descriptive  term,  and  claimed  for  it  a  share  in  the  coiud  worship  or  offer  sacrifice  to  some  such  object  as  a 

early  development  of  religious  ideas  (Du  Culte  des  stone,  which  of  itself  would  be  perfectly  obvious  to  his 

Dieux  Fetiches,  1760).    He  compared  the  phenomena  senses  was  a  stone  only  and  nothing  more", 

observed  in  the  negro  worship  of  West  Africa  with  -    De  La  Saussayeregsurds  fetishism  as  a  fojm  of  anim- 

certain  features  of  Uie  old  Egyptian  religion.    This  ism,  i.  e.  a  belief  in  spirits  incorporated  in  single  ob- 

comparison  led  Pietschmann  to  emphasize  the  ele-  jects,  but  says  that  not  every  kind  of  worship  paid  to 

ments  of  fetishism  in  the  E^rptian  rehgion  by  starting  material  objects  can  be  called  fetishism,  but  only  that 

wiih  its  magic  character.    Basthold  (1805)  claimed  as  which  is  connected  with  magic;  otherwise  the  whole 

fetish  "  everything  produced  by  nature  or  art,  which  worship  of  nature  would  be  fetishism.    The  stock  and 

receives  divme  honor,  including  sun,  moon,  earth,  stone  which  forms  the  object  of  worship  is  then  called 

air,  fire,  water,  mountains,  rivers,  trees,  stones,  im-  the  fetish.    Tylor  has  rightly  declared  that  it  is  very 

ag^,  animals,  if  considerea  as  objects  of  divine  wor-  hard  to  say  whether  stones  are  to  be  regarded  as 

ship''.    Thus  the  name  became  more  general,  until  altars,  as  symbols,  or  as  fetishes.    He  strives  to  place 

Comte  employed  it  to  designate  only  the  lowest  stage  nature- worship  as  a  connecting  link  between  fetisnism 

of  religious  development.    In  this  sense  the  term  is  and  pol3rtheism,  though  he  is  obliged  to  admit  that  the 

used  from  time  to  time,  e.  g.  de  la  Rialle,  Schultze,  single  stages  of  the  process  defy  any  accurate  descrip- 

Mensies,  Hdffding.    Taking  the  theory  of  evolution  as  tion.    Others,  e.  g.  Keville,  de  La  Saussave,  separate 

a  basis,  Comte  aSirmed  that  the  fundamental  law  of  the  worship  of  nature  from  animism.    To  Hdnding, 

historv  was  that  of  historic  filiation,  that  is,  the  Law  of  following  Usener,  the  fetish  is  only  the  provisional  and 

the  Tliree  States.    Thus  the  human  race,  like  the  momentary  dwelling-place  of  a  spirit.    Others,  e.  g. 

human  individual,  passed  through  three  successive  Lubbock,  Happel,  insist  that  the  fetish  must  be  ooi>- 

stages:  the  theological  or  imaginative,  illustrated  by  sideied  as  a  means  of  magic — ^not  being  itself  the  ob- 

fetishism,  polytheism,  monotheism;  the  metaphysical  ject  of  wor^ip,  but  a  means  bv  which  man  is  brought 

or  abstract,  which  differed  from  the  former  in  explain-  mto  close  contact  with  the  deity — ^and  as  endowed 

ing  phenomena  not  b^  divine  beings  but  by  abstract  wiUi  divine  powers.    De  La  Saussaye  holds  that  to 

powers  or  essences  behind  them;  the  positive  or  scien-  savages  fetisnes  are  both  objects  of  religious  worship 

tific,  where  man  enlightened  perceives  that  the  only  and  means  of  magic.    Thus  a  fetish  may  often  be  used 

realities  are  not  supernatural  beings,  e.  g.  God  or  an-  for  ma^c  purposes,  yet  it  is  more  than  a  mere  means 

gels,  nor  abstractions,  e.  g.  substances  or  causes,  but  of  magic,  as  being  itself  anthropopathic,  and  often  the 

phenomena  and  their  laws  as  discovered  by  science,  object  of  religious  worship. 

Under  fetishism,  therefore,  he  classed  worship  of  Within  the  limits  of  animism,  Tiele  and  Hdffding 

heavenly  bodies,  nature-worship,  etc.    This  theory  is  distinguish  between  fetishism  and  spiritism.    Fetish- 

a  pure  assumption,  yet  a  lon^  time  passed  before  it  ism  contents  itself  with  particular  objects  in  which  it 

was  cast  aside.    The  ease  with  which  it  explained  is  supposed  a  spirit  has  lor  a  lon^r  or  a  shorter  time 

everything  recommended  it  to  man^.    Spencer  for-  taken  up  its  abode.    In  spiritism,  spirits  are  not 

mally  repudiated  it  (Principles  of  Sociologpr),  and  with  bound  up  with  certain  objects,  but  may  change  their 

Tylor  made  fetishism  a  subdivision  of  animism.  mode  of  revelation,  partly  at  their  own  discretion. 

While  we  may  with  Tylor  consider  the  theory  of  partly  under  the  influence  of  magic.  Thus  H6ffding 
Comte  as  abandoned,  it  is  difficult  to  admit  his  own  declares  that  fetishism,  as  the  lowest  form  of  religion, 
view.  For  the  spirit  supposed  to  dwell  in  the  fetish  is  is  distinguished  from  spiritism  by  the  special  weight 
not  the  soul  or  vital  power  belonging  to  that  object,  it  attributes  to  certain  definite  objects  as  media  of 
but  a  spirit  foreign  to  the  object,  yet  in  some  way  con-  psvchical  activity.  In  selecting  objects  of  fetishism, 
nected  with  and  embodied  in  it.  Lippert  (1881),  true  religion  appears,  according  to  H6ndinjg,  under  the 
to  his  exaggerated  animism,  defines  fetishism  as  "a  guise  of  desire.  He  holds  that  religious  ideas  are  only 
belief  in  the  souls  of  the  departed  coming  to  dwell  in  religious  in  virtue  of  this  connexion  between  need  and 
anvthing  that  is  tangible  m  heaven  or  on  earth",  expectation,  i.  e.,  as  elements  of  desire,  and  that  it  is 
Schultze,  analysing  the  consciousness  of  savages,  says  only  when  thus  viewed  that  fetishism  can  be  imder- 
that  fetishism  is  a  worship  of  material  objects.  He  stood.  Httbbe-Schleiden,  on  the  contrary,  holds  that 
claims  that  the  narrow  circle  of  savages'  ideas  leads  fetishism  is  not  a  proper  desi^ation  for  a  religion,  be- 
them  to  admire  and  exa^erate  the  value  of  very  cause  Judaism  and  Cnristiamty  have  their  fetishes  as 
small  and  insignificant  objects,  to  look  upon  these  well  as  the  nature  religions,  and  says  the  word  fetish 
objects  anthropopathically  as  alive,  sentient,  and  should  be  used  as  analogous  to  a  word-symbol  or  em- 
willing,  to  connect  them  with  auspicious  or  inauspi-  blem.  Haddon  considers  fetishism  as  a  stage  of  reli- 
cious  events  and  experiences,  and  finall}r  to  believe  gious  development.  Jevons  holds  magic  and  fetish- 
that  such  objects  require  religious  veneration.  In  his  ism  to  be  the  negation  of  religion.  He  denies  that 
view  these  four  facts  account  for  the  worship  of  stocks  fetishism  is  the  primitive  religion,  or  a  basis  from 
and  stones,  bundles  and  bows,  gores  and  stripes,  which  religion  developed,  or  a  stage  of  reli^ous  devel- 
which  we  call  fetishism.  But  Schultze  considers  fet-  opment.  To  him,  fetishism  is  not  only  anti-social,  and 
ishism  as  a  portion,  not  as  the  whole,  of  primitive  tnerefore  anti-reUgious,  he  even  holds  that  the  atti- 
religion.  By  the  side  of  it  he  puts  a  worship  of  spirits,  tude  of  superiority  manifested  by  the  possessor  to- 
and  these  two  forms  run  parallel  for  some  distance,  wards  the  fetish  deprives  it  of  religious  value,  or  rather 
but  afterwards  meet  and  give  rise  to  other  forms  of  makes  it  anti-religious. 

religion.     He  holds  that  man  ceases  to  be  a  fetish-  The  fetish  differs  from  an  idol  or  an  amulet,  though 

worshipper  as  soon  as  he  learns  to  distinguish  the  at  times  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  them, 

spirit  from  the  material  object.    To  Mailer  and  Brin-  An  amulet,  however,  is  the  pledge  of  protection  of  a 

ton  the  fetish  is  something  more  than  the  mere  object  divine  power.    A  fetish  may  be  an  image,  e.  g.  tiie 

(Rel.  of  Prim.  Peop.,  Philadelphia,  1898).     Menzies  New  Zealand  t/?aA;apafcoA»,  or  not,  but  the  divine  power 

(History  of  Religion,  p.  129)  holds  that  primitive  man,  or  spirit  is  supposed  to  be  wholly  incorporated  in  it. 

like  the  untutored  savage  of  to-day,  in  worshipping  a  Famell  says  an  image  may  be  viewed  as  a  symbol,  or 


rETisuunff 


54 


as  infused  with  divine  power,  or  as  the  divinity  itself. 
Idolatry  in  this  sense  is  a  higher  form  of  fetishism. 
Famell  does  not  distinguish  clearly  between  fetish  and 
amulet,  and  calls  relics,  crucifixes,  the  Bible  itself, 
fetishes.  In  his  view  any  sacred  object  is  a  fetish. 
But  objects  may  be  held  as  sacred  by  external  associa- 
tion with  sacred  persons  or  places  without  having  any 
intrinsic  sanctity.  This  loose  use  of  the  word  has  led 
writers  to  consider  the  national  flag  (especially  a  tat- 
tered battle-flag),  the  Scottish  stone  of  Scone,  tne  mas- 
cot, the  horseshoe,  as  fetishes,  whereas  tJiese  objects 
have  no  value  in  themselves,  but  are  prized  merely  for 
their  associations — real  in  the  case  of  the  battle-flag, 
fancied  in  the  case  of  the  horseshoe. 

The  theory  advanced  by  certain  writers  that 
fetishism  represents  the  earliest  sta^  of  religious 
thought,  has  a  twofold  basis:  (1)  phuosophical;  (2) 
socioloncal. 

(1)  Philosophical  Basis:  the  Theory  of  Evolution. — 
Ass\miing  that  primitive  man  was  a  semi-brute,  or  a 
semi-idiot,  some  writers  of  the  Evolutionist  School 
under  the  influence  of  Comte  tau^t  that  man  in  the 
earliest  stage  was  a  fetish-worshipper,  instancing  in 
proof  the  African  tribes,  who  in  their  view  repre- 
sent the  original  state  of  mankind.  This  basis  is  a 
pure  assumption.  More  recent  investigation  reveals 
clearly  the  universal  belief  in  a  Great  God,  the  Creator 
and  Father  of  mankind,  held  by  the  negroes  of  Africa; 
Comber  (Gram,  and  Diet,  of  the  Congo  I^ahguage)  and 
Wilson  (West  Guinea)  prove  the  richness  of  their  lan- 
guages in  structure  and  vocabulary;  while  Tylor, 
Spencer,  and  most  advocates  of  the  animistic  theory 
look  upon  fetishism  as  by  no  means  primitive,  but  as  a 
decadent  form  of  the  belief  in  spint  and  souls.  Fi- 
nally, there  are  no  well-authenticated  cases  of  savage 
tribes  whose  religion  consists  of  fetish-worship  only. 

(2)  Sociological  Basis. — Historians  of  civilization, 
impressed  by  the  fact  that  many  customs  of  savages  are 
also  found  m  the  highest  stages  of  civilized  life,  con- 
cluded that  the  development  of  the  race  could  best  be 
understood  by  taking  the  savage  level  as  a  starting- 

Eoint.  The  ufe  of  savages  is  thus  the  basis  of  the 
igher  development.  But  this  argument  can  be  in- 
verted. For  if  the  customs  of  savages  may  be  found 
amone  civilized  races,  evident  traces  of  higher  ideals 
are  also  found  among  savages.  Furthermore,  the 
theory  that  a  savage  or  a  child  represents  exclusively, 
or  even  prominenUy,  the  life  of  pnmitive  man,  cannot 
be  entertained.  Writers  on  the  philosophy  of  reli- 
gion have  used  the  word  fetishism  in  a  vague  sense, 
susceptible  of  many  shades  of  meaning.  To  obtain  a 
correct  knowledge  of  the  subject,  we  must  go  to  au- 
thorities like  Wilson,  Norris,  Ellis,  and  Kingsley,  who 
have  spent  years  with  the  African  negroes  and  have 
made  exhaustive  investigations  on  the  spot.  By  fetish 
or  jt^ju  is  meant  the  religion  of  the  natives  of  West 
Africa.  Fetishism,  viewed  from  the  outside,  appears 
strange  and  complex,  but  is  simple  in  its  underlying 
idea,  very  logically  tnought  out,  and  very  reasonable 
to  the  mmds  of  its  adherents.  The  prevailing  notion 
in  West  Gxiinea  seems  to  be  that  God,  the  Creator 
(AnyambS,  Anzam),  having  made  the  world  and  filled 
it  with  inhabitants,  retired  to  some  remote  comer  of 
the  universe,  and  allowed  the  affairs  of  the  world  to 
come  under  the  control  of  evil  spirits.  Hence  the  only 
religious  worship  performed  is  directed  to  these  spirits, 
the  purpose  bemg  to  court  their  favour  or  ward  off 
their  displeasure.  The  Ashantis  recognize  the  exist- 
ence of  a  Supreme  Being,  whom  they  adore  in  a  vague 
manner  althou^,  being  invisible.  He  is  not  repre- 
sented by  an  idol.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
world,  God  was  in  daily  relations  with  man.  He 
came  on  earth,  conversed  with  men,  and  all  went  well. 
But  one  day  He  retired  in  anger  from  the  world,  leaving 
its  management  to  subaltern  divinities.  These  are 
spirits  which  dwell  everywhere — in  waters,  woods, 
rocks — and  it  is  necessary  to  conciliate  them,  unless 


one  wishes  to  encounter  their  displeasure.  Such  a 
phenomenon  then  as  fetish-  or  spirit-worship,  existing 
alone  without  an  accompanying  belief  in  a  Supreme 
Being  who  is  above  all  fetishes  and  other  objects  of 
worship,  has  yet  to  be  discovered.  Other  nations, 
holding  the  fundamental  idea  of  one  God  who  is  Lord 
and  Creator,  say  that  this  God  is  too  great  to  interest 
Himself  in  the  affairs  of  the  world;  hence  after  having 
created  and  organized  the  world.  He  charged  EUs  sub- 
ordinates with  its  government.  Hence  they  neglect 
the  worship  of  God  for  the  propitiation  of  spirits. 
These  spirits  correspond  in  their  functions  to  the  gods 
of  Greek  and  Roman  mythology,  but  are  never  con- 
founded with  the  Supreme  Being  by  the  natives. 
Fetishism  therefore  is  a  stage  where  God  is  quietly 
disregarded,  and  the  worship  due  to  Him  is  quietly 
transferred  to  a  multitude  of  spiritual  agencies  under 
His  power,  but  uncontrolled  by  it.  "  All  the  air  and 
the  future  is  peopled  by  the  Bantu  ",  says  Dr.  Norris, 
"  with  a  large  and  indefinite  company  of  spiritual  be- 
ings. They  have  personality  and  will,  and  most  of  the 
human  passions,  e.  g.,  anger,  revenge,  generosity, 
gratitude.  Though  they  are  all  probably  malevolent, 
yet  they  may  b«  influenced  and  made  favorable 
by  worsnip." 

In  the  face  of  this  animistic  view  of  nature  and  the 
peculiar  logic  of  the  African  mind,  all  the  seemingly 
weird  forms  and  ceremonies  of  fetishism,  e.  g.  the 
fetish  or  witch-doctor,  become  but  the  natural  conse- 
quences of  the  basal  idea  of  the  popular  religious 
belief.  There  are  grades  of  spirits  in  the  spirit^world. 
Miss  Kingsley  holds  that  fourteen  classes  of  spirits  are 
clearly  discemible.  Dr.  Nassau  thinks  the  spirits 
commonly  affecting  human  affairs  can  be  clarified 
into  six  groups.  These  spirits  are  different  in  power 
and  functions.  The  class  of  spirits  that  are  human 
souls,  always  remain  human  souls;  they  do  not  become 
deified,  nor  do  they  sink  in  grade  permanently.  The 
locality  of  spirits  is  not  only  vaguely  in  the  surround- 
ing air,  but  in  prominent  natural  objects,  e.  g.  caves, 
enormous  rocks,  hollow  trees,  dark  forests.  While  all 
can  move  from  place  to  place,  some  belong  peculiarly 
to  certain  locahties.  Their  habitations  may  be  nat- 
ural (e.  g.  large  trees,  caverns,  large  rocks,  capes,  and 
promontories;  and  for  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  the  vil- 
uiges  where  they  had  dwelt  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
Ixxiy,  or  graveyards)  or  acquired,  e.  g.  for  longer  or 
shorter  periods  under  the  power  wielded  by  the  incan- 
tations of  the  nganga  or  native  doctor.  By  his  magic 
art  any  spirit  may  be  localized  in  any  object  whatever, 
however  small,  and  thus  placed  it  is  under  the  control 
of  the  "doctor"  and  subservient  to  the  wishes  of  the 
possessor  or  wearer  of  the  object  in  which  it  is  con- 
fined. This  constitutes  a  fetish.  The  fetish-'worship- 
per  makes  a  clear  distinction  between  the  reverence 
with  which  he  regards  a  certain  material  object  and 
the  worship  he  renders  to  the  spirit  for  the  time  being 
inhabiting  it.  Where  the  spirit,  for  any  reason,  is 
supposed  to  have  gone* out  of  that  thing  and  defini- 
tively abandoned  it,  the  thing  itself  is  no  longer 
reverenced^  but  thrown  away  as  useless,  or  sold  to  the 
curio-huntmg  white  man. 

Everything  the  African  negro  knows  by  means  of 
his  senses,  he  regards  as  a  twofold  entity — ^partly 
spirit,  partly  not  spirit  or,  as  we  say,  matter.  In  man 
tnis  twof ola  entity  appears  as  a  corporeal  body,  and  a 
spiritusd  or  "astral"  body  in  shape  and  feature  like 
the  former.  This  latter  form  of  "  life  "  with  its  "  heart " 
can  be  stolen  by  magic  power  while  one  is  asleep,  and 
the  individual  sleeps  on,  unconscious  of  his  loss.  If 
the  life-form  is  returned  to  him  before  he  awakes,  he 
will  be  unaware  that  anything  unusual  has  happened. 
If  he  awakes  before  this  portion  of  him  has  been  re- 
turned, though  he  may  live  for  a  while,  he  will  sicken 
and  eventually  die.  If  the  magician  who  stole  the 
"life"  has  eaten  the  "heart",  the  victim  sickens  at 
once  and  dies.    The  connexion  of  a  certain  spirit  with 


FBTISHISM  55 

a  certain  mass  of  matter  is  not  regarded  as  permanent,  guage  is  learned  in^  which  they  can  talk  on  religbus 
The  native  will  point  out  a  lightning-strucK  tree,  and  matters  without  being  understood  by  the  people.  In 
tell  you  its  soirit  has  been  killed,  i.  e.,  the  spirit  is  not  other  parts  of  the  Con^  the  office  falls  on  an  indi- 
actiudly  deaa,  but  has  fled  and  lives  elsewhere.  When  vidual  in  quite  an  accidental  manner,  e.  g.  because 
the  cocddng  pot  is  broken,  its  spirit  has  been  lost.  If  fortune  has  m  some  wav  distinguished  him  from  his 
his  weapon  fails,  it  is  because  some  one  has  stolen  the  fellows.  Every  unusual  action,  display  of  skill,  or 
spirit,  or  made  it  sick  by  witchcraft.  In  every  action  superiority  is  attributed  to  the  intervention  of  some 
ci  life  he  shows  how  much  he  lives  with  a  ^reat,  power-  supernatural  power.  Thus  the  future  nganga  usually 
ful  spirit-world  around  him.  Before  startmg  to  himt  or  b^ins  his  career  by  some  lucky  adventure^  e.  g. 
fi|^t,  he  rubs  medicine  into  his  weapons  to  strengthen  prowess  in  hunting,  success  in  fishmg,  bravery  m  war. 
the  spirit  within  them,  talking  to  them  the  while,  He  is  then  regarded  as  possessing  some  charm,  or  as 
telling  them  what  care  he  has  taken  of  them  and  what  enjoying  the  protection  of  some  spirit.  In  oonsidera- 
he  has  given  them  before,  though  it  was  hard  to  give,  tion  of  payment  he  pretends  to  unpart  his  pmwer  to 
and  begging  them  not  to  fail  him  now.  He  may  be  others  by  means  of  cnarms,  i.  e.  fetishes  consisting  of 
seen  bending  over  the  river,  talking  with  proper  in-  different  herbs,  stones,  pieces  of  wood,  antelope  horns, 
eantations  to  its  spirit,  asking  that,  when  it  meets  an  skin  and  feathers  tied  in  little  bundles,  the  possession 
enemy,  it  will  upset  the  canoe  and  destroy  the  occu-  of  which  is  supposed  to  yield  to  the  purchaser  the 
pant.  The  African  believes  that  each  human  soul  has  same  power  over  spirits  as  the  nganaa  himself  enjoys, 
a  certain  span  of  life  due  or  natural  to  it.  It  should  be  The  fetish-man  always  carries  in  his  sack  a  strange 
bom,  grow  up  through  childhood,  youth^  and  man-  assortment  of  articles  out  of  which  he  makes  the 
hood  to  old  aee.  If  this  does  not  happen,  it  is  because  fetishes.  The  flight  of  the  poisonous  arrow,  the  rush 
some  malevolent  influence  has  blighted  it.  Hence  the  of  the  maddened  Duffalo,  or  the  venomous  bite  of  the 
Africans' prayers  to  the  spirits  are  always:  "Leave us  adder,  can  be  averted  by  these  charms;  with  their 
alone!"  Go  away  I"  ''Come  not  into  this  town,  assisttmce  the  waters  of  the  Congo  may  be  safely 
plantation,  house;  we  have  never  injured  you.  Go  crossed.  The  Molokif  ever  ready  to  pounce  on  men, 
away  I"  This  malevolent  influence  which  cuts  short  is  checked  by  the  power  of  the  nganga.  The  eye-teeth 
the  soul-life  may  act  of  itself  in  various  ways,  but  a  of  leopards  are  an  exceedingly  valuable  fetish  on  the 
coercive  witchcraft  may  have  been  at  work.  Hence  Kroo  coast.  The  Kabinda  negroes  wear  on  their  necks 
the  vast  majority  of  deaths — almost  all  deaths  in  a  little  brown  shell  sealed  with  wax  to  preserve  intact 
which  no  trace  of  blood  is  shown — are  held  to  have  the  fetish-medicine  within.  A  fetish  is  anything  that 
been  t>roduced  by  human  beings,  acting  through  attracts  attention  by  its  curious  shape  (e.  g.  an  anchor) 
spirits  in  their  command,  and  from  this  idea  springs  or  by  its  behaviour,  or  anything  seen  in  a  dream,  and 
tne  widespread  belief  in  witches  and  witchcraft.  is  generally  not  shaped  to  represent  the  spirit.  A 
Thus  every  familiar  object  in  the  daily  life  of  these  fetish  may  be  such  oy  the  force  of  its  own  proper 
people  is  touched  with  some  curious  fancy,  and  every  spirit,  but  more  commonly  a  spirit  is  supposed  to  be 
trivial  action  is  regulated  by  a  reference  to  unseen  attracted  to  the  obiect  from  without  (e.  g.  the  suhr 
spirits  who  are  unceasinjgly  watching  an  opportunity  man),  whether  by  the  incantations  of  the  nganga  or 
to  hurt  or  annov  mankmd.  Yet  upon  dose  inspeo-  not.  These  wandering  spirits  may  be  natural  spirits 
tion  the  tenets  of  this  religion  are  vague  and  unformu-  or  ghosts.  The  Melanesians  believe  that  the  souls  of 
lated,  for  with  every  tribe  and  every  district  belief  the  dead  act  through  bones,  while  the  independent 
varies,  and  rites  and  ceremonies  diverge.  The  fetish-  spirits  choose  stones  as  their  mediums  (Brinton,  Re- 
man^/efizero,  n^an^a,  cAi^ri«^  is  the  authority  on  all  *  '  "*  '  **  '  *'  "  '  -«— V  ^,. 
religious  observances.    He  oners  the  expiatory  sacri- 


legious of  Prim.  Peoples,  New  York,  1897).    Ellis  says, 

iTa  man  wants  a  8uhman  (a  fetish),  he  takes  some 

floe  to  the  spirits  to  keep  off  evil .    He  is  credited  with    object  (a  rudely  cut  .wooden  image,  si  stone,  a  root  of  a 


a  controlling  influence  over  the  elements,  winds  and  plant,  or  some  red  earth  placed  in  a  pan),  and  then 

waters  obey  the  waving  of  his  charm,  i.  e.  a  bundle  of  calls  on  a  spirit  of  Saaabonsum  (a  genus  of  deities)  to 

feathers,  or  the  whistle  through  the  magic  antelope  enter  the  object  prepared,  promismg  it  offering  and 

horn.    He  brings  food  for  the^  departed,  prophesies,  worship.    If  a  spirit  consents  to  tsJce  up  its  residence 

and  calls  down  rain.    One  of  his  principal  duties  is  to  in  the  object,  a  low  hissing  sound  is  heard,  and  the 

find  out  evil-doers,  that  is,  persons  who  by  evil  jnagic  8uhman  is  complete. 

have  caused  sickness  or  death.  ^  He  is  the  exorcist  of        Every  house  in  the  Congo  village  has  its  m'ib'sst; 

spirits,  the  maker  of  charms  (i.  e.  fetishes),  the  pre-  they  are  frequently  put  over  the  door  or  brought  in- 

scriber  and  r^ulator  of  ceremonial  rites.    He  can  side,  and  are  supposed  to  protect  the  house  from  fire 

discover  who  '"ate  the  heart"  of  the  chief  who  died  and  robbery.    The  selection  of  the  object  in  which  the 

VQsterday ;  who  caused  the  canoe  to  upset  and  gave  spirit  is  to  reside  is  made  by  the  native  nganga.    The 

Byes  to  the  crocodiles  and  the  dark  waters  of  the  ability  to  conjure  a  free  wandering  spirit  mto  the  nar- 

Gongo;  or  even  "who  blighted  the  palm  trees  of  the  row  limits  of  this  material  object,  and  to  compel  or 

vfllage  and  dried  up  their  sap,  causme  the  supply  of  subordinate  its  power  to  the  service  of  some  desig- 

maiafu  to  cease ;  or  who  drove  away  the  rain  from  a  nated  person  ana  for  a  special  purpose,  rests  with  him. 

district^  and  withheld  its  field  of  ngvba**  (ground-nuts).  The  favourite  articles  used  to  confine  spirits  are  skins 

The  fetish  doctors  can  scarcely  be  said  to  form  a  class,  (especially  tails  of  bushcats),  horns  of  the  antelope,  nut- 

They  have  no  organization,  and  are  honoured  only  in  shells,  snail-shells,  eagles'  daws  and  feathers,  tails  and 

their  own  districts,  unless  they  be  called  specially  to  heads  of  snakes,  stones,  roots,  herbs,  bones  of  any 

minister  in  another  plaoe.^   In  their  ceremonies  they  animal  (e.  g.  small  horns  of  gazelles  or  of  goato),  teetn 

make  the  people  dance,  sine,  play,  beat  drums,  and  and  claws  ofleopards,  but  especially  human  bones — of 

they  spot  their  bodies  with  their  "medicines".    Any-  ancestors  or  of  renowned  men,  but  particulariy  of 

one  may  choose  the  profession  for  himself,  and  large  enemies  or  white  men.    Newly  made  graves  are  rifled 

fees  are  demanded  for  services.  ^  for  them,,  and  among  the  bodily  parts  most  prized  are 

Among  the  natives  on  the  lower  Congo  is  found  the  portions  of  human  skulls,  human  eyeballs,  especially 

ceremony  of  n'kimbaj  i.  e.  the  initiation  of  young^men  those  of  white  men.    But  anything  may  be  chosen — a 

into  the  mysteries  and  rites  of  their  religion.    Every  stick,  string,  bead,  stone,  or  rag  of  cloth.    Apparently 

village  in  this  region  has  its  n'A:im6a  enclosure,  geneiv  there  is  no  limit  to  the  numoer  of  spirits;  there  is 

ally  a  walled-in  tract  of  half  an  acre  in  extent  buried  literally  no  limit  to  the  number  and  character  of  the 

In  a  thick  grove  of  trees.    Inside  the  enclosure  are  the  articles  in  which  they  may  be  confined.    As,  however, 

huts  of  the  nganga  and  his  assistants,  as  well  as  of  the  spirits  may  quit  the  objects,  it  is  not  always  cer- 

tiiose  receiving  instruction.    The  initiated  alone  are  tain  that  fetishes  possess  extraordinary  powers;  they 

permitted  to  enter  the  enclosure,  where  a  new  Ian-  must  be  tried  and  give  proof  of  their  efficiency  before 


FETISHISM                               56  FETISHISM 

the^  can  be  implicitlv  trusted.    Thus,  according  to  fluenoes  by  his  fetishes.    These  are  hung  on  the 

Ellis,  the  natives  of  the  Gold  Coast  put  their  bohsum  plantation  fence,  or  from  the  branches  of  plants  in  the 

in  fire  as  a  probation,  for  the  fire  never  injures  the  true  garden,  either  to  prevent  theft  or  to  sicken  the  thief: 

hohsum.    A  fetish  then,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  over  the  doorway  of  the  house,  to  bar  the  entrance  ot 

is  any  material  object  consecrated  by  the  nganga  or  evil;  from  the  bow  of  the  canoe,  to  ensure  a  successful 

magic  doctor  with  a  variety  of  ceremonies  and  pro-  voyage;  they  are  worn  on  the  arm  in  hunting  to  ensure 

cesses,  bv  virtue  of  which  some  spirit  is  supposed  to  an  accurate  aim;  on  any  part  of  the  person,  to  ^ve 

become  localized  in  that  object,  and  subject  to  the  success  in  loving,  hating,  planting,  fishing,  buymg: 

will  of  the  {possessor.  and  so  through  tJie  whole  range  of  daily  work  ana 

These  objects  are  filled  or  rubbed  by  the  nganga  interests.  Some  kinds,  worn  on  a  bracelet  or  neck- 
with  a  mixture  compounded  of  various  substances,  lace,  ward  ofif  sickness.  The  new-bom  infant  has  a 
selected  according  to  the  special  work  to  be  accom-  health-knot  tied  about  its  neck,  wrist,  or  loins.  Before 
plished  by  the  fetish.  Its  value,  however,  depends  every  house  in  Whydah,  the  seaport  of  Dahomey,  one 
not  on  itself,  nor  solely  on  the  nature  of  t^ese  sub-  may  perceive  a  cone  of  baked  clay,  the  apex  of  which 
stances,  but  on  the  skill  of  the  naanga  in  dealing  with  is  diBcoloured  with  libations  of  palm-oil,  etc.  To  the 
spirits.  ^  Yet  there  is  a  relation,  difficult  sometimes  for  end  of  their  lives  the  people  keep  on  multiplying,  re- 
the  foreigner  to  grasp,  between  the  substances  selected  newing,  or  altering  these  fetishes, 
and  the  object  to  be  attained  by  the  fetish.  Thus,  to  In  fetish-worship  the  African  negro  uses  prayer  and 
eive  the  possessor  bravery  or  strencth,  some  part  of  a  sacrifice.  The  stones  heaped  by  passers-by  at  the  base 
leopard  or  of  an  elephant  is  selected ;  to  give  cimning,  of  some  great  tree  or  rock,  the  leaf  cast  from  a  passing 
some  part  of  a  gazelle;  to  give  wisdom,  some  part  of  canoe  towards  a  point  of  land  on  the  river  bank,  are 
the  human  brain ;  to  give  courage,  a  portion  of  the  heart ;  silent  acknowledgements  of  the  presence  of  the  amb' 
to  give  influence,  some  part  of  the  eye.  These  sub-  mri8  (i.  e.  spirits  of  the  place).  Food  is  offered,  as  also 
stances  are  supposed  to  please  and  attract  some  spirit,  blood-offermgs  of  a  fowl,  a  goat,  or  a  sheep.  Until 
which  is  satisfied  to  reside  in  them  and  to  aid  their  recently  human  sacrifices  were  offered,  e.g.  to  the  sacred 
possessor.  The  fetish  is  compounded  in  secret,  with  crocodSes  of  the  Njger  Delta;  to  the  spirits  of  the  oil- 
the  accompaniment  of  dnuns,  dancing,  invocations,  rivers  on  the  upper  Guinea  coast,  where  annual  sacri- 
iookin^  into  mirrors  or  limpid  water  to  see  faces  human  fices  of  a  maiden  were  made  for  success  in  foreijzn  com- 
or  spiritual,  and  is  packed  into  the  hollow  of  the  shell  merce;  the  thousands  of  captives  killed  at  the  ^annual 
or  bone,  or  smearea  over  the  stick  or  stone.  If  power  custom"  of  Dahomey  for  the  safety  of  the  kin^  and 
over  some  one  be  desired^  the  nganga  must  receive  nation.  In  fetishism  prayer  has  a  part^  but  it  is  not 
crumbs  from  the  food,  clippings  of  the  finger-nails,  prominent,  and  not  often  formal  and  public.  Ejacula- 
some  hair,  or  even  a  drop  of  blocxi  of  the  person,  which  tory  prayer  is  constantly  made  in  the  utterance  of  cab- 
is  mixed  in  the  compound.  So  fearful  are  the  natives  balistic  words,  phrases,  or  sentences  adopted  by,  or 
of  power  being  thus  obtained  over  them,  that  they  assigned  to,  almost  every  one  by  parent  or  doctor, 
have  their  hair  cut  by  a  friend;  and  even  then  it  is  According  to  Ellis  no  coercion  of  the  fetish  is  attempted 
carefully  burned,  or  cast  into  the  river.  If  one  is  on  the  Gk>ld  Coast,  but  Kidd  states  that  the  negro  of 
accidentally  cut,  he  stamps  out  the  blood  that  has  Guinea  beats  his  fetish,  if  his  wishes  are  frustrated, 
drppped  on  the  ground,  or  cuts  away  the  wood  which  and  hides  it  in  nis  waistcloth  when  he  is  about  to  do 
it  has  saturated.                                                        ^  anything  of  which  he  is  ashamed. 

Tlie  African  negro  in  appealing  to  the  fetish  is  The  fetish  is  used  not  only  as  a  preventive  of  or  de- 
prompted  by  fear  alone.  There  is  no  confession,  no  fence  against  evil  (i.  e.  white  art)j  out  also  as  a  means 
love,  rarely  thanks^vioff .  The  being  to  whom  he  ap-  of  offence,  i.  e.  black  art  or  witchcraft  in  the  full  sense, 
peals  is  not  God.  Truenedoesnotdeny  that  God  is;  which  always  connotes  a  possible  taking  of  life.  The 
if  asked,  he  will  acknowledge  His  existence.  Very  half-civilized  negro,  while  repudiating  the  fetish  as  a 
rarely  and  only  in  extreme  emergencies,  however,  black  art,  feels  justified  in  retaining  it  as  a  white  art, 
does  he  make  an  appeal  to  Him,  for  according  to  his  i.  e.  as  a  weapon  of  defence.  Those  who  practise  the 
bdief  God  is  so  far  off,  so  inaccessible,  so  indifferent  black  art  are  all  "wizards*'  or  "witches" — names 
to  human  wants,  that  a  petition  to  Him  would  be  never  given  to  practisers  of  the  white  art.  Tlie  user 
almost  vain.  He  therefore  turns  to  some  one  of  the  of  the  white  art  uses  no  concealment;  a  practitioner  of 
mass  of  spirits  whom  he  believes  to  be  ever  near  and  the  black  art  denies  it,  and  carries  on  its  practice  se- 
observant  of  human  affairs,  in  which,  as  former  cretly.  The  black  art  is  supposed  to  consist  of  evil 
human  beings,  some  of  them  once  haa  part.  He  practices  to  cause  sickness  ana  death.  Its  medicines, 
seeks  not  spiritual,  but  purely  physical,  safety.  A  dances,  and  enchantments  are  also  used  in  the  pro- 
sense  of  moral  and  spiritual  need  is  lost  sight  of,  fessed  innocent  white  art;  the  difference  is  in  the  work 
although  not  quite  eliminated,  for  he  believes  in  a  which  the  spirit  is  entrusted  to  perform.  Not  every 
good  and  a  bad.  But  the  dominant  feeline  is  fear  one  who  uses  white  art  is  able  to  use  also  the  black 
of  possible  n^itural  injury  from  human  or  siH)sidized  art.  Anyone  believing  in  the  fetish  can  use  the  white 
spiritual  enemies.  Tnis  physical  salvation  is  sought  art  without  subjecting  himself  to  the  charge  of 
either  by  prayer,  sacrifice,  and  certain  other  cere-  being  a  wizard.  Only  a  wizard  can  cause  sickness 
monies  rendered  to  the  spirit  of  the  fetish  or  to  or  death.  Hence  witchcraft  belief  includes  witch- 
non-localized  spirits,  or  by  the  use  of  charms  or  amu-  craft  murder. 

lets.  These  charms  may  be  material,  i.  e.  fetishes;  There  exists  in  Bantu  a  society  called  the  ^Witch- 
vocal,  e.  g.  utterances  of  cabbalistic  words  which  are  craft  Company",  whose  members  hold  secret  meetings 
supposed  to  have  power  over  the  local  spirits;  ritual,  at  midnight  in  the  depths  of  the  forest  to  plot  sickness 
e.  g.  prohibited  food,  i.  e,  arunda.  for  which  any  article  or  death.  The  owl  is  their  sacred  bird,  and  their 
of  food  may  be  selected  and  made  sacred  to  the  spirit,  signal-call  is  an  imitation  of  its  hoot.  They  profess  to 
At  night  the  Congo  chief  will  trace  a  slender  line  of  leave  their  corporeal  bodies  asleep  in  their  huts,  and  it 
a^es  round  his  hut,  and  firmly  believe  that  he  has  is  only  their  spirit-bodies  that  attend  the  meeting, 
erected  a  barrier  which  will  protect  him  and  his  till  passing  through  walls  and  over  tree-tops  with  instant 
morning  against  the  attacks  of  the  evil  spirit.  rapidity.    At  the  meeting  they  have  visible,  audible, 

The  Afncan  believes  largely  in  preventive  measures,  and  tangible  communications  with  spirits.   They  have 

and  his  fetishes  are  chiefly  of  this  order.    When  least  feasts,  at  which  is  eaten  "the  heart^life"  of  some 

conscious,  he  may  be  offending  some  spirit  with  power  human  being,  who  through  this  loss  of  his  "heart" 

to  work  him  ill;  he  must  therefore  be  supplied  with  falls  sick  and  dies  unless  the  "heart"  be  restored, 

charms  for  every  season  and  occasion.    Sleeping,  eat-  The  early  cock-crow  is  a  warning  for  them  to  disperse, 

ing,  drinking,  he  must  be  protected  from  hostile  in-  for  they  fear  the  advent  of  the  morning  star,  as,  should 


rsTismsM 


57 


FKTISHXSM 


the  sun  rise  upon  them  before  they  reach  their  cor- 
poreal bodies,  all  their  plans  would  fail  %nd  they  would 
sicken.  They  dread  cayenne  pepper;  should  its 
bruised  leaves  or  pods  be  rubbed  over  their  corporeal 
bodies  during  theu*  absence,  their  spirits  are  unable  to 
re-enter,  andtheir  bodies  die  or  waste  miserably  away. 
This  society  was  introduced  by  black  slaves  to  the 
West  Indies,  e.  g.  Jamaica  and  Hayti,  and  to  the 
Southern  States  as  Voodoo  worship.  Thus  Voodooism 
or  Odoism  is  simply  African  fetishism  transplanted  to 
American  soil.  Authentic  records  are  procurable  of 
midnight  meetings  held  in  Hayti,  as  late  as  1888,  at 
which  human  beings,  especially  children,  were  killed 
and  eaten  at  the  secret  feasts.  European  govern- 
ments in  Africa  have  put  down  the  practice  of  the 
black  art,  yet  so  deeply  is  it  implanted  in  the  belief  of 
the  natives  that  Dr.  pTorris  does  not  hesitate  to  say  it 
would  revive  if  the  whites  were  to  withdraw. 

Fetishism  in  Africa  is  not  only  a  religious  belief;  it 
is  a  system  of  government  and  a  medical  profession, 
although  the  religious  element  is  fundamental  ana 
colours  all  the  rest.  The  fetish-man,  therefore,  is 
priest,  iud^,  and  physician.  To  the  believers  in  the 
fetish  the  filing  of  those  guilty  of  witchcraft  is  a  judi- 
cial act;  it  is  not  murder,  but  execution.  The  fetish- 
man  has  power  to  condemn  to  death.  A  judicial  sys- 
tem does  not  exist.  Whatever  rules  there  are,  are 
handed  down  by  tradition,  and  the  persons  fainiliar 
with  these  old  sayings  and  customs  are  present  in  the 
trial  of  disputed  matters.  Fetishes  are  set  up  to  pun- 
ish offenders  in  certain  cases  where  it  is  considered 
specially  desirable  to  make  the  law  operative  though 
the  crimes  cannot  be  detected  (e.  g.  theft).  The  fe- 
tish is  supposed  to.be  able  not  only  to  detect  but  to 
punish  the  transgressor.  In  cases  of  death  the  charge 
of  witchcraft  is  made,  and  the  relatives  seek  a  fetish- 
man,  who  emplovs  the  ordeal  by  poison,  fire  or  other 
tests  to  detect  the  guilty  person.  Formerly  tnhtvave 
(i.  e.  ordeal  by  poison)  was  performed  by  giving  to  tne  • 
accused  a  poisonous  drink,  the  accuser  also  having  to 
take  the  test  to  prove  their  sincerity.  If  he  vomited 
immediately  he  was  innocent;  if  he  was  ^own  guilty, 
the  accusers  were  the  executioners.  On  the  upper 
coast  of  Guinea  the  test  is  a  solution  of  the  sassa- 
wood,  and  is  called  **  red  water";  at  Calabar,  the  solu- 
tion of  a  bean;  in  the  Gabun  country,  of  the  akazya 
leaf  or  bark;  farther  south  in  the  Nkami  country,  it  is 
called  mbundu.  The  distinction  between  poison  and 
•fetish  is  vague  in  the  minds  of  many  natives,  to  whom 
poison  is  only  another  material  form  of  a  fetish  power. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  for  every  natural  death  at 
least  one — and  often  ten  or  more — has  been  executed. 

The  judicial  aspect  of  fetishism  is  reveaJed  most 
plaipl^  in  the  secret  societies  (male  and  female)  of 
crushmg  power  and  far-reaching  influence,  which  be- 
fore the  advent  of  the  white  man  were  the  court  of  last 
appeal  for  individual  and  tribal  disputes.  Of  this 
kind  were  the  Egbo  of  the  Niger  Delta,  Ukuku  of  the 
Corisco  region,  Yasi  of  the  Ogow4,  M'wetyi  of  the  She- 
kani,  Bweti  of  the  Bakele,  Inda  and  NjfimbS  of  the 
Mpongwe,  Ukuku  and  Malinda  of  the  Batanga  region. 
AU  of  these  societies  had  for  their  primary  object  the 
laudable  one  of  government,  and,  for  this  purpose, 
they  fostered  the  superstitious  dread  with  wnich  the 
fetish  was  regarded  bv  the  natives.  But  the  arbitrary 
means  employed  in  their  management,  the  oppressive 
influences  at  work,  the  false  representations  indulged 
in,  made  them  almost  all  evil.  They  still  exist  among 
the  interior  tribes;  on  the  coast,  they  have  either 
been  entirely  suppressed  or  exist  only  for  amusement 
(e.  g.  Ukuku  in  Gabun),  or  as  a  traditional  custom 
(e.  g.  Njfimb^).  The  Ukuku  society  claimed  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  country.  To  put  "Ukuku  on  the 
white  man"  meant  to  boycott  him,  i.  e.  that  no  one 
should  work  for  him,  no  one  should  sell  food  or  drink 
to  him;  he  was  not  allowed  to  go  to  his  own  spring.  In 
Dahomey  the  fetish-priests  are  a  kind  of  secret  police 


for  the  despotic  king.  Thus,  while  witchcraft  was  the 
religion  of  the  natives,  these  societies  constituted  their 
government. 

Although  sickness  is  spoken  of  among  the  natives  as 
a  disease,  yet  the  patient  is  said  to  be  sick  because  of 
an  evil  spirit,  and  it  is  believed  that  when  this  is 
driven  out  by  the  magician's  benevolent  spirit,  the 
patient  will  recover.  When  the  heathen  negro  is  sick, 
the  first  thing  is  to  call  the  "doctor"  to  find  out  what 
spirit  by  invadiag  the  body  has  caused  the  sickness. 
The  diagnosis  is  made  by  drum,  dance,  frenzied  song, 
mirror,  fumes  of  drugs,  consultation  of  relics,  and  con- 
versation with  the  spirit  itself.  Next  must  be  decided 
the  ceremony  pecuhar  to  that  spirit,  the  vegetable  and 
mineral  substances  supposed  to  be  either  pleasing  or 
offensive  to  it.  If  these  cannot  be  obtained,  the  pa- 
tient must  die.  The  witch-doctor  believes  that  nis 
incantations  have  subsidized  the  power  of  a  spirit, 
which  forthwith  enters  the  body  of  the  patient  and, 
searching  throu^  its  vitals,  drives  out  the  antagoniz- 
ing spirit  which  is  the  supposed  actual  cause  of  the  dis- 
ease. The  nkinda,  "the  spirit  of  disease",  is  then 
confined  by  the  doctor  in  a  prison,  e.  g.  in  a  section  of 
sugar-cane  stalk  with  its  leaves  tied  together.  The 
component  parts  of  any  fetish  are  regarded  by  the  na- 
tives as  we  resard  the  drugs  of  our  materia  medica. 
Their  drugs,  however,  are  esteemed  operative  not 
through  certain  inherent  chemical  qualities,  but  in 
consequence  of  the  presence  of  the  spirit  to  whom  they 
are  favourite  media.  This  spirit  is  induced  to  act  by 
the  pleasing  enchantments  of  the  magic-doctor.  T^te 
ngangaf  as  surgeon  and  physician,  shows  more  than 
considerable  skill  in  extracting  bullets  from  wounded 
warriors,  and  in  the  knowledge  of  herbs  as  poisons 
and  antidotes. 

Whether  the  black  slaves  brought  to  America  the 
okraor  found  it  already  existing  on  the  continent  is 
uncertain,  but  the  term  aumbo  is  undoubtedly  of  Afri- 
can origin,  as  also  is  the  term  mbenda  (peanuts  or 
ground-nuts),  corrupted  into  pindar  in  some  of  the 
Southern  States.  The  folk-lore  of  the  African  slave 
survives  in  Uncle  Remus's  tales  of  "Br'er  Rabbit". 
Br'er  Rabbit  is  an  American  substitution  for  Brother 
Nja  (Leopard)  or  Brother  IhUi  (Gazelle)  in  Paia 
N'jambt'8  (the  Creator's)  council  of  speaking  animals. 
Jevons  holds  that  fetishes' are  private  only,  although, 
in  fact,  not  only  individuals,  but  families  and  inbea 
have  fetishes.  The  fetish  DetUe  at  Krakje  and  Atia 
Yaw  of  Okwaou  were  known  and  feared  for  leagues 
around.  In  the  Benga  tribe  of  West  Africa  the  uun- 
ily  fetish  is  known  by  the  name  of  YOkd.  It  is  a 
bundle  of  the  parts  of  bodies  of  their  dead,  i.  e.  first 
joints  of  fingers  and  toes,  lobe  of  ear,  hair.  Tlie  value 
of  YakA  depends  on  the  spirits  of  the  family  dead  being 
associated  with  the  portions  of  llieir  bodies,  and  this 
combination  is  effected  by  the  prayer  and  incantation 
of  the  doctor.  The  Yiucd,  is  appealed  to  in  family 
emergencies,  e.  g.  disease,  death,  when  ordinary  fe- 
tishes fail.  This  rite  is  very  expensive  and  may  require 
a  month,  during  which  time  all  work  is  suspended. 

The  observances  of  fetish-worship  fade  away  into 
the  customs  and  habits  of  everyday  me  by  gradations, 
so  that  in  some  of  the  superstitious  beliefs,  while  there 
inay  be  no  formal  handhng  of  a  fetish  amulet  contain- 
ing a  spirit  nor  actual  prayer  nor  sacrifice,  neverthe- 
less spiritism  is  the  thought  and  is  more  or  less  con- 
sciously held,  and  consequently  the  term  fetish  might 
perhaps  be  extended  to  them.  The  superstition  of 
the  African  negro  is  different  from  that  of  the  Chris- 
tian, for  it  is  the  practical  and  logical  applicatiom  of 
his  religion.  To  the  Christian  it  is  a  pitiful  weakness : 
to  the  negro,  a  trusted  belief.  Thus  some  birds  and 
beasts  are  of  ill  omen,  others  of  good  omen.  The 
mournful  hooting  of  an  owl  at  midnight  is  a  warning  of 
death,  and  all  who  hear  the  call  will  hasten  to  the 
wood  and  drive  away  the  messenger  of  ill-tidings  with 
sticks  and  stones.    Hence  arises  the  belief  in  the 


nUABDENT 


58 


nXJDALISM 


power  of  Ngai^  Mohhi,  N'doshi  or  Uvengwa  (i.  e., 
evil-spirited  leopard,  like  the  German  werewolf);  viz., 
that  certain  possessors  of  evil  spirits  have  ability  to 
assume  the  guise  of  an  animal,  and  reassume  at  will 
the  human  form.  To  this  superstition  must  be  referred 
the  reverence  shown  fetish  leopards,  hippopotami, 
crocodiles,  sokos  (large  monkeys  of  the  gorilla 
type). 

(See  Amulet,  Animism,  Deitt,  Idolatry,  Magic, 
Naturism,  Religion,  Spiritism,  Totkmism,  Shaman- 
ism, Symbolism.) 

Brinton,  The  Rdtaiona  of  Primitive  Peaplee  (New  York, 
1897);  Elijb.  The  TahuemxJcinaPeoples  of  the  Oold  Coast  of  W. 
Africa  (London,  1887):  Idbm,  The  Yomba^-epeakino  Peomea  of 
the  Slave-Coast  of  W,  Africa  (London,  1894);  Fabnbll,  Evolw 
Hon  of  Rdipion  (London  and  New  York,  1905);  Haddon,  Magic 
and  Petichtam  in  Rdigione^  Ancient  and  Modem  (London.  1906): 
H5FPDINO,  The  Philosophy  of  Religion,  tr.  Mbtba  (London  ana 
New  York,  1906);  Jbvonb,  introduction  to  Study  of  Comparative 
Religion  (New  York.  1908);  Kblloq,  Genesis  cmd  Orowth  of  R^ 
ligion  (London  and  New  York,  1892);  Kidd,  The  Essential 
Kaffir  (London,  '1904);  Kingslbt,  Travels  in  West  Africa 
(London,  1898);  Idbm,  West  African  Studies  (U)ndon,  1899); 
Lbppbrt,  DuL^Rdwionafi  der  europAtscAen  CtUturvdlker  (Berlin, 
1881);  MOLLBiLJVaiuraZAefHnon  (London,  1892);  Idbk.  Ori^n 
and  Cfrowth  of  Religion  (London,  1878);  Norrzb,  Petichism  in 
W.  Africa  (New  York.  1904);  Scrultzb,  Psychologie  der 
Naturvdlker  (Leipxig,  19()0);  Spbncbr  St.  John,  Hayti  and  the 
Black  Republic  (2d  ed.,  London,  1889);  Ttlor,  Primitive  Cut- 
ture  (2d  ed.,  London,  1873);  Wil80N,  Western  Africa  (New 
York,  1856):  AiiBB,  African  Petichism  (Hdi  Chatdam)  in  Folk- 
Lore  (Oct..  Dec.,  1894);  Glau.  Fdichiam  in  Congo  Land  In  Cen- 
tury (April,  1891);  Kingslbt,  The  Fdich  View  of  the  Human 
Soul  in  Foik-Lore  (June,  1897);  NtprasLBT,  Petidt  Paith  in  W. 
Africa  in  Pop.  Sc  Monthly  (Oct.,  1887);  Lb  Rot,  La  rdigion 
dea  primitife  (Paris,  1909). 

John  T.  Driscoll. 

Feuardenty  Fran{;oi8,  Franciscan,  theologian  and 
preacher  of  the  Ligue,  b.  at  Coutanoes,  Normandy,  in 
1539;  d.  at  Paris,  1  Jan.,  1610.  Having  completed 
his  humanities  at  Ba^euz,  he  joined  the  Friars 
Minor.  After  the  novitiate,  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to 
continue  his  studies,  where  he  received  (1576)  the  de- 
gree of  Doctor  in  Theologr  and  taudit  with  great  suc- 
cess at  the  university.  He  took  a Teadingpart  in  the 
political  and  religious  troubles  in  which  France  was 
mvolved  at  that  time.  With  John  Boucher  and 
Bishop  Rose  of  Senlis,  he  was  one  of  the  foremost 
preachers  in  the  cause  of  the  Catholic  Ligue,  and,  as 
Koennus  remarks  in  an  appendix  to  Feuardent's 
'"Theomachia",  there  was  not  a  church  in  Paris  in 
which  he  had  not  preached.  Throughout  France  and 
beyond  the  frontiers  in  Lorraine  and  Flanders,  he  was 
an  eloquent  and  ardent  defender  of  the  Faith.  Never- 
theless, even  Pierre  de  r£toile,  a  fierce  adversary  of 
the  Lisue,  recognizes  in  his  **  M^moires"  the  merits  of 
Feuardent's  subsequent  efforts  in  pacifying  the  coun- 
try. In  his  old  age  he  retired  to  the  convent  of 
Bayeux,  which  he  restored  and  furnished  with  a  good 
library.  His  works  can  be  conveniently  eroup^  in 
three  classes:  (1)  Scriptural;  (2)  patristicai;  (3)  con- 
troversial. Only  some  of  the  most  remarkable  may 
be  pointed  out  here.  (1)  A  new  edition  of  the  medie- 
val Scripturist,  Nicholas  of  Lyra:  ''Biblia  Sacra,  cum 
gloss&  ordinariA  .  .  .  et  postill&  Nicolai  Lyrani'' 
(Paris,  1590,  6  vols.  fol.).  He  also  wrote  commen- 
taries on  various  books  of  Holy  Scripture,  viz  on  Ruth, 
Esther,  Job,  Jonas,  the  two  Epistles  of  St.  Peter,  the 
Epistles  of  St.  Jude  and  St.  James,  the  Epistle  of 
St.  Paul  to  Philemon,  and  others.  (2)  ''S.  Irensi 
Lugd.  episcopi  adversus  Valentini  .  .  .  hsereses  libri 
quinque''  (Paris,  1576);  "S.  Ildephonsi  archiepiscopi 
Toletani  de  virginitate  Marian  liber''  (Paris,  1576). 
Feuardent  also  wrote  an  introduction  and  notes  to 
''Mjchaelis  Pselli  Dialogus  de  enerei&  sen  operatione 
dsemonum  translatus  a  retro  MoreUo"  (Pans,  1577). 
(3)  "Appendix  ad  libros  Alphonsi  a  Castro  (O.F.M.) 
contra  hiereses''  (Paris,  1578).  "Theomachia  Calvi- 
nistica",  his  chief  work  is  based  on  some  earlier  writ- 
ings, such  as:  "Semaine  premiere  des  dialogues  aux- 
quels  sont  examinees  et  r^f  ut^s  174  erreurs  des  Calvi- 
nistes"  (1585);  "Seconde  semaine  des  dialogues  ..." 


(Paris,   1598);  "Entremangeries  et  guerres  tniniSi* 
trales  .  .  .  '^  (Caen,  1601). 

FtRvr,  La  FabulUde  Thiologie  de  Paris  et  ees  doeteura  les  plua 
eSUbres  (Purii.  1900),  II,  244-254;  Waddimo-Sbaralsa.  Scrip- 
tores  Orainis  Minorum,  ed.  Nardbcchia,  I  (Rome.  1906).  80 
■q.{  II  (1908),  268  sq.;  Joannes  a  S.  Antonio,  Bibliolheca 
untversa,  I,  383;  Weinano  in  Kirchenlex,,  a.  v^  (jaudenttub, 
BeitrAge  gur  KirchengeschichU  des  XVL  und  XVIL  Jahrhunderts 
(Bosen,  1880),  102-104;  Hustbr,  Nomendaior,  lS6lf~166S,  p.  167. 

LiYABins  Oligbr. 

Feachtersleben,  Baron  Ernst  yon,  an  Austrian 
poet,  philosopher,  and  physician;  b.  at  Vienna,  29 
April,  1806;  d.  3  September,  1849.  After  completing 
his  course  at  the  Theresian  Academy,  he  took  up  the 
study  of  medicine  in  1825,  receiviz^  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Medicine  in  1833.  In  1844  he  be^n  a  series 
of  free  lectures  on  psychiatry  at  the  University  of 
Vienna,  the  next  year  became  dean  of  the  medical 
faculty^  and  in  1847  was  made  vice-director  of  medico- 
chirui^gical  studies.  In  July,  1848,  he  was  appointed 
under -secretary  of  state  in  the  ministry  of  public 
instruction,  and  in  this  capacity  he  attempted  to 
introduce  some  important  reforms  in  the  system  of 
education,  but,  discouraged  by  the  difficulties  which  he 
encountered,  he  resigned  in  December  of  the  follow- 
ing year.  As  a  medico-philosophical  writer,  Feuchters- 
leben  attained  great  popularity,  especially  through  his 
book  "Zur  Diatetik  der  Seele'^'  (Vienna,  1838),  which 
went  through  many  editions  (46th  in  1896).  Hardly 
less  famous  is  his  "Lehrbuch  der  &rztlichen  Seelen- 
kunde"  (Vienna,  1845),  translated  into  English  by  H. 
Evans  Lloyd  under  the  title  of  "Principles  of  Medical 
Psychology"  (revised  and  edited  by  B.  G.  Babington, 
London,  1847).  He  also  wrote  an  essay,  "Die  Ge- 
wissheit  und  Wtlrde  der  Heilkunst>"  (Vienna,  1839),  a 
new  edition  of  which  appeared  under  the  title  "  Aerzte 
und  Publikum"  (Vienna,  1845).  As  a  poet  Feuch- 
tersleben  is  chiefly  known  by  the  well-known  song,  "  Es 
ist  bestimmt  in  Gottes  Rat^',  whic^  appeared  in  "Ge- 
*dichte''  (Stutt^irt,  1836)  and  was  set  to  music  by 
Mendelssohn.  His  later  poems  are  more  philosophi- 
cal and  critical.  His  essays  and  other  prose  writings 
were  published  under  the  title  "  Beitr&^  zur  Littera- 
tur-,  jKunst-  und  Lebenstheorie"  (Vienna,  1837-41). 
His  complete  works  (exclusive  of  his  medical  writings) 
were  edited  by  Friedrich  Hebbel  (7  vols.,  Vienna, 
1851-53). 

0>nsult  the  autobioflraphy  prefixed  to  the  above-mentioned 
edition;  also  Nbckxr,  Ernst  v.  Feuchtersleben.  der  Freund  OriU- 
porters  in  Jahrbwh  der  QriUparxer^esdlschaft,  III  (Vienna, 
18^"' 


L893). 


Arthur  F.  J.  Remt. 


Feudalism.— -This  term  is  derived  from  the  Old 
Aryan  pe^ku^  hence  Sanskrit  vagUf  "cattle";  so  also 
Lat.  pecus  (cf .  pecunia) ;  Old  High  German  fehu,  fihu, 
"cattle",  "property",  " money 'VOld  Frisian  fia;  Old 
Saxon  fenu;  Old  English  feoh,  fiohy  feo,  fee.  It  is  an 
indefinable  word,  for  it  represents  the  progressive 
development  of  European  or^nization  during  seven 
centuries.  Its  roots  go  back  mto  the  social  conditions 
of  primitive  peoples,  and  its  branches  stretch  out 
through  military,  political,  and  judicial  evolution  to 
our  own  day.  Still,  it  can  so  far  be  brought  within 
the  measurable  compass  of  a  definition  it  sufficient 
allowance  be  made  for  its  double  aspect.  For  feudal- 
ism (like  every  other  systematic  arran^ment  of  civil 
and  religious  forces  in  a  state)  comprises  duties  and 
ri^ts,  according  as  it  is  looked  at  irom  a  central  or 
local  point  of  view.  (1)  As  reeards  the  duties  in- 
volved in  it,  feudalism  may  be  denned  as  a  contractual 
system  by  which  the  nation  as  represented  by  the  king 
lets  its  lands  out  to  individuals  who  pay  rent  by  doing 
governmental  work  not  merely  in  the  shape  of  military 
service,  but  also  of  suit  to  the  king's  court.  Origin- 
ally indeed  it  beean  as  a  military  system.  It  was  in 
imitation  of  the  later  Roman  Empire,  which  met  the 
Germanic  inroads  by  grants  of  lands  to  individuals  on 


nUDALiSM  59  FEUDALISM 

eondition  of  military  Bervioe   (Palgrave,   "English  {ager  pubUcus)  got  manonalized  by  grants  partly  to 

OommonwcMEdth  *\  1, 360. 495,  505),  that  the  Cariovin-  free  veterans  (as  at  Colchester  in  EnMand).  partly  to 

gian  Empire  adopted  tne  same  expjedient.    By  this  Usti — a  semi-servile  dass  of  conquered  peoples  (as  the 

means  the  ninth-oentnry  Danish  raids  were  opposed  Germans  in  England  under  Marcus  Antonius),  paying 

by  a  semi-professional  army,  better  armed  and  more  besides  the  tributum  soli,  manual  service  m  kind 

tactically  ef&cient  tlian  the  old  Germanic  levy.    This  (sordida  munera).    Even  in  the  Roman  towns,  by  the 

method  of  forming  a  standing  national  force  by  grants  same  process,  the  urban  landlords  (cttrialeB)  became 

of  lands  to  individuals  is  perfectly  normal  in  nistory,  debased  into  the  manufacturing  population  (coUe- 

witness  the  Turkish  tCmar  fiefs  (Cambridee  Modem  giatt).    In  a  word,  the  middle  class  disappeared;  the 

History^  I,  iii,  99, 1902),  the  fief  de  aaudie  of  the  East-  empire  was  split  into  two  opposing  forces:  an  aristo- 

em  Latm  Kingdoms  (Br^hier,  "  L'Edise  et  rOrient  au  craticb 


^_ ^ ,  bureaucracy  and  a  servile  labouring  population. 

moyen  Age",  I^aris,  1907,  iv,  94),  and,  to  a  certain  ex-  Over  the  Roman  Empire  thus  organized  poured  the 

tent,  the  Welsh  uchdwyr  (Rhys  and  Jones,  ''The  Teutonic  flood,  and  these  barbarians  had  also  their 

Welsh  People",  London,  1900,  vi,  205).  On  the  whole,  organization,  rude  and  changeful  though  it  might  be. 

feudalism   means   government    by   amateurs    paid  According  to  Tacitus  (Gennania),  the  Germans  were 

in  land,  rather  than  professionals  paid  in  money,  divided  into  some  forty  civitaUSf  or  pofndi,  or  folks. 

Hence,  as  we  shall  see,  one  cause  of  the  downfall  of  Some  of  these,  near  the  Roman  borders,  lived  under 

feudalism  was  the      •     -   ••       •  •         '    -'  '  •  .y-  x_  j 

civil  life  of  the 
Feudalism,  therefore, 

with  governmental  work,  went  a  Targe  wav 'towards  consisted  in  common  religious  rites.    The  pojndus  or 

solving  that  ever-present  difficulty  of  the  fandnques-  civitas,  on  the  other  hana.  was  a  political  unity.    It 

tion;  not,  indeed,  ov  any  real  erystem  of  land-national-  was  divided  into  pagt,  each  pagi^  oein^  apparently  a 

isation,  but  by  inducing  lords  to  do  work  for  the  jurisdictional  limit,  probably  meeting  m  a  court  over 

country  in  return  for  the  ri^t  of  possessing  landed  which  a  vrinceps,  elected  by  the  folk-moot,  presided, 

property.    ThuB  ^radusdly  it  approximated  to,  and  but  in  wnich  the  causes  were  decided  by  a  body  of 

r^fized,  the  political  ideal  of  Aristotle,  "  Private  pos-  freemen  usually  numbering  about  a  hundred.   Parallel 

session  and  common  use''  (Politics,  II,  v,  1263,  a).  To  with  the  pagtts^  according  to  Tacitiis  (Germania,  xii), 

a  certain  extent,  therefore,  feudalism  still  exists,  re-  though  in  realitv  probably  a  division  of  it,  was  the 

maining  as  the  great  justification  of  modem  land-  mcti^,  an  agricultiural  unit.    This  vicus  was  (though 

owners  wherever — as  sheriffs,  justices  of  the  peace,  Seebohm,  '"English  Historical  Review",  July,  1892, 

etc. — thev  do  unpaid  governmental  work.     (2)  As  441  465,  thought  not)  represented  in  two  types  (1)  the 

regards  the  rights  it  creates,  feudalism  may  be  de^  dependent  village,  consisting  of  the  lord's  house  aiid 

fined  as  a  "graduated  system  based  on  land-tenure  in  cottages  of  his  subordinates  (perhaps  the  relics  of  in- 

which  everv  lord  judged,  taxed,  and  commanded  the  digenous  conquered  peoples)  who  paid  rent  in  kind, 

dass  next  below  him  '  (Stubbs,  "Constitutional  His-  com,  cattle,  (2)  the  free  village  of  scattered  houses, 

tory",  Oxford,  1897,  L  ix,  278).    One  result  of  this  each'^with  its  separate  enclosure.    Round  this  village 

was  that,  whenever  a  Ctiarter  of  Liberties  was  wrung  stretched  great  meadows  on  which  the  villagers  pas- 

by  the  baronage  from  ^e  king,  the  latter  alwa]^  num-  tured  their  cattle.   Eveiy  year  a  piece  of  new  land  was 

aged  to  have  nis  concessions  to  his  tenants-in-chief  set  apart  to  be  plou^ed,  of  which  each  villager  got  a 

paralleled  by  their  concessions  to  their  lower  vassals  share  proportioned  to  his  official  position  in  the  com- 

(cf.  Stubbs,  "Select  Charters",  Oxford,  1900,  §4,  101;  munity.     It  was  the  amal^unation  of  these  two 

§60,    304).    Another  more  serious,  less  beneficent,  systems  that  pr6duced  feuduism. 
result  was  that,  while  feudalism  centrally  converted        But  here,  precisely  a^  to  the  relative  preponderance 

the  sovereign  into  a  landowner,  it  locally  converted  of  the  Germanic  and  Roman  systems  in  manorial 

the  landowner  into  a  sovereign.   ^  feudalism,  the  discussion  still  continues.    The  ques- 

Oriqin. — ^The  source  of  feudalism  arises  from  an  tion  turns  to  a  certain  extent  on  the  view  taken  ot  the 
interminding  of  barbarian  usage  and  Roman  law  character  of  the.  Germanic  inroads.  The  defenders  of 
(Maine.  Ancient  Law",  London,  1906,  ix).  To  ex-  Roman  preponderance  depict  these  movements  as 
plain  tnis  reference  must  be  made  to  a  change  that  mere  raios,  producing  indeed  much  material  damage, 
passed  over  the  Roman  Empire  at  the  beginning  of  but  in  reality  not  altering  the  race  or  institutions  of 
the  fourth  century.  About  that  date  Diocletian  re-  the  Romanized  peoples.  Tlieir  opponents,  however, 
oiganized  the  Empire  by  the  establishment  of  a  hu^  speak  of  these  mcursions  rather  as  people-wander- 
bureaucracy,  at  tne  same  time  disabling  it  by  his  ings — of  warriors^  women  and  children,  cattle,  even, 
crushing  taxation.  The  obvious  result  was  the  de-  and  slaves — ^inddibly  stamping  and  moulding  the  in- 
pression  of  free  classes  into  unfree,  and  the  barbarizsr  stitutions  of  the  race  which  they  encountered.  The 
tion  of  the  empire.  Before  a.  d.  300  the  absentee  same  discussion  focuses  round  the  medieval  manor, 
landlord  farmed  his  land  by  means  of  a  famUiaruslica  which  is  best  seen  in  its  English  form.  The  old  theory 
or  gang  of  slaves,  owned  by  him  as  his  own  transfei^  was  that  the  manor  was  the  same  as  the  Teutonic 
able  property,  though  others  might  till  their  fields  by  mark,  plus  the  intrusion  of  a  lord  (Stubbs,  "Constitu- 
hired  labour.  Two  causes  extended  and  intensified  tional  Histoiy",  Oxford,  1897,  I,  32-71).  This  was 
this  organized  slave-system:  (1)  Imperial  legislation  attacked  by  Fustel  de  Coulan^  (Histoire  des  institu- 
that  two-thirds  of  a  man's  wealth  must  be  in  land,  so  tions  politiques  de  I'ancienne  Prance,  Paris,  1901)  and 
as  to  set  free  hoarded  specie  and  prevent  attempts  to  by  Seebohm  (The  English  Villa^  Community,  Lon- 
hide  wealth  and  so  escape  taxation.  Hence  land  be-  don,  1883,  viii,  252-316),  who  msisted  on  a  Latin 
came  the  medium  of  exchange  instead  of  monev,  i.  e.  ancestry  from  the  Roman  villa,  contending  for  a  de- 
land  was  held  not  by  rent,  but  by  service.  (2)  The  velopment  not  from  fr^dom  to  serfdom,  but  from 
pressure  of  taxation  falling  on  land  (tributum  8ol%)  slavery  through  serfdom  to  freedom.  The  arguments 
loroed  smaller  proprietors  to  put  themselves  under  of  the  Latin  ^hool  may  be  thus  summarized:  (1)  the 
their  rich  neighbours,  who  paid  the  tax  for  them,  but  "mark''  is  a  figment  of  the  Teutonic  brain  (cf.  Mur- 
for  whom  they  were  accordingly  obliged  to  perform  ray's  "Oxford  English  Dictionary",  s.  v.,  167;  "mark 
service  ((^quium)  in  work  and  kind.  Thus  they  moot"  probablv  means  "a  pardey  bed").  (2)  Early 
became  tied  to  the  soil  (ascripti  glebce),  not  transfer-  German  law  is  based  on  assumption  of  private  owner- 
able  dependents.  Over  them  the  lord  had  powers  of  ship.  (3)  Analogies  of  &f aine  and  others  from  India 
correction,  not,  apparentlv,  of  jurisdiction.  ana  Russia  not  to  the  point.    (4)  Romanized  Britons, 

Meanwhile  tne  slaves  tnemselves  had  become  also  for  example,  in  south-eastern  Britain  had  complete 

tenitoria],  and  not  personal.   Further,  the  public  land  manorial  system  before  the  Saxons  came  from  Ger- 


fStmALiSM 


60 


FEUDALISM 


many. — ^They  are  thus  answered  by  the  Teutonic 
School  (Elton.  Eng.  Hist.  Rev..  July,  1886;  Vinogra- 
doflf,  "Growth  of  the  Manor'',  London,  1905,  87; 
Maitland,  "Domesday  Book  and  Beyond",  Cam- 
bridge, 1897,  222,  232,  327,  337):  (1)  the  name  mark 
may  not  be  applied  in  England,  but  the  thing  existed. 
(2)  It  is  not  denied  that  there  are  analogies  between 
the  Roman  vill  and  the  later  manor,  but  analogies  do 
not  necessarily  prove  derivation;  (3)  The  manor  was 
not  an  agricultural  unit  only,  it  was  also  judicial.  If 
the  manor  originated  in  the  Roman  vill,  which  was 
composed  of  a  servile  population,  how  came  it  that  the 
suitors  to  the  court  were  also  judges?  or  that  villagers 
had  common  rights  over  waste  land  as  against  their 
lord?  or  that  the  community  was  represented  in  the 
hundred  cotu-t  by  four  men  and  its  reeve?  (4)  See- 
bohm's  evidence  is  almost  entirely  drawn  from  the 
position  of  villas  and  villeins  on  the  demesnes  of  kin^, 
great  ecclesiastical  bodies,  or  churchmen.  Such  vil- 
la^ were  admittedly  dependent.  (5)  Most  of  the 
evidence  comes  throueh  the  tainted  source  of  Norman 
and  French  lawyers  ^o  were  inclined  to  see  serfdom 
even  where  it  did  not  exist.  On  the  whole,  the  latest 
writers  on  feudalism^  taking  a  legal  point  of  view, 
incline  to  the  Teutomc  School. 

Causes. — ^The  same  cause  that  produced  in  the  later 
Roman  Empire  the  disappearance  of  a  middle  class 
and  the  confronted  lines  of  bureaucracy  and  a  servile 
popiUation,  operated  on  the  teutonized  Latins  and 
latinized  Teutons  to  develop  the  complete  system  of 
feudalism. 

(1)  Taxation,  whether  by  means  of  feormrfvUuin. 
danegelif  or  gabeUe,  forced  the  poorer  man  to  commend 
himself  to  a  lord.  The  lord  paid  the  tax,  but  de- 
manded in  exchange  conditions  of  service.  The  ser- 
vice-doing dependent  therefore  was  said  to  have  "  taken 
his  land"  to  a  lord  in  payment  for  the  taxj  which  land 
the  lord  restored  to  him  to  be  held  in  fief,  and  this 
(i.  e.  land  held  in  fief  from  a  lord)  is  the  germ-cell  of 
feudalism. 

(2)  Another,  and  more  outstanding,  cause  was  the 
royal  grant  of  folo-land.  Around  tl^is,  too,  historians 
at  one  time  ranged  in  disputje.  The  older  view  was 
that  folo-land  was  simply  private  land,  the  authorita- 
tive possession  of  which  was  based  upon  the  witness  of 
the  people  as  opposed  to  the  b6k-land,  with  its  written 
title  deeds.  But  in  1830  John  Allen  (Rise  and  Growth 
of  Royal  Prerogative)  tried  to  show  that  folc-land  was 
in  reality  publicproperty,  national,  waste,  or  unappro- 
priated land.  His  tneory  was  that  all  land-books  (con- 
veyances of  land)  made  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings 
were  simply  thefts  from  the  national  demesne,  made 
for  the  benefit  of  the  king,  his  favourites,  or  the 
Chureh.  The  land-book  was  an  ecclesiastical  instru- 
ment introduced  by  the  Roman  missionaries,  first  used 
by  that  zealous  convert,  Ethelbert  of  Kent,  though 
not  becoming  common  till  the  ninth  century.  Allen 
based  his  theory  on  two  grounds:^  (a)  the  kmg  occa- 
sionally  hooka  land  to  himself,  which  could  not  there- 
fore have  been  his  before;  (b)  the  assent  of  the 
Witan  was  necessary  to  grants  of  folc-land^  which, 
therefore,  was  regarded  as  a  national  possession.  To 
this  Professor  Vmogradoff  (Eng.  Hist.  Rev.,  Jan., 
1893,  1-17)  made  answer:  (a)  tnat  even  the  village 
knew  nothing  of  common  ownership,  and  that  & 
fortiori  the  wnole  nation  would  not  have  had  such  an 
idea;  (b)  that  the  king  in  his  charters  nev^r  speaks  of 
terram  gentia  but  terrain  juris  aui;  (c)  that  the  land 
thus  conveyed  away  is  often  expressly  described  as 
being  inhabited,  cultivated,  etc.,  and  therefore  cannot 
have  been  unappropriated  or  waste  land.  Finally, 
Ptofessor  Maitland  (Domesday  Book  and  Beyond, 
Cambridge,  1897,  244)  clearly  explains  what  hap- 
pened, by  distinguishing  two  sorts  of  ownership, 
economic  and  political.  Economic  ownership  is  the 
right  to  share  in  the  agricultural  returns  of  the  land, 
as  does  the  modem  landlord,  etc.   Political  ownership 


is  the  right  to  the  judicial  returns  from  the  soil — 
ownership,  therefore,  in  the  sense  of  governing  it  or 
exercising  jurisdiction  over  it.  By  the  land-b6k,  there- 
fore, land  was  handed  over  to  be  owned,  not  economi- 
cally, but  politically ;  and  the  men  suin^  on  the  courts 
of  justice,  paying  toU,  etc.,  .directed  their  fines,  not  to 
the  royal  exchequer,  but  to  the  newly-intruded  lord, 
who  thus  possessed  suzerainty  and  its  fiscal  results. 
In  consequence  the  local  lord  received  the  privilege  of 
the  feorm-ftiUuin,  or  right  to  be  entertained  for  one 
night  or  more  in  progress.  So,  too,  in  Ireland,  tfll  the 
seventeenth  century^  the  chieftains  enioyed  "coigne 
and  livery"  of  their  tribesmen;  and  m  medieval 
France  there  was  the  lord 's  droit  de  gHe,  This  land-tax 
in  kind,  not  unnaturally,  helped  in  villeinizing  the 
freemen.  Moreover  the  king  surrendered  to  the  new 
lord  the  profits  of  justice  and  the  rights  of  toll,  mak- 
ing, therefore,  the  freeman  still  more  dependent  on  his 
lord.  However,  it  must  also  be  stated  that  the  kine 
nearly  always  retained  the  more  important  criminiu 
and  civil  cases  in  his  own  hands.  Still  the  result  of  the 
king's  transference  of  riehts  over  folc-land  was  easy 
enough  to  foresee,  i.  e.  the  depression  of  the  free  vil- 
lage. The  steps  of  this  depression  may  be  shortly  set 
out:  (a)  the  Church  or  lord  entitled  to  food-rents 
established  an  overseer  to  collect  this  rent  in  kind. 
Somehow  or  other  this  overseer  appropriated  land  for 
a  demesne,  partly  inplace  of,  partly  suon^ide  of,  the 
food-rents;  (b)  the  Cnureh  or  the  lord  entitled  by  the 
land-b6k  to  jiu*isdictional  profits  made  the  tenure  of 
land  by  the  villagers  depend  upon  suit  to  his  court; 
the  villagers'  transfers  came  to  be  made  at  that  court, 
and  were  finally  conceived  as  having  their  validity 
from  the  gift  or  grant  of  its  president. 

(3)  Meanwhile  the  action  of  the  State  extended  this 
depression  (a)  by  its  very  endeavour  in  the  tenth- 
century  Capitularies  to  keep  law  and  order  in  those 
rude  cattle-lifting  societies.  For  the  system  evolved 
was  that  men  should  be  grouped  in  such  a  manner  that 
one  man  should  be  responsible  for  another,  especially 
the  lord  for  his  men.  As  an  example  of  the  former 
may  be  taken  the  Capitularies  of  the  Frankish  kin^, 
such  as  of  Childebert  and  Qotaire,  and  of  the  English 
Kine  Edgar  (Stubbs,  Select  Charters,  69-74) ;  and  of 
the  Tatter  the  famous  ordinance  of  Athelstan  (Cone. 
Treatainlea,  c.  930.  ii ;  Stubbs,  Select  Charters,  Ox- 
ford, 19(K),  66) :  '^  And  we  have  ordained  respecting 
those  lordless  men  of  whom  no  law  can  be  got,^  that 
the  hundred  be  commanded  that  they  domicile  him  to 
folk  right  and  find  him  a  lord  in  the  folk-moot"; 
(b)  another  way  was  by  the  institution  of  central  taxa- 
tion in  the  eleventh  century — ^in  England  by  means  of 
danegelt,  abroad  by  various  gabelles.  These  were 
monetary  taxes  at  a  time  when  other  payments  were 
still  largely  made  in  kind.  Accordin^y,  just  as  under 
the  later  Roman  Empire,  the  poorer  man  commended 
himself  to  a  lord,  wno  paid  tor  him,  but  demanded 
instead  payment  in  service,  a  tribtUum  aoli.  The  de- 
pendent developed  into  a  retainer,  expecting,  as  in  the 
Lancastrian  days  of  maintenance,  to  be  protected  by 
his  lord,  even  in  the  royal  courts  of  justice,  and  repay- 
ing his  master  by  service,  military  and  economic,  and 
by  the  feudal  incidents  of  heriot,  warddiip^  etc.  (for 
details  of  feudal  aids,  cf .  Maitland,  Constitutional  His- 
tory, 27-30). 

(4)  Nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that  a  ceorl  or  mer- 
chant could  "thrive"  (Stubbs,  Select  Charters,  66; 
probably  of  eleventh-century  date),  so  as  to  amass 
wealth  to  the  loss  of  his  neignbours,  and  gradually  to 
become  a  master  of  villeins — ^possessing  a  chureh,  a 
kitchen  where  the  said  villeins  must  bake  their  bread 
(jua  furmi),  a  semi-fortified  bell-house,  and  a  burgh- 
gate,  where  he  could  sit  in  judgment. 

(5)  The  last  great  cause  that  developed  feudalism 
was  war.  It  is  an  old  saying,  nearly  a  dozen  centuries 
old,  that  '*war  begat  the  king".  It  is  no  less  true 
that  war,  not  civil,  out  international,  begat  feudalism. 


FEUDALISM                             61  FBITDALISM 

FiTBt  it  forced  the  kings  to  cease  to  surround  them-  wealth  in  land.  The  cattle,  stock,  or  land  wa«  there- 
selves  with  an  &ntiquated  fyrd  or  national  militia,  that  fore  handed  over  by  the  lord  to  his  dependent,  to  be 
had  forgotten  m  its  amcultural  pursuits  that  rapidity  held,  not  in  full  ownership,  but  in  usufruct,  on  condi- 
of  movement  was  the  first  essential  of  military  success,  tions  originally  peiBonal  but  becoming  hereditary, 
and  by  beating  the  sword  into  the  ploughshare  had  (This  whole  process  can  be  easily  traced  in  Hector 
lost  every  desire  to  beat  back  the  iron  into  its  old  Munro  Chadwick's  "Studies  in  Anglo-Saxon  Institu- 
form.  In  consequence  a  new  military  force  was  or-  tions",  Cambridge,  1905,  ix,  308-364;  x,  378-411, 
sanised,  a  professional  standing  army.  This  army  where  a  detailed  account  is  given  of  how  the  thesn,  a 
hadto  be  fed  and  housed  in  time  of  peace.  As  a  re-  personal  servant  of  the  king,  developed  into  a  land- 
suit  its  individual  members  were  granted  lands  and  owner,  possessing  an  average  of  five  hides  of  land  and 
estates,  or  lived  with  the  kine  as  his  personal  suite.  At  responsible  to  his  sovereign  in  matters  of  war  and  i  u- 
any  rate,  instead  of  every  able-bodied  man  being  in-  risaiction.)  The  influence  of  the  Church,  too,  in  this 
dividually  bound  in  person  to  serve  his  soverei^  in  gradual  transference  of  a  personal  to  a  territorial  vas- 
the  field,  the  lords  or  landowners  were  obliged  in  virtue  sala^  has  been  very  generally  admitted.  The  mo- 
of  their  tenure  to  furnish  a  certain  quantity  of  fighting  nastic  houses  would  be  the  first  to  find  it  troublesome 
men,  armed  with  fixed  and  definite  weapons,  accord-  (Liber  Eliensis,  275)  to  keep  a  rout  of  knights  within 
ing  to  the  degree,  rank,  and  wealth  of  the  combatant,  their  cloistral  walls.  Bishops,  too.  howsoever  mag- 
S^ndly,  it  gave  another  reason  for  commendation,  nificent  their  palaces,  could  not  fail  to  wish  that  the 
i.  e.  protection.  The  lord  was  now  asked,  not  to  pay  a  fighting  men  whom  they  were  bound  by  their  barony 
tax,  but  to  extend  the  sphere  of  his  influence  so  as  to  to  furnish  to  the  king  should  be  lodged  elsewhere  than 
enable  a  lonely,  solitary  farmstead  to  keep  off  the  at-  close  to  their  persons.  Consequently  they  soon  de- 
tacks  of  a  foe,  or  at  least  to  afford  a  place  of  shelter  veloped  the  system  of  territorial  vassalage.  Hence 
and  retreat  in  time  of  war.  This  the  lord  would  do  for  the  medieval  legal  maxim:  nvUe  terre  mns  seiffneur 
a  consideration,  to  wit,  that  the  protected  man  should  ( Vinogradoff,  English  Society  in  the  Eleventh  Cen- 
acknowledge  himself  to  be  judicially,  politically,  tiuy,  Oxford,  1908,  ii.  39-89).  This  enfeoffment  of 
economicafly,  the  dependent  of  his  high  protector,  the  lord  or  landowner  by  the  king  and  of  the  depen- 
Finally,  the  king  himself  was  pushed  up  to  the  apex  dent  by  the  lord  was  partly  in  the  nature  of  a  reward  for 
of  the  whole  system.  The  various  lords  commended  past  services,  partly  m  the  nature  of  an  earnest  for  the 
themselves  to  this  central  figure  to  aid  them  in  times  future.  It  is  this  primitive  idea  of  the  lord  who  gives 
of  stress,  for  they  saw  the  uselessness  of  tr3ring  singly  land  to  his  supporter  that  is  answerable  for  the  feudal 
to  repel  a  foe.  They  were  continually  being  defeated  incidents  which  otherwise  seem  so  tyrannous.  For 
because  ''shire  would  not  help  shire''  (Anglo-Saxon  instance,  when  the  vassal  died,  his  arxns,  horse,  mill- 
Chronicle,  ann.  1010).  Thus  tne  very  reason  why  the  tary  equipment  reverted  as  heriot  to  his  master.  So, 
English  left  Ethelred  the  Unready  to  accept  Sweyn  as  too,  when  tibe  tenant  died  without  heirs,  his  property 
full  king  (Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  ann.  1012)  was  escheated  to  the  lord.  If,  however,  he  died,  with 
simply  because  Ethelred  had  no  idea  of  centralizing  heirs,  indeed,  but  who  were  still  in  their  minority, 
and  unifying  the  nation  *  just  as  in  the  contrary  sense  then  these  heirs  were  in  wardship  to  the  feudal  supe- 
the  successful  resistance  of  Paris  to  the  Northmen  rior,  who  could  even  dispose  of  a  female  ward  in  mar- 
gave  to  its  dukes,  the  Lords  of  the  Isle  of  France,  the  ria^  to  whom  he  would,  on  a  plea  that  otherwise  she 
royal  titles  which  the  Carlovingians  of  Laon  were  too  mi^t  unite  herself  and  lands  to  an  hereditary  enemy, 
feeble  to  defend ;  and  the  lack  of  a  defensive  national  All  the  way  along  it  is  clear  that  the  ever-present  idea 
war  prevented  any  unification  of  the  unwieldy  Holy  ruling  and  suggesting  these  incidents,  was  precisely  a 
Roman  Empire.  This  is  effectually  demonstrated  by  territorial  one.  The  origin,  that  is,  of  these  incidents 
the  real  outburst  of  national  feeling  that  centred  went  back  to  earlier  days  when  all  that  the  feudal 
round  one  of  the  weakest  of  all  the  emperors,  Freder-  dependent  possessed,  whetiier  arms,  or  stock,  or  land, 
ick  III,  at  the  siege  of  Neuss,  simply  because  Charles  he  had  received  from  his  immediate  lord.  Land  had 
the  Bold  was  thought  to  be  threatening  Germany  by  become  the  tie  that  knit  up  into  one  the  whole  of  soci- 
his  attack  on  Cologne.  From  these  wars,  then,  the  ety.  Land  was  now  the  governing  principle  of  life 
kings  emerged,  no  loneer  as  mere  leaders  of  their  peo-  (rollock  and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law,  Cam- 
ple out  as  owners  of  the  land  upon  which  their  people  bridge,  1898, 1,  iii.  66-78).  A  man  followed,  not  the 
nved,  no  longer  as  Regea  Francorum  but  as  Regea  master  whom  he  chose  or  the  cause  that  seemed  most 
FrancuE,  nor  as  Duces  Normannorum  but  as  Ditcea  right,  but  the  master  whose  land  he  held  and  tilled,the 
NormannioB,  nor  as  Kings  of  the  Anglecyn  but  of  cause  favoured  in  the  geographical  limits  of  his  do- 
Englarland.  This  exchange  of  tribal  for  territorial  main.  The  king  was  lodged  up  to  as  the  real  possessor 
sovereignty  marks  the  complete  existence  of  feudalism  of  the  land  of  the  nation.  By  oim,  as  representing  the 
as  an  organization  of  society  in^ all  its  relations  (eco-  nation,  baronies,  manors,  kni^ts-fees,  fiefs  were  dis- 
nomic,  judicial,  political),  upon  a  basis  of  commendar  tributed  to  the  tenants-in-chief,  and  they,  in  turn, 
tion  and  land-tenure.  divided  their  land  to  be  held  in  trust  by  the  lower  vas- 

EssENCB.— We  are  now,  therefore,  in  a  position  to  sals  (Vinogradoff,  English  Society  in  the  Eleventh 
understand  what  exactly  feudalism  was.  Bearing  in  Century,  42).  The  statute  of  Edward  I,  known  from 
mind  the  double  definition  given  at  the  b^;inning,  we  its  opening  clause  as  Quia  EmptoreSf  shows  the  ex- 
may,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  resolve  feudalism  into  treme  lengths  to  which  this  sub-infeudation  was 
its  three  component  parts.  It  includes  a  territorial  carried  (Stubbs,  Select  Charters,  478).  So  much, 
element,  an  idea  of  vassalage,  and  the  privilege  of  an  however,  had  this  territorial  idea  entered  into  the 
immunity.       ^     ^                  ^  leg^sl  conceptions  of  the  medieval  polity,  and  been 

(1)  The  territorial  element  is  the  grant  of  the  en-  passed  on  from  age  to  age  by  the  most  skilful  lawyers 

feoffment  by  the  lord  to  his  man.    At  the  begiiming  of  each  generation,  that,  up  to  within  the  last  half  oen- 

thia  was  probably  as  well  of  stock  and  cattle  as  of  land,  tury,  there  were  not  wanting  some  who  taught  that 

Hence  its  etymology.     Littr6  makes  the  Low  Latin  the  very  peerages  of  England  might  descend,  not  by 

feudum  of  Teutonic  oriran^  and  thus  cognate  with  the  means  of  blood  only,  nor  even  of  will  and  bequest,  but 

Old  High  German  ^u,  Gothic /at^u,  Anglo-Saxon /eoA  by  the  mere  possession-at-law  of  certain  lands  and 

(our  /|c),  modem  German  vieh.    That  is  to  say,  the  tenements.    Witness  the  Berkeley  Peerage  case  of 

word  goes  back  to  the  days  when  cattle  was  originally  1861  (Anson,  Law  and  Custom  of  the  Constitution, 

the  only  form  of  wealth;  but  it  came  by  a  perfectly  Oxford,  1897,  Part  I,  I,  vi,  200-203). 

natural  process,  when  the  race  had  passed  from  a  (2)  Feudalism  further  implies  the  idea  of  vassalage, 

nomadic  life  to  the  fixity  of  abode  necessitated  by  pas-  This  is  partly  concurrent  with,  partly  overlapping,  wie 

tcffal  pursuits,  to  signify  wealth  in  general,  and  finally  territonal  conception.    It  is  certainly  prior  to,  more 


FSXTDALISM                              62  FBITDALISM 

primitive  than,  the  notion  of  a  landed  enfeoffment  separated  by  intervening  layers  from  its  base,  repra- 

The  early  banded  hordes  that  broke  over  Europe  were  sented  the  king. 

held  together  by  the  idea  of  loyalty  to  a  personal  chief.  (3)  Feudalism  lastly  included  the  idea  of  an  immu- 
The  heretogas  were  leaders  in  war.  Tactitus  says  nity  or  grants  of  the  profits  of  justice  over  a  fief  or 
(Germania,  vii):  ''The  leaders  hold  command  rather  other  piece  of  land  (Vinogradoff,  Eng.  Soc.  -in  the 
by  the  example  of  their  boldness  and  keen  courage  Eleventh  Century,  177-207).  We  hav^alreadv  stated 
than  by  any  force  of  discipline  or  autocratic  rule. "  It  how  by  the  land-books  the  Anglo-Saxonkings  (and  the 
was  the  best,  most  obvious,  simplest  method,  and  like  had  been  done,  and  was  to  be  repeated  all  over  the 
would  always  obtain  in  a  state  of  incessant  wars  and  Continent)  granted  to  others  political  ownership  over 
raids.  But  even  when  that  state  of  development  had  certain  territories  that  till  that  time  had  been,  in  the 
been  passed,  the  personal  element,  though  consider-  medieval  phrase,  ''doing  their  own  law".  The  result 
ably  lessened,  could  not  fail  to  continue.  Territorial  was  that,  apparently,  private  courts  were  set  up^ 
enfeoffment  did  not  do  away  with  vassalage,  but  only  typified  in  Eneland  by  the  alliterative  jingle  ''sac  and 
changed  the  medium  by  which  that  vassalage  was  soc,  tol  and  tneam,  and  infangenthef".  Sometimes 
made  evident.  The  dependent  was,  as  ever,  the  per-  the  lord  was  satisfied  by  merely  taking  the  ludicial 
sonal  follower  of  his  immediate  lord.  He  was  not  forfeitures  in  the  ordinary  courts,  without  troubling  to 
merelyholdinglandof  that  lord;  the  very  land  that  he  establish  any  of  his  own.  But,  generally  speakmg, 
held  was  but  the  expression  of  his  dependence,  the  he  seems  to  have  had  the  right,  and  to  have  used  it,  of 
oulward  and  visible  sien  of  an  inward  and  invisible  keeping  his  own  separate  courts.  Feudalism,  there- 
bond.  The  fief  showea  who  the  vassal  was,  and  to  fore,  includes  not  merely  service  (military  and  eco- 
whom  he  owed  his  vassalage.  At  one  time  tliere  was  a  nomic)  but  also  suit  (judicial).  This  suit  was  as 
tendency  among  historians  to  make  a  distinction  be-  minutely  insisted  upon  as  was  the  service.  The  king 
tween  the  theory  of  feudalism  on  the  Continent  and  demanded  from  his  tenants-in-chief  that  the^  should 
that  introduced  into  England  by  William  I.  But  meet  in  his  curia  regis.  So  William  I  had  his  thrice- 
a  closer  study  of  both  has  proved  their  identity  (Tout,  yearly  crown-wearings,  attended  by  "  all  the  rich  men 
Eng.  Hist.  B]ev.,  Jan.,  1905, 141-143).  The  Salisbury  over  all  England,  archbishops  and  bishops,  abbots  and 
OaUi,  even  on  the  supposition  that  it  was  actually  earls,  thegns  and  kni^ts  (Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle, 
taken  by  *'  all  the  Bsma-owning  men  of  account  there  ad  ann.  1087).  So  too  m  France,  there  was  the  cour  du 
were  over  all  England."  (Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  ann.  roj/,  dating  from  the  earliest  Capetian  times,  the  court 
1068),  was  nothing  more  than  had  been  exacted  by  of  the  king's  demesne  or  immediate  tenants;  at  this 
the  Ando-Saxon  kings  (Stubbs,  Select  Charters,  royal  court,  whether  in  England  or  in  France,  all  the 
Doom  of  Exeter,  iv,  64;  i,  67;  but  compare  Vino-  tenants-in-chief,  at  any  rate  in  the  days  of  the  fuU 
gradoff,  Growth  of  the  Manor,  Oxford,  1905,  294-  force  of  feudalism,  were  obliged  to  attend.  The  same 
306).  In  Germany,  too,  many  of  the  lesser  kni^ts  court  existed  in  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  was  of 
held  directly  of  the  emperor;  and  over  all,  whether  great  importance,  at  least  till  the  death  of  Henry  V 
immediately  subject  to  him  or  not,  he  had,  at  least  in  (Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire,  London,  1904,  viii,  120- 
theory,  sovereign  rights.  And  in  France,  where  feu-  129).  All  those  who  attended  these  courts  did  so  in 
dal  vassalage  was  very  strong,  there  was  a  royal  court  virtue  of  the  tenurial  obli^tions.  Now,  these  royal 
to  which  a  dependent  could  appeal  from  that  of  his  councils  were  not  constitutional  bodies,  for  we  have  no 
lonj,  as  there  were  aJso  royal  cases,  which  none  but  evidence  of  any  legislation  b^  them.  Rather,  like  the 
the  king  could  try.  In  fact  it  was  perhaps  in  France,  Parlement  of  France,  they  simply  registered  the  royal 
earlier  than  elsewhere,  that  the  centralizing  spirit  of  edicts.  But  their  real  work  was  judicial,  adjudicating 
royal  interference  beg^  to  busy  itself  in  social,  eco-  causes  too  numerous  or  too  complicated  for  the  kins 
nomic,  judicial  interests  of  the  mdividual.  Besides,  alone  to  deal  with.  So  Philip  Augustus  summoned 
on  the  other  hand,  the  anarchy  of  Stephen's  reign  that  John  as  a  vassal  prince  to  the  cour  du  roy  to  answer 
spread  over  the  whole  country  (Davis,  Eng.  Hist,  the  charge  of  the  murder  of  Arthur  of  Brittany.  Just 
Rev.,  Oct.,  1903)  showed  how  slight  even  in  England  as  these  royal  courts  were  judicial  bodies  for  dealing 
was  the  royal  hold  over  the  vasssd  barons.  Moreover,  with  questions  relating  to  the  tenants-in-chief,  so  these 
if  .English  feudalism  did  at  all  differ  from  the  hier-  tenants-in-chief,  and  m  a  descending  gradation  every 
archie  vassalage  that  caused  so  much  harm  abroad,  lord  and  master,  had  their  private  courts  in  which 
the  result  was  due  far  more  to  Henry  II  and  his  sue-  to  try  the  cases  of  their  tenants.  The  private  criminal 
oessors  than  to  the  Norman  line  of  kings.  And  even  couits  were  not  strictly  feudal,  but  dependent  on  a 
the  work  of  tiie  Angevins  was  to  no  small  degree  un-  royal  ^rant;  such  were  the  franchises,  or  liberties,  or 
done  by  the  policy  of  Edward  III.  The  Statutes  of  regalities,  as  in  the  counties  Palatine  up  and  down 
Merton  (1278),  Mortmain  (1279),  Q^^a  Emptores  Europe.  Besides  these,  however,  there  were  the 
(1290)  all  laid  the  foundations,  though  such,  of  course,  librce  curice,  courts  baron,  courts  leet.  courts  custom- 
was  foreign  to  Hieir  object,  for  the  aggregations  of  ary,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  Church,  courts  Christian 
large  estates.  Then  came  the  marriage  of  the  (for  details,  Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of  English 
loysJ  princes  to  great  heiresses;  the  Bl^^k  Prince  Law,  I,  571-594).  The  very  complexity  of  these 
flamed  the  lands  ofKent;  Lionel,  the  dowiy  of  Ulster;  courts  astonishes  us;  it  astonished  contemporaries  no 
Thomas  of  Woodstock,  the  linked  manors  of  Eleanor  lesE,  for  Langland  in  ''Piers  Plowman"  (Passus  III, 
Bohun.  Henry  IV,  before  he  deposed  Richard  II,  was  11.  318-319)  looks  forward  to  a  golden  day  when 
''Harry  of  Hereford,  Lancaster  and  Derby",  as  well  as  King's  court  and  common  court,  consistory 
Leicester  and  Lincoln.    The  result  was  that  England,  and  chapter, 

no  lees  than  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain,  had  All  shall  be  one  court  and  one  baron-judge, 
its  feudal  vassals  that  acquined  ascendancy  over  the  Church  and  Feudalism. — ^The  Church  too  iiad  her 
crown,  or  were  only  prevented  by  their  mutual  jeal-  place  in  the  feudal  system.  She  too  was  granted  terri- 
ousy  from  doing  so.  In  England,  too,  the  substitution  torial  fiefs,  became  a  vassal,  possessed  immunities.  It 
of  a  liodaliii  apanag^e,  or  nobility  of  the  blood  royal,  was  the  result  of  her  calm,  wide  sympathy  fuming  to 
for  tne  old  jfodalU6  territoriale  worked  the  same  mis-  the  new  nations  away  from  the  Roman  Empire,  to 
chief  as  it  aid  in  France;  and  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  which  many  Christians  thought  she  was  irrevocabljf 
paralleled  the  fatal  feuds  of  Bur^ndians  and  Armagn-  bound .  By  the  baptism  of  Clovis  she  showed  the  bap- 
acs,  the  horrors  of  the  Praguerie  and  the  anarchy  of  tism  of  Constantine  had  not  tied  her  to  a  political 
the  League  of  the  Public  Weal.  It  will  be  seen,  there-  system.  So  she  created  a  new  world  out  of  chaos, 
fore,  that  all  oVer  Europe  the  same  feudal  system  pre-  created  the  paradox  of  barbarian  civilization.  In 
vailed  of  a  hierarchic  arrangement  of  classes,  as  some  gratitude  kings  and  emperors  endowed  her  with  prop- 
vast  pyramid  of  which  the  apex,  pushed  high  up  and  erty;  and  ecclesiastical  property  has  not  infrequently 


FET7DALI8M 


63 


FEUDALISM 


brou^t  evilfi  in  its  train.  The  result  war  disputed 
elections;  youn^r  sons  of  nobles  were  intrudea  into 
bishoprics,  at  tunes  even  into  the  papacy.  Secular 
princes  claimed  lay  investiture  of  spintual  offices.  The 
cause  of  this  was  feudalism,  for  a  system  that  had  its 
basis  on  land-tenure  was  bound  at  last  to  enslave  a 
C3iurch  that  possessed  great  landed  possessions.  In 
Germany,  for  example,  three  out  of  the  mystically 
numbered  seven  electors  of  the  empire  were  church- 
men, lliere  were,  besides,  several  prince-bishops 
within  the  empire,  and  mitred  abbots,  whose  rule  was 
more  extended  and  more  powerful  than  that  of  many 
a  secidar  baron.  As  it  was  in  Germany,  so  it  was  in 
France,  England,  Scotland,  Spain,  etc.  Naturally 
there  was  a  growing  desire  on  the  part  of  the  kin^  and 
the  princes  to  force  the  Church  to  take  her  share  m  the 
national  burdens  and  duties.  Moreover,  since  by  cus- 
tom the  secular  rulers  had  obtained  the  right  of  pre- 
sentation to  various  benefices  or  the  right  otveto,  with 
the  title  on  the  Continent  of  advocates  or  voyf,  the 
numerous  claimants  for  the  livings  were  only  too  ready 
to  admit  every  possible  demand  of  their  lord,  if  only  {le 
would  permit  them  to  possess  the  bishopric,  abbacy, 
'  or  whatever  elsie  it  might  be.  In  short,  the  Church  was 
in  danger  of  becoming  the  annex  of  the  State;  the 
pope,  of  becoming  tne  chaplain  of  the  emperor, 
simony  and  concuoini^  were  rife.  Then  came  the 
Reforms  of  Cluny  and  the  remedv  of  the  separation  of 
Qiurch  and  State,  in  thb  sense,  that  the  Church  would 
confer  the  dignity  or  office,  and  the  State  the  barony. 
But  even  when  this  concordat  had  been  arranged  (m 
England  between  Henry  I  and  St.  Anselm  in  1107 ;  the 
European  settlement  did  not  take  place  till  1122  at 
Worms),  the  Church  still  lay  entangled  with  feudal- 
ism. It  had  to  perform  its  feudal  duties.  It  might 
owe  suit  and  service  to  a  lord.  Certainly,  lesser  vas- 
sals owed  suit  and  service  to  it.  So  it  was  brought  into 
the  secular  {abric  of  society.  A  new  tenure  was  in- 
vented for  it,  tenure  by  frankalmoyn.  But  it  had 
more  often  than  not  to  p^rovide  its  knuzhts  and  war- 
men,  and  to  do  justice  to  its  tenants,  l^e  old  ideal  of 
a  world-monarchy  and  a  world-religion,  the  pope  as 
spiritual  emperor,  the  em|)eror  as  temporal  pope,  as 
set  out  with  matchless  skill  in  the  fresco  of  the  Domini- 
can Church  in  Florence^  S.  Maria  Novella,  had  ceased 
to  influence  public  opinion  lonj;  before  Dante  penned 
his  "De  Monarchic  .  Feudalism  had  shattered  that 
ideal  (Barry,  in  Dublin  Review,  Oct.,  1907.  221-243). 
There  was  to  be  not  so  much  a  universal  Church,  as  a 
number  of  national  Churches  under  their  territorial 
princes,  so  that  feudalism  in  the  ecclesiastical  sphere 
prepared  the  way  for  the  Renaissance  principle^  Clujus 
regio  ejus  religio.  For  while  at  the  beginnmg  the 
Church  sanctified  the  State  and  anointed  with  sacred 
chrism  the  king  vested  in  priestly  apparel,  in  the  end 
the  State  secularized  the  Church  amid  the  eilded  cap- 
tivity of  Avignon.  Royal  despotism  followed  the 
indi^ties  of  Anaffni;  the  Church  sank  under  the 
weight  of  her  feud^  duties. 

Results.— (1)  EvU  Results.— (b)  The  State  instead 
of  entering  into  direct  relations  with  individuals, 
entered  into  relation  with  heads  of  groups,  losing  con- 
tact with  the  members  of  those  groups.  With  a  weak 
king  or  disputed  succession,  these  eroup-heads  made 
themselves  into  sovereigns.  First  ofall  viewing  them- 
selves as  sovereigns  they  fought  with  one  another  as 
sovereigns,  instead  of  coming  to  the  State  as  to  the 
true  sovereign  to  have  their  respective  claims  adjudi- 
cated. The  result  was  what  the  chroniclers  call  guerra 
or  private  war  (Coxe,  House  of  Austria,  I,  London, 
1807,  306-7).  This  was  forbidden  in  England  even 
under  its  mock  form  the  tournament.  Still  it  was  too 
much  tanked  with  feudalism  to  be  fully  suppressed, 
breaking  out  as  fiercely  here  from  time  to  time  as  it 
did  elsewhere,  (b)  Tne  group-heads  tempted  their 
vassals  to  follow  them  as  aeainst  their  overlords.  So 
Robert  of  Bellesme  obtained  the  help  of  his  feudatories 


against  Henry  I.  So  Albert  of  Austria  headed  the 
electors  against  the  Emperor  Adolf  of  Nassau.  So 
Charles  of  Navarre  led  his  vassals  against  King  John 
of  France.  So  James  of  Urgel  formed  the  Privileged 
Union  at  Sara^ssa.  (c)  These  group-heads  claimed 
the  rights  of  pnvate  coinage,  private  castles,  full  judi- 
cial authority,  full  powers  of  taxation.  There  was 
always  a  struggle  between  them  and  their  sovereigns, 
and  between  them  and  their  lesser  vassals  as  to  the 
degree  of  their  independence.  Each  manorial  group  or 
honour  or  fief  endeavoured  to  be  self-sufficient  ana  to 
hold  itself  apart  from  its  next  overlord.  Each  overlord 
endeavoured  more  and  more  to  consolidate  his  do- 
mains and  force  his  vassals  to  appeal  to  him  rather 
than  to  their  direct  superior.  This  continual  struggle, 
the  success  and  failure  of  which  depended  on  the  per- 
sonal characters  of  lord  and  overlord,  was  the  chief 
cause  of  the  instabflity  of  life  in  medieval  times, 
(d)  A  last  evil  may  perhaps  be  added  in  the  power 
given  to  the  Church.  In  times  of  disputed  succession 
the  Church  claimed  the  right  to  defend  herself,  then  to 
keep  order,  and  eventually  to  nominate  the  ruler. 
This,  however  justifiable  in  itself  and  however  at  times 
beneficial,  often  drove  the  ecclesiastical  order  into  the 
arms  of  one  or  other  political  party;  and  the  cause  of 
the  Church  often  became  identified  with  a  particular 
claimant  for  other  than  Church  reasons;  and  the  pen- 
alties of  the  Church,  even  excommunication,  were  at 
times  imposed  to  defend  worldly  interests.  As  a  rule, 
however,  the  influence  of  the  Qiurch  was  directed  to 
control  and  soften  the  unjust  and  cruel  elements  of  the 
system. 

(2)  Good  Results, — (a)  Feudalism  supplied  a  new 
cohesive  force  to  the  nations.  At  the  break-up  alike 
of  the  Roman  Empire  and  of  the  Germanic  tribal  loy- 
alty to  the  tribal  chief,  a  distinct  need  was  felt  for 
some  territorial  organization.  As  ^ret  the  idea  of 
nationality  was  non-existent,  having  indeed  little  op- 
portunity of  expression.  How  then  were  the  peoples 
to  be  made  to  feel  their  distinct  individuality  7  Feu- 
dalism came  with  its  ready  answer,  linked  Germanic 
with  Roman  political  systems,  built  up  an  inter-con- 
nected pyramid  that  rested  on  the  broad  basis  of 
popular  possession  and  culminated  in  the  apex  of  the 
kin^.  (b)  It  introduced  moreover  into  social  and 
political  life  the  bond  of  legalitas.  Every  war  of 
medieval,  or  rather  feudal,  times  was  based  on  some 
legal  claim,  since  other  casus  belli  there  was  none. 
Political  expediency  or  national  expansion  were  un- 
known doctrines.  No  doubt  this  legalitas,  as  in  the 
English .  claim  to  the  French  throne,  often  became 
sheer  hypocrisy.  Yet  on  the  whole  it  gave  a  moral 
restraint  to  public  opinion  in  the  midst  ofa  passionate 
age;  and  the  inscription  on  the  simple  tomb  of  Ed- 
ward I:  Pactum  Serva^  however  at  times  disregarded 
by  the  king  himself,  still  sums  up  the  great  bulwark 
raised  in  medieval  days  against  violence  and  oppres- 
sion. To  break  the  feudal  bond  was  felony;  and 
more,  it  was  dishonour.  On  the  side  of  the  King  or 
lord,  there  was  the  investiture  bv  banner,  lance,  or 
other  symbol ;  on  the  side  of  the  man  or  tenant, 
homage. for  the  land,  sworn  on  bended  knees  with 
hands  placed  between  the  hands  of  the  lord,  the  tenant 
standing  upri^t  while  taking  the  fealty,  as  the  sign  of 
a  personal  obligation,  (c)  Feudalism  gave  an  armed 
force  to  Europe  when  she  la^r  defenceless  at  the  feet  of 
the  old  mountains  over  which  so  many  peoples  had 
wandered  to  conquer  the  Western  worid.  The  onrush 
of  Turk,  Saracen,  and  Moor  was  checked  by  the  feudal 
levy  which  substituted  a  disciplined  professional  force 
for  the  national  fyrd  or  militia  (Oman,  Art  of  War,  IV, 
ii,  357-377,  London.  1898).  (d)  From  a  modem  point 
of  view  its  most  interesting  advantage  was  the  fact  of 
its  being  a  real,  if  only  temporary,  solution  of  the  land- 
question.  It  enforced  a  just  distribution  of  the  terri- 
torial domains  included  within  the  geographical  limits 
of  the  nation,  by  allowing  individuals  to  carve  out 


FEUDUM 


64 


FBUILLANTS 


estates  for  themselves  on  condition  that  each  landlord, 
whether  secular  baron,  churchman,  even  abbess,  ren- 
dered suit  and  service  to  his  overlord  and  demanded 
them  in  return  from  each  and  every  vassal.  This 
effectually  taught  the  principle  that  owners  of  land, 
precisely  as  sucn,  had  to  perform  in  exchange  govern- 
mental work.  Not  that  there  was  exactly  land- 
nationalization  (though  many  legal  and  theological 
expressions  of  medieval  literature  seem  to  imply  the 
existence  of  this),  but  that  the  nation  was  paid  for 
Its  land  by  service  in  war  and  by  judicial,  adminis- 
trative, and,  later,  legislative  duties. 

Decline  of  Feudalism. — This  was  due  to  a  multi- 
plicity of  causes  acting  upon  one  another.  Since 
leudalism  was  based  on  the  idea  of  land-tenure  paid 
for  by  governmental  work,  every  process  that  tended 
to  alter  this  adjustment  tended  also  to  displace 
feudalism. 

(1)  The  new  system  of  raising  troops  for  war  helped 
to  substitute  money  for  land.  The  old  system  of 
feudal  levy  became  obsolete.  It  was  founcl  imprac-  < 
ticable  for  the  lords  to  retain  a  host  of  knights  at  their 
service,  waiting  in  idleness  for  the  call  of  war.  Instead, 
the  barons,  headed  by  the  Church,  enfeoffed  these 
knights  on  land  which  they  were  to  own  on  conditions 
of  service.  Gradually  these  knights  too  found  military 
service  exceedingly  mopportune  and  commuted  for  it 
a  sum  of  money,  paid  at  first  to  the  immediate  lord, 
eventually  demanded  directly  by  the  king.  Land 
ceased  to  have  the  same  value  in  me  eyes  of  the  mon- 
arch. Money  took  its  place  as  the  symbol  of  power. 
But  this  was  further  increased  by  a  new  development 
in  military  organization.  The  system  by  which  sher- 
iffs, in  virtue  of  royal  writs,  summoned  the  county- 
levy  had  taken  the  place  of  the  older  arrangements. 
These  commissions  of  array  issued  to  the  tenants-in- 
chief,  or  proclaimed  for  the  lesser  vassals  in  all  courts, 
fairs,  ana  markets  were  now  exchanged  for  indentures, 
by  which  the  king  contracted  with  individual  earls, 
barons,  knights,  etc.,  to  furnish  a  fixed  number  of  men 
at  a  fixed  ws^  ("  They  sell  the  pasture  now  to  buy  the 
horse."— "&nry  V",  prologue  to  Act  II).  The  old 
conception  of  the  feudal  force  had  completely  disap- 
peared. Further,  by  means  of  artillery  the  attacking 
force  completely  dominated  the  defensive,  fortified 
castles  declined  m  value,  archers  and  foot  increased  in 
importance,  heavily  armoured  knights  were  becoming 
useless  in  battle,  and  on  the  Continent  the  supremacy 
of  hanquebus  and  pike  was  assured.  Moreover  as  part 
of  this  military  displacement  the  reaction  a^inst 
livery  and  maintenance  (cf .  Lingard,  History  of  Eng- 
land, IV,  V,  139-140,  London,  1854)  must  be  noted. 
The  intense  evils  occasioned  all  over  Europe  by  this 
bastard  feudalism,  or  feudalism  in  caricature,  pro- 
voked a  fierce  reaction.  In  England  and  on  the  Conti- 
nent the  new  monarchy  that  sprang  from  the  "Three 
Ma^"  of  Bacon  stimulatea  popular  resentment 
munst  the  great  families  of  king-makers  and  broke 
their  power. 

(2)  A  second  cause  of  this  substitution  was  due  to 
the  Black  Death.  For  some  years  the  emancipation 
of  villeinage  had,  for  reasons  of  convenience,  been 
gradually  extending.  A  system  had  grown  up  of  ex- 
changing tenure  by  rent  for  tenure  by  service,  i.  e. 
money  was  paid  in  exchanse  for  service,  and  the  lord's 
fields  were  tilled  by  hired  labourers.  By  the  Great 
Pestflence  labour  was  rendered  scarce  and  agriculture 
was  disorganized.  The  old  surplus  population  that 
had  ever  before  (Vinogradoff  in  Eng.  Hist.  Rev., 
Oct.,  1900,  775-81 ;  April,  1906,  366)  drifted  from 
manor  to  manor  no  longer  existed.  The  lords  pur- 
sued their  tenants;  capital  was  begging  from  labour. 
All  statutory  enactments  to  chain  labour  to  the  soil 
proved  futile.  Villeins  escaped  in  numbers  to  manora, 
not  of  their  own  lords,  and  entered  into  service  this 
time  as  hired  labourers.  That  is,  the  lord  became  a 
landlord,  the  vfllein  became  a  tenant-farmer  at  will  or 


a  landless  labourer.  Then  came  the  Peasant  Revolt 
over  all  Europe,  the  economic  complement  of  the 
Black  Death,  by  which  the  old  economy  was  broken 
up  and  from  wnich  the  modem  social  economy  began. 
On  the  Continent  the  result  was  the  mdtayer  system 
or  division  of  national  wealth  among  small  landed 
proprietors.  In  England  under  stock-and-land  leases 
the  same  system  prevailed  for  close  on  a  century,  then 
disappearea,  emerging  eventually  after  successive  ages 
as  our  modem  ''enclosed"  agriculture. 

(3)  As  in  things  military  and  economic,  so  also  in 
things  judicial  the  idea  of  landed  administrative  sinks 
below  the  horizon.  All  over  Europe  legal  kines,  Al- 
fonso the  Wise,  Philip  the  Fair,  Charles  of  Bohemia, 
Edward  I  of  England,  were  rearrangjing  the  constitu- 
tions of  their  countries.  The  old  curia  regis  or  cour  du 
roy  ceases  to  be  a  feudal  board  of  tenants-ih-chief  and 
becomes  at  first  partly,  then  wholly,  a  body  of  legal 
advisers.  The  kmg's  diaplains  and  clerks  with  their 
knowledge  of  civil  and  canon  law,  able  to  spell  out  the 
old  customaries,  take  the  place  of  grim  warriors.  The 
Placita  Regis  or  cds  royaux  get  extended  and  simpli- 
fied. Appeals  are  encouraged.  Civil  as  well  as 
criminal  litigations  come  into  the  royal  courts.  Fi- 
nance, the  royal  auditing  of  the  accounts  of  sheriffs, 
bailiffs,  or  seneschals,  increases  the  royal  hold  on  the 
coimtry,  breaks  down  the  power  of  the  landed  classes, 
and  draws  the  kins  and  people  into  alliance  against 
the  great  nobles.  The  shape  of  society  is  no  longer  a 
pyramid,  but  two  parallel  lines.  It  can  no  longer  be 
represented  as  broadening  down  from  kins  to  nobles, 
from  nobles  to  people ;  but  the  apex  and  base  have 
withdrawn,  the  one  from  completmg,.  the  other  from 
supporting,  the  central  block.  The  rise  to  power  of 
popular  assemblies,  whether  as  States-General, 
Cortes,  Diets,  or  Parliaments,  betokens  the  growins 
importance  of  the  middle  class;  and  the  triumph  of 
the  middle  class  (i.  e.  of  the  moneyed,  not  landed,  pro- 

f>rietors)  is  the  overthrow  of  feudalism.  The  wnole 
iterature  of  the  fourteenth  century  and  onward  wit- 
nesses to  this  triumph.  Henceforward  till  the  Re- 
naissance it  is  emmently  bourgeois.  Song  is  no 
longer  an  aristocratic  monopoly ;  it  passes  out  into  the 
whole  nation.  The  troubadour  is  no  more;  his  place 
is  taken  by  the  ballad  writer  composing  in  the  vulsar 
tonsue  a  dolce  etU  nuovo.  This  new  tone  is  especiiuly 
evident  in  ''Renard  le  Contrefait"  and  "Branche  des 
Royaux  Lignage".  These  show  that  the  old  rever- 
ence for  all  that  was  knightly  and  of  chivalry  (q.  v.) 
was  passing  away.  The  medieval  theory  of  life, 
thought,  and  government  had  broken  down. 

Stubbs,  ConsHtutional  History  (Oxford,  1897);  Sbbbohm, 
Engliah  Village  Community  (London,  1883);  Pollock  and 
Maxtland,  Hutory  of  Enali^  Law  ((Cambridge,  1898);  Mait- 
-LAND.  Conatitutionat  Hutory  (Cambridge.  1908).  141-164; 
ViNOGHADOVT,  EfuAxth  Sdbiely  in  the  Eleventh  Century  (Oxford, 
1908);  Round.  Feudal  EnpUmd  (London.  1895).  225-314; 
Baldwin.  Seutage  and  Knight  Service  (Chicago.  1897);  Roth. 
GeaehidUe  dee  Beneficialweaena  (Erlangen.  1850);  Waitk, 
Deutsche  Verfassungsosschichte  (Berlin,  1880);  Lippbrt,  Die 
deutschen  LehnbQcher  (Leipsig.  1903);  KMAumv^  Die  Grosshufen 
der  Nordgermanen  (BninBwick,  1905);  Luchairb,  Histoire  des 
Institutions  (Paris.  1883-85);  Pbtit-Dutailub,  Histoire  Con- 
stittUionelle  (1907).  tr.  Rrodbb  (1908);  Sbignobos  in  Lavisbb 
AND  Rambaud,  Histoire  General,  II  (Paris,  1893).  1.1-64;  Ouxl- 
mbroz,  Essai  sur  rorimne  de  la  noblesse  en  France  (Paris,  1902) ; 
Flach,  Les  oriffinet  de  VAneienne  France^  III  (Paris,  1904). 

Bede  Jarrett. 
Fendum.    See  Tenure,  Ecclesiastical. 

FeuillantB. — ^The .  Cistercians  who,  about  1145, 
founded  an  abbey  in  a  shady  valley  in  the  Diocese  of 
Rieux  (now  Toulouse)  named  it  Fuliens,  later  Les 
Feuillans  or  Notre-Dame  des  Feuillans  (Lat.  folium, 
leaf),  and  the  religious  were  soon  called  Feuillants 
(Lat.  Fulienses) .  Relaxations  crept  into  the  Order  of 
Ctteaux  as  into  most  religious  congregations,  and  in 
the  sixteenth  century  the  Feuillant  monastery  was 
dishonoured  by  unworthy  monks.  A  reform  was 
soon  to  be  introduced,  however,  by  Jean  de  la  Bar- 
ri^re,  b.  at  Saint-C^r6,  in  the  Diocese  of  Cahors,  29 


FEUILLET  65  rtVAL 

April,  1544;  'd.  25  April,  1600.    Having  completed  a    ally  combined  with  the  Order  of  Ctteauz.     The 

Bucoeesf ul  course  in  the  humanities  at  Toulouse  and  congregation  of  the  Feuillants  has  given  a  number  ol 

Bordeaux,  at  the  age  of  e^hteen  he  was  made  com-  illustrious  personages  to  the  Church,  among  others:* 

mendatory  Abbot  of  the  Feuillants  by  the  Kin^  of  Cardinal  Bona  (q.v.)i  the  celebrated  liturgist  and 

France,  succeeding  Charles  de  Crussol,  who  had  just  ascetical  writer  (d.  1674);   Gabriele  de  CasteUo  (d. 
joined  the  Reformers.    After  his  nomination  he  went    1687),  general  of  the  Italian  brandh,  who  also  received 

to  Paris  to  continue  his  studies,  and  then  b^an  his  the  cardinal's  hat;  Dom  Charles  de  Saint-Paul,  first 

lifelong  friendship  with  the  celebrated  Amaud  d'0&-  general  of  the  Feuillants  of  France,  afterwards  Bishop 

sat,  later  cardinal.     In  1573  Barridre,  havine  re-  of  Avranche,  who  published  in  1641  the  ''Geographia 

solved  to  introduce  a  reform  into  his  abbey,  took  the  Sacra"*    among  theologians,   Pierre  Comaglre   (d. 

habit  of  novice,  and  after  obtaining  the  necessary  1662),  Laurent  Apisius  (d.  1681).  and  Jean  Goulu 

dispensations,  made  his  solemn  profession  and  was  (d.  1629).    Special  mention  should  be  made  of  Carlo 

ordained  pri^,  some  time  after  8  May,  1573.    His  Uiuseppe  Morozzi  (Morotius),  author  of  the  most  im- 

enterprise  was  a  difficult  one.    There  were  twelve  portant  history  of  the  order,  the  ''Cistercii  reflorea- 

'monks  at  Les  Feuillans  who  refused  to  accept  the  centis. . .  chronologica  historia".  Many  martyrologies 

reform,  and  unmoved  bv  the  example  and  exhorta-  give  Jean  de  la  Barri^re  (25  April)  the  title  of  Vener- 

tions  of  their  abbot,  resolved  to  do  away  with  him,  by  able.    The  Abbey  des  Feuillants  was  authorized  by 

means  of  poison.    Their  attempts,  however,  were  papal  Brief  to  publicly  venerate  his  remains,  but 

frustrated.    In  1577,  having  received  the  abbatial  the  cause  of  beatification  has  never  been  introduced, 
benediction,  he  solemnly  announced  his  intention  of        The  Feuillantinbs,  founded  in  1588  by  Jean  de  la 

reforming  his  monastery,  and  made  the  members  of  Barridre,  embraced  the  same  rule  and  adopted  the 

the  commimity  understand  that  they  had  either  to  same  austerities  as  the  Feuillants.    Matrons  of  the 

accept  the  reform  or  leave  the  abbey;  they  chose  the  highest  distinction  sought  admission  into  this  s^ere 

latter  and  dispersed  to  various  Cistercian  houses,  order,  which  soon  grew  in  numbers,  but  during  tiie 

Their  departure  reduced  the  community  to  five  per-  Revolution,  in  1791,  the  Feuillantines  disappeared, 

sons,  two  professed  clerics,  two  novices,  and  the  supe-  ^  HfeLTor,  Hist,  dea  ordra  (PariB,  1719);  Carbito.  Saniarale 

nor..  The  rule  was  interpreted  in  its  most  rigid.8en«  ^i;^,^7pSSSrroS&V'T^'k^*^SSS5S^^ 

and  m  many  ways  even  surpassed.     Sartonus  m  his  BarHire  (Toulouae,  1885)j  Morotiub,  Ciaterdi  refUmtacerUia  .  .  . 

work  "Cistercium  bis-tertium"  sums  up  the  austeri-  dironolofnca  hutonaCTvLnn,  1690);  CHALEMor.^mM  iSaiM^omm 

Ues  of  the  refmn,  in  these  four.pointe:  (l)  The  FeuU.  f^;Si^7/o°;,.<^&,!^»^i»2™l'j^f  "K<SSri^ 

lantS  renounced  the  use  of  wine,  nsn,  egg?,  blltter,  deux  relioieuz  de  ta  oong.  de  S,  Maur  in  MartIsnb  and  Durand 

salt,    and    all    seasoning.     Their    nourishment    con-  (Paris.   1717);  Jonoeunus,  NotiUa  atbatiarum    (ML    CitL 

Bisted  of  barley  bread,  herbs  cooked  in  water,  and  CCologne.  1640).  iji^„^„«  xm   no»-^™ 

oatmeal.    (2)  Tables  were  abolished;  they  ate  on  the  Edmond  M.  Obrbcht. 

floor  kneelule.    (3)  They  kept  the  Cistercian  habit,        —.Mm 

but  remained  bare-headed  and  barefoot  in  the  mon-  ,,  Feuillet  (FBUiLLtJB),  Louis,  geographer,  b.  at 
astenr.  (4)  They  slept  on  the  ground  or  on  bare  Mane  near  Forcalqmer,  France,  m  1660;  d.  at  Mar- 
planks,  with  a  stone  for  pillow.  They  slept  but  four  seiHes  in  1732.  He  entered  the  Franciscan  Order 
hours.  Silence  and  manual  labour  were  held  in  and  made  rapid  progress  in  his  studies,  particularly  in 
honour.  The  community  was  increased  rapidly  by  mathematics  and  astronomy.  He  attracted  the  atten- 
the  admission  of  fervent  postulants.  twn  of  members  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  in 
In  1681  Barridre  received  from  Gregory  XIII  a  1699wassentby  order  of  the  king  on  a  voyage  to  the 
Brief  of  commendation  and  in  1589  one  of  confirma-  Levant  with  Cassmi  to  determme  the  geographical 
tion,  establishing  the  Feuillants  as  a  separate  congre-  positions  of  a^number  of  seaports  and  other  cities, 
gation.  In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  abbots  and  The  success  of  the  undertaking  led  him  to  make  a 
general  chapters  of  Clteaux,  the  reform  waxed  strong,  similar  journey  to  the  AntiUw.  He  left  Marseilles, 
In  1587  Sixtus  V  called  the  Feuillants  to  Rome,  5  Feb.,  1703,  and  arrived  at  Martmique  H  Apnl.  A 
where  he  gave  them  the  church  of  S.  Pudentiana,  and  severe  sickness  was  the  cause  of  considerable  delay, 
the  same  year,  Henry  III,  King  of  France,  constructed  but  in  September  of  the  following  year  he  began  a 
for  them  the  monastery  of  St.  Bernard,  in  thp  Rue  cruise  along  the  northern  coast  of  South  Amenca, 
Saint-Honoi^,  Paris.  In  1590,  however,  the  Pea*-  making  observations  at  numerous  ports.  He  likewise 
ants'  War  brought  about  dissensions.  While  Bar-  collected  a  number  of  botanical  specimens.  Upon  his 
ri^re  remained  loyal  to  Henry  III,  the  majority  of  return  to  France  in  1706,  his  work  won  recognition 
his  religious  declared  for  the  League.  As  a  result,  in  irom  the  Government,  and  he  unmediately  began  prep- 
1692  Barri^re  was  condemned  as  a  traitor  to  the  arations  for  a  more  extended  voyage  along  the  western 
Catholic  cause,  deposed,  and  reduced  to  lay  commun-  coast  of  South  America  to  continue  his  observations, 
ion.  It  was  not  until  1600  that,  through  the  efforts  He  received  the  title  of  royal  mathematician,  and 
of  Cardmal  Bellarmine,  he  was  exonerated  and  rein-  armed  with  letters  from  the  ministry  set  sail  from 
stated.  Early  in  the  same  year,  however,  he  died  in  Marseilles,  14  Dec.,  1707.  He  rounded  Cape  Horn 
the  arms  of  his  friend  Cardinal  d'Ossat.  In  1595  after  a  tempestuous  voyage  and  visited  the  prmcipal 
aement  VIII  exempted  the  reform  from  all  jurisdio-  western  porte  as  far  north  as  Callao.  At  Lima  he 
tion  on  the  part  of  Cistercian  abbots,  and  allowed  the  spent  several  months  studjring  the  region.  He  re- 
Feuillants  to  draw  up  new  constitutions,  containing  turned  to  France  in  1711,  bringing  with  him  much 
some  mitigations  of  the  primitive  rigour.  These  were  valuable  data  and  a  collection  of  botanical  specimens, 
approved  the  same  year.  In  1598  toe  Feuillante  took  Louis  XIV  granted  him  a  pension  and  built  an  obser- 
possession  of  a  second  monastery  in  Rome,  San  Ber-  vatory  for  him  at  Marseilles.  Feuillet  was  of  a  ^ntle 
nardo  alle  Terme.    In  1630  Pope  Urban  VIII  divided  and  simple  character,  and  whfle  m  enthusiastic  ex- 

the  c  "  "         "  '  -     1  ^     ^  1        X.- 

that 

Feuillante;  «uv«  vu«v  v*  '.•m».j,  ummv.«^.  v**v.  u».^w  ^^  *^^.  .  . 

nardoni   or   Reformed   Bemardines.    In    1634   the  nal*' (Paris,  1725). 

Feuillants  of  France,  and  in  1667  the  Bemaixiin^  of  J^^^  ^JSufe' J'lir'^^X^^e^S^'^t 

Italy  modified  somewhat  the  constitutions  of  1595.  aenschaften  (Leipxig,  1863),  I. 

In  1791  at  the  time  of  the  suppression  of  the  religious  Henrt  M.  Brock. 

orders,  the  Feuillante  possessed  twenty-four  abbeys 

in  France;  almost  all  the  religious  were  confessors,        F^val,   PAUii-HENRi-CoRENTiN,    novelist,    b.    at 

I,  or  martyrs.    The  Bemanlines  of  Italy  eventu-  Rennes,  27  September,  1817;  d.  in  Paris,  8  March. 
VI.- 


ncTjte  66  ruoo 

1887.    He  bdrmged  to  on  old  f&mily  ol  baniat/en,  and  stitutiona,  otutomB,  and  supentitions.    He  critjcind, 

bis  parenta  wished  him  to  (oUov  the  family  traditiona.  among  other  thingi,  the  syBtem  of  public  iiutruetim  in 

He  received  his  secondary  inatruction  at  the  lyeie  cA  Spain,  offering  auggesticKU  for  refonos;  and  it  was 

Rennes  and  studied  law  at  the  univeraitf  oi  the  8wne  owing  to  his  agitation  that  many  univenitieB  ad<q>ted 

city.    He  woa  admitted  to  the  bar  at  the  age  of  nine-  new  and  better  methods  of  teaching  logic,  phyaics,  Mid 

teen,  but  the  loss  of  hia  first  case  di^uatedhim  with  medicine.    He  naturally  stirred  up  many  c<Mitrover> 

the  practice  of  law,  and  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  siee  and  was  the  object  of  bitter  attacks,  but  be  was 

secured  a  position  aa  a  bank  clerk.    His  fondnes  for  not  without  his  supporters  and  defenders.    Is  hia  long 

reading^  which  caused  him  to  n^ect  his  professional  life  he  wrote  many  works,  the  full  list  of  which  may  be 

duties,  ted  to  his  dismisBal  a  few  months  later.    He  is  found  in  Vol.  L\^  of  "  La  Biblioteca  de  Autoree  E^ 

next  found  in  the  pafioles"  (Madrid,  1883).     The  aubjects  may  be  octt- 

service  of  an  ad-  veniently  grouped  as  follows:  arta;  astronomy  a&d 

vertising  concern,  getwraphy;  economics;  philoeophy  and  metaphyncs; 

tben  on  the  staff  philology;  mathematics  and  phyaics;  natural  histoiy; 

of  an  obscure  Pa-  literatuie;  history;  malicine.     Nearly  all  are  included 

risian  paper,  and  in  the  eight  volumes  which  bear  the  title  "Teatoo 

finally  as    proof-  critico  universal  6  discursos  varioe  en  todo  g£nera  de 

reader  in  the  offices  materias  para  deeengaiJo  de  errores  comunee"  (Mad- 

of    "Le    Nouvel-  rid,  1726-39)  and  in  the  five  volumes  (rf  his  "Cartas 

liste".       He    had  Eruditas"  (Madrid,  1742-60).     During  the  life  of  the 

already  begun  to  author  his  works  were  translated  into  French,  Italian, 

write.       A    short  German,  and  after  his  death  into  En  dish.     At  his 

story,   "Le  club  death  Feyj6o  was  laid  to  rest  in  the  church  of  San 

dea  Phoques",  Vicente  at  Oviedo.    A  fine  statue  in  his  memory  oma- 

which  be  publishea  menta  the  entrance  to  the  National  Libruy  at  Madrid. 

1  Revue  de         Vicitns  di  1.1  Fdbkti,  Vida  y  Jukio  Criticn  de  Ftyjiv  la 


Paris"      in     1841  Rivjidehuba.  BMioUca  de  Aiilorte  EipoAoUi  [Mubid,  184S- 

attractedattan-  Vbntdba  FnaNrKs. 
tion  and  opened  to 

F^val  the  columns  fi*ix,  Saint  (about  415-620),  poet,  chief  biahc^ 
of  the  most  im-  of  Leinster,  and  founder  of  two  churehes.  His  father, 
poitant  Parisan  Mac  Dara,  was  prince  of  the  Hy-Bairrche  in  the  coun- 
PAei^Huu-CouNTiH  FATAL  newspapcTB.  In  try  around  Carlow.  His  mother  was  giflt«r  of  Dubh- 
1844,  under  the  pseudonvm  of  Francis  Trolopp,  tach,  the  chief  bard  and  brebon  of  Erin,  the  first  of 
he  wrote  "Lee  myat^ree  ae  Londres",  which  had  Patrick's  converts  at  Tara,  and  the  apoetle's  lifelong 
great  success  and  was  translated  into  several  Ian-  friend.  Fiacc  was  a  pupil  to  his  uncle  in  the  b&rdio 
gua^ee.  From  this  time  on  he  hardly  ever  ceased  profession  and  soon  embraced  the  Faith.  Subse- 
writm^,  sometimee  publishing  as  many  as  four  novels  (juently,  when  Patrick  came  to  Leinster,  he  Bo- 
at a  time.  Some  of  them  he  also  tned  to  adapt  for  joumed  at  Dubhtach's  house  in  Hy-Kinsellagh  and 
the  stage  but,  with  the  exception  of  "Le  Bossu"  selected  Fiacc,  on  Dubhtach's  recommendation,  to  be 
which  was  played  many  times,  his  ventures  in  that  consecrated  bishop  for  the  converts  of  Leinster. 
direction  were  unsucc^sful.  Ffval's  writings  had  Fiacc  was  then  a  widower;  his  wife  had  recently  died, 
not  always  been  in  conformity  with  the  teachings  leaving  him  one  son  named  Fiacre.  Patrick  gave 
of  the  Church.  In  the  early  seventies  he  sincerely  re-  him  an  alphabet  written  with  his  own  hand,  and 
turned  to  his  early  beli^,  and  between  1877  and  tSS2  Fiacc  acquired  with  marvellous  rapidity  the  learning 
published  a  revised  edition  of  all  bis  books.  He  also  necessary  for  the  episcopal  order.  Patrick  conse- 
wrote  some  new  works  which  show  the  change.  His  crated  him,  and  in  after  time  appointed  him  ehirf 
incessant  labour  and  the  financial  reverses  he  nad  suf-  bishop  of  the  province.  Fiacc  founded  the  church  al 
fered  told  on  his  constitution;  be  was  stricken  with  Domnach-Fiech,  east  of  the  Barrow.  Dr.  Healv 
paralysis.  The  Soci^t^  des  Gens  de  Lettres,  <^  which  identifies  its  site  at  Kyleb«g.  To  this  church  Patri^ 
he  was  the  president,  had  him  placed  in  ^e  home  of  presented  sacred  vestments,  a  bell,  the  Pauline  Epis- 
Les  Ftires  de  S.  Jean  de  Dieu,  where  he  died.  ties,  and  a  pastoral  staff.  After  many  years  of  au» 
Most  of  F^val's  novels  are  romantic;  in  fact  he  may  tere  life  in  this  place,  Fiacc  wits  led  by  angelic  com- 
be considered  as  the  best  imitator  of  the  elder  Dumas;  mand  to  remove  to  the  west  of  the  Barrow,  for  there 
his  fecundity,  bis  imaginBtion,  and  his  power  of  inter-  "he  would  find  the  place  of  his  resurrection".  The 
eating  the  raider  rival  those  of  hts  great  predecessor;  l^nda  state  that  he  was  directed  to  build  his  orator; 
the  style,  however,  too  often  betrays  the  haste  in  which  where  he  should  meet  a  hind,  his  refectory  where  he 
his  novels  were  written.  The  list  of  his  works  is  a  should  find  a  boar.  He  considted  Patrick,  the  latt«r 
very  long  one;  the  best  known  besides  those  already  fixed  the  site  of  his  new  church  at  Sletty — "  the  high- 
mentioned  are:  "Etapee  d'uue  conversion"  (Paris,  land" — a  mile  and  a  half  north-west  of  Carlow.  Here 
1877);  "Merveillea  du  Mont-Saint-Michel"  (Paris,  Fiaccbuiltalorgemonastery,  which heruledasabbot, 
1879).  while  at  the  same  time  be  governed  the  surrounding 

LoniHDHE    ANR    BouaquiiOT,    lAtUnUurr    amlmpanint  country  as  bishop.      TTi't  annual  Lenten  retreat  to  the 

S^'S.-S^i^'i^ZriAmS"^''^'"^'  f"  =!  Dran^obbu  an<l  thejigom  of  hi.  Lent™ 

I^EBKB  Mabiqub.  '^^'  ^^  "^^  barley  loaves  mixed  with  ashes,  are  men- 
tioned in  his  life  by  Jocelyn  of  Furneas.     He  suffered 

Feyj6o  y  Hontenegro,  Benito  Jebi5niho,  a  cele-  for  many  years  from  a  painful  disease,  and  Patrick. 

braW  Spanish  writer,  b.  at  Casdemiro,  in  the  parish  commiserating  his  infirmity,  sent  him  a  chariot  and 

of  Santa  Maria  de  Melias,  Gaticia,  Spain,  8  October,  a  pair  of  horses  to  help  him  m  the  visitation  of  the  dio* 

1678;d.atOviedo,26September,  1764.     Inteadedby  cese.     He  lived  to  a  very  old  age;  sixty  of  his  pious 

his  parents  for  a  literary  career,  he  showed  from  a  disciples  were  gathered  to  their  rest  before  him.     Hia 

very  early  age  a  predilection  for  ecclesiastical  studies,  festival  has  been  always  observed  on  the  12th  of  Octo. 

and  in  1688  received  the  cowl  of  the  Order  of  St  Bene-  ber.     He  was  buried  m  his  own  church  at  Sletty,  hia 

diet  at  the  monastery  of  San  Juan  do  Samoe.     A  man  son  Fiacre,  whom  Patrick  hod  ordained  priest,  occupy- 

of  profound  learning  Feyjfio  wrote  on  a  great  variety  ing  the  same  ^ve.    They  are  mentioned  in  several 

of  subjects,  embracing  nearly  every  branch  of  human  calendars  as  jomtly  revered  in  certain  churches. 

IpiowledgQ.    In  his  writing  be  attacked  many  cdd  ii^  St.  Fiaoo  is  the  reputed  Author  of  the  metrical  life  a( 


8L  Patrick  in  Irish,  a  document  of  undoubted  an-  yUmmliigo  (The  FLxUNa),  Dennib.    See  CaIi- 

tiqui^  and  of  prime  importance  OS  tbe  earliest  bii^  v^rt,  DiONXSitJS. 
raphy  of  the  eaiut  that  has  come  down  to  ub.    A 

h^nn  (m  St.  Brigid,  "Audite  virsois  laudea",  has  Fldno,  Habsiuo,  philooopher,  philolo^,  ph^ 

been  Bometimee  attributed  to  him,  but  on  inmifBoient  sician;  b.  at  Florence,  19  Oct..  1433;  d.  at  Coneggio. 

grounds.  1  Oct.,  14D9.    Son  of  the  Einysiciaii  of  Cosmo  de 

Aeia  33.,  12  Oct.;  CoLajta.  TViu  Tlutum.  [Loaviin.  1617];  Hedici,  he  served  the  Uedlcis  for  three  Kcnerationa 

dtni  Sdu^  and  sSiolan  (Dublin.  1802);  intk  Bai.  Rmrd.  He  Studied  at  Florence  and  at  Bologna;  and  wan  spe- 

U.Rh.  1888;  Liftw  Humiwnfln  CTfiniiy  doUew.  Dublin),  ai.  ciallv  protected  in  hia  early  work  bv  Coemo  de' Hedini, 

Tonn  (1855-61))  uid  g.»AHi>  .»n  Atom™.  M8B8).  who  choee  him  to  tnimilate  the  wofka  of  PUto  into 

u.  MULCAHT.  ijiiia.    The  Council  of  Florence  (1439)  brought  to  the 

_          n           .iL  •L'Tiji.1.1.        .  city  a  number  of  Greek  Bcbolare,  and  this  fact,  Gom- 

."~!»v8""7'  *''^,'.'';  "  S^o  about  the  end  ^^^  ^,t  u,,  (o„nding  of  the  Ptalonlc  Aoulemy,  of 

oftheaHthcentury:d.l8AuguBt,670.    HavinRbeen  which  Ficino  wM  atected  president,  gave  an  unpetua 

ordam^  pnest,  he  retired  to  a  femi'SS!  o?  the  banks  ^  ^^  ^^    of  Creek  and  eqiecialW  to  that  of  Slo. 

of  the  Nore  (il  which  the  townland  Kirjachra.  or  Kil-  Fj,i„„  t^'„  „  ^,„,  ^Sir  rf  Plato  and  a  prop- 

fera,  Co.  Kilkenny,  still  preeerve.  the  memory     D»-  ,^    „,    p^^^                                               >"  ■- 

dples  flocked  to  him,  but,  deairoua  of  greater  solitude,  j^^m     or    rather 

he  left  his  native  laud  and  aitived,  in  628,  at  Meauz,  neo-^Iatoniam    to 

where  St.  Faro  then  held  episcopal  sway.    He  was  ^j,      unwarranf*! 

generously  received  by  Faro,  whoee  kindly  feeling  jegree    going    so 

were  engaged  to  the  Insh  monk  f^pblemngs  which  Ee  ,,y„  'i„'„aiStain 

and  his  fathers  house  had  received  from  the  Irisli  ^^^  Plato  should 

missionary  f^olumbanua.     Faro  granted  him  out  of  his  ^    ^^^    ^    f^ 

own  patrimony  a  site  at  BrogiHum  (Breuil)  surrounded  phurohes     and 

by  forests.     Here  Fiacre  bmit  an  oratory  in  honour  of  pj^mujo  goeratee 

the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  a  hoepice  in  which  he  re-  and  P^to  as  for^ 

ceived  strangers,  and  a  cell  in  which  he  himself  hved  j^rmgrg  pf  Christ 

apart.     He  lived  a  Ufe  of  great  mortifi(»tion,  in  ^^  taught  Plato 

prayer,  fast,vigil,andthe  manual  Ltbour  of  the  gar-  j^  tjjg  Academy  of 

aon.    Disciples  gathered  around  hiin  and  soon  formed  Florence,  and  I'l  U 

amonaetery.    IWs  is  a  legend  that  St.  Faro  aUowed  said  he  kept  a  light 

him  as  much  hind  as  he  might  surround  m  one  day  i,„^!„„  Cfni^a 

with  a  furrow;  that  Fiacre  turned  up  the  earth  with  iXtof>i^™h^                 Msaaiuo  Ficiso 

t''t,'"iS.°'.''Jf i™S  f;*"  ""'■i?  °&Tr °S^  «»»■    I'  »  supposed  that  the  works  of  Savomml. 

hastenedtot«UFsrothiJhewasbsimheguiledi  that  drew  Ficino  clriSto  the  spirit  of  the  Church.    Ho 

Faro  commg  to  the  wood  raogm««l  ftat  he  wonder-  was  onlained  priest  m  U77  and  becun,  a  c».on  of  the 

worker  was  a  man  of  God  and  sought  his  blessing,  and  ^a,^^  „,  i!i,„„ce.     His  dispoaition  was  mlM,  but 

that  Fijcre  hencdotth  excluded  women,  on  pain  of  „  „        h,  h«l  to  use  his  knowledio  of  muski  to  drive 

severe  bodily  mtanity    from  lb,  precmot.  ,rf  his  mekncholy.    His  knowledi  of  modicme  was 

momrtory.    In  raJity,  the  exelu«on  of  women  was  a  J^           ^^j    ^  himsoUTGicoming  almoat  a 

common  role  m  the  Irish  foundations.    Bs  fame  for  ,JJ,„tiii^in  iu  ditall.    As  a  philologisl  his  worth 

miracles  was  wide=iprwd.    H.  cured  all  »«""«■  of  ^,„<,g,j^   „d  Beuchlin  sent  him  pnpihi  trgm 

disease,  by  Uying  on  hm  hands;  blindness,  polypus,  German^    Anielo  Polliiano  was  one  of  h&  pupils, 

hvem  «.  mentionrf    and  especiallf,  •  tumour  or  "jn^(XSKorrw.J?.iU2il^?nffith. 

tatula  since  called    le  fie  de  S,  Fmcre  ful,  though  his  acquaintance  iSth  Greek  and  Latin 

His  renmin,  wore  mtored  in  ha  ohurch  at  Breuil,  wsi  by  nS  means  ^iriect.    He  translated  the  "Argo- 

whore  ha  sanctity  waa  eoon  attested  by  the  numerous  „„u4..  ^,  "OiSic  Hymns",  Homer's  "Hymni", 

cures  wrou^at  his  tomb     Many  churehee  and  era-  „3  fiiii™  iSKpSlriSKnof  pCStp: 

tone,  have^een  dedu»tod  to  hmthroughoul  Fr~i»  J^'Sf,^  tbeXS  tSfrfPkto  wipSShS 

S;  ?5^m™  .?"'S  I'^Shi:  ^^™  i-SSSli?.  S  Si\^  taiAUd  Plotinus,  Porphvry,  ProElus,  lun- 

SSStipl™  m.hSlS^ir^'^E;,;  Michu.,  AIcuous,  Synedii,   p|»llus,   the   "dolden 

Bhrms  by  Pierre,  Bishop  of  Meaui,  his  arm  heiM  o^  Thoughts  "  of  Pytlsgiras,  and  the  work,  of  Dionyslua 

o»ed  m  a  sepjrsto  rehquary     In  1479  the  relics  of  ,^    Treopagite.    T?ten  k  young  man  he  wroto  an 

Sta.  Fiacre  and  Ki  lan  were  placed  in  a  silver  shrme,     T.  VI, J^,'!tI^„  ,„  n..  i>i.;i™„i^„r  ni-i.,".  i,j. _i 

_i.;-k  .-.—  ...^........j  ;«  iuiQtJ^ii.»~.ii.>.i_i..i...»i.  .1  Introduction  to  the  Phucwophy  of  Plato     his  most 

which  was  removed  in  lotie  to  the  catbedrnl  churcu  at    , ,._, ,, im i„^„  oi-.-^: j i»- 

rS'''t''V'Tl7'V'l2roS'V5SS^''i  Z^moiitj(F^SS".f8'5,raTh^SS 

~r.%S^^;,'.  SJw   Sr,^S>,i.^teit?  »'  «!■»  ™k  »  '<>•"<'«'  1^  "(iompeidium  tbeolo«. 

K5i^^^?^£.tSJ^™!2!;^,£Sl!^rSS^&  PUtomc.".    He    respects   Aristotle   and   oalls^ 

thiZ!SLiS,£^^^XlSS^    5  JS2,i  •"■»»"  «"  "  8l<»7  o'^eology  ";  yet  for  him  PUto  is 

S;.2HrSSi?2S,„SlSSiq^FSSI  Oi.philo«,phe?    ShristianitJ;  ho  uys,  muat  reat  on 

Ef.^,3S.i_     S  1SSiS;Sr^„5vSf^5  philS«,phic  grounds;  in  Phito  alone  do  w.  find  the 

fafeandnuraelea.    St.  John  of  Matha,  Louis  XIII,  and  Jugument.  to  mipport  its  claims,  hence  he  consider. 

Anne  of  Austna  were  among  his  moat  famous  clients.  rtS^TI;.':!  ^  nlii^  =  .Ti^ilJ^^ii^^t  p J!^\io^-L 

H.,  i.  iKa  »_■..».  .J  _~i=t^..     in.-  ir_,...i,  ~.i.  .]=_  the  revival  of  Plato  an  mtervention  of  Providence. 

S™  iiTS.S;  S,f  ST    m'  1^1  J%,  FiS;~  r  PI"'"  li""  »«  ""P  ■«  immediat.  causes,  but  ri«is  to 

!r.1i,2  SfS.^Tp.?;  ,•  JS..SM  ,hfS:'.i  «■•  "b'"'  caul.,  God,  In  Whom  he  se^  all  things, 

tbe  Kue  8l-MartiD,  rani,  m  the  nudale  oi  tbe  seven-    rrii r;i i i  tji..'    ;„  .  i ; i , t  _2. 

toenth  cntury  firit  let  these  coaches  on  hire.    Ths  3S,.Tho^f  i  >hiS  i?h  T.  E,Z«™?d'S: 

■ ,»  .1 ■'    _        _  ■_  /  .u        -  .      1  .L  vioufl  tnouBnt,  oeinnninK  witn  the  luryptiBne  and  ao- 

'  Shi  S  ii™    ™»    1    STiiS  ?.  blfji'™     Hi!  '"""S  "MP  br>»P  'ilf Philo  tak,?Sp  the  mysteria 

SSut^J^.w^^ifa^S,  '  ofrelimcniidca.t.themluaformthitmadeitpo» 

^  aa^i  «,?^  S  »  «J?SL  .)  r,j™i  m.ui.  sibleftt  the  neo.Pktonist  to  set  them  forth  oloSE 

1S29).  II.  4M-M&  (yUANLOH.  lAw  of  At  Irith  Samu,  30  The  seed  IS  to  be  found  in  Plato,  ita  futl  expremoa  in 

Auf.  VIII.  421;    Varfunif<iov«r'>«u«ai,  220;   Butleb,  Ltwt  the  neo-Platoniste.      FicinofollowB  thislineof  tbotld!lt 

tt2r,KiS.*j;'is;k'rtl.'sacji.";rsi:  !:'f~'^«,°'.t''v!sT'r''"?','s,"':Sr?^ 

— — -— '-—!-  •—"          "^  the  image  of  the  God-head,  a  part  of  the  grwit  chain 

«  coming  forth  from  God  ud  leading  back 


nOKBB                                 68  FIDEI8M 

to  the  same  source,  giving  us  at  the  same  time  a  view  FideiBm  (Lat.  fides ,  faith),  a  philosophical  term 

of  the  attributes  of  God  and  of  his  relations  to  the  meaning  a  system  of  philosophy  or  an  attitude  of 

world.    His  style  is  not  alwa^  clear.    Perhaps  his  mind,  which,  denying  the  power  of  unaided  human 

distinctive  merit  rests  on  the  tact  that  he  introduced  reason  to  reach  certitude,  affirms  that  the  funda- 

Platonic  philosophy  into  Europe.    Besides  the  works  mental  act  of  human  knowledge  consists  in  an  act  of 

already  mentioned,  he  left:  "  De  religione  Christiana  faith,  and  the  supreme  criterion  of  certitude  is  auliior- 

etfideipietate",  dedicated  to  Ix)renzod§' Medici; ''In  ity.    Fideism  has  divers  degrees  and  takes  divers 

Epistolas  Pauli  commentaria";  Marsilii  Ficini  Epis-  forms,  according  to  the  field  of  trutbto  which  it  is  ex* 

tolae  (Venice,  1491;  Florence,  1497).    His  collected  tended,  and  the  various  elements  which  are  affirmed 

works:  Opera  (Florence,  1491,  Venice,  1516,  Basel,  as  constituting  the  authority.    For  some  ndeists,  hu- 

1561).  man  reason  cannot  of  itself  reach  certitude  in  regard 

ScHBLHORNj  De  rtto,  moribus  et  aeripiia  Marsilii  Ficini  eomr  to  any  truth  whatever;  for  others,  it  cannot  reach 

Sr^^jr  'S.  fe?;^*4/k Jr;  fis^?/7i^r§S^«iS:  ^^'^^^^  »  T"*  ^\^^  fundamental  truths  of  meta- 

Omch.  d,  pUxtonisch  Akademie  zu  Flormz  {cdttingen,  1812);  physics,  morahty  and  religion,  while  some  mamtam 

TiRABoacHhSioria  delta  leUeratura  italiana  (Modena.  1771-82);  that  we  Can  give  a  firm  supernatural  assent  to  revelar 

f^'^'iL'^R^ZSZ^J'ltS  IkSS&Ji'^i  i\A\  «on  on  motfv«  of  credibSity  that  are  merely  prot^ 

1898).  II;  St6ckl,  Gesch.  d.  Phiioeopkied.  MiUdaUen  (MainB,  able.     Authority,  whlch  according  to  fideism  IS  the 

1866),  III;  Gabotto,  L'epicureismo  di  Ficino  (Milan,  1891).  rule  of  certitude,  has  its  ultimate  foundation  in  divine 

M.  Schumacher.  revelation,  preserved  and   transmitted  in  all  ages 

through  society  and  manifesto  by  tradition,  common 
Ficker,  Julius  (more  correctly  Caspar)  von,  his-  sense  or  some  other  agent  of  a  social  character.  Fide- 
torian,  b.  at  Paderborn,  Germany,  30  April,  1826;  d.  at  ism  was  maintained  by  Huet,  Bishop  of  Avranches,  in 
Innsbruck,  10  June,  1902.  He  studied  history  and  his  work  "Deimbecilhtate  mentis  human® "  (Amster- 
law  at  Bonn,  MQnster,  and  Berlin,  and  during  1848-49  dam,  1748);  by  de  Bonald,  who  laid  great  stress  on 
lived  in  Frankfort-on-the^Main,  where  he  was  closely  as-  tradition  in  societv  as  the  means  of  the  transmission 
sociated  with  the  noted  historian,  Bdhmer,  who  proved  of  revelation  and  the  criterion  of  certitude;  by  Lamen- 
himself  a  generous  friend  and  patron.  In  1852  ne  pro-  nais,  who  assigns  as  a  rule  of  certitude  the  general 
ceeded  to  Bonn,  but  shortly  afterwards  accepted  an  reason  (la  raison  g^n^rale)  or  common  consent  of  the 
invitation  from  Count  Leo  Thun,  the  reorganizer  of  the  race  (Defense  de  ressai  sur  Pindiff^rence,  chs.  viii,  xi) ; 
Austrian  system  of  education,  to  settle  at  Innsbruck  by  Bonnetty  in  "  Annales  de  philosophic  chr^tienne"; 
as  professor  of  general  history.  In  1863,  however,  he  by  Bautain,  Ventura,  Ubaghs,  and  others  at  Louvain. 
joinedthefacultyof  jurisprudence,  and  his  lectures  on  These  are  sometimes  called  moderate  fideists,  for, 
I)olitical  and  legal  histoiy  drew  around  him  a  large  though  they  maintained  that  human  reason  is  unable 
circle  of  devoted  and  admiring  pupils.  In  1866  he  was  to  know  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  moral  and  reli- 
elected  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  but  re-  gious  orders,  they  admitted  that,  siter  accepting  the 
tired,  after  being  ennobled  by  the  Emperor  of  Aus-  teaching  of  revelation  concerning  them,  human  mtel- 
tria,  in  1879.  His  numerous  and  important  works  ligence  can  demonstrate  the  reasonableness  of  such 
extend  over  three  branches  of  scientific  history  (i.  e.  a  belief  (cf.  Ubaghs,  Iiogicse  seu  Philosophic  ratio- 
political  and  legal  history  and  the  science  of  diplo-  nalis  elementa,  Louvain,  1860). 
macy),  and  in  each  division  he  discovered  new  methods  In  addition  to  these  systematic  formulse  of  fideism. 


ische  Chroniken  des  Mittelalters"  (MOnster,  1851);  at  different  periods.  Fideism  owes  its  origin  to  di&- 
"Engelbert  der  Heilige,  Erzbischof  von  Koln"  (Co-  trust  in  human  reason,  and  the  lo^cal  sequence  of 
logne,  1853) ;  '^  Die  Ueberreste  des  deutschen  Rejchs-    such  an  attitude  is  scepticism.    It  is  to  escape  from 


aeit  des  Sachsenspiegels"  ^Innsbruck  1859);  "Vom  asserting  the  primacy  of  oelief  over  reason  or  elseaf- 
Reichsf iirstenstanae '' (Innsbruck,  1861) ;  "  Forschun-  firming  a  radical  separation  between  reason  and  belief, 
cenzurReichs-u.  Rechtsgeschichte  Itahens"  (4  vols.,  that  is,  between  science  and  philbsophy  on  the  one 
Innsbruck,  1868-74) ;  "  Untersuchungen  zur  Rechts-  hand  and  religion  on  the  other.  Such  is  the  position 
geschichte"  (3  Vols.,  Innsbruck,  1891-97).  Finally  taken  by  Kant,  when  he  distinguishes  between  pure 
he  proved  himself  a  master  in  diplomatics  in  his  reason,  confinea  to  subjectivity,  and  practical  reason, 
"Beitr&ge  zur  Urkundenlehre'^  (2  vols.,  Innsbrack,  which  alone  is  able  to  put  us  by  an  act  of  faith  in 
1877-78).  During  the  period  1859^1866,  he  was  en-  relation  with  objective  reality.  It  is  also  a  fideistie 
ea^ed  in  a  literarv  controversy  with  the  historian,  attitude  which  is  the  occasion  of  agnosticism,  of  posi-p 
Hemrich  von  Sybel,  on  the  significance  of  the  German  tivism,  of  pragmatism  and  other  modem  forms  of  anti- 
Empire.  Ficker  advocated  and  defended  the  theory  intellectualism.  As  against  these  views,  it  must  be 
that  Austria,  on  account  of  its  blending  of  races,  was  noted  that  authority,  even  the  authority  of  God,  can- 
best  fitted  as  successor  of  the  old  empire  to  secure  the  not  be  the  supreme  criterion  of  certitude,  and  an  act  of 
political  advancement  both  of  Central  Europe  and  of  faith  cannot  be  the  primary  form  of  human  knowledge. 
Germany.  In  support  of  his  theoiy,  he  wrote  "  Das  This  authority,  indeed,  in  order  to  be  a  motive  of  assent, 
deutsche  Kaiserreicti  in  seinen  universalen  und  nation-  must  be  previously  acknowledged  as  being  certainly 
alen  Beziehungen"  (Innsbruck,  1871),  and  "Deut-  valid;  before  we  believe  in  a  proposition  as  revealed  b> 
sches  K6nigtum  und  ICaisertum^'  (Innsbruck,  1872).  God,  we  must  first  know  with  certitude  that  God  ex 
As  legatee  of  Bdhmer's  literary  estate,  he  published  ists,  that  He  reveals  such  and  such  a  proposition,  and 
the  ''Acta  Imperii  selecta"  (Innsbruck,  1870)  and  that  His  teaching  is  worthv  of  assent,  all  of  which 
directed  the  completion  and  revision  of  the  "  Regesta  questions  can  and  must  be  ultimately  decided  only  by 
Imperii".  an  act  of  intellectual  assent  based  on  objective  evi- 
JuNo,  Zur  Erinnerung  an  J.  Ficker,  in  AUgemeine  ZeUung,  dence.     Thus,    fideism   not   only   denies   intellectual 

^^^S&^'^r^^^'i^^,^^^J^t^^&  knowledge  but  logically  n,ins  faith  itself 
Jahrbuch,  VII  (1905),  29&-306.  It  IS.  not  surpnsing,  therefore,  that  the  Church  has 

Patricius  Schlaqer.  condemned  such  doctrines.    In  1348,  the  Holy  See 

proscribed  certain  fideistie  propositions  of  Nicholas 

FidataSf  Simeon  a  Caqcia.    Soe  Simon  of  Ca69IA<  a'Autrecourt  (cf .  Denzinger,  Enchiridion,  10th  ed.,  nn. 


HDCUS 


69 


fIDILIS 


653-670).  In  his  two  Encyclicals,  one  of  September, 
1832,  and  the  other  of  Jul^,  1834,  Gregory  aVI  con- 
demned thepolitioal  and  philoeophical  ideas  of  Lamen- 
nais.  Chi  8  September,  1840,  Bautain  was  required  to 
subscribe  to  several  propositions  directly  opposed  to 
Fideism,  the  first  and  the  fifth  of  which  read  as  fol- 
lows: "  Human  reason  is  able  to  prove  with  certitude 
the  existence  of  God ;  faith,  a  heavenly  gift,  is  posterior 
to  revelation,  and  therefore  cannot  be  properly  used 
against  the  atheist  to  prove  the  existence  of  God''; 
and  "  The  use  of  reason  precedes  faith  and,  with  the 
help  of  revelation  and  grace,  leads  to  it."    The  same 

Jropositions  were  subscribed  to  by  Bonnetty  on  11 
une,  1856  (cf.  Denzinger,  nn.  1650-1652).  In  hb 
Letter  of  11  December,  1862,  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Munich^  Pius  IX,  while  condenming  Frohschammer's 
naturalism,  affirms  the  ability  of  human  reason  to  reach 
certitude  concerning  the  fundamental  truths  of  the 
moral  and  religious  order  (cf.  Denzinger,  1666-1676). 
And,  finally,  the  Vatican  Council  teaches  as  a  dogma 
of  CathoUc  laith  that  "  one  true  God  and  Lord  can  be 
Imown  with  certainty  by  the  natural  light  of  human 
reason  by  means  of  the  things  that  are  made"  (Const. 
**  De  Fide  Catholic^",  Sess.  Ill,  can.  i,  De  Revelatione; 
cf.  Granderath,  '^  Constitutiones  dogmaticse  Cone. 
Vatic",  Freiburg,  1892,  p.  32-  cf.  Denzmger,  n.  1806). 

As  to  the  opinion  of  those  who  maintain  that  our 
supernatural  assent  is  prej)ared  for  by  motives  of  cred- 
ibility merely  probable,  it  is  evident  that  it  logically 
destroys  the  certitude  of  such  an  assent.  This  opinion 
was  condemned  by  Innocent  XI  in  the  decree  of  2 
March,  1679  (cf.  Denzin^r,  n.  1171),  and  by  Pius  X  in 
the  decree  " Lamentabih  sane"  n.  25:  ^' Assensus  fidei 
ultimo  innititur  in  congerie  probabilitatum "  (The 
assent  of  faith  is  ultimately  based  on  a  sum  of  proba- 
bilities). Revelation,  indeed,  is  the  supreme  motive  of 
faith  in  supernatural  truths,  vet  the  existence  of  this 
motive  ana  its  validity  has  to  be  established  by  reason. 
No  one  will  deny  the'  importance  of  authority  and 
tradition  or  common  qonsent  in  human  society  tor  our 
ImowledgB  of  natural  truths.  It  is  quite  evident  that 
to  despise  the  teaching  of  the  sages,  the  scientific  dis- 
coveries of  the  past,  and  the  voice  of  common  consent 
would  be  to  condemn  ourselves  to  a  perpetual  infancy 
in  knowled^,  to  render  impossible  any  pcpgress  in 
science,  to  ignore  the  social  character  of  man,  and  to 
make  human  life  intolerable;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  an  error  to  make  these  elements  the  supreme 
criteria  of  truth,  since  they  are  only  particular  rules  of 
certitude,  the  validity  of  which  is  grounded  upon  a 
mare  fundamental  rule.  It  is  indeed  true  that  moral 
certitude  differs  from  mathematical,  but  the  difference 
lies  not  in  the  firmness  or  vaUdity  of  the  certainty  af- 
forded, but  in  the  process  employed  and  the  disposi- 
tions required  by  tne  nature  of  the  truths  with  which 
they  respectively  deal.  The  Catholic  doctrine  on  this 
ciuestion  is  in  accord  with  history  and  philosophy.  Re- 
jecting both  rationalism  and  fideism,  it  teaches  that  hu- 
man reason  is  capable  (physical  abiUty)  of  knowing 
the  moral  and  reh^ous  trutns  of  the  natural  order; 
that  it  can  prove  with  certainty  the  existence  of  God, 
the  immoitality  of  the  soul,  and  can  acknowled^ 
most  certainly  the  teaching  of  God ;  that,  however,  m 
the  present  conditions  of  hfe,  it  needs  (of  moral  neces- 
sity) the  help  of  revelation  to  acquire  a  sufficient 
knowled^  of  all  the  natural  truths  necessary  to  direct 
human  life  according  to  the  precepts  of  natural  re- 
jjjrion  (Cone.  Vatic,  "De  Fide  Cath.",  cap.  ii;  cf.  St. 
Thomas,  "Cont.  Gent.",  Lib.  I,  c.  iv). 

Fbbbons,  AxetMfumet  (heotogica,  vol.  I :  D9  verA  Rdigione; 
OuJ-LAPBUNa,  D«  £a  Certitude  Morale  (5th  ed.,  Fftrb,  1905); 
Mbbcois,  CritSrtolooie  qjjnirale  (4th  ed..  Louvain,  19(X)),  III, 
oh.  i:  John  Ricxabt,  The  First  Principlea  of  KnawMge  (4th 
ed.,  London,  1901),  oos.  xii,  xiiL 

G.  M.  SAuyAGE. 

FideUa  of  Sigmaringen,  Saint,  b.  in  1577,  at 
9igmMringCTii  Prussia,  of  which  town  his  father  Johan- 


nes Rey  was  burgpmaster;  d.  at  Sevis,  24  April,  1622. 
On  the  paternal  side  he  was  of  Flemish  ancestry.  He 
pursued  his  studies  at  the  University  of  Freiburg  in 
the  Breisgau,  and  in  1604  became  tutor  to  Wilhelm  von 
Stotzingen,  with  whom  he  travelled  in  France  and 
Italy.  In  the  process  for  Fidelis's  canonization  Wil- 
helm von  Stotzmgen  bore  witness  to  the  severe  morti- 
fications his  tutor  practised  on  these  journeys.  In 
1611  he  returned  to  Freiburg  to  take  the  doctorate  in 
canon  and  civil  law,  and  at  once  began  to  practise  as 
an  advocate.  But  the  open  corruption  which  found . 
place  in  the  law  courts  determined  him  to  relinquish 
that  profession  and  to  enter  the  Church.  ^  He  was  or- 
dained priest  the  following  year,  and  immediately 
afterwards  was  received  into  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor 
of  the  Capuchin  Reform  at  Freibui^g,  taking  the  name 
of  Fidelis.  He  has  left  an  interesting  memorial  of  his 
novitiate  and  of  his  spiritual  development  at  that  time 
in  a  book  of  spiritual  exercises  .whicn  he  wrote  for  him- 
self. This  work  was  re-edited  by  Father  Michael 
Hetzenauer,  O.  M.  Cap.,  and  republished  in  1893  at 
Stuttpart  under  the  title:  "S.  Fidelis  a  Sigmaringen 
exercitia  seraphic®  devotionis".  From  the  novitiate 
he  was  sent  to  Constance  to  finish  his  studies  in  the- 
ology under  Father  John  Baptist,  a  Polish  friar  of  great 
repute  for  learning  and  holiness.  At  the  conclusion  of 
his  theological  studies  Fidelis  was  appointed  guardian 
first  of  the  commimity  at  Rheinfelden,  and  after- 
wards at  Freiburg  and  Feldkirch.  As  a  preacher  his 
burning  zeal  earned  for  him  a  great  reputation. 

From  the  beginning  of  his  apostolic  career  he  was 
untiring  in  his  efforts  to  convert  heretics;  nor  did  he 
confine  his  efforts  in  this  direction  to  the  pulpit,  but 
also  used  his  pen.  ^  He  wrote  many  pamphlets  ag^nst 
Calvinism  and  ZwingUanism,  though  he  would  never 
put  his  name  to  his  writings.  Unfortunately  these 
publications  have  long  been  lost.  Fidelis  was  still 
guardian  of  the  community  at  Feldkirch  when  in 
1621  he  was  appointed  to  undertake  a  mission  in  the  . 
country  of  the  Grisons  with  the  purpose  of  bringing 
back  that  district  to  the  Catholic  Faith.  The  people 
there  had  almost  all  gone  over  to  Calvinism,  owmg 
partly  to  the  ignorance  of  the  priests  and  their  lack  of 
zeal.  In  1614  the  Bishop  of  Coire  had  requested  the 
Capuchins  to  undertake  missions  amongst  tne  heretics 
in  nis  diocese,  but  it  was  not  until  1621  that  the  gen- 
eral of  the  order  was  able  to  send  friars  there.  In  that 
year  Father  Ignatius  of  Bergamo  was  commissioned 
with  several  other  friars  to  place  himself  at  the  dis- 
posal of  this  bishop  for  missionary  work;  and  a  similar 
commission  was  given  to  Fidelis,  who.  however,  still 
remained  guardian  of  Feldkirche.  Betore  setting  out 
on  this  mission  Fidelis  was  appointed  by  authority  of 
the  papal  nuncio  to  reform  the  Bencdictme  monastery 
at  Pf&fers.  He  entered  upon  his  new  labours  in  the 
Ixue  apostolic  spirit.  Since  he  first  entered  the  order 
he  had  constantly  prayed,  as  he  confided  to  a  fellow- 
friar,  for  two  favours:  one,  that  he  might  never  fall 
into  mortal  sin;  the  other,  that  he  mig^t  die  for  the 
Faith.  In  this  spirit  he  now  set  out,  ready  to  ^ve  his 
life  in  preaching  the  Faith.  He  took  with  him  his 
crucifix,  Bible,  Breviary,  and  the  book  of  the  rule  of 
his  order;  for  the  rest,  ne  went  in  absolute  poverty, 
trusting  to  Divine  Providence  for  his  daily  sustenance. 
He  arrived  in  Mayenfeld  in  time  for  Advent  and  began 
at  once  preaching  and  catechizing;  often  preaching  in 
several  places  the  same  day.  His  commg  aroused 
strong  opposition  and  he  was  frequently  threatened 
and  insulted.  ^  He  not  only  preached  in  the  Catholic 
churches  and  in  the  public  streets,  but  occasionally  in 
the  conventicles  of  the  heretics.  At  Zizers,  one  of  the 
principal  centres  of  his  activity,  he  held  conferences  with 
the  magistrates  and  chief  townsmen,  often  far  into  the 
night.  They  resulted  in  the  conversion  of  Rudolph  de 
Salis,  the  most  influential  man  in  the  town,  whose  pub- 
lic recantation  was  followed  by  many  conversions. 

Throughout  the  winter  Fidelis  laboured  indelatigably 


riDis 


70 


rZBSOLE 


and  with  such  suooeas  that  the  heretic  preachers  were 
seriously  alarmed  and  set  themselves  to  inflame  the 
people  against  him  by  representing  that  his  mission 
was  political  rather  than  religious  and  that  he  was  pre- 
paring the  way  for  the  subj  ugation  of  the  country  by  the 
Austnans.  During  the  Lent  of  1622  he  preached  with 
especial  fervour.  At  Easter  he  returned  to  Feldkirch 
to  attend  a  chapter  of  the  order  and  settle  some  a£Fairs 
of  his  commumty.  By  this  time  the  Congr^ation  of 
the  Propaganda  had  been  established  in  Rome,  and 
Fidelis  was  formally  constituted  by  the  Congregation, 
superior  of  the  mission  in  the  Grisons.  He  had,  how- 
ever, a  presentiment  that  his  labours  would  shortly  be 
broi^t  to  a  close  by  a  martyr's  death.  Preaching  a 
farewell  sermon  at  Feldkirch  he  said  as  much.  On 
re-entering  the  counl^  of  the  Grisons  he  was  met 
everywhere  with  the  cry:  ''Death  to  the  Capuchins!" 
On  24  April,  being  then  at  Grusch,  he  made  his  confes- 
sion and  afterwards  (celebrated  Mass  and  preached. 
Then  he  set  out  for  Sevis.  On  the  way  his  companions 
noticed  that  he  was  particularly  cheerful.  At  Sevis  he 
entered  the  church  and  be^m  to  preach,  but  was  in- 
terrupted by  a  sudden  tumult  both  within  and  with- 
out the  church.  Several  Austrian  soldiers  who  were 
guarding  the  doors  of  the  church  were  killed  and 
Fidelis  himself  was  struck.  A  Calviiust  present  offered 
to  lead  him  to  a  phce  of  security.  Fidelis  thanked  the 
man  but  said  his  life  was  in  the  hands  of  God.  Out- 
side the  church  he  was  surrounded  by  a  crowd  led  by 
the  preachers  who  offered  to  save  his  life  if  he  would 
apostatize.  Fidelis  replied:  "I  came  to  extirpate 
heresy,  not  to  embrace  it",  whereupon  he  was  struck 
down.  He  was  the  first  martyr  of  the  Congregation  of 
Propaganda.  His  body  was  afterwards  taken  to  Feld- 
kircn  and  buried  in  the  church  of  his  order,  except  his 
head  and  left  arm,  which  were  placed  in  the  cathedral 
at  Coire.  He  was  beatified  in  1729,  and  canonized  in 
1745.  St.  Fidelis  is  usually  represented  in  art  with  a 
crucifix  and  with  a  wound  in  the  head;  his  emblem  is 
a  bludgeon.    His  feast  is  kept  on  24  April. 

Da  Cesxnalb,  Storia  ddU  Miuioni  dei  Cappueeini  (Rome. 
1872),  II:  Db  Pabu,  Vie  de  Saint  FidkU  (Pans,  1745);  Dblla 
SgaLA,  Der  heUioe  Ftddit  von  Siomarinoen  (MainB,  1806). 

Fatheb  Cuthbbbt. 
Fides  Instminentomm.    See  Protoool. 
Fiefs  of  the  Holy  See.    See  Holt  See. 

Fiesole,  Diocese  of  (Fjosulana),  in  the  province 
ctf  Tuscany,  sufitragan  of  Florence.  The  town  is  of 
Btruscan  origin,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  remains  of 
its  ancient  walls.  In  pagan  antiquity  it  was  the  seat 
-of  a  famous  school  of  augurs,  and  every  year  twelve 
youne  men  were  sent  thither  from  Rome  to  study  the 
art  of  divination.  Sulla  colonised  it  with  vetmms, 
who  afterwards,  under  the  leadership  of  Manlius,  sup- 
ported the  cause  of  Catiline.  Near  Fiesole  the  Van- 
dals and  Suevi  under  Radagaisus  were  defeated  ^405) 
by  hunger  rather  than  by  the  troops  of  Stilicho.  Dur- 
ing the  Gothic  War  (53d-53)  the  town  was  several 
times  besieged.  In  539  Justinus,  the  Bysantine  gen- 
eral, captured  it  and  rased  its  fortifications.  In  the 
early  Middle  Ages  Fiesole  was  more  powerful  than 
Florence  in  the  valley  below,  and  many  warfr  arose  be- 
tween them.  In  1010  and  1025  Fiesole  was  sacked  by 
the  Florentines,  and  its  leading  families  obliged  to  take 
up  their  residence  in  Florence. 

According  to  local  legend  the  Gospel  was  first 
preached  at  Fiesole  by  St.  Romulus,  a  disciple  of  St. 
Peter.  The  fact  that  the  ancient  cathedral  (now  the 
Abbasia  Fiesolana)  stands  outside  the  city  is  a  proof 
that  the  Christian  origins  of  Fiesole  date  from  the  per- 
iod of  the  persecutions.  The  earliest  mention  of  a 
Bishop  of  Fiesole  is  in  a  letter  of  Gelasius  I  (492-496). 
A  little  later,  under  Vigilius  (537-55),  a  Bishop  Rus- 
ticus  is  mentioned  as  papal  legate  at  one  of  the  Coun- 
cils of  Constantinople.  The  legendary  St.  Alexander 
is  said  by  some  to  belong  to  the  time  of  the  Lombard 


King  Autari  (end  of  the  sixth  oentuir),  but  the  Bol- 
lancusts  assign  him  to  the  reign  of  LothiEur  (middle  of 
the  ninth  century).  A  very  famous  bishop  is  St. 
Donatus,  an  Irish  monk,  the  friend  and  adviser  of  Em- 
perors Louis  the  Pious  and  Lothair.  He  was  elected 
m  826  and  is  buried  in  thejcathedral.  where  his  epi- 
taph, dictated  by  himself,  may  still  be  seen.  He 
founded  the  abbey  of  San  Martino  di  Mensola;  Bishop 
Zanobi  in  890  founded  that^of  St.  Michael  at  Passi- 
gnano,  which  was  afterwards  given  to  the  Vallombro- 
san  monks.  Other  bishops  were  Hildebrand  of  Lucca 
(1220),  exiled  by  the  Florentines;  St.  Andrew  Corsini 
(1352),  bom  in  1302  of  a  noble  Florentine  family,  and 
who,  after  a  reckless  youth,  became  a  Carmelite  monk, 
studied  at  Paris,  and  as  bishop  was  renowned  as  a 
peacemaker  between  individuals  and  States.  He  died 
6  January,  1373,  and  was  canonised  by  Urban  VIII. 
Other  famous  bishops  were  the  Dominican  Fra  Jacopo 
Altovita  ^1390),  noted  for  his  zeal  a^inst  schism;  An- 
tonio Aglio  (1466),  a  learned  humanist  and  author  of  a 
collection  of  lives 
of  the  saints;  the 
Augustinian  Gugli- 
elmo  Bachio 
(1470),  a  cele- 
brated preacher, 
and  author  of  com- 
mentaries on  Aris- 
totle and  on  th^ 
"Sentences"  of 
Peter  Lombard; 
Francesco  Cataneo 
Diaceto  (1570),  a 
theologian  at  the 
CouncU  of  Trent 
and  a  prolific 
writer;  Lorenso 
dellaRobbia(1634), 
who  built  the  sem- 
inary.   Amon^  the 

glones    of   Fiesole  amah-Phjcb 

should    be   men-  Madb  por  Bishop  Salutatx 

tioned  the  painter    M»"<*  ^*  FieBole.  Cathedral  of  Fiesole 

Lorenzo  Monaco  (1370-1424).  But  the  ^-eatest 
name  associated  with  the  history  of  the  city  is  that 
of  Blessed  Giovanni  Angelico,  called  da  Fiesole 
(1387-1455).  His  baptismal  name  was  Guido, 
but,  entering  the  convent  of  the  Reformed  Domini- 
cans at  Fiesole,  he  took  the  name  of  Giovanni  in 
religion;  that  of  Angelico  was  afterwards  given  to  him 
in  fulusion  to  the  beauty  and  purity  of  his  works. 

The  Cathedral  of  St.  Romulus  was  built  in  1028  by 
Bishop  Jacopo  Bavaro  with  materials  taken  from  sev- 
eral Older  eoifices;  it  contains  notable  sculptures  by 
Mino  da  Fiesole.  The  old  cathedral  became  a  Bene- 
dictine abbey,  and  in  course  of  time  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  regular  canons  of  Lateran.  It  once  pos- 
sessed a  valuable  library,  long  since  dispersed.  The 
abbey  was  closed  in  1778.  The  diocese  has  254  par- 
ishes and  155,800  souls.  Within  its  limits  there  are  12 
monasteries  of  men,  including  the  famous  Vallom- 
brosa,  and  24  convents  for  women. 

The  principal  holy  places  of  Fiesole  are:  (1)  the 
cathedral  (if  Duamo),  containing  the  shrine  of  St. 
Romulus,  martyr,  according  to  legend  the  first  Bishop 
of  Fiesole,  and  that  of  his  martyred  companions,  also 
the  shrine  of  St.  Donatus  of  Ireland ;  (2)  the  Badia  or 
ancient  cathedral  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which 
Fiesole  stands,  supposed  to  cover  the  site  of  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  Romulus;  (3)  the  room  in  the  bishop's 
palace  where  St.  Andrew  Corsini  lived  and  died: 
(4)  the  little  church  of  the  Primerana  in  the  cathedral 
sauare,  where  the  same  saint  was  warned  by  Our  Lady 
o?  his  approaching  death;  (5)  the  church  of  S.  Ales- 
sandro,  with  the  Sirine  of  St.  Alexander,  bishop  and 
martyr:  (6)  the  monastery  of  S.  Francesco  on  the 
crest  of  the  hill,  with  the  cells  of  St.  Bemardine  of 


nOUmOA  71  FILELFO 

^ena  and  seven  Franciscan  Beati;  (7)  S.  Girolamo,  doouments  collected  from  the  archives  of  convents  and 

the  home  of  Venerable  Carlo  dei  Conti  Gnidi,  founder  from  private  collections,  for  the  most  part  almost  f or- 

of  the  Hieronymites  of  f^esole  (1360) ;  (8)  S.  Domen-  gotten,  and  of  the  greatest  value  for  the  knowledge  of 

ico,  the  novice-home  of  Fra  An^lico  da  Fiesole  and  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  provinces, 

of  St.  Antoninus  of  Florence;  (9)  Fontanelle,  a  villa  Such  a  collection  contained  quite  inevitably  some  ma- 

near  S.  Domenico  where  St.  Aloysius  came  to  live  in  terial  not  of  the  first  importance^  there  were  docu* 

the  hot  summer  months,  when  a  page  at  the  court  of  ments  of  all  kinds,  but  the  collection  as  a  whole  was 

Grand  Duke  Francesco  de'  Medicij   (10)  Fonte  Lu-  one  of  great  value.    One  copy,  which  was  sent  to 

oente,  where  a  miraculous  crucifix  is  greatly  revered.  Spain  and  examined  by  the  chronicler  MuQos,  is  pre- 

A  few  miles  distant  is  (11)  Monte  Senario.  the  cradle  served  in  the  Academia  de  Historia;  the  other  was 

of  the  Servite  Order,  where  its  seven  holy  founders  kept  in  Mexico  in  the  Secretarfa  del  Virreinado,  and 

lived  in  great  austeritv  and  were  cheered  at  their  death  from  there  was  transferred  to  the  ^neral  archives  of 

by  the  sonss  of  angels:  also  (12)  S.  Martino  di  Men-  the  Palacio  Nacional^  where  it  is  still  kept.    The  first 

sola,  with  &e  body  of  St.  Andrew,  an  Irish  saint,  still  volume  of  this  was  missing,  but  about  1872  a  copy  of  it 

incorrupt.  was  made  from  that  preserved  in  Madrid.   Totheorig- 

CAFPBUJBTn.  JL«  ehieae  ^ ItaHaJVealoe^  1848),  XVII,  7-72;  inal  thirty-two  volumes  another  was  added,  compiled 

FlH^J^'cfe^*  i^U^  (Bloience.  1637);  PmiLiiioiw.  y^^  afterwards  by  some  Franciscans,  which  contains 

V  .         .  ^^  BBNiaNi.  aminuteindexof  the  contents  of  the  work.  Two  other 

copies  of  the  thirty-two  volumes  were  found;  one  is 

FIffneroa,  Franciboo  db,  a  celebrated  Spanish  in  MexiTO,  the  property  of^^ 

poet,  sumamed"  the  Divine  ",b.  at  Alcalde  Henares,  ^  ?^e  Umted  Stat^  m  the  H.H.Bancroft  collection. 

c  1640;  d.  there,  1620.    Little  is  known  of  his  life,  .  As  tins  work  of  Figueroa  s  has  never  been  pubhshed 

except  that  he  was  of  noble  family,  received  his  educa-  if  may  be  of  mterest  to  summanze  the  contents  of  ^ 

tion  at  the  University  of  AlcaU,  and  followed  a  miU-  different  vplum^.    Tliey  m  as  follows:   I.  Thirty 

tary  career  for  a  time,  taking  part  in  campaigns  in  fragments  from  the  Museo  de  Boturmi,  among  them 

Italy  and  Flanders.    From  a  very  early  age  Figueroa  four  letters  from  Father  Salvatierra.    II.  Treatise  on 

showed  unusual  poetical  talent,  and  his  poems  are  full  political  virtues  by  D.  Carlos  SigQensa;  life  and  mar- 

oC  fire  and  passion.    His  work  first  attracted  atten-  tyrdom  of  the  children  of  Tlaxcala;  narrative  of  New 

tion  in  Italy,  where  he  resided  for  a  time,  but  it  was  Mexico  by  Father  Ger6nimo  Sahner6n,  Father  Veles, 

not  long  before  he  had  earned  a  brilliant  reputation  in  and  others.    III.  Report  of  Father  Posadas  on  Texas; 

his  own  country.    FoUowing  in  the  footsteps  of  Bos-  three  f raements  on  ancient  Wstory,  Canticles  of  Nets^ 

can  Almc^ver  and  Garoilaso,  to  whose  school  he  be-  ualcoyotl,  ete.    IV.  Narrative  of  mhxochitl.   V-VI. 

longed,  he  wrote  pastoral  poems  in  the  Italian  metres.  Conquest  of  the  Kingdom  of  New  Gahcia  by  D. 

and  was  one  of  the  first  Spanish  poets  who  used  with  Matfas  de  la  Mota  Padilla.    VII-VIII.  Introduction 

much  success  blank  verse,  which  had  been  introduced  to  the  history  dP  Michoa^dn.    IX-X-XI.  ^ronicle  of 

by  Boscan  in  1543.    His  best-known  and  most  highly  Michoacin  by  Fr^  Pablo  Beaumont.     XII.  Mexi- 

praised  work  is  the  eclogue  "Tirsis",  written  entSely  can  Chronicle  by  D.  Hernando  Alvarado  Teaozomoc 

m  blank  verse.    He  was  highly  praised  by  Cervantes  XIII.  Histoi7  of  the  Cluchimecs  by  IxtlilxocWtL 

in  his  "Galatea".    It  is  unfOTtunate  that  but  a  small  XIV.  Reminiscences  of  the  City  of  Mexico.    XV. 

part  of  the  works  of  this  brilliant  poet  have  reached  us.  Reminiscences  for  the  history  of  Smaloa.  XVI-XVIL 

the  greater  portion  having  been  burned  by  his  direo-  Notes  for  the  historv  of  Sonora.    XVIII.  Important 

tion  just  before  his  death.    A  small  part,  however,  letters  to  elucidate  the  history  of  Sonora  and  Sinaloa. 

was  preserved  and  published  by  Luis  Tribaldos  de  XIX-XX.  Documents  for  the  history  of  New  Vizcaya 

Toledo,  at  Lisbon  in  1625.    They  were  reprinted  in  (Durango).    XXI.  EstablishmOTt  and  progr^  of  the 

1785  and  again  m  1804.    The  best  of  Figueroa's  works  Missions  of  Old  C^fonua.    XXEI-XXIIL  Notes  on 

appear  in  ^La  Biblioteca  de  Autores  Eroafioles"  of  NewCahfomia.  XXIV.  Log-book  kept  by  the  Fathers 

^vadeneira,  vol.  XLII.  Garcia,  Barbastro.  Font^  and  Capetillo;  vovage  of  the 

TkoKNOB.  Sittory  cf  SpaniOi  LiiertOure  (3  vols..  New  York,  frigate  "  Santiago '' ;  "  Diario  *'  of  Urrea  and  ofD.  J.  B. 

*®**)-  __ Ansa,  etc.    XXV-XXVI.    Documents  for  the  ecclesi- 

Vbntura  Fuentbs.  astical  and  civil  history  of  New  Mexico.     XXVII- 

«i  T^  ^     _^  -r*         ««  XXVIII.    Documents  for  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical 

Figuwoa,  E^ciaco  GAErf^  history  of  the  Province  of  Texas.    XXIX.  Documents 

cis^n ;  b.  m  ^e  lattw  part  of  the  eighteenth  c^tury  for  the  history  of  Coahuila  and  Central  Mexico  (Seno 

at  Toluoa,  m  the  Archdiocese  of  Mexico;  date  of  death  Mexicano).   XXX.  Tampico,  Rfo  Verde,  and  Nuevo 

unknown.    Figueroa  possessed  extraordmary  admm-  Le6n.    XXXI.  Notes  on  the  cities  of  Vera  Cnis,  Cop- 

istrative  powers  and  for  more  than  forty  years  directed  jova,  Oaxaca,  Puebla,  Tepotsotlan,  Quei^taro,  Guana- 

the  affsais  of  his  order  with  smeular  prudence  and  abil-  ju^to,  Guadatjara,  Zacatecas,  and  Nootka.   XXXIl. 

itybeiM  lector  emoitus  of  his  order,  prefect  of  i>iouB  reminiscences  of  the  Indian  nation. 

studies  of  the  college  of  TlaltelulcO,  superior  of  several         Bbrmtain.  BiW.  hiap,  amer,  septentrumal  (2d  ed.._Mexioo, 


provinces  of  New  Spam.     He  was  much  beloved  by  OxBcf a  Cubab.  Diecumano  geog.,  hist  v  bid.  de  *Iob  Estadoe 

the  people,  and  highly  esteemed  by  the  viceroys  and  IMidoe  Mexieanoe  (Mexioo,  1888),  I;  Lb6n,  HisL  Oen.  de 

bishops.    On  21  Feb.,  1790,  a  royal  order  was  received     ^«*»  (Mexioo,  1902).  

directing  that  aU  documents  shedding  light  on  the  his-  Camillus  Cbivblll 
tory  of  New  Spain  should  be  copied  and  sent  to  Spain,  FUcock,  Robert.    See  Line,  Annb 
the  <»aer  designating  in  some  instances  special  docu- 
ments which  were  wanted.     D.  Juan  Vicente  de  FUelfOy  Francesco,  humanist,  b.  at  Tolentino.  26 
Gaemes  Pacheco  dc  Padilla,  second  Count  of  Revilla-  July,  1398;  d.  at  Florence,  31  July,  1481.  He  studied 
CM^o,  viceroy  from  1789  to  1704,  entrusted  to  Father  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  Latin  literature  at  Padua, 
Figueroa  the  work  of  selectinjg,  arranmng.  and  copying  where  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  age  of  eigh- 
these  manuscripts.     To  this  task  Fatner  Figueroa  teen.    In  1417  ne  was  invited  to  teach  eloquence  and 
brou^t  such  marvellous  activity  and  rare  judgment,  moral  philosophy  at  Venice,  where  the  rights  of  cit- 
both  m  selecting  the  material  and  the  copyists,  that  in  ueenship  were  conferred  upon  him.  Two  years  later  he 
leas  than  three  yeare  he  turned  over  to  the  Govern-  was  appointed    secretary  to  the  Venetian   consul- 
ment  thirty-two  folio  volumes  of  almost  a  thousand  general  at  Constantinople.  Arriving  there  in  1420,  he 
pages  each^  in  duplicate,  containing  copies  of  original  at  .once  began  the  study  of  Greek  under  John  Chiy- 


FILIAL                                 72  nUOAJA 

soloras,  whoae  daughter  he  tLfterwards  nuulied,  and  assistuig  with  his  parishioners  in  a  body  at  servioea  in 

he  was  received  vrith  ereat  favour  bf  the  Emperor  the  older  church.    In  aome  l^acea  this  last  includes  a 

John  PaIteol<^B,  by  whom  he  waa  employed  on  aev-  proceeeion  and  the  preeentation  of  a  wax  candle.    If 

eral  important  diplomatic  misstona.  In  1427,  receiving  the  filial  church  has  Deen  endowed  from  thereveaueeof 
an  invitation  to  the  chmr  of  eloquence  at  Venice,  the  mother  church,  the  parish  priest  of  the  latter  haa 
Filelfo  letumed  there  with  a  great  collection  of  Greek  the  right  of  preeentation  when  a  pastor  for  the  depen- 
books.  The  following  year  he  was  called  to  Bologna,  dent  uiurch  is  to  be  appointed. 
and  in  1429  to  Florence,  where  he  was  received  with  This  term  is  also  applied  to  churches  entablialied 
the  greatest  enthusiasm.    During  his  five  years'  resi-  within  the  limits  of  an  extensive  parish,  without  any 
dence  there  he  engaged  in  numerous  quarrels  with  the  dismemberment  of  the  parochial  territory,    lie  pas- 
Florentine  scholars  and  incurred  the  hatred  of  the  tor  of  such  a  filial  church  is  really  only  a  curate  or 
Medici,  so  that  in  1434  he  was  forced  to  leave  the  city,  assistant  of  the  parish  priest  of  the  mother  church,  and 
He  went  to  Siena  and  later  to  Milan,  where  he  was  he  is  removable  at  will,  except  in  cases  where  he  has  a 
welcomed  by  Fitippo  Maria  Visconti,  who  showered  benefice.    The  parish  priest  may  retain  to  himself  the 
honours    upon  right  of  performing  baptism,  assisting  at  marriagea 
him.   Some  yeais  and  similar  ofGces  in  the  filial  church,  or  he  may  ordain 
later,  after  Milan  that  such  functions  be  performed  only  in  the  parish 
had  Deen  forcibly  churth,  restricting  the  services  in  the  filial  church  to 
entered  by  Fran-  Mass  and  Vespers.    In  practice,  however,  the  curates 
cesco  ^oraa,   Fil-  of  such  filial  churches  act  as  pariah  priests  for  Uieir 
elfo  wrote  a  his-  diHtricts,  although  by  canon  law  the  dependence  upon 
tory    of    Sforza's  the  pastor  of  the  mother  church  remains  of  obli^tion, 
life  in  a  Latin  epic  though  all  outward  manifestation  of  subjection  has 
poem    of  sixteen  ceased. 

books,  called  the  In  the  union  of  two  parishes  in  the  manner  called 

"Sforziad".       In  "union  by  subjection  ,  the  less  important  of  the 

1474  he  left  Milan  parish  churehes  may  sink  into  a  condition  scarcely 

to  accept   a  pro-  distinguishable  from  that  of  a  Glial  chureh  and  be 

fessorship     at  comprehended  under  this  term.    In  other  words,  the 

e,  where,  ow-  parish  priest  may  govern,  such  a  church  by  giving  it 


ing  to  a  disagree-  over  to  one  of  his  assistants.    It  is  true  that  the  sub- 

ment  with  Sixtus  jected  churah  does  not  lose  its  parochial  rights,  yet  ita 

IV,  he  did  not  re-  dependenceon  the  pariah  priest  of  another  church  and 

main  long.      He  its  administration  by  a  vicar  has  led  to  its  being  in- 

went    back   to  eluded  loosely  under  the   designation  filial  ehurth. 

Mil^,     but     left  Historically,  this  term  has  also  been  applied  to  those 

there  in  1481  to  churcheB,oftenindifFerent countries,foundedbyother 

teach    Greek    at  ^>ad  greater  churches.    In  this  sense  the  great  patri- 

Florence, '  having  archal  Sees  of  Rome,  Antiocb,  Jerusalem,  Alexandria, 

long  before  become  reconciled  with  the  Medici.     He  Constantinople  established  many  filial  churches  which 

died  in  poverty  only  a  fortnight  after  his  arrival,  retained  a  special  dependence  upon  the  church  foimd- 

The  Florentines  buried  him  in  the  church  of  the  An-  ing  them.    The  term  MotAer  Church,  however,  as  ap- 

nunaiata.   Filelfo  was  the  most  restless  of  all  the  hu-  plied  to  Rome,  has  a  special  significance  as  indicating 

manists,  as  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  places  at  it^  headship  of  all  the  churches. 

whioh  h.  taught.    H.  ,„  a  man  of  i„deF,tig.ble  .^SSaS'tCSS' ifeS.'iSii.'Sir;  !?'&SSK: 


activity,   but  arrogant,  rapacious,   fond   of  luxuiy,  Mo,- Linumros, /iHeitmiiBB  Jur«  Co^ii  (Freiburg.  1B03). 
and  always  ready  to  assail  his  hterary  rivals.    Hia  William  H.  W,  FANimia. 

writings  include  numeroua  letters  (last  ed.  by  Le- 

grand,  Paria,    1892), .  speeches    {Paris,    1515),  and        Fillcaja,  Vincenso  da,  lyric  poet;  b.  at  Florence, 

satires  (Venice,  1502);  besides  many  scattered  pieces  30  Dec.,  1642;  d.  there  24  Sept.,  1707.    At  Pisa  he  was 

in  prose,  published  underthetitle"ConviviaMediola-  trained  for  the  legal  profession,  which  he  later  pur- 

nensia",  and  a  great  many  Latin  translations  from  the  sued,  but  during  his  academic  career  he  devotea  no 

Greek.     In  both  these  languages  he  wrote  with  equal  little  attention  to  philosophy,  literature,  and  mumo. 

fluency.  Returning  to  Florence,  he  was  made  a  member  of  the 

SiBONM   KaaiMOM.  in  fiaiu  (New  York,  IBOO),  II:  TV  Accademia  della  Crusca  and  of  the  Arcadia,  and  en- 

mS^l^^^^.  SS^^^L^^^  £•  £;^S^  lit:  J?y«l  the  patronage  of  the  illustrious  conv^  to  the 

Ikuma  (Berlin,  1S03),  I;  Samdh,  HMwy  of  Clotticai  Scholar-  Catholic  faith,  Christina,  ex-Queen  of  Sweden,  who 

•hip  (CMnbridge.  1908).  1. 65-B7.  with  her  purse  helped  to  lighten  his  family  burdens. 

Eduund  Bitreb.  a  lawyer  and  magistrate  of  integrity,  he  never  at- 

,    _  tained  ±o  wealth.    His  probity  and  atility,  however, 

nUal  OblircJl  (Lat.  filitdU,  from  fiiia,  dau^ter),  a  were  acknowledged  by  those  in  power,  and  he  was 

church  to  which  is  annexed  the  cure  of  souls,  but  appointed  to  several  public  offices  of  great  trust, 

which  remains  dependent  on  another  chureh.    As  this  "Hiua,  already  a  senator  by  the  nomination  of  Grand 

dependence  on  the  mother  chureh  may  be  of  various  Duke  Cosmo  III.hewaschoBengoveniorof  Volterrain 

degrees,  the  term /UtoIcAurcA  has  naturally  more  than  1696,  and  of  Pisa  in  1700,  and  then  was  given  the 

one  signification  as  to  minor  details.     Ordinarily,  a  important  post  of  Seeretario  delle  Tratte  at  Florence, 

filial  (£ureh  is  a  parish  church  which  has  been  conati-  An  ardent  Catholic,  he  not  infrequently  gives  expres- 

tuted  by  the  dismemberment  of  an  older  parish.    Its  sion  to  his  relipous  feeling  in  his  lyrics,  which,  even 

rector  is  really  a  parish  priest,  having  all  tne  essential  though  tiiey  may  not  entitle  him  to  rank  among  the 

ri^ts  of  such  a  dignity,  but  still  bound  to  defer  in  cer-  greatest  of  Italian  poets,  will  always  attract  attention 

tarn  accidental  matters  to  the  pastor  of  the  mother  because  of  their  relative  freedom  from  the  literary 

church.    The  marks  of  deference  required  are  not  so  vices  of  the  time^  the  bombast,  the  exaggerations  and 

fixed  that  local  custom  may  not  change  them.    Such  obscurity  of  Mannism.     Notable  among  his  composi' 

marks  are:   obtaining  the  baptismal  water  frem  the  tions  are  the  odes  or  eanami,  which  deal  with  the 

mother  church,  making  a  moderate  offering  of  money  raising  of  the  siege  of  Vienna  by  John  Sobieeki,  when 

(fixed  by  the  bishop)  to  the  parish  priest  of  the  mother  in  1683  it  was  beleaguered  by  iLe  Turks,  and  theson- 

diurch  anntially,  and  occasionally  during  the  year  netsinwhichhebewailstbewoesof Italy whosebeauty 


FIUOQUX 


73 


FIUOQUS 


had  made  her  the  object  of  f  oreisn  cupiditv  and  whose 
sons  were  iDoapable  of  fighting  for  her  and  could  only 
enlist  meroenaries  to  defend  her.  The  most  famous  of 
the  sonnets  is  perhaps  the  "  Italia,  Italia,  O  tu  cui  feo 
la  sorte",  which  Bvron  rendered  with  dcill  in  the 
fourth  canto  of  Childe  Harold.  Some  letters,  dogi, 
orazUmU  and  Latin  carminaj  constitute  the  rest  of  his 
literarv  output.  After  the  death  of  Filicaja,  an  edi- 
tion of  the  ''Poesie  toscane",  containing  the  l3rrics, 
was  given  to  the  world  bv  his  son  (Florence,  1707) ;  a 
better  edition  is  that  of  Florence,  1823 ;  selected  poems 
are  given  in  "Lirici  del  secolo  XVII",  published 
by  Sonzogno. 

AmioOj  Poetie  e  Uttere  di  VincenMo  da  FUicaja  (Florenoe^ 
1864).  with  a  prtfaoe  on  hia  life  «nd  work;  CA8rrBLLA.Ni,  ^udx 
UUenri  (OtU  di  GBstdlo,  1880). 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

FUioqiie  is  a  theological  formula  of  great  doginatic 
and  historical  importance.  On  the  one  hand,  it  ex- 
presses the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  both 
Father  and  Son  as  one  Principle;  on  the  other,  it  was 
the  occasion  of  the  Greek  schism.  Both  aspects  of  the 
expression  need  further  explanation. 

I.  Dogmatic  Meaning  of  Filioque. — The  dogma 
of  the  double  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  Fa- 
ther and  Son  as  one  Principle  is  directly  opposed  to  the 
error  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father, 
not  from  the  Son.  ^  Neither  dogma  nor  error  created 
much  difficulty  during  the  course  of  the  first  four  cen- 
turies. Macedonius  and  his  followers,  the  so-called 
Pneumatomachi,  were  condemned  by  the  local  Coimcil 
of  Alexandria  (362)  and  by  Pope  St.  Damasus  (378) 
for  teaching  that  the  Holy  Ghost  derives  His  origin 
from  the  Son  alone,  by  creation.  If  the  creed  used  oy 
the  Nestorians,  wnich  was  composed  pjobably  by 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  and  the  expressions  of  Theo- 
doret  directed  against  the  ninth  anathema  by  Cyril  of 
Alexandria,  deny  that  the  Holy  Ghost  derives  His 
existence  from  or  throu^  the  Son,  they  probably  in- 
tend to  deny  only  the  creation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  by  or 
throi^  the  Son,  inculcating  at  the  same  time  His  Pro- 
cession from  both  Father  and  Son.  At  any  rate,  if  the 
double  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  discussed  at 
all  in  those  early  times,  the  controversy  was  restricted 
to  the  East  and  was  of  short  duration.  The  first  un- 
doubted denial  of  the  double  Procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  we  find  in  the  seventh  century  among  the 
heretics  of  Constantino{>le  when  St.  Martin  I  (649- 
655).  in  his  synodal  writing  i^inst  the  Monothelites, 
employed  the  expression  ''Filioque".  Nothing  is 
known  about  the  further  development  of  this  contro- 
versy; it  does  not  seem  to  have  assumed  any  serious 
proportions,  as  the  question  was  not  connected  with 
the  characteristic  teaching  of  the  Monothelites.  In 
the  Western  church  the  first  controversy  concerning 
the  double  Procession  of  tiie  Holy  Ghost  was  con- 
ducted with  the  envoys  of  the  Emperor  Constantino 
Oopronymus,  in  the  Synod  of  Gentiily  near  Paris,  held 
in  the  time  of  Pepin  (767).  The  synodal  Acts  and 
other  sources  of  information  do  not  seem  to  exist.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century,  John,  a  Greek 
monk  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Sabas,  charged  the 
monks  of  Mt.  Olivet  with  heresy,  because  they  had 
inserted  the  Filioque  into  the  Creed.  In  the  second 
half  of  the  same  century,  Photius  th'b  successor  of  the 
unjustly  deposed  Ignatius,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople (858),  denied  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
from  the  Son,  and  opposjBd  the  insertion  of  the  Filioque 
into  the  Constantinopolitan  Creed.  The  same  position 
was  maintained  towards  the  end  of  the  tenth  century 
b^r  the  Patriarchs  Sisinnius  and  Sereius,  and  about  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century  by  iSie  Patriarch  Mich- 
ael Csrularius,  who  renewed  and  completed  the  Greek 
schism.  The  rmection  of  the  Filioque,  or  of  the  dogma 
of  the  double  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the 
Father  and  Son,  and  the  denial  of  the  primacy  of  the 
Roman  Pontiff  constitute  even  to-day  the  principal 


errors  of  the  Greek  Church.  While  outside  the  Church 
doubt  as  to  the  double  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
grew  into  open  denial,  inside  the  Church  the  doctrine 
of  the  Filioque  was  declared  to  be  a  dogma  of  faith  in 
the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215),  the  Second  Coun- 
cil of  Lyons  (1274),  and  the  CouncU  of  Florence  (1438- 
1445).  Thus  the  Church  oroposed  in  a  dear  and 
authoritative  form  the  teachixig  of  Sacred  Scripture 
and  tradition  on  the  Procession  of  the  Third  Person  of 
the  Holy  Trinity.  ^ 

As  to  Sacred  Scripture,  the  inspired  writers  call  the 
Holy  Ghost  the  Spirit  of  the  Son  (Gal.^  iv,  6),  ihe 
^irit  of  Christ  (Hom.,  yiii,  9),  the  Spirit  of  Jesus 
Christ  (Phil.,  i,  19),  just  as  they  call  Him  the  Spirit 
of  the  Father  (Matt.,  x,  20)  and  the  Spuit  of  God 
(I  Cor.,  ii,  11).  Hence  they  attribute  to  the  Holy 
Ghost  the  same  relation  to  tne  Son  as  to  the  Father. 
Again,  according  to  Sacred  Scripture,  the  Son  sends 
the  Holy  Ghost  (Luke,  xxiv,  49;  John,  xv,  26;  xvi,  7; 
XX,  22;  Acts,  ii,  33 ;  Tit.,  iii,  6),  just  as  the  Father  sends 
the  Son  (Rom.,  viii,  3;  etc.),  and  as  the  Father  sends 
the  Holy  Ghost  (John,  xiv,  26).  Now,  the  "  mission ' '  or 
"sending"  of  one  Divine  Person  by  another  does  not 
mean  merely  that  the  Person  said  to  be  sent  assumes  a 
particular  character,  at  the  suggestion  of  Himself  in 
the  charsuster  of  Sender,  as  the  Sabellians  maintained; 
nor  does  it  imply  any  imeriority  in  the  Person  sent,  as 
the  Arians  taught;  but  it  denotes,  according  to  the 
teaching  of  the  wei^tier  theologians  and  Fathers,  the 
Procession  of  the  Person  sent  mm  the  Person  Who 
sends.  Sacred  Scripture  never  presents  the  Father  as 
being  sent  by  the  Son,  nor  the  Son  as  being  sent  by  the 
Holy  Ghost.  The  very  idea  of  the  term  "  mission '^ 
implies  that  the  person  sent  goes  forth  for  a  certain 
puroose  by  the  power  of  the  sender,  a  power  exerted 
on  tne  person  sent  by  way  of  a  physical  impulse,  or  of  a 
command,  or  of  prayer,  or  finally  of  production;  now, 
Procession,  the  analog  of  production,  is  the  only 
manner  admissible  in  Uod.  It  follows  that  the  in- 
spired writers  present  the  Holy  Ghost  as  proceeding 
from  the  Son,  since  they  present  Him  as  sent  by  the 
Son.  Finally,  St.  John  (XVI,  13-15)  eives  the  wonis 
of  Christ:  "What  things  soever  he  [tne  Spirit]  sludl 
hear,  he  shall  speak;  ...  he  shall  receive  of  mine, 
and  shall  shew  it  to  you.  All  things  whatsoever  the 
Father  hath,  are  mine."  Here  a  double  consideration 
is  in  place.  First,  the  Son  has  all  things  that  the 
Father  hath,  so  that  He  must  resemble  the  Father  in 
being  the  Principle  from  Which  the  Holy  Ghost  pro- 
ceeds. Secondly,  the  Holy  Ghost  shall  receive  "of 
mine"  according  to  the  words  of  the  Son;  but  Pro- 
cession is  the  only  conceivable  way  of  receiving  which 
does  not  imply  dependence  or  imeriority.  In  other 
words,  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Son. 

The  teaching  of  Sacred  Scripture  on  the  double  Pro- 
cession of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  faithfully  preserved  in 
Christian  tradition.  Even  the  Greek  schismatics 
grant  that  the  Latin  Fathers  maintain  the  Procession 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Son.  The  great  work  on  the 
Trinity  by  Petavius  (Lib.  VII,  cc.  iii  saq.)  develops  the 
proof  of  this  contention  at  length.  Here  we  mention 
only  some  of  the  later  documents  in  which  the  patristic 
doctrine  has  been  cleariy  expressed:  the  dogmatic 
letter  of  St.  Leo  I  to  Turribius,  Bishop  of  Astorga, 
£p.  XV,  c.  i  (447);  the  so-called  Athanasian  Cre^; 
several  councfls  held  at  Toledo  in  the  years  447,  589 
(III),  675  (XI),  693  (XVI) ;  the  letter  of  Pope  Hormis- 
das  to  the  Emperor  Justinus,  Ep.  Ixxix  (521);  St. 
Martin  I's  synodal  utterance  against  the  Monothel- 
ites, 649-655;  Pope  Adrian  I's  answer  to  the  Caroline 
Books,  772-795;  the  Synods  of  Merida  (666),  Braga 
(675),  and  Hatfield  (680) ;  the  writing  of  Pope  Leo  III 
(d.  816)  to  the  monks  of  Jerusalem ;  the  letter  of  Pope 
Stephen  V  (d.  891)  to  the  Moravian  King  Suentopolcus 
(Suatopluk),  Ep.  xiii;  the  enrmbol  of  Pope  Leo  IX  (d. 
1054);  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council,  1215;  the  Second 
Council  of  Lyons,  1274;  and  the  Coimcil  of  FlorenoOb 


FILIPPINX  74  FILLASTRS 

1 439.  Some  of  the  foregoing  concfliar  documents  may  in  809  the  Council  of  Aachen  appears  to  have  approved 
be  seen  in  Hefele,  ^'Conciliengeschichte'^  (2d  ed.)}  lUy  of  it.  The  decrees  of  this  last  council  were  examined 
nn.  109,  117,  252,  411;  cf.  P.  G.,  XXVIII,  1567  sqq.  by  Pope  Leo  III,  who  approved  of  the  doctrine  oon- 
Bessarion,  speaking  in  the  Council  of  Florence,  m-  veyed  oy  the  Filioque,  but  ^ve  the  advice  to  omit  the 
ferred  the  tradition  of  the  Greek  Church  from  the  expression  in  the  Creed.  The  practice  of  adding  the 
teaching  of  the  Liatin;  since  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  Filioque  was  retained  in  spite  ofthe  papal  advice,  and 
Fathers  before  the  ninth  century  were  members  of  the  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  it  had  gained 
same  Church,  it  is  antecedently  improbable  that  the  a  firm  foothold  in  Rome  itself.  Scholars  do  not  asree 
Eastern  Fathers  should  have  denied  a  dogma  firmly  as  to  the  exact  time  of  its  introduction  into  Rome,  but 
maintained  by  the  Western.  Moreover,  there  are  cer-  most  assign  it  to  the  reign  of  Benedict  VIII  (1014-15). 
tain  considerations  which  form  a  direct  proof  for  the  The  Catholic  doctrine  was  accepted  by  the  Greek  dep- 
belief  of  the  Greek  Fathers  in  the  double  Frooession  of  uties  who  were  present  at  the  Second  <!)ouncil  of  Lyons, 
the  Hol:^  Ghost.  First,  the  Greek  Fathers  enumerate  in  1274,  and  at  the  Council  of  Florence,  in  1439,  when 
the  Divine  Persons  in  the  same  order  as  the  Latin  the  Creed  was  sung  both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  with,  the 
Fathers;  they  admit  that  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  addition  of  the  word  FUiagtte,  On  each  occasion  it 
are  logically  and  ontologicallv  connected  in  the  same  was  hoped  that  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and 
way  as  the  Son  and  the  Father  [St.  Basil,  Ep.  cxxv;  his  subjects  had  abandoned  the  state  of  heresy  and 
£p.  xxxviii  (aliaa  xliii)  ad  Gregor.  fratrem;  ''Adv.  schism  m  which  they  had  been  living  since  the  tmie  of 
Eunom.",  I,  xx,  III,  sub  init.].  Seconds  the  Greek  Photius,  who  about  870  found  in  the  Filioque  an  ex- 
Fathers  establish  the  same  relation  between  the  Son  cuse  for  throwing  off  all  dependence  on  Rome.  But 
and  the  Holy  Ghost  as  between  the  Father  and  the  however  sincere  the  individual  Greek  bishops  may 
Son;  as  the  Father  is  the  fountain  of  the  Son,  so  is  the  have  been,  they  failed  to  carry  their  neople  witn  them, 
Son  the  fountain  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Athan.,  Ep.  ad  and  the  breach  between  East  and  West  continues  to 
Serap.,  I,  xix,  sqq. ;  "  De  Incam.",  ix;  Orat.  iii,  adv.  this  day.  It  is  a  matter  for  surprise  that  so  abstract  a 
Arian.,  24 ;  Basil, "  Adv.  Eunom.",  v,  in  P.  G.,  XXIX,  subject  as  the  doctrine  of  the  double  Procession  of  the 
731;  cf.  C^rejg.  Naz.,  Grat.  xliii,  9).  Third,  passages  Holy  Ghost  should  have  appealed  to  the  imagination 
are  not  wantmg  in  the  writings  of  the  Greek  f'athers  in  of  the  multitude.   But  their  national  feelings  had  been 


Epiphan.,  Hser.^  c.  Ixii,  4;  Greg.  Nyss.,  Hom.  iii  in  orat.  in  tne  addition  of  Filioque  to  the  Creed  of  Constanti- 

domin.  (cf.  Mai,  ''Biol,  nova  Patrum",  IV,  40  sqq.):  nople.    Had  not  Rome  overstepped  her  rights  bv  dis- 

C^yril  of  Alexandria,  "Thes.",  ass.  xxxiv;  the  second  obeying  the  injunction  of  the  Third  Council,  of  Ephesus 

canonof  a  synod  of  forty  bishops  held  in 4 10 at  Seleucia  (431),  and  of  the  Fourth,  of  Chaloedon  (451)?    It  is 

in  Mesopotamia  (cf.  Lamy,  "Concilium  Seleuci®  et  true  that  these  councils  had  forbidden  to  introduce 

Ctesiphonte  habitum  a.  410'',  Louvain,  1869;  Hefele,  another  faith  or  another  Creed,  and  had  imposed  the 

"Conciliengeschichte",  IL  102  sqq.);  the  Arabic  ver-  penalty  of  deposition  on  bishops  and  clerics,  and  of 

sion  of  the  Canons  of  St.  Hippolytus  (Haneberg,  excommunication  on  monks  and  laymen  for  trans- 

"Canones  Sti.  Hyppblyti",  MOnster,  1870.  40,  76);  gressing  this  law;  but  the  councils  had  not  forbidden 

the  Nestorian  explanation  of  the  Symbol  (cf .  Badger,  to  explain  the  same  faith  or  to  propose  the  same  Creed 

"The  Nestorians",  London,  1852,  II,  79;   Cureton,  in  a  clearer  way.    Besides,  the  conciliar  decrees  af- 

"  Ancient  Syriac  Documents  Relative  to  the  Earliest  f ected  individual  transgressors,  as  is  plain  from  the 

Establishment  of  Christianitv  in  Edessa",  London,  sanction  added;  they  did  not  bind  the  Church  as  a 

1864,  43;  "The  Doctrine  of  Addai.  the  Apostle",  ed.  body.    Finally,  the  Councils  of  Lyons  and  Florence 

Phillips,  London,  1876).  ^  The  only  Scriptural  diffi*  did  not  reauire  the  Greeks  to  insert  the  Filioque  into 

cult^  deserving  our  attention  is  based  on  the  words  of  the  Creed,  out  onl^r  to  accept  the  Catholic  doctrine  of 

Chnst  as  recoraed  in  John,  xv,  26,  that  the  Spirit  pro-  the  double  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost.    (See  Holt 

ceeds  from  the  Father,  without  mention  being  made  of  Ghost  and  Creed.) 

the  Son.    But  in  the  first  place,  it  cannot  be  shown  Huntbb,  (hUliMs  cjfDoomatie  TheoHooy  O^vn  York,  1896), 

that  this  omission  amounts  to  a  denial;  in  the  second  ?•  ^S? ?iSJx^^T*??t^***'^^ Doipna^C(mpmdiwn  (Inna- 

place,  the  omission  is  only  apparent,  as  in  the  earUer  feti^rSi  ^U^XV.  vnf^AN  SLiS^K^^SaSi 

part  of  the  verse  the  Son  promises  to  'send      the  tkecltgiioadevrocntioM  SmrituaSaneU  ex  PainF*ao9us  (Lou- 

Spirit.    The  Proce«ion  of  tte  Holy  Ghoet  from  the  ISS^'IS' JS'StStuS'^SSSfHSfx^^SS^  *^'  ^*°°^ 

Son  IS  not  mentioned  m  the  Creed  of  Constantmople,  '                                                 ««*««. 

because  this  Creed  was  directed  against  the  Mace-  "^  •'•  ^''^^^ 

donian  error  ^iigt  which  it  sufficed  to  deplaret^^  FUippini.    See  .Oratokians. 
Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father.    The 

ambiguous  expressions  found  in  some  of  the  early  FUlastre     (Philastriub),     Guillaxtmb,    French 

writers  of  autnority  are  explained  by  the  principles  cardinal,  canonist,  humanist,  and  geographer,  b.  1348 

which  apply  to  the  language  of  the  early  Fathers  at  La  Suse,  Maine,  France;  d.  at  Rome,  6  November, 

generally.  1428.    After  graduating  as  doctor  juris  utriuaquOy 

II.  HibtobicalIhpobtance  of  the  Filioque. — ^It  Fillastre  taught  jurisprudence  at  Reims,  and  in  1392 

has  been  seen  that  the  Creed  of  Constantinople  at  first  was  appointed  dean  of  its  metropolitan  chapter, 

declared  only  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Gnost  from  During  the  Western  Schism  he  showed  at  first  much 

the  Father;  it  was  directed  against  the  followers  of  sympathy  for  Benedict  XIII  (Peter  de  Luna).    In 

Macedonius  who  denied  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  1409,  however,  he  took  part  in  the  attempt  to  recon- 

Spirit  from  the  Father.    In  the  East,  the  omission  of  cile  the  factions  at  the  (Jouncil  of  Pisa.    John  XXIII 

PiUoque  did  not  lead  to  an^  serious  misunderstand*  conferred  on  him  and  his  friend  d'Ailly  the  dignitv  of 

mg.    But  conditions  were  different  in  Spain  after  the  cardinal  (I4II)>  aiid  in  1413  he  was  made  Archbishop 

Goths  had  renounced  Arianism  and  professed  the  of  Aix.    Fillastre  took  a  very  important  part  in  the 

Catholic  faith  in  the  Third  Synod  of  Toledo^  589.    It  Council  of  Constance,  where  ne  and  Cardinal  d'Ailly 

cannot  be  ascertained  who  first  added  the  Filioque  to  were  the  first  to  agitate  the  question  of  the  abdicaliim 

the  Creed;  but  it  appears  to  be  certain  that  the  (3reed,  of  itie  rival  claimants  (February,  1415).    He  won 

with  the  addition  of  the  Filioque,  was  first  sung  in  the  special  distinction  through  the  many  Ic^  questions 

Spanish  Church  after  the  conversion  of  the  Grol^  In  on  which  he  gave  decisions.    Martin  V,  in  whose  eleo- 

796  the  Patriarch  Paulinus  of  Aquileia  justified  and  tion  he  had  been  an  important  factor,  appointed  him 

adopted  the  same  addition  at  the  Synod  of  Friaul,  and  legaiua  a  latere  to  France  (1418),  where  he  was  to  pro- 


niiLIUOGX 


75 


rZNAV 


mote  the  cause  of  Church  unit^r.  In  recognition  of  his 
Buocessf  ul  efiforts  in  this  capacity,  he  was  made  Arch- 
priest  of  the  Lateran  Basilica.  In  1421  he  resigned 
the  See  of  Aix,  and  in  1422  was  assiened  to  the  See  of 
Saint-Pons-de-Thomidres.  He  diea  at  Rome  in  his 
eightieth  year,  as  Cardinal-Priest  of  San  Marco. 

During  the  Council  of  Constance  Fillastre  kept  a 
diary  discovered  by  Heinrich  Finke,  first  reviewed  by 
him  in  the  "ROmische  Quartalschrift"  (1887),  and 
there  partly  edited  by  him.  It  is  the  most  important 
historical  source  for  the  Council  of  Constance^  and 
was  edited  by  Finke  in  its  entirety  in  1889  (m  his 
''Forschungen  und  Quellen",  see  below,  163-242). 
FiUastre's  notes  throw  new  light  on  the  principal  par- 
ticipants in  the  council,  as  well  as  on  tne  two  popes 
who  were  deposed  and  their  trial,  on  the  coU^  of 
cardinals  as  a  body,  and  in  particular  on  Cardmals 
d'Ailly,  Fillastre,  Zaoarella,  etc.  ^  Fillastre  is  our  only 
authonty  concerning  the  preliminary  motions  on  the 
method  of  voting  and  the  extremely  difficult  position 
of  the  collie  of  Cardinals;  he  gives  us  our  first  clear 
conception  of  the  quarrels  that  arose  among  the  "  na- 
tions over  the  matter  of  precedence,  and  Uie  place 
which  the  Spanish  ''nation"  held  at  the  council;  he^ 
also  furnishes  the  long-sought  explanation  of  the  con- 
firmation of  Sigismund  as  Holy  Koman  Emperor  by 
Martin  V.  Fillastre's  diary  derives  its  hi^est  value, 
however,  from  the  exposition  of  the  relations  between 
the  king  and  the  council  and  the  descripticm  of  the 
conclave. 

While  Fillastre  was  in  Constance  (where,  it  ma^  be 
remarked,  he  translated  several  of  Plato's  works  mto 
Latin),  he  rendered  important  services  to  the  history 
of  geographer  and  cartography,  as  well  as  to  the  history 
of  the  council.  Thus  he  had  copied  the  Latin  translar 
tion  of  Ptolemy's  geography  (without  maps),  which 
had  been  completed  by  Jacobus  Angelus  m  1409,  a 
manuscript  he  had  gr^t  difficulty  in  securing  from 
Florence.  Together  with  this  precious  Ptolemy  co- 
dex, he  sent  in  1418  to  the  chapter-librarv  of  Reims, 
which  he  had  founded  and  already  endowed  with 
many  valuable  manuscripts,  a  lai^  map  of  the  world 
traced  on  walrus  skin,  and  a  codex  of  Pomponius 
Mela.  The  two  geo^phical  codices  are  still  pre- 
served as  precious  "cunelia"  in  the  municipal  library 
oC  Reims,  but  the  map  of  the  world  unfortunately 
disappeared  diuing  the  ei^teenth  century. 

About  1425  Fillastre  wrote  one  of  his  most  impor- 
tant canonical  worics  on  interest  and  usury;  it  has 
been  handed  down  in  numerous  manuscripts.  In 
1427,  though  now  an  old  man.  he  was  as  indefatigable 
as  ever,  and  had  the  maps  ot  Ptolemy  drawn  from  a 
Greek  original,  but  on  a  diminished  scale,  and  ar- 
ranged with  Latin  terminologv,  to  go  with  his  Latin 
Ptolemy.  Since  Ptolemy  had  no  knowledge  of  ib.e 
Scandinavian  Peninsula,  much  less  of  Greenland, 
Fillastre  completed  bis  codex  by  addi^  to  Ptolemy's 
ten  maps  of  Europe  an  eleventh.  Tnis  ''eleventh 
map  of  Europe",  with  the  subjoined  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Greenland^  is 
the  only  existing  copy  of  the  "first  map"  ctf  Claudius 
Clavus,  "the  first  cartography  of  America".  ^  This 
precious  cartographic  treasure  is  still  preserved  in  the 
municipal  libraiy  of  Nanc^. 

If  ARiOT,  Metropoli$  remenau  hiMtoria  (Reims,  1670),  II, 
)98  flqq'L  ALBANfcft,  Oallia  Chriat.  {tuniasima)  (1800),  I,  OS  aqq.; 
^^KE,  ranehunoen  und  QueUm  rur  OtsdiidUt  dea  KoniUanMer 
Koruu$  (Paderborn,  1880).  73  sqq.;  Stobm,  Den  danake  geoar, 
Claudiua  Clavua  (Stockholm,  1801),  120  oqq.;  Fiscbbb,  DU- 
eovariea  ef  tha  Naraemen  (London,  1903),  58  tqq.«  88  sqq.; 
BjObmbo  anp  PBTBBajBN,  CUiudiua  Clavua  (Innsbruck,  lOOo). 

JOBEPH  FlSC^B. 

FQUucei,  ViNCBNzo,  Jesuit  moralist;  b.  at  Sienna, 
Italy,  1566;  d.  at  Rome,  5  April.  1622.  Having 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at^  tne  a^  of  eigh- 
teen and  made  the  usual  course  in  classics,  science, 
philoeoph^ry  and  theology,  he  professed  philosophy  ana 
ooathemaficsfor  some  years,  and  later  became  rector  of 


the  Jesuit  college  in  his  native  city.  Being  summoned 
to  Rome  to  fifi  the  chair  of  moral  theology  in  the 
Roman  Colle^,  he  taught  there  for  ten  years  with 
great  distinction.  Paul  Y  appointed  him  penitentianr 
of  St.  Peter's,  a  post  he  filled  until  his  death  in  the  to^ 
lowing  pontificate.  Filliucci's  g^test  work,  "Mora- 
lium  Qusstionum  de  Christianis  Offioiis  et  CasibuB 
Conscientis  Tomi  Duo",  appeared  in  1622,  and  to- 
gether with  a  posthumous  "  Appendix,  de  Statu  Cleri- 
corum",  formmg  a  third  volume,  has  frequently  been 
rm^rinted  in  several  countries  of  Europe.  A  "  Synoneis 
Theologifls  Moralis",  which  likewise  appeared  posthu- 
mously in  1626.  went  through  numerous  editions. 
Filliucci  is  also  known  for  his  excellent  "  Brevis  In- 
structio  pro  Confessionibus  Excipiendis  "  (Ravens- 
burg,  1626);  this  work  is  generally  published  as  an 
appendix  in  all  subsequent  editions  of  nis  "  Synopsis". 
Besides  these  published  works,  there  is  a  manuscript. 
"Ti^M^tatus  de  Censuris",  preserved  in  the  archives  ot 
the  Roman  College.  As  an  authority  in  moral  theol- 
ogy. Father  Filliucci  has  ever  been  accorded  high  rank, 
though  this  did  not  save  him  from  the  attacks  of  the 
Jansenists.  The  "  Provincial  Letters"  of  Pascal  and 
"  Les  Extraits  des  Assertions"  make  much  capital  out 
of  their  garbled  quotations  from  his  writings;  whHe. 
in  the  anti-Jesuit  tumult  of  1762,  the  "parlement"  ot 
Bordeaux  forbade  his  works  and  the  "parlement"  of 
Rouen  burnt  them,  together  with  twenty-eight  other 

works  by  Jesuit  authors. 

BomoBBvoGBU  Biki,  da  la  C,  da  J.,  Ill,  735;  IX,  340;  db 
Backks,  BibL  dea  Berivaina  de  la  Comp,  de  JSaua^  1,  308; 
HuBTBB,  Ncmendator  LiUrariua^  I,  364. 

John  F.  X.  Mubpht. 

FiUindnB,  Felix  (or,  as  his  name  is  more  often 
found,  in  its  Italian  form,  Figliucci),  an  Italian  hu- 
manist, a  philosopher,  and  theologialh  of  note,  was  b. 
at  Siena  about  the  year  1525;  supposed  to  have  d.  at 
Florence  c.  1590.  fie  completed  his  studies  in  philos- 
ophy at  Padua  and  was  for  a  time  in  the  service  of 
C&odinal  Del  Monte,  afterwards  Julius  III.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  ihsX  he  gained  a  great  reputation  as  an  ora- 
tor and  poet,  and  had  a  wide  knowledge  of  Greek,  no 
mention  of  his  name  is  found  in  such  standard  works 
on  the  Renaissance  as  Burchardt,  Voigt  (Die  Wieder- 
belebung  des  class.  Alterthums),  and  Belloni  (II  Sei- 
cento).  After  having  enjoyed  the  pleasures  of  the 
woridly  life  at  the  court  in  1551  he  entered  the  Domin- 
ican convent  at  Florence,  where  he  assumed  the  name 
Alexus.  His  works  are  both  original  in  Italian  and 
translations  into  that  language  from  the  Greek. 
Worthy  of  mention  are:  "II  Fedro,  owero  del  bello" 
(Rome,  1544) ;  "  Delle  divine  lettere  del  mm  Marsilio 
Ficino''  (Venice,  1548);  "Le  undid  Filippiche  di 
Demostene  dichiarate"  (Rome,  1550);  "Delia  Filo- 
sofia  morale  d'Aristotfle".  (Rome,  1551)';  "Delia 
Politica,  owero  Scienza  civile  secondo  la  dottrina 
d'Aristotile,  libri  VIII  scritti  in  modo  di  dialogo" 
(Venice,  1583).  Filliucius  attended  the  Council  of 
Trent,  where  he  delivered  a  remarkable  Latin  oration 
and,  at  the  order  of  St.  Pius  V,  translated  into  Italian, 
under  his  cloister  name  of  Alexus,  the  Latin  Catechism 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Catechismo,  ciod  istruzione 
secondo  il  decreto  del  concilio  di  Trento,  Rome,  1567)9 
often  reprinted. 

QuinF  AKD  EcHABD,  Scriplona  Ord.  Pred.,  II,  263  aqq.*  on 
which  all  the  other  btoipsphifls  are  baaed. 

Joseph  Dumn. 

Finality.    See  Causb;  Telboloot. 

. 

Final  Perseverance.    See  Pebseverancb. 

Finan,  Saint,  second  Bishop  of  Lindisfame;  d.  9 
February,  661.  He  was  an  Irish  monk  who  had  been 
trained  m  lona,  and  who  was  specially  chosen  bv  the 
Columban  Monks  to  succeed  the  great  St.  Aidan  (635- 
51) .  St.  Bede  describe  him  as  an  able  ruler,  and  tells 
of  his  labours  in  the  conversion  of  Northumoria.  He 
built  a  cathedral  "in  the  Irish  fashion",  employing 


76 


FINLAND 


"hewn  oak,  with  an  outer  covering  of  reeds",  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Peter.  His  apostoUo  seal  resulted  in  the 
foundation  of  St.  Mary's  at  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Tyne;  Gilling,  a  monastery  on  the  spot  where  King 
Oswin  had  been  murdered,  founded  by  Queen  Eanfleo, 
and  the  great  Abbey  of  Streanaeshalch,  or  Whitby. 
St.  Finan  (Finn-dn — ^little  Finn)  converted  Peada, 
son  of  Penda,  King  of  the  Middle  Angles,  "  with  all  his 
Nobles  and  Thanes",  and  gave  him  four  priests,  in- 
cluding Diuma,  whom  he  consecrated  Bishop  of  Mid- 
dle Angles  and  Mercia,  under  King  Oswy.  The  Brev- 
my  of  Aberdeen  styles  him  "a  man  of  venerable  life, 
a  bishop  of  great  sanctity,  an  elo<}uent  teacher  of  un- 
believing races,  remarkable  for  his  training  in  virtue 
and  his  liberal  education,  surpassing  all  his  equals  in 
every  manner  of  knowledge  as  well  as  in  circumspec- 
tion and  prudence,  but  chiefly  devoting  himself  to 
good  works  and  presenting  in  his  life,  a  most  apt  exam- 
ple of  virtue". 

In  the  mysterious  ways  of  Providence,  the  Abbey 
of  Whitby,  his  chief  foundation,  was  the  scene  of  the 
famous  Paschal  controversy,  which  resulted  in  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Irish  monks  from  Lindisfame.  The 
inconvenience  of  the  two  systems — Irish  and  Roman 
— of  keeping  Easter  was  specially  felt  when- on  one  oc- 
casion Kins  Oswy  and  nis  Court  were  celebrating 
Easter  Sunday  with  St.  Finan,  while  on  the  same  day 
Queen  Eanfled  and  her  attendants  were  still  fasting 
and  celebrating  Palm  Sunday.  Saint  Finan  was 
spared  being  present  at  the  Synod  of  Whitby.  His 
feast  is  celeSrated  on  the  9th  of  February. 

Bbde,  ed.  Sei«la.r,  EccU.  Hiat.  of  Enoland  (London,  1907); 
MoRAN,  Triah  Saints  in  Oreat  Britain,  new  ed.-(Callan,  1003); 
Heai<t,  Jreland^t  Ancient  ScKoola  and  ScholarM  (Ehiblin.  1902). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

• 

Finbarr  (Lochan,  Barr),  Saint,  Bishop  and 
patron  of  Cork,  b.  near  Bandon,  about  550,  d.  at 
Cloyne,  25  Sept.,  623,  was  son  of  Amergin.  He 
evanselized  Gowran,  Coolcashin,  and  Aghaboe,  and 
founded  a  school  at  Eirce.  For  some  years  he  dwelt 
in  a  hermitage  at  Gougane  Barra,  where  a  beautiful 
replica  of  Cormac's  chapel  has  recently  been  erected  in 
his  honour.  Finbarr  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  he 
built  where  Cork  city  now  stands.  He  was  specially 
honoured  also  at  Dornoch  and  Barra,  in  Scotland. 
There  are  five  Irish  saints  of  this  name.  (See 
Cork.) 

Life  by  Walbh  (New  York,  1864):  Banba  (DubUn),  207. 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 


I,  John,  Venerable,  martyr,  b.  about  1548; 
d.  20  April,  15S4.  He  was  a  yeoman  of  Eccleston, 
Lancashire,  and  a  member  of  a  well-known  old  Catho- 
lic family,  but  he  appears  to  have  been  brought  up  in 
sdiism.  When  he  was  twenty  years  old  he  went  to 
London  where  he  spent  nearlv  a  year  with  some 
cousins  at  the  Inner  Temple.  While  tnere  he  was  forci- 
bly struck  by  the  contrast  between  Protestantism  and 
Catholicism  in  practice  and  determined  to  lead  a 
Catholic  life.  Failing  to  find  advancement  in  London 
he  returned  to  Lancashire  where  he  was  reconciled  to 
the  Catholic  Church.  He  then  married  and  settled 
down,  his  house  becoming  a  centre  of  missionary  work, 
he  himself  harbouring  priests  and  aiding  them  in  eveiy 
way,  besides  acting  as  catechist.  His  zeal  drew  on 
him  the  hostility  of  the  authorities,  and  at  Christmas, 
1581,  he  was  entrapped  into  bringing  a  priest,  Geom 
OstUfTe,  to  a  place  where  both  were  apprehended.  It 
was  given  out  that  Finch,  having  betrayed  *thepriest 
and  other  Catholics,  had  taken  refuge  with  the  Earl  of 
Derby,  but  in  fact,  he  was  kept  in  the  earl's  house  as 
a  prisoner,  sometimes  tortured  and  sometimes  bribed 
in  order  topervert  him  and  induce  him  to  give  infor- 
mation. Tnis  failing,  he  was  removed  to  the  Fleet 
Srison  at  Manchester  and  afterwards  to  the  House  of 
drrection.  When  he  refused  to  go  to  the  Protestant 
church  he  was  draped  there  by  the  feet,  his  head 


beatins  on  the  stones.  For  many  months  he  lay  in  a 
damp  dungeon,  iU-fed  and  ill-treated,  desiring  atways 
that  he  might  be  brou^t  to  trial  and  martyrdom. 
After  three  years'  unpnsonment,  he  was  sent  to  be 
tried  at  Lancaster.  There  he  was  brought  to  trial 
with  three  priests  on  18  April,  1584.  He  was  found 
guilty  and,  on  20  April,  havmg  spent  the  night  in  con- 
verting some  condemned  felons,  he  suffered  with  Ven. 
James  Bell  at  Lancaster.  The  cause  of  his  beatificar 
tion  with  those  of  the  other  English  Mart^gis  was  in- 
troduced by  decree  of  the  Sacred.  Congregation  of 
Rites,  4  Dec.,  1886. 

Bridobwater,  Conoertatio,  164  sqq.,  8.  v  Marti/rium  Domini 
Joannia  Finchii.ihe  firet  and  fullest  aceount  ot  the  martyr 
(Trier,  1588);  Challoner,  Memoirs  of  Missionary  PrieaU 
(London,  1741),  I,  162  sqq.;  Simpson  in  The  Rambler^  new 
series,  VlII,  414;  Gillow,  Bibl.  Diet,  Eng.  Caih.  (London, 
1886),  II:  PomsN,  Unpublxahed  DoeumnUa  rdating  to  the  Eng- 
liah  Martyrs,  especially  44-46  and  78-^88;  Catholic  Record  Sod- 
ety  (London,  1908).  V. 

Edwin  Burton. 
Finding  of  the  Gross.    See  Cross. 

Finglow,  John,  Venerable^  En^ish  martyr;  b.  at 
Bamby,  near  Howden,  Yorkshire ;  executed  at  York, 
8  August,  1586.  He  was  ordained  priest  at  the  Eng- 
lish College,  Reims,  25  March,  158t,  whence  the  foi- 
lowing  month  he  was  sent  on  the  English  mission. 
After  labouring  for  some  time  in  the  north  of  England, 
he  was  seized  and  confined  in  Ousebridge  Kidcote, 
York,  where  for  a  time  he  endiu^  serious  discom- 
forts, alleviated  slightly  by  a  fellow-prisoner.  He  was 
finally  tried  for  bemg  a  Catholic  priest  and  reconciling 
English  subjects  to  tne  ancient  Faith,  and  condemned 
to  be  hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered. 

CoopBR  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.:  Douay  Diaries,  ed.  Knox  (Lon- 
don, 1878);  Giixow.  BibL  Diet.  Eng.  Caih. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Finland,  Grand  Duchy  of,  a  department  or  prov- 
ince of  the  Russian  Empire;  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Norway,  on  the  west  by  Sweden  and  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  on  the  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  Its 
limits  extend  from  about  60^  to  70^  N.  lat.,  and  from 
about  19°  to  33°  E.  long. ;  the  area  is  141,617  sq.  miles. 
Finland  aboimds  in  lakes  and  forests,  but  the  propor- 
tion of  arable  soil  is  small.  The  population  numbers 
2,900,(XX)  souls,  chiefly  Finns';  the  coasts  are  inhabited 
by  the  descendants  of  Swedi^  settlers. 

Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  the  peo- 
ple were  pagans ,  about  this  date  efforts  for  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Finns  were  made  from  two  sides.  Tlie 
Grand  Duke  of  Novgorod,  Vassievolodovich,  sent 
Russian  missionaries  to  the  Karelians,  Finns  living  on 
the  Lake  of  Liadoga  in  East  Finlana,  while  in  1157 
King  Erik  of  Sweden  undertook  a  crusiEuleto  Finland. 
Erik  established  himself  firmly  on  the  south-western 
coast  and  from  this  base  extended  his  power.  Hen- 
rik.  Bishop  of  Uosala,  who  had  accompanied  Erik  on 
this  expedition,  devoted  himself  to  preaching  the  Gos- 
pel ana  suffered  the  death  of  a  martyr  in  1158.  His 
successor,  Rodulfus,  met  the*  same  fate  about  1178, 
while  the  next  following  bishop,  Folkvin,  died  a  nat- 
ural death.  Finland  attained  an  independent  church 
organization  under  Bishop  Thomas  (1220;  d.  1248), 
whose  see  was  R&ntem&kai ;  at  a  later  date  the  episco- 
pal residence  was  transferred  to  Abo.  The  successors 
of  Thomas  were:  Bero  I  (d.  1258);  Ragvald  I  (1258- 
66) ;  Kettfl  (1266-^) ;  Joannes  I  (1286-90) ;  Ma^us  I 
(1290-1308),  who  was  the  first  Finn  to  become  bishop : 
he  transferred  the  see  to  Abo;  Ragvald  II  (1309-21); 
Bengt  (1321-38);  Hemming  (1338-66),  who  made 
wise  laws,  built  numerous  churches,  began  the  collec- 
tion of  a  library,  and  died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity;  in 
1514  his  bones  were  taken  up,  the  relics  now  being  in 
the  museum  of  the  city  of  Abo,  but  he  was  not  canon- 
ized; Henricus  Hartmanni  (1366-68);  Joannes  II 
Petri  (1368-70);  Joannes  II  Westfal  (1370-«6),  a 
bishop  of  German  descent;  Bero  II  (1385-1412);  Mag- 


FIHHIAH  77  FIKOTTI 

nUB  II  Oiai  Tavast  (1412-50),  the  most  important  Photo,  The  (hand  Dwhy  o/  Finland  (London,  1903):  Scbt* 

prince  of  the  Chureh  of  Finland,  who,  when  eighty-  ""moon.. ^^7^S'^J^'*^,^^^JaJ:K^^^*'  ^fer^iS^ 

priuuo  VM.  vuv  xyuiuvu  vr«  *  uA«auvt,  ''^^,  ttuqu  vtguvjr  under  unum»t%dm  (Stockholm,  1880);  Lbinbbro,  Del  oddade 

eight  years  old,  undertook  arduous  visitations ;  he  also  Finaka  BiakojualifteU  Herdamifle  (JyavskyU.  1894);  Idbm,  De 

went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land  whence  he  Finaka  Kh^rena  kvitoria  (Helainnors.  1890);  Idem,  SkoUUUen 

Magni  (1450-60),  who  in  earlier  years  was  twice  rector  Finaka  attuUmnde  i  JeauitkoUeoier  (HeUinrfore,  1890):  Retziub, 

of  the  Sorbonne,  a  college  of  the  University  of  Paris,  Finiandi Nordiaka  Muaeet  (Stockholm,  1881);  AUoemeineWdtoe' 


he  settled  the  disagreement  between  Charles  VII  and  Neheb  in  /C»rcA«n/ea:..  n.  v.  Finnland:  Konverwttianalex.,  a.  V. 

the  university  arising  from  the  mrt  the  latter  had  a:*„fAHSS^"5SSi^^^l£^SSi,^iJlt"d!r^^^^^^ 

taken  m  the  bummg  of  Joan  of  Arc;  Conrad  I  Bitz  La  Finlande  (Pans,  1852),  II;  Bbockhaus  and  Ephron. 

a460-89),  who  in   1488  had  the  ''Missale  ecdesise  KonveraationOexikan:  Slateaman'a   Year  Book  (London,  1908). 

Aboensis"  printed;  Magnus  III  Stjemkore  (1489-  i4«2-66.                                                P.  Witmann. 
1500);  Laurentius  Suurpil&  (1500-06);  Joannes  IV 

Olavi  (1506-10);  Arvid  Kurck  (1510-20),  who  was  Finnian  of  MoviUe,  Saint,  b.  about  495;  d.  589. 
drowned  in  the  Baltic;  Ericus  Svenonis  (1523),  the  Though  not  so  celebrated  as  his  namesake  of  Clonard, 
chancellor  of  King  Gustavus  Vasa;  this  prelate  re-  ^^  was  the  founder  of  a  famous  school  about  the  year 
signed  the  see  as  his  election  was  not  confirmed  by  540.  He  studied  under  St.  Colman  of  Dromore  and 
Rome.  He  was  the  last  Catholic  Bishop  of  Finlandf.  St.  Moch»  of  Noendrum  (Mahee  Island),  and  subse- 
The  king  now,  on  his  own  authority,  appomted  his  fa-  quently  at  Candida  Casa  ( Whithem),  whence  he  pro- 
vourite,  the  Dominican  Martin  Skytte,  as  bishop;  ceeded  to  Rome,  retimiing  to  Ireland  in  540  with  an 
Skytte  did  all  in  his  power  to  promote  the  violent  in-  integral  copy  of  St.  Jerome's  Vulgate.  St.  Finnian's 
traduction  of  Lutheranism.  The  people  were  de-  most  distinguished  pupil  at  Moville  (County  Down) 
ceived  by  the  retention  of  Catholic  ceremonies;  clerics  was  St.  Columba,  whose  surreptitious  copying  of  the 
and  monks  were  given  the  choice  of  apostasy,  expul-  Psaltery  led  to  a  very  remarkable  sequel.  What  re- 
sion,  or  death.  'Die  only  moderation  shown  was  that  mains  of  the  copy,  together  with  the  casket  that  con- 
exhibited  towards  the  Brigittine  nunnery  of  N&dendal.  tains  it,  is  now  in  the  National  Museum,  Dublin.  It 
But  on  the  other  hand,  Uie  Dominicans  at  Abo  and  ^  known  as  the  Cathach  or  Battler,  and  was  wont  to  be 
Viborg,  and  the  Franciscans  at  K6kars  were  rudely  carried  by  the  O'Donnells  in  battle.  The  inner  case 
driven  out  and  apparently  the  mmates  of  the  monas-  was  made  by  Cathbar  O'Donnell  in  1084,  but  the 
tery  of  Raumo  were  hung.  Then,  as  later,  the  Church  outer  is  fourteenth-century  work.  So  prized  was  it 
of  Finland  did  not  lack  martyrs,  among  them  being  ^^^  t^o  family  of  MacGroarty  were  hereditary  cua- 
Jdns  Jussoila,  Peter  Ericius,  and  others.  todians  of  this  Cathach,  and  it  finally  passed,  in  1802, 
By  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Catholic  *<>  Sir  Neal  O'Donnell,  Coimty  Mayo.  St.  Finniaji  of 
Church  of  Fmland  may  be  said  to  have  ceased  to  exist.  Moville  wrote  a  rule  for  his  monks,  also  a  penitential 
In  its  place  appeared  an  inflexible  and  inqubitorial  code,  the  canons  of  which  were  published  by  Wasser- 
Lutheranism.  When  in  1617  Karelift  (East  Finland)  schleben,  in  1851.  His  festival  is  observed  on  10 
fell  to  Sweden,  an  effort  was  made  to  win  the  native  September. 

population,  w^h  belonged  to  the  Greek  Orthodox  ^-^vilirlfen^^SsaTSlfS^^J^^s  ^L,^'^ 

CJjUrch,  for  the  "pure  Gospel".     As  this  did  not  sue-  IriA  SainU  a>atilin,  a.  i.\;   Hzkhx.  InUmd;  AndaU  SdueU 

oeed,  the  war  of  1566-68  was  used  for  the  massacre  and  Sdulan  (Dublin,  1802);  Htde,  lAt.  Hiti.  of  Irdand  (Dob- 

and  expulsion  of  the  people.    In  consequence  of  the  '*''■  ^^^"t-                           txr  -a  r\^           t> 

victories  of  Peter  the  Great  mattere  after  a  whfle  took  "•  "•  Ghattan-I-lood. 

another  oourae:  in  1809  Russia  became  the  ruler  of       _> »».  ■, _«   u    xt.  tx  i    «<  «    x 

Finland  and  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church  has  of  late  .  ™f2*?'  JJWBf  =  ".,  b.  **  Ferrara,  Italy,  21  Septem- 

grown  in  strength.    It  numbers  now  50,000  members  ?|'v>  ^*  t^  ' ,  «?*  ^^n*™  .C«ty..  Colorado,  10  J»nua^, 

S.der  an  arch&ishop;  it  has  fine  chureh  buildings,  es-  ^^9.    In  1833  yo^g  Fmotti  was  received  mto  the 

peciaUy  in  Helsingfora,  wealthy  monasteries  (Viliam  ^^^^"^J^  ^T^'  *''1  !?■"  »ve»a».y««»  tausgt 

md  Konevets),  a  chu^  paper  published  at  Viborg,  *°<1  studi^l  in  the  coUegM  of  «>e  order  in  Italy    Tfte 

and  numerous  schooU.    CnSer  ^Russian  sovereignty  .  Jf**  °S!  ?^  the  "icruite  whom  Father  Ryder,  in  1845, 

the  long  repressed  Catholic  Chuitsh  received  ^&  brought  from  Europe  to  labour  in  the  Maryland  Prov- 

(1869  Md  lte9)  the  right  to  exist,  but  it  is  stffl  very  ^'»-    ^^'h'^  ordination  at  Geoigetowi,  D.  C, 

weak,  and  numbew  <X  about  1000  souls  ;«iere  <m  ^*^  *^S°"'„I2f  *SS?*  JPi!?**'!-.^^^.^'^!! 
Catholic  churches  at  Abo  and 


majority  of  the  inhabitants  belong 

the  various  sects  of  Protestantism.    The  State  Church  i.    uu  i.i.         -x'        *  i-^            j-.       * 

of  former  times,  now  the  "National"  Church,  to  which  SSPy  i^?,r^  cf  ^  5?  position  of  literary  editor  of 

the  larger  part  of  the  population  adhere,  is  divided  7^®  f  i^^.  'J^^^^'^^r^  IJ^J?  °^  B~okh??  and 

into  fo5r  dioceses:  Abo,  ^uopio,  Borg&,  and  Nyslott;  }^^''  ^^  ^"^""{j^T'xJ^^  !^*  ^?^,3^J*  °^^  ^*^« 

these  contain  altogether  45  provostshlTO  and  512  par^  ^«  ?^fVf    n  ^^^}'  be<»ming,  in  1877,  pastor  of 

ishes.    The  finest  of  its  cWh  buSdings  are  the  ^^>^^  ^'}^iiP^}^^%'t?''^  '^^^S'S  Z'***^  ^^**^* 

domed  church  of  St.  Nicholas  at  HelsingfSre  and  the  P^"^^,'^^*?,  T®  *'™®  --      death    Father  Finotti  was 

churoh  at  Abo,   formeriy  the  Catholic   cathedral.  f^ffT^l^f^jlL^ri^  ?!I51.^HC^^^ 

Education  is  provided  for  by  i  ""'  "  ""       """ «'— «  « 
cal  high  school  at  Helsin^ors, 


ity  there  are 
but  they  have 


lish.    Besides  the  followers  of  Christian-  l^^^T'^f'i,^}^^^^^^ 

both  Jews  and  Mohammedans  in  Finland,  fS??'^.^^  ®^^V   ^1?®'.  AT^Sj'^^w  ^"^7^1' 

re  no  civil  rights.    Since  the  middle  of  the  ^^'  .^^^'^^.^^^  ^"^'^.l^}  "^^^ 

nineteehth  century  aboSt  200,000  Finns  have  emi-  ^^-   ^^"^  2  ^7. J       Hf,.  ^l  ^^^™^  F^^"^ 

grated  to  the  United  States,  settling  largely  in  Minne-  P?\®'  ^^'  ,  T^-     ^^^  publications  were  trans- 

mta  and  Michigan.    The  town  of  I&ncS;k,  Michigan,  ***®^  ^.^'^  ^^  ^iJS^u,?**  ^^^5?^  work,  never 

is  the  centre  of  their  religious  and  educational  work.  «>mi>leted,  is  his  "Bibliographia  Catholica  Amen- 

WiNDT.  Fintandaa  It  la  (NewYork,  1902):  Nordiak  Famibebok,  ?^°*    »  which  tOOk  years  Of  Study  and  care.     It  was 

viii.  pts.  IIMV;  Sveriifea  hittoria  (Stockholm,  i877-8t1,  VI:  mtended  to  be  a  catal(^gue.  of  all  the  Catholic  booki 


WOTMX                                78  nORETTI 

publiahed  in  the  United  States^  with  notices  of  their  is,  no  doubt,  merely  a  new  form  jgiven  to  traditionfi 

authors  and  an  epitome  of  tiieir  contents.    The  first  that  go  back  to  the  early  days  of  the  order;  the  other 

part,  which  brings  the  list  down  to  1820  indusivei  was  •is  believed  to  be  substantialiy  the  work  of  a  certain 

published  in  1872;  the  second  volume,  which  was  to  Fra  Ugolino  da  Monte  Giorgio  of  the  noble  famUy  of 

mdude  the  works  of  Catholic  writers  from  1821  to  Brunforte  (see  Brunforte,  Ugolino),  who,  at  the 

1875,  was  never  finished,  though  much  of  the  material  time  of  his  death  in  1348,  was  provincial  of  the  Friars, 

for  it  had  been  industriously  gathered  from  all  avail-  Minor  in  the  March.    Living  as  he  did  a  century  after 

able  soiuxjes.   His  last  literaiy  effort,  which  he  did  not  the  death  of  St.  Francis,  l^lino  was  dependent  on 

live  to  see  published,  entitled ''  The  Mystery  of  Wizard  hearsay  for  much  of  his  information ;  part  of  it  he  is 

Clip"  (Baltimore,  1879),  is  a  stoiy  of  preternatural  said  to  have  learned  from  Fra  Giacoqao  da  Massa  who 

occurrences  at  Smithfield,  W.  Vix'ginia,  wnich  is  partly  had  been  well  known  and  esteemed  by  the  companions 

told  in  the  life  of  Father  Gallitzin.  of  the  saint,  and  who  had  lived  on  terms  of  intimacy 

laustraied  Ceuholie  FamUy  Abnanac,  1880:    Bipmphieal  with  Fra  Leone,  his  oonfessor  and  secretary.    What- 

^iS:  M^\  STK^FWs^SJJ^'ffirK?:  %^^  ««yhavo  been  the  sources  from  whicl  Ugolino 

Edward  P.  Spillanb.  derived  his  materials,  the  fifty-three  chapters  which 

constitute  the  Latin  work  in  question  seem  to  have 

HiiUn,SAiNT8.-FiNTANOFCLOirENAOH,SAiNT,a  been  written  before  1328.    The  four  appendixes  on  the 
Leinster  saint,  b.  about  £ 

J^.^^)?hf  «H^!^Stem^n™i^»  n^wh^n!  ^Z  ^^  ^ave  it,  fori  no  part  of  the  original  ooUection  and 

&w«^5h^?J,?2rn^nS?^;^jr,^^^^  ^««»  probably  added  by  lat«r  compi«e«.    Unfortu- 

JJS3i?^^i,S.«^,wK«,  ^^^7  ^t  t  nately  the  na£ae  of  the  fourteenth-oeStury  Franciscan 

iSf ^nH  Tn^iw?lS^;H  ^i^?^  ^nS  *h«  'ri"  ^0  translated  into  Italian  fifty-three  of  the 

I^iS?.^  *"f^i'fK5rl.^rl?*?!f^/Jf  seventy-six  chapters  found  in  the.  "Actus  B.  Fntn- 


St. 


cisci"  and  in  translatins  immortalized  them  as  the 


apcetolic  agea.    Among  his  pupils  was  the  p;reat 

&S!^rft!J2S  w„S  M.i?H.tMf!S^^  "Fioietti",  remains  unlbiown.    The  attribution  of 

Ji  iL^IS^it  -^^I^^i.^«  hitSiTn^SS?^  «»»  ^*  to  Giovanni  di  San  Lorenso  i«sts  whoUy 

?y*tee'^^ii^"^st.  £^^dT^  s'^i^^^s^'t^:^^^'t^t:ri 

"Father  <rf  the  Irish  Monks".  lator  wm  a  Morentme.    However  this  may  be,  the 

1^^  (MotJ o»  TlamoN,  Saint,  son  of  Tul-  J«"">^  ^^r'*^"'  ^^^R,  "*  *^,  °^  ^H  V^ 

chinT  an  bister  4int,  d.  at  I'l^n,  636.    He  «^d«  reckoned  among  the  masterp«oes  of  Italmn 

founded  his  celebrated  abbey  at  T-aghmon  CTeiwh  ^he  "Fioretti"  have  been  described  as  "the  most 

Munnu).m  what  is  now  Coimty  Wexford,  m  fW.  ^  exquisite  eimiession  ^thTreligious  life  of  the  Middle 

IS  pnncipaUy  Imown  aa  the  defender  ai  the  Insh  YaL„     That^rhan- whs^" ^«.  th»l  i««,nH.  «"i. 

method  of  keeping  Easter, 

the  Synod  of  Magh  Lene.  a 

^e  decision  to  adopt  the  Romaa  paschal  meOiod.  Sri/ivH^cis^rowT  TowHrre  ^'^'re  te  foiilS 

Another,  synod  was  held  somewhat  btor  at  Ms^  .  ^„  childlike  iSith,  a  livelier  sense  of  the  super- 


ipi^  «n  9rn«i^Xr  'ft,Tw„fif„nS«^AJlrS  *ban  ary  other  w6rirt«nsporti  us  to  the  scenes  amid 

5Sr*lrnn„»  2ift;^3in  ^^^t^^^thL  "^^^  St.  Finncis  and  his^rst  foUowew  Uved,  and 

StMunn     still  stands  m  the  churchyard  of  the  ^^^^16  us  to  see  them  as  they  saw  themselves. 

C^.  Ada  Sank.  H*  JUmr-n.  1045);  Ada  SS.  (1888).  ^u""*^,-!***''^'  «i»««»^er.  °^  P^^I"  ^•*°*"  *S 

Oet.,  vin,896-«8;  f  1858).  IX,  326-33;  ZiiniBB.Ce(iu;CAura&ut  the  Vitality  and  enthusiasm  with  which  the  memory  of 

BrOain  and  Iniani  (London,  1902);  O'Hahloh,  Liva  of  Uu  the  life  and  teaching  of  the  Poverello  was  preserved, 

(D!iblS:TS5^)!"  B2i.":  E^'^kui^T^^f^!  S-.'sS  «^d  they  contain  much  more  history,  as  distinct  from 

(LondoD,  l«>7);  AnnaU  of  UUter  (Dublin.  1901),  IV;  Stokss,  mere  poetry,  than  it  was  customary  to  recognize  when 

heUmd  and  the  COiie  Chwrch,  ed.  Lawijob  (London,  i«>7).  Suyskens  and  Papini  wrote.    In  Italy  the  ^'  Fioretti " 

W,  H.  Grattan-Flood.  have  alwajrs  enjoyed  an  extraordinary  popularity; 

indeed,  this  liber  aureus  is  said  to  have  oeen  more 

Fioretti  di  S.  Francesco  d'Asaisi  (Littlb  Flow-  widely  read  there  than  any  other  book,  not  excepting 

BBS  OF  St.  Francis  of  Assisi),  the  name  given  to  even  the  Bible  or  the  Divine  Ck>medy.    Certain  it  is  that 

a  classic  collection  of  popular  legends  about  the  life  the ''Fioretti'' have  exercised  an  immense  influence  in 

of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  and  his  early  companions  as  forming  the  popular  conception  of  St.  Francis  and  his- 

they  appeared  to  the  Italian  people  at  the  beginning  companions.    The  earliest  known  MS.  of  the  **  Fior- 

of  the  fourteenth  century.    Such  a  work,  as  Ozanam  etti  ,  now  preserved  at  Berlin,  is  dated  1390;  the 

observes,  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  one  author;  it  is  work  was  first  printed  at  Vicenza  in  1476.    Manzoni 

the  product  rather  of  g^radual  growth  and  must,  as  has  collected  many  interestine  details  about  the  well- 

Sabatier  remarks,  remain  in  a  certain  sense  anony-  ni^  innumerable  codices  and  editions  of  the  "Fior- 

mous,  because  it  is  national.    There  has  been  some  etti".    The  best  edition  for  the  general  reader  is  un* 

doubt  as  to  whether  the  "Fioretti"  were  written  in  questionably  that  of  Father  Antonio  Cesari  (Verona, 

Italian  in  the  first  instance,  as  Sbaralea  thought,  or  1822)  which  is  based  on  the  epoch-making  edition 

were  translated  from  a  Latin  original,  as  Wadding  of  FQippo  Buonarroti  (Florence,  1718).    The  Crusca 

maintained .    The  latter  seems  altogether  more  proba-  quote  from  this  edition  which  has  been  often  reprinted '. 

ble,  and  modem  critics  eenerallv  believe  that  a  larger  The  "  Fioretti"  have  been  translated  into  nearly  everv 

Latin  collection  of  legends,  whicn  has  come  down  to  us  European  language  and  in  our  own  day  are  being  much 

under  the  name  of  the"  Actus  B.FranciscietSociorum  read  and  studied  in  Northern  coimtries.    There  are 

£jus'\  represents  an  approximation  to  the  text  now  several  well-known  English  versions. 

lost  of  the  original  "Floretum",  of  which  the  "Fior-  Oianaij,  Let  poHea  FrancMeaina  en  Italie  au  tremime  tiicU 

etti"  is  a  traiSation     A  strikmg  difference  fa  notice-  l?^k/^-iJ^^''(NXYiS^)f  Sf^K^m^S  ^ 

able  between  the  eariier  chapters  of  the  "Fioretti",  FionUi  in  Mi»e,  Franeeacana^  III  (FoUgno.  1888-89);   Alviu. 

which  refer  to  St.  Francis  and  his  companions,  and  the  Fioretti  di  8,  Fnmceeeo:  ShtdtieiMahro  eompoeixione  etorim  in 

later  one.  which  deal  with  thefriars  in  the  proving  of  f^if^V^SfclTSl'/iie^'J^^^  j?^'  ^^'^flS: 

tjb»  March  of  Anoona.     The  first  half  of  the  collection  faao.  II-III.;  Qahavani.  La  queetione  eUnica  dti  Fioretti  eillaro 


79 


poiCo  luOa  aforia  dd  ordine  In  Riviata  8iorieoCriiieadeO«8ei«fue 
Uotogitka,  XI  (1906),  260  0qq.,  678  sqq.;  Waddino-Sbaralba. 
^Sertptorw  OfxiMiM  Ifmorum,  ed.  Nardbccria  (Rome.  1906-08), 
t.  ▼.{HuoouMUS,  bibliogiBphy  under  Brunforle in TbbCatbo- 
uo  Enctgu>pbdia. 

Paschal  Robinson. 
firet  BApnsif  bt.    See  Baptisu. 

Fire,  LrruRGiCAL  Use  of. — ^Fire  is  one  of  the  most 
expressive  and  most  ancient  of  liturgical  symbols. 
All  the  creeds  of  antiquity  accorded  a  prominent  place 
to  this  element  whose  mysterious  nature  and  irresist- 
tt>le  power  freouently  caused  it  to  be  adored  as  a  god. 
The  sun,  as  tne  pnnciple  of  heat  and  li^t  for  the 
earthy  was  regarded  as  an  igneous  mass  and  had  its 
share  in  this  worship.  (Tmistianity  adapted  this 
usual  belief,  but  denied  the  divine  title  to  heat  and 
lifi^t.  and  made  theifi  the  sjrmbols  of  the  divinity, 
wnicn  enlightens  and  warms  humanity.  The  symbol- 
ism led  quite  naturally  to  the  liturgical  rite  bv  which 
the  CSiureh  on  the  Eve  of  Easter  oelebrates  the  mys- 
tery of  tiie  Death  and  Resurrection  of  Christ,  of  which 
the  eztin|B;uished  and  rekindled  fire  furnishes  the  ex- 
pressive image.  The  b»nnning  of  the  office  also  re- 
flects ancient  beliefs.  Tne  new  fire  is  struck  from  a 
flint  and  is  blessed  with  this  prasrer:-  ''Lord  God,  Al- 
mighty Father,  inextinguishable  li^t,  Who  hast  cre- 
ated all  IJ^t,  bless  this  light  sanctified  and  blessed 
by  Tliee.  Who  hast  enlightened  the  whole  world :  make 
us  enlidntened  by  that  li^t  and  inflamed  with  the 
fire  of  Thy  brightness;  and  as  Thou  didst  enligihten 
Moses  when  he  went  out  of  Egypt,  so  illuminate  our 
hearts  and  senses  that  we  may  attain  life  and  ILg^it 
everlasting  through  Christ  our  Lord.  Amen."  When 
the  fire  has  been  struck  from  the  flint  the  three- 
branched  candle  is  lishted  and  the  deacon  chants  the 
"Exultet"  (q.  v.),  a  liturgical  poem  whose  style  is  as 
lively  Slid  charming  as  the  melody  which  accompanies 
it.  it  is  yet  preserved  in  the  Roman  Liturgy.  In  the 
East  the  ceremony  of  the  new  fire  occupies  a  place  of 
considerable  importance  in  the  paschal  ritual  of  the 
Greek  Church  at  Jerusalem.  Tjiis  ceremony  is  the 
occasion  for  scandalous  demonstrations  of  a  piety 
which  frequently  degenerates  into  orgies  worthy  of 
pagan  rites.  The  Journal  of  the  Marquis  de  Nointel, 
m  the  seventeenth  century^  relates  scenes  which  can- 
not be  transcribed  and  which  takeplaoe  periodically. 
Tills  ceremonv  is  peculiar  to  the  Hol^r  City  and  does 
not  figure  in  the  ordinary  Byzantine  ritual. 

In  uie  West  we  see  the  Irish,  as  early  as  the  sixth 
century,  lizhting  large  fires  at  nishtfall  on  the  Eve  of 
Easter.  Tne  correspondence^  of  St.  Boniface  wiUi 
Pope  Zachary  furnishes  a  curious  detail  on  this  sub- 
ject. These  fires  were  kindled,  not  with  brands  from 
other  fires,  but  with  lenses;  they  were  therefore  new 
fires.  There  is  no  trace  of  this  custom  in  Gaul,  where 
the  Merovingian  liturgical  books  are  nlent  on  the 
point.  It  is  difficult  to  say  what  took  place  in  Spain, 
tor  although  the  Mozarabic  Missal  contains  a  blessing 
of  fire  at  tne  beginning  of  the  vigil  of  Easter,  it  can 
hardly  be  admitted  that  this  ceremony  was  primitive. 
It  may  liave  been  inserted  in  this  missal  at  alater  date 
as  it  was  in  the  Roman  Missal,* in  the  case  of  which  fire 
is  obtained  from  a  flint  and  steel.  It  is  possible  that 
the  custom,  of  Breton  or  Celtic  orijgin,  was  imposed 
upon  the  Aiifi^O;^xons,  and  the  missionaries  of  that 
nation  brouent  it  to  the  continent  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury. An  altogether  different  rite,  thous^  of  similar 
meaning,  was  followed  at  Rome.  On  Holy  Thursday, 
at  the  consecration  of  the  holy  chrism,  there  was  col- 
lected in  all  the  lamps  of  the  Lateran  basilica  a  quan- 
tity of  oil  sufficient  to  fill  three  large  vases  deposited 
in  the  comer  of  the  church.  Wicks  burned  in  this  oil 
until  the  nig^t  of  Holy  Saturdav,  when  there  were 
liglited  from  these  lamps  the  canales  and  other  lumi- 
naries by  which,  during  the  Eve  of  Easter,  light  was 
thrown  on  the  ceremonies  of  the  administration  of 
baptism.    This  rite  must  have  been  attended  with  a 


certain  solemnity  since  the  letter  of  Pope  Zaehaiy  to 
St.  Boniface  prescribes  that  a  priest^  perhaps  even  a 
bishop,  should  officiate  on  this  occasion.  ^  Unhappily 
we  are  reduced  to  this  somewhat  vague  information, 
for  neither  the  Roman  "Ordines"^  nor  the  Sacramen- 
taries  tell  us  anything  concerning  this  ceremony. 
This  blessing  of  the  paschal  candle  and  the  fire  at  the 
beginning  of  Easter  Eve  is  foreign  to  Rome.  The 
large  lamps  prepared  on  Holy  Thursday  provided  fire 
on  the  Friday  and  Saturday  without  necessitating  the 
solemn  production  of  a  new  fire.  The  feast  of  the 
Purification  or  Candlemas  (2  February])  has  a  cele- 
brated rite  with  ancient  prayers  concerning  the  eihis- 
sion  of  liturgical  fire  and  li^ht.  •  One  of  them  invokes 
Christ  as ''  the  true  light  which  enlightenest  everv  man 
that  Cometh  into  this  world".  The  canticle  of  Sim- 
eon,''Nimc  Dimittis",  is  chanted  with  the  anthem 
"A  light  (which  my  eyes  have  seen)  for  the  revelation 

of  the  Gentiles  and  for  the  ^ory  of  thy  people  Israel." 
ScHANB,  Apoloffie  (tr.)*  n,  96,  101;  db  ia  Saubsatb,  Com^ 
parative  Rdioion,  II,  185:  Duchbbnb,  Oriaina  of  Chrittian  TTor- 
thip  (London,  1904);  Kbllnbb,  Heortoiom  ax>ndon,  1906); 
HAifPBON,  Medii  JBn  Kaiendanum;  HomB  Every  Day  Book, 

H.  Leclbboq. 
fire,  PiLLAA  OF.    See  Pillar  oi*  Firb. 
fire  WorBhippen.    See  Parsees. 

Finnament  (Heb.  ]rpi;  Sept.  ffT€p4*»/ia;  Vulgate, 
firmamerUum). — ^The  notion  that  the  sky  was  avast 
solid  dome  seems  to  have  been  common  among  Uie 
ancient  peoples  whose  ideas  of  cosmology  have  come 
down  to  us.  Thus  the  Egyptians  conceived  the 
heavens  to  be  an  arehed  iron  ceiling  from  which  the 
stars  were  suspended  by  means  of  cables  (Chabas, 
L' Antiquity  historique.  Paris,  1873,  pp.  64r^7).  Like- 
wise to  the  mind  of  tne  Babylonians  the  sky  was  an 
immense  dome,  forged  out  of  the  hardest  metal  by  ibe 
hand  of  Meroaach  (Marduk)  and  resting  on  a  wall 
surrounding  the  earth  (Jensen,  Die  Kosmologie  der 
Babylonier,  Strasburg,  1890,  pp.  253,  260).  Accord- 
ing to  the  notion  prevalent  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  the  sky  was  a  great  vault  of  crystal  to  which 
the  fixea  stars  were  attached,  though  bv  some  it  was 
held  to  be  of  iron  or  brass.  That  the  Hebrews  enter- 
tained similar  ideas  appears  from  numerous  biblical 
passages.  In  the  first  account  of  the  creation  (Gen.,  i) 
we  r^kd  that  God  created  a  firmament  to  divide  the 
upper  or  celestial  from  the  lower  or  terrestrial  waters. 
Tne  Hebrew  word  Jf^fTi  means  something  beaten  or 
hammered  out,  and  thus'extended;  the  Vulgate  ren- 
dering, "firmamentum",  corresponds  more  closely 
with  the  Greek  orep^wfia  (Septuagint,  Aquila,  and 
Symmachus),  "something  made  firm  or  sohd".  The 
notion  of  the  solidity  of  the  firmament  is  moreover 
expressed  in  such  passages  as  Job,  xxzvii,  18.  where 
reference  is  made  incidentally  to  the  heavens,  which 
are  most  strong,  as  if  they  were  of  molten  brass". 
The  same  is  implied  in  the  purpose  attributed  to  God  in 
creating  the  nrmament,  viz.  to  serve  as  a  wall  of 
separation  between  the  upper  and  lower  bodies  of 
water,  it  being  conceived  as  supporting  a  vast  celestial 
reservoir;  and  also  in  the  account  of  the  deluge  (Gen., 
vii),  where  we  read  that  the  ''flood  gates  of  heaven 
were  opened",  and  ''shut  up"  (viii^  2).  (Cf.  also  IV 
Kings,  vii,  19;  Is.,  xxiv,  18;  Mai.,  lii,  10;  Prov.,  viii, 
28  sqq.)  Other  passages,  e.  g.  Is.,  xiii,  5,  emphasise 
rather  the  idea  of  sometnine  extended : "  Thus  saith  the 
Lord  God  that  created  the  heavens  and  stretched  them 
out"  (Cf.  Is.,  xliv,  24,  and  xl,  22)^.  In  conformity 
with  these  ideas,  the  writer  of  Gen.,  i,  14-17, 20,  repre- 
sents God  as  settine  the  stare  in  the  firmament  of 
heaven,  and  the  fowls  are  located  beneath  it,  i.  e.  in 
the  air  as  distinct  from  the  firmament.  On  this  point, 
as  on  many  others,  the  Bible  simply  reflects  the  current 
cosmological  ideas  and  language  of  the  time. 

LBstTRB  in  Via.,  Diet,  de  la  Bude,  b.  v.:  WnmHOUBB  in 
Hastinos,  DicL  of  the  Bibles  b,  v.  Coamooony,  T,  502. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 


riBMIOXra                               80  miMTT.TATff 

ftmiieiui  MateniTUy  Christian  author  of  the  fourth  were  trvmg  to  support  the  heresy  of  Novatian  (Euseb., 
century,  wrote  a  work  "De  errore  profanarum  reli-  Hist.  Ecd.,  VI,  xlvi,  3).  Dion^rsius  counts  Firmilian 
gionum''.  Nothing  is  known  about  nim  except  what  as  one  of  "the  more  eminent  bishops"  in  a  letter  to 
can  be  gleaned  from  this  work,  which  is  found  in  only  Pope  Stephen  (ibid.,  VII,  v,  1),  where  his  expression 
one  MS.  (Codex  Vaticano-Palatinus,  Ssec.  X).  Some  ''finnilian  and  all  Cappadoda"  again  implies  that 
references  to  the  Persian  Wars,  and  the  fact  that  the  Csesarea  was  already  a  metropolitan  see.  This  ex- 
work  was  addressed  to  the  two  emperors,  Constantiiis  plains  why  Firmilian  could  invite  Origen  to  Cappado- 
II  and  Constans  I^  have  led  to  the  conclusion  that  it  cia  "for  the  benefit  of  the  Churches  . 
was  composed  durmg  their  joint  reign  (337-350).  The  In  a  letter  to  Pope  Sixtus  II  (257-8),  Dionysius 
work  is  valuable  because  it  gives  a  picture  of  the  char-  mentions  that  Pope*  St.  Stephen  in  the  baptismal  con- 
acter  which  thcr  pagaxtbm  of  the  later  Roman  Empire  troversy  had  refused  to  communicate  with  Helenus  of 
had  taken,  under  the  stress  of  the  new  spiritual  needs  Tarsus^  Firmilian,  and  all  Ciiicia  and  Cappadocia,  and 
aroused  by  contact  with  the  religions  of  Egypt  and  the  the  neighbouring  lands  (Euseb.,  VII,  v,  3-4).  We 
East.  It  aims,  if  one  may  judge  from  the  mutilated  learn  the  cause  of  this  from  the  only  writing  of  St. 
introduction,  at  presenting  from  a  philosophical  and  Firmilian 's  which  remains  to  us.  When  the  baptismal 
historical  standpoint,  reasons  showing  the  superiority  controversy  arose,  St.  Cyprian  wished  to  gain  support 
of  Christianity  over  the  superstitions  and  licentious-  from  the  Churches  of  the  East  a^nst  Pope  Stephen 
ness  of  heathenism.  In  a  general  survey  of  pagan  for  his  own  decision  to  rebaptize  all  heretics  who 
creeds  and  beliefs  the  author  holds  up  to  scorn  the  returned  to  the  Church.  At  the  end  of  the  summer  of 
origin  and  practices  of  the  Gentile  cults.  All  its  parts  256,  he  sent  the  deacon  Rogatian  to  Firmilian  with  a 
are  not  of  equal  merit  or  importance,  from  the  purely  letter,  together  with  the  documents  on  the  subject — 
historical  standpoint.  The  first  portion,  in  which  the  letters  of  the  pope,  of  his  own.  and  of  his  council  at 
religions  of  Greece  and  the  East  are  described,  is  Carthage  in  the  spring,  and  the  treatise  "De  Eccl. 
merely  a  compilation  from  earlier  soiurces,  but  in  the  Cath.  Unitate''.  Firmilian 's  reply  was  received  at 
latter  section  of  the  work,  in  which  the  mysteries  of  Carthage  about  the  middle  of  November.  It  is  a  long 
Eleusis,  Isis,  and  especially  Mithra  are  set  forth  in  de-  letter,  even  more  bitter  and  violent  than  that  of  C^yp- 
tail,  with  their  system  of  curious  passwords,  formulae,  rian  to  Pompeius.  It  has  come  down  to  us  in  a  transla- 
and  ceremonies,  the  author  seems  to  speak  from  per-  tion  made,  no  doubt,  imder  St.  Cyprian's  direction^ 
sonal  experience,  and  thus  reveals  manv  interesting  and  apparently  very  literal,  as  it  abounds  in  (jraecisms 
facts  which  are  not  found  elsewhere.  The  emperors  (Ep.  Ixxv  among  St.  Cyprian's  letters).  St.  Cyprian's 
are  exhorted  to  stamp  out  this  network  of  superstition  arguments  against  St.  Stephen  are  reiterated  and  rein- 
and  immorality,  as  a  sacred  dutv  for  which  thev  will  forced,  and  the  treatise  on  Unity  is  laid  imder  contri- 
receive  a  reward  from  God  Himself,  and  ultimately  the  bution.  It  is  particularly  interesting  to  note  that  the 
praise  and  thanks  of  those  whom  they  rescue  from  famous  fourth  chapter  of  that  treatise  must  have  been 
error  and  corruption.  The  theory  that  the  author  of  before  the  writer  of  the  letter  in  its  original  form,  and 
the  ChristiGm  work  was  identical  with  Julius  Firmicus  not  in  the  alternative  "Roman"  form  (c.  xvi).  It  is 
Maternus  Siculus,  who  wrote  a  work  on  astrology  (De  the  literal  truth  when  Firmilian  says:  "  We  have  re- 
Nativitatibus  sive  Matheseos),  assigned  by  Mommsen  ceived  your  writings  as  our  own,  and  have  committed 
to  the  year  337  ["  Hermes",  XXIX  (1894),  468  sq.],  is  them  to  memory  by  repeated  reading"  (c.  iv). 
favourably  received  by  some,  as  well  because  ot  the  The  reasoning  against  the  validity  of  heretical  bap- 
identity  of  names  and  dates^  as  because  of  similarities  tism  is  mainlv  that  of  St.  C^$rprian,  tnat  those  who  are 
in  st^le  which  they  are  satined  the  two  documents  outside  the  (Jnurch  and  have  not  the  Holy  Spirit  can- 
exhibit.  This  theory  of  course  supposes  that  the  au-  not  admit  others  to  the  Church  or  give  what  they  do 
thor  wrote  one  work  before,  the  other  after,  his  con-  not  possess.  Firmilian  is  fond  of  oilemmas:  for  in- 
version. Critical  edition  by  Halm  (Vienna,  1867)  in  stance,  either  the  heretics  do  not  give  the  Holy  Ghost, 
"  Corpus  Scrip.  Eccles.  Lat. ",  11.  in  which  case  rebaptism  is  necessary,  or  else  they  do 

ZmQJJtR,  Firmiata  Maiermu,  De  Errore  Prof ,  Rdig.  (Leipng,  give  it,  in  which  case  Stephen  should  not  enjoin  the 

1908);  MOllbb,  Zur  Ueberliiferunp  der  Avclogxe  dee  Firmieua  fi«:„j,  ^n  nf  VianHn      Tf  ia  imnnrtftnt  fhaf  Firmilian 

Matemua  (TQbWen,  1908);  ^ditional  literature.  Babdbn-  ^aj^g  o^  01  nanas.    It  IS  important  tnat  iiirmnian 

BBwsB.  Pidrologvt  tr.  Shaban  (Freibuiv  im  Br.,  St.  Louis,  enables  US  to  gather  much  of  the  dnft  of  St.  Stephen's 

1908),402.                                    Patrick  J.  Healt.  letter.    It  is  "ridiculous"  that  Stephen  demanded 

nothing  but  the  use  of  the  Trinitarian  formula.    He 

nrmlUan,  Bishop  of  Csesaiea  in  Cappadocia,  died  had  appealed  to  tradition  from  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul: 


0.  269.    He  had  among  his  contemporaries  a  repu-    this  is  an  insult  to  the  Apostles,  cries  Firmilian,  for 

Cypnan.    they  execrated  heretics.    Besides  (this  is  f       " 


tation  comparable  to  that  of  Dionysius  or  Qrpnan.    they  execrated  heretics.    Besides  (this  is  froxn  Cyprian, 


St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  tells  us  that  St.  Gregory  the  EjJ.hnriv,  2),"  no  one  could  be  so  silly  as  to  believe  this'* 

Wonder- Worker,  then  a  pagan,  having  completed  his  for  the  heretics  are  all  later  than  the  Apostles  I     Ana 

secular  studies,  ''fell  in  with  Firmilian,  a  Cappadocian  Rome  has  not  preserved  the  Apostolic  traditions  un- 

of  noble  family,  similar  to  himself  in  character  and  changed,  for  it  dififers  from  Jerusalem  as  to  the  observ- 

talent,  as  he  snowed  in  his  subsequent  life  when  he  anoes  at  Easter  and  as  to  other  mysteries.    "I  am 

adorned  the  Church  of  Caesarea."    The  two  youns  justly  indignant  with  Stephen's  obvious  and  manifest 

men  agreed  in  their  desire  to  know  more  of  God,  ana  silliness^  that  he  so  boasts  of  his  positioh,  and  claims 

came  to  Origen,  whose  disciples  they  became,  and  by  that  he  is  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  on  whom  were  laid 

whom  Gregory,  at  least,  was  baptized.   Firmilian  was  the  foundations  of  the  Church ;  yet  he  brings  in  many 

other  rocks,  and  erects  new  buildmgs  of  many  Churches 
when  he  defends  with  his  authority  the  baptism  con- 

coimtry  for  the  benefit  ferred  by  heretics;   for  those  who  are  baptized  are 

of  the  Churches,  at  the  time  (232-5)  when  the  great  without  doubt  numbered  in  the  Church,  and  he  who 

teacher  was  staying  in  Cssarea  of  Palestine,  on  account  approves  their  baptism  affinns  that  there  b  among 

of  his  bishop's  oispleasure  at  his  having  been  ordained  tnem  a  Church  of  the  baptized.  .  .  .  Stephen*,  who 

priest  in  that  dty.    Firmilian  also  went  to  him  subse-  declares  that  he  has  the  Chair  of  Peter  by  succession, 

quently  and  stayed  with  him  some  time  that  he  mi^t  is  excited  by  no  zeal  against  heretics  "  (c.  xvii) .   "  You 

advance  in  theoloor  (Hist.  Eccl.,  VII,  xxviii,  1).    He  have  cut  yourself  off--do  not  mistake — ^since  be  is  the 

was  an  opponent  (?the  antipope  Novatian,  for  Diony-  true  schismatic  who  makes  himself  an  apostate  from 

sius  in  252-3  writes  that  Helenus  of  i?arsus,  Firmilian,  the  communion  of  ecclesiastical  unity.    For  in  think- 

and  Theoctistus  of  Csesarea  in  Palestine  (that  is,  the  ing  that  all  can  be  excommunicated  by  you,  you  have 

Metropolitans  of  Ciiicia,  Cappadocia,  and  Palestine)  but  off  yourself  alone  from  the  communion  of  all" 

had  invited  him  ta  a  ^ynod  at  Antiodi,  where  some  (c.  xxiy). 


FIBST-BORN 


.  81 


FZ&ST-BOftM 


We  thus  learn  the  claims  of  the  pope  to  impose  on 
the  whole  Church  by  his  authority  as  successor  of 
Peter,  a  custom  derived  by  the  Roman  Church  from 
Apostolic  tradition.  Firmilian  tells  the  Africans  that 
with  them  the  custom  of  rebaptizing  may  be  new,  but 
in  Capi»docia  it  is  not,  and  he  can  answer  Stephen  by 
opposing  tradition  to  tradition,  for  it  was  their  prac- 
tice from  the  banning  (c.  xix) ;  and  some  time  since, 
he  had  joined  in  a  council  at  Iconium  with  the  bishops 
of  Galatia  and  Cilicia  and  other  provinces,  and  had 
decided  to  rebaptize  the  Montanists  (c.  vii  and  xix). 
Dionysius,  in  a  letter  to  the  Roman  priest  Philemon, 
also  mentions  the  Council  of  Iconium  with  one  at 
Synnada ''  among  many".  It  was  presumably  held  in 
the  last  years  of  Alexander  Severus,  c.  231-5.  Firmil- 
ian also  took  part  in  the  two  councils  of  264-5  at 
Antioch  which  deposed  Paul  of  Samosata.  He  may 
even  have  presided.  The  letter  of  the  third  council 
says  he  was  too  easily  persuaded  that  Paul  would 
amend ;  hence  the  necessity  of  another  council  (Euseb. 
Hist.  Eccl.,  VII,  iii-v).  He  was  on  his  way  to  this 
assembly  when  death  overtook  him  at  Tarsus.  This 
was  in  2QS  (Hamack)  or  269.  Though  he  was  cut  off 
from  communion  by  Pope  Stephen,  it  is  certain  that 
the  following  popes  did  not  adhere  to  this  severe  policy. 
He  is  commemorated  in  the  Greek  Mensea  on  28 
Oct.,  but  is  unknown  to  the  Western  mart3rrologies. 
His  ^;reat  successor,  St.  Basil,  mentions  his  view  on 
heretical  baptism  without  accepting  it  (Ep.  clxxxviii), 
and  says,  wnen  speaking  of  the  expression  ''with  the 
Holy  Ghost"  in  the  Doxology:  "That  our  own  Firmil- 
ian held  this  faith  is  testified  by  the  books  [X^ot] 
which  he  has  left"  (De  Spir.  Sane,  xxix^  74).  We 
h^ir  nothing  else  of  such  writings,  whidi  were  proba- 
bly letters. 


Boastne,  in  Ada  8S.,  28  Oct.,  nves  an  elaborate  duaertatton 
'    \   ~  '       ChrULBioa, 

of  the  letter  waa  arbitrarily  oontested  by  Misboriub,  In  Epiat, 


on  tbia  saint;  Bbnson  in  DicL  UhrUt.  Biog,;  the  genuineness 


ad  Pomp,  inter  Cypr,  (Venice,  1733),  and  by  Molxjbnbuhb, 
Bina  din.de  S.  Firm,  (MQnster,  1790.  and  in  P.  L.,  III.  1357); 
RrrscBL,  Cyprian  v.  Karth  (Gdttingen,  1895),  argued  that  the 
letter  had  Been  interpolated  at  Carthage  in  the  interests  of 
Cyprian's  PArty:  bo  also  Harnack  in  ueaeh.  der  altchr.  Lit. 
(Leipsig,  1893),  1, 407.  and  Sodbn,  Die  evprianiaehe  BrieUamm^ 
tuna  (Berlin,  1904);  thia  waa  disproved  by  Ernst,  Die  Echtheit 
dee  Bridee  FirmUiane  in  ZeUeehr.  fUr  hath.  TAmI.  (1894),  XVIII. 


persecutions  of  the  Church  in  the  da^ 
and  later  of  Diocletian".     This  is  a  mistake.    It  seems  there 
were  letters  from  Firmilian  in  tiie  published  correspondence  of 


Gregoni  "led.  by  a-lostbrmann,  attxtmmoenente  aer  KealrAkaa. 
(Berlin.  1897);  see  Harnack,  op.  eiL^  II,  ii,  p.  47];  the  letter  to 
Oratory  Thaum.  is  extant.  A  fragment  of  a  letter  from  Origen 
to  Firmilian,  cited  by  Victor  or  Capua,  was  published  by  Pitra. 
Spie.  Soleem..  I,  268.  St.  Augustine  seems  not  to  have  known 
the  letter  to  Cypnnn.  but  CRSSCONiua  seems  to  have  referred  to 
it,  C.  Creee.1  iii,  1  ana  3.  The  letter  is  not  quoted  by  any  ancient 
writer,  and  is  found  in  at  most  28  out  of  the  431  MSS.  of  St. 
Cyprian  enumerated  by  von  Soden,  op.  eU.  See  also  Barobn- 
HBWBR,  Oeeeh.  der  aUkirchl.  Lit.^  II,  209;  BATirroLj  Litt.  grecque 
(Paris,  1898);  Idbm,  UEgliee  naieeante  el  le  Catholicieme  (Paris, 
1909);  see  also  references  under  Ctprian  or  Carthaob,  Saint. 

John  Chapman. 

Fint-Bom. — ^The  word,  though  casually  taken  in 
Holy  Writ  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  is  most  generally 
usea  by  the  sacred  writers  to  designate  the  first  male 
child  in  a  family.  The  firslHsast  male  animal  is,  in  the 
Enelish  Bibles,  termed  "firstling".  The  firstlings, 
both  human  and  animal,  being  considered  as  the  best 
representatives  of  the  race,  because  its  blood  flows 
purest  and  strongest  in  them,  were  commonly  believed, 
among  the  early  nomad  Semitic  tribes,  to  belong  to 
God  in  a  special  way.  Hence,  very  likely,  the  custom 
of  sacrificing  the  first-east  animals;  hence  also  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  first-bom  son;  hence,  possibly,  even 
some  of  the  superstitious  practices  which  mar  a  few 
paaes  oJF  the  history  of  Israel. 

Among  the  Hebrews,  as  well  as  among  other  na- 

VI.- 


tions,  the  first-bom  enioyed  special  privileges.  Be- 
sides having  a  greater  share  in  the  paternal  afifection, 
he  had  everywhere  the  first  place  after  his  father  (Gen., 
xliii,  33)  and  a  kind  of  directive  authority  over  his 
younger  brothers  (Gen.,  xxxvii,  21-22,  30,  etc.);  a 
special  blessing  was  reserved  to  him  at  his  father's 
cleath,  and  he  succeeded  him  as  the  head  of  the  f  amily, 
receiving  a  double  portion  amon^  his  brothers  (Deut., 
xxi,  17).  Moreover,  the  first-buthright,  up  to  the 
time  of  the  promulgation  of  the  Law,  included  a  right 
to  the  priesthood.  Of  course  this  latter  privilege,  as 
also  the  headship  of  the  family,  to  which  it  was  at- 
tached, continu^  in  force  only  when  brothers  dwelt 
together  in  the  same  house;  for,  as  soon  as  they  made 
a  family  apart  and  separated,  each  one  became  the 
heaud  and  tne  priest  of  tiis  own  house. 

When  God  chose  unto  Himself  the  tribe  of  Levi  to 
dischai^  the  office  of  priesthood  in  Israel,  He  wished 
that  His  rights  over  the  first-bom  should  not  thereby 
be  forfeited.  He  enacted  therefore  that  every  first- 
bom  should  be  redeemed,  one  month  after  his  birth, 
for  five  sides  (Num.,  iii,  47;  xviii,  15-16).  This  re- 
demption tax,  calculated  also  to  remind  the  Israelites 
of  the  death  inflicted  upon  the  first-bom  of  the  E^p- 
tians  in  punishment  of  Pharaoh's  stubbornness  (Ex., 
xiii,  15*16),  went  to  the  endowment-fund  of  the  clerey. 
No  law,  however,  stated  that  the  first-bom  should  be 
presented  to  the  Temple.  It  seems,  however,  that 
after  the  Restoration  parents  usually  took  advantage 
of  the  mother's  visit  to  the  sanctuary  to  bring  the 
child  thither.  This  circumstance  is  recorded  in  St. 
Luke's  Gospel,  in  reference  to  Christ  (ii,  22-38). 
It  might  be  noted  here  that  St.  Paul  refers  the  title 
primogenitua  to  Christ  (Heb.,  i,  6),  the  "  first-bom  "  of 
the  Father.  The  Messianic  sacrifice  was  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  Atonement  offered  to  God  for  man's  re- 
demption. It  must  be  remembered,  howexer,  con- 
trary to  what  is  too  often  asserted  and  seems,  indeed, 
intimated  by  the  liturgical  texts,  that  the  ''pair  of 
turtle^loves,  or  twoyoimg  pigeons"  mentionea  in  this 
connexion,  were  offered  for  the  purification  of  the 
mother,  and  not  for  the  child.  Nothing  was  especially 
prescribed  with  regard  to  the  latter. 

As  polygamy  was,  at  least  in  early  times,  in  vogue 
among  the  Israelites,  precise  regulations  were  enacted 
to  define  who,  among  the  children,  should  enjoy  the 
legal  right  of  primogeniture,  and  who  were  to  be  re- 
deemed. The  right  of  primogeniture  belonged  to  the 
first  male  child  bom  in  the  family,  either  of  wife  or 
concubine :  the  first  child  of  any  woman  having  a  legal 
status  in  tne  family  (wife  or  concubine)  was  to  be  re- 
deemed, provided  that  child  were  a  boy. 

As  the  first-bom,  so  were  the  firstlings  of  the  Egyp- 
tians smitten  by  the  sword  of  the  destroying  angel, 
whereas  those  of  the  Hebrews  were  spared.  As  a 
token  of  recomition,  God  declared  that  all  firstlings 
belonged  to  Him  (Ex.,  xiii,  2;  Num.,  iii,  13).  They 
accordingly  should  be  immolated.  In  case  of  clean  am- 
mals,  as  a  calf,  a  lamb,  or  a  kid  (Num.,  xviii.  15-18), 
they  were,  when  one  year  old,  brought  to  tne  sanc- 
tuary and  offered  in  sacrifice :  the  blood  was  sprinkled 
at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  the  tat  burned,  and  the  flesh 
belonged  to  the  priests.  Unclean  animals,  however, 
which  could  not  oe  immolated  to  the  Lora,  were  re- 
deemed with  money.  Exception  was  made  in  the 
case  of  the  firstling  of  the  ass^  which  was  to  be  re- 
deemed with  a  sheep  (Ex.,  xxxiv,  20)  or  its  own  price 
(Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.,  IV,  iv,  4),  or  else  to  be  slain 
(Ex.,  xiii,  13;  xxxiv^  20)  and  buried  in  the  ground. 
Firstlings  sacrificed  m  the  temple  should  be  without 
blemish;  such  as  were  "lame  or  blind,  or  in  any  part 
disfigured  or  feeble  ",  were  to  be  eaten  unconditionally 
withm  the  gates  of  the  owner's  home-city. 

W.  R.  SMrrH.  The  Reliqion  of  the  Semitee  (2d  ed..  London, 
1007);  Talmud,  Bekhorotn;  Philo,  De  proemiie  eaeerdotum; 
Rbland,  AntUtuitatea  aacra  (Utredit,  1741);  SchOrbr,  O*- 
eehidUe  dee  jiid.^Volkea  im  ZeU.  J.  C.  (Leipiig.  1898).  H,  2^-64. 

Charles  L.  Souvat. 


nBST-F&mrs                   82  nsoAL 

FirBt-Fniits. — ^The  practice  of  consecrating  first-  matter  as  a  tax  for  the  support  of  the  priests.     (See 

fruits  to  the  Deity  is  not  a  distinctly  Jewish  one  (cf.  Annates.) 

Iliad,  IX,  529;  Aristophanes,  "Ran.",   1272:  Ovid,  Smith.  The  Hdiqion  at  the  Semitee  (2d  «d.,  London.  1907); 

T^%*rv  7^^l  ^^'  ^'  f ^'  ^"^y'  "^^*-  ^""K^  l?D"fiissr.'  ^scs3?.  i&^.^'ri^yf  'iss,.^??^^ 

IV,  26;  etc.).     It  seems  to  have  sprung  up  naturally  wphini;  Id.,  De  pnemiis  aaeerdotum;  J08BPHU8.  AnL  JwL,  IV. 

among  agricultural  peoples  from  the  belief  that  the  vi<^  22;  Rbland.  AntiquitateB  eacra:  SchOrbb.  OaehiehU  de$ 

fir8t-3ience  the  best— yield  of  the  earth  is  due  to  God  ^'^  ^*^"«  ^  ^«^  •^-  ^'  ^^p^*  i?98).  II.  237-^. 

as  an  acknowledgment  of  His  gifts.    "  God  served  Charles  L.  SomrAT. 

first ",  then  the  whole  crop  becom^  lawful  food.    The  firgt  Eeqnest.    See  Right  of  Presentation. 

onermg  of  the  first-fruits  was,  m  Israel,  regulated  by  ^^      ^  ,^                 r,       «                     ^ 

laws  enshrined  in  different  parts  of  the  Mosaic  books.  Fwcal  Procurator  (Lat.  Pbocuratob  Fiscalib). 

These  laws  were,  in  the  com-se  of  ages,  supplemented  — ^The  duties  of  the  fiscal  procurator  consist  in  pre- 

by  customs  preserved  later  on  in  the  Talmud.    Three  venting  crime  and  safeguarding  ecclesiastical  law.    In 

entire  treat^  of  the  latter,  *'Bfldc<irim",  "TerOh  ewe  of  notification  or  denunciation  it  is  his  duty  to 

mdth",  and  "HAllah",  besides  numerous  other  pa»-  institute  proceedings  and  to  represent  the  law.    His 

sages  of  both  the  Mishna  and  Gemaiah,  are  devoted  to  oBce  is  comparable  to  that  of  the  state  attorney  in 

the  explanation  of  these  customs.  criminal  cases.    The  institution  of  the  procuratorea 

First-fruit  offerings  are  designated  in  the  Law  by  a  ''^»  or  procureura  du  rot  (king's  procurators)  was  e»- 

ihreefold  name:  Bi£k(iilm,  RSshtth,  and  Teriimoth.  tablished  in  France  during  the  thirteenth  century,  and 

There  remains  much  uncertainty  about  the  exact  im-  has  developed  from  that  time  onward;  though  canon 

port  of  these  words,  as  they  seem  to  have  been  taken  ^aw,  previous  to  that  time,  had  imposed  on  the  bishops 

indiscriminately  at  different  epochs.    If,  however,  one  the  duty  of  investigating  the  commission  of  crimes 

considers  the  texts  attentively,  he  may  gather  irom  and  institutine  the  proper  ludicial  proceedings.    It 

them  a  fairly  adequate  idea  of  the  subject.    There  was  is  to  be  noted  that  formerly  canon  law  admitted 

a  first-fruit  offering  connected  with  the  beginning  of  the  validity  of  private  as  well  as  of  public  accusa- 

the  harvest.    Leviticus,  xxiii,  10-14,  enacted  that  a  tionor  denunciation.    At  oresent  custom  has  brou^t 

sheaf  of  ears  should  be  brought  to  the  priest,  who,  the  it  about  that  all  criminal  proceedings  in  ecclesias- 

next  day  after  the  Sabbath,  was  to  lift  It  up  before  the  tical  courts  are  initiated  exclusively  by  the  fiscal 

Lord.    A  holocaust,  a  m^-offerine,  and  a  libation  ao-  P^^SS^jtor.          ^       *,>.  , 

oompanied  the  ceremony;  and  untu  it  was  performed  The  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars^  11  June, 
no  'Ibread,  or  parohed  com,  or  frumenty  of  the  bar-  1880,  called  attention  to  the  absolute  necessity  of  the 
vest"  should  be  eaten.  Seven  weeks  later  two  loaves,  ^scal  procurator  in  every  episcopal  curia,  as  a  safe- 
made  from  the  new  harvest,  were  to  be  brought  to  the  guard  for  law  and  justice.  The  nacal  procurator  ma^ 
sanctuary  for  a  new  offering.  The  BflckCLrtm  con-  be  named  by  the  bishop,  either  permanently,  or  his 
sisted,  it  seems,  of  the  first  ripened  raw  fruits;  they  term  of  office  may  be  limited  to  individual  cases  (see 
were  taken  from  wheat,  barley,  grapes,  figs,  pome-  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  1884,  no.  299; 
granatep,  olives,  and  honey.  The  fruits  oflfered  were  App.,  p.  289).  This  official  appears  not  only  in  crimi- 
supposed  to  be  the  choicest,  and  were  to  be  fresh,  ex-  nal  proceedmgs  but  also  m  other  ecclesiastical  matters, 
cept  in  the  case  of  grapes  and  figs,  which  might  be  In  matrimonial  cases,  canon  law  provides  for  a  defen- 
offered  dried  by  Israelites  living  &  from  Jerusalem,  der  of  the  matrimonial  tie  whose  duty  it  is  to  uphold 
No  indication  is  given  in  Scripture  as  to  how  much  the  validity  of  the  marriage,  as  lone  as  its  invalidity 
should  be  thus  brought  to  the  sanctuary.  But  the  ^^,  not  been  proven  in  two  lower  ecclesiastical  courts, 
custom  was  gradually  introduced  of  consecrating  no  This  defender  of  the  matrimonial  tie  represents  both 
less  than  one-sixtieth  and  no  more  than  one-fortieUi  of  ecclesiastical  law  and  public  morality,  whose  ultimate 
the  crop  (Bfkk.,  ii,  2,  3,  4).  Occasionally,  of  course,  objects  would  not  be  attained  if  the  validity  or  inval- 
there  were  extraordinary  offerings,  like  that  of  the  i^ity  of  a  marriage  were  decided  in  a  too  easy  or  inf or- 
f ruit  of  a  tree  the  fourth  year  after  it  had  been  planted  mal  way.  A  similar  office  is  that  of  the  defender  of  the 
(Lev.,  xix,  23-25);  one  might  also,  for  instance,  validity  of  sacred  orders  and  solemn  vows.  When  the 
set  apart  as  a  free  offering  the  harvest  of  a  whole  validity  of  either  of  these  acts,  and  their  pertinent 
£eld.  obligations,  is  attacked,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  this 

No  time  was,  at  first,  specially  set  apart  for  the  official  to  bring  forward  whatever  arifuments  may  go 

offering;  in  later  ages,  however,  the  feast  ol  Dedication  to  establish  their  bindmg  force.    In  all  these  cases  the 

(25  Caaleu)  was  assigned  as  the  limit  (Bfkk.,  i,  6;  defensor,  like  the  fiscal  procurator  m  cnmmal  pro- 

HAllah,  iv,  10).    In  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy,  xxvi,  cesses,  represents  the  pubUc  mterests;  the  mstitution 

1-11,  directions  are  laid  down  as  to  the  manner  in  of  this  office  was  all  the  more  necessary,  as  it  takes 

which  these  offerings  should  be  made.    The  first-  cognizance  of  causes  in  which  both  parties  frequently 

fruits  were  brou^tm  a  basket  to  the  sanctuary  and  display  a  desire  to  have  the  contract  nullified.    In  the 

presented  to  the  priest,  with  an  expression  of  thanks-  processes  of  beatification  and  canonization  it  devolves 

giving  for  the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  Egypt  and  the  <>»  the  pramotor  fidei  to  investigate  strictly  the  reasons 

possession  of  the  fertile  land  of  Palestine.    A  feast,  vacgdd  m  favour  of  canonization,  and  to  find  out  and 

shared  by  the  Levite  and  the  stranger,  followed,  emphasize  all  objections  which  can  possibly  be  urged 

Whether  the  fruits  offered  were  consumed  m  that  meal  against  it.    He  is  therefore  popularly  known  as  the 

is  not  certain;  Numbers,  xviii,  13,  seems  to  intimate  advocatua  dtaboU,  i.  e.    devil's  lawyer".   It  is  the  duty 

that  they  henceforth  belonged  to  the  priest,  and  Philo  o^  the  promotor  fidei,  therefore,  to  take  up  the  negative 

and  Josephus  suppose  the  same.  side  in  the  discussion  which  has  a  place  amongst  the 

Other  offerings  were  made  of  the  prepared  fruits,  preliminaries  to  beatification  and  canonization,  and  to 

especially  oil,  wme,  and  dough  (Deut.,  xviii,  4;  Num.,  endeavour,  by  every  legitimate  means,  to  prevent  the 

XV,  20-21;  Lev.,  ii,  12,  14-16;  cf.  Ex.,  xxii,  29,  in  the  completion  of  the  prooeM.                       ^ 

Greek),  and  "the  first  of  the  fleece-     As  in  the  case. of  j.^i^i'i^WS^llL'f^^rir;^^ 
the  raw  fruite,  no  quantity  was  determmed;  Ezechiel 

affirms  that  it  was  one-sixtieth  of  the  harvest  for  wheat  Fiscal  of  the  Holt  Office. — ^The  Holy  Office,  i.  e. 
and  barley  and  one-one  himdredth  for  oil.  They  were  the  supreme  court  in  the  Catholic  (Jhureh  for  all  mat- 
presented  to  the  sanctuary  with  ceremonies  analogous  ters  that  affect  its  faith  or  are  closely  connected  with 
to  those  alluded  to  above,  although,  unlike  the  Bfk-  its  teaching,  has  an  officialia  fiaaxdia,  whose  duties  are 
kiirtm.  they  were  not  offered  at  the  ftltar,  but  brought  similar  to  those  of  the  fiscal  procurator  in  episcopal 
into  tne  store-rooms  of  the  temple.  They  may  be  courts.  The  officialis  fiscalis  is  present  at  all  sessions  of 
looked  upon,  therefore,  not  so  much  as  sacrmcial  the  Holy  Office,  when  criminal  cases  are  aud/udiM,  and 


FISH  83  nsHIR 

OS  advinr  to  the  ordinary  when  the  prooen  is  referred  eomewhat  later  epitaph  of  Pectorius  of  Autun,    Aber- 

to  the  epiicopal  court.    By  the  reorganization  of  ciue  tells  ub  on  the  foresaid  monument  that  in  hie 

the  Boman  Curia,  29  June,  190S,  the  Holy  (^ce  journeyfromhisAsiatichometoRome,eTeiywbereon 

continues  to  retain  its  excluBive  competency  in  all  the  way  he  received  as  food  "the  Fish  fromthe 

cases  of  heresy  and  kindred  crimes.    The  office  of  8}>riDg,  the  great,  the  pure",  as  weQ  as  "wine  mixed 

fiacalis  to  this  Congregation  therefore  remains  un-  with  water,  together  with  bread".    Pectorius  also 

changed.  speaks  of  the  Fish  as  a  delicious  spiritual  nurture  sup- 

Joseph  L&crentius.  pliedby  the  "Saviour  of  the  Saints".    In  the-Eucha- 
ristic  monuments  tl'ia  idea  is  cKpressed  repeatedly  in 

r^lcs  probably  first  in  importance.     While  the  use  of     peculiar  significance  attached  to  the  fiah  in  this  rela- 
tiie  fisn  in  pagan  art  as  a  purely  decorative  sign  is     tion  is  well  brought  out  in  such  early  frescoes  as  the 
ancient  and  constant,  the  earliest  literary  reference  to     Fraeiio  Pania  scene  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Priscilla, 
the  symtioUc  fish  ia  made  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,     and  the  fishes  on  the  grass,  in  cloeest  i>roximity  to  the 
born  about  150,  who  recommends  his  readers  (Psida-     baskets  containing  bread  and  wine,  in  the  crypt  of 
g(^us  III,  xi)  to  have  their  seals  engraved  with  a  dove    Lucina.     (See  Eucharist,  Symboubm  of  the.)    Tba 
or  a  neh.     Clement  did  not  consider  it  necessary  tp     fish  symbol  was  not,  however,  represented  exolumvel^ 
^ve  any  reason  for  this  recommendation,  from  wnich     with  symbols  of  the  Eucharist;   quite  frequently  it  is 
it  may  safely  be  inferred  that  the  meaning  of  both     found  associated  with  such  other  symbols  as  the  dove, 
B^bols  was  BO  weU  known  to  Christians  that  explana-     the  anchor,  and  the  monc^ram  of  Christ.     The  mcmu- 
tion   was   unnecessary.     Indeed,   from   monumental     ments,  too,  on  which  it  appears,  from  the  fir^  to  the 
sources  we  tmow  that  the  symbohc  fish  was  familiar  to    fourth  century,  include  frescoes,  sculptured  repre- 
Christians  long  before  the  famous  Alexandrian  was    sentations,  rin^,  seals,  ^ded  glasses,  as  well  as 
enkolpia  of  various  matenals.     The  type  of  fish  de- 
picted calls  for  no  special  observation,  save  that,  from 
the  second  century,  the  form  of  the  dolphin  was  fre- 
quently employed.    The  reason  for  this  particular 
selection  is  presumed  to  be  the  fact  that,  in  popular 
esteem,  the  dolphin  was  regarded  as  friendly  to  man. 
Besides  the  Eucharistic  frescoes  of  the  catacombs  a 
considerable  number  of  objects  containing  the  fish- 
symbol  are  preserved  in  various  European  museum^ 
one  of  the  moat  interesting,  because  of  the  grouping  M 
the  fiah  with  several  other  symbols,  being  a  carved 
^m  in  the  Kircherian  Museum  in  Rome.     On  the  left 
IB  a  T-form  anchor,  with  two  fishes  beneath  the  cross- 
bar, while  next  in  order  are  a  T-form  cross  with  a  dove 
in  the  crossbar  and  a  sheep  at  the  foot,  another  T-croes 


as  the  mast  of  a  ship,  and  the  Good  Shepherd  carrying 
on  His  shoulders  tne  straved  sheep.  In  addition  to 
these  symbols  the  five  letters  M  the  word  'IxMi 


Crypt  of  Lucina,  Catioomb  of  St.  CiiUistiu 


born;    in  such  Roman  monuments  as  the  Capella ,^  ,^.^..,^ , .__. , 

Greca  and  the  Sacrament  Chapels  of  the  catacomb  of     the  waters  rescuing  St.  Peter.     After  the  fourth  c 

St.  Callistus,  the  fish  was  depicted  as  a  symbol  in  the  tury  the  symbolism  of  the  fish  gradually  disappeared; 

firatdecsdes  of  the  second  century.    The  symbol  itself  representations  of  fishes  on  baptismal  fonts  and  on 

may  have  been  suggested  by  the  miraculous  multipli-  bronse  baptismal  cups  like  those  found  at  Rome  and 

cation  of  the  loaves  and  fishes  or  the  repast  of  the  Trier,  now  in  the  Kircherian  Museum,  are  merely  of  an 

aeven  Disciples,  after  the  Resurrection,  on  the  shore  of  ornamental  chaiaeter,  suggested,  probably  by  the 

the  Sea  of  Galilee  (John,  -xxi,  9),  but  its  popularity  water  used  in  baptism. 

amwig  Christians  was  due  principally,  it  would  seem,  Heu«»  in  Kiuns,  RmI-Ebw*-  At  «*™tfi(A*i.  AUtnl 

to  the  famous  acrostic  consisting  of  the  mitial  letters  (Fraburc  1882);    Wilpkrt.  Le  jriUun  delle  mUcombe  n 

of  five  Greek  words  forming  the  word  for  fiah  ('IxSii),  (Rome.  1903).  fat  wcuraie  mpreBenintLoM;  Id™,  Prina 

whbh  word.brie«,  buli,lBarlvdc»rib«i  tie  jtanclep  SS.  xS™'  i    l™™.""b;S3.Si"»ii'':..'S 

of  Christ  and  His  claim  to  the  worship  of  believers:  on  tht  subject  ^n  Uw  disHrtationa  of  G.  B.  De  Row.  d» 

'IqffDVT   Xpwrii  9«rii  TWi  Swnfp,    i,   e.    Jesus    Christ,  chrUtianit  monumerUit  'IjiW'  triibenlibut  in  SpicOeg.  Sdem. 

SooolGod,S..lou,     (S„lh,di«„™otE,»p.mr  'S'iSli^S-S^  t^^SS,^T!Zi7iSSS. 

Constantine,     Ad  c<Btum  Sanctorum    c.  xviii.)     It  is  cArA.   (Pane,   ie07>.   II.   37B-S1:    KiurwAHH,   Uaramit  di 

not  improbable  that  this  Christian  formula  oriEinat«l  ofciwrf.  m«(.,  tr.lt.  (Roqib   1908);    particularly  p.  MoWiTiD 

in  Alexandri^L  and  was  intended  as  a  protest  against  ^jf^^iZ^^^^^S^.^Tl-^^-  ''  "^  '** 

the  pagan  apotheosis  of  the  emperors;  on  a  com  from  Maubicb  M.  Habsett. 
Alexandria  of  the  re^  of  Domitian  (81-96)  this  em~ 

peror  is  styled  OtaB  TUt  (son  of  God).  Hsliet,  JohA.    See  John  Fishbb,  Blbssbd. 

The  word  'IxWi,  then,  as  well  as  the  repreeentation 
"4  a  fish,  held  for  Christians  a  meaning  oi  the  highest  Fisliei,  Phiuf  (an  cdiaa,  real  name  Thouas  Co^ 
si^ificance;  it  was  a  brief  profession  of  faith  in  the  levI,  missionary,  b.  in  Madrid,  1595-6;  d.  in  Maiy- 
divinity^  of  Christ,  the  Redeemer  of  mankind.  Be-  land,  U.  8.,  1652.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Wjlliiun 
lievars  in  this  mystic  'Ix^  were  themselves  "little  Copley  of  Gatton,  England,  of  a  CathoUc  family  of 
fishes",  according  to  the  well-known  passage  of  Ter-  distinction  who  suffered  exile  in  the  reign  of  Elizalieth. 
tullian  (De  baptismo,  c.  I) :  "  we,  little  fishes,  after  the  He  arrived  in  Maryland  in  1637,  and,  being  a  man  of 
image  of  our  'Ix^.,  Jesus  Christ,  are  bom  in  the  ^reat  executive  abiUty,  took  over  the  care  of  the  mis- 
water".  The  association  of  the  'Ix«t  with  the  sion,  "a  charge  which  at  that  time  required  rather 
Eucharist  is  strongly  emphasized  in  the  epitaph  of  bufdness  men  than  missionaries".    In  1645,  Father 

Aberciua,  the  second-cent       "'  '         ' "'  "    '      "'  '  .     .  .     ■     i       .         

Phrygia  (see  AaBBCius,  I 


nSHSftHAH'g  84  rXTZALAN 

tbe  English  mission  in  America.    After  enduring  many  Stafford  and  take  spiritual  diaige  of  the  poor  Catho- 

hardahipa  he  was  released,  when  he  boldl]r  returned  to  lies  of  the  locality. 

Haiyloud   (Feb.,  1648),  where,  after  an  absence  of        Kim,  5 w.  o/Etv.  CoM.  (LoBdoo,  1909);  lomit.  AMmt  la 

three  years,  he  found  hU  flock  in  a  more  flouriahing  %'J,'^'Sh!!!'»%T"it!!'sf.  m!ll^''S.  siffSS'fLS: 

state  than  those  who  had  oppreaaed  tind  plundered  []»ii,'il  d.l:    Rtporii'oJ  ihe'Naaingham  Jahmm  Fml  |1S(I% 

them.    That  he  made  an  eSort  to  enter  tbe  missionary  iSfiS);  Anhina  of  liu  Birmiitiiiam  Jnhnsm  f'\md. 
field  of  Virginia,  appears  from  a  letter  written  1  March,  Henri  Fareimboh. 

1648,  to  the  Jesuit  General  Caraffa  in  Rome,  in  which 

he  says:  "A  road  baa  lately  been  opened  through  the      ,  Mtton,  James,  miBsionary,  b.  at  Boston,  Hassa- 

forest  to  Virignia;  this  wiU  make  it  but  a  two  days'  chusettB,  U.  S.  A.,  10  April,  1805;  d.  there,  16  Sept., 

journey,  and  both  places  can  now  be  united  in  one  1881.    His  father,  Abraham  Fitton,  went  to  Boston 

mission.     AfterEasterlshall  wait  upon  the  Governor  f"^""  Preston,  England;    his  mother  was  of  Welsh 

of  Virginia  upon  business  of  great  importance."    Un-  o"gin  and  a  convert  to  the  Faith.     Hbs  primary  edu- 

fortunately  there  is  no  further  record  bearing  on  the  cation  was  received  in  the  schools  of  his  native  city, 

projected  visit.     Neill,  in  his  "Terra  Mariag"  (p.  70),  *°<1  ^^  classical  coarse  was  made  at  Claremont,  New 

and  Smith,  in  his  "  Religion  under  the  Barons  of  Bal-  Hampshire,  at  an  academy  conducted  by  Virgil  Hor- 

timore"    (p.  Vll),  strangely  confound   this  Father  «*  Barber,  an  eariy  New  England  convert  to  the 

Thomas  Copley  of  Maryland  with  an  aposUte  John  ^B.iih.    His  theology  he  learned  from  the  lipe  of 

Copley,  who  was  never  a  Jesuit,  ■   Father  Fisher  is  B"»hop  Fenwick    by  whom  he  was  ordained  priest, 

mentioned  with  honourable  distinction  in  the  mission-  23  Dec.,  1827.     Thenceforth  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a 

ary  annaU  of  Maryland,  and,  accordmg  to  Hughes,  century  the  whole  of  New  England  became  the  theatre 

was  "  the  most  distinguished  man  among  the  fourteen  °'  ■"«  lealous  niissionaiy  labours.     Carrying  a  valise 

jesuita  who  had  worked  in  Maryland".  containing  vestments,  chalice,  and  all  necessaries  for 

Amtrua  ^Senng  tbe  Holy  Sacrifice,  his  breviary  under  his  arm, 

lamenth  he  travelled,  often  on  foot,  from  Eastport  and  the 

^  (Nqw  New  Brunswick  line  on  the  northeast,  to  Burlington 

jj^^  and  Lake  Champlain  on  the  northwest;  from  Boston 

'oodiuick  in  the  east,  to  Great  Harrington  and  the  Berkshire 

L  CoUas-  Hills  in  the  west;   from  Providence  and  Newport  in 

£'  8^  *®  southeast,  to  Bridgeport  and  the  New  York  State 

'3;  Dili,  line  in  the  southwest.     In  the  course  of  bis  ministiy 

he  was  often  exposed  to  insult  and  hardship,  but  ha 

_  . &NB.  considered  these  as  trifles  when  souls  were  to  be  saved. 

*iai.»Ma«*a  Vino  Oiu.  ».uo  During  his  missionary  career  he  was  pastor  of  the  first 
nUtumUBRing.  See  Ring.  ^^^^^f^^  ^j^^^  atWlford,  Connecticut,  and  at 
Fitter,  Daniel,  b.  in  Worcestershire,  England,  Worcester,  Massachu^tU.  He  erected  the  chureh  of 
1628;  d.  at  St.  Thomas'  Priory,  near  Stafford,  6  Feb.,  Our  Lady  of  the  Isle  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island.  In 
1700.  He  entered  Lisbon  College  at  the  age  of  nme-  1»W,  while  pastor  of  the  church  at  Worcester,  he  pur- 
teen,  went  through  his  studies  with  some  distmction,  chased  the  present  site  of  Holy  Cross  College,  and 
and  was  raised  to  the  priesthood  in  1661.  A  yearor  erected  a  building  for  the  advanced  education  of 
two  later,  he  returned  to  En^and,  and  was  appointed  Catholic  young  men.  In  1842  he  deeded  the  ^unds 
chaplain  to  William  Fowler,  Esq.,  of  St.  TTiomas'  and  building  to  Bishop  Fenwick,  who  placed  it  under 
Priory,  near  Stafford,  where  he  remained  untU  his  ^^  care  of  the  Jesuits.  In  185S  he  was  appointed 
death.  During  the  reign  of  James  II,  he  opened  a  "7  Bishop  Fenwick  mstor  of  the  church  of  the  Host 
school  at  Stafford,  which  was  suppressed  at  the  revolu-  Holy  Redeemer  in  East  Boston.  Here  he  laboured 
tion  m  1688.  At  the  period  of  excitement  ensumg  *■"■  the  remaininB  twenty-six  years  of  his  life,  and 
upon  the  Titus  Dates  plot  (1678),  he,  with  a  few  built  four  more  churches.  In  1877  he  celebrated  the 
others,  upheld  the  lawfulness  of  taking  the  oath  then  golden  jubilee  of  his  priesthood. 

famrlonv)  »i.  nuoi-v  Tool]  li-nnnrTi  folVinlii'       Wo  tii'moolf  LiAiiT,  Hislorj/  of  the  CaUiolie  Churth  m  On  tfew  Butlaitd 

wnaered  w>  every  weu-Known  uainoiic.     lie  nunseii  ^,^^  |Bo.uin,  1809);   Fitton,  SktidKi  af  Ac  E,iabiMmau  of 

aubscnbed  it,  and  defended  his  action  on  the  ground  tU  Chunk  in  JV™  Enofond  (Baiion^  1872);  Bhk*.  Hui.  Cart. 

of  a  common  and  legal  use  of  the  term  "spintual",  Ch.in  (/.S  (NewYorV  iwM);  MeCAierBy.Skrirk  oyiAtt md 

In  consequence  of  thS,  when  the  chapter  chose  him  as  ^^^''iMf^     *"'      ""  ''^'^  ' 

IHcar-General  of  the  Counties  of  Stafford,  Derty,  '  Artkuh  T.  Connollt. 

Cheshire  and  Salop,  they  required  that  he  should 
"ai^  a  Declaration  made  by  our  Brethren  in  Paris 

agamst  the  Oath  of  Supremacy".  .   ... . , ,_._.__._..    

In  a  letter  to  the  clergy  of  England  and  Scotland  of  William,  eleventh  earl,  and  Lady  Anne  Perey,  he 

(1684),  Cardinal  Philip  Howard  recommended  warmlv  was  godson  toHenrvVTII,  in  whose  palace  he  waaedu- 

the  "  Institutum  clencorum  in  communi  viventium   ,  catea.    From  1540  ne  was  governor  of  Calais  till  1543, 


founded  in  1641  by  the  German  priest  Bartolomfius  when  he  succeeded  to  the  earldom.     In  1544  he  b- 

Holnhauser,  and  approved  by  Innocent  XI  in  1680  sieged  and  took  Boulogne,  being  made  lord-chamber- 

and  1684.   Ilie  institute  met  with  eager  acceptance  in  lain  as  a  reward.    In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI  he  op- 

I^igland,  and  Fitter  was  appointed  its  first  provincial  posed  Protecter  Somerset  and  supported  Warwiclc, 

pieeident  and  procurator  for  the  Midland  district,  who  eventuallj;  unjustly  accused  nim  of  peculation 

The  association  was,  however,  dissolved  shortly  after  and  removed  him  from  the  council.    On  the  death  of 

his  death  by  Bishop  GifTard  in  1702,  on  account  of  a  EkIward  he  abandoned  the  cause  of  Lady  Jane  Grey 

misunderstanding  between  its  members  and  the  rest  of  and  proclaimed   Mary  as   queen.     Throughout   her 

the  secular  clergy.    Fitter  had  bequeathed  property  to  reign  he  was  in  favour  as  lord-steward  ana  was  em- 

"The  Common  Purse"  of  the  institute,  with  a  life-  ployed  in  much  diplomatic  business.     Even  under 

interest  in  favour  of  his  elder  brother  Francis;  but  Eli&abeth  he  at  first  retained  his  offices  and  power 

when  the  institute  ceased  to  exist,  Francis,  by  a  deed  though  distrusted  by  her  ministers.    Yet  he  was  too 

of  assignment,  established  a  new  trust  (1703),  called  [>owerful  to  attack,  and,  being  a  widower,  was  con- 

"The  Common  Fund"  for  the  benefit  of  the  clergy  of  sidered  as  a  possible -consort  for  the  queen.     But  in 

the  district.    This  fund  became  subsequently  known  1564hefell  into dii^^race,  and  Elisabeth  did  not  again 

aa  "The  Johnson  Fund  "  and  still  existe.    Daniel  Fit-  employ  him  till  I6G8.    Being  the  leader  of  the  Cathtriio 

t«r  alao  left  a  fund  for  the  maintenance  of  a  priest,  party,  be  desired  a  marriage  between  Mary,  Queen  of 

whose  duty  it  should  be  to  reside  in  the  county  of  Scote,  and  his  son-in-law,  the  Duke  of  NnfoUc,  but 


FITZHEBBEBT 


85 


FITZHEBBEBT 


was  too  cautious  to  commit  himself,  so  that  even  after 
the  futile  northern  rebellion  of  1560  he  was  recalled  to 
the  council.    But  the  discovery  of  the  Ridolfi  con- 

spiracy,  in  1571, 

again  led  to  his 
confinement,  and 
he  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  re- 
tirement. 

lA^e  of  Henrye 
FitzaUen  latt  Barle 
of  Arunddl  of  tftat 
name,  written  shortly 
after  his  death  by  hia 
chaplain,  a  MS.  in 
British  Museum 
(Kings  MSS.  XVII. 
A.  ix),  printed  in 
Oentleman's  Maoa- 
zinsj  1833;  The  Boke 
of  Henrie,  Earie  of 
Arundel  (Harl.  MS. 
4107).  printed  in 
Jeffery*B  Aniiquarian 
Repertory,  If  (Lon- 
don. 1807):  Calendar 
of  Suae  Papers,  1547- 
1569;  TiVRNBT.  His- 
tory of  the  Caatle  and 
Town  of  Arundd,  I 
HaifKT  FxTSALAN,  Eaal  or  Abundbl     (London,  1834).  310- 

350;  Goodwin  in 
Diet.  Nat.  Bioq.,  a.  v.;  Father  Persons*  Memoirs  in  Catholic  Rec- 
ord Society:  Miaedlanoa,  II  (London,  1906). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Fitiherberty  Maria  Anne,  wife  of  King  George 
IV;  b.  26  July,  1756  (place  uncertain);  d.  at  Brighton, 
England,  29  March,  1837;  eldest  child  of  Walter 
Smythe,  of  Brambridge,  Hampshire,  younger  son  of 
Sir  John  Smythe,  of  E^e  Hall,  Durham  and  Acton 
Bumell  Park,  Salop,  a  Catholic  baronet.  In  1775  she 
married  Edward  Weld,  of  Lulworth,  Dorset  (uncle  of 
Cardinal  Weld),  who  died  before  the  vear  was  out. 
Her  next  husband  was  Thomas  Fitzherbert,  of  Swyn- 
nerton,  Staflfordshire,  whom  she  married  in  1778  and 
who  died  in  1781.  A  young  and  beautiful  widow  with 
a  jointure  of  £2000  a  year,  she  took  up  her  abode  in 
1782  at  Richmond,  Surrey,  having  at  the  same  time  a 
house  in  town.  In  or  about  1784  happened  her  first 
meeting  with  George,  Prince  of  Wales,  then  about 
twenty-two  years  of  ace,  she  about  six  years  older. 
He  straightway  fell  in  love  with  her.  Marriage  with 
her  princely  suitor  being  legally  impossible,  Mrs.  Fitz- 
herbert turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  prmoe's  solicitations, 
to  get  rid  of  which  she  withdrew  to  the  Continent. 

However,  on  re- 
ceipt of  an  honour- 
able offer  from  the 
prince,  she  return- 
ed after  a  while  to 
England,  and  they 
were  privily  mar- 
ried m  her  own 
London  drawing- 
room  and  before 
two  witnesses,  15 
Dec,  1785,  the  of- 
ficiating minister 
being  an  An^ican 
curate. 

Thenceforth, 
though  in  separate 
houses,  they  lived 
together  as  man 
and  wife,  she  being 
treated  on  almost 
every   hand   with 


Mabia  Anns  Fxtzhbrbbbt 


unbounded  respect  and  deference,  until  1787,  when, 
upon  the  prince's  application  to  Parliament  for 
payment  of  his  debts.  Fox  authoritatively  declared 
m  the  House  of  Commons  that  no  marriage  be- 
tween the  prince  and  Mrs.  Fitzherbert  had  ever 


taken  place.  However,  upon  the  prince's  solemn 
and  oft-repeated  assurance  that  Fox  had  no  authority 
for  this  degrading  denial,  the  breach  between  the  of- 
fended wi^  and  ner  husband  was  healed.^  So  they 
continued  to  live  together  on  a  matrimonial  footing 
until  1794,  when,  being  about  to  contract  a  foroea 
legal  marriage  with  his  cousin,  Caroline  of  Brunswick, 
the  prince  very  reluctantly  east  Mrs.  Fitzherbert  off, 
at  the  same  time  continume  the  pension  of  £3000  a 
year,  which  he  had  allowed  ner  ever  since  their  mar- 
riage. Shortly  after  the  birth  of  Princess  Charlotte  in 
1796,  the  prince,  who  hated  the  Princess  of  Wales, 
separated  irom  her  and  besought  the  forsaken  Mrs. 
Fitzherbert  to  return  to  him.  liiis,  after  consultation 
with  Rome,  she  at  length  did  in  1800,  and  reniained 
with  him  some  nine  years  more,  when  the^^  virtually 
parted .  At  last,  in  181 1,  because  of  a  crowning  affront 
put  upon  her  on  occasion  of  a  magnificent  fiU  given  at 
Carlton  House  by  the  prince,  lately  made  regent,  at 
which  entertainment  no  fixea  place  at  the  royal  table 
had  been  assigned  her,  she  broke  off  connexion  with 
the  prince  for  ever,  withdrawine  into  private  life  upon 
an  annuity  of  £6000.  Her  hu^and,  as  King  Geoi^ 
IV,  died  in  1830,  with  a  locket  containing  her  miniar 
ture  round  his  neck,  and  was  so  buried.  Mrs.  Fitz- 
herbert survived  him  seven  years,  dying  at  the  ^e  of 
ei^ty,  at  Brighton,  where  she  was  burial  in  the  Cath- 
olic church  ofSt.  John  the  Baptist,  to  the  erection  of 
which  she  had  largely  contributed,  and  wherein  a 
mural  monument  to  her  memory  is  still  to  be  seen. 

Kbbbbl  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  8.  v.;  Gillow.  BtU.  Diet.  Eng. 
Calh.,  8.  v.;  Annual  Register  for  1837  (Lonaon):  Lanodalb, 
Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Fitzherbert  (London,  1856);  Wilxinb,  Mrs. 
FiUherbert  and  George  IV  (London,  1905). 

C.  T.  BOOTHMAN. 

Fitiherberty  Sir  Anthony,  judge,  b.  in  1470; 
d.  27  May,  1538.  He  was  the  sixth  son  of  Ralph 
Fitzherbert  of  Norbuiy,  Derbyshire,  and  Elizabeth 
Marshall.  His  brothers  dying  young,  he  succeeded 
his  father  as  lord  of  the  manor  of  Norbuiy,  an  estate 
granted  to  the  family  in  1125  and  still  in  their  hands. 
Wood  states  that  he  was  educated  at  Oxford,  but  no 
evidence  of  this  exists;  nor  is  it  known  at  which  of  the 
inns  of  court  he  received  his  legal  training,  though  he 
is  included  in  a  list  of  Gray's  Inn  reaoers  (Dobth- 
waite,  Gray's  Inn,  p.  46.)  He  was  called  to  the  de- 
gree of  serjeant-at-law,  18  Nov.,  1510,  and  six  years 
later  he  was  appointed  king's  Serjeant.  He  had  al- 
ready published  (in  1514)  his  great  digest  of  the  3rear- 
books  which  was  the  first  systematic  attempt  to  pro- 
vide a  summary  of  Englisn  law.  It  was  Known  as 
''La  Graunde  Abridgement  "and  has  often  been  re- 
printed, both  entire  and  in  epitomes,  besides  forming 
the  foundation  of  all  subsequent  abridgments.  He 
also  brought  out  an  edition  of  "Magna  Charta  cum 
diversis  aliis  statutis"  (1519).  In  1522  he  was  made 
a  judge  of  common  pleas  and  was  knighted;  but  his 
new  honours  did  not  check  his  literary  activity  and  in 
the  following  year  (1523)  he  published  three  works: 
one  on  law,  "Diversity  de  courtz  et  leur  jurisdictions" 
(tr.  by  Hughes  in  1646);  one  on  agriculture,  ''The 
Boke  of  Husbandrie";  and  one  of  law  and  apiculture 
combined,  "The  Boke  of  Surveyinge  and  Improve- 
ments". All  three  were  frequently  reprinted  and 
though  Sir  Anthony's  authorship  of  the  "Boke  of 
Husbandrie"  was  formerhr  questioned  it  is  now  re- 
garded as  established,  li^nwhile  his  integrity  and 
ability  caused  much  business  to  be  entrusted  to  him. 

In  1524  Fitzherbert  was  sent  on  a  royal  commission 
to  Ireland;  Archbishop  Warham  appointed  him  by 
will  sole  arbitrator  in  the  administration  of  his  estate; 
and  in  1529  when  Wolsey  fell,  he  was  made  a  commis- 
sioner to  hear  chancery  causes  in  place  of  the  chan* 
cellor,  and  he  subseauently  signed  the  articles  of  im- 
peachment against  nim.  As  one  of  the  judges  he 
unwillingly  took  part  in  the  trials  of  the  martyrs 
Fisher,  More,  and  Haile,  but  he  strongly  disapproved 


86 


FITZRALPH 


of  the  king's  ecclesiastical  polity,  particularly  the 
suppression  of  the  monasteries  ana  he  bound  his 
children  under  oath  never  to  accept  or  purchase  any 
abbey  lands.  In  1534  he  brought  out  ''that  exact 
work,  exquisitely  penned"  (Coke,  Reports'  X,  Pref.), 
''La  Novelle  Natura  Brevium",  which  remained  one 
of  the  classical  English  law  books  until  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  His  last  works  were  the  con- 
stantly reprinted  "L'Office  et  Auctoiyt^  des  jus- 
tices de  peias"  QddS),  the  first  complete  treatise  on 
the  subject,  and  "L'Office  de  Viconts  Bailiffes,  E»- 
cheators,  Constables,  Coroners".  Sir  Anthony  was 
twice  married,  first  to  Dorothy  Willoughby  who  died 
without  issue,  and  secondly  to  Matilda  Cotton  by 
whom  he  had  a  large  family.  His  descendants  have 
always  kept  the  Faith  and  still  own  his  estate  of  Nor- 
bury  as  well  as  the  family  seat  at  Swynnerton. 

State  Papers,  Foreign  and  Domestic^  of  Henry  VIII,  III,  ti, 
889;  IV.  iii,  272;  VL  263;  VII.  645,  581;  Pirre.  De  lUuet. 
Anitas  SerihtorOnu  (Paris,  1623).  707;  Dodd,  Ch.  Hiat.  (Bnis- 
sels,  1737),  I;  Bubxe,  History  of  the  Commoners  ofGreai  Britain 
(London,  1834),  I.  78  oqq.;  Foss,  The  Judges  of  England  (Lon- 
don. 1848-1864);  Idsii,  A  Biog.  Did.  of  the  Judges  of  England 
(London,  1870);  Bubxe,  Landed  Gentry  (London.  1882);  GiXi- 
Low,  BtM.  Ditt.  Eng.  Cath.  (London,  1886).  s.  v.;  Rxoo  in  Diet. 
Nat,  Biog.  (London,  1880).  •.  v. — For  Sir  Anthony's  descend- 
ants see  pedigree  in  Foubt,  Reeords  of  the  Eng.  JProv.  8.  J. 
(London.  1878),  lU.  702. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Fitiherbert,  Thomas,  b.  1552,  at  Swynnerton, 
Staffs,  England;  d.  17  Aug.,  1640,  at  Rome.  His 
father  havmg  died  whilst  Thomas  was  an  infant,  he 
was,  even  as  a  child,  the  head  of  an  important  family 
and  the  first  heu-  bom  at  Swynnerton.  where  his  de- 
scendants have  since  flourished  and  still  remain 
Catholics.  He  was  trained  to  piety  and  firmness  in  his 
religion  by  his  mother,  and  when  sent  to  Oxford  in  his 
sixteenth  year  he  confessed  his  faith  with  a  courage 
that  grew  with  the  various  trials,  of  which  he  has  left 
us  an  interesting  memoir  (Foley,  "  Records  of  English 
Province  S.  J.";1I,  210) .  At  last  he  was  forced  to  keep 
in  hiding,  and  m  1572  he  suffered  imprisonment.  In 
1580  he  married  and  had  issue,  but  he  did  not  give  up 
his  works  of  seal.  When  Campion  and  Persons  com- 
menced their  memorable  mission,  Fitzherbert  put 
himself  at  their  service,  and  helped  Campion  in  the 
preparation  of  his  ''Decem  Rationes''  by  verifying 
quotations  and  copying  passages  from  the  Fathers  in 
various  libraries,  to  wmch  it  would  have  been  impos- 
sible for  the  Jesuit  to  obtain  admission.  Unable  at 
last  to  maintain  his  position  in  face  of  the  ever-growinjg 
persecution,  he  left  England  in  1582,  and  took  up  his 
residence  in  the  north  of  France.  Here,  as  a  lay 
Catholic  of  birth,  means,  and  unexceptionable  chaiv 
acter,  he  was  much  trusted  by  the  Catholic  leaders, 
and  as  sedulously  watched  by  Walsingham's  emis- 
saries, whose  letters  contain  frequent  insinuations 
a@unst  his  intentions  and  ulterior  objects  (see  Foley, 
"Records  of  English  Provinces.  J.",  II,  220-228).  His 
wife  died  in  1588^  and  he  soon  afterwards  took  a  vow 
of  celibacy.  He  is  next  found  in  the  household  of  the 
young  Duke  of  Feria,  whose  mother  was  Lady  Anne 
Dormer.  With  him  or  in  his  service  he  hved  in 
Flanders,  Spain,  Milan,  Naples,  and  Rome  for  some 
twent]^  years,  until  the  duke  died  in  1607,  on  the  point 
of  setting  out  for  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Germany,  on 
which  Fitzherbert  was  to  have  accompanied  him.  It 
was  during  this  period  that  he  was  charged  in  1598  by 
Squire  with  having  tempted  him  to  murder  Queen 
Elizabeth;  in  1595  a  chai^  of  contradictory  implicar 
tion  had  been  preferred  against  him  to  the  Spanish 
Government,  viz.  that  he  was  an  agent  of  Elizabeth. 
Both  charges  led  to  the  enhancement  of  his  reputation. 
An  interesting  series  of  200  letters  from  the  duke  to 
him  is  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  Archdiocese  of 
Westmmster.  In  1601,  while  in  Spain,  he  felt  moved 
to  take  a  vow  to  offer  himself  for  the  priesthood,  and 
he  was 'ordained  in  Rome  24  March,  1602.  After  this 
he  acted  as  Roman  agent  for  the  archpriest  Harrison 


until  he  was  succeeded,  in  1609,  by  the  future  bishop. 
Richard  Smith.  But  in  1606  he  had  made  a  thini 
vow,  namelv,  to  enter  the  Society  of  Jesus,  which  he 
did  about  the  yeta  1613.  He  was  soon  given  the  im- 
portant Dost  of  superior  in  Flanders,  1616  to  1618, 
afterwards  recalled  and  made  rector  of  the  Rngli^ 
College,  Rome,  from  1618  to  1639.  He  died  there, 
closing,  at  the  aee  of  eighty-eight  years,  a  life  that  haa 
been  filled  with  an  unusual  variety  of  important 
duties.  His  principal  works  are:  ''A  Defence  of  the 
Catholycke  Cause,  Bv  T.  F.,  with  an  Apology  cff  his 
innocence  in  a  faynea  conspu-acy  of  Edward^quire" 
(St-Omer,  1602);  "A  Treatise  concerning  Policy  and 
Religion"  (Douai.  1606-10,  1615),  translated  into 
Latin  in  1630.  This  w;ork  was  highly  valued  for  its 
sound  and  broad-minded  criticism  o(  the  ka  political 
principles  professed  in  thoee  days.  He  also  wrote 
books  in  the  controversy  that  grew  out  of  King 
James's  Oath  of  AUegiance:  "  A  Supplement  to  [Father 
Persons's]  the  Discussion  of  M.  D.  narlow  "  (St-Omer, 
1613) ;  ''A  Confutation  of  certaine  Absurdities  uttered 
by  M.  D.  Andrews  "  (St-Omer,  1613) ; "  Of  the  Oath  of 
FideUty "  (St-Omer,  1614) ;  "The  Obmutesce  of  F.  T. 
to  the  Epphata  of  D.  Collins"  (St-Omer,  1621).  We 
have  also  from  his  pen  a  translation  of  Turcelluu's 
"Life  of  St.  Francis  Xavier"  (Paris,  1632). 

FoLBT,  Records  of  English  Provinee  8.  J.,  II.  198-230.  VII. 
268;  CooFBB  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  b.  v.  J.  H.  PoLLEN. 

Fits  Maurice,  John.    See  Ebie,  Diocese  of. 

Fitipatriek,  John  Bernard.  See  Boston,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

Fitipatriek,  Wiluam  John,  historian,  b.  in  Dub- 
lin, Ireland,  31  Aug.,  1830;  d.  there  24  Dec.,  1895. 
The  son  of  a  rich  merchant,  he  had  ample  means  to 
indulge  bis  peculiar  tastes,  and  these  were  for  biogra- 
phv,  and  especially  for  seddn^  out  what  was  hitherto 
unknown  and  not  always  desirable  to  publish  about 
great  men.  Educated  partly  at  a  Protestant  school, 
partly  at  Clongowes  Wood  Colle^,  he  early  took  to 
writing  and  in  1855  published  his  &r8t  work — "The 
Life,  Times  and  Correspondence  of  Lord  Cloncurry". 
The  same  year  he  wrote  a  series  of  letters  to  "  Notes 
and  Queries"  charging  Sir  Walter  Scott  with  plagiar- 
ism in  his  Waverley  novels,  and  attributing  the  chief 
credit  of  having  written  these  novels  to  Sir  Walter's 
brother  Thomas.  The  latter  was  dead ,  but  his  daugh- 
ters repudiated  Fitxpatrick's  advocacy  and  their 
father's  supposed  claims,  and  the  matter  ended  there. 
In  1859  Fitzpatrick  published  "The  Friends,  Foes  and 
Adventures  of  Lady  Morgan  ".  From  that  date  to  his 
death,  his  pen  was  never  idle.  His  research  was  great, 
his  industry  a  marvel,  his  patience  and  care  immense, 
nor  is  he  ever  consciously  unjust.  For  these  reasons, 
thou^  his  style  is  unattractive^  his  works  are  valuable, 
especially  to  the  Irish  histoncal  student.  Notable 
examples  are  "The  Sham  Squire"  (1866),  "Ireland 
before  the  Union"  (1867),  "The  Correspondence  of 
Daniel  O'Connell"  (1888),  "Secret  Service  under 
Pitt"  (1892).  Fitzpatrick  also  wrote  works  dealing 
with  Archbishop  whately,  Charles  Lever,  Rev.  Dr. 
Lanigan,  Father  Tom  Burke,  O.P.,  and  Father  Jamea 
Healy  of  Bray.  In  1876  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  history  by  the  Hibernian  Academy  of  Arts.  Fit»- 
patrick's  painstaking  research  as  well  as  his  spirit  of 
lair  play  are  specially  to  be  commended  and  have 
earned  words  of  praise  from  two  men  differing  id 
many  other  things — Lecky  and  Gladstone. 

Falkinbr  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  supplement,  II,  ■.  v.;  Frm* 
man's  Journal  (Dublin,  26  Dec.,  1896). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Fitiralph,  Richard,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  b.  at 
Dundalk,  Ireland,  about  1295;  d.at  Avignon.  16  Dec, 
1 360.  He  studied  in  Oxford ,  where  we  first  find  mention 
of  him  in  1325  as  an  ex-fellow  and  teacher  of  Balliol  Col* 
lege.  He  was  made  doctor  of  theology  before  1 331 ,  and 
was  chancellor  of  Oxford  University  m  1333.    In  1334 


nxzaiMON 


87 


nrz-smtoMS 


he  was  made  chancellor  of  Lincoln  Cathedral,  and  in 
Jan.,1335yCanon  and  prebendary  of  Lichfield/' notwith- 
standing that  he  has  canonries  and  prebends  of  Credi- 
.ton  and  Boshun,  and  has  had  provision  made  for  him 
of  the  Chancellorship  of  Lincoln  and  the  canonries  and 
prebends  of  Armagh  and  Exeter,  all  of  which  he  is  to 
resign"  (Bliss,  Calendar  of  Entries  in  Papal  Registers, 
II,  524).  He  was  archdeacon  of  Chester  when  made 
dean  of  Lichfield  in  1337.  On  31  July,  1346,  he  was 
consecrated  Archbishop  of  Armagh. 

Fitzralph  was  a  man  who  pre-eminently  joined  the 
speculative  temperament  witn  the  practical.  One  of 
the  great  Scholastiq  luminaries  of  his  day,  and  a  close 
friend  of  the  scholarly  Richard  of  Bury,  he  fostered 
learning  among  his  pnests  by  sending  many  of  them  to 
take  higher  studies  m  Oxford.  He  was  zealous  too  in 
visiting  the  various  church  provinces,  and  in  bettering 
financial  as  well  as  spiritual  conditions  in  his  own  see. 
He  contended  for  his  primatial  rights  against  the  im- 
munity claimed  by  the  See  of  Dublin;  and  on  various 
occasions  acted  as  peacemaker  between  the  English  and 
the  Irish.  He  was  in  great  demand  as  a  preadier,  and 
manv  of  his  sermons  are  still  extant  in  manuscript. 
Whilst  at  Avignon  in  1350,  Fitzralph  presented  a 
memorial  from  the  English  clergy  reciting  certain 
complaints  against  the  mendicant  orders.  After 
servmg  on  a  commission  appointed  by  Clement  Vl  to 
inquire  into  the  points  at  issue,  he  embodied  his  own 
views  in  the  treatise  "  De  Paiqperie  Salvatoris",  which 
deals  with  the  subject'  of  evangelical  poverty,  as  well 
as  the  (]|ueBtions  then  agitated  concerning  dominion, 
possession,  and  use,  and  the  relation  of  these  to  the 
state  of  grace  in  man.  Part  of  this  work  is  printed  hj 
Poole  in  his  edition  of  Wyclif 's  "  De  Dominio  Divi- 
ne'' (London,  1890).  It  was  probably  during  this 
visit  that  Fitzralph  also  took  put  in  the  n^otiations 
going  on  between  the  Armenian  delegates  and  the 
pope.  He  composed  an  elaborate  apologetico-po- 
temic  work,  entitled  "Summa  in  Qiuestionibus 
Armenorum''  (Paris,  1511),  in  which  he  displayed 
his  profoimd  knowledge  of  Scripture  with  telling 
effect  in  refuting  the  Greek  and  Armenian  heresies. 

Fitzralph's  controversy  with  the  friars  came  to  a 
crisis  when  he  was  cited  to  Avignon  in  1357.  Avow- 
ing his  entire  submission  to  the  authority  of  the  Holy 
See,  he  defended  his  attitude  towards  the  friars  in  the 
plea  entitled  "Defensorium  Curatorum"  (printed  in 
Goldast's  ''Monarchia''  and  elsewhere).  He  main- 
tained as  probable  that  voluntary  mendicancy  is  con- 
trary to  the  teachings  of  Chnst.  His  main  plea, 
however,  was  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  privileges  of 
the  friars  in  resard  to  confessions,  preaching^  bur^g, 
etc.  He  urged  a  return  to  the  purity  of  their  original 
institution,  claiming  that  these  privileges  undermine 
the  authority  of  the  parochial  clergy.  The  friars  were 
not  molestea,  but  by  gradual  legislation  harmony  was 
restored  between  them  and  the  parish  clergy.  Fitz- 
ralph's position,  however,  was  not  directly  con- 
demned, and  he  died  in  peace  at  Avi^on.  In  1370 
his  remains  were  transferred  to  St.  Nicholas'  church. 
Dundalk;  miracles  were  reported  from  his  tomb  and 
for  several  centuries  his  memory  was  held  in  saintly 
veneration.  His  printed  works  are  mentioned  above. 
His  ''Opus  in  P.  Lombardi  Sententias"  and  several 
other  works  (list  in  the  ''Catholic  University  Bulle- 
tin", XI,  243)  are  still  in  manuscript. 

Pools  in  Dui.  of  Nat,  Biog.^  s.  v.;  Gbkankt  in  Catk.  Vniv, 
BulL  (Washington),  XI.  68, 105;  Feuten  in  Kirehenlex.,  b.  v. 

JoHX  J.  Gbeaiobt. 

Fitssimon  (Firz  Simon),  Henry,  Jesuit,  b.  1566  (or 
1569),  in  Dublin,  Ireland;  d.  29  Nov.,  1643  (or  1645), 
probably  at  Kilkenny.  He  was  educated  a  Protestant 
at  Oxford  (Hart  Hall,  and  perhaps  Christ  Church), 
1583-1587.  Going  thence  to  the  university  of  Paris, 
he  became  a  zealous  protafi;onist  of  Protestantism, 
''with  the  firm  intention  to  have  died  for  it",  if  need 


had  been.  But  having  engaged  in  controversy  with 
"an  owld  English  Jeswt,  Fatner  Thomas  Darbishire. 
to  my  happiness  I  was  overcome  '*.  Having  embraced 
Catholicism  he  visited  Rome  and  Flanders,  where,  in 
1592.  he  "  elected  to  militate  imder  the  Jesuits'  stand* 
aid,  because  they  do  most  impugn  the  impiety  of  here- 
tics ".  In  1 595  there  was  a  call  tor  Jesuit  laboureos  for 
Ireland,  which  had  been  deprived  of  them  for  t«i 
years.  He  at  once  offered  himself  for  the  post  of  dan- 
ger, and  he  shares  with  Father  Archer  the  honour  of 
having  ref  ounded  that  mission  on  a  basis  that  proved 
permanent  amid  innumerable  dangers  and  trials. 
Keeping  chiefly  to  Dublin  and  Drogheda  he  was  won- 
derfully successful  in  reconciling  Protestants,  and  he 
loudly  and  persistently  challenged  the  chief  Anglican 
divines  to  disputation.  With  tne  same  fighting  spirit 
he  laughed  at  his  capture  in  1600.  "  Now",  said  he, 
"  nnr  adversaries  cannot  sav  that  they  know  not  where 
to  find  me" I  and  he  would  shout  his  challenges  from 
his  prison  wmdow  at  every  passing  parson.  But  his 
oi>ponents,  James  Ussher,  Meredith  Hanmer,  and  John 
Kider,  in  spite  of  their  professions,  carefully  avoided 
coming  to  close  quarters  with  their  redoubtable  ad- 
versary. 

Banished  in  1604,  he  visited  Spain,  Rome,  and 
Flanders,  1611-1620>  eveiywhere  earnest  and  active 
with  voice  and  pen  in  the  cause  of  Ireland.  After  the 
outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years  War,  in  Julv,  1620,  he 
served  as  chaplain  to  the  Irish  soldiers  in  tne  imperial 
army^  and  published  a  diaij,  full  of  life  and  interest, 
of  his  adventurous  experiences.  He  probably  re- 
turned to  Flanders  in  1621  and  in  1630  went  back  to 
Ireland,  where  he  continued  to  work  with  energy  and 
success  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  (1640). 
In  the  ensuing  tumult  and  confusion,  we  are  unable  to 
follow  his  later  movements  with  certainty.  At  one  time 
we  hear  that  he  was  under  sentence  of  deathj  from 
which  he  escaped  in  the  winter  of  1641  to  the  Wicklow 
Mountains,  and  after  manv  sufferings  died  in  peace, 
probably  at  Kilkenny.  "  Not  many,  3  any  Irishmen'*, 
says  his  biographer,  while  reflecting  on  the  many  uni- 
versities, towns,  courts  and  armies  which  Father  Fits- 
simon  had  visited. "  have  known,  or  been  known  to,  so 
maxiv  men  of  mark  ".  Besides  one  controversial  work 
in  MS.,  not  known  to  previous  biographers,  now  at 
Oscott  College,  Birmingham,  which  is  entitle  "A 
revelation  of  contradictions  in  reformed  articles  of 
religion'*,  dated  1633,  he  wrote  two  MS.  treatises,  now 
lost,  against  Rider;  and  afterwards  printed  a^inst  him 
"A  Catholic  Confutation"  (Rouen,  1608);  "Britanno- 
machia  Ministrorum"  (1614);  "Pu|^ia  Pragensis" 
(1620)  and  "  Buquoii  Quadrimestreiter,  Auctore  Con- 
stantio  Peregrino"  (BrOnn,  1621,  several  editions, 
also  Italian  and  English  versions);  "Catalogus  Pneci- 
puorum  Sanctorum  Bibemiae  "  (1611.  severaleditions), 
important  as  drawing  attention  to  Irish  hagiography 
at  a  time  of  great  depression.  His  "  Words  of  Com- 
fort to  Persecuted  Catholics",  "Letters  from  a  Cell 
in  Dublin  Castle'',  and  "Diarv  of  the  Bohemian 
War  of  1620  ",  together  with  a  sketeh  of  his  life,  were 
published  by  Father  Edmund  Hogan,  S.J.  (Dublin, 
1881). 

HoQAN,  Diatinauiaihed  Jritikmen  of  Oie  Siadeenih  Cenharv  (Dub- 
lin, 1894),  19a-31():  Foley,  Records  S.J..  VII,  260:  SomiBByo-    , 
OKL.  BibliotM^ue,  III,  766-768;  Coopkr  in  Did.  Nat,  Biog.,  ^.v.   ' 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Fits-Simoiu,  Thomas,  American  merchant,  b.  in 
Ireland,  1741;  d.  at  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A.,  26  Aug.; 
1811.  There  is  no  positive  date  of  his  arrival  in  Amer- 
ica, but  church  records  in  Philadelphia  show  he  was 
there  in  1758.  In  1763  he  was  married  to  Catherine, 
sister  of  George  Meade,  and  he  was  Meade's  partner  as 
a  merchant  imtil  1784.  In  the  evente  that  led  up  to 
the  revolt  of  the  coloniste  against  England  he  took  a 
prominent  part.  He  was  one  of  the  deputies  who  met 
m  conference  in  Carpenter's  Hall,  Philadelphia,  out  of 
which  conference  grew  the  Continental  Congress  that 


FIVE  88  FIZEAU 

assembled  4  Sept.,  1774,  and  of  which  he  was  a  mem-  vice  to  Lalande  in  constructing  tables  of  that  planet, 

ber.    His  election  as  one  of  the  Provincial  Deputies  in  Besides  the  treatise  already  mentioned  he  was' the 

July,  1774,  is  the  first  instance  of  a  Catholic  being  author  of  ''Meridianus  speculsB  astronomies  cremi- 

named  for  a  public  office  in  Pennsylvania.    At  the  fanensis"  (Steyer,  1765),  which  treats  of  his  observa- 

breaking-out  of  hostilities  he  organized  a  comi>any  of  tions  in  connexion  with  the  latitude  and  longitude  of 

militia  and  took  p&Tt  in  the  Trenton  campaign  in  New  his  observatory,  and  ''  Decennium  astronomicum  " 

Jersey.    After  this  service  in  the  field  he  returned  to  (Steyer,  1776).  After  his  death  his  successor  P.  Derf- 

Philadelphia  and  was  active  with  other  merchants  flineer  published  the  "  Acta  cremifanensia  a  Placido 

in  providing  for  the  needs  of  the  army.  Fia^milfner"  (Steyer,  1791),  which  contain  his  obsei^ 

On  12  Nov.,  1782,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  vations  from  1776  to  1791. 
Congress  of  the  old  Confederacy  and  was  among  the       Schuchtegboix.  Nekrolog  der  DeuUchen    (Gotha,  1791- 

leaders  in  its  deUberations.    He  was  a  member  of  the  N^iiS?in  SS^^b^iSJii^^  gSogmpkiqueB  (1799); 

Convention  that  met  in  Philadelphia  26  May,  1787,  *  .  H.  M.  Brock 

and  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

Daniel  Carroll  of  Maryland  being  the  only  other  Cath-  Fiseailt  Armand-Hippolttb-Louis,  physicist,  b. 
olic  member.  In  this  convention  Fits-Simons  voted  at  Paris,  23  Sept.,  1819;  d.  at  Nanteuil,  Seine-et- 
against  universal  suffrage  and  in  favour  of  limiting  it  Mame,  18  Sept.,  1896.  His  father,  a  distinguished 
to  free-holders.  Under  this  constitution  he  was  physician  and  professor  of  medicine  in  Paris  during 
elected  a  member  of  the  first  Congress  of  the  United  the  Restoration,  left  him  an  independent  fortune,  so 
States  and  in  it  served  on  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  that  he  was  able  to  devote  himself  to  scientific  re- 
Means.  In  politics  he  was  an  ardent  Federalist.  He  search.  He  attended  Stanislas  College  and  then  be- 
was  re-elected  to  the  second  and  the  third  Congresses,  gan  to  study  medicine,  but  had  to  abandon  it  on  ac- 
but  was  defeated  for  the  fourth,  in  1794,  and  this  count  of  ill-health  and  travelled  for  awhile.  Then 
closed  his  political  career.  Madison  wrote  to  Jeffer-  followed  Arab's  lessons  at  the  Observatory,  Re- 
son,  on  16  Nov.,  1794,  that  the  failure  of  Fitz-Simons  gnault  on  optics  at  the  College  of  France,  and  a  thor- 
to  oe  selected  was  a  "stinging  blow  for  the  aristo-  ough  study  of  his  brother's  notebooks  of  the  courses  at 
cracy".  The  records  of  Congress  show  that  he  was  the  Ecole  Polytechnique.  In  1839  he  became  inter- 
among  the  very  first,  if  not  the  first,  to  advocate  the  ested  in  the  new  photo^phy  and  succeeded  in  getting 
fimdamental  principles  of  a  protective  tariff  system  to  permanent  pictures  by  the  da^erreotype.  Foucault 
help  American  industries.  When  Washington  was  came  to  comnill  him  about  this  work  and  became  as- 
ina  wirated  the  first  president,  Fits-Simons  was  one  of  sociated  with  him  in  their  epoch-making  experiments 
the  tour  laymen^  Charles  and  Daniel  Carroll  of  Mary-  in  optics,  a^owin^  the  identity  of  radiant  heat  and 
land,  and  Dominic  Lynch  of  New  York  being  the  light,  the  regulanty  of  the  light  vibrations,  and  the 
others,  to  sign  the  address  of  congratulation  presented  validity  of  the  imdulatory  theory.  Just  as  they  were 
to  him  by  the  Catholics  of  the  country.  He  was  ready  to  develop  the  experimentum  crueis  (see  Fon- 
amons  the  founders  of  Georgetown  College,  and  was  cault)  overthrowing  the  emission  theory,  they  parted 
considered  during  his  lone  life  one  of  the  most  enlight-  company  and  worked  independently, 
ened  merchants  m  the  United  States.  On  all  oues-  Fizeau  was  the  first  to  determine  experimentally  the 
tions  connected  with  commerce  and  finance  his  advice  velocity  of  li^t  (1849).  He  used  a  rotating  oog- 
was  always  sought  and  regarded  with  respect  in  the  wheel  and  a  &ed  mirror  several  miles  distant;  light 
operations  that  laid  the  foundation  of  the  commercial  passed  between  two  teelJi  of  the  wheel  to  the  distant 
prosperity  of  the  new  republic.  mirror  and  then  returned.  If  the  wheel  turned  fast 
^  9^»?7??»  Jf^o^  ^^:?*!f^.  ^^^^®fe^o**io^^^^'  ^^'  enoudi  to  obscure  the  reflection,  then  the  reflected 
^A'l^^^ffJ^^^'^^^  bea^struck  a  cog.    The  t^e  it  took  the  wheel  to 

Thomas  F.  Meehan.  move  the  width  of  one  tooth  was  then  eq^ual  to  the 
_,  __,,  -  ^  «  ^T  time  it  took  the  light  to  travel  twice  the  distance  be- 
Flve  Mile  Act.  See  Nonconformists.  tween  the  wheel  and  the  mirror.  He  also  experi- 
Fizlznillner,  Placidus,  astronomer,  b.  at  Achleu-  mented  succ^sfully  to  show  that  the  ether  is  carried 
then  near  KremsmQnster,  Austria,  in  1721 ;  d.  at  along  by  moving  substances,  since  light  travels  faster 
Kremsmtknster,  27  August,  1791.  He  received  his  through  a  stream  of  water  in  the  direction  of  its  mo- 
early  education  at  Salzburg,  where  he  displayed  a  tion  than  in  tiie  opposite  direction.  In  his  measure- 
talent  for  mathematics.  He  joined  the  Benedictines  ments  of  vanishingly  small  distances,  such  as  the  ex- 
at  the  age  of  sixteen  and  became  distinguished  for  his  pansion  of  crystals,  he  made  use  of  the  exUemely  small 
broad  scholarship.  In  1756  he  published  a  small  and  very  regular  wave-length  of  li^t.  His  addition 
treatise  entitled  '^  Reipublicse  sacrse  origines  divinse".  of  a  condenser  in  the  primary  circuit  of  the  induction 
He  intended  to  continue  this  work  but  the  transit  of  coil  increased  the  effectiveness  of  this  device  consid- 
Venus  in  1761  again  aroused  his  interest  in  mathe-  erably.  On  the  recommendation  of  the  Academy  of 
matics.  Though  already  forty  years  of  age  he  resumed  Sciences  he  was  awarded  the  Grand  Prix  ( 10,000  francs) 
his  old  studies  with  ardour,  and  an  opportunity  soon  of  the  Institute  in  1856.  He  was  elected  a  mem- 
presented  itself  for  work  in  astronomy.  He  was  ap-  ber  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1860,  and  a 
pointed  director  of  the  observatory  of  KremsmUnster,  member  of  tiie  Bureau  des  Lon^tudes  in  1878.  He 
which  had  been  established  by  his  uncle  in  1748  while  received  the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1849 
abbot.  His  first  task  was  to  improve  the  eauipment  and  became  officer  in  1875.  In  1866  the  Royal  Soci- 
and  have  new  instruments  constructed,  ana  as  soon  ety  of  London  awarded  him  the  Rumford  Medal. 
as  possible  he  determined  the  latitude  and  longitude  Comu  says  of  him :  ''  He  was  a  practical  and  convinced 
of  the  observatory.  He  continued  in  chaige  of  the  Christian  and  did  not  hide  that  fact."  In  the  presi- 
observatory  until  his  death  and  by  his  industry  ao-  dential  address  before  the  aoademy  (Comptes  Rendus, 
cumulated  a  number  of  observations  of  great  variety  1879),  Fizeau  calls  attention  to  "  the  digmty  and  inde- 
and  vfidue.  He  did  not,  however,  devote  all  his  time  pendence  of  natural  science  as  well  as  to  its  limits  of 
to  astronomy.  For  many  years  he  was  in  charge  of  the  action,  preventing  it  from  interfering  in  philosophic  or 
college  connected  with  the  abbey  and  at  the  same  time  social  questions,  and  not  permitting  it  to  put  itself  in 
acted  as  professor  of  canon  law.  As  such  he  was  opposition  to  the  noble  emotions  of  the  heart  nor  to 
honoured  with  the  dignity  of  notary  Apostolic  of  the  the  pure  voice  of  conscience".  Most  of  his  published 
Roman  Court.  Fixlmillner  is  best  known  for  his  work  works  appeared  in  the  "Comptes  Rendus"  and  in  the 
in  astronomy.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  compute  the  "Annales  de  physique  et  de  chimie".  A  few  of  the 
orbit  of  Uranus  after  its  discovery  by  Herschel.  His  titles  are:  "our  la  daguerrfetypie";  "Sur  Tinter- 
aumerous  observations  of  Mercury  were  of  much  ser-  f^rence  entre  deux  rayons  dans  le  cas  de  grandes  dif- 


LEO  XII  (1823-29)  CARRIED  IN  PROCESSION  IN  ST.  PETER'S 
raou  vernet's  painting,  srowino  the  fi^beixa  ab  used  on  occasions  of  static 

WITH    THE    "SEDIA    aBaiATOBu",    OR    PKOCESBIONAL    CHAIR 


rLABELLlIU 


FLAOBLLANTS 


ferances  de  marche";  "Vitesse  de  la  lumi^re;  "In-  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  had  a  tan  made  of  pea* 

terHrenoe  des  rayons  calori6que8"i  "Effraction  dif-  cock  feathers,  and  York  Cathedral's  inventory  men- 

f^rentielle";  "Vitesse  de  I'^ectricit^";  "Dilatation  tionsaailverhandleof  a  fan,  which  was  gilded  and  had 

deacristaux".  upon  it  the  enamelled  picture  of  the  bishop.    Uaymo, 

Gk*t    Natun  (London,  1896);  Coknu,  ^nnuaire  pour  Fan  Biahop  of  Rochester  (d.  1352),  bt — '- <•:--' 1- -  '— 

HteB«r«urf«L<™tfih«fc.{P«i5). ^  _  of  Hilver  with  an  ivory  handle. 

Diir  FaA 


nabellnm,  in  liturgical  use  a  fan  made  of  leather, 
silk,  parchment,  or  feathers  int«nded  to  keep  away 
insects  from  the  Saored  Species  and  from  the  priest. 
It  was  in  uae  in  the  sacrinces  of  the  heathens  and  in 
the  Christian  Chun^  from  very  early  days,  for 


Pan     Biahop  of  Rochester  (d.  1352),  gave  to  h 

Wiiiiiu  Fat  ^  "'""■  "*'''  ^  '"'"7  handle.. 

tVILLUH  lOX.  Hoci,  ChurrA  at  our  FaAm  (London,  1B04 

E.GIoHanum  (Niort,  1S8S]:  amsBBii  in 

Kbaub,  Gach.  da  ktrdii.  Aunil  (Fiwbun 

FaANCM  J 


II.  209;    Do 


laWI).  I.  K 


each  side  of  the  altar,  hold  a  fan,  made  ^  f^^ 

up    of    thin    membranes,  or  of   the  ^^^j^L'^H: 

feathers  of  the  peacock,  or  of  fine  *l^J*.^»  ^m^ 

cloth,  and  let  them  silently  drive 
away  the  small  animals  that  fly 
about,  that  they  may  not  come       .' 
near  to  thecups".     Its  use  was        * 
continued  in  the  Latin  Church  to 
about  the  fourteenth  centuiy. 
In  the  Greek  Church  to   the 
present  day,  the  deacon,  at  his 
ordination,   receives  the  hagion 
ripidion.  or  sacred  fan,  which  is  generauy  maue        m 
to  the  lilceness  of  a  cherub's  aix-winged  face,  and 
in  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  he  waves  it  gently  over 
the  species  from  the  time  of  the  OiTertory  to  the 
Communion — in  the  Litur^  of  St.  Ba^  only  dur- 
ing the  Consecration.    Among  the  ornaments  found 
belonging  to  the  church  of  St.  Riquier,  in  Ponthieu 
(813),  there   is  a  silver  llabellum  (Mtgne,   P.    L., 
CLXXIV,  1257),  and  tor  the  chapel  of  Cisoin,  near 
Lisle,anotherflaDellumotsilveri3notedin  the  willof 
Everard  (d.  937),  the  founder  of  that  abbey.   When, 
in  1777,  Martine  wrote  his  "  Voyage  Littfiraire",  ^e 
Abbey  of  Toumus,  on  the  Sa6ne  in  France,  poss^sed 
an  old  flabeilum,  which  had  an  ivory  handle  two  feet 
long,  and  was  beautifully  carved ;  the  two  sides  of  the 
ivorycircular  disc  wereeagraved  with  fourteen  figures 
of  saints.     Pieces  of  this  fan,  dating  from  the  eighth 
century,  are  in  the  Musfe  Cluny  at  Paris,  and  in  the 
Collection  Carrand.   The  circular  disc  is  also  found  in 
the  Slavic  flabeilum  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy,  pre- 
served at  Moscow,  and  in  the  one  shown  in  the  Megas- 
pileon  monastery  in  Greece.     On  this  latter  disc  are 
carved  the  Madonna  and  Child  and  it  is  encircled  by 
eight  medallions  containing  the  images  of  cherubim 
and  of  the  Four  Evangelists.    The  inventory,  taken  in 
1222,of  the  treasury  of  Salisbury,  enumerates  a  silver 
fan  and  two  of  parchment.    The  richest  and  most 
beautiful  specimen  is  the  flabeilum  of  the  thirteenth 
century  in  the  Abbey  of  Kremsinllneter  in  Upper  Aus- 
tria.   It  has  the  shape  of  a  Greek 
cross  and  is  ornamented  with  fret- 
work and  the  representation  of  the 


I 


dauditer  of  Claudius  Antonius,  Prefet^  of 
Gaul,  who  was  consul  in  382.     Her  mar- 
riage vnth  Theodosius  probably  took 
^aee   in   the   year  376,  when   his 
,        father,  the  cornea  Theodosius,  felt 
into  disfavour  and  he  himself  with- 
drew to  Cauca  in  GallKcia,  for  her 
eldest   son,  afterwards  Emperor 
Arcadius,  was  bom  towards  the 
end  of  the  following  year.   In  the 
succeeding  years  she  presented 
two  more  children  to  her  husband. 
m        jiononus  (384),  who  later  became  emperor,  and 
Pulcheria,  who  died  in  early  childhood,  shortly 
before  her  mother.     Gregory  of  Nyssa    states   ex- 
press that  she  had  three  children;   consequently 
the   Gratian  mentioned   by  St.   Ambrose,  together 
with  Pulcheria,  was  probably  not  her  son.     Flaccilla 
was,  like  her  husband,  a  zealous  supporter  of  the 
Nicene  Creed  and  prevented  the  conference  between 
the  emperor  and  the  Arian  Eunomius  (Sozomen, 
Hist,  eccl.,  VII,  vi).    On  the  throne  she  was  a  shining 
example  of  Christiifn  virtue  and    ardent   charity. 
St.  Ambrose  describes  her  as  "  a  soid  true  to  God" 
[Fidelit  anima  Dto.—"  De  obitu  Theodoaii'!,  n.  40, 
in  P.  L.,  XVI,  1462).     In  his  panegyric  St.  Gregory 
of  Nyssa  bestowed  the  highest  praise  on  her  virtuous 
life  and  pictured  her  as  the  helpmate  of  the  emperor 
in  allgoodworks,  an  ornament  of  the  empire,  aleader 
of  justice,  an  image  of  beneficence.    He  praises  her 
as  filled  with  zeal  for  the  Faith,  as  a  pular  of  the 
Church,  as  a  mother  of  the  indigent.     'Theodoret  in 
particular  exalts  her  charity  ana  benevolence  (Hiat. 
eccles.,V,xix.ed.Valesiu9,III,  192sq.).    He  tells  us 
how  she  personally  tended  cripples,  and  quotes  a  say- 
ing of  hers:  "To  distribute  money  belongs  to  the  im- 
perial dignity,  but  I  ofler  up  for  the  imperial  dignity 
itself  personal  service  to  the  Giver."     Her  humility 
also  attracts  a  special  meed  of  praise  from  the  churcn 
historian.  Haecilla  was  buried  m  Constantinople,  St. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  delivering  her  funeral  oration.    She 
Pap*l  PukasLimi  isvenerated  in  the  Greek  Churches 

Museum  ot  Univeraity  of  Pennaylvani*     *  saint,  and  her  feast  is  kept  on  14 

September.    TTie  BoUandists  (Acta 


Resurrection  of  Our  Lord,     A  kind  of  tan  with  a  hoop     SS.,  Sept.,  IV,  142)  are  of  the  opinion  that  she  is  not 
of  little  bells  is  used  by  the  Maronites  and  other  Orien-     regarded  as  a  saint  but  only  as  venerable,  but  her 


tab  and  is  generally  made  of  silver  or  brass. 

Apart  from  the  foregoing  liturgical  uses,  a  flabeilum, 
in  the  shape  ot  a  fan,  later  of  an  umbrella  or  canopy, 
was  used  as  a  mark  <rf  honour  for  bishops  and  princes. 
Two  fans  ot  this  kind  are  used  at  the  Vatican  when- 
ever the  pope  is  carried  in  state  on  the  »edia  geelabnia 

to  or  from  the  altar  or  audience-chamber.    Through    3L''^''  """^ 
the  influence  of  Count  Ditalmo  di  Brozza,  the  fans    m.'^^oiaTaa,  J 


stands  in  the  Greek  Mensa  and  Synaiaria 
followed  by  words  of  eulogy,  as  is  the  case  with  ^e 
other  saints  (ct.e.g.  Synaxarium  eccl.  Constuitino- 
politante,  ed.  Delehaye,  Brussels,  1902,  col.  46,  under 
14  Sept.). 

GaaaoBT  or  Ntwa,  Oratio  tutiebrii  de  PtacOa  in  P.  G., 

'^ _._    ti^f^^^  ^_  DiMDoiw,  837  Bqq.; 

.n.  V  (BnisHb.  1732).  62,  IW 

IXcl.  ChritI,  Biog,.  I,  v.  Flac- 

"      ■'  ThtodotiMt 


Theiiibtiub.  Or^io,  t 


J.  P.  Kksch. 


formerly  used  at  the  Vatican  were,  in  1902,  presented  c3tii  (1):  OOLDiHpitHHVNo  and  IrLAtroT  Z>i 
to  Mrs.  Joseph  Drexel  ot  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A.,  by  dn- o™m.  (H»Ue.  1878).  68, 132. 
Leo  XIII,  and  in  return  she  gave  a  new  pair  to  the 
Vatican.  The  old  ones  are  exhibited  in  the  museum 
of  the  University  of  Penn^lvania.  They  are  splendid  nageUantB,  a  fanatical  and  heretical  sect  that 
creations.  The  spread  is  formed  ot  great  ostrich  flourished  in  the  thirteenth  and  succeeding  centuries, 
plumes  tipped  witn  peacock  feathers;  on  the  sticks  Tbeiroriginwaaatone  time  attributed  tothe  mission- 
are  the  papal  arms,  worked  in  a  crimson  field  in  heavy  ary  efforts  of  St.  Anthony  ot  Padua,  in  the  cities  ot 
gold,  the  crown  studded  with  rubies  and  em»«lds.  Northern  Italy,  early  in  the  thirteenth  century;  but 


rLAGlLLAlTf  ft  90  FLAGELLAHf  8 

Lempp  (Zeitschrift  f Or  Kirchengeechichte,  XII,  435)  and  the  attempt  at  proeelsrtism  failed  utterly.  Meaik 
has  sbown  this  to  be  unwarranted.  Every  important  while  in  Italy  the  movement,  in  accordance  with  the 
movement,  however,  has  its  forerimners,  both  in  the  temperament  of  the  people,  so  thorough,  so  ecstatic^ 
idea  out  of  which  it  grows  and  in  specific  acts  of  which  yet  so  matter-of-fact  and  practical  in  religious  mat- 
it  is  a  culmination.  And,  undoubtedly,  the  practice  of  ters,  spread  rapidly  through  all  classes  of  the  com- 
self-flagellation,  familiar  to  the  folk  as  the  ascetic  cus-  munity.  Its  diffusion  was  marked  and  aided  by  the 
tom  of  the  more  severe  orders  (such  as  the  Camaldo-  popular  Zaudt,  folk-songs  of  the  Passion  of  Christ  and 
lese,  the  Cluniacs,  the  Dominicans),  had  but  to  be  the  Sorrows  of  Our  Lady,  while  in  its  wake  there 
connected  in  idea  with  the  equally  familiar  penitential  sprang  up  numberless  brotherhoods  devoted  to  pen- 
processions  popularised  by  the  Mendicants  about  anoe  and  the  corporal  works  of  mercy  Thus  the 
1233,  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  great  outburstof  the  '^Battuti"  of  Siena,  Bologna,  Gubbio,  all  founded 
latter  half  of  the  thirteenth  century.  It  is  in  1260  Case  di  Dw,  which  were  at  once  centres  at  which  they 
that  we  first  hear  of  the  Flagellants  at  Perugia.  The  could  meet  for  devotional  and  penitential  exereises, 
terrible  plague  of  1259,  the  long-continued  tyranny  and  hospices  in  which  the  sick  and  destitute  were 
and  anarchy  throughout  the  Italian  States,  the  prophe-  relieved.  Though  tendencies  towards  here^  soon 
cies  concerning  Antichrist  and  the  end  of  the  world  became  apparent,  the  sane  Italian  faith  was  unfavour- 
bv  Joachim  olFlora  and  his  like,  had  created  a  min-  able  to  its  growth.  The  confraternities  adapted  them- 
gled  state  of  despair  and  expectation  among  the  de-  selves  to  tne  permanent  ecclesiastical  organisation, 
vout  lay-folk  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes.  Then  and  not  a  few  of  them  have  continued,  at  least  as 
there  appeared  a  famous  hermit  of  Umbria^  Raniero  charitable  associations,  until  the  present  day.  It  is 
Fasani,  who  organised  a  brotherhood  of  "  Disciplinati  noticeable  that  the  songs  of  the  LaudeH  during  their 
di  GesCl  Cristo  ,  which  spread  rapidly  throughout  processions  tended  more  and  more  to  take  on  a 
Central  and  Northern  Italy.  The  brotherhoods  were  dramatic  character.  From  them  developed  in  time 
known  b^  various  names  in  various  localities  (Battuti,  the  popular  mystery-play,  whence  came  the  be^^nnings 
Scopaton,  Verberatori,  etc.),  but  their  practiced  were  of  the  Italian  drama. 

very  similar  everywhere.  All  ages  and  conditions  were  As  soon,  however,  as  the  Flagellant  movement 
alike  subject  to  this  mental  epidemic.  Clergy  and  crossed  the  Alps  into  Teutonic  countri^,  its  whole 
laity,  men  and  women,  even  children  of  tender  years,  nature  changed.  The  idea  was  welcomed  with  enthu- 
scourged  themselves  in  reparation  for  the  sins  of  the  siasm;  a  ceremonial  was  rapidly  developed,  and 
whole  world.  Great  processions,  amounting  some-  almost  as  rapidlv  a  specialised  doctrine,  that  soon 
times  to  10,000  souls,  passed  through  the  cities,  beat-  degenerated  into  heresy.  The  Flagellants  became  an 
in^  themselves,  and  calling  the  faithful  to  repentance,  or^nised  sect,  with  severe  discipline  and  extravagant 
With  crosses  and  banners  borne  before  them  by  the  claims.  They  wore  a  white  habit  and  mantle,  on  each 
clergy,  they  marehed  slowly  through  the  towns,  of  which  was  a  red  cross,  whence  in  some  parts  they 
Stripped  to  the  waist  and  with  covered  faces,  they  were  called  the  "  Brotherhood  of  the  Cross  .  Whoso- 
scourged  themselves  with  leathern  thongs  till  the  ever  desired  to  join  this  brotherhood  was  bound  to 
blood  ran,  chanting  hymns  and  canticles  of  tne  Passion  remain  in  it  for  thirty-three  and  a  half  days,  to  swear 
of  Christ,  entering  the  churehes  and  prostrating  them-  obedience  to  the  "Masters"  of  the  organisation,  to 
selves  before  the  altars.  For  thirty-three  days  and  -a  possess  at  least  four  pence  a  day  for  his  support,  to  be 
half  this  penance  was  continued  bv  all  who  undertook  reconciled  to  all  men,  and,  if  married,  to  have  the 
it,  in  honour  of  the  years  of  Christ  s  life  on  earth.  Nei-  sanction  of  his  wife.  The  ceremonial  of  the  Flagel- 
ther  mud  nor  snow,  cold  nor  heat,  was  any  obstacle,  lants  seems  to  have  been  much  the  same  in  all  the 
The  processions  continued  in  Italy  throughout  1260,  northern  cities.  Twice  a  day,  proceeding  slowly  to  the 
and  Dy  the  end  of  that  year  had  spread  oeyond  the  public  square  or  to  the  principal  churen,  they  put  off 
Alps  to  Alsace,  Bavaria,  Bohemia,  and  Poland.  In  their  shoes,  stripped  themselves  to  the  waist  and  pros- 
1261,  however,  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  authorities  trated  themselves  in  a  large  circle.  By  their  posture 
awoke  to  the  danger  of  such  an  epidemic,  although  its  they  indicated  the  nature  of  the  sins  they  intended  to 
und^rable  tendencies,  on  this  occasion,  were  rather  expiate,  the  murderer  lying  on  his  back,  the  adulterer 
political  than  theological.  In  January  the  pope  for-  on  his  face,  the  periurer  on  one  side  holdine  up  three 
bade  the  processions,  and  the  laity  realized  suddenly  fingers,  etc.  First  they  were  beaten  by  the  "  Master '\ 
that  behind  the  movement  was  no  sort  of  ecclesiastical  then,  bidden  solemnly  in  a  prescribed  form  to  rise, 
sanction.  It  ceased  almost  as  quickly  as  it  had  they  stood  in  a  cirele  and  scourged  themselves  severely, 
started,  and  for  some  time  seemed  to  have  died  out.  crymg  out  that  their  blood  was  mingled  with  the 
Wandering  flagellants  are  heard  of  in  Germany  in  Blood  of  Christ  and  that  their  penance  was  preserving 
1296.  In  Northern  Italy,  Venturino  of  Bergamo^  a  the  whole  world  from  perishing.  At  the  end  the  "  Mas- 
Dominican,  afterwards  beatified,  attempted  to  revive  ter"  read  a  letter  which  was  supposed  to  have  been 
the  processions  of  flagellants  in  1334,  and  led  about  brou^t  by  an  angel  from  heaven  to  the  churoh  of  St. 
10,000  meuj  styled  the  **  Doves  ",  as  far  as  Rome.  But  Peter  in  Rome.  This  stated  that  Christ,  angry  at  the 
he  was  received  with  laughter  by  the  Romans,  and  his  grievous  sins  of  mankind,  had  threatened  to  destroy 
followers  deserted  him.  He  went  to  Avignon  to  see  theworld,  yet,  at  the  intercession  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
the  pope,  by  whom  he  was  promptly  relegated  to  his  had  ordained  that  all  who  should  join  the  brotherhood 
monastery,  and  the  movement  collapsed.  for  thirty-three  and  a  half  days  should  be  saved.  The 
In  1347  the  Black  Death  swept  across  Europe  and  reading  of  this  ''letter",  following  the  shock  to  the 
devastated  the  Continent  for  the  next  two  years.  In  emotions  caused  by  the  public  penance  of  the  Flagel- 
1348  terrible  earthquakes  occurred  in  Italy.  The  lants,  aroused  much  excitement  among  the  populace, 
scandals  prevalent  in  Chureh  and  State  intensified  in  In  spite  of  the  protests  and  criticism  of  the  educated, 
the  poputeu' mind  the  feeling  that  the  end  of  all  things  thousands  enrolled  themselves  in  the  brotherhood 
was  come.  With  extraordinary  suddenness  the  com-  Great  processions  marehed  from  town  to  town,  with 
panics  of  Flagellants  appeared  again,  and  rapidly  crosses,  lights,  and  banners  borne  before  them.  They 
spread  across  the  Alps,  through  Hungary  and  Switser-  walked  slowly,  three  or  four  abreast,  bearing  their 
land.  In  1349  they  had  reached  Flanders,  Holland,  knotted  scourges  and  chanting  their  melancholy 
Bohemia,  Poland,  and  Denmark.  By  September  of  hymns.  As  the  number  grew,  the  pretences  of  the 
that  year  they  had  arrived  in  England,  where,  how-  leaders  developed.  They  professed  a  ridiculous  horror 
ever,  they  met  with  but  little  success.  The  English  of  even  accidental  contact  with  women,  and  insisted 
people  watched  the  fanatics  with  quiet  interest,  even  that  it  was  of  obligation  to  fast  rigidly  on  Fridays, 
expressing  pity  and  sometimes  admiration  for  their  They  cast  doubts  on  the  necessity  or  even  desira- 
devotion;  but  no  one  could  be  induced  to  join  them,  bility  of  the    sacraments,  and  even  pretended  to 


ruaiLLAKTS' 


01 


FL&OCLLAHT8 


abedre  one  another,  to  cast  out  evil  apirite,  and  to 
work  miracles.  Thc^  asserted  that  the  ordinary  ec- 
clesiastical juiisdictioQ  was  suspended  and  that  their 
pilgrimages  would  be  contiaued  for  thirty-three  and  a 
nau  years.  Doubtless  not  a  fen  of  them  hoped  to 
establish  a  lastinK  rival  to  the  Catholic  Church,  but 
very  soon  the  authorities  tookaction  and  endeavoured 
to  suppress  the  whole  movement.  For,  while  it  was 
thus  growing  in  Gennaay  and  the  Netherlands,  it  had 
also  entered  France. 

At  first  this  fatwa  noma  ritus  was  well  received. 
As  early  as  1348,  Pope  Clement  VI  liad  permitted  a 
similar  procession  in  Avignon  in  entreaty  agsinat  the 
plagoe.  Soon,  however,  the  rapid  spread  and  heretical 
tendencies  of  the  Flagellants,  especially  among  the 
turbulent  peoples  of  Southern  France,  alanned  the 
authorities.     At  the  entreaty  of  the  UniTeisity  of 


fourteenth  century,  too,  the  great  Dominican,  St.  lu- 
cent Ferrer,  spread  this  penitential  devotion  Uirougb> 
out  the  north  of  Spain,  and  crowds  of  devotees  fol- 
lowed him  on  his  misaianaiy  nilgrimagea  throu^ 
France,  Spain,  and  Northern  Italy. 

In  fact,  the  great  outburst  of  1349.  while,  perhaps, 
more  widespread  and  more  formidaole  than  similar 
fanaticisms,  was  but  one  of  a  series  of  popular  up- 
heavals at  irregular  intervals  from  1260  until  the  end 
of  the  fifteoithoeatut;.  The  generating  cause  of  these 
movements  was  always  an  oitscure  amalgam  of  horror 
of  corruption,  of  desire  to  imitate  the  heroic  expiations 
of  the  great  penitents,  of  apocalyptic  vision,  of^despair 
at  the  prevailing  corruption  in  CSiurch  and  State,  All 
these  things  are  smouldering  in  the  minds  of  the 
much-tried  populace  of  Central  Europe.  It  needed 
but  a  sufficient  pccasion,  such  as  the  accumulated 


.  T  FudBLUNn  iT  TodbhjU,  1319 
UinUtunin  tbeChrnnioleofGilloa  li  Huiais  (1353).  Library  of  BnUMk 

Paris,  the  pope,  after  careful  inquiry,  condemned  the  tyranny  of  some  petty  ruler,  the  horror  of  a  great 
movement  and  prohibited  the  processions,  by  letters  plague,  orthe  ardent  preaching  of  some  saintly  asoietic, 
dated  20  Oct.,  1349,  which  were  sent  to  all  the  bishops  to  set  the  whole  of  Christendom  in  a  blaie.  Like  fira 
erf  France,  Germany,  Poland,  Sweden,  and  England,  the  impulse  ran  through  the  people,  and  like  fire  it 
This  condemnation  coincided  with  a  natural  reaction  died  down,  only  to  break  out  here  ana  there  anew.  At 
of  public  opinion,  and  the  Flagellants,  from  being  a  the  beginniM  of  each  outbreak,  the  effects  were  gener- 
powerful  menace  to  all  settled  public  order,  found  ally  good.  Enemies  were  reconciled,  debts  were  paid, 
themselves  a  hunted  and  rapidW  dwindling  sect  But,  pnsoneis  were  released,  ill-gotten  goods  were  restored. 
though  severely  stricken,  the  Flagellant  tendency  was  But  it  was  the  merest  revivalism,  and,  as  always, 
by  no  means  eradicated.  Throughout  the  fourteenth  the  reaction  was  worse  than  the  former  stagna- 
and  fifteenth  centuries  there  were  recrudescences  of  tion.  Sometimes  the  movement  was  more  than  sub- 
tbis  and  edniilar  heresies.  In  Germany,  about  1360,  pected  of  being  abused  for  political  ends,  more  often 
there  appeared  one  Konrad  Schmid,  who  called  him-  it  exemplified  the  fatal  tendency  of  emotional  pietism 
self  Enoch,  and  pretended  that  all  ecclesiastical  to  degenerate  into  heresy.  The  Flagellant  movement 
authority  was  abrogated,  or  rather,  transferred  to  was  but  one  of  the  manias  that  afflicted  the  end  of  the 
himself.  Thousands  of  young  men  jomed  him,  and  lie  Middle  Ages;  others  were  the  dancing-mania,  the  Jew- 
was  able  to  continue  his  propaganda  till  1369,  when  the  baiting  rages,  which  the  Flagellant  processions  encour- 
vigorous  measures  of  the  Inquisition  resulted  in  his  aged  in  1349,  the  child-cruaadea,  and  the  like.  And, 
suppression.  Yet  we  still  hear  of  trials  and  condemna-  according  to  the  temperament  of  the  peoples  among 
tions  of  Flagellants  in  1414at  Erfurt,  in  1446at  Nord-  whom  it  spread,  the  movement  became  a  revolt  and  a 
hausen.  in  1453  at  Sangerhaueen,  even  so  late  as  1481  fantastic  heresy,  a  rush  of  devotion  settling  soon  into 
at  HalDerstadt.  Again  the  "Albati"  or  "Bianchi"  pious  practices  and  good  works,  or  a  mere  spectacle 
are  beard  of  in  Provence  about  1399,  with  their  proce»-  that  aroused  the  curiosity  or  the  pity  of  the  onlookers, 
■ions  of  nine  days,  during  which  they  beat  themselves  Although  as  a  dangerous  here^  uie  Flagellants  are 
fendehantad  the  "Stabat  Uater".    At  the  end  of  the  not  heard  of  after  the  fifteenth  century,  their  practicea 


FLAGELLATION 


92 


FLAGELLATION 


were  revived  again  and  again  as  a  means  of  quite 
orthodox  public  penance.  In  France,  during  the  six- 
teenth century,  we  hear  of  White,  Black,  Grey,  and 
Blue  Brotherhoods.  At  Avignon,  in  1574,  Catherine 
de'  Medici  herself  led  a  procession  of  Black  Penitents. 
In  Paris,  in  1583,  King  Henry  III  became  patron  of 
the  "Blancs  Battus  de  TAnnonciation ".  On  Holy 
Thursday  of  that  year  he  organised  a  great  procession 
from  the  Augustinians  to  Notre-Dame,  in  which  all  the 
preat  dignitaries  of  the  realm  were  obliged  to  take  part 
m  company  with  himself.  The  laughter  of  the  Paris- 
ians, however,  who  treated  the  whole  tiling  as  a  jest, 
obliged  the  king  to  withdraw  his  patrona^.  Early  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  scandals  arising  among 
these  brotherhoods  caused  the  Parliament  of  Paris  to 
suppress  them,  and  under  the  combined  assaults  of  the 
law,  the  Galileans,  and  the  sceptics,  the  practice  soon 
died  out.  Throughout  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  Flagellant  processions  and  self-flagellation 
were  encouraged  by  the  Jesuits  in  Austria  and  the 
Netherlands,  as  well  as  in  the  far  coimtries  which  they 
evangelized.  India,  Persia,  Japan,  the  Philippines, 
Mexico,  and  the  States  of  South  America,  all  had  their 
Flagellant  processions;  in  Central  and  South  America 
they  continue  even  to  the  present  day,  and  were  regu- 
lated and  restrained  by  Pope  Leo  XIII.  In  Italy  ^n- 
erally  and  in  the  Tyrol  similar  processions  survived 
until  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century;  in 
Rome  itself  they  took  place  in  the  Jesuit  churcnes  as 
late  as  1870,  while  even  later  they  occurred  in  parts  of 
Tuscany  and  Sicily.  Always,  however,  these  later 
Fk^llant  processions  have  taken  place  under  the  con- 
trol kA  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  must  by  no  means 
be  connected  with  the  heretical  epidemic  of  the  later 
Middle  Ages. 

One  of  the  best  modern  acoounto  of  flagellAtion  and  the  Fla- 
fi^ellants  ia  an  article  by  Haupt,  Geiaadung,  kirchliche^  und 
Oeiaalerbrudenehafterit  in  Realencykl.  fUr  prot.  Theol.  It  contains 
full  and  excellent  bibliographies.  Some  of  the  original  authori- 
ties for  the  outbreak  in  1260  will  be  found  in  PEBtz,  Man.  Germ. 
Hiat.,  XVII,  102-3. 105, 191, 402.  631.  714;  XIX.  179.  For  the 
heresy  of  1348  may  be  consulted:  Chroniken  der  detUachen 
Stadie,  VII.  204  sqq.;  IX,  105  sqq.;  Forachungm  tur  deutachen 
GeadiidUe,  XXI  (1881),  21  sqq.;  Recuea  dea  chroniquea  de  Flan- 
dre,  II  |[Brugee,  1841).  Ill  sqq.;  Frbdbbxcq,  Corpua  document 
torum  inquiaitionia  hardica  praviUUia  neerlaruliaB,  I  (Ghent, 
1889).  190  sqq.;  BBRUfcRB,  Troia  traiUa  inidUa  aur  lea  FlageU 
tanta  de  tS49,  m  Revue  BhUdictine^  July,  1908.  Good  accounts 
are  to  be  found  in  Muratori,  AnHquiU.  Ital,  med.  avi.  VI 
(Milan,  1738-42),  diss.  Ixxv;  Gretsbr,  Opera,  IV  (Ratisbon, 
1734),  43-5;  Z5cklbr,  Aakeae  und  M&nchium,  II  (Frankfort. 
1897).  518.  530-7. 

Leslie  A.  St.  L.  Tokb. 

Flagellation. — ^The  history  of  the  whip,  rod,  and 
stick,  as  instruments  of  punishment  and  of  voluntary 
penance,  is  a  long  and  interesting  one.  The  Heb.  t31fi^, 
"whip",  and  038^,  "rod",  are  in  et^finology  closely 
related  (Gesenius).  Horace  (Sat.,  I,  lii)  tells  us  not  to 
use  the  horrMe  flaaeUum,  made  of  thonp  of  ox-hide, 
when  the  offender  deserves  only  the  scutica  of  twisted 
parchment;  t^e  schoolmaster's  ferula — ^Eng.  ferule 
(Juvenal,  Sat.,  I,  i,  16) — was  a  strap  or  rod  for  the 
hand  (see  ferule  in  Skeat).  The  earliest  Scriptural 
mention  of  the  whip  is  in  'Ex.,  v,  14, 16  (Jlagellatt  sunt; 
flageJUs  ccedimur),  where  the  Heb.  word  meaning  "to 
strike"  is  interpreted  in  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  texts, 
"were  scourged" — "beaten  with  whips".  Roboam 
said  ail  Kings,  xii,  11,  14;  II  Par.,  x,  11,  14):  "My 
father  beat  3rou  with  whips,  but  I  will  beat  you  with 
scorpions",  i.  e.  with  scourges  armed  with  knots, 

Soints,  ete.  Even  in  Latin  scorpio  is  so  interpreted  by 
t.  Isidore  (Etym.,  v,  27),  "virga  nodosa  vel  acu- 
leata ".  Old-Testament  references  to  the  rod  might  be 
multiplied  indefinitely  (Deut.,  xxv,  2,  3;  II  Kin^i  vii, 
14 ;  Job,  ix,  34 ;  Prov.,  xxvi,  3,  ete.).  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment we  are  told  that  Christ  used  the  scouree  on 
the  money-changers  (John,  ii,  15);  He  predicted  that 
He  and  nia  disciples  would  be  scourged  (Mat.,  x,  17; 
TX,  19);  and  St.  Paul  says:  "Five  times  did  I  receive 
forty  iiripea,  save  one.    Thrice  was  I  beaten  with 


rods"  (II  Cor.,  xi,  24, 25;  Deut.,  xxv,  3;  Acts,  xvi,  22). 
The  offender  was  to  be  beaten  in  the  presence  of  the 
judges  (Deut.,  xxv,  2,  3),  but  was  never  to  receive 
more  than  forty  stripes.  To  keep  within  the  law,  it 
was  the  practice  to  give  only  thirty-nine.  The  culprit 
was  so  attached  to  a  low  pillar  that  he  had  to  lean  for- 
ward— "they  shall  lay  him  down",  says  tiie  law,  to 
receive  the  strokes.  Verses  of  thirteen  woixls  in 
Hebrew  were  recited,  the  last  alwa3rs  being:  "But  he 
is  merciful,  and  will  forgive  their  sins:  and  will  not 
destroy  them"  [Ps.  bcxvii  (Heb.  bcxviii)  381;  but  the 
words  served  merely  to  count  the  blows.  Moses  al- 
lowed masters  to  use  the  rod  on  slaves;  not,  however, 
so  as  to  cause  death  (Ex.,  xxi,  20).  The  flagellation  of 
Christ  was  not  a  Jewish,  but  a  Roman  punishment, 
and  was  therefore  administered  all  the  more  cruelly. 
It  was  suggested  by  Pilate's  desire  to  save  Him  from 
crucifixion,  and  tnis  was  inflicted  only  when  the 
scourging  had  failed  to  satisfy  the  Jews.  In  Pilate's 
plan  flagellation  was  not  a  preparation,  but  rather  a 
substitute,  for  crucifixion. 

As. the  earliest  monuments  of  Egypt  make  the 
scourge  or  whip  very  conspicuous,  the  children  of 
Israel  cannot  have  been  the  first  on  whom  the  Egjrp- 
tians  used  it.  In  Ass3rria  the  slaves  dragged  their  bur- 
dens under  the  taskmaster's  lash.  In  Sparta  even 
youths  of  high  social  standing  were  proud  of  their  stoical 
mdifference  to  the  scourge;  while  at  Rome  the  various 
names  for  slaves  (flagrioneSf  verheronee,  ete.)  and  the 
significant  term  lorariif  used  by  Plautus,  give  us  ample 
assurance  that  the  scourge  was  not  spared.  However, 
from  passages  in  Cicero  and  texts  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, we  gather  that  Roman  citizens  were  exempt 
from  this  ounishment.  The  bamboo  is  used  on  all 
classes  in  China,  but  in  Japan  heavier  penalties,  and 
frequently  death  itself,  are  imposed  upon  offenders. 
The  European  country  most  conspicuous  at  the  pres- 
ent day  for  the  whipping  of  culprits  is  Russia,  where 
the  knout  is  more  than  a  mateh  for  the  worst  scourge 
of  the  Romans.  Even  in  what  may  be  called  our  own 
times,  the  use  of  the  whip  on  soldiers  under  the  English 
flag  was  not  unknown;  and  the  State  of  Delaware  yet 
believes  in  it  as  a  corrective  and  deterrent  for  the 
criminal  class.  If  we  refer  to  the  past,  by  Statute  39 
Eliz.,  ch.  iv,  evil-doers  were  whipped  and  sent  back  to 
the  place  of  their  nativity;  moreover.  Star-chamber 
whippings  were  frequent.  "In  Partriage's  Almanack 
for  1692,  it  is  stated  that  Oates  was  whipt  with  a  whip 
of  six  thongs,  and  received  2256  lashes,  amounting  to 
13536  stripes"  (A  Hist,  of  the  Rod,  p.  158).  He  sur- 
vived, however,  and  lived  for  years.  The  pedagogue 
made  free  use  of  the  birch.  Orbilius,  who  flogged 
Horace,  was  only  one  of  the  learned  line  who  did  not 
believe  in  moral  suasion,  while  Juvenal's  words:  "Et 
nos  ergo  manum  ferulse  subduximus"  (Sat.,  I,  i,  15) 
show  clearly  the  system  of  school  discipline  existing  in 
his  day.  The  pnests  of  Cybele  scourged  themselves 
and  others,  and  such  stripes  were  considered  sacred. 
Although  tiiese  and  similar  acts  of  penance,  to  propi- 
tiate heaven,  were  practised  even  before  the  commg  of 
Christ,  it  was  only  in  the  religion  established  by  Him 
that  they  found  wise  direction  and  real  merit.  It  is 
held  by  some  interpreters  that  St.  Paul  in  the  words: 
"I  chastise  my  body"  refers  to  self-inflicted  bodily 
scourging  (I  Cor.,  ix,  27).  The  Greek  word  ^tartd^ 
(see  Liddell  and  Scott)  means  "to  strike  imder 
the  eye"i  and  metaphorically  "to  mortify";  conse- 
quently, it  can  scarcely  mean  "to  scourge",  and 
indeed  in  Luke,  xviii,  5,  such  an  interpretation  is  quite 
inadmissible.  Furthermore,  where  St.  Paul  certainly 
refers  to  scoursing,  he  uses  a  different  word.  We  may 
therefore  safely  conclude  that  he  speaks  here  of 
mortification  in  general,  as  Pioonio  holds  (Ttiplex 
E3mositio). 

Scourging  was  soon  adopted  as  a  sanction  in  the 
monastic  discipline  of  the  fifth  and  following  centuries. 
Early  in  the  fifth  century  it  is  mentioned  by  Palladiua 


FLAGET 


93 


FLAGET 


in  the  "  Historia  Lausiaca"  (c.  vi),  and  Socrates  (Hist. 
Eccl.|  IV,  xxiij)  tells  us  that,  instead  of  being  excom- 
municated, offending  youns  monks  were  scourged. 
See  the  sixth-century  rules  of  St.  Cassarius  of  Aries  for 
nuns  (P.  L.,  LXVII,  1111),  and  of  St.  Aurelian  of 
Aries  (ibid.,  LXVIII,  392,  401-02).  Thenceforth 
scourging  is  frequently  mentioned  in  monastic  rules 
and  councils  as  a  preservative  of  discipline  (Hefele, 
'^Concilieng. ',  II,  594,  656).  Its  use  as  a  punishment 
was  genem  in  the  seventh  centurv  in  all  monasteries 
of  the  severe  Columban  rule  (St.  Columbanus,  in 
"RegulaCoenobialis",  c.  x,  in  P.  L.,  LXXX,  215  sqq.); 
for  later  centuries  of  the  early  Middle  Ages  see  Tno- 
massin,  "Vet.  ac  <nova  ecc.  disciplina,  II  (3),  107; 
Du  Cange,  **  Glossar.  med.  et  infim.  latinit.",  s.  v. ''  Dis- 
ciplina  ,  Gretser,  "De  spontanea  disciplinarum  seu 
fl^eUorum  cruce  libri  tres  '  (Ingolstadt,  1603) ;  Kober, 
^iJie  kdrperliche  Zuchtigung  als  kirchliches  Straf- 
mittel  gegen  Cleriker  und  Mdnche''  in  Tub.  ''Quartal- 
schrtft"'  (1875).  The  canon  law  (Decree  of  Gratian, 
Decretab  of  Gregory  IX)  recognized  it  as  a  punish- 
ment for  ecclesiastics;  even  as  late  as  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  it  appears  in  ecclesiastical 
l^^lation  as  a  punishment  for  blasphemy,  concu-. 
binage,  and  simony.  Though  doubtless  at  an  early 
date  a  private  means  of  penance  and  mortification, 
such  use  is  publicly  exemplified  in  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  centuries  by  the  hves  of  St.  Dominic  Lori- 
catus  (P.  L.,  CXLIV,  1017)  and  St.  Peter  Damian  (d. 
1072).  The  latter  wrote  a  special  treatise  in  praise  of 
BcJf-nagellation;  though  blamed  by  some  contempora- 
ries for  excess  of  zeal,  his  example  and  the  high  esteem 
in  which  he  was  held  did  mucn  to  popularize  the  vol- 
untary use  of  the  scourge  or  "  discipline"  as  a  means  of 
mortification  and  pnance.  Thenceforth  it  is  met  with 
in  most  medieval  religious  orders  and  associations. 
•The  practice  was,  of  course,  capable  of  abuse,  and  so 
arose  in  the  thirteenth  century  tne  fanatical  sect  of  the 
Flagellants  ((}.  v.),  though  in  the  same  period  we  meet 
with  the  private  use  of  the  "discipline"  by  such 
saintly  persons  as  King  Louis  IX  and  Elizabeth  of 
Thuringia. 

Unobb,  Die  FlaqeUantm  .(1902);  Cooper  (Dseudonsnn), 
FlageUation  and  tKe  FlaoeUanta,  A  History  cf  the  Kod^  etc.  (new 
ed.,  London,  1896),  an  anti-CathoIio  and  Siased  work;  Barney, 
Circumciaion  and  FtaoeUation  among  the  Filipinos  (Carlisle,  Pa., 
1903);  Calmvt'b  Diet,  cf  the  Bible,  s.  v.  Scourging;  Kitto,  Cy- 
clop, cf  B^ieal  Lit.,  8.  v.  Puniehment. 

John  J.  Tiernet. 

Flaffetf  Benedict  Joseph,  first  Bishop  of  Banb- 
town  Subsequently  of  Louisville),  Kentucky,  U.  S.  A., 
b.  at  Gontoumat,  near  Billom,  Auvergne,  France,  7 
November,  1763;  d.  11  February,  1850,  at  Louisville, 
Kentucky.  He  was  a  posthumous  child  and  was  only 
two  vears  old  when  his  mother  died,  leaving  him  and 
two  brothers  to  the  care  of  an  aunt;  they  were  wel- 
comed at  the  home  of  Canon  Benoit  Flaget,  their  uncle, 
at  Billom.  In  his  seventeenth  year,  he  went  to  the 
Sulpician  seminary  of  Clermont  to  study  philosophy 
ana  theology,  and  joining  the  Society  of  St.  Sulpioe, 
1  November,  1783,  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1787, 
silasv,  where  Father  Gabriel  Richard,  the  future  apos- 
tle of  Michigan,  was  then  superior.  Flaget  taught 
dogmatic  theology  at  Nantc»  for  two  years,  and 
filled  the  same  chair  at  the  seminary  of  Angers  when 
that  house  was  closed  by  the  Revolution.  He  re- 
turned to  Billom  in  1791  and  on  the  advice  of  the  Sul- 
pician superior.  Father  Emer^,  determined  to  devote 
nimself  to  the  American  mission.  He  sailed  in  Janu- 
ary, 1792,  with  Father  J.  B.  M.  David,  his  future  coad- 
jutor, and  the  subdeacon  Stephen  Badin  (q.  v.),  land- 
mg  in  Baltimore,  29  March,  1792.  He  was  studying 
En^ish  with  his  Sulpician  brethren,  .when  Bishop 
Carroll  tested  his  self-sacrifice  by  sending  him  to  Fort 
Vinoennes,  as  missionary  to  the  Indians  and  pastor  of 
the  Fort.  Crossing  the  mountains  he  reached  Pitts- 
burg, where  be  had  to  tarry  for  six  months  owing  to 


low  water  in  the  Ohio,  doing  such  good  work  that  he 
gained  the  lasting  esteem  of  General  Anthony  Wayne. 
The  latter  recommended  him  to  the  military  com- 
mander Colonel  Clark  at  the  Falls  of  the  Ohio,  who 
deemed  it  an  honour  to  escort  him  to  Fort  Vincennes, 
where  he  arrived  21  December,  1792.  Father  Fl^et 
stayed  here  two  years  and  then,  recalled  by  his  supe- 
riors, he  became  professor  at  the  Georgetown  College 
under  the  presidency  of  Father  Dubourg.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1798,  he  was  sent  to  Havana,  whence  he  returned 
in  1801  with  twenty-three  students  to  Baltimore. 

On  8  April,  1808,  Bardstown,  Kentucky,  was  cre- 
ated a  see  and  Flaget  was  named  its  first  bishop.  He 
refused  the  honour  and  his  colleagues  of  St.  Sulpice 
approved  his  action,  but  when  in  1809  he  went  to 
Paris,  his  superior,  Father  Emery,  received  him  with 
the  greeting:  "My  Lord,  you  should  be  in  your  dio- 
cese! The  pope  commands  you  to  accept."  Leaving 
France  with  Father  Simon  William  Brut^,  the  future 
Bishop  of  Vincennes,  and  the  subdeacon,  Guy  Igna- 
tius Chabrat,  his  future  coadjutor  in  Kentucky. 
Flaget  landed  in  Baltimore  and  was  consecrated 
4  November,  1810,  by  Archbishop  Carroll.  The  Dio- 
cese of  Bardstown  comprised  the  whole  North- West, 
boimded  East  and  West  by  Louisiana  and  the  Missis- 
sippi. Bishop  Flaget,  handicapped  by  poverty,  did  not 
leave  Baltimore  until  11  May,  1811,  and  reached 
Louisville,  4  June,  whence  the  Rev.  C.  Nerinckx  es- 
corted him  to  Bardstown.  He  arrived  there  9  June. 
On  Christmas  of  that  year  he  ordained  priest  the  Rev. 
Guy  Ignatius  Chabrat,  the  first  priest  ordained  in 
the  West.  Before  Easter,  1813,  he  had  established 
priestly  conferences,  a  seminary  at  St.  Stephen's  (re- 
moved to  St.  Thomas',  November,  1811),  and  made 
two  pastoral  visits  in  Kentucky.  That  summer  he 
vbited  the  outlying  districts  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  and 
Eastern  Missouri,  confirming  1275  people  during  the 
trip. 

^  Bishop  Flaget's  great  experience,  absolute  self-de- 
nial, and  holy  life  gave  him  great  influence  in  the  coun- 
cils of  the  Church  and  at  Rome.  Most  of  the  bishops 
appointed  within  the  next  twenty  years  were  selected 
with  his  advice.  In  October,  1817,  he  went  to  St. 
Louis  to  prepare  the  way  for  Bishop  Dubourg.  He 
recommended  Bishop  Fen  wick  for  Ohio,  then  left  on  a 
trip  through  that  State,  Indiana,  and  Michigan  in  1818. 
In  the  latter  State  he  did  ^eat  missionary  work  at 
Detroit  and  Monroe,  attendmg  also  a  rally  of  10,000 
Indians  at  St.  Mary's.  Upon  his  return  to  Kentucky 
in  1819  he  consecrated  his  new  cathedral  in  Bardstown, 
8  August,  and  consecrated  therein  his  first  coadjutor 
bishop.  Rev.  J. B. M.David,  on  the  15th.  In  1821  he 
started  on  a  visitation  of  Tennessee,  and  bought  prop- 
erty in  Nashville  for  the  first  Catholic  church.  The 
years  1819  to  1821  were  devoted  to  missionary  work 
among  the  Indians.  He  celebrated  the  first  Synod  of 
Bardstown,  8  August,  1823,  and  continued  his  labours 
until  1828,  luhen  he  was  called  to  Baltimore  to  conse- 
crate Archbishop  Whitfield;  there  he  attended  the 
first  Council  of  Baltimore  in  1829.  In  1830  he  conse- 
crated one  of  his  own  priests.  Rev.  Richard  Kenrick, 
afi  Bishop  of  Philadelphia.  A  great  friend  of  educa-. 
tion,  he  invited  the  Jesuits  to  take  charge  of  St.  Maiy's 
College,  Bardstown,  in  1832.  In  the  meantime  he  had 
resimed  his  see  in  favour  of  Bishop  David  with  Bishop 
Chabrat  as  coadjutor.  Both  pnests  and  people  re- 
belled, and  their  representations  were  so  instant  and 
continued  that  Rome  recalled  its  appointment  and 
reinstated  Bishop  Flaget,  who  during  afi  this  time  was, 
regardless  of  age  and  infirmities,  attending  the  cholera- 
stricken  in  Louisville,  Bardstown,  and  surrounding 
country  during  1832  and  1833.  Bishop  Chabrat  be- 
came his  second  coadjutor  and  was  consecrated  20 
July,  1834.  Only  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  were  now 
left  under  Flaget 's  jurisdiction,  and  in  the  former  he 
founded  various  religious  institutions,  including  four 
colleges,  two  convents,  one  foundation  of  brothers,  and 


nANAGAN  94  TLANDEBS 

two  religious  institutions  of  priests.    Tennessee  be-  Cathedral,  Birmingham.    He  died  at  Kidderminster, 

came  a  diocese  with  see  at  Nashville  in  1838.  whither  he  had  gone  for  his  health. 

His  only  visit  to  Europe  and  Rome  was  not  under-  ^  ^^^^^J!*J^^^jf,?Ji{^r°^  ^'IS^.^^v.J^^?^?  ^^■''« 

taken.un^  1835.    He  spent  four  years  in  France  and  ^^rS^,^]^l^i^'^^':iS^i.%folfj!^ 

Italy  m  the  mterests  of  his  diocese  and  of  the  propa-  Eng.  Cath.,  b.  v.;  Hubbnbbth,  Hist,  of  Sedgleu  Park;  Oaoolian, 

gation  of  the  Faith,  visiting  forty-six  dioceses.  Every-  Jj^Uj*  N°*  (1888);  Obituaiy  notioes  in  The  TiMet  and  Weekly 

where  he  edified  the  people  by  the  sanctity  of  his  me,  *«^«'*  Behnahd  Ward 

and  well  authenticated  miracles  are  ascribed  to  his  ' 

intercession.    He  returned  to  America  in  1839,  txuns-        FUndeni  (Flem.  Vlaenderen;  Ger.  Flanderen: 

ferred  his  see  to  Louisville,  and  crowned  his  fruitful  Fr.  Flandre)  designated  in  the  eighth  century  a  small 

life  by  consecrating,  10  September,  1848,  a  youne  Ken-  territory  around  Bruges;  it  became  later  the  name  of 

tucky  priest,  Martin  John  Spalding,  as  his  thiracoad-  the  country  bounded  by  the  North  Sea,  the  Scheldt, 

jutor  and  successor  in  the  See  of  Louisville.   The  cor-  and  the  Canche;  in  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  even 

ner-stone  of  the  cathedral  of  Louisville  was  laid  15  used  by  the  Italians  and  the  Spaniards  as  the  synonym 

August,  1849.    He  died  peacefully  at  Louisville,  sin-  for  the  Low  Countries;  to-day  Flanders  belongs  for  the 

cerely  mourned  and  rememberea  to  this  day.    His  most  part  to  Belgium,  comprising  the  provinces  of 

only  writings  are  his  journal  and  a  report  of  his  diocese  East  Flanders  and  West   Flanders.  A  part  of  it. 

to  the  Holy  See.  known  as  French  Flanders,  has  gone  to  France,  ana 

Spalding.  Lt/e.  Time*  and  ChmnOercf  Bau^tct  Joseph  Flaget  another  small  portion  to  Holland.    Flanders  is  an  im- 

ville,  1884).  that  of  the  sea,  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  a 

CAMiLLns  p.  Maes.  great  p&rt  of  it  was  for  a  long  time  flooded  at  high 

water.    The  coimtry  took  its  present  aspect  only  after 

Flanagan,  Thomas  Canon,  b.  in  England  in  1814,  a  line  of  downs  had  been  raised  by  the  sea  along  its 

though  Irish  by  descent ;  d .  at  Kidderminster,  21  July,  shore.  The  soil  of  Flanders,  which  for  the  most  part  was 

1865.    He  was  educated  at  Sedg^ey  Park  School.    At  unproductive,  owes  its  present  fertility  to  intelligent 

the  age  of  eighteen  he  proceeded  to  Oscott — that  is  cultivation;  its  products  are  various,  but  the  most  im- 

"Old  Oscott  ,  now  known  as  Maryvale— »to  study  for  portant  are  flax  and  hemp;  dairying,  market-garden- 

the  priesthood.    The  president  at  that  time  was  Dr.  mg,  and  the  manufacture  of  linens  are  the  main  Flem- 

Weedall,  imder  whose  supervision  the  present  i^pos-  ish  industries.    At  the  time  of  its  conquest  by  the 

ing  college  buildings  were  about  to  be  erected.    The  Romans,  Flanders  was  inhabited  by  the  Morim,  the 

students  and  professors  migrated  there  in  1838,  after  Menapii,  and  the  Nervii.    Most  probably  these  tribes 

the  summer  vacation,  Flanagan  being  thus  one  of  the  were  of  partly  Teutonic  and  partly  Celtic  descent,  but, 

original  students  at  the  new  college.    There  he  was  owing  to  the  almost  total  absence  of  Roman  colonies 

ordained  in  1842,  Bishop  (afterwams  Cardinal)  Wise-  and  the  constant  influx  of  barbarians,  the  Germanic 

man  being  then  president.    At  this  time  Oscott  was  element  soon  became  predominant.    The  Flemings  of 

the  centre  of  much  intellectual  activity,  many  of  the  to-day  may  be  considered  as  a  German  people  whose 

Oxford  converts  during  the  following  years  visiting  language^   a   Low-German  dialect,   has  b^en  very 

the  college,  where  some  made  their  first  acquaintance  di^tly,  if  at  all,  influenced  by  Latin, 
with  Catholic  life.    Flanagan,  who  throughout  his        It  is  likely  that  Christianity  was  first  introduced 

course  had  been  an  industrious  and  persevering  stu-  into  Flanders  by  Roman  soldiers  and  merchants,  but 

dent,  was  asked  by  Wiseman  to  remain  as  a  pro&»or,  its  progress  must  have  been  ver}r  slow,  for  Saint  Eloi 

and  as  such  he  came  into  contact  with  the  new  con-  (Ehgius,  c.  590^660)  tells  us  that  in  his  days  almost  the 

verts,  his  own  bent  towards  historical  studies  creating  whole  population  was  still  heathen,  and  the  conver- 

a  strong  bond  of  sympathy  between  him  and  those  sion  of  the  Flemings  was  not  completed  until  the  be- 

who  had  become  convinced  of  the  truth  of  Catholicism  ginning  of  the  eighth  century.    Towards  the  middle 

on  historical  grounds.  of  the  ninth  century,  the  country  around  Bruges  was 

In  1847  Flanagan  brought  out  his  first  book,  a  small  governed  by  a  inarqueas  or  "  forester  "  named  Baldwin, 
manual  of  British  and  Irish  history,  containing  nu-  whose  bravery  in  fighting  the  Northmen  had  won  him 
merous  statistical  tables  the  preparation  of  which  was  the  surname  of  Iron  Arm.  Baldwin  married  Judith, 
congenial  to  his  methodical  mind.  The  same  year  he  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Charles  the  Bald,  and  re- 
became  prefect  of  studies  and  acted  successfully  in  ceived  from  his  father-in-law,  with  the  title  of  count, 
that  capacity  until  1850,  when  he  was  appointed  vice-  the  country  bounded  by  the  North  Sea,  the  Scheldt, 
president  and  then  president  of  Sedgley  Park  School,  and  the  Canche.  Thus  was  founded,  in  864,  the 
and  he  became  one  of  the  first  canons  of  the  newly  County  of  Flanders.  Baldwin  I  was  a  warm  protector 
formed  Birmingham  Diocese  in  1851 .  The  active  li^  of  the  clergy,  and  made  large  grants  of  land  to  chuithes 
of  achninistration  was,  however,  not  congenial  to  his  and  abbeys.  He  died  in  878.  His  successors  were 
tastes,  and  he  was  ^ad  to  resume  his  former  position  Baldwin  II,  the  Bald  (878-919),  Arnold  I  (919-964), 


this,  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  Homyold  fam-  The  son  of  Arnold  II,  Baldwin  IV,  the  Bearded  (989- 

fly  at  Blackmore  Park,  and  his  history  appeared  in  two  1036),  was  a  brave  and  pious  prince.    He  received 

volumes,  during  his  residence  there,  in  1857.    It  was  from  the  Emperor  Henry  II  the  im|)erial  castle  of 

at  that  time  the  only  complete  work  on  the  Church  in  Ghent  and  its  territory.    From  that  time  there  were 

England  continueddown  to  present  times,  and,  thou^  two  Flanders:  Flanders  under  the  Crown,  a  French 

marred  by  some  inaccuracies,  on  the  whole  it  bore  wit-  fief;  and  imperial  Flanders,  under  the  suzerainty  of 

ness  to  much  patient  work  and  research  on  the  part  of  Germany.   Baldwin  V,  of  Lille  (1036-67),  added  to  his 

the  author.    His  style,  however,  was  somewhat  con-  domains  the  County  of  Eenhan  or  Alost.    He  was  re- 

cise,  and  Bishop  Ullathome's  remark,  that  Canon  gent  of  France  dunng  the  minority  of  Philip  I.    Bald- 

Flabagan  was  a  compiler  of  history  rather  than  a  vivid  win  VI,  of  Mons  (1067-70),  was  also  Count  of  Hainault 

historian,  has  often  been  quoted.    The  year  after  the  in  consequence  of  his  marriage  to  Richilde,  heiress  of 

appearance  of  his  CJhurch  history,  we  find  Flanagan  that  county.    He  reigned  only  three  years,  and  was 

once  more  installed  in  his  old  position  as  prefect  of  succeeded  in  Flanders  by  his  brother  Robert  the 

studies  at  Oscott,  where  he  remained  for  eighteen  Friesman    (1070-1093).    Robert    II,  of    Jerusalem 

months,  when  his  health  gave  way.    The  last  years  of  (1093-1111),  took  a  leading  part  in  the  First  Crusade, 

his  life  were  spent  as  assistant  priest  at  St.  Chad's  He  annexed  Toumai  to  Flanders  and  died  fighting  for 


7LANDEB8                              95  rULNDEBS 

his  Biuerain.  His  son  Baldwin  VII.  Hapkin  (1111-  of  the  masses.  Guy  of  Dampierre  (1279-1305)  suo- 
1119),  enfonsed  strict  lustice  among  the  noDility.  Like  ceeded  his  mother  Margaret,  and  inaugurated  a  new 
his  father,  he  died  while  supporting  the  cause  of  his  policy  in  the  administration  of  the  county.  His  pre- 
suserain.  His  successor  was  Charles,  son  of  Saint  decessors  had  on  the  whole  been  friendly  to  the 
Canute  of  Denmark  (1119-27).  The  new  count  was  a  wealthy  classes  in  the  Flemish  cities,  in  whose  hands 
saintly  prince  and  a  great  lover  of  peace.  His  stem  were  tne  most  important  offices  of  the  communes, 
justice,  nowever,  angered  a  few  greedy  nobles,  who  Guy,  who  aimed  at  absolute  rule,  sought  the  support 
murdered  him  while  ne  was  praying  in  the  church  of  of  the  guilds  in  his  conflict  with  the  nch.  The  tatter 
Saint-Donat  in  Bruges.  Louis  VI,  Kine  of  France,  appealed  from  his  decisions  to  the  King  of  France,  the 
then  gave  the  County  of  Flanders  to  Wiluam  of  Nor-  wily  Philip  the  Fair,  who  readily  seized  upon  this  op- 
mandy,  a  grandson  of  the  Conqueror,  but  William's  portunity  of  weakening  the  power  of  his  most  import- 
high-handed  way  of  goveminjg  the  country  soon  made  ant  vassal.  Philip  constantly  ruled  against  the  count, 
him  unpopular  and  the  Fleminas  turned  to  Thierry  of  who  finally  appealed  to  arms,  but  was  defeated. 
Alsace,  a  descendant  of  Robert!.  William  died  in  the  Fhmders  tnen  received  a  French  governor,  but  the 
war  wtiich  ensued,  and  Thierry's  candidacy  received  tyranny  of  the  French  soon  brought  about  an  insur- 
the  royal  sanction.  Thierry  (1128^-68)  granted  privi-  rection,  in  the  course  of  which  some  3000  French  were 
leges  to  the  Flemish  communes,  whose  origin  dates  slaughtered  in  Bruges,  and  at  the  call  of  the  two  pa- 
from  this  period,  and  took  part  in  the  Second  Crusade,  triots^  de  Coninck  and  Breydel,  the  whole  country 
His  son  Pnilip  (1168-91)  granted  new  privileges  to  the  rose  m  arms.  Philip  sent  into  Flanders  a  powerful 
communes,  aid  much  to  foster  commerce  and  indus-  army,  which  met  with  a  crushing  defeat  at  Courtrai 
try,  and  was  a  generous  protector  of  poets.  He  made  (13Cf2);  after  another  battle,  which  remained  unde- 
a  political  blunder  when  he  gave  up  Artois  to  France  cided,the  King  of  France  resorted  to  diplomacy,  but  in 
as  the  dowry  of  his  niece,  as  this  dismemberment  of  vain,  and  peace  was  restored  o^  in  1320,  after  Pope 
the  county  led  to  many  wars  with  the  latter  country.  John  XXlI  had  induced  the  Flemings  to  accept  it. 
Philip  died  in  the  Holy  Land  during  the  Third  Cm-  Guy  6f  Dampierre^hodied  in  prison  in  1305,  was  suo- 
sade.  His  successor  was  his  brother-in-law,  Baldwin  ceeded  by  his  son  Robert  of  B^thune,  who  had  an  un- 
VIII,  the  Bold,  of  Hainault  (1191-95).  Baldwin  IX  eventful  reign  of  seventeen  years.  The  successor  of 
(1195-1205)  is  famous  in  history  as  the  first  Latin  the  latter  was  his  grandson,  Louis  of  Nevers  (1322- 
Eknperor  of  Constantinople.  He  died  in  1205  in  a  war  1346),  who  was  unfit  for  the  government  of  Flanders 
against  the  Bulgarians,  and  the  Counties  of  Flanders  on  account  of  the  French  education  he  had  received, 
and  Hainault  passed  to  his  daughter  Jeanne,  who  had  Shortly  after  his  accession,  the  whole  country  was  in- 
married  Ferdinand  of  Portugal.  This  prince  was  in-  volved  in  a  civil  war,  which  ended  only  after  the  Mem- 
vol ved  in  the  war  of  King  John  of  Eng^nd  against  ings  had  been  defeated  at  Cassel  by  the  King  of  France 
Philip  II  of  France,  and  was  made  a  prisoner  at  the  (1328). 

battle  of  Bouvines  (1214).    He  was  released  in  1228,  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Hundred  Years  War.  the 

only  to  die  shortly  afterwards.    Jeanne  (1205-1244)  Flemish  communes,  whose  prosperity  depended  on 

administered  the  counties  wisely  during  her  husband's  English  wool,  followed  the  advice  of  Ghent's  great  citi- 

captivity,  and  after  his  death  she  increased  the  liber-  sen,  Jacques  van  Artevelde,  and  remained  neutral;  the 

ties  of  the  communes  to  coimteract  the  influence  of  the  count  and  nobility  took  the  part  of  the  French  kine. 

nobility — a  policy  which  was  followed  by  her  sister  When  the  policy  of  neutrality  could  no  longer  be  aa- 

Margaret,  who  succeeded  her  in  1244.     Upon  Mai^  hered  to,  the  Flemings  sided  with  the  English  and 

Sret's  death,  in  1279,  her  children  by  her  first  hus-  helped  them  to  win  the  battle  of  Sluis  (1340).  By 
nd  (Bouchard  d'Avesnes)  inherited  Hiunault.  while  that  time  Van  Artevelde  had  become  practically  mas- 
Flanders  went  to  the  Dampierres,  her  children  by  her  ter  of  the  country,  which  was  werv  prosperous  under 
second  husband.  ^  ^  his  rule.  He  was  murdered  in  1345.  and  Louis  of 
The  battle  of  Bouvines  was  the  b^pboning  of  a  new  era  Nevers  was  killed  the  next  year  at  the  battle  of  Cr^c^. 
in  the  history  of  Flanders.  Up  to  that  time  the  counts  His  son  Louis  of  Male  (1346-1384)  was  a  spendthrift, 
had  occupied  the  foregroimd;  their  place  was  hence-  The  communes  paid  his  debts  several  times,  but  they 
forth  taken  by  the  communes,  whose  power  reaches  its  finally  refused  to  give  him  any  more  money.  lie 
acme  in  th^  course  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Bruges,  manl^ged,  however,  to  get  some  from  Bruges  bv  mint- 
the  Venice  t^  the  North,  had  then  a  population  of  ing  to  that  city  a  licence  to  build  a  canal,  whicn  Ghent 
more  than  200,000  inhabitants;  its  fairs  were  the  meet-  considered  a  menace  to  her  commerce.  A  new  civil 
ing  place  of  the  merchants  of  all  Europe;  Ghent  and  war  broke  out  between  the  two  cities,  and  peace  was 
Ypres  had  each  more  than  50,000  men  engaged  in  the  not  restored  until  Charles  VI  of  France  haa  defeated 
cloth  industry.  This  commercial  and  industrial  activ-  the  insurgents  at  Roosebeke  fl382).  Louis  of  Male's 
ityMn  which  the  rural  classes  had  their  share,  brought  successor  was  his  son-in-law,  Philip  the  Bold,  Duke  of 
to  Flanders  a  w^th  which  manifested  itself  every-  Burgundy  (1384-1404).  This  prince  and  his  son, 
where — in  the  buildings,  in  the  fare  of  the  inhabitants,  John  the  Fearless  (1404-1419),  being  mostly  inter- 
in  their  dress.  "I  thought  I  was  the  only  queen  ested  in  the  affairs  of  France,  paid  little  attention  to 
here,"  said  the  wife  of  Philip  the  Fair  on  a  visit  to  those  of  Flanders. 

Bru^,  "but  I  see  hundreds  of  queens  around  me."  The  situation  changed  after  Philip  the  Good,  third 
The  mtellectual  and  artistic  activity  of  the  time  was  Duke  of  Burgundy  (1419-1467),  had  united  under  his 
no  less  remarkable.  Then  flourished  Henry  of  Ghent,  rule  the  whole  of  the  Low  Countries.  Philip  wanted 
the  Solemn  Doctor;  Van  Maerlant,  the  great  Flemish  to  weaken  the  power  of  the  communes  for  the  benefit 
poet,  and  his  continuator,  Louis  van  Velthem;  Philip  of  the  central  government,  and  soon  picked  a  quarrel 
Mussche,  the  chronicler,  who  became  Bishopof  Tour-  with  Brujges,  which  was  compelled  to  surrender  some 
uai;  and  the  mystic  Jan  van  Ruysbroeck.  Then,  too.  of  its  pnvile^.  Ghent's  turn  came  next.  A  con- 
were  built  the  beautiful  guild-halls,  city-halls,  ana  tention  had  arisen  between  that  city  and  the  duke  over 
churchy,  which  bear  witness  at  once  to  the  popular  a  question  of  taxes.  War  broke  out,  and  the  army^  of 
love  for  the  fine  arts  and  Flemish  religious  z^ — the  Ghent  was  utterly  defeated  at  Gavre  (1452),  which 

Suld-haUs  of  Bruges  and  Ypres,  the  churches  of  the  city  had  to  pay  a  heayy  fine  and  to  surrender  her  privi- 

oly  Saviour  and  of  Our  Lad^  at  Bruges,  those  of  Saint-  J^es.    In  1446,  Philip  created  the  Great  Council  of 

Bavon,  Saint-Jacques  and  Saint-Nicolas  at  Ghent,  and  Fmnders,  which,  under  Charles  the  Bold,  became  the 

of  Saint-Martin  at  Ypres.  Still  more  worthy  of  admira-  Great  Council  of  Mechlin.    Appeals  from  the  judg- 

tion  was  the  internal  organisation  of  the  commimes,  ments  of  local  courts  were  henceforth  to  be  made  to 

which,  owing  to  the  beneficent  influence  of  the  Church,  this  coimcil,  not  to  the  Parliament  of  Paris  as  before, 

bad  become  so  powerful  a  factor  in  the  moral  welfare  Thus  were  severed  the  bonds  of  vassalage  which  for 


FLANDBIN 


96 


FLANDRDI 


centuries  had  connected  Flanders  to  France. 
Philip  was  succeeded  by  Charles  the  Bold  (1467-1477), 
the  marriage  of  whose  daughter  to  Maximilian,  Arch- 
duke of  Austria,  brought  Flanders  with  the  rest  of  the 
Low  Coimtries  under  the  rule  of  the  House  of  Haps- 
bux^jg  in  1477.  In  1488,  the  communes  tried  to  recover 
theu*  independence.  The  attempt  was  unsuccessful, 
and  the  war  was  disastrous  for  Bruges,  because  it  has- 
tened her  approaching  decline.  The  main  causes  of 
this  decline  were:  the  silting  up  of  her  harbour,  which 
became  inaccessible  to  large  vessels;  the  discovery  of 
America,  which  opened  new  fields  for  European  enter- 
prisej  the  dissolution  of  the  Flemish  Hanse,  whose  seat 
was  m  Bruges;  the  unintelligent  policv  of  the  dukes 
towards  England;  and  the  civil  wars  of  the  preceding 
fifty  years.  The  prosperity  of  Bruges  passed  to  Ant- 
werp. The  reign  of  the  House  of  Burgundy,  in  many 
respects  so  harmful  to  Flanders,  was  a  period  of  artis-. 
tic  splendour.  To  that  time  belong  Memling  and  the 
Van  Eycks,  the  first  representatives  of  the  Flemish 
school  of  painters.  Flemish  literature  on  the  whole 
declined,  but  a  Fleming,  Philippe  de  Comines,  was  the 
leading  French  writer  of  the  fifteenth  century.  An- 
other Fleming  of  that  time,  Thierry  Maertens  of  Alost, 
was  the  Gutenberg  of  the  Low  Countries.  Flanders 
can  also  claim  two  of  the  greatest  scientists  of  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries:  Simon  Stevin, 
mathematician  and  engineer,  and  the  Jesuit  Father 
Gr^goire  de  Saint- Vincent,  whom  Leibniz  considered 
Uie  eaual  of  Descartes. 

Although  the  material  condition  of  Flanders  is  to- 
day very  satisfactory,  the  coimtry  has  not  recovered 
its  former  prosperity.  And  it  is  not  likely  that  it  ever 
will,  not  because  of  any  decrease  in  the  energy  of  the 
Flemish  race,  but  becaiise  economic  conditions  have 
changed.  Intellectually  the  Flemings  of  the  twenti- 
eth century  are  still  the  true  sons  of  the  glorious  gen- 
erations which  produced  Van  Maerlant,  Van  Arte- 
velde,  Rubens,  and  Van  Dyck;  perhaps  it  is  not  an 
exaggeration  to  say  that  thev  have  taken  the  lead  in 
promoting  the  prosperity  of  Belgium.  The  Flemish 
tongue,  wfiich  during  the  eighteenth  century  had  fal- 
len so  low  that  in  1830  it  was  little  more  than  a  patois, 
has  risen  again  to  the  rank  of  a  literary  language  ana 
can  claim  tne  larger  portion  of  the  literary  production 
of  Belgium  in  the  last  seventy-five  years;  nay,  the 
Flemings  have  even  made  important  contributions  to 
French  literature.  In  the  fine  arts,  in  the  sciences,  in 
pohtics^  their  activity  is  no  less  remarkable.^  They 
nave  given  the  Belgian  Parliament  some  of  its  best 
orators  and  its  amest  statesmen:  Malou,  Jacobs, 
Woeste,  Beemaert,  Schollaert.  Above  all  they  have 
retained,  as  the  most  precious  inheritance  of  the  past 
ages,  the  simple,  fervent,  vigorous  faith  of  the  crusa- 
ders and  their  filial  attitude  towards  the  Church.  No 
country  sends  out  a  larger  proportion  of  secular  and 
regular  missionaries,  some  of  wnom  (like  Father  P.  J. 
De  Smet,  the  apostle  of  the  American  Indians)  have 
attained  a  world-wide  celebrity.  Flanders  may,  in- 
deed, be  considered  the  bulwark  of  Catholicism  in  Bel- 
gum.  The  Socialists  are  well  aware  of  this  fact,  but 
le  Catholics  realize  it  just  as  clearly,  and  their  de- 
fence is  equal  to  the  enemy's  attack.  Every  Flemish 
community  has  its  parochial  Schools;  the  Catholic 
press  is  equal  to  its  task;  and  the  "  Volk  "  of  Ghent  has 
Deen  organized  to  counteract  the  evil  influence  of  the 
Socialist  "Vomit". 

Kbrytn  db  LcrraNHOva,  Hiat.  de  Flandre  (Brussels,  1848- 
50);  Moxs  AND  Hubert,  Hist,  de  Bdoujue  (Brussels,  1895); 
KuRTH.  Oriaines  de  la  CivUieation  Afodem«  (Brussels.  1886);  Ht- 
MANB,  Mutotrvparfemmtoira.de  2a  Be{9»gu«  (Brussels,  1877-1906). 

P.  J.  Marique. 

Flandrin,  Jban-Hippoltte,  French  painter,  b.  at 
^ons,  23  March,  1809;  d.  at  Rome^  21  March,  1864. 
Ete  came  of  a  famUy  of  poor  artisans  and  was  a 
pupil  of  the  sculptor  Legendre  and  of  Revoil.  In 
tat  educationi  boweveri  two  elements  must  above  all 


be  taken  into  account.  The^  first  is  the  Lyonnaise 
genius.  Various  causes,  physical  and  historical,  have 
combined  to  ^ve  the  city  of  Lyons  a  character  dl  its 
own.  This  is  twofold — ^religious  and  democratic — 
and  the  labouring  classes  have  always  been  an  active 
centre  of  idealism.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  its 
poets,  from  Maurice  Sc^ve  to  LAmartine.  Lyons  has 
also  aJways  been  the  great  entrepdt  for  Italy,  and  the 
province  was  a  permanent  centre  of  Roman  culture. 
The  second  factor  in  Flandrin's  development  was  the 
influence  of  Ingres,  without  which  it  is  doubtful 
whether  Flandrin  would  have  achieved  any  fame.  In 
1829  Flandrin,  with  his  brother  Jean-Paiil  (the  land- 
scape painter),  went  to  Paris,  where  he  bec^une  a  pupil 
of  Ingres,  who  conceived  a  paternal  affection  for  him. 
In  Paris  the  young  man  experienced  the  bitterest 
trials.  He  was  often  without  a  fire,  sometimes  with- 
out bread,  but  he  was  sustained  by  a  quiet  but  un- 
shakable faith,  and  finally  (1832)  carried  off  the 
Grand  Prix  de  Rome  through  ''The  Recognition  of 
Theseus  by  his  Father ' '.  At  Rome,  where,  after  1834, 
Ingres  was  director  of  the  French  Academy,  his  tal- 
ents expanded  and  blossomed  under  the  influence  of 
natural  oeauty.  a  mild  climate,  and  the  noble  spectacle 
of  the  works  ot  classic  and  Christian  antiquities.  He 
sent  thence  to  the  French  salons:  "  Dante  and  Vir&;il" 
(Lyons  Museum,  1835);  "Euripides"  (Lyons  Mu- 
seum, 1835);  "St.  aare  Healing  the  Blind"  (Cathe- 
dral of  Nantes,  1836) ;  "Christ  Blessing  the  Children" 
(Lisleux  Museum.  1837).  The  serenity  of  his  nature, 
his  chaste  sense  of  form  and  beauty,  his  taste  for  effec- 
tive disposition  of  details,  his  moral  elevation,  and 
profound  piety,  found  expression  in  these  early  ef- 
forts. On  his  return  to  Paris,  in  1838,  he  was  all  in- 
tent upon  producing  great  religions  works. 

At  tnis  tmie  there  sprang  up  throughout  the  French 
School  a  powerful  reaction  a^dnst "  useless  pictures", 
against  tne  conventional  canvases  exhibitea  since  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century  (Quatremdre  de  Quincy, 
"Notices  historiques",  Paris,  1834,  311).  There  was 
a  return  to  an  art  more  expressive  of  life,  less  arbi- 
trwy,  more  mural  and  decorative.  Delacroix,  Cha»- 
s^rian,  and  the  aged  Ingres  were  engaged  on  mural 
paintings.  It  was  above  all,  however,  the  walls  of  the 
churches  which  offered  an  infinite  field  to  the  decora- 
tors, to  Chass^riaUj  Victor  Mottez,  Couture,  and 
Amaury  Duval.  Within  fifteen  or  twenty  years  this 
great  pictorial  movement,  all  too  obscure,  left  on  the 
walls  of  the  public  buildings  and  churches  of  Paris 
pictorial  treasures  such  as  had  not  been  seen  since  the 
a^e  of  Giotto.  It  is  possible^  and  even  probable  that 
the  first  impulse  towards  this  movement  (especially 
so  far  as  religious  paintings  are  concerned)  was  due  to 
the  Nazarene  School.  Ingr^  had  known  Overbeck 
and  Steinle  at  Rome ;  Flandrin  may  well  have  known 
them.  In  any  case  it  is  these  artists  whom  he  resem- 
bles above  all  in  purity  of  sentiment  and  profound 
conviction,  thou^  he  possessed  a  better  artistic  edu- 
cation. From.  1840  his  work  is  scarcely  more  than  a 
painstaking  revival  of  religious  painting.  The  artist 
made  it  his  mission  in  France  to  serve  art  more  bril- 
liantly than  ever,  for  the  glory  of  God,  and  to  midce 
beauty,  as  of  old,  a  source  of  instruction  and  an  in- 
strument of  edification  to  the  great  body  of  the  faith- 
ful. He  foimd  a  sort  of  apostolato  before  him.  He 
was  one  of  the  pefU8pridicateitr8  de  I'EvangUe,  Artis- 
tic productions  in  the  mid-nineteenth  century,  as  in 
the  Middle  AgUL  became  the  Biblia  Pauperum. 

Henceforth  Flandrin's  life  was  passed  almost  en- 
tirely in  churches,  hoverinc  between  heaven  and  earth 
on  his  ladders  and  scaffolds.  His  first  work  in  Paris 
was  in  the  chapel  of  St-Jean  in  the  church  of  St-S^v- 
erin.  He  next  decorated  the  sanctuary  and  choir  of 
the  church  of  StrGermain-des-Prds  (1842-48).  On 
either  side  of  the  sanctuary  he  painted  "Christ's  En- 
try into  Jerusalem"  and  '^The  Journey  to  Calvary", 
besides  the  figures  of  the  Apostles  and  the  symbols  of 


FLATHEAD  97  FLATHEAD 

the  Evangelists.    All  these  are  on  a  gold  background  power  of  always  painting  in  the  style  displayed  in 

with  beautiful  arabeoques  which  recall  the  mosaic  of  this  portrait. 

Torriti  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore.     At  St.  Paul,  Ntmes  ^Dblaborde,  LeUrea  etpensiea  d^HimaolyU  FUmdrin  (FkuiB, 

(1847-49),  he  Pdntod  a  lovely  gariand  of  virgin  m«u  ^^^.^^^jt^S^^^  J^Ti^,  ^^T^i'AX 

tyrs,  a  prelude  to  his  masterpiece,  the  frieze  m  the  187;  XXIV  (1888),  20;  Gauthsb.  Lea  Btaux-ArU  en  Europe, 

nave  of  the  church  of  St-Vinoent-de-Paul  in  Paris.  1855, 1,  283;  BfAUBica  Hambl  in  MuUe  if  art,  Paris,  no  date, 

The  last  is  a  double  procession,  de^lopiiw;  symmetri-  ^^'  ^'  ^o       Gillbt. 

cally  between  the  two  superimposed  arches,  without  *-«««  ^a^i^amum.. 


But  it  IS  more  important  to  note  the  onanaUty  m  the  ,    ^      ^  j  compelled  to  adopt  the  local  Indian 

return  to  the  most  authentic  sources  of  Christian  icon-  ^^;n^^;^^  «il;«i,  i^T^^^LTii,^  Jt^TJonw**,  \>r^ 

i;^^..o  4t«^„»Vi4^     T«  ♦K^  ^«-*»«^  /*#  Q+  v;»^n4-^^Pa,ti  of  north-western  Montana  are  the  easternmost  tnbe 

teS^a^  of''(W™f  A!^n"r^K  o£the««atSalid.anst<^kwMchpccupfedmuchofthe 

In  18SS«ie  Mtkt  ei«!uted  a  new  work  in  the  anaeof  Colun»o»  and  Eraser  River  region  westward  to  the 

&e^.^*^^ly*^^L^^7SS8rltZrh^^  P^^ifio-  .Altho;^  never  a  large  tribe  they  have  al- 

undertook  his  crowiing  work,  the  decoration  of  the  **yi'TS^f*^  •"  exceptional  reputation  for  brav- 

nave  of  SUtermain-detPrfe.    He  determined  to  il-  ^^7' ^^'^' *?5? general tigh character andfor th«r 

lustrate  the  life  of  Christ,  not  from  an  historical,,  but  friendly  dispoation  towards  the  whites.    When  first 

from  a  theological,  point  of  view,  the  point  of  vww  of  ^P^^.-J^^J^  bwnnmg  of  the  last  century, ^ey 

eternity.    He  dealt^ess  with  faks  ttan  with  ideas,  subsisted  chiefly  by  huntmg  and  the  gaihenng  of  wild 

His  tendency  to  parallelism,  to  symmetry,  found  its  rooti^particularly  camas,  dwelt  m  skm  tinis  ormat- 

element  in  file  s^bolism  of  the  Middle  kges.    He  covered  lodgw,  ^d  were  at  jieace  with  aU  tril^  «- 

^11                •*^       •«•                     ■•        ..iP.  AAnf.inflr  thmr  h  Anvil  tA.rv  ATI  ATYiiAfl.  thA  nnivpjfiil  HlAnk- 


inoians  ana  iney  naa  a  numoer  oi  ceremomai  oances; 

apparently  including  liie  Sun  Dance.  Having  learned 

Troquois  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
I  the  Catholic  religion,  they 

Perugino  iind  fiotticelli  in  the  Sistine  ChapeL  that  ^^L'^^^^y  adopted^  its  simpler  forms  and  prayers. 

Christian  art  returned  to  its  ancient  genius.    The  in-  ^nd  m  1831  sent  a  delegation  ^  the  long  and  danger 

temipted  tradition  was  renewed  after  three  centuries  ous  way  to  St.  Louis  to  ask  of  the  resident  government 

of  the  Renaissance.    Unhappfly  the  form,  despite  its  J^^^^  supermtendent  that  missionanes  be  sent  to 

sustained  beauty,  possesses  little  originality.    It  is  *?®°^-   This  was  not  then  possible  and  other  delcp- 

lacking  m  personality.    The  whole  senes,  though  ex-  *«>ns  were  sent,  until  m  1840  l^e  notwi  Jesmt  FatEer 

hibiti^g  a  h%h  degi^  of  learning  and  poise,  of  grace,  P*«™  De  Smet  (q.  y.)  responded  and  was  welcomed 

and  evin  ofltren^h,  lacks  charSi  andlife.    The  col-  o^  ^,^^?^  ^  their  country  by  a  great  gathermg  of 

ouring  is  flat.  ciSde,  and  duU,  the  design  neutral,  some  1600  Indians  of  the  alhed  mountam  tnbes.   In 

unac^nted,  and  coiimonplace.    It  is  a  miracle  oi  J^^l  he  founded  on  Bitter  Root  River  the  nussion  of 

spiritual  power  that  the  seriousness  of  thought,  the  St.  Mary,  which  was  abaiidoned  in  1850,  in  conse- 

truth  of  sentiment,  more  harsh  in  the  Old  Testament,  ^^^^^  ^\  ^^^  mroads  of  the  Blackfeet.  for  the  ^ew 

and  more  tender  in  the  Christian,  scenes,  glow  through  mission  of  St.  Ignatius  on  Flathead  Lake.   This  still 

this  pedantic  and  poor  style,    drtain  ilnes,  such %s  ?»8te  m  sucoesdTul  opei^tion,  practicallv  ^  the  con- 

"The  Nativity",  which  strongly  recalls  that  of  Giotto  ^^®™Jf<*  Indians  of  the  reservation— Flathead,  Pend 

at  Padua,  po^  a  sweetnesswhich  is  quite  human  in  ?^/^"«;  Kutenai.  a.nd  Spokan— havmg  been  consis- 

their  conventwnal  reaerve.    Others,  such  as  "Adam  *^*  S^o «  ^^  ^Sf  ^?"  ^ ^^^^             ^        ,. 

and  Eve  after  the  Fall",  and  "The  Confusion  of  ^^  1.855  the  Flatheads  naade  a  treaty  cechng  most 

Tongues",  are  marked  by  real  grandeur.    This  was  of  their  temtory,  but  retemmg  a  considerable  reser- 

FlaSirin's  last  work.    He  was  preparing  a  "Last  vationrouth  of  Flathead  Lake  and  mduding  tt^^ 

Judgment"  for  the  catliedral  of  Stri^urg,  when  he  ?on.  Th^numbernow al^ut  620,  the  confederated 

WBiclto  Rome,  where  he  died.  body  together  numbenng  2200  souls,  bemg  one  of  the 

Apart  from  his  religious  work,  Flandrin  is  the  au-  few  Indian  commumties  actually  mcreasing  in  popu- 

thor  of  some  very  charming  portraits.    In  this  branch  ^^^J>^   They  are  prosperous  and  mdustnoiw  farmers 

of  painting  he  u  far  from  possessing  the  acute  and  ^^  stockmen,  moral,  devoted  Catholics,  Midm  evenr 

powerful  sense  of  life  of  which  Ingres  possessed  the  way  a  testimony  to  the  zeal  wid  ability  of  their  reh- 

secret.    Nevertheless,  pictures  suST  as  the  "Young  gious teachers, among whona,bemdesDeSme^^ 

Giri  with  a  Pink",  and  the  "  Young  Girl  Reading",  of  earned  such  distinguished  Jesuit  pnests  and  ^holara 

the  Louvre,  will  always  be  admimi.    Nothing^uld  ^  Canestrelh,  Giorda,  Menganm,  Pomt,  and  RayaUi, 

be  more  maidenly  and  yet  profound.    His  portraite  of  8^^®™^°'  whom  have  made  important  contnbutions 

men  are  at  tim^  magnificSent.    Thus  in  the  "Napo-  to  Salishwi  philology.   The  mission  is  (1908)  m  cha^ 

leon  III"  of  the  Versailles  Museum  the  pale  massive  o^  J^v.  L.  Tallman,  assisted  by  wveral  Joints,  to- 

countenance  of  Caesar  and  his  dream-troubled  eyes  gether  with  a  number  of  Christian  Brothers,  Sisters  of 

reveal  the  impress  of  destiny.    An  admirable  " Study  ™™S^v>*°i^fli!"^f  •        ^  n  s^^-   r  ^   «^-   • 

^f  0>  \M»w>'»  i^^u^-u,,,^*,^  ^t  4U^T  ^,,n,m^  ;a^„UA<fTn  Dtreclcr*a  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Catholxe  Tnd,  Mtsaume 

Of  a  Blan    m  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre,  is  quite    In-  rwashington.  id06);  Clark.  The  Indian  Sion  L«Hn«ia«(Phila- 

gresque     m  ite  perfection,  bemg  almost  equal  to  that  delphia,  1885),  Ron  an.  SkHeh  of  the  Flathead  Nation  (Hele— 

master's  Oedipus.     What  was  lacking  to  the  pupil  in  Mont..  1890);  Shea.  Htat^  the  Calhalic  Mueiane.  etc.  (N 

Older  that  the  artistic  side  of  his  work  should  equal  ite  Yojk.  i^^I>^Sm«;  ^STMi^SSJS  [nSJ  Yo*;  lit,,, 

aaenta  from  toe  religious  and  pnuosophic  siae  was  tbo  OrsrsMs  in  Bmt.  ^  ^om.  0/  Ind.  Again  (WagUnstoo,  1864); 
VIr-7 


98 


FLAVZAir 


CyOomvoB,  The  FUahead  Jrufuifw  in  Reeorda  ai  TKe  Am,  Cath, 
Bi^  Soc  (PhilAdelphiAT  1888).  III.  86-110;  Post.  Witnkip 
Among  th»  FUUheadt  and  Kaliojm§  in  The  Meeeenger  (New  York, 
1894},  528-20. 

'  Jambs  Moonbt. 

FUthen  (alias  Major),  Matthkw,  Vbnbrablb, 
Eng^idi  priest  and  martyr;  b.  probably  c.  1580  at 
Weston^jforkshire,  En^and;  d.  at  York,  21  March, 
1607.  He  was  educate  at  Doiiai,  and  ordained  at 
Arras,  25  March,  1606.^  Three  months  later  he  was 
sent  to  the  Endish  mission,  but  was  discovered  almost 
immediately  by  the  emissaries  of  the  Government, 
who,  after  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  had  redoubled  their 
vig;i]anoe  in  hunting  down  the  priests^  of  the  pro- 
scribed religion.  He  was  brought  to  trial,  under  the 
statute  of  27  Elizabeth,  on  the  charge  of  receiving 
orders  abroad,  and  condenmed  to  death.  By  an  act 
of  unusual  clemency,  this  sentence  was  commuted  to 
banishment  for  life;  but  after  a  brief  exile,  the  un- 
daunted priest  returned  to  En^and  in  order  to  fulfil 
his  mission,  and,  after  ministeniu;  for  a  short  time  to 
his  oppressed  coreligionists  in  Yorkshire,  was  again 
apprehended.  Brought  to  trial  at  York  on  the 
(£arge  of  being  ordained  abroad  and  exercising 
priestly  functions  in  Ens^and.  Flathens  was  offered  his 
ufe  on  condition  that  ne  take  the  recently  enacted 
Oath  of  Allegiance.  On  his  refusal,  he  was  con- 
demned to  death  and  taken  to  the  common  place  of 
execution  outside  Micklegato  Bar,  York.  The  usual 
punishment  of  hanginfj;,  drawing,  and  quartering 
seems  to  have  been  earned  out  in  a  peculiany^  brutal 
manner,  and  eyewitnesses  relate  how  the  tragic  spec- 
tacle excited  the  commiseration  of  the  crowds  of 
Protestant  spectators. 

GiLLOW,  Bibt,  Diet.  Bng.  Caih.,  a.  v.;  Ghallonbb,  Ifamotrf, 
II;  MoBBis,  TroiMee,  third  series;  Douay  Dtariee. 

H.    G.   WlNTBRSGILL. 

Flavia  DomitiUa,  a  Christian  Roman  matron  of 
the  imperial  family  who  lived  towards  the  close  of  the 
first  century.  She  was  the  third  of  three  persons 
(mother,  daughter,  and  grand-daughter)  who  bore  the 
same  name.  The  first  of  these  was  the  wife  of  the 
^nperor  Vespasian;  the  second  was  his  daughter  and 
sister  to  the  Emperors  Titus  and  Domitian;  her 
daughter,  the  third  Domitilla,  married  her  mother's 
first  cousin,  Titus  Flavins  Clemens,  a  nephew  of  the 
Emperor  Vespasian  and  first  cousin  to  Titus  and 
Domitian.  Irom  this  union  there  were  bom  two  sons 
who,  while  children,  were  adopted  as  his  successors  by 
Domitian  and  commanded  to  assume  the  names  Ves- 

Sasianua  and  Domitianus.  It  is  quite  probable  that 
lese  two  lads  had  been  brou^^t  up  as  Christians  by 
their  pious  mother,  and  the  possibility  thus  presente 
itself  that  two  Christian  boys  at  the  end  of  the  first 
oentuiy  were  designated  for  the  imperial  purple  in 
Rome.  Their  later  fate  is  not  known,  as  the  Flavian 
line  ended  with  Domitian.  Clement,  their  father,  was 
the  emperor's  colleague  in  the  consular  dignity,  but  had 
no  sooner  laid  down  his  office  than  he  was  tried  on 
char;^  of  the  most  trivial  character  (ex  tenuisnmd 
tuapicione — Suetonius,  Vita  Domit.).  Dio  Cassius 
(Ixyii,  14)  sa^  that  husband,  and  wife  alike  were 
guilty  of  atheism  and  the  practice  of  Jewish  rites  and 
customs.  Such  accusations,  as  is  clear  from  the  works 
of  the  Christian  apologists,  could  have  meant  nothing 
else  than  that  both  had  become  Christians.  Thou^ 
doubts  have  been  expressed,  because  of  the  silence  of 
Christian  tradition  on  the  subject,  as  to  whether  de- 
ment was  a  Christian,  the  affirmative  view  is  consider- 
ably strengthened  by  the  further  accusation  of  Sue- 
tomus  that  he  was  a  man  of  the  most  contemptible 
inactivity  (corUempHsnma  tneriiai).  Such  a  chiuge  is 
easily  explained  on  the  ground  that  dement  found 
most  of  the  duties  of  his  office  as  consul  so  inoom- 

Kktible  with  Christian  faith  and  practice  as  to  render 
tal  abstention  from  public  life  almost  an  absolute 
oeowi^*    In  the  case  of  Pomititla  no  doubt  can  re- 


main, since  De  Rossi  showed  that  the  "Ccemeterium 
Domitillse"  (see  Cembteribs,  Eablt  Chribtian)  was 
situated  on  ground  belonging  to  the  Flavia  Domitilla 
who  was  banished  for  her  faith,  and  that  it  was  used 
as  a  Christian  burial  place  as  early  as  the  first  century. 
As  a  result  of  the  accusations  made  against  them  Cle- 
ment was  put  to  death,  and  Flavia  Domitilla  was  ban- 
ished to  the  island  of  Pandataria  in  the  lynhenian  Sea. 
Eusebius  (H.  E.,  Ill,  18;  Chron.  ad  an.  Abrahami 
2110),  the  spurious  acts  of  Nereus  and  Achilles,  and 
St.  Jerome  (Ep.',  CVIII,  7)  r^resent  Flavia  Domitilla 
as  tiie  niece,  not  the  wife,  of  the  consul  Flavins  Cle- 
mens, and  say  that  her  place  of  exUe  was  Pontia,  an 
island  dso  situated  in  Uie  iVrrhenian  Sea.  These  state- 
ments have  given  rise  to  tne  opinion  that  there  were 
two  DomitilEis  (aimt  and  niece)  who  were  Christians, 
the  latter  generally  referred  to  as  Flavia  Domitilla  the 
Younger.  lightfoot  has  shown  that  this  opinion, 
adopted  by  'Hllemont  and  De  Rossi  and  still  main- 
tained by  many  writers  (among  them  Allard  and 
Duchesne),  is  derived  entirely  from  Eusebius,  ^ho  was 
led  into  this  error  by  mistakes  in  transcription,  or 
ambiguity  of  expression,  in  the  sources  which  he  used. 

LxoHTrocyr.  The  ApoUol%e  Faihere,  Pt.  I;  St.  Clxkent  or 
Rome,  I.  the  best  discussion  of  all  subjects  connected  with  the 
name  Domitilla;  Allard,  Hiei,  dm  pereieutUm*  ^tndantUa 
d€ux  premiere  ei^dee.  p.  96  sq.;  Nbumann,  Der  rOmteche  Stoat 
undaisaUoemeine  Kvrche  bie  avf  DiocUtian  (Leipsic,  1800).  I ; 
Ramsat,  The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire  before  AJ>.,  170 
(New  York.  1S93);  DuCHSSifX.  Hiatoire  aneiemu  de  Pigliae 
(Paris.  1906).  «    •    „ 

P.  J.  Hbalt. 

Tiavian,  Saint.  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  date  of 
birth  unknown;  a.  at  Hypsepa  in  Lydia,  August,  449. 
Nothing  is  known  of  him  before  his  elevation  to  the 
episcopate  save  that  he  was  a  presbvter  and  0-mvo^^Xa{. 
or  samstan,  of  the  Church  ol  (Constantinople,  and 
noted  for  the  holiness  of  his  life.  ^  His  succession  to  St. 
Proclus  as  bi^op  was  in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of 
the  eunuch  Chrysaphius.  minister  of  Emperor  Theo- 
dosiusy  who  sought  to  oring  him  into  imperial  dis« 
favour.  He  per^iaded  the  emperor  to  require  of  the 
new  bishop  certain  evloauB  on  the  occasion  <3i  his  ap* 

E ointment,  but  scornfully  rejected  the  proffered 
leased  bread  on  the  plea  that  the  emperor  desired 
gif te  of  gold.  Flavian's  intrepid  refusal,  on  the  ground 
of  the  impropriety  of  thus  disposing  ox  church  treas- 
ures^  roused  considerable  enmity  against  him.  Pul- 
chena,  the  emperor's  sister,  being  Flavian's  stanch 
advocate,  Chrysaphius  secured  the  support  of  the  £m- 

gress  Eudocia.  Although  their  first  efforte  to  involve 
t.  Flavian  in  diserace  miscarried,  an  opportunity 
soon  presented  itself.  At  a  council  of  bishops  con- 
vened at  Constantinople  by  Flavian,  8  Nov.,  448,  to 
settle  a  dispute  which  nad  arisen  among  his  der^,  the 
archimandrite  Eutyches,  who  was  a  relation  of  Chry- 
saphius, was  accused  of  heresy  bv  Eusebius  of  Dory- 
Isum.  (For  the  proceedings  of  the  council  see  Euse- 
bius of  Dortljeum;  EuTTCHES.)  Flavian  exercised 
clemency  and  urged  moderation,  but  in  the  end  the 
refusal  of  Eutyches  to  make  an  orthodox  declaratiim 
on  the  two  natures  of  Christ  forced  Flavian  to  pro- 
noimce  the  sentence  of  de|g;radation  and  excommuni- 
cation. He  forwarded  a  full  report  of  the  coimcil  to 
Pope  Leo  I,  who  in  turn  gave  his  approval  to  Flavian's 
decision  (21  May,  449),  and  the  following  month  (13 
June)  sent  him  his  famous  ''Dogmatic  Letter". 
Eutyches'  complaint  that  justice  had  been  violated  in 
the  council  and  that  the  Acte  had  been  tampered  with 
resulted  in  an  imperial  order  for  the  revision  of  the 
Acte,  executed  (8  and  27  April,  449).  No  material 
error  could  be  esteblished,  and  Flavian  was  justified^ 
The  long-stending  rivalry  between  Alexandria  and 
Constantinople  now  became  a  strone  factor  in  the  dis- 
sensions. It  had  been  none  the  less  Keen  since  the  See 
of  Constentinople  had  been  officially  declared  next  in 
dimity  to  Rome,  and  Dioscurus,  Bi^op  of  Alexan- 
dria, was  quite  ready  to  join  forces  with  Eutjrchee^ 


FLAVIA8 


99 


K.AVI0P0LI8 


aeainst  Flavian.  Even  before  the  revision  of  the  Acts 
of  Flavian's  council,  Chrvsaphius  had  persuaded  the 
emperor  of  the  necessity  for  an  Gecumenical  council  to 
adjust  matters,  and  the  decree  went  forth  that  one 
should  convene  at  Ephesus  under  the  presidency  of 
Dioflcurus,  who  also  controlled  the  attendance  of 
bishops.  Flavian  and  six  bishops  who  had  assisted  at 
the  previous  synod  were  allowea  no  voice,  being,  as  it 
were,  on  trial.  (For  a  full  account  of  the  proceedings 
see  Ephesus,  Robber  Council  of.)  Eutvches  was 
absolved  of  heresy,  and  despite  the  protest  of  the  papal 
legate  HUary  (later  pope),  who  by  his  ConiradicUur 
anniilled  the  decisions  of  the  coimcil,  Flavian  was  con- 
demned and  deposed.  In  the  violent  scenes  which 
ensued  he  was  so  ill-used  that  three  da^rs  later  he  died 
in  his  place  of  exile.  Anatolius,  a  partisan  of  Dioscu- 
rus,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him. 

St.  Flavian  was  repeatedly-  vindicated  by  Pope  Leo, 
whose  epistle  of  commendation  failed  to  reach  him  be- 
fore his  death.  The  pope  also  wrote  in  his  favour  to 
Theodosius,  Pulcheria,  and  the  clergy  of  Constanti- 
nople, besides  convemng  a  council  at  Rome,  wherein 
he  designated  the  Council  of  Ephesus  Ephesinum  non 
judicium  sed  latrocinium.  At  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don  (451)  the  Acts  of  the  Robber  Council  were  an- 
nulled and  Flavian  eulodzed  as  a  martyr  for  the 
Faith.    Pope  Hilary  had  Flavian's  death  represented 

?ictoriaUy  m  a  RomcMi  church  erected  by  him.  On 
ulcheria's  accession  to  power,  after  the  death  of 
Theodosius,  she  brought  tne  remains  of  her  friend  to 
Constantinople^  when  they  were  received  in  triumph 
and  interred  with  those  of  his  predecessors  in  the  see. 
In  the  Greek  Menology  and  the  Roman  Martyrology 
his  feast  is  entered  18  February^  the  anniversary  of 
the  translation  of  his  body.  Relics  of  St.  Flavian  are 
honoured  in  Italy. 

St.  Flavian's  appeal  to  Pope  Leo  a^inst  the  Robber 
Council  has  been  published  by  Ameui  in  his  work  ''S. 
Leone  Magno  e  TOriente"  (>lonte  Cassino,  1890),  also 
by  Lacey  (Cambridge,  1903).  Two  other  (Greek  and 
lAtin)  letters  to  Leo  are  preserved  in  Migne,  P.  L. 
(LIV,  723-32,  743-61),  and  one  to  Emperor  Theodo- 
sius also  in  Migne,  P.  G.  (LXV,  889-92). 

Barosnhbwsb,  PcUraiopy,  tr.  Shahan  (Freiburg  im  Br., 
1908);  HBRGBNRdTHBR-KjRSCH,  Kirchengcsch,  (Freiburg, 
1901);  Haubwxbth  in  Kirchmlex.;  Ada  SS.,  Feb.,  Ill,  71-9; 
TiUjBMONT.  M6m.  pour  aervir  t  Vhiat.  ecd.  (Puis,  1704);  Babo- 
STUB,  Annalea  eocL  ad  an.  449,  nn.  4,  5, 14. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Flavias,  a  titular  see  of  Cilicia  Secunda.  Nothing 
is  known  of  its  ancient  name  and  histoxy,  except  that 
it  is  said  to  be  identical  with  Sis.    Lequien  (ll,  899) 

g'ves  the  names  of  several  of  its  bishops:  Alexander, 
ter  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  and  founder  of  the  famous 
library  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  the  third  century; 
Nicetas,  present  at  the  Council  of  Nicsea  (325) ;  John, 
who  Uvea  in  451 ;  Andrew  in  the  sixth  century;  George 
(681) ;  and  Eustratus,  Patriarch  of  Antioch  about  868. 
If  the  identification  of  Flavias  with  Sis,  which  is  prob- 
able, be  admitted,  it  will  be  found  that  it  is  first  men- 
tioned in  Theodoret's  life  of  St.  Simeon  Stylites. 

In  704  the  Arabs  laid  siege  to  the  stronghold  of  Sis. 
From  1186  till  1375  the  city  was  the  capital  of  the 
Kings  of  Lesser  Armenia.  In  1266  it  was  captured 
and  Dumed  by  the  Egyptians.  Definitely  conquered 
by  the  latter  in  1375,  it  passed  later  into  the  power  of 
the  Ottomans.  In  the  Middle  A^s  it  was  the  reli- 
nous  centre  of  Christian  Armenians,  at  least  imtil 
tne  catholicos  established  himself  at  Etschmiadzin. 
Sis  is  still  the  residence  of  an  Armenian  catholicos, 
who  has  under  his  jurisdiction  several  bishops,  numer- 
ous villages  and  convents.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  the 
caza  of  the  same  name  in  the  vilayet  of  Adana  and 
numbers  4O00  inhabitants,  most  of  whom  are  Armen- 
ians. The  great  heats  compel  the  inhabitants  to 
desert  it  during  the  summer  months.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  vineyards  and  groves  of  cypress  and  syca- 


more trees.    Ruins  of  churches,  convents,  castles, 
and  palaces  may  be  seen  on  all  sides. 

AusHAN,  Siaaouan  ou  VArmSnthCHicie  (Venioa.  1809).  241- 
272;  CuiNBT.  La  Turquie  tT  Atie,  II,  00-92. 

S.  Vailh£. 

Tlavigny,  Abbey  of,  a  Benedictine  abbey  in  the 
Diocese  of  Dijon,  the  department  of  C6te-d'0r,  and 
the  arrondissement  of  Semur.  This  monastery  was 
founded  in  721,  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  Inierry 
IV,  by  Widerad,  who  richly  endowed^  it.  According 
to  the  authors  of  the  ''Gsdlia  Christiana"^  the  new 
abbey,  placed  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Pnx,  Bishop ' 
of  Clermont,  and  martyr,  was  erected  on  the  site  of  an 
ancient  monastic  foundation,  dating,  it  is  said,  from 
the  time  of  Clovis^  and  formerly  under  the  patronage 
of  St.  Peter.  .This  titular  eventually  overehadow^ 
and  superseded  St.  Prix.  Pope  John  VIII  dedicated 
the  new  church  about  the  year  877,  from  which  time 
the  first  patroha^,  that  of  St.  Peter,  api)ears  to  have 
prevailea  definitively.  ^  The  fame  of  Flavigny  was  due 
partly  to  the  relics  which  itpreserved,  and  partly  to 
the  piety  of  its  religious.  The  monastexy  was  at  the 
heignt  of  its  reputation  in  the  eighth  century,  in  the 
time  of  the  Abbot  Manasses,  whom  C!harlemagne  au- 
thorized to  found  the  monastery  of  (}orbigny.  The 
same  Manasses  transferred  from  Volvio  to  Ravigny 
the  relics  of  St.  Prix.^  There  were  also  preserved  here 
the  relics  of  St.  Regina,  whom  her  acts  represent  as 
having  been  beheaded  for  the  faith  in  the  borough  of 
Alise  (since  called  Alise-S^te-Reine).  The  history 
of  the  translation  of  St.  Regina  (21-22  March,  864) 
was  the  subject  of  a  contemporaxy  account.  Unfor- 
tunately the  "Chronicle",  the  "Martyrology",  and 
the  "  Necrology  "  of  the  Abbot  Hugues^  and  the  "  Livre 
contenant  les  choses  notables"  have  either  perished  or 
contain  few  facts  of  real  interest.  The  liturgical 
books,  notably  the  "Lectionary",  have  disappeared. 
The  abbatial  list  contains  few  names  worthy  to  be 

Meserved,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  Hugues  of 
avigny.  The  monastery  was  rebuilt  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  occupied  by  Benedictines  of  the 
Congregation  of  St.  Maur,  who  were  actively  employed 
in  research  concerning  the  historical  documents  of  the 
abbey,  but  it  disappeared  during  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. Hitherto  it  nad  formed  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of 
Autun ;  but  after  the  concordat  of  1802  the  new  parti- 
tion of  the  diocese  placed  Flavigny  in  the  Diocese  of 
Dijon.  Lacordaire  rebuilt  and  restored  all  that  re- 
inained  of  the  monastery  surrounded  by  a  portion  of 
its  ancient  estate,  and  established  there  a  convent  of 
the  order  of  St.  Dominic. 

Grionard,  Noiitia  chrcnoloqiea  de  exordiia  cum  velena  ab- 
hatim  Sancti  Petri  Flaviniaeenna,  0J5.B.  diaemit  Eduenaia,  turn 
ejua  prioratum  et  de  anno  ooUaHonia  untua  eujuaque  eedeaia  iUi 
aitbieeta  in  Die  vnaaenachafUiehe  Studien  aua  dem  Benedictiner' 
Orden  (1881).  II.  252-272;  Vabbaye  binMictine  de  Flavimy  en 
Bourgogne,  aea  hiatoriena  et  aea  hiatotrea  in  Mimoirea  de  la  SociiU 
Eduenne  (1885),  second  aeries,  XIV,  25-^;  Annalea  Flavinia^ 
cenaea  (382-853)  in  Pbrtz,  Men.  Germ.  Hiat.:  Scriptorea  (1839). 
III.  150-152;  Cartulaire  du  mcnaatkre  de  Flavigny  {antuyae  de 
Roaaiffnol^  publiahed  by  Gollbnot  in  Btdletin  de  la  SociSU 
aeientifique  de  Semur  (1886-1887),  second  series.  III.  33-109; 
Catalogue  dee  prineipatea  rdiquea  que  acnt  gardSea  dana  Figliae  et 
le  triaor  de  Vabbaye  de  Saint-Pierre  de  rlavigny-Sainte'Reine 
(Auxerre,  1702);  Catalogue  abbatum  Flaviniaeenaium  in  Pfesn. 
Man,  Germ.  HiaU  Scriptorea  (1848),  VIII,  502-503:  Dkuslb, 
Deux  manuacrita  de  Fabbaye  de  Flavimy  au  X*  aikcie  in  Mtm- 
oirea  eomm.  dee  Antiq,  de  la  Cdte  d^Or,  XI;  Gallia  Chriatiana 
(1056),  IV,  383-387;  (1728),  IV,  454-465;  Labbb.  AnaUcta 
Monumentorum  Ccanabii  Ftaviniaeenaia  in  Nova  btbL  MSS. 
0657).  I,  269-272;  Mounibr,  Obituairea  francaia  (1890),  224- 

H.  Leclercq. 

FlaviopoUs,  a  titular  see  in  the  province  of  Hon- 
orias.  The  city,  formerly  called  Gratia,  originally  be- 
longed to  Bithynia  (Ptolemy,  V,  i,  14),  but  was  later 
attached  to  Honorias  by  Justinian  (Novella  zxix). 
Under  CJonstantine  the  Great  it  received  the  name  of 
Flaviopolis.  No  less  than  ten  of  its  bishops  are 
known  from  343  to  869  (Lequien,  I,  675-78).  One  of 
them,  Paul,  was  the  friend  and  defendor  pf  St*  Jobu 


rLAVXUS 


100 


FLEBUNO 


Chryaostom.  The  most  noted  was  St.  Abraham, 
bishop  in  the  sixth  century,  whose  life  has  recently 
been  published  (Vailhd,  ''Saint  Abraham  de  Gratia  ' 
in  "Echos  d'Orient",  VIII,  290-94).  The  diocese 
was  still  in  existence  in  the  twelfth  century.  Flavi- 
opolis,  now  known  as  Guered^,  is  a  caza  situated  in  the 
sanjak  of  Bolou,  and  the  vilayet  of  Castamouni.  Its 
4000  inhabitants,  are  nearly  all  Mussulmans ;  there  are 
only  200  Christians,  40  of  whom  are  Armenian  Catho- 
lics. A  small  river,  the  Oulou  Sou,  irrigates  the  very 
fertile  coimtrv.  Fruit  trees  (peach,  apricot,  and 
*  cherry)  grow  tnere  in  great  abundance. 

Texibr,  UAaie  Mineure,  149-151:  Cuxnet.  La  Tur^ie 
^Aaie,  IV,  524-^526;  for  the  coinage  of  Gratia  or  rlaviopolis,  see 
MiONNBT,  II,  420,  and  SuppUmerU,  II,  266. 

S.  Vailh£. 
Flavlas,  Josephus.    See  Josephus. 

F16chier,  Esprit,  bbhop ;  b.  at  Pernes,  France,  1632 ; 
died  at  Montpellier,  1710;  member  of  "the  Academy, 
and  together  with  Bourdaloue,  Bossuet,  F^nelon,  and 
Mascaron.  one  of  the  greatest  sacred  orators  of  his 
century;  nis  earliest  studies  were  made  at  Tarascon, 
under  the  guidance  of  his  uncle,  who  was  superior  of  a 
religious  congregation.  ^  He  himself  enterea  this  con- 
gregation, where  he  received  holv  orders,  but  soon  left 
it  and  went  to  Paris  in  1660.  It  was  not  lone  before 
he  acquired  a  reputation  as  a  wit  and  spiritual  writer. 
A  Latm  poem  in  honour  of  Louis  XIV  first  won  for  him 
the  favour  of  the  Court.  He  devoted  to  literature  and 
history  the  leisure  which  remained  after  the  fulfilment 
of  his  duties  as  tutor  in  the  household  of  Caumartin, 
Councillor  of  State,  and  it  was  then  he  wrote  his  chief 
historical  work,  "M6moires  sur  les  grands  jours  tenus 
k  Clermont  en  1665".  He  was  tutor  to  the  Dauphin 
when  his  preaching  began  to  make  him  famous.  His 
funeral  eulogies  in  particular  won  for  him  more  than 
one  comparison  witn  Bossuet.  It  happened  that  on  a 
number  of  occasions  he  had  to  treat  the  same  sub- 
jects as  the  Bishop  of  Meaux,  for  instance  the  funeral 
oration  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  to  arouse  almost  the 
same  sentiments  of  admiration. 

He  was  received  a  member  of  the  French  Academy 
in  1673,  on  the  same  day  as  Racine.  Having  been 
consecrated  bishop  in  1685,  he  left  the  See  of  Lavaur 
for  that  of  Ntmes  m  1687.  During  his  administration 
he  was  remarkable  for  his  great  charity  and  his  zeal  in 
converting  Protestants,  but  this  did  not  prevent  him 
from  devoting  himself  to  letters  and  to  making  the 
Academy  of  Nf mes,  of  which  he  was  the  director,  shine 
with  particular  brilliancy.  He  was  less  a  preacher  of 
the  Gospel  than  a  remarkable  panegyrist.  His  ser- 
mons are  as  diiferent  from  those  of  Bourdaloue  as  his 
funeral  orations  resemble  Bossuet's.  He  was  much 
more  an  elegant  man  of  letters  and  fashionable  orator 
than  a  severe  moralist  and  humble  preacher.  He  de- 
lighted in  ingenious  turns  of  phrase,  sonorous  words 
and  pretentious  periods  which  have  the  appearance  of 
seeking  applause  and  which  are  hardly  in  accord  with 
the  spirit  of  the  Gospel.  His  funeral  oration  for  Tu- 
renne  is  in  every  classical  handbook.  His  oratorical 
works  have  been  collected  under  the  title  of  "  Oraisons 
Fundbres"  (Paris,  1878),  "Sermons",  and  "Pan^gy- 
riques  ".  In  history  he  has  left  an  "  Histoire  du  Car^ 
dinal  Xim^n^"  (Paris,  1693),  the  "Vie  de  Th6odose 
le  Grand"  and  "Lettres  choisies  sur  divers  sujets". 
The  last  edition  of  the  "CEhivres"  of  Fl^chier  is  in 

two  volumes  (Paris,  1886). 

Dbiacroxx,  vie  de  FUehier  (Paris.  1865);  Mimairee  de 
FUchier  (Paris,  1844. 1886);  Fouolbt  in  Hiatoire  de  la  litUra- 
iurefraneaise  au  17*  aikcle  (Tours,  1883);  Saintb-Bbuyb,  Intro- 
duction to  the  edition  of  the  Mimoiree;  Fabbb,  FlSchier  orateur 

Paris,  1886);  ALioOt  Hiatoire  univenelle  de  PBgliae  (Toumai. 

851). 

Louis  Lalande. 


DoufFet  successively.  He  visited  Rome  in  1638.  was 
invited  by  liie  Duke  of  Tuscany  to  Florence  and  em- 
ployed in  decorating  one  of  his  galleries;  thence  he 
gassed  to  Paris  where  he  carried  out  some  elaborate 
ecorative  work  at  Versailles  and  painted  for  t^e 
sacristy  of  the  church  of  the  Augustinians  his  picture  of 
the ''  Adoration  of  the  Magi ".  He  returned  to  Lidge  in 
1647  and  executed  many  paintings  for  the  churches 
of  his  native  town.  In  1670  he  was  invited  to  return 
to  Paris,  and  painted  the  ceiling  of  the  audience  room 
in  the  Tuileries.  Louis  XIV  made  him  a  professor  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Paris.  Towards  the  close  of 
his  life  he  returned  to  Li^  and  was  elected  a  lay 
canon  of  the  church  of  St.  Paul,  and  painted  several 
works  for  the  prince-bishop  of  the  city.  A  few  years 
before  he  died  he  fell  into  a  state  of  profound  melan- 
choly and  had  to  be  placed  under  the  care  of  a  medical 
man,  in  whose  house  he  died.  He  was  a  painter  of 
the  "^rand  style",  full  of  inventive  genius,  but  his 
colounng  is  pale  and  weak  and  his  fibres  somewhat 
artificial.  He  is  believed  to  have  pamted  a  portrait 
of  (])olbert  and  by  some  writers  is  stated  to  have  been 
a  pupil  at  one  time  of  Jordaens,  but  this  has  never 
been  verified. 

EiMDBN  AND  Van  deb  Wiluobn,  Vaderlandadte  SehOder' 
kunst  (Haarlem,  1816);  Jambs,  Dutch  School  of  PaitUino  ll^n- 
don,  1822);  Dbscamps,  La  Vie  dee  PeirUrea  rlamanda  (Paris, 
1753);  Naoler.  KUnailer  Lexikon  (Munich,  1838);  Rathobber, 
Annalen  der  niederUtndiachen  Maleret(Qoiha.^  1844);  Michielb, 
Hiatoire  de  la  PeifUure  Flamande  (Brussels.  1845);  Kugleb, 
Handbook  of  Painting  (London,  1846). 

Geobqe  Charles  Williahson. 

Fleming,  Patrick,  Franciscan  friar,  b.  at  Lagan, 
County  Louth,  Ireland,  17  April,  1599 ;  d.  7  November, 
1631.  His  father  was  great-grandson  of  Lord  Slane; 
his  mother  was  daughter  of  Robert  Cusack,  a  baron 
of  the  exchequer  and  a  near  relative  of  Lord  Delvin. 
In  1612,  at  a  time  when  religious  persecution  raged 
in  Ireland,  young  Fleming  went  to  Flanders,  and  be- 
came a  student,  nrst  at  Douai,  and  then  at  the  College 
of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  at  Louvain.  In  1617  he  took 
the  Franciscan  habit  and  a  year  later  made  his  solemn 

?rofes8ion.  He  then  assumed  in  religion  the  name  of 
atrick,  Christopher  being  the  name  he  received  at 
baptism.  Five  years  after  his  solemn  profession  he 
went  to  Rome  with  Hugh  MacCaghwell,  the  definitor 
general  of  the  order,  and  when  he  had  completed  his 
studies  at  the  College  of  St.  Isidore,  was  ordained 
priest.  From  Rome  he  was  sent  bv  his  superiors  to 
Louvain  and  for  some  years  lectured  there  on  philoso- 
phy. During  that  time  he  established  a  reputation 
tor  scholarship  and  administrative  capacity;  and  when 
the  Franciscans  of  the  Strict  Observance  opened  a 
college  at  Pra^e  in  Bohemia.  Fleming  was  appointed 
its  first  supenor.  He  was  also  lecturer  in  theology. 
The  Thirty  Years  War  was  raging  at  this  time,  andin 
1631  the  Elector  of  Saxony  invaded  Bohemia  and 
threatened  Prague.  Fleming,  accompanied  by  a 
fellow-countryman  named  Matthew  Hoar,  fled  from 
the  city.  On  7  November  the  fugitives  encountered 
a  party  of  armed  Calvinist  peasants;  and  the  latter, 
animated  with  the  fierce  fanaticism  of  the  times,  fell 
upon  the  friars  and  murdered  them.  Fleming's  body 
was  carried  to  the  monastery  of  Voticium,  four  miles 
distant  from  the  scene  of  the  murder  and  there  buried. 
Eminent  both  in  philosophy  and  theologv,  he  was 


i 


Flemael,  Bertholbt  (the  name  was  also  spelled 
Flehalle  and  Flamael),  painter,  b.  at  Li^,  Flan- 
ders, in  1614;  d.  there  in  1675.  The  son  of  a  glass 
painter,  he  was  instructed  in  his  art  by  Trippez  and 


Ward.  The  latter,  desirous  of  writing  on  early  Chnsr 
tian  Ireland,  asked  for  Fleming's  assistance,  which 
was  readily  given.  Even  before  Fleming  left  Louvain 
for  Prague  he  had  amassed  considerable  materials, 
and  had  written  a  "  Life  of  St.  0)lumba".  It  was  not, 
however,  published  in  his  lifetime.  That  and  other 
MSS.  fell  into  the  hands  of  Thomas  O'Sheerin,  lecturer 
in  theology  at  the  College  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua, 
who  edited  and  publiiA^  them  at  Louvain  in  1667. 


FLEBUNQ 


101 


Fleming  also  wrote  a  life  of  Hugh  MacCaghwell  (q.  v.)* 
Primate  of  Armagh,  a  chronicle  of  St.  Peter's  monas- 
teiy  at  Ratisbon  (an  ancient  Irish  foundation),  and 
letters  to  Hugh  Ward  on  the  lives  and  works  of  the 
Irish  saints.  The  letters  have  been  published  in  "  The 
Irish  Ecclesiastical  Record''  (see  below).  The  work 
published  at  Louvain  in  1667  is  now  rare  and  costlv; 
one  copyin  recent  years  was  sold  for  seventy  pounds. 

Wabb-Harris,  WrUen  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1764);  UUter 
Journal  of  Archaolom/,  II;  The  Iriah  Ecaetiaatical  Record^  VII; 
G60PBB  in  DieL  Nat.  Btog.,  b.  v. 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Fleming  (Flemmtsq,  Flemmtnge),  Richard, 
Bishop  of  Lincoln  and  founder  of  Lincoln  College,  Ox- 
ford; b.  of  a  good  Yorkshire  family  about  1360,  Cros- 
ton  being  sometimes  mentioned,  though  without  clear 
authority,  as  his  birthplace;  d.  at  Sleaford,  25  Jan., 
1431.  He  studied  at  University  College,  Oxford,  and 
became  junior  proctor  in  1407.  In  1409  he  was  chosen 
by  convocation  as  one  of  the  twelve  commissioners  ap- 
pointed to  examine  the  writings  of  Wyclif ,  though  at 
this  time  he  was  suspected  of  sympathy  with  the  new 
movement  and  is  mentioned  by  name  in  a  mandate 
which  Archbishop  Arundel  addressed  to  the  chancellor 
in  1409  in  order  to  suppress  this  tendency  in  the  univer- 
sity. If  the  archbishop's  description  is  correct  the  date 
usually  assigned  for  Fleming's  birth  must  be  far  too 
early,  for  a  man  close  on  fiftv  could  not  be  mentioned 
as  one  of  a  company  of  beardless  boys  who  had  scarcely 
put  away  the  playthings  of  youth  (Wilkins,  Cone. 
Mazn.  Brit.,  Ill,  322).  fi  he  ever  had  an^  sympathy 
with  Wyclif  it  did  not  extend  to  Wyclif 's  heretical 
doctrines,  for  his  own  orthodoxy  was  bevond  suspicion 
and  it  subseouently  became  his  duty  as  bishop  to  bum 
the  exhumea  body  of  Wyclif  in  1428.  He  neld  suc- 
cessively the  prebends  of  South  Newbald  (22  Aug., 
1406)  and  Langtoft  (21  Aug.,  1415),  both  in  York 
Diocese,  and  subsequently  was  rector  of  Boston.  He 
became  bachelor  in  divinity  some  time  before  1413. 
Finally  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  20  Nov., 
1419,  m  succession  to  Philip  Rep3mgdon,  and  was  con- 
secrated at  Florence,  28  April,  1420.  In  1422  he  was 
in  Germany  at  the  head  of  an  embassy,  and  in  June, 
1423,  he  acted  as  president  of  the  English  represen- 
tatives at  the  Council  of  Pa  via,  which  was  transferred 
to  Siena  and  finally  developed  into  the  Council  of 
Basle.  More  than  once  he  preached  before  the  council, 
but  as  he  supported  the  rights  of  the  pope  against  the 
assembled  Fathers  his  views  were  disapproved  of.  The 
pope,  however,  showed  him  favour  by  appointing  him 
as  his  chamberlain  and  naming  him  Archbishop  of 
York  in  1424.  Difficulties,  however,  arose  with  the 
king's  ministers,  and  the  appointment  was  set  aside. 
On  returning  to  Lincoln,  the  bishop  began  the  founda- 
tion of  Lincoln  College,  which  he  intended  to  be  a 
coUegiolum  of  theologians  connected  with  the  three 
parish  churches  of  St.  Mildred,  St.  Michael,  and  All- 
nallows,  Oxford.  The  preface  which  he  wrote  to  the 
statutes  is  printed  in  the  "  Statutes  of  Lincoln  College" 
(Oxford,  1853).  He  proved  a  vigorous  administrator 
of  his  diocese,  and  added  to  his  cathedral  a  chantry 
in  which  he  was  subsequently  buried.  One  work  now 
lost,  '^  Super  Angliss  Etymologic  ",  is  attributed  to  him 
by  Bale. 

Fabriciub,  Bibliotheca  Media  JEUitU  (1746);  Tanneb,  BiJU. 


Neve,  Fasti  BecUHce  Anglieanas,  ed.  Habot  (Oxford.  1854).  Ill, 
205;  8TUBB6,  Regittrum  Sacrum  Aru^ieanum  (Onord.  1858), 
05;  Munimenia  Academica  Oxon.  in  R.  8.  (1868).  I,  XIV;  Hiat, 
m8S.  Comm,  (London,  1871),  2d  Report,  131;  Poole  in  Diet. 
Nat.  Biog.,  b.  v. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Flemlngf  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  son  of  the 
Baron  of  slane,  b.  in  1593;  d.  in  1655.  He  studied  at 
the  Franciscan  Ck)Ilege  of  Louvain,  became  a  priest  of 
the  Franciscan  Order,  and  after  finishing  his  studies 


continued  at  Louvain  for  a  number  of  years  aa  pro- 
fessor. In  October,  1623,  he  was  appointed  by  Un>an 
VIII  to  Dublin  as  successor  of  Archbishop  Matthews. 
His  appointment  gave  great  offence  to  the  opponents 
of  the  religious  orders,  and  a  bitter  onslaught  was  be- 
gim  against  the  new  archbishop  by  the  priest  Paul 
Harris,  in  his  '^Olfactorium"  and  other  brochures. 
Archbishop  Fleming  convened  and  presided  at  a  pro- 
vincial synod  of  the  province  of  Dublin  in  1640.  When 
the  Ck)nfederate  War  broke  out  (I64I-I642)  the  arch- 
bishop, though  rather  a  man  of  peace,  felt  constrained 
to  take  sides  with  the  Ck>nfederates  and  despatched  a 

Erocurator  to  represent  him  at  the  synod  of  the  clergy 
eld  in  Kilkenny  (May,  1642).  Later  on,  when  the 
general  assembly  was  convoked  at  Kilkenny  for  Oc- 
tober, the  archbishop  resolved  to  attend  personally 
and  take  part  in  the  deliberations.  As  might  be  ex- 
pected from  his  antecedents,  and  especially  from  his 
connexion  with  the  Anglo-Irish  nobility  of  the  Pale, 
he  was  opposed  to  the  "thorough"  policy  of  the  Old 
Irish,  ana  wished  for  peace  at  all  costs.  In  1643  he  was 
one  of  the  prelates  who  siened  the  commission  em- 
powering representatives  of  the  Confederates  to  treat 
with  Ormond  for  a  cessation  of  hostilities.  He  also 
opposed  Scarampa  and  Rinuccini.  the  latter  of  whom 
was  strongly  identified  with  the  Old-Irish  party.  In 
1649,  when  all  was  lost,  and  the  defeated  Irish  were 
confronted  with  Cromwell,  a  reconciliation  was  ef- 
fected with  Ormond  at  a  synod  of  bishops,  a  step 
*  which  Archbishop  Fleming  favoured.  But  even  then 
King  Charles  could  not  recognize  his  real  friends,  and 
the  alliance  was  broken  off.  The  remainder  of  the 
archbishop's  life  was  much  disturbed  by  religious  per- 
secution carried  on  by  the  government  of  Cromwell. 
He  died  in  1655,  and  the  severity  of  the  persecution 
may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  until  1669  no  suc- 
cessor coulabe  appointed.  The  diocese  was  admin- 
istered by  vicars  until  the  nomination  of  Peter  Talbot 
in  1669. 

Mo  RAN,  Wiatary  of  the  Caiholie  Archbiahopa  of  Dublin  (Dub- 
lin, 1864);  D'Alton.  Archbiahtma  of  DubRn  (Dublin,  1838); 
MoRAN,  iSpietlecKum  Oaeoriense  (Dublin,  1874);  De  Busoo,  Hi' 
hernia  Dominicana  (Kilkenny,  1762);  Gilbert,  History  of  Irish 
Confederation  (Dublin,  1882,  1891). 

James  MacCaffret. 

Fletcher,  John,  missionary  and  theologian,  b.  at 
Ormskirk,  England,  of  an  old  Catholic  family*  edu- 
cated at  Douai  and  afterwards  at  St.  Gregory's,  Paris; 
d.  about  1848.  After  ordination  to  the  priesthood  he 
became  a  professor  at  the  College  at  St-Omer.  of 
which  his  great-uncle.  Rev.  William  Wilkinson,  nad 
been  president.  When  the  French  Revolution  broke 
out  he  was  taken  prisoner  with  the  other  collegians 
and  spent  many  months  in  captivity  at  Arras  and 
Dourlens.  After  thev  were  released  in  1795  he  re- 
turned to  England  ana  acted  as  priest  first  at  Hexham, 
then  at  Blackburn,  and  finally  at  Weston  Underwood 
(1827),  the  seat  of  the  Throckmortons.  Having  acted 
for  a  time  as  chaplain  to  the  dowager  Lady  Inrock- 
morton  he  took  charge  of  Leamington  Mission  (1839- 
1844).  He  removed  thence  to  Northampton  in  1844 
and  resided,  owing  to  his  great  age,  in  1848,  after 
which  his  name  does  not  appear  in  the  '^  Catholic 
Directory ",  though  his  death  is  not  therein  recorded. 
Dr.  Fletcher's  works  are:  "Sermons  on  various  Relig- 
ious and  Moral  Subjects  for  all  the  Sundays  after  Pen- 
tecost" (2  vols.,  1812,  1821);  the  introduction  is  "An 
Essay  on  the  Spirit  of  Controversy",  also  published 
separately;  "The  Catholic's  Manual",  translated  from 
Bossuet  with  a  commentary  and  notes  (1817,  1829) ; 
"Thoughts  on  the  Rights  and  Prerogatives  of  Church 
and  State,  with  some  observations  upon  the  question 
of  Catholic  Securities"  (1823);  "A  Comparative  View 
of  the  Grounds  of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant 
Churches"  (1826);  "The  Catholic's  Prayerbook", 
compiled  from  a  MS.  drawn  up  in  1813  by  Rev.  Joseph 
Berington  (q.  v.);  "The  Prudent  Christian;  or  Con- 


rUBTS 


102 


FLEUBY 


siderations  on  the  Importance  and  Happiness  of  At- 
tending to  the  Care  of  Our  Salvation '^(1834);  "The 
Guide  to  the  True  Religion"  (1836);  "Transubstan- 

tiation:  a  Letter  to  Lord "  (1836);  "On  the  Use 

of  the  Bible";  "The  Letters  of  F^nelon,  with  illustra- 
tions" (1837);  "A  Short  Historical  View  of  the  Rise, 
Progress  and  Establishment  of  the  Anglican  Church" 
(1843).  He  translated  Blessed  Edmund  Campion's 
"Decem  Rationes"  (1827);  de  Maistre's  "Letters  on 
the  Spanish  Inquisition"  (1838):  and  F^nelon's  "Re- 
flections for  Every  Day  of  the  Month"  (1844).  He 
also  brought  out  an  edition  of  "My  Motives  for  Re- 
nouncing the  Protestant  Religion"  by  Antonio  de 
Dominis  (1828). 

Catholie  Magazine  (1833),  III.  112;  Butlkr,  Hiatoneal 
Memoirs  of  Bng.  Caiholics  (London.  1819).  II.  321:  (1822).  IV. 
441;  GiLLOW.  Bt'M.  IHci,  Eng.  Caih.  (London,  1886).  B.  v.; 
CooPEB  in  J>ul.  Nat.  Biog.  (London.  1889).  a.  v. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Flete,  WiLUAM,  an  Augustinian  hermit  friar,  a  con- 
temporary and  great  friend  of  St.  Catherine  of  Siena: 
the  exact  place  and  date  of  his  birth  are  unknown  and 
those  of  his  death  are  disputed.  He  was  an  English 
mystic,  and  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury;  educated  at  Cambridge,  he  afterwards  joined  the 
Austin  Friars  in  England,  out  desiring  a  stricter  life 
than  they  were  living,  and  hearine  that  there  were  two 
monasteries  of  his  order  which  had  returned  to  the 
primitive  discipline  near  Siena,  he  set  out  for  Italy. 
On  reaching  the  forest  of  Lecceto  near  Siena,  in  which- 
one  of  these  monasteries  stood,  he  found  the  place, 
which  abounded  in  caves,  so  suited  to  the  contempla- 
tive life,  that  with  the  consent  of  his  superiors  he 
joined  this  community.  Henceforth  he  spent  his  days 
m  study  and  contemplation  in  one  of  these  caves,  and 
returned  to  the  monastery  at  night  to  sleep.  He  was 
called  the  "Bachelor  of  the  Wood";  here  he  became 
acouainted  with  St.  Catherine,  who  occasionally  vis- 
itea  him  at  Lecceto  and  went  to  confession  to  him. 
He  had  so  great  a  love  for  solitude,  that  he  declined  to 
leave  it  when  invited  by  Pope  Urban  VI  to  go  to  Rome, 
to  assist  him  with  his  counsel  at  the  time  of  the  papal 
schism,  then  disturbing  the  Churoh. 

He  wrote  a  long  panegyric  on  St.  Catherine  at  her 
death,  which,  with  another  of  his  works,  is  preserved  in 
the  public  library  at  Siena.  For  at  least  nineteen 
years  he  led  a  most  holy  and  austere  life  in  this  wood, 
and  is  said  by  Torellus  to  have  returned  to  Englana 
immediatelv  after  St.  Catherine's  death  in  1383,  and 
after  introducing  the  reform  of  Lecceto,  to  have  died 
the  same  year.  Others  say  he  died  in  1383,  but  there 
is  no  mention  of  his  death  in  the  book  of  the  dead  at 
Lecceto,  and  the  exact  date  of  it  is  uncertain.  He 
was  considered  a  saint  by  his  contemporaries. 

None  of  his  works  have  been  printed:  they  consist 
of  six  MSS.;  (1)  an  epistle  to  the  provincial  of  his  or- 
der; (2)  a  letter  to  the  doctors  of  the  province;  (3)  an 
epistle  to  the  brethren  in  general;  (4)  predictions  to 
the  English  of  calamities  coming  upon  England  (in 
this  he  prophesied  that  England  would  lose  the  Catho- 
lic faith^;  (5)  divers  epistles;  (6)  a  treatise  on  reme- 
dies against  temptations.  A  fifteenth  century  MS.  of 
this  1^  is  now  in  the  Universitv  Library  at  Cam- 
bridge, to  which  it  was  presented  by  George  I. 

Obsinghb.  Bibliolheca  Auguatiniana  (1768),  343-5^  Drans, 
The  History  of  St.  Catherine  of  Siena  and  her  Compontons  (Lon- 
don. 1887). 

Francesca  M.  Steele. 

Flemioty  ZI:naide-Marie-Anne,  a  French  novel- 
ist, b.  at  Saint-Brieuc,  12  September^  1829;  d.  at 
Paris,  18  December,  1890.  She  published  her  first 
novel,  "  Les  souvenirs  d'  une  douairi^re",  in  1859,  and 
its  success  led  her  to  adopt  the  literary  profession. 
Either  under  her  real  name  or  the  pseudonym  of 
"Anna  Edianes  de  Saint-B.",  she  published  a  large 
number  of  novels,  most  of  which  were  intended  for 
women  and  girls.    She  was  a  constant  contributor  to 


"Le  Journal  de  la  jeunesse"  and  "La  Bibliothdque 
rose",  whose  aim  is  to  provide  young  people  with  un- 
objectionable reading.  Her  novels  are  written  in  a 
simple,  easy  style  which  leaves  the  reader's  whole  at- 
tention free  to  occupy  itself  with  the  interest  of  the 
story;  they  are  Catholic  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
for  they  not  only  contain  no  unorthodox  opinion,  but 
present  none  of  those  evil  suggestions  with  which  so 
many  writers  have  won  popularity  and  lucre.  The 
following  deserve  to  be  specially  mentioned:  "La 
vie  en  Fanulle"  (Paris,  1862);  "  La  clef  d'or"  (Paris, 
1870);  "Le  th^tre  ches  soi"  (Paris,  1873);  "Mon- 
sieur Nostradamus"  (Paris,  1875);  "Sans  beauts" 
(Paris,  1889). 

Labousbe,  Supplhneni  au  I>iclionnaire  universel  du  XIX* 
siide. 

Pierre  Mariqub. 

Fleury  (more  completely  FLEURY-SAiNT-BENotT), 
Abbey  of,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  Bene- 
dictine abbeys  of  Western  Europe.  Its  modem  name 
Is  SaintrBenott-sur-Loire,  applicable  both  to  the  monas- 
tery and  the  township  with  which  the  abbey  has  alwavs 
been  associated.  Situated,  as  its  name  implies,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Loire,  the  little  town  is  of  easy  access 
from  Orldans.  Its  railway  station,  St-Benoltr— St- 
Aignan  (Loiret)  is  a  little  over  a  mile  from  the  old 
Floriacum.  Long  before  reaching  the  station,  the 
traveller  is  struck  by  the  imposing  mass  of  a  monastic 
chureh  loomine  up  solitary  in  the  plain  of  the  Loire. 
The  chureh  of  Floriacum  has  survived  the  stately 
habitation  of  abbot  and  monks.  The  list  of  the 
abbots  of  Fleury  contains  eighty-nine  names,  a  noble 
record  for  one  single  abbey.  From  Merovingian 
names  like  St.  Mommolus,  and  Carlovingian  names 
like  St.  Abbo,  we  come  upon  names  that  arouse  differ- 
ent feelings,  like  Odet  de  Coli^y  (Cardinal  de  Ch&tU- 
lon),  Armand  du  Plessis  (Cardinal  de  Richelieu) .  llie 
last  twenty-two  abbots  held  the  abbey  in  commendam. 
The  list  closes  with  Georges- Louis  Ph^lypeaux,  Arch- 
bishop of  Bourges,  in  1789.  Tradition,  accepted  by 
Mabiflon,  attributes  the  foimdation  of  Fleury  to  Leo- 
debaldus,  Abbot  of  St-Aisnan  (Orleans)  about  640. 
B|efore  the  days  of  the  monks  there  was  a  Gallo-Roman 
villa  called  Floriacum,  in  the  Vallis  aurea.  This  was 
the  spot  selected  by  the  Abbot  of  St-Aignan  for  his 
foundation,  and  from  the  very  first  Fleury  seems  to 
have  known  the  Benedictine  rule.  Rigomarus  was 
its  first  abbot. 

Chureh  building  must  have  made  busy  men  of  many 
abbots  of  Fleury.  From  the  very  start  the  abbey 
boasted  of  two  churches,  one  in  honour  of  St.  Peter 
and  the  other  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  This 
latter  became  the  great  basilica  that  survived  every 
storm.  In  1022  Abbot  Gauzlin  started  the  erection  of 
a  gigantic  feudal  tower,  intendinc;  it  to  be  one  day  the 
west  front  of  the  abbey  chureh.  His  bold  plan  became 
a  reality,  and  in  1218  the  edifice  was  completed.  It  is 
a  fine  specimen  of  the  romanesque  style,  and  the  tower 
of  Abbot  Gauzlin,  resting  on  fifty  columns,  forms  a 
unique  porch.  The  church  is  about  three  hundred 
feet  long  and  one  hundred  and  forty  feet  wide  at  the 
transepts.  The  crypt  alone  would  repa^  an  artist's 
journey.  The  choir  of  the  church  contains  the  tomb 
of  a  Ffench  monarch,  Philip  I,  buried  there  in  1108. 
But  the  boast  of  Fleury  is  the  relics  of  St.  Benedict, 
the  father  of  Western  monasticism.  Mommolus,  the 
second  Abbot  of  Fleury,  is  said  to  have  effected  their 
transfer  from  Monte  Cassino  when  that  abbey  fell  into 
decay  after  the  ravages  of  the  Lombards.  Nothing 
is  more  certain  than  the  belief  of  western  Europe 
in  the  presence  of  these  precious  relics  at  Fleury.  To  - 
them  more  than  to  its  flourishing  schools  Fleury  owed 
wealth  and  fame,  and  to-day  French  pietv  surrounds 
them  with  no  less  honour  than  when  kings  came 
thither  to  pray.  The  monks  of  Monte  Cassino  impugn 
the  claims  of  Fleury,  but  without  ever  showing  any 
relics  to  make  good  their  contention  that  they 


103  FLBUBT 

the  body  of  the  foimder.    No  doubt  tliere  is  tnudi  timidity  when  at  the  outbrealt  of  the  War  of  the  Aus- 

fabulous  matter  in  the  Fleury  accounts  of  the  famous  trian  Succession  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Geneial  KOnig- 

transfer,  but  we  must  remember  they  were  written  at  ieck,  in  which  he  seemed  to  apolo^ie  for  this  war. 

the  time  when  even  good  causes  were  more  effectually  But,  in  truth,  Fleury  was  simply  anticipating  the 

defended  by  introducing  the  supemBtural  than  by  the  policy  of  the  renveraemerU  dea  aUianeet  (breaking  up  of 

most  obvious  natural  explanations.               ,  the  Blliances),  which  began  in  1756,  and  which  by  unlt- 

MineJa  Saneii  Btnidictt.  ed.  de  Csbtaih  (Puis.  iSSSIj  ins  France  and  Austria  was  to  be  more  in  oonfonnity 

"^;Sr;&BS!S!l& RS£"!K.-!S;'i'!f&'S  -Sh  ».  C.lholic  XMim,  a  M  oouotri,     Th. 

RaualtdtS.  flmott-iui^Linrr!  (Orlteoa.  ise9);   M*biluin,  An-  opuuon  of  historians  like  Vandal  and  Uasson  With  !«- 

Twta  O.S.B..  \\   Chuiabc,  Lti  Tttitpim  de  S.  Bnioti  (Puie,  taxd  to   this  Tenversemtnt  da  aUianeet,  ao  Iohb  Uie 

1S82):  T«m.  n.  Woods.  Soi-.*  *""%^ar"Vo^er  "''jf*  °'  criticism,  tends  to  justify  Cardinal  Ffeury. 
During  the  period  of  Fleury's  power  Jansemsm  was 

nanry,  ANDRt-HencnLE  de,  b.  at  liOdive,   26  g&ining  ground  among  the  masses  as  a  superstitious 

June,  1653;  d,  at  Paris,  29  January,  1743.    Hewasa  sect,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  miracles  of  the  deacon  PAris, 

Srot^of  Cardinal  while  among  the  upper 
e  Bonsi  and  became  cUbms  it  took  shape 
chaplain  to  Maria  as  a  political  faction. 
Theresa  in  1679,  and  Fleury  wsa  the  min- 
to  Louis  XIV  in  1683.  ister  who  had  to  con> 
He  was  appointed  tend  with  a  Jtinsenist 
Bishop  of  Fr^juB  in  opposition  in  the  Par- 
1 69S,  but  resigned  the  liament  of  Paris.  He 
see  in  1715,  when  he  reserved  to  royal  au- 
received  the  Abbey  of  thority  all  matters 
Toumua  and  was  ap-  relating  to  the  Jan- 
pointed  tutor  to  the  senista,  one  conae- 
young  Louis  XV.  quence  of  which  was 
NaturaUy  cold  and  a  "strike "on  the  put 
iniiMrturbable,  he  re-  ofthemagistratesand 
mained  in  the  back-  lawyers,  which  Fleury 
ground     during     the  repressed   by  certain 


regency.  When  Louis  measures  of  severity, 

XV  attained  bis  ma-  He  became  a  member 

jority  in  1723,  it  was  of   the   Academy   in 

at    the    instance     of  1717  and  was  the  first 

Fleury  that  the  Due  to  propose  sending  a 

de  Bourbon  was  made  scientific    expedition 

prime    minister,    and  to  the  far  north  and 

auarrelling  with   the  to  I^ru  to   n 

uke,   Fleury   pre-  the   degrees    ■ 

tended    to    retire    to  meridian. 

Issy.  Louis  XV,  how-  „          ,,^  .     ,,.  . 

ever,    wno     aomirea  1SA3-6B)'  Bahbibb,  Jour- 

and  loved  his  tutor,  -  lul     huioniiut     (P&ri>, 

sent   the   duke   into  1867);  D'AmaBHaoH 

.ju.,  „d  .,t™t.d  Srsi/SsSiSts 

the    government    to  (P&ru.     iTSii;    Lacbb- 

Fleury.    True  to  his  nux,  HuMniU  Fmntt 

lubif  of  di»^tio„,  tssrj»»"S"ffss 

and    accustomed,    as  km  Imu  xv  (Paris, 

DucloB  savB     "to  1881-73):  Due Di;  B«oo- 

l...i.n»    n.=    ^i.,.i„...."  UK.  Li  Cardinal  dtFltury 

bndlB   the   envious   ,  ttlaPmirnatitutimpiT^ 

he  never  Bssumed  the  in  Ami*  kiitongut  (1SS3) 

title  of  prime  minister.                             AmiBi-HuctJU  Ouuimu.  oa  Pudbt  Gsoitais  Gotao 
He  was  made  cardinal             Wnted  by  Jmquw  Autreui— En(T«Ted  by  H.  S.  Thomssdn 

in  September,  1726,  and  until  his  death  remained  the  Fleiir7,Ci.AUDB,  Church  historian  and  educator;b. 

guiding  spirit  in  French  politics.  at  Paria,  6  December,  1640;  d.  14  July,  1725.    The 

Oom^nng  the  three  cardinals,  d'Argenson   said:  son  of  a  lawyer  from  Nomiandy,  he  received  a  tho- 

"  Richelieu  bled   France,    Hazarin   purged   it,    and  rough  education  at  the  renowned  Jesuit  CoU^e  of 

Fleury  put  it  on  a  diet".    He  alluded  in  this  banter-  Clermont,  devoted  himaelf  subsequently  to  legal  stud- 

tng  way  to  the  cardinal's  policy  of  economy  which,  ies,  and  in  1658  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  venr  earlv 

among  other  drawbacks,  retarded  the  development  of  age  of  eighteen.     For  nine  years  he  applied  himself 

the  French  mihtarj^  marine  at  the  very  period  when  earnestly  to  his  calling  and  continued  his  studies  in 

the  mercantile  marine  thanks  to  private  enterprise,  jurisprudence,  but  interested  himself  also  in  history, 

was  making  considerable  progress.     In  spite  of  this,  literature,  and  archeology.    Sipially  gifted,  mdus- 

however,  Fleury  had  the  qualities  of  a  great  minister,  trious,  and  of  a  gentle  dispositbnrhe  soon  won  for  him- 

He  WM  the  first  to  foresee  that  France  would  not  self  the  patronage  of  the  peat.    He  frequented  the 

always  be  at  enmity  with  the  Hapsburws.     In  con-  houseof  M.deMontmor  and  the  salon  of  Guillaumede 

nexion  with  the  Polish  succession  and  the  Duchy  of  Lamoignon,  firat  president  of  the  Pariement  of  Paris, 

Lorraine,  he  availed  himself  of  the  able  advice  of  the  where  he  met  the  intellectual  celebrities  of  France, 

diplomat  Chauveiin,  when  it  became  necessary  to  play  Boesuet,  Bourdaloue,  Boileau,  etc.    His  deeply  reli- 

a  cautious  game  with  Austria.     But,  as  Vandal  says,  gious  spirit  and  his  leaning  towards  a  life  of  quiet  re- 

the  poliCT  of  Chauveiin  was  that  of  the  past.     Fleury,  tiremcnt  led  him  to  form  the  resolution  to  abandon 

m  redoubling  his  efforts  to  bring  about  as  quickly  as  the  law,  to  study  theology,  and  to  embrace  the  priestly 

posBihle    pleasant    relations    between   the    King    of  calliiig.     The  date  of  his  ordination  is  unknown,  but  it 

»ance  and  the  emperor,  was  the  precursor  of  Choiaeul,  certamly  took  place  before  1672,  when,  at  Bossuet's 

Veigennea,    and   Talleyrand.    He   was  accused   of  suggestion,  he  was  appointed  tutor  (sous-pricepteur) 


rUBXTBT 


104 


FLKUBT 


to  the  Princes  de  Conti,  whom  Louis  XIV  wished  to  be 
educated  with  the  Dauphin.  During  the  succeeding 
period,  he  published  his  first  important  works.  Later 
appeared  two  books,  containing  the  fruits  of  his  legal 
studies:  "Histoire  du  droit  frauQais"  (Paris,  1674) 
and  "Institution  au  droit  eccl^iastique"  (Paris. 
1677).  The  latter  of  these  works  was  at  first  issued 
anonymously,  but  subsequently  (1687)  appeared  under 
the  author's  name.  In  these  writings  Fleury  shows 
himself  to  be  an  outspoken  Galilean.  That  he  was  a 
pronounced  follower  of  Bossuet  in  this  regard  appears 
also  from  his  ''Discours  sur  les  liberty  de  rliiglise 
callicane",  written  in  1690.  His  position  as  teacher 
led  him  to  the  study  of  pedagogics,  and  as  early  as 
1675  he  wrote  at  Bossuers  suggestion  his  "Traits  du 
choix  et  de  la  m^thode  des  etudes",  which  was  pub- 
lished at  Paris  in  1686.  For  the  instruction  of  his 
pupU  and  as  a  practical  application  of  the  principles 
expounded  in  his  treatise,  he  wrote  a  series  of  three 
works:  " Les  mceurs  des  Israelites"  (ftiris,  1681).  "  Les 
mceursdes  Chretiens"  (1682).  and  the  "Grand  cat^ 
chismehistorique"  (1683).  Meanwhile  he  maintained 
his  dose  relations  with  Bossuet.  who  was  ever  a  zeal- 
ous patron  of  the  able  and  inaustrious  teacher,  and 
translated  into  Latin  (1678)  his  "  Exposition  d^  la  foi 
catholique". 

Upon  completing  the  education  of  the  Princes  de 
Conti,  Fleury  was  (1680)  appointed  tutor  to  the 
Comte  de  Vermandois,  the  legitimized  son  of  Louis 
XIV  and  Louise  de  La  Valli^re.  On  the  death  of  the 
young  count  in  1684,  Louis  XIV,  in  token  of  his  ^pre- 
ciation  of  Fleury 's  tutorial  services,  appointeci  nim 
Abbot  of  Loc-Dieu  in  the  Diocese  of  Khodez,  and 
Fleury  devoted  himself  sealously  to  the  duties  of  his 
pastoral  charge.  He  preached  nequently  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Meaux,  and  accompanied  the  Abb^  F^nelon  on 
his  missionary  journeys  in  Sainton^  and  Poitou,  after 
the  abrogation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685),  both 
labouring  diligently  and  with  great  success  for  the 
conversion  olthe  Huguenots^  At  the  same  time 
Fleury  continued  his  literary  pursuits,  and  in  1685  he 
publi&ed  a  "Life  of  Marguerite  d'Arbouze,  Abbess 
and  reformer  of  the  Abbey  of  Val-de-Gr&ce,  and  in 
1688  the  treatise  entitled  "  Devoirs  des  mattres  et  des 
domestiques ' '.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  recalled  to 
the  court,  and  in  1689,  on  F^neloix's  recommendation, 
was  appointed  tutor  (sous-priScepteur)  to  the  grand- 
sons of  Louis  XIV,  the  young  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  of 
Anjou,  and  of  Berry.  He  .continued  at  this  post  for 
sixteen  years,  and  lived  at  the  brilliant  court  the  same 
modest,  retired  life,  devoted  to  his  duties  as  teacher 
and  to  nis  studies .  During  this  period  his  leisure  hours 
were  given  mainly  to  the  composition  of  his  "  Histoire 
ecd^iastique'\  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared 
in  1691.  in  tnis  ^at  work,  the  principal  literary 
fruit  of  the  remaining  years  of  his  life,  the  author  dis- 
closes once  more  his  leanings  toward  Gallicanism. 

In  recognition  of  his  literary  services  Fleury  was 
chosen  in  1696  to  fill  La  Bruydre's  seat  in  the  Acad- 
emy, was  offered  the  Bishopric  of  Montpellier,  which 
however,  he  refused.  When  in  1697,  on  the  appear- 
ance of  the  "Maximes  des  saints",  a  Quietistic  con- 
troversy broke  out  between  Bossuet  and  F^nelon, 
Fleury,  as  the  prot^  of  F^nelon,  was  in  danger  oi 
sharing  his  patron's  disfavour  at  court.  Bossuet, 
however,  proved  a  true  protector,  and  Fleury  was 
rescued  from  F^nelon's  fate,  and  allowed  to  retain  his 
place  as  tutor  to  the  princes.  In  1706,  as  a  reward  for 
nis  services,  the  king  appointed  Fleury  prior  of  Notre- 
Dame  d'Argenteuil,  near  Paris.  On  receiving  this 
appointment,  Fleury  resigned  forthwith  his  Abbacy  of 
Loc-Dieu.  as  he  was  opposed  to  the  cumulation  of 
ecclesiastical  benefices,  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
continuation  of  his  "Histoire  eccl^siastique".  On  a 
subsequent  occasion,  he  was  again  summoned  to  court 
to  fill  an  important  and  responsible  position.  On  the 
death  of  Louis  XIV,  the  regent,  wishing  to  secure  a 


trustworthy  and  learned  cleric  who  held  neither  Jan- 
senistic  nor  Molinistic  views^  and  who  mig^t  be  trusted 
to  represent  Galilean  principles,  appointed  Fleury  as 
confessor  to  the  young  King  Louis  XV.  Fleuty  con- 
tinued to  fill  this  office  until  1722,  but  then  resigned  on 
the  plea  of  old  age,  and  until  his  death  lived  a  life  of 
the  closest  retirement  in  Paris. 

Fleury  was  a  righteous,  pious,  universally  respected 
pastor,  a  conscientious,  devoted  teacher,  a  talented 
and  profound  scholar  and  author.  Most  of  his  works 
have  been  recently  reprinted;  some  have  been  trans- 
lated into  other  languages  and  have  secured  a  wide 
circle  of  readers.  His  comprehensive  "  Histoire  eccl^ 
siastique",  of  which  he  himself  issued  twenty  volumes 
(Paris,  1691-1720),  is  the  most  important  of  his  works 
and  extends  from  the  Ascension  of  (lyrist  to  the  year 
1414.  This  work  is  at  once  instructive  and  edifying; 
its  material  is  carefully  and  fully  treated,  but  all  criti- 
cal examination  is  avoided.  The  facts  are  recorded  in 
elegant  and  well-chosen  laneua^  without  rhetorical 
exaggerations,  and  although  his  judgments  are  tinged 
with  Gallicanism  (especisdly  as  regards  the  papacy), 
they  are  expressed  moderately  and  with  restraint. 
Consequently  Fleury's  work  offers  a  marked  con- 
trast to  the  histories  of  No^  Alexandre  and  Tille- 
mont.  His  "Histoire"  was  received  enthusiastically 
in  educated  circles,  ran  through  several  editions, 
and  was  translated  into  German  (Leipzig,  1752) 
and  Latin  (Auesburg,  1758).  The  Galilean  views 
expressed  in  the  work  have  been  attacked  by 
several  historians,  of  whom  the  most  notable  are 
Honoratus  a  S.  Maria  (Mechlin,  1729),  Baldwin  de 
Housta  (Mechlin,  1733),  N.  Lanteaume  (Avignon, 
1736),  Rossignol  (Paris,  1802),  Marchetti  (Venice, 
1794).  The  ex-Oratorian,  John  Claude  Fabre,  an  ex- 
treme Gallican,  issued  a  continuation  of  Fleury's  work 
in  sixteen  volumes  (Paris,  1722-36),  bringing  the  his- 
tory to  the  year  1595.  This  continuation,  nowever, 
is  neither  in  its  narration  nor  its  workmanship  com- 
parable with  Fleury 's  achievement.  Rondet  added  a 
turther  volume  (XlXXVII)  which  contains  a  table  of 
contents  (Paris,  1754);  Alexander  of  St.  John  of  the 
Cross,  who,  with  the  assistance  of  a  brother  Carmelite, 
had  already  translated  Fleury's  work  into  Latin,  con- 
tinued the  history  to  the  year  1765,  in  thirty-five 
volumes,  and  after  Alexander's  death  another  vol- 
ume (extending  to  1768)  was  added  by  Benno,  a 
member  of  the  same  order.  Father  Alexander  also 
translated  Calmet's  "Histoire  de  I'Ancien  et  du  Nou- 
veau  Testament"  into  Latin,  and  published  it  in 
five  volumes  as  an  introduction  to  Fleury's  work,  so 
that  the  complete  edition  in  Latin  (Auesburg,  1768- 
98)  consists  of  ninety-one  volumes,  with  two  index- 
volumes. 

Amongst  Fleurv's  papers  was  found  a  sketch  in  manu- 
script of  the  ecclesiastical  history  from  1414  to  1517, 
and  this  sketch  was  inserted  in  the  edition  issued  in 
1840  at  Paris.  Several  collections  of  Fleury's  sermons 
and  treatises  have  been  issued  since  his  death,  e.  g.  his 
"Discours"  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1752);  "Traits  du  Droit 
public  en  France"  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1769);  "Opuscules 
de  rabb6  Fleury",  published  by  Rondet  (5  vols.. 
Nhnes,  1780) ;  "  (Euvres  de  Tabb^  Fleury",  published 
by  A.  Martin  (Paris,  1837).  In  conclusion,  it  should 
be  noted  that  the  "  Abr6g6  de  ITiistoire  eccl&iastique 
de  Fleury",  published  at  Berne  in  1766,  with  an  intro- 
duction by  Frederick  II  of  Prussia,  has  no  connexion 
with  Claude  Fleuiy's  ''Histoire  eccl^astique'';  it  la 
a  work  undertaken  at  the  suggestion  of  the  above- 
mentioned  monarch  and  is  dommated  throughout  by 
a  spirit  hostile  to  (Ilhristianity. 

RoNDBT.  Notice  aur  VabM  Fleury  in  Opuaeules  (Nhnea,  1780). 
I;  Mabtin.  Emox  8ur  la  vie  et  les  ouvragee  de  Fleury  in  (Euvrea 

i Paris,  1837);   Du  Pin,  Bibliothkque  dee  auteure  eccUsiaatiquea 
Paris,  1686,  sqq.),  XIX,  110  sqa.;  Hbfblb,  Der  Kirehenhiatori' 
•er  Fleury  in  BettrUge  ntr  Kirchenoeschichie,  ArcK&ologie  una 
LUurgik,  II  (TObingen,  1864),  89  sqq.         ^    _   ^^ 

J.  P.  KiBSCH. 


FLODOABD                             105  VLOBENOI 

Flodoard  (or  Frodoard),  French  historian  and  altar  stone  on  which  St.  Norbert  celebrated  Mass  is 

dironicler,  b.  at  Epemay  in  894;  d.  in  966.   He  was  still  preserved  at  Floreffe.    St.  Norbert  placed  Richard, 

educated  at  Reims,  where  he  became  canon  of  the  one  of  his  first  disciples,  at  the  head  of  the  yoimg  com- 

cathedral  and  keeper  of  the  episcopal  archives.    He  munity.    The  second  abbot,  Almaric,  was  commis- 

yisited  Rome  during  the  pontificate  of  Leo  VII  (936-  sioned  by  Pope  Innocent  II  to  preach  the  Gospel  in 

039)  and  was  shown  much  favour  by  the  pope.    In  Palestine.  Accompanied  bv  a  band  of  chosen  religbus 

gratitude  he  wrote  a  longpoem  in  Latin  hexameters,  of  Floreffe,  he  journeyed  to  the  Holy  Land  and 

celebrating  the  deeds  of  Cnrist  and  of  the  first  saints  founded  the  abbey  of  St.  Habacuo^  (1137).     Philip, 

in  Palestine  and  Antioch,  adding  a  versified  narration  Count  of  Namur ,  gave  to  Weric,  the  sixth  abbot,  a  large 

of  the  history  of  the  popes.  The  whole  work,  which  is  piece  of  the  Holy  Cross  which  he  had  received  from 

legendary  rather  ihka  historical,  was  dedicated  to  nis  brother  Baldwin,  Emperor  of  Constantinople.  The 

Archbishop  Rotbert  of  Trier.    When  his  patron  and  chronicles  record  that  twice,  namely  in  1204  and  1254, 

protector,  Archbishop  Artold  of  Reims,  was  deposed  Blood  flowed  from  this  relic  on  theFeast  of  the  Inven- 

through  the  intrigues  of  the  powerful  H^ribert,  Count  tion  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the  miracle  being  witnessed  by 

of  Vermandois,  Flodoard  remained  loyal  to  him,  and  the  religious  and  by  a  large  concourse  of  people.    At 

after  Artold's  re-«stablishment  became  his  trusted  the  suppression  of  the  Abbey  of  Floreffe.  ine  relic  was 

counsellor.  In  952  he  retired  to  a  monasteiy,  probably  removed  to  a  place  of  safety.    When  a  few  years  ago, 

that  of  St.  Basol,  and  became  abbot.  This  dignity  he  the  Norbertme  canons,  ^o  had  been  expelled  from 

laid  down  when  seventy  years  of  age.  France,  bought  an  old  Augjustinian  Monastery  at  Bois- 

At  the  instance  of  Archbishop  Rotbert  Flodoard  Seigneur-Iscuus,  this  precious  relic  was  restored  to 
undertook  to  write  a  history  of  tne  Church  of  Reims,  them,  so  that  it  b  agam  in  the  custody  of  the  sons  of 
'^Historia  Remensis  ecclesis",  for  which  he  used  the  St.  Norbert.  All  the  abbeys  and  convents  founded 
episcopal  archives  as  well  as  the  writings  of  Bishop  bytheAbb^of  Florefife  have  joeased  to  exist  with  the 
Hincmar.  This  work  is  of  the  greatest  value  on  ao-  exception  of  Postel  and  Leffe.  Louis  de  Fromantau. 
count  of  the  completeness  of  the  material  as  well  as  elected  in  1791,  was  the  fifty-fifth  and  last  abbot  of 
the  truthfulness  of  the  narration.  Flodoard's  otiier  Floreffe.  When  the  French  Republican  army  over- 
great  work  is  the  "Annales'^  which  covers  the  period  ran  Bel^um.  the  religious  were  expelled,  and  the 
from  919  to  966.  With  the  most  painstaking  exactness  abbey  with  all  its  possessions  was  confiscated.  Put  up 
he  narrates  in  plain,  simple  language  all  the  events  for  sale  in  1797,  it  was  bought  back  for  the  abbot  and 
that  happened  during  these  years,  and  thus  tiie  work  his  community.  After  the  Concordat  the  abbot  and  a 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  a  knowledge  of  the  few  of  his  reli^ous  returned  to  the  abbey,  but  so  great 
history  of  France,  Lorraine,  and  the  East  Franconian  were  the  diflSculties  that  after  the  deatn  of  the  last 
realm.  WiUi  this  chronicle  he  was  occupied  almost  relisious  the  abbey  became  the  propertv  of  the  Bishop 
to  the  day  of  his  death.  An  addition  was  made  sub-  of  Namur  and  is  now  the  seat  of  aflourisnine  seminary, 
sequentlytocover  the  period  from  976-978.  The ''His-  F.  M.  Gextdenb. 
toria  Remensis  ecclesiie"  was  first  edited  by  Sirmond 

(Paris,  1611);  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Heller  and  Florence  (L&t..  FlorenHa;  It.  Fireme),  Archdio- 

Waitzinthe  "MonumentaGermanisB  historica:  Scrip-  cess  of  (Florentina),  in  the  province  of  Tuscany 

tores",  XIII,405-599  (Hanover,  1881).  The  "Annales"  (Central  Italy) .    The  city  is  situated  on  the  Amo  in  a 

were  edited  by  Pertz  in  the  same  work.  III,  363-408  fertile  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  Fiesole  hills,  whence 

(Hanover,  1839).    The  poem  was  published  in  Mabil-  came  its  first  inhabitants  (about  200  B.  c).   In  82  b.  c. 

Ion's  "  Acta  Simctonim'',  vol.  Ill  (Paris,  1668-1701).  Sulla  destroyed  it  because  it  supported  the  democratio 

Flodoard's  complete  works  were  published  with  a  party  at  Rome.    In59B.c.  itwasrebuiltbyCsesarat 

French  translation  by  the  Academy  of  Reims  (Reims,  a  short  distance  from  its  original  site.    It  served  then 

1854-55,  3  vols.)  and  in  Migne's  Latin  Patrology,  as  a  military  post  and  commanded  the  ford  of  the 

CXXX  V,  1-886.                                                          •  Amo.    Soon  afterwards  it  became  a  flourishing  munt- 

Wattcnbach,    DeiUschl.    GesehidUsqueaen,   ed.    DOmnxR  cipiunu 

^"^l"j?.  Tl!S-A^^L*S^.^^^&ii%?t^  ,  Eablt  toDiBTAi,  mj«OET,-B«ieged  and  prob- 

414;  HiaL  liiL  de  la  France  (1733-17M,  1814-1866),  VI,  31^  ably  captured  by  Totila  (541),  it  was  retaken  (552)  by 

329.                                              „„„„  "p    T   -D  ?^®  Byzantine  ^neral  Narses.    The  most  famous  <m 

Arthur  F.  J.  Remt.  its  few  antiquities  dating  from  Roman  times  is  the 

Flood.    See  Deluge.  amphitheatre  known  as  the  Parlagio,    In  ancient 

times  it  was  a  town  of  small  importance ;  its  prosperity 

^  Floreffe,  Abbey  of.  pleasantly  situated  on  the  did  not  begin  until  the  eleventh  century.    During  the 

rig^t  bank  of  the  Sambre,  about  seven  miles  south-  Lombard  period  Florence  belonged  to  the  Duchy  of 

west  of  Namur,  Belgium,  owes  its  foimdation  to  God-  Chiusi;  f^ter  the  absorption  of  the  Lombard  kingdom 

frey.  Count  of  Namur,  and  his  wife  Ermensendis.  bv  Charlemagne,  who  spent  at  Florence  the  Christmas 

When  St.  Norbert,  in  the  year  after  the  foundation  of  of  786,  it  was  the  residence  of  a  count  whose  overlord 

his  order,  returned  from  Cologne  with  a  rich  treasure  was  margrave  of  Tuscany.    In  the  two  centuries  of 

of  relics  for  his  new  church  at  J^r^montr^,  Godfrey  and  coi]^ict  between  the  popes  and  the  emperors  over  the 

Ermensendis  went  to  meet  him  and  received  him  in  feudal  legacy  of  Coimtess  Matilda  (d.  1115)  the  city 

their  castle  at  Namur.    So  edified  were  they  with  played  a  prominent  part;  it  was  precisely  to  this  con- 

what  thev  had  seen  and  heard,  that  they  besought  the  flict  that  the  republic  owed  its  wonderful  develop- 

saint  to  lound  a  house  at  Floreffe.    The  charter  by  ment.    During  tnis  period  Florence  stood  always  for 

which  they  made  over  a  church  and  house  to  Norbert  the  papacy,  knowing  well  that  it  was  thus  ensunng  its 

and  his  order  bears  the  date  of  27  November,  1121,  so  own  lioerty.    In  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries 

that  Floreffe  is  chronoloeicallv  speaking,  the  second  the  Florentines  fought  suo^ssfully  against  Fiesole. 

abbev  of  the  order.    Norbert  laia  the  foundations  of  which  was  destroy^  in  1125,  and  against  several 

the  church  which  was  called  Salve,  and  the  abbey  re-  neighbouring  feudal  lords  who  had  harassed  the  trade 

oeived  the  sweet  name  of  Flos  Maris,  the  Flower  of  of  the  town,  the  Alberti,  Guide  Guerra,  the  Buondel- 

Mary.    The  chronicles  of  Floreffe  record  the  following  monti  (whose  castle  of  Montebuoni  was  destroyed  in 

event:  While  celebrating  Mass  at  Floreffe,  the  saint  1135),  the  Uberti.  the  Cadolinghi,  the  Ubaldini,  and 

saw  a  drop  of  Blood  issuing  from  the  Sacred  Host  on  others.    These  nobles  were  all  obliged  to  take  up  their 

the  paten.    Distrusting  his  own  eyes,  he  said  to  the  residence  in  the  town,  and  spend  there  at  least  three 

deacon  who  assisted  him : "  Brother,  do  you  see  what  I  months  of  eve^  year.    In  1 1 13  the  Florentines,  never 

see?"    "  Yes.  Father",  answered  the  deacon,  "  I  see  a  partial  to  the  German  Emperors,  rose  against  the  im- 

drop  of  Blood  which  gives  out  a  brilliant  light. "    The  perial  vicar  in  Florence.    The  first  public  meeting  of 


n.OBlNOI                             106  n.OBlN0S 

the  townsfolk  which  paved  the  way  for  the  establish-  was  forced  to  recall  the  exiled  Guelphs.    The  year 

ment  of  the  ''Commune"  was  convened  by  Bishop  1254  has  been  called  the  year  of  victories.    Siaia,Vol- 

Ranieri  in  1105.    About  the  same  time  they  helped  tezra,  and  Pisa  were  then  constrained  to  accept  peace 

the  Pisans  in  the  conquest  of  the  Balearic  Isles  (1114)  on  severe  terms,  and  to  expel  the  Ghibellines.    In 

asking  no  other  reward  than  two  porphyry  columns  1255  it  was  the  turn  of  Arezso;  Pisa  was  once  more  de- 

f or  the  ^eat  central  doorway  of  the  Baptistery  (San  f eated  at  Ponte  Serchio,  and  forced  to  cede  to  Florence 

Giovanni).    By  1155  they  had  grown  sopowerful  that  the  Castello  di  Mutrone,  overlooking  the  sea.    Hence- 

they  dared  to  close  their  gates  against  Frederick  Bar-  forward  war  was  continuous  between  Pisa  and  Flor- 

barossa.    The  nobles  (magnate,  grandi)^  forced  to  ence  imtil  the  once  powerful  Pisa  passed  completely 

become  citisens,  were  not  slow  in  creatine  disturbances  into  the  power  of  the  Florentines.    In  1260,  however, 

in  the  town  by  their  rival  factions,  ana  in  hindering  Farinata  dedi  Uberti,  leader  of  the  outlawed  Ghibel- 

the  work  of  the  consuls  who  chanced  to  be  displeasing  lines^  with  the  help  of  Siena  and  of  the  German  bands 

to  them.    In  this  wav  there  was  endless  friction  and  in  Eing[  Manfred's  pajr,  but  mostly  by  deceiving  the 

strife,  and  thus  waa  laid  the  foundation  of  the  two  Florentines  into  behaving  that  he  would  betray  Siena 

neat  parties  that  for  centuries  divided  the  city,  into  their  hands,  defeated  (4  Sept.)  the  Florentine 

Guelphs  and  Ghibellines.    The  former  was  demo-  army  of  30,(XX)  foot  and  3,000  horse  in  the  battle  of 

cratic,  republican,  favourable  to  the  papacy;  the  latter  Montaperti.    The  Guelphs  thereupon  chose  odle  for 

was  the  party  of  tne  old  Florentine  aristocracjr  and  the  themselves  and  tJieir  families.    The  people's  govem- 

emperor.    In  1197  the  Tuscan  League  (in  imitation  of  ment  was  again  overturned;  the  citisens  nad  to  swear 

the  successful  Lombard  League)  was  formed  at  San  allegiance  to  King  Manfred,  and  German  troops  were 

Ginesio  between  the  cities  of  Florence,  Lucca,  Siena,  called  on  to  support  the  new  order  of  things.    The 

Prato,  San  Miniato,  and  the  Bishop  of  Volterra,  in  podest^,  Guido  Novello,  was  appointed  by  Manfred, 

presence  of  papal  legates.    These  cities  boimd  them-  After  the  latter's  death  the  Guelphs  again  took  cour- 

selves  on  that  occasion  not  to  acknowled^  the  author-  a^ge,  and  Guido  Novello  was  forced  to  make  conces- 

ity  of  emperor,  kins,  duke,  or  marquis  without  the  ex-  sions.  Finally,  in  1266,  the  people  rose,  and  barricaded 

press  order  of  the  Koman  Church.    At  that  time,  in  the  streets  with  locked  chains;  Guido  lost  couraee  and 

the  interest  of  better  administration,  Florence  abol-  on  4  November,  accompanied  by  his  cavaliy,  fled  from 

ished  its  old-time  government  by  two  consuls,  and  sub-  the  city.    The  popular  government  of  the  guild-mas- 

Btituted  a  podestd,  or  chief  magistrate  (1193),  with  a  ters  or  priors  (Capi  deUe  arti)  was  restored;  Charles  of 

council  of  twelve  consuls.    In  1207  a  law  waa  passed  Anjou,  brother  of  St.  Louis  of  France  and  King  of 

which  made  it  obli^tory  for  the  pModestJl  to  be  an  out-  Naples,  was  called  in  as  peace-maker  {paciere)  in  1267, 

aider.    The  legislative  power  originally  resided  in  the  ana  was  appointed  podest^.    Florence  took  again  the 

Statuto.  a  commission  nominated  by  the  consuls,  lead  in  the  Tuscan  League,  soon  began  hostilities 

After  tne  introduction  of  a  podestjk  it  was  exercised  by  against  the  few  remaining  Ghibelline  towns^  and  with 

the  priors  of  the  chief  guilds  (the  arUs  majores),  seven  the  help  of  Pope  Nicholas  III  succeeded  m  ridding 

in  number  (carpenters,  wool-weavers,  skinners,  tan-  itself  of  the  embarrassing  protection  of  King  Charles 

ners,  tailors,  shoemakers,  and  farriers),  to  which  were  (1278).    Nicholas  also  attempted  to  reconcile  the  two 

afterwards  added  thefourteenlesserguilds  (the  judges,  factions,  and  with  some  success.    Peace  was  con- 

the  notariea-public,  doctors,   money-chuigers,  and  eluded  (Cardinal  Latini's  peace)  in  1280  and  the  exiles 

others).    To  nold  any  public  office  it  was  necessarv  to  returned. 

belong  to  one  or  other  of  these  guilds  (arti) ;  the  nobles  The  government  was  then  carried  on  by  the  podest& 

were  therefore  wont  to  enter  their  names  on  the  books  and  the  capitano  del  popolo,  aided  by  fourteen  buoni 

of  the  wool-weavers'  guild.    The  mana^ment  of  all  uomt'nt,  i.  e.  reputable  citizens  (eight  Guelphs  and  six 

political  affairs  rested  with  the  Signona,  and  there  Ghibellines),  afterwards  replaced  by  three  (later  six) 

was  a  kind  of  public  parliament  which  met  four  times  gpld-masters,  elected  for  two  months,  during  which 

a  year.    Pubhc  business  was  attended  to  by  the  po-  time  thev  lived  together  in  the  palace  of  the  Signoria. 

destjk,  assisted  in  their  turns  by  two  of  the  consuls.  Nor  could  they  be  re-elected  till  after  two  years. 

GuxLFBB  AND  GHIBELLINES. — ^A  broken  engage-  There  were,  moreover,  two  councils,  in  which  also 

ment  between  one  of  the  Buondelmonti  and  a  daugb-  the  guild-masters  took  part.    As  a  result  of  the  assist- 

terof  the  house  of  Amidei,  and  the  killing  of  the  youne  ance  Florence  gave  Genoa  in  the  war  against  Pisa 

man,  were  the  causes  of  a  fierce  civil  strife  in  1215  and  (1284  and  1285)  its  territory  was  greatly  extended, 

long  after.    Some  sided  with  the  Buondelmonti  and  The  victorv  at  Campaldino  (1289)  over  Ghibelline 

the  Donati,  who  were  Guelphs;  others  sympathised  Areszo  established  firmly  the  hej^mony  of  Florence  in 

with  the  Axnidei  and  the  Ubeiti,  who  were  Ghibellines.  Tuscanv.    In  1293  Pisa  was  obhged  togrant  Florence 

Up  to  1249  the  two  factions  fought  on  sight;  in  that  the  right  to  trade  within  its  walls.    Fresh  troubles, 

year  Emperor  Frederick  II,  who  wished  to  have  Flor-  however,  were  in  store  for  Florence.    In  1293  the  bur- 

ence  on  his  side  in  his  struggle  with  the  papacy,  sent  jesses,  exulting  in  their  success,  and  acting  under  the 

the  Uberti  reinforcements  of  German  mercenaries  influence  of  Giano  della  Bella,  excluded  the  nobles 

with  whose  aid  they  drove  out  the  Buondelmonti  and  from  election  to  the  office  of  guild-master.    On  the 

80  many  of  their  followers  that  the  Guelph  party  was  other  hand,  even  the  lesser  guilds  were  allowed  to  re- 

completely  routed.    The  Ghibellines  straightway  es-  tain  a  share  in  the  government.    To  crown  the  insult 

tablished  an  aristocratio  government  but  retained  the  a  new  magistrate,  styled  gonfaloniere  di  giuatizia.  was 

podestJL    The  people  were  deprived  of  their  rights,  appointecTto  repress  all  abuses  on  the  part  of  the 

Dut  they  assembled  on  20  October,  1250,  in  the  church  nooles.    The  latter  chose  as  their  leader  and  defender 

of  Santa  Croce  and  deposed  the  podestjk  and  his  Ghi-  Corso  Donati;  the  burgesses  gathered  about  the  Cerchi 

belUne  administration.     The  government  was  then  family,  whose  members  had  grown  rich  in  trade.   The 

entrusted  to  two  men,  one  a  poaest&,  the  other  a  Capi-  common  people  or  artisan  class  sided  with  the  Donati. 

iano  dd  Pcmoh  (captain  of  the  people),  both  of  them  In  1295  (xiano  della  Bella  was  foimd  guilty  of  violating 

outsiders;  besides  these  the  six  precincts  of  the  town  his  own  ordinances,  and  was  forced  to  leave  Florence, 

nominated  each  two  ansianif  or  elders.    For  military^  The  opposing  factions  united  now  with  similar  factions 

purposes  the  town  was  divided  into  twenty  gonfalont,  m  Pistoia;  that  of  the  Cerchi  with  the  Bianchi  or 

or  banner-wards,  the  country  around  about  into  sixty-  Whites,  that  of  the  Donati  with  the  Neri  or  Blacks, 

six,  the  whole  force  being  under  the  command  of  the  To  restore  peace  the  guild-masters  in  13(X)  exiled  the 

ffonf<doniere.    The  advantage  of  the  new  arrangement  leaders  of  both  factions;  among  them  went  Dante  Ali- 

was  quickly  shown  in  the  wars  against  neighbouring  ghieri.    The  leaders  of  the  Bianchi  were,  however, 

towns,  once  their  allies,  but  which  had  faUen  under  soon  recalled.    Thereupon  the  Neri  appealed  to  Boni- 

QhibeUine  oontroL    In  1253  Pistoia  was  taken,  and  face  VIII,  who  persuaaed  Charles  of  valoisi  brother  of 


TLOHXHOI  107  TLOBBVOI 

Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  to  visit  Florence  as  peace-     ical,  and  military  viciasitudea  the  proHperity  of  Flor- 
maker.    He  at  once  recalled  the  Donati,  or  Nen,  and    ence  oever  ceaaed  to  grow.    Majestic  churchea  aroae 
Kt  aaide  the  remonatraDcea  of  the  Biaacbi,  who  were    amid  the  din  of  arms,  and  aplendid  palaces  were  built 
once  more  expelled,  Dante  among  them.     The  exilea     on  all  Bides,though  their  owners  must  have  been  at  all 
a^otiated  succeasively  with  Pisa,  Boli^aa,  and  the     timea  uncertain  of  peaceful  posseaaion.     At  the  date 
chiefa  of  the  Ghibelline  part^  for  assistance  against  the    we  have  now  reached  forty~8ix  towns  and  walled  ea»- 
Neri;  for  a  while  they  aeemed  to  infuse  new  life  into     teiii,amongthemFie8oleandEmpoli,acknowledgedtbe 
the  GhibeUine  cause.     Before  long,  however,  both  pai^     authority  of  Florence,  and  every  year  ita  mint  turned 
ties  aplit  up  into  petty  factions.    In  1304  Benedict  XI    out  between  350,000  and  400,000  gold  florins,    ita 
eesayed  in  vain  to  restore  peace  by  causing  the  recall     coinage  waa  the  choicest  and  most  reliable  in  Europe, 
of  the  exiles.     The  city  then  became  the  wretched     The  receipts  of  ita  exchequer  were  greater  than  those 
scene  of  incendiary  attempts,  murders,  and  robberies,     of  the  Kings  of  Sicily  and  Aragon.    Merchants  from 
In  1306  the  Ghibellines  were  once  more  driven  out,     Florence  thronged  the  markets  of  the  known  world, 
thanks  to  Corso  Donati  (/(  Boron*),  who  aimed  at     and    eatabhshM    banks   ' 
tyrannical  power  and  was  soon  hated  by  rich  and  poor    the  city  itself  there  were 
alike.    Aided  by  his  father-in-law,  Uguccione  della 
Faggiuola,Ieaderof  theOhibellinesin  Romagna,  he  at- 
tempted to  overthrow  the  Signoria,  accusing  it  of  cor- 
rupUon  and  venality.     The  people  assembled  and  the 
guild-masters  condemned  him  aa  a  traitor;  he  shut 
Himaelf  up  in  his  fortreae-Uke  house,  but  soon  after- 
wards fell  from  his  horfle  and  was  killed  (13  Sept., 
1303). 

In  1310  Emperor  Henry  VII  invaded  Italy,  and 
obliged  succesaively  the  citiea  of  Lombardy  to  tecog- 
nise  his  imperial  authority.  The  Florentine  exiles 
(particularly  Dante  in  his  Latin  work  "  De  Mon- 
arehia"),  alao  the  Pisans,  ardently  denounced  Fioi^ 
ence  to  the  emperor  as  the  hotbed  of  rebellion  in  Italy. 
Great  was,  therefore,  the  terror  in  Florence.  All  the 
exiles,  aave  Dante,  were  recalled;  but  in  order  to  have 
an  ally  againat  the  emperor,  whose  overlordshlp  they 
refused  to  acknowledge,  they  did  homage  to  Robert, 
King  of  Naples.  On  hta  way  to  Rome  (1312)  Henry 
found  the  gates  of  Florence  closed  againat  him.  He 
besieged  it  in  vain,  while  Florentine  money  fanned  the 
flames  of  further  revolt  in  all  the  cities  of  Lombardy. 
On  hia  return  journey  in  October  he  was  ^^in  obiised 
to  abandon  his  siese  of  Florence.  At  Pisa  he  laid 
Florence  under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  deprived  it  of 
all  ri^ts  and  privileges,  and  permitted  trie  counter- 
feiting  of  its  coinage,  the  famous  "florins  of  Kan  Gio- 
vannP'.  Pisa  and  Genoa  were  now  eaeer  for  revenas 
on  their  commercial  rival,  when  suddenly  Henry  di^. 
The  Pisans  then  elected  as  podeatit  the  aforesaid  ex- 
iled Florentine,  Uguccione  delia  Faggiuola,  who  be- 
came master  of  several  other  towns  of  which  Lucca  Facabi  or  tbb  CATHaoBAi.  (8.  Uabi*  dbl  Fiokb),  Fujbkicb 
was  the  moat  important  (1314).     In  1315  he  defeated  OwLgned  by  Bruiu!ll«w» 

the  Florentines  near  Montecatini,  and  already  beheld  aimed  at  sovereignty  over  all  Tuscany.  Anns  and 
tlorence  in  hia  power  and  himself  master  of  Tuscany,  money  won  for  it  Pistoia  1 1329)  and  Areiio  (1336). 
Unfortunately,  at  this  juncture  Lucca,  under  Castruo-  It  aided  Venice  (1338)  against  Mastino  della  8cala,  a 
cioCastracane,rebelledagBinsthimanddrovehimout,  peril  to  Florence  since  he  became  master  of  Lucca, 
nor  waa  he  ever  able  to  return.  Caatruccio,  himself  a  Knowing  well  the  commereiai  greed  of  the  Florentines, 
Ghil)ellinc,  was  a  menace  to  the  liberty  of  the  Tuscan  Maatino,  to  free  himself  from  their  opposition,  offered 
League,  always  Guelph  in  character.  After  a  guer-  to  sell  them  Lucca.  But  the  Pisans  could  not  allow 
rilla  warfare  of  three  years,  the  army  of  the  League  their  ancient  enemy  to  come  so  near;  they  took  up 
under  Raimondo  Cardona  was  defeated  at  Altopascio  arms,  captured  Lucca,  and  defeated  the  Florentines  at 
(1325),  though  the  Florentines  succeeded  in  making  I^  Ghiaia  (1341).  Seeing  now  that  their  militia 
good  their  retreat.  To  ensure  the  safety  of  the  city,  needed  a  skilful  leader,  the  Florentines  offered  the 
Florence  offered  Charles,  Duke  of  Calabria,  son  of  command  and  a  limited  dietatorahip,  firat  to  Jacopo 
KingRobertofNaplea,  the  Signoria  for  ton  yeara.  He  Gabrielli  d'Agabio,  and  when  he  proved  unfit,  to  a 
came,  and  greatly  curtailed  the  privileges  of  the  citi-  French  freebooter,  Gauthier  de  Brienne  (1342),  who 
tens.     Happily  for  Florence  he  died  in  1329.   Iliere-     styled  himself  Duke  of  Athena  on  the  strensth  of  his 

Xn,  Florence,  having  regained  ita  freedom,  remod-  descent  from  the  dukes  of  Achaia.  He  played  hia 
1  its  government,  and  created  five  magistracies:  part  so  skilfully  that  he  waa  proclaimed  Signora  for 
(1)  guild-mastera  {prion)  or  supreme  administrative  life.  In  this  way  Florence  imitated  most  other  Italian 
power;  (2)  the  Gonfalonieri  charged  with  the  military  cities,  which  in  their  weariness  of  popular  government 
operations;  (3)  the  capUani  di  ■parte  (Guelphs,  com-  had  by  this  time  chosen  princes  to  rule  over  them, 
mon  people);  (4)  a  board  of  trade  {Giiid\ci  di  com,-  Gauthier  de  Brienne,  however,  became  despotic,  fa- 
mereio') ;  (5)  consuls  for  the  guilds  {Conioii  delle  arti)  voured  the  nobility  and  the  populace  (alwaya  allies  in 
Moreover,  two  councils  or  assemblies  were  established,  Florence),  and  haraaaed  the  rich  middle-class  families 
one  composed  of  three  hundred  Gueiphs  and  the  hum-  (Altoviti,  Medici,  Rucellai,  Ricci).  The  populace 
bier  citiiena,  the  other  of  various  groups  of  rich  and  soon  tired  of  him,  and  joined  by  the  peasants  (genii 
poor  under  the  presidency  of  the  podesti.  These  del  corUado),  they  raised  the  cry  of  "liberty"  on  26 
councils  were  renewed  every  four  months.  July,   1343.     Gauthier's  soldiers  were  slain,  and  he 

Later  MaousvAL  Hwroar. — It  has  always  been  a    waa  forced  to  leave  the  city.    But  the  newly  recovered 
oauae  for  winder  that  amid  so  many  political,  econom-    liberty  of  Florence  was  dearly  bou^t.     Ita  subject 


TLoaiHaK  los  noxmroi 

towna  (AreiEO,  CoUe  di  Vol  d'Elaa,  and  San  Gemini-  the  payment  of  100,000  fiorina,  in  lieu  of  all  paat 
ano)  declared  tbemaelvea  independent;  Piatoia  joined  claims  {regalia),  and  a  promise  of  4000  florins  aonually 
witiiFi^;  Ottavianode'Belforti waslordofVoltorra.  during  his  life.    The  Florentines  could  hardly  eak 
Tbei«  waa  now  an  interval  of  peace,  during  which  the  more  complete  autonomy.    The  populace,  it  ia  true, 
greater  guilds  (known  as  the  povoUt  graxao)  strove  opposed  even  this  nominal  aubmisaion,  but  it  was  ex- 
gradufilly  to  reatrict  the  rights  ot  the  lesser  guilds,  plained  to  them  that  their  libertiea  were  untouched. 
which  in  the  end  found  themselves  shut  out  from  all  In  1360  Volterra  returned  again  to  Florence,  and  war 
public  offices.     Aided  by  the  populace  they  threat-  with  Pisa  followed.     Piaa  sought  the  help  of  Bemabd 
ened  rebellion,  and  secured  thus  the  abolition  of  the  Viaconti;   after  a  prolonged  conflict  the  Florentines 
more  onerous  laws.  won  the  decisive  battle  of  San  Savino  (13&4),  and 
It  was  now  tits  turn  of  the  humblest  classes,  hith-  peace  was  declared.     In  1375  the  inquisitor,  Fra  Pie- 
erto  without  political  ri^ts.    Clearly  they  had  reaped  tro  d'Aquita,  having  exceeded  his  powers,  the  Sienoria 
no"  advantage  from  their  support  of  the  small  hour-  restricted  his  authority  and  conferred  on  the  ordinary 
geoisie,  and  so  they  resolved  to  resort  to  arms  in  their  civil  oourta  jurisdiction  in  all  criminal  caaea  of  ecctesi- 
own  behalf.    Thus  came  about  the  revolution  of  the  astics.    This  displeased  the  pope;  and  in  consequence 
Ciompi  (1378),    so  called   from    the   wool    carders  Guillaume  de  Noellet,  papal  legate  at  Bologna,  di- 
(ctompOi^'liouixlBrHiclielediLaQdDscized thepalace  reeled  against  Tuscany  the  band  of  mercenaries 
of  t])e  Signoria,  and  proclaimed  their  leader  gonfalon'  knownasthe"WhiteCompany"(C(ifnpagniafitan«a). 
iere    di    giuxtitia.  Florence  bad  hitherto  been  undeviatin^y  faithful  to 
They  instituted  the  Holir  See;it  now  began  to  rouse  against  the  pope, 
three  new  guilds  in  not  only  the  cities  of  Romagna  and  the  Marches,  but 
which  all  artisans  even  Rome  itself.     Bi^ty  cities  joined  in  the  move- 
were    to    be    in-  ment.     Gregoiy  XI  thereupon  placed  Florence  under 
scribed,  and  which  interdict  (1376),  and  allowed  anyone  to  lay  hands  on 
had    equal   civil  the  goods  and  persons  of  the  Florentines.     Nor  was 
rights   with   the  this  a  mere  threat;  the  Florentine  merchants  in  Eng- 
otherguilds.  Hich-  land  were  obliged  to  return  to  Florence,  leaving  their 
ele,    fearing    that  property  behind  them.    Not  even  the  intercession  of 
the  popular  tumult  St.  Catharine  of  Siena,  who  went  to  Avignon  for  the 
would    end    in    a  purpose,  could  win  pardon  for  the  city.     It  waa  only  in 
restoration  of  the  1378,  aftertheWestemSchisrahadbegun,  that  Urban 
Signoria, went  over  VI  absolved  the  Florentines.    Even  then  the  people 
to   the   burgesses;  compelled  the  offending  magistrates  to  give  ample 
aft«r  a  sanguinary  satisfaction  to  the  pope  (Gherardi,  La  guerra  de'  fio- 
eonflict  the  Ciompi  lentini  con  papa  Gregorio  XI,  detta  guerra  de^  otto 
were  put  to  flight,  santi,  Florence,  1869).^  Florence  now  beheld  with  no 
The  nch  burgesses  little  concern  the  political  progress  of  Gian  Galeauo 

were     now     more  Viaconti,  Lord  of  Milan.    By  the  acquisition  of  Pisa  he 

BApn«WBTOFaGH.v«wi.F^™c  ^'?  !"*^''"^^  ^  8?;°*^  a  wvetod  foothold  in  Tuscany.    The 

Biu-imiB-  jji^ii  before,  which  Florentines  aided  with  his  numerous  enemies,  all  of 

did  not  remove  the  discontont  of  the  lesser  guilds  ^uid  whom  were  anxious  to  prevent  the  formation  of  an 

the  populace.    This  deep  discontent  was  the  source  of  Italian  sole  monarchy.    Viaconti  was  victorious,  but 

the  Di^liant  fortune  of  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  son  of  be  died  in  1402,  whereupon  Florence  at  once  laid  siMO 

Bicci,  the  richest  of  the  Florentine  bankers.  to  Piaa.    In  1405  Giovanni  Maria  Visconti  sold  the 

Apropos  of  Uiis  world-famous  name  it  mav  be  said  town  to  the  Florentines  for  200,0(X}  florina;  but  tiw 

here  that  the  scope  of  this  article  permits  only  a  brief  Pisans  continued  to  defend  their  city,  and  it  waa  not 

reference  to  the  great  influence  ol  medieval  Florence  till  140G  that  Gino  Capponi  captured  it.     A  revolt  that 

as  an  industrial,  commercial,  and  financial  centre.    In  broke  out  soon  after  the  surrender  waa  repressed  with 

the  woollen  inaustry  it  was  easily  foremost,  particu-  great  severity.    The  purchase  (1421)  of  the  port  of 

tariy  in  Uie  dyeing  and  final  preparation  of  the  manu-  Leghorn  from  Genoa  for  100,000  gold   florina  save 

factured   eooda.     Its   banking   oousea  were   famous  Florence  at  last  a  free  passage  to  the  sea,  nor  dioTthe 

Uirough  all  Europe,  and  haa  for  clients  not  only  a  citizens  long  delay  to  compete  with  Venice  and  Genoa 

multitude  of  private  individuals,  but  also  kings  and  for  the  trade  of  the  African  and  Levantine  coasts 

popee.  -As  financial  agents  of  the  latter,  the  merca-  (1421).     In  1415  the  new  constitutions  of  the  republic 

tores  ■pajKt,  1^  Florentines  were  to  be  found  in  all  the  were  promulgated.     They  were  drawn  up  by  the  fa- 

chielnationalcentres.andexercised  no  little  influence,  mous  juriste  Paolo  di  Castro  and  Bartolonuneo  Volpi 

(See  H.  do  B.  Gibbins,   "History  of  Commerce  in  of  the  University  of  Florence. 

Europe",  London,  1892;    Peruzzi,  "Storia  del  com-         Thb  Medici. — Naturally  enough,  theae  numeroua 

mercio  e  dei  banchieri  di  Firense  in  tutto  il  mondo  da  wars  were  very  costly.      Consequently  early  in  the 

1200  fino  a  1345",  Florence,  1868;   Tonioto,  "Dei  fifteenth  century  the  taxes  increased  greatly  and 

rimoti  fattori  della  potenia  economica  di  Firenze  nel  with  them  the  popular  discontent,  despite  the  strongly 

medio  evo",  Milan,  1882;  G.  Buonazia,  "L'arte  della  democratic  character  o(  the  city  government.     Cer- 

lana"   In  "Nuova  Antologia",  1870,  XIII,  327^25.)  tain  families  now  beean  to  assume  a  certain  promi- 

To  take  up  the  thread  of  our  narrative,  several  nence.    Maso  degli  Albizii  was  captain  of  the  pieople 

events  of  interest  had  meanwhile  occurred.     In  1355  tor  thirty  years;  after  his  death  other  families  sought 

^nperor  Charies  III  appeared  before  Florence.     The  the  leaderuiip.     Giovanni  di  Bicci  de'  Medici,  to  brmg 

city  had  become  more  cautious  as  it  grew  in  wealth  about  a  more  equal  distribution  of  taxation,  proposed 

and   did  not,   therefore,   venture  to  resist  him;    it  the  eatasto,  i.  e.  an  income-tax.     This  made  him  v^ 

seemed  wiser  to  purchase,  with  gold  and  a  nominal  popular  and  he  was  proclaimed  Gonfaloniere  for  life 

submission,  entailing  as  few  obligations  as  possible,  (1421).     His  son  Coeimo  (d.  1464)  inherited  his  im- 

present  security  ana  actual  independence.     The  citi-  mense    riches   and    popularity,    but    his   generositjr 

lens  Bivore  allegiance  on  the  underHtanding  that  the  brought  him  under  suspicion.     The  chief  men  of  the 

emperor  would  ratify  the  laws  made  or  to  be  made  in  greater   guilds,    and   especially   the   Albiizi   family, 

Florence;  tbat  the  members  of  the  Signoria  (elected  bv-  chatted  him  with  a  desire  to  overthow  the  govem- 

tbe  citizens)  should  be,  ipao  fado,  vicars  imperial;  ment andhe waaexiledtoPadua(t433).     In  1434 the 

that  neither  Uie  emperor  himself  nor  any  envoy  of  his  new  Signoria,  favourable  to  Coeimo,  recalled  him  and 

4hoi|ldQn(«rttietown;  Ifa&t be ehould be OKitent mtb  ^ve  bua  the  proud  title  of  Pater  Potrta,  i.  e.  fftthw 


nOBEXOS                               109  IXOHXHOK 

of  hia  oounti;.    In  1440  the  AUiiaai  were  outlawed,  had  now  reached  the  acme  of  its  power  and  preetiga. 

and  Coaimo  found  hia  path  clear.    He  eerupulouslv  re-  The  sack  of  Rome  (1527)  and  the  misfortunes  of  Cle- 

tained  the  old  form  of  government,  and  refrained  from  ment  VII  caused  a  third  exile  of  the  Medici.    Ippo- 

all  arbitrary  mcasurea.     He  woe  opea-handed,  built  lito  and  Alessandro,  cousins  of  the  pope,  were  dnven 

palaces  and  villas,  also  churchee  (San  Marco,  San  Lor-  out. 

etuo) ;  his  costly  and  rare  library  was  open  to  aU ;  he  In  the  peace  concluded  between  Emperor  Charles  V 

Etronized  scholars  and  encourofcd  the  arts.     With  and  Clement  VII  it  was  agreed  that  the  Medici  rule 

n  began  the  golden  age  of  the  Medici.     The  republic  should  be  reetored  iu  Florence.     The  citiBene,  how- 

now  annexed  the  district  of  Casentino,  taken  from  the  ever,  would  not  Uaten  to  this,  and  prepared  for  reeist- 

Viaconti  at  the  Peace  of  Qavriana  (1441).     Coeimo's  ance-     Their  army  was  defeated  at  Gavinana  (1530) 

son  Piero  was  by  no  means  equal  to  his  father;  never-  through  the  treachery  of  their  general,  Malateata  Ba- 

theless  tite  happy  ending  of  tKe  war  against  Venice^  glioui.     A  treaty  was  then  made  with  the  emperor, 

the  former  ally  ol  Florence,  shed  glory  on  the  Medici  Florence  paid  a  heavy  war-indemnity   and  reeailed 

name.     Piero  died  in  1469,  whereupon  his  sons  Lor-  the  exiles,  and  the  pope  granted  a  free  amnesty.     On 

enzo  and  Giuliano  were  created  "princes  of  the  State"'  5  July,  1^1,  Alessanaro  de'  Hedici  returned  and  took 

(prineipi  delta  Slato).     In  1478  occurred  the  conspir-  the  title  of  Duke,  promising  i^egiance  to  the  emperor. 

acy  of  the  Pazzi,  to  whose  ambitious  plans  Loreneo  Clement  VII  dictated  a  new  constitution,  in  which 

was  an  obatacle.     A  plot  was  formed  to  kill  the  two  among  other  things  the  distinction  between  the  greater 

Medici  brothers  iu  the  cathedral  on  Easter  Sunday;  and  the  leaser  guilds  was  removed.    Alessaodro  was  a 

Giuliano  fell,  but  Lorenzo  escaped.     The  authors  of  manof  disaolutebabita,  and  wasstabbed  todeathbya 

the  plot,  among  them  Francesco  Sal viati.  Archbishop  distant  relative,  Loreniino(1536),  no  bettor,  but  more 

tk  Pisa,  perishM  at  the  hands  of  the  an^ry  populace,  clever,  than  Aleesaudro.     The  murderer  fled  at  onoe 

Sixtus  IV,  whose  nephew  Girolamo  Riario  was  also  an  from 'Florence.     Hie  party  of  Alesaandro  now  offered 

accomplice,  hiid  the  town  under  an  interdict  because  of  the  ducal  office  to  Coemto  de'  Medici,  son  of  Giovanni 

themurdcrof  Salviati  and  the  PazKi,  and  supported  by  delle  Bande  Nere.  He  avenged  Uiedeathirf  Aleesan- 
the  Kine  of  Naples  threatened  to  go  to  war.  Hostili- 
ties had  actually  btyun,  when  Corenio  set  out  for 
Naples  and  by  his  diplomatic  tact  induced  King  Al- 
fonso to  make  peace  (14S0) ;  this  obh^ed  the  pope  also 
to  come  to  terms.  Meanwhile,  despite  his  almost  un- 
Umited  inSueoce,  Lorenzo  refused  to  be  anything  else 
than  the  foremast  eitixea  of  Florence.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  Siena,  all  Tuscany  now  acknowledged  the 
rule  of  Florence  and  offered  the  spectacle  of  an  exten- 
sive principality  governed  by  a  republic  of  free  and 
equal  citizens.  I^renzo  died  in  1492.  (See  the  life  of 
liorenzo  by  Roecoe,  IJverpool,  1795,  and  often  re- 

Erinted;  also  the  German  life  by  A.  von  Reumont, 
eipiig,  1874,  and  Eng.  tr.  by  R.  Harrison,  London, 
1876.) 

Lorenco  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Piero,  but  he  did 
Dot  long  retain  popularity,  especially  after  be  had 
ceded  the  fortresses  of  Pietra  Santa  and  Fontremoli  to 
Charles  VIII  c^  France,  who  entered  Italy  with  the 
avowed  purpose  of  overthrowing  the  Aragonese  do- 
minion in  Naples.  The  popular  displeasure  reached  dro  and  finally  transformed  the  government  into  an 
tt£  acme  when  Piero  pawned  the  towns  of  Pisa  and  absolute  principality.  This  he  didbfgradualHr  equal- 
Leghorn  to  the  French  king.  He  was  driven  out  and  icing  the  political  status  of  the  inhabitants  of  Florence 
the  former  republican  government  restored.  Charles  and  of  the  subject  cities  and  districts.  This  is  the  last 
VIII  enterea  Florence  and  endeavoured  to  have  stage  in  the  political  history  of  Florence  as  a  distinct 
Fiero's  promisee  honoured;  but  the  firmneas  of  Piero  state;  henceforth  the  political  history  of  the  city  is 
Capponi  and  a  threatened  uprising  of  the  people  that  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany.  When  the  new 
forced  the  French  king  to  quit  Tuscany  (1494).  There  Kingdomof  Italy  was  proclaimed  in  1861  Florence  was 
xvere  at  that  time  three  parties  in  Florence :  the  Medi-  chosen  as  the  seat  of  government  and  remained  such 
oean  party,  known  as  the  Palleschi  (from  the  patle  or  till  1871. 

little  balls  in  the  Medici  coat  of  arms),  the  ohgarchio  Few  cj^es  have  affected  more  profoundly  the  course 

republicans,  called  the  Arrabiati  (enraged),  and  the  of  civilization.     In  many  ways  mankind  has  drawn 

democrats  or  Piagnotii  (weepers).     The  last  had  for  from  Florence  its  highest  inspiration.     Among  the 

chief  the  Dominicau  friar,  Girolamo  Savonarola  of  greatpoet8DantewasaFlorentine,whilePetrarchand 

Ferrara,  who  hoped  by  their  aid  to  restore  in  Florence  Boccaccio  were  sons  of  Florentines.    Among  the  great 

piety  and  a  Christian  discipUne  of  life,  i.  e.  to  establish  painters  Giotto  found  in  Florence  patronage  tuod  a 

in  the  city  the  Kingdom  of  Christ.     In  fact,  Christ  was  proper  field  for  his  genius.     Fra  Angelico  (Gioranni  da 

publiclyproclaimed  Lord  or  Sicrnort  of  Florence  (.Rex  Fieeole)  was  a  Florentine,  likewise  MasaocioandDonar 

populiFlorenlini).     (For  the  irreligious  and  rational-  telle.    Unrivalled  sculptors,  like  Lorenzo  Gkiberti  and 

latic  elements  in  the  city  at  this  period  see  GmcciAB-  Michelangelo,  architects  like  Brunelleachi,  unireiBal 

Dun  and   Uachtavblu).     Savonarola's  intemperate  savants  l£e  Leone  Battista  Alberti,  shine  like  brilliant 

speecbee  were  the  occasion  of  his  excommunicatioUj  gems  in  the  city's  diadem  of  fame,  and  mark  in  some 

and  in  1498  he  was  publicly  burned.    The  Arrabiati  respects  the  highest  attainments  of  humanity.    Flor- 

were  then  in  power.    In  1512  Cardinal  Giovanni  de'  ence  was  lon^  tfie  chief  centre  of  the  Renaissance,  the 

Hedira  purchased  at  a  great  price  the  support  of  the  leadersof  which  were  either  citizens  or  welcome  ^eats 

Spani^  captiun  Cardona  and  sent  him  to  Florence  to  c^  that  city,  e.  g.  Michael  Chrysoloras,  Giovanni  Arra- 

demand  the  return  of  the  Medici.     Fearing  worse  evils  ropulOj  Leonardo  Bruni,  Cristoforo  Landolfo,  Niccola 

the  people  eoneented,  and  Lorenzo  II,  son  of  Piero,  Niccoh,  Pico  della  Miraodola,  and  others  scarcely  less 

was  recalled  as  prince.     Cardinal  Giovanni,  however,  distinguished  for  their  devotion-  to  Greek  and  Latin 

kept  the  reins  of  power  in  his  own  hands.    As  Leo  X  literature,  philosophy^  art,  and  antiquities.    It  was 

he  sent  thither  Cardinal  Giulio  de'  Medici  (the  natural  capable  at  the  same  time  of  an  incredible  enthunaam 

■oao(aiii]iMio),BftflnrardaClaneatVII.    The  family  fw  Plato,  whom  men  like  Marsilio  Fioino  wished  to 


by  Orca^na,  Ghirlandaio,  and  Fra  Lippo  Lippi.    In  its 
Rucoellai  chapel  is  the  famous  Madonna  of  Cimabue. 


n.OBEN0X                             no  rLOBlNOB 

see  eanomMd(Sievekmg,Ge8ch.der  platen.  Akademie  dral  of  Florence,  around  which  in  Lombard  times 

lu  FlorenZy  GOttingen,  1812),  and  o!  an  equally  pas-  (seventh  and  eighth  centuries)  the  cit^  grew  up.  Some 

sionate  seal  for  the  restoration  of  all  things  in  Christ  have  maintained  that  it  rises  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 

Ssee  Savonarola).  For  its  r61e  in  the  restoration  and  temple  of  Mars.  Dante  mentions  it  twice  with  ven- 
evelopment  of  classical  literary  taste,  both  Greek  eration  in  the  Paradiso  (xv,  136^37;  xvi,  25-27). 
and  Latin,  see  Humanism,  and  for  its  share  in  the  The  three  massive  bronse  doors  of  the  Baptistery  are 
growth  of  the  fine  arts  see  Renaissancb.  unparalleled  in  the  world;  one  of  them  is  the  work  of 
iNBTmrnoNS  AND  Buildings. — ^Florence  is  the  seat  Andrea  Pisano  (1330),  the  remaining  two  are  the 
of  a  University,  and  possesses  also  an  institute  of  social  masterpieces  of  Lorenso  Ghiberti  (140^^7),  and  were 
science,  conservatory  of  music,  a  botanical  garden,  and  declared  by  Michelangelo  fit  to  serve  as  the  gates 
an  observatory  (astronomical,  meteorological,  and  of  paradise.  Santa  Groce  (Franciscans)  is  a  Gothic 
seismological).  Various  scientific  societies  have  their  church  (1294-1442), 'with  frescoes  by  Giotto  and  his 
centres  there,  e.  e.  the  Aocademia  della  Crusca,  whose  school.  It  is  a  kind  of  national  Pantheon,  and  con- 
famous  Italian  dictionary  is  one  of  the  glories  of  the  tains  monimients  to  many  illustrious  Italians.  In  the 
city.  The  city  has  four  libraries  containing  many  cloister  stands  the  chapel  of  the  Passi  family,  the  work 
rare  manuscripts.  The  Biblioteca  Nazionale,  one  of  of  Brunelleschi,  with  many  rich  friezes  by  Uie  della 
the  largest  ana  most  important  in  Europe,  founded  in  Robbia.  (Ozanam,  "Sainte  Croix  de  Florence"  in 
1861  by  merger  of  the  famous  Magliabecchiana  and  ''Pontes  franciscains  ital.",  Paris,  1852,  273-80). 
the  former  fPitti)  Bibliotheca  Palatina:  the  Lauren-  Santa  Maria  Novella,  the  Dominican  counterpart  of 
tiana,  founded  in  1444  by  Cosimo  de  Medici;  the  Santa  Croce,  begun  in  1278  by  Fra  Jacopo  Talenti  da 
Marucelliana,  containing  a  collection  of  brasses;  the  Nipozzano,  is  also  a  Gothic  eaifice.  The  facade  is  by 
Riccardiana.  The  State  archives  are  the  most  im-  Leone  Battista  Alberti.  The  church  contains  frescoes 
portant  in  Italy.  Various  art  collections  are:  the 
Ufifizi  Gallery;  the  Pitti,  in  the  old  palace  of  the  grand 

dukes;  the  archsological  museum  with  its  fine  colleo-  Or  San  Michele,  a  unic]ue  artistic  monument,  was 
tion  of  coins  and  tapestries;  the  Museum  of  the  Duo-  meant  originally,  it  is  said,  for  a  corn-market,  but  was 
mo  or  cathedral;  theAccademiadelle  belle  arti (Acad-  remodelled  in  1336.  On  the  exterior  walls  are  to  be 
en^of  the  Fine  Arts);  and  the  Casa  Buonarroti  (house  seen  admirable  statues  of  the  patron  saints  of  the 
of  Michelangelo).  The  charitable  institutions  include:  various  Florentine  guilds,  the  work  of  Verrocchio, 
'  the  Great  Hospital  (Arcispedale)  of  Santa  Maria  Donatello,  Ghiberti,  and  others.  San  Lorenzo,  dc^i- 
Nuova  (1800  beds),  foundea  in  1285  by  Falco  Porti-  cated  in  393  under  the  holy  bishop  Zanobius  by  St. 
nari,  the  father  of  Dante's  Beatrice;  the  Hospital  of  the  Ambrose,  with  a  sermon  yet  preserved  (P.  L.,  AlV, 
Innocents,  or  Foundline  Hospital  (1421) ;  a  home  for  107),  was  altered  to  its  present  shape  (1421-61)  by 
the  blind;  an  insane  asylum,  and  many  private  chari-  Brunelleschi  and  Manetti  at  the  instance  of  Cosimo  de' 
ties.  Medici.  It  contains  in  its  sacristies  (ATuova,  Veechia) 
Among  the  numerous  charitable  works  of  Florence  tombs  of  the  Medici  by  Verrocchio,  and  more  famous 
the  most  popularly  known  is  that  of  the  ''Conf rater-  ones  by  Michelaneelo.  San  Marco  (1290),  with  its 
nitik  della  Misericordia",  founded  in  1244,  and  at-  adjacent  convent  .decorated  in  fresco  by  Fra  Angelico 
tached  to  the  oratory  of  that  name  close  by  the  cathe-  was  the  home  also  of  Fra  Bartolommeo  della  Porta, 
dral.  Its  members  belong  to  all  classes  of  Florentine  and  of  Savonarola.  Santissima  Trinity  contains  f res- 
society,  the  highest  as  well  as  the  lowest,  and  are  ooes  by  Ghirlandaio.  Santa  Maria  del  Carmine,  con- 
bound  to  quit  all  work  or  occupation  at  the  sound  of  tains  the  Brancacci  Chapel,  with  frescoes  by  Masaccio, 
tiie  oratory  bell,  and  hasten  to  any  scene  of  accident,  Masolino^  and  Filippino  Lippi.  Other  monumental 
violent  illness,  sudden  death,  and  the  like.  The  cos-  or  histonc  churches  are  the  Santissima  Annunziata 
tume  of  the  brotherhood  is  a  rough  black  robe  and  gir-  (mother-house  of  the  Servites)  and  the  Renaissance 
die,  with  a  hood  that  completely  covera  the  head  ex-  church  of  Ognissanti  (Franciscan), 
oept  two  loopholes  for  the  eyes.  Thus  attired,  a  little  Several  Benedictine  abbeys  have  had  much  to  do 
group  may  frequently  be  seen  hastening  through  the  with  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Florence.  Among 
streets  of  Florence,  bearing  on  their  shoulders  the  sick  them  are  San  Miniato,  on  the  Amo,  about  twenty-one 
or  the  d^id  to  the  specific  institution  that  is  to  care  for  miles  from  Florence,  restored  in  the  eleventh  century, 
them  (Bakounine,  "La  mis^ricorde  k  Florence"  in  since  the  seventeenth  century  an  episcopal  see  (Cap- 
"Le  Correspondant",  1884,  80S-26).  pelletti,  "Chiese  d'  Italia",  Venice,  1862,  XVII,  305- 
The  chief  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  majol-  47;  Rondoni,  ''Memorie  storiche  di  San  Miniato", 
ica  ware,  the  oopyine  of  art  works  and  their  sale,  also  Venice,  1877,  p.  1148);  La  Badia  di  Santa  Maria, 
the  manufacture  of  telt  and  straw  hats.  foundea  in  977  (Galletti,  Ragionamenti  dell'  origine  e 
The  more  noted  of  the  public  squares  o^  Florence  de'  primi  tempi  della  Badia  Fiorentina,  Rome,  1773) ; 
are  the  Piazza  della  Signona  (Palazzo  Vecchio,  Loj^iA  San  Salvatore  a  Settimo,  founded  in  988 ;  Vallombrosa 
de'  Lanzi,  and  the  historic  fountain  by  Ammannati);  founded  in  1039  by  St.  John  Gualbert.  All  of  these 
the  Piazza  del  Duomo;  the  Piazza  di  Santa  Croce,  with  bein^  within  easy  reach  of  the  city,  exercised  strong 
its  monument  to  Dante;  the  Piazza  di  Santa  Maria  religious  influence,  particularly  in  the  long  conflict 
Novella,  adorned  by  two  obelisks.  Among  the  fa-  between  the  Church  and  the  Empire.  Besides  the  pub- 
mous  churches  of  Florence  are  the  following:  Santa  lip  buildings  already  mentioned,  we  may  note  the  Log- 
Maria  del  Fiore,  otherwise  the  Duomo  or  cathedral,  gia  del  Bigallp,  the  Palazzo  del  Podest^  (1255)  now 
begun  in  1296  by  Amolfo  del  Cambio,  consecrated  in  used  as  a  museum,  the  Palazzo  Strozzi,  Palazzo  Ric- 
1436  by  Eusene  IV,  and  called  dd  Fiore  (of  the  flower),  oardi,  Palazzo  Rucellai,  and  several  other  private  edi- 
either  m  r^erence  to  the  name  of  the  city  or  to  the  fices  of  architectural  and  historic  interest, 
municipal  arms,  a  red  lily  on  a  white  ground.  It  is  Episcopal  Succession. — St.  Frontinus  is  said  by 
about  140  yards  long,  and  badly  proportioned.  The  local  tr&dition  to  have  been  the  first  bishop  and  a  dis- 
admirable  Campanile  was  b^un  oy  Giotto,  but  fin-  eiple  of  St.  Peter.  In  the  Dedan  persecution  St.  Mini- 
ished  by  Tadcleo  Gaddi  (1334-36).  The  majestic  atus  (San  Miniato)  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom, 
dome  is  oy  Brunelleschi  (1420)  and  furnished  inspira-  It  is  to  him  that  is  dedicated  the  famous  church  of  the 
tion  to  Michelangelo  for  the  dome.of  St.  Peter's.  The  same  name  on  the  hill  overlooking  the  city.  It  has 
fa^e  was  not  completed  imtil  1887;  the  bronze  doors  been  suggested  that  Miniatus  is  but  a  form  of  Minias 
are  also  a  work  of  recent  date.  The  Baptistery  of  San  (Mena),  tne  name  of  a  saint  who  suffered  at  Alezan- 
Giovaimi  dates  from  the  seventh  century;  it  was  re-  aria.  In  313  we  find  Bishop  Felix  mentioned  as 
modelled  in  1190,  again  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  is  present  that  year  at  a  Roman  imiod.  About  400  we 
octagonal  in  form.    San  Giovanni  was  the  old  cathe-  meet  with  the  above-mentioned  St.  Zanobius.    In  ^e 


u 


3. 


as 


FLOREHOB 


111 


n.OBlN0X 


following  centuries  Florence  sank  into  obscurity,  and 
little  is  known  of  its  civil  or  ecclesiastical  life.  Wiih  St. 
Reparatus  (fl.  679),  the  pKatron  of  the  Duomo,  begins 
the  unbroken  line  of  episcopal  succession.  Among 
the  beet  Imown  of  its  medieval  bishops  are  Gerardo, 
later  Pope  Nidiolas  II  and  author  (1059)  of  the  fa- 
mous decree  on  i>apal  elections;  Pietro  of  Pavia,  whom 
another  Florentine,  San  Pietro  Aldobrandini  (Petrus 
Igneus),  convicted  of  simony  (1062):  Ranieri  (1101), 
wno  preached  that  Antichrist  had  already  come 
(Mansi,  Suppl.  Cone,  II,  217);  Ardeneho,  under 
whom  was  fought  (1245)  a  pitched  battle  with  the 
Patarini  or  Catnarist  heretics;  Antonio  Otso  (1309), 
who  roused  all  Florence,  and  even  his  clergy,  a^inst 
the  German  Emperor  Henry  VII;  An^lo  Acciaiuoli 
(1383),  a  sealous  worker  for  the  extinction  of  the 
Western  Schism;  Francesco  Zabarella  (1410),  cardinal, 
canonist,  and  philosopher,  prominent  at  the  Coimcil 
of  Constance.  When  in  1434  the  see  became  vacant, 
Pope  Eugene  IV  did  it  the  honour  to  rule  it  in  person. 
Other  archbishops  of  Florence  were  Cardinal  Giovanni 
Vit^eschi,  captain  of  Eugene  IV 's  army;  the  Domini- 
can St.  Antoninus  Forcmioni,  d.  1459;  Cosimo  de' 
Paul  (1508),  a  lesuned  humanist  and  philosopher; 
Antonio  Martini,  translator  of  the  Bible  into  Italian 
(1781).  In  1809  Napoleon,  to  the  great  dissatisfac- 
tion of  the  diocese,  imposed  on  Florence  as  its  arch- 
bishop Monsignor  d'Osmond,  Bishop  of  Nancy.  To 
Eugenio  Cecconi  (1874-88)  we  owe  an  (unfinished) 
"Storia  del  concilio  ecumenico  Vaticano"  (Rome, 
1872-79).  Archbishop  Alfonso  Maria  Mistrangelo,  oi 
the  Society  of  the  Pious  Schools  (Scuole  Pie),  was  bom 
at  Savona,  in  1852,  and  transferred  (19  June,  1899) 
from  Pontremoli  to  Florence. 

Saints  and  Popes. — Florence  is  the  mother  of  many 
saints.  Besides  those  already  mentioned,  there  are 
Bl.  Uberto  degli  Uberti,  Bl.  Luca  Mon^li,  Bl.  Dome- 
nioo  Bianchi,  Bl.  Antonio  Baldinuoci,  St.  Catherine 
de*  Ricci,  St.  Mary  Magdalen  de'  Pazzi,  and  St.  Philip 
Neri.  The  Florentine  popes  are:  Leo  X  (1513-21), 
Clement  VII  (1523-34),  Clement  VIII  (1592-1605), 
Leo  XI  (1605),  Urban  VIII  (1623-44),  and  Clement 
XII  (1730-40). 

Since  1420  Florence  has  been  an  archdiocese;  its  suf- 
fragan sees  are:  Bor«>  San  Sepolcro,  Colle  di  Val 
d'Elsa,  Fiesole,  San  Miniato,  Modiguana,  and  the 
united  Dioceses  of  Pistoia  and  Prato.  The  Archdio- 
cese of  Florence  has  800  secular  and  336  regular  clergy; 
479  parishes  and  1900  churches,  chapels,  and  orator- 
ies; 200  theological  students;  44  monasteries  ^men) 
and  80  convents  (women).  In  1907  the  population  of 
the  archdiocese,  almost  exclusively  Catholic,  was 

500.000. 

The  litemtare  of  thu  subject  is  so  extenaive  that  only  a  few 
titles  can  be  hero  given.  Oeneral  bibliocraphieB  will  be  found 
in  Cbbvausb,  Topo-M>l.  (Paris.  1894 — ).  s.  %'.,  and  P.  Bi- 
OAsn,  Fireiue  e  eotUomt,  fnaniuUehiblioorniAioo--hii}arafico  (Flor- 
ence, 1883),  360.  Ecclbbiabtical:— -Cappeixjcttx,  Le  diiea€ 
d: Italia  (Venice,  1861),  XVI,  407-12:  Cbbbachxni.  Cronologia 
ioera  dei  veaeovi  §d  ardveaeovi  di  Firenze  (Florence,  1716); 
Lamio,  /Sacra  Bee,  Florentinm  MonumerUa  (Florence,  1738); 
Gobi,  Haoiolapium  Bee,  Florent,  (Florence,  1787):  Rxcra, 
Notine  itiarime  deUe  chiete  fiorentine  (Florence.  1754-62): 
CoocBi,  Le  dkiess  di  Firenxe  dal  mcoIo  JV  fino  al  »eeolo  XX 
(Floienoe,  1003).  The  reitder  may  also  consult  the  seven- 
teenth-eentury  documentary  work  of  Uorblu,  Italia  Saera, 
III,  14  soq..  and  F.  M.  Fiobbntini,  Hetnuea  nietatia  criginee 
(Luoca,  1701):  also  CSianfoonx  (ed.  Morbni),  Memorie  istariehe 
ddla  Ambronana  banliea  di  San  Lorenzo  (Florence,  1804, 1816, 
17);  LuMACHi,  Metnorie  atoriehe  ddT  antiea  basilica  di  San  Oio- 
vanni  di  Firenze  (Florence,  1782)  andG.  BBPANi.Afemone«tortc^ 
deir  antiea  baaUiea  di  San  Giovanni  di  Firenze  (Florence^  1886); 
GoDKiN,  The  Monaatery  of  San  Marco  in  Florence  (London, 
1887).  For  the  hoepitius  and  other  charitabto  works  of  Flor- 
ence, see  Pabbbbini,  Storia  deali  ^ahUimenti  di  beneficenza  ddla 
eatH  di  Firenze  (Florence,  1853). — For  the  ecclesiastical  sciences 
in  Florence  see  Ckbbachzni,  Caialoffo  generaU  de*  tedogi  ddla 
eeetUa  vmv.  Fiorentina  (Florsnoe,  1726);  Idbm,  Fasti  teoloffiei 
(Florence,  1738);  Schifp,  L*  University  degli  tludi  in  Firenze 
(BoloKna,  1887). 

GnriL: — Florentine  historiosraphy  is  very  rich,  and  may  best 
be  studied  in  special  introductory  works  like  Baiaani,  Le 
Cronaeke  tT Italia  (Milan.  1884).  also  in  Eng.  tr.,  8.  P.  C.  K.:  cf. 
Hbgbu  Udber  die  Anfiinge  der  florentinisdutn  OeschidUsehrei- 
buna  in  8tbbi«  Hist,  Zeitsehrift  (1876),  XXXV,  82-63;  also  the 


pertinent  wzitings  of  ScHRmB-BoxcBOBaT,  e.  m,  Florentine 
Siudien  (Leipsic,  1873).  For  the  Historie  FtorenSne,  or  Chron- 
ica of  GiOYANKi  ViLLANi  (d.  1348),  See  the  Turin  edition  (1870). 
and  for  the  still  more  celebrated  Historie  Fiorentine,  libri  VIII  of 
Machiatblli  see  the  Pabbbbini  edition  (Florence,  1873),  and 
the  Eng.  tr.  in  Bohn's  Standard  Library  (1847).  Among  the 
modem  comprehensive  histories  of  Florence  may  be  mentioned: 
Capponi,  Storia  ddla  repubblica  fiorentina  (3a  ed.,  Florence. 
1886);  ViLLARi,  Storia  di  Firenze  (Milan,  1800);  Idbm,  /  due 
prim%  seeali  ddla  storia  di  Firenze  (Florence,  1803-08);  Pbb- 
RENB,  Histoire  de  Florence  depuis  see  origines  jusgu'6  la  domwia- 
tion  des  MMici  (0  voU.,  Paris,  1877-00);  Hastwio.  QueOcn  und 
Foradiunaen  zur  AUeren  OesdiidUe  der  Stadt  Florenz  (Marbuic, 
1878).  Much  important  material,  both  ecclesiastical  and  otvu« 
for  the  medieval  history  of  Florence,  is  found  in  Mubatoki's 
famous  collection  of  medieval  Italian  annals  and  chronicles: 
Scriptoree  Rerum  Italiearumt  28  folio  volumes  (Milan,  1723- 
1751;  new  ed.  small  quarto,  1000  sqq.). 

Mi8cbllaneox7b:--Ybiabtb,  Florence,  Vhistoire,  lee  MSdieia, 
Us  hunumistes,  lee  lettree,  les  arts  (Paris,  1880),  tr.  (London* 
1882);  Klbinpaui^  Florenz  in  Wort  imd  BUd  (Leipsis.  1888): 
Mobbni.  Notizie  tstoriche  dei  contomi  di  Firenze  (Florence, 
1700-06):  Oliphant,  The  Makers  of  Florence,  Dante,  Oiotto, 
Savonarola  arid  their  City  (London,  1880);  E.  M.  Clebxe.  f  for- 
enee  in  the  Time  of  Dante  in  Dvblin  Review  (1870).  LXXXV, 
270.  The  writinfEs  of  Rubkim  (181O-100O)  on  Italian  art 
abound  with  studies  and  impressions  of  the  Florentine  artiste. 
Stiionm,  The  Age  of  the  Renaissance  (London,  1882—)  deals 
at  great  leni^  with  the  literary  and  political  fijcurss  of  ^Floren- 
tine history  in  the  fifteenth  century;  in  ecclesiastical  matters  he 
is  not  unfrequently  prejudiced,  insular,  and  unduly  hanh. 
The  German  writinfEs  of  von  Rbumont  have  also  done  much  to 
make  better  known  the  medieval  influence  and  prestige  of  the 
great  city  by  the  Amo. 

U.  Benigni. 

CouNaL  OF  Florence,  the  Seventeenth  (Ecumeni- 
cal Council,  was,  correctly  speaking,  the  continuation 
of  the  Council  of  Ferrara,  transferred  to  the  Tuscan 
capital  because  of  the  pest,  or,  indeed,  a  continuation 
of  the  Council  of  Basle,  which  was  convoked  in  1431 
by  Martin  V.  In  the  end  the  last-named  assembly 
became  a  revolutionary  oemctZtofruium,  and  is  to  tie 
judged  variously,  according  as  we  consider  the  manner 
of  its  convocation,  its  membership,  or  its  results. 
Generally,  however,  it  is  ranked  as  an  oecumenic^ 
council  until  the  decree  of  dissolution  in  1437.  After 
its  transfer  to  Ferrara,  the  first  session  of  the  council 
¥ras  held  10  Jan.,  1438.  Eugene  IV  proclaimed  it  the 
regular  continuation  ol  the  Council  of  Basle,  and  hence 
its  oecumenical  character  is  admitted  by  all. 

The  Coimcil  of  Constance  (1414-18)  had  seen  the 
^wth  of  a  fatal  theory,  based  on  the  writings  of  Will- 
iam DUrandus  (Guillaume  Durant),  John  of  Paris, 
Marsiglio  of  Padua,  and  William  of  Occam,  i.  e.  the 
conciliar  theory  that  proclaimed  the  superiority  of  the 
council  over  the  pope.  It  was  the  outcome  of  much 
previous  conflict  and  embitterment;  was  hastily 
voted  in  a  time  of  angry  confusion  bv  an  incompetent 
body;  and,  besides  leading  eventually  to  the  oeplor- 
able  articles  of  the  "Declaj^tio  Cleri  Gallicani"  (see 
Gallecanism),  almost  provoked  at  the  time  new 
schisms.  Influenced  by  this  theory,  the  members  of 
the  Council  of  Constance  promulgated  in  the  thirty- 
fifth  general  session  (9  Oct.,  1417)  five  decrees,  the 
first  being  the  famous  decree  known  as  "Frequens", 
according  to  which  an  oeciunenical  coimcil  should  be 
held  every  ten  years.  In  other  words,  the  council  was 
henceforth  to  be  a  permanent,  indispensable  institution, 
that  is,  a  kind  of  religious  parliament  meeting  at  regu- 
lar intervals,  and  including  amongst  its  members  the 
ambassadors  of  Catholic  sovereigns;  hence  the  ancient 
papal  monarchy,  elective  but  absolute,  was  to  give 
wi^to  a  constitutional  oligarchy. 

While  Martin  V,  naturally  enough,  refused  to  recog- 
nise these  decrees,  he  was  unable  to  make  headwav 
openly  against  a  movement  which  he  considered  fatal. 
In  accoraance,  therefore^  with  the  decree  "  Frequens" 
he  convoked  an  ODCumemcal  council  at  Pavia  for  1423, 
and  later,  gelding  to  popular  opinion,  which  even 
many  cardmals  countenanced,  summon^  a  new  coun- 
cil at  Basle  to  settle  the  difficulties  raised  by  the  anti- 
Hussite  wars.  A  Bull  of  1  Feb.,  1431,  nuned  as  presi- 
dent of  the  coimcil  Giuliano  Cesudni,  Cardinal  of 
Sant'  Angelo,  whom  the  pope  had  sent  to  Germany  to 


FLOBENOI 


112 


FLOBINOI 


preach  a  crusade  against  the  Hussites.  Martin  V 
died  suddenly  (20  Feb.,  1431),  before  the  Bull  of  con- 
vocation and  the  legatine  faculties  reached  Cesarini. 
However,  the  new  pope,  Eugene  IV  (Qabriele  Condol- 
mieri),  confirmed  the  acts  of  his  predecessor  with  the 
reservation  that  further  events  might  cause  him  to 
revoke  his  decision.  He  referred  probably  to  the 
reimion  of  the  Greek  Church  with  Rome,  discussed  be- 
tween Martin  V  and  the  Byzantine  emperor  (John 
Palseoldgus),  but  put  off  by  reason  of  the  po^'s  death. 
Eugene  IV  laboured  most  earnestly  for  reunion,  which 
he  was  destined  to  see  accomplished  in  the  Council 
of  Ferrara-Florence.  The  Council  of  Basle  had  be- 
gun in  a  rather  burlesque  way.  Canon  Beaup^re  of 
Besan^on,  who  had  b^n  sent  from  Basle  to  Rome, 
gave  the  pope  an  unfavourable  and  exaggerated  ac- 
count of  the  temper  of  the  people  of  Basle  and  its  en- 
virons. Eugene  IV  thereupon  dissolved  the  coimcil 
before  the  close  of  1431,  and  convoked  it  anew  at 
Bologna  for  the  summer  of  1433,  providing  at  the  same 
time  for  the  participation  of  the  Greel^.  Cesarini. 
however,  had  already  opened  the  coimcil  at  Basle,  ana 
now  insisted  vigorously  that  the  aforesaid  papal  act 
should  be  withdrawn.  Yielding  to  the  aggressive 
attitude  of  the  Basle  assembly,  whose  members  pro- 
claimed anew  the  conciliar  theory,  Eugene  IV  ^du- 
ally modified  his  attitude  towards  them,  and  exhibited 
in  general,  throughout  these  painful  dissensions,  a 
very  conciliatory  temper. 

Many  reform-decrees  were  promulgated  by  the 
council,  and,  though  never  execut^  contributed 
towards  the  final  rupture.  Ultimately,  the  unskilful 
negotiations  of  the  council  with  the  Greeks  on  the  ques- 
tion of  reunion  moved  Eugene  IV  to  transfer  it  to 
Ferrara.  The  embassy  sent  from  Basle  to  Constan- 
tinople (1435),  Giovanni  di  Ragusa,  Heinrich  Henger, 
and  Simon  Fr^ron,  insisted  obstinately  on  holding  at 
Basle  the  council  which  was  to  promote  the  union  of 
the  two  Churohes,  but  in  this  matter  the  Bvzantine 
Emperor  refused  to  give  way.  With  all  the  Greeks  he 
wished  the  council  to  take  place  in  some  Italian  city 
near  the  sea,  preferably  in  Southern  Italv.  At  Basle 
the  majority  insisted,  despite  the  Greenes,  that  the 
coimcil  of  reunion  should  be  convoked  at  Avignon,  but 
a  minority  sided  with  the  Greeks  andwas  oy  them 
recognized  as  the  true  councO.  Hereupon  Eugene 
IV  approved  the  action  of  the  minority  (29  Mav,  1437), 
and  for  this  was  summoned  to  appear  before  the  coun- 
cil. He  repUed  by  dissolving  it  on  18  September. 
Wearied  of  the  obstinacy  of  the  majority  at  Basle, 
Cardinal  Cesarini  and  his  adherents  then  quitted  the 
city  and  went  to  Ferrara,  whither  Eugene  IV,  as 
stated  above,  had  transferred  the  council  by  decree  of 
30  December,  1437,  or  1  January,  1438. 

The  Ferrara  Council  opened  on  8  January,  1438, 
under  the  presidency  of  Cardinal  Niccol6  Aloergati, 
whom  the  pope  had  conmussioned  to  represent  him 
until'  he  coiud  appear  in  person.  It  had,  of  course,  no 
other  objects  than  tiiose  of  Basle,  i.  e.  reunion  of 
the  Churehes,  reforms,  and  the  restoration  of  peace 
between  Christian  pe(^les.  The  first  session  of  the 
council  took  place  10  January,  1438.  It  declared  the 
Coimcil  of  Basle  transferred  to  Ferrara,  and  annulled 
in  advance  any  and  all  future  decrees  of  the  Basle 
assembly.  When  Eugene  IV  heard  that  the  Greeks 
were  nearing  the  coast  of  Italy,  he  set  off  (24  January) 
for  Ferrara  and  three  days  later  made  his  solemn  entry 
into  the  city.  The  manner  of  voting  was  first  dis- 
cussed by  the  members  of  the  council.  Should  it  be, 
as  At  Constance,  by  nations  (nationea),  or  bv  commit- 
tees (commissianes)?  It  was  finaUy  decided  to  divide 
the  members  into  three  estates:  (1)  the  cardinals, 
archbishops,  and  bishops:  (2)  the  abbots  and  prel- 
ates; (3)  the  doctors  and  other  members.  In  order 
that  the  vote  of  any  estate  might  count,  it  was  resolved 
that  a  majority  of  two-thirds  snoidd  be  required,  and  it 
was  hoped  that  this  provision  would  remove  all  pos- 


sibility of  the  recurrence  of  the  regrettable  dissensions 
at  Constance.  At  the  second  public  session  (15  J^eb- 
ruary)  these  decrees  were  promulgated,  and  tbe  pope 
excommunicated  the  members  of  the  Basle  assemb^, 
which  still  continued  to  sit.  The  Greeks  soon  ap- 
peared at  Ferrara,  headed  by  Emperor  John  Pabeolo- 
gus  and  Joasaph,  the  Patriarch  oi  Constantinople,  and 
numbered  about  seven  hundred.  The  solemn  sessions 
of  the  coimcil  began  on  9  April,  1438,  and  were  held  in 
the  cathedral  of  Ferrara  under  the  presidency  of  the 
pope.  On  the  Gospel  side  of  the  altar  rose  the  (unoc- 
cupied) throne  of  the  Western  Emperor  (Sigismund  of 
Luxemburg),  who  had  died  onlv  a  month  previously; 
on  the  Epistle  side  was  placed  the  throne  of  the  Greek 
Emperor.  Besides  the  emperor  and  his  brother  Deme- 
trius, there  were  present,  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks, 
Joasaph,  the  Patnareh  of  Constantinople;  Antonius, 
the  Metropolitan  of  Heraclea;  Gregory  Hamma,  the 
Proiosyncellus  of  Constantinople  (the  last  two  repre- 
senting the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria) ;  Mareus  Eugeni- 
cus  of  Ephesus;  Isidore  of  Kiev  (representing  the 
Patriareh  of  Antioch) ;  Dionysius,  Bishop  of  Sardes 
(representing  the  Patriareh  of  Jerusalem) ;  Bessarion, 
Archbishop  of  Nic^ea;  Balsamon,  the  chief  chartophy- 
lax;  Syropulos,  the  chief  ecclesiaroh,  and  the  Bishops 
of  Monemoasia,  Lacedsmon,  and  Anchielo.  In  tne 
discussions  the  Latins  were  represented  principally  bv 
Cardinal  Giuliano  Cesarini  and  Cardinal  Niccol6  Al- 
bergati;  Andrew,  Archbishop  of  Rhodes;  the  Bishop 
of  Forli;^  the  Dominican  John  of  Turrecremata;  and 
Giovanni  di  Ra^sa,  provincial  of  Lombard^. 

*  Preliminary  discussions  brought  out  the  mam  points 
of  difference  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Latins,  vis. 
the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  azymes,  piu^ar 
tory,  and  the  primacy.  During  these  preliminaries 
the  zeal  and  good  intentions  oi  the  Greek  Emperor 
were  evident.  Serious  discussion  began  apropos  of 
the  doctrine  of  purgatory.  Cesarini  and  Turrecre- 
mata were  the  chief  Latin  speakers,  the  latter  in  par- 
ticular engaging  in  a  violent  discussion  with  Marcus 
Eugenicus.  B^sarion,  speaking  for  the  Greeks,  made 
clear  the  divergency  of  opinion  existing  among  the 
Greeks  themselves  on  the  question  of  purgatory. 
This  stage  of  the  discussion  closed  on  17  July,  where- 
upon the  coimcil  rested  for  a  time,and  the  Greek  Em- 
peror took  advantage  of  the  respite  to  join  eagerly  in 
the  pleasures  of  the  chase  with  the  Duke  of  Ferrara. 

When  the  council  met  again  (8  Oct.,  1438)^  the 
chief  (indeed,  thenceforth  the  only)  subject  of  discus- 
sion was  the  FUioque,  The  Greeks  were  represented 
by  B^sarion,  Marcus  Eugenicus,  Isidore  of  Kiev, 
Gemistus  Plethon,  Balsamon,  and  Xantopulos;  on  the 
Latin  side  were  Cardinals  Cesarini  and  Niccol6  Alber- 
gati,  the  Archbishop  of  Rhodes,  the  Bishop  of  Forll, 
and  Giovanni  di  Ragusa.  In  this  and  the  following 
fourteen  sessions,  the  Filioque  was  the  sole  subject  of 
discussion.  In  the  fifteenth  session  it  became  clear 
that  the  Greeks  were  unwilling  to  consent  to  the  inser- 
tion of  this  expression  in  the  Creed,  although  it  was 
imperative  for  the  good  of  the  church  and  as  a  safe- 
guard against  future  heresies.  Many  Greeks  began  to 
despair  of  realizing  the  projected  union  and  spoke  of 
returning  to  Constantinople.  To  this  the  emperor 
would  not  listen;  he  still  hoped  for  a  reconciliation, 
and  in  the  end  succeeded  in  appeasing  the  heated 
spirits  of  his  partisans.  Eugene  IV  now  announced 
his  intention  of  transferring  the  council  to  Florence, 
in  consequence  of  pecuniary  straits  and  the  outbreak 
of  the  pest  at  Ferrara.  Many  Latins  had  already 
died,  and  of  the  Greeks  the  Metropolitan  of  Sardis 
and  the  entire  household  of  Isidore  of  Kiev  were  at- 
tacked by  the  disease.  The  Greeks  finally  consented 
to  the  transfer,  and  in  the  sixteenth  and  last  session  at 
Ferrara  the  papal  Bull  was  read,  in  both  Latin  and 
Greek,  by  whicn  the  council  was  transferred  to  Flor- 
ence (January,  1439). 

The  seventeenth  session  of  the  council  (the  first 


rLOBSNOS 


113 


FLOBENOX 


at  Florence)  took  place  in  the  papal  palace  on  26 
February.  lu  nine  consecutive  sessions,  the  Filio- 
que  was  the  chief  matter  of  discussion.  In  the  last 
session  but  one  (twenty-fourth  of  Ferrara,  eighth 
of  Florence)  Giovanni  di  Ragusa-set  forth  clearly  the 
Leitin  doctrine  in  the  following  terms:  "The  Latin 
Church  recognises  but  (me  principle,  orye  cause  of  the 
Holv  Spirit,  namely,  the  Father.  It  is  from  the 
Father  tnat  the  Son  holds  his  place  in  the '  Procession ' 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father,  but  He  proceeds  dUo 
from  the  Son."  In  the  last  session,  the  same  theolo- 
gian again  expounded  the  doctrine,  after  which  the 
gublic  sessions  were  closed  at  the  request  of  the 
rreeks,  as  it  seemed  useless  to  |>rolong  further  the 
theological  discussions.  At  this  juncture  began  the 
active  efforts  of  Isidore  of  Kiev,  and,  as  the  result  of 
further  parleys,  Eugene  IV  suomitted  four  proposi- 
tions summing  up  the  result  of  the  previous  discussion 
and  exposing  the  weakness  of  the  attitude  of  the 
Greeks.  As  the  latter  were  loath  to  admit  defeat. 
Cardinal  Bessarion,  in  a  special  meeting  of  the  Greeks, 
on  13  and  14  Apnl,  1439,  delivered  Os  famous  dis- 
course in  favour  of  reunion,  and  was  supported  by 
Georgius  Scholarius.  Both  parties  now  met  again, 
after  which,  to  put  an  end  to  all  equivocation,  the 
Latins  drew  up  and  read  a  declaration  of  their  faith  in 
which  they  stated  that  they  did  not  admit  boo  "  prih- 
cipia"  in  the  TVinity,  but  only  one,  the  productive 

S>wer  of  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  that  the  Holv 
host  proceeds  also  from  the  Son.    They  admitted, 
therefore,  two  hypostases,  one  action,  one  productive 

Eower,  and  one  product  aue  to  the  substance  and  the 
ypostases  of  the  Father  and  the  Son.  The  Greeks 
met  this  statement  with  an  equivocal  counter-form- 
ula, whereupon  Bessarion,  Isidore  of  Kiev,  and  Doro- 
theus  of  Mitylene,  encouraged  by  the  emperor,  came 
out  strongly  in  favour  of  the  ex  filio. 

The  reunion  of  the  Churches  was  at  last  really  in 
sight.  When,  therefore^  at  the  request  of  the  em- 
peror, Eu^ne  IV  promised  the  Greeks  the  miUtary 
and  &iancial  help  of  the  Holy  See  as  a  bonsequence  of 
the  projected  reconciliation,  the  Greeks  declared  (3 
June,  1439)  that  they  recognized  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  from  the  Father  and  the  Son  as  from  one 
"  pnndpium  "  (dpx^)  and  from  one  cause  (oir/a) .  On 
8  June,  a  final  agreement  was  reached  concerning  this  * 
doctrine.  The  Latin  teaching  respecting  the  azymes 
and  purgatory  was  also  accepted  by  the  Greeks.  As 
to  the  primacy,  they  declarcMl  that  they  would  grant 
the  pope  all  the  privileges  he  had  before  the  schism. 
An  amicable  agreement  was  also  reached  r^arding  the 
form  of  consecration  in  the  Mass  (see  Epiklbsis). 
Almost  simultaneously  with  these  measures  the  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  died,  10  June;  not.  however, 
before  he  had  drawn  up  and  signed  a  declaration  in 
which  he  admitted  the  Filioque,  purgatory,  and  the 
papal  primacy.  Nevertheless  the  reunion  of  the 
Churches  was  not  yet  an  accomplished  fact.  The 
Greek  representatives  insisted  that  their  aforesaid 
declarations  were  only  their  personal  opinions;  and  as 
they  stated  that  it  was  still  necessary  to  obtain  the 
assent  of  the  Greek  Church  in  synod  assembled,  seem- 
ingly insuperable  difficulties  threatened  to  annihilate 
all  that  had  so  far  been  achieved.  On  6  July,  how- 
ever, the  famous  decree  of  union  (Lsetentur  Cceli),  the 
original  of  which  is  still  preserved  in  the  Laurentian 
Library  at  Florence,  was  formally  announced  in  the 
cathedral  of  that  city.  The  coimcil  was  over,  as  far 
as  the  Greeks  were  concerned,  and  they  departed  at 
once.  The  Latin  members  remained  to  promote  the 
reunion  with  the  other  Eastern  Churches — ^the  Ar- 
menians (1439),  the  Jacobites  of  Syria  (1442),  the 
Mesopotamians,  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates 
(1444),  the  Chaldeans  or  Nestorians,  and  the  Maronites 
ii  Cyprus  (1445) .  This  last  was  the  concluding  public 
act  of  the  Council  of  Florence,  the  proceedfings  of 
VI^-8 


which  from  1443  onwards  took  place  in  the  Lateran 
palace  at  Rome. 

The  erudition  of  Bessarion  and  the  energy  of  Isidore 
of  Kiev  were  chiefly  responsible  for  the  reimion  of  the 
Churches  as  accomplished  at  Florence.  The  question 
now  was  to  secure  its  adoption  in  the  East.    For  this 

{>urpose  Isidore  of  Kiev  was  sent  to  Russia  as  papal 
egate  and  cardinal,  but  the  Muscovite  princes,  jealous 
of  their  religious  independence,  refused  to  abide  by  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Florence.  Isidore  was  thrown 
into  prison,  but  afterwards  escaped  and  took  refuse 
in  Italy.  Nor  was  any  better  headway  made  in  the 
Greek  Empire.  The  emperor  remained  faithful,  but 
some  of  the  Greek  deputies,  intimidated  by  the  dis- 
content prevailing  amongst  their  own  people,  deserted 
their  position  and  soon  fell  back  into  the  surround- 
ing mass  of  schism.  The  new  emperor,  Constantine, 
brother  of  John  Palseologus,  vainly  endeavoured  to 
overcome  the  opposition  of  the  Byzantine  der^  and 
people.  Isidore  of  Kiev  was  sent  to  Constantmople 
to  brii^  about  the  desired  acceptance  of  the  Floren- 
tine "Decretum  Unionis"  (Lsetentur  CoeU).  but,  be- 
fore he  could  succeed  in  his  mission,  the  city  tell  (1453) 
before  the  advancing  hordes  of  Mohammed  II. 

One  advantage,  at  least,  resulted  from  the  Coimcil 
of  Florence:  it  proclaimed  before  both  Latins  and 
Greeks  that  the  Roxnan  pontiff  wea  the  foremost  eccle-. 
siastical  authority  in  Christendom;  and  Eugene  IV 
was  able  to  arrest  the  schism  which  had  been  threat- 
ening the  Western  Church  anew  (see  Basle,  Council 
of).  This  council  was,  therefore,  witness  to  the 
prompt  rehabilitation  of  papal  supremacy,  and  facili- 
tated the  return  of  men  uke  iGneas  Sylvius  Piccolo- 
mini,  who  in  his  youth  had  taken  pari  in  the  Council 
of  Basle,  but  ended  by  recognizing  its  erroneous 
attitude,  and  finally  became  pope  under  the  name 
of  Pius  II. 

SouRCBs: — DoROTHSiTS  OF  MiTTUBNa,  Htatoria  ccneQii  Flar^ 
entini  in  Haboouzn,  CaUectio  Conciliorum^  IX,  307,  609  sqq., 
&nd  in  Manbi,  Sacrorum  concVtiarum  eoUectio  (new  ed.,  Pans* 
1901),  XXI;  *H  Ayia  ie«l  oicov/icvue^  ip  4>A«pcm'f  avvoSetf 
(Rome,  1507);  Aetaaacri  (Bcwneniei  ccneQii  Florentini  eoUeda, 
disponta,  iUustrata  per  Jualinianum  (Rome,  1638);  Cretqh- 
TON,  ed.,  Vera  historia  unionif  non  vera  inter  OrcBCoe  el  Latinoe, 
aive  concUii  Florentini  exactissinta  narratio^  grcece  acripta  per 
Sylvestrum  Syropulian  (La  Ha^e,  1660).  For  a  criticism  of  these 
sources  see  Froumann,  KritiacKe  Beitr&ge  zur  Oeschichte  der 
FlorerUiner  Kircheneiniffuno,  46-82;  Fka,  Piua  JI  vindieatua 
(Rome,  1823) ;  P£roubb,  DocumerUa  infdite  reiatifa  au  eoncHe  de 
BdU  in  BtiUelin  hiatorique  el  phiUUogigue  du  comU6  dea  travaux 
hiatoriquea  d  aeienlifiquea  (Paris,  1905),  364-399. 

Special  Works:— KTbsighton  (Anglican),  A  Riatcry  of  the 
Papacy  from  the  Great  Schiam  to  the  Sack  of  Rome  (new  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1900),  I;  VON  Wrssbmbbrg  (antipapal).  Die  groaaen 
KiraienveraammlunQen  dea  XV.  and  XV J.  Jahrhunderta  (Con- 
stance, 1840);  Zhibkan,  Die  Unionavertiandlungen  zwiachen  der 
orientdliachen  und  rGmiwhen  Kirche  aeit  dem  Anfange  dea  IS. 
Jahrhunderta  bia  turn  ConcU  von  Ferrara  (Vienna,  18diB):  Cri»- 
TOPHB,  Hiatoire  de  la  papaulS  pendant  le  quinzicme  aikie  (Lyons, 
1863);  Crcooni,  Studi  atorici  aul  concUto  di  Firenze  (Florence, 
1869),  an  important  work:  Frommann,  Kriliache  BeilrUge  zur 
OeachidUe  der  FlorerUiner  Kireheneinigung  (Halle,  1872);  Vast, 
Le  cardinal  Beaaarion  {lU0S-lU7t).  Etude  aur  la  chrSlienti  el  la 
renaiaaance  vera  le  milieu  du  XV*  aikde  (Paris,  1878);  Hbfiui, 
Conctiiengeadiichte  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1879),  VII,  426-821; 
GuiRAUD,  VEtat  pontifical  a-prha  le  grand  achiame  (Paris,  1897); 
Pbrratti/t-Dabot,  Le  due  de  Bourgogne  Philippe  le  Bon  et  le 
concile  de  Florence  (Dijota,  1900) ;  CnRirriBN,  Le  pape  Eughne  TV 
(1431-1447)  in  Revue  intehtationaU  de  ThSologie  (1901),  150- 
170,  352-367;  Manqbr.  Die  Wahl  Amedeoa  von  Savouen  zum 
Papate  dureh  daa  Baader  Konzil  (Marburg,  1901);  Pastor, 
Geachichte  der  Pdpate  aeil  dem  A  uagangedea  MtUelaUera,  I:  Geach- 
ichte  der  Pdpate  im  ZeitaUer  der  Renaiaaarue  bia  zur  Wahl  Piua  // 
(Freiburg  im  Br.,  1901);  Pibrlino,  La  Ruaaie  et  le  Saint  Siige, 
Etudea  dxptomatiquea^  J:  Lea  Ruaaea  au  concile  de  Florence  (Paris, 
1902^;  A.  PAPADOPOniiOS,  Ma^of  &  Evycvucof  Mf  araT^ip  aytov 
T^v  op9o3dfov  KaBoKucjfi  'BiutAi|<rmv  in  Byzantiniache  Zeitachrift 
(1902),  XI,  50-69;  Prbmwbrk,  Der  Emfluaa  Aragana  auf  den 
Prozeaa  dea  Baader  KonzHagegen  Papal  Eugen  IV.  (Basle,  1902); 
ScBRBiNA,  LUeraturgeachichte  der  ruaaiachen  Erzdhlungen  aber 
die  FlorerUiner  Union,  in  Jahrbuch  der  hiat.  phil.  Geadlachaft  bei 
der  kaiaerl.  neuruaaiachen  UniveraitM  zu  Odeaaa  (1902),  IX.  sect.  7, 
139-186;  IXe  Immakulala-BuUe  der  Voter  dea  Baader  Kanziia, 
1439,  in  Katholik  (1903),  third  mr.,  XXVIII,  518-520;  R(V 
CHOLL,  Beaaarion,  Studie  zur  GeaehictUe  der  RenaiManee  (Leipsig, 
1904) ;  A.  L.,  Le  concile  gtniral  d  le  grand  achiame  dT Occident,  m 
Revue  dea  Sciencea  eecUaiaatiguea  (Paris.  1904),  XC,  342-349; 
AuNBR,  La  Moldavia  au  concile  de  Florence  (Paris,  1904); 
P6rousb,  Le  cardinal  Louia  Aleman,  priaident  du  concile  de 
BMe,  dlafindu  grand  achiame  (Paris,  1904);  Chrtb.  Papapo- 


FLOBENOX 


114 


nORIAH 


wvMov  in  Via  limp  (1905),  II.  414-19;  NiehUaa  of  Cusa, 
Cardinal  and  Reformer  in  CcdKolic  Quarterly  Review  (Philadel- 
p^iia,  1906).  LXII.  120-147:  KdNia.  Kardinal  Giordano  Oraini, 
Sin  LAenabild  au»  der  Zeit  der  grouen  KonzUien  und  dea  Human- 
iamuM  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1906);  Zlacxsti,  Die  Oeaandachafl  dee 
Boeder  KoniiU  naoh  Avignon  und  Konetantinopd,  IkSJ-lkSS 
(Halle.  1908). 

L.  Van  deb  Essen. 

Florenee  of  Worcester,  English  chronicler.  All 
that  is  known  of  his  personal  history  is  that  he  was 
a  monk  of  Worcester  and  that  he  died  in  1118.  His 
^Chronioon  ex  Chronicis''  is  the  first  attempt  made 
in.  England  to  write  a  universal  chronicle  from  the 
creation  onwards,  but  the  universal  part  is  based  en- 
tirely on  the  work  of  Marianus  Scotus  an  Irish  monk 
who  died  at  Mainz  about  1082.  To  this  Florence 
added  a  number  of  references  to  English  history  taken 
from  Bede,  the  "  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle'',  and  various 
biographies.  The  portions  borrowed  from  the 
"Cnronicle''  are  of  value  because  he  used  a  version 
which  has  not  been  preserved.  Florence  begins  to  be 
an  independent  authority  in  1030,  and  his  "  Ooronicle '' 
goes  down  to  1117;  it  is  annalistio  in  form,  but  a  very 
useful  record  of  events.  John,  another  monk  of 
Worcester,  continued  the  ^'Chronicon"  to  1141,  and 
other  writers  took  it  down  to  1295.  It  has  been  ed- 
ited for  the  English  Historical  Society  by  Benj. 
Thorpe  (London,  1848--0,  2  vols.),  and  transuited  by 
Stevenson  (Church  Historians  of  England,  Vol.  II,  pt. 
I,  London,  1853);  there  is  also  an  English  version 
in  Bohn's  Antiquarian  Library  (London,  1854). 
.  Die.  Nat,  Biog.,  XIX,  835-6;  Gross,  Souroee  and  Literature- 
of  Bnglieh  Hietory  etc.  (London,  1900).  No.  1866. 

F.  F.  Urquhart. 

Florontiiia,  Saint,  Virgin;  b.  towards  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  centiuy;  d.  about  612.  The  family  of 
St.  Florentina  furnishes  us  with  a  raro  example  of 
lives  genuinely  religious,  and  actively  engaged  m  fur- 
thering the  best  interests  of  Christianitv.  Sister  of 
three  Spanish  bishops  in  the  time  of  the  Visigothic 
dominion  (Leander^  Isidore  and  Fulgentius),  she  con- 
secrated her  virginity  to  God,  and  all  four  have  been 
canonised  by  the  Church.  Florentina  was  bom  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  oenturv.  being  youn^r  than 
her  brother  Leander,  later  Archoishop  of  Seville,  but 
older  than  Isidore,  who  succeeded  Leander  as  arch- 
bishop of  the  same  see.  Before  his  elevation  to  the 
episcopal  dignity,  Leander  had  been  a  monk,  and  it 
was  through  his  influence  that  Florentina  embraced 
the  ascetic  me.  She  associated  with  herself  a  number 
of  Tirgins,  who  also  desired  to  forsake  the  world, 
and  formed  them  into  a  religious  community.  Later 
sources  declare  their  residence  to  have  been  the  con- 
vent of  S.  Maria  de  Valle  near  Ecija  (Astigis),  of  which 
city  her  brother  Fulgentius  was  bishop.  In  any  case, 
it  IS  certain  that  she  had  consecrated  herself  to  God 
before  the  year  600,  as  her  brother  Leander,  who  died 
either  in  the  year  600  or  601,  wrote  for  her  guidance 
an  extant  work  dealing  with  a  nun's  rule  of  life  and 
with  contempt  for  the  world  ("Regula  sive  Libellus 
de  institutione  virginum  et  de  contemptu  mundi  ad 
Florentinam  sororem",  P.  L.  LXXII,  873  sqq.).  In 
it  the  author  lays  down  the  rules  according  to  which 
cloistered  virrans  consecrated  to  God  should  reflate 
their  lives.  He  strongly  advises  them  to  avoid  inter- 
course with  women  living  in  the  world,  and  with  men, 
especially  youths;  recommends  strict  temperance  in 
eating  and  drinking,  gives  advice  concerning  the  read- 
ing ofand  meditation  on  Holy  Scripture,  enjoins  equal 
love  and  friendship  for  all  those  living  together  in 
community,  and  extiorts  his  sister  earnestly  to  remain 
true  to  her  holy  state.  Florentina  regulated  her  Ufe 
according  to  the  advice  of  her  brother,  entered  with 
fervour  into  the  spirit  of  the  religious  life,  and  was 
honoured  as  a  saint  after  her  death.  Her  younser 
brother  Isidore  idso  dedicated  to  her  his  work  "  De 
fide  catholica  contra  Judseos",  which  he  wrote  at  her 


request.  Florentina  died  early  in  the  seventh  century 
and  is  venerated  as  the  patroness  of  the  diocese  of 
Plasencia.  Her  feast  falls  on  20  June.  The  name  if 
written  Florentia  in  the  Roman  martyrology,  but 
Florentina  is  without  doubt  the  correct  form. 


CUBSCQ,  VEepagne'dirttienne  (Paris,  1006),  275  bqq.;  '6. 
Die  KvrehengeaihichU  von  Sponien  (Ratisbon.  1862).  L 


Florontiiii.    See  Theodosiub. 


J.  P.  KiBBCH. 


F16rei»  Enbique,  Spanish  theologan,  arehieolo- 
fiist,  and  historian ;  b.  at  Valladolid,  14  February,  1701 ; 
d.  at  Madrid,  20  August,  1773.  While  still  very  young 
(1715)  he  joined  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine,  and  there- 
after he  devoted  his  entire  Ufe  to  great  works  on  his- 
tory and  antiauities,  which  are  valuable  contributions 
to  the  civil  ana  ecclesiastical  history  of  Spain.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  learned  men  produced  oy  Spain,  and 
on  account  of  his  learning  enjoyed  the  respect  and 
friendship  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  his  time.  His 
best-known  and  most  important  work  is  "  La  Espana 
Sagrada,  6  teatro  geogrdnco-hist6rico  de  la  Idesia  de 
Espafia"  (51  vols.,  Madrid,  1747 ),  a  work  follow- 
ing the  same  plan  as  the  "  Gallia  Christiana''  of  Sainte- 
Marthe  and  the  "  Italia  sacra"  of  UgbeUi.  It  is  a  his- 
tory of  the  Chureh  in  Spain,  with  biographies  of  bishops, 
ana  its  value  is  enhanced  by  the  insertion  of  ancient 
documents  which  are  not  to  oe  foimd  elsewhere.  But 
the  work  was  of  such  large  scope  that  he  did  not  live  to 
finish  his  task,  so  that,  of  tne  fifty-one  volumes  of 
which  the  history  consists,  F16rez  wrote  and  published 
only  a  little  more  than  half  (twenty-nine  volumes),  the 
rest  being  written  and  published  after  his  death  by 
two  other  Augustinians,  Fathers  Risco  and  Fem^- 
dez.  This  and  other  works  of  Father  F16rez  are  en- 
riched by  carefully  made  illustrations  which  serve  still 
further  to  increase  their  value.  In  1743  he  published 
his  historical  work,  the  curious  '^Llave  historial",  a 
work  similar  to  the  French  "  Art  de  verifier  les  dates  *\ 
but  having  the  advantage  of  priority  over  the  latter, 
which  did  not  appear  until  1750.  This  book  passed 
through  several  later  editions  in  1774, 1786,  and  1790. 
It  did  not,  however,  add  much  to  the  literary  fame  of 
its  author.  Father  F16rez  had  pursued  studies  in 
numismatics  and  published  "  Espana  carpetana ;  med- 
allas  de  las  colonias,  municipios,  y  pueblos  anti^os  de 
Espafia"  (3  vols.,  Madrid,  1757),  dealing  with  the 
history  of  Spain  when  that  country  was  occupied  by 
the  Romans.  Other  works  of  F16rez  were  '  Cursus 
Theologiie''  (5  vols.,  Madrid,  1732-38),  one  of  his 
earlier  works,  and  *^  Memorias  de  las  reynas  Cat^licas" 
(2  vols.,  Madrid,  1761.  1770,  and  1779),  a  genealogi- 
cal history  of  the  royal  house  of  Leon  and  Ciastile. 

MsNDBs,  NoUcia  de  la  Vida  y  Baeritoe  de  Enrique  Fl&rez  (Msd- 
rid,  1780). 

VENTUIIA.  FUENTEB. 

Floriaiii  Jean-Pierre  Claris,  Chevalier  de,  a 
French  poet  and  novelist,  b.  at  the  ch&teau  of  Florian 
(Gard),  6  Mareh,  1755;  d.  at  Sceaux,  13  Sept.,  1794. 
An  orphan  at  an  early  age,*  he  was  brought  up  by  his 
grandfather  and  studied  at  St-Hippolyte.  At  ten  years 
of  age  he  wa§  taken  by  one  of  his  uncles  who  was  related 
to  Voltaire,  to  the  chdteau  of  Femey .  The  influence  of 
the  philosopher  was  already  beginning  to  be  felt  bythe 
child  when  he  was  sent  in  1768  to  the  Duke  of  Fen- 
thi^vre,  to  act  as  a  page.  His  sojourn  at  the  ch&teau 
of  Anet  was  very  beneficial  to  him.  Not  only  did  the 
duke  interest  himself  in  his  studies,  and  direct  his 
readings,  but  he  gave  him  good  advice  and  made  him 
promise  that  he  would  never  write  except  with  reserve 
and  decency.  Upon  leaving  the  service  of  the  Duke 
of  Penthi^vre,  he  entered  the  militaiv  school  at  Ba- 
paume,  obtained  a  commission  in  the  dragoons  of  Pen- 
thi^vre,  but  soon  abandoned  the  army  for  literature 
and  began  to  write  comedies.   He  was  elected  to  the 


nOBUHOPOUS  115  TLOBIDA 

Acadteiie  Frao^aise  in  I78S.    Arrested  at  Sceaux  in  counties,  geographically  into  the  pemnaubr  eectioo, 

1793,  he  owed  his  life  to  the  denth  of  Robespierre,  but  stretching  450  miles  north  and  south,  averse  iridth 

heoutUved theterroniof hisimpriBODmentonly ashort  95  miles,  and  the  continental  or  northern  portion, 

time.  To  modem  readers,  Flonan  is  chiefly  known  as  measurinK  400  miles  from  Alabama  to  the  Atlantic, 

the  author  of  pretty  fables  well  suited  as  reading  for  mean  width  65  miles.    Its  eastern  coast-Une,  compar- 

the  young,  but  his  contemporaries  praiaed  liim  also  ativeljr  regular,  is  470  miles  long;   it  is  paralleled  al- 

for  oil  poetical  and  pastoral  novels.      He  waa  the  most  its  entire  length  by  sand  reefs  which  enclose  an 

Boucher  and  the  Watteau  of  the  literature  of  the  eigb'  inland  waterway,  and  its  outline  is  prolonged  in  the 

teenth  century  and  it  is  remarkable  that  some  of  his  chain  of  coral  and  sandy  islets  known  as  the  Florida 

graceful  and  delicate  works  were  written  in  the  midst  Keys,  which  extend  200  miles  in  a  south-westerly  di- 

of  the  Revolution,     lie  list  of  his  works  is  long,  rection,  terminating  in  the  Tortu(^.     Over  the  Keys 

Worthy  of  mentionare;twopafltotti!noveis,"Galat6e  an  extension  of  the  Florida  E^t  Coast  Railroad  from 

and   "Estelle";  two  poetical  novels,   "Numa  Pom-  the  mainland  to  Key  West  is  in  course  of  construction, 

pilius" and  "GonsalvedeCordoue";  three  volumesof  The  deep-water  ports  are  Femandina,  Jacksonville, 

comedies,  the  principal  being  "  Les  Deux  Billets",  and  Key  West.    The  Gulf  coast-line,  sinuous  in  con- 

"Le  Bon  }i6aagp",  "Le  Bon  P6re",  "Jeannot  et  formation,  measures  675  miles;   the  chief  ports  are 

Colin";  two  volumes  of  short  stories,  a  few  religious  Tampa,  Apolachicola,  and  Fensacola. 
poems,  like  "Ruth"  and  "Tobie",  etc.    Florian  was        Phtsicai,  Charactbristicb.— The  Everglades,  of- 

very  fond  of  Spain  and  its  literature,  doubtless  owing  ten  erroneously  described  as  swamp-lands,  form  the 

to  the  influence  of  his  mother,  Gilette  de  Salgue,  who  characteristic    feature    of   Southern    Florida.     They 

was  a  Castilian.     He  was  loved  by  his  contemporaries  consist  mainly  of  submersed  saw-grass  plains  extend- 

■a  well  for  his  character  as  for  his  writings,  and  he  was  ing  130  by  70  miles,  studded  with  numerous  islands 


much  praised  for  his  charity.  which   produce  a  semi-tropical  jungle-growth.     The 

Sundud  editiam  of  Floriin'b  works  by  DaroBT  (Fsria,  surface    water, 

ordinarily    about 
knee-deep,    pure, 

noii»n«poli..See8AKT.CaTEAHtNA;D."ocEaEo,.  ET'^L^^tSe 

ITortana  CFlobiackN8E8),Thb,  an  altogether  inde-  southbound    cur^ 

pendent  order,  and  not,  as  some  consider,  a  branch  of  "'?*■   A  limestone 

tiie  Cistercians;  it  was  founded  in  1189  by  the  Abbot  flUMtratum  occa- 

Joachim  of  Flora  (q.  v.),  by  whom  its  constitutions  J!"™^?    *P*?^ 

were  drawn  up.   Besides  preaervine  a  number  of  Cis-  i~J**^    ^     ^''^" 

tercian  observances,  the  founder  added  to  the  auster-  hottom  of  ve^ 

ities  of  CIteaux.    The  Florians  went  barefoot;  theb  *J?.'?,'^   mould, 

habits  were  white  and  very  coarse.    Their  Breviary  "hiEe     subterra- 

differ«d  m  the  distribution  of  Offices  from  that  of  °^^,  sources    of 

CIteaux.    The  constitutions  were  approved  by  Pope  aupply  are  contn- 

Celestine  III  in  1196.  The  order  spread  rapidly,  soon  °^^^,  the  mun- 

numbering  as  many  as  thirty-five  monasteries,  but  it  da"on  chiefly  re-                  Bbal  o»  Fi^mn* 

seems  not  to  have  eilanded  beyond  Italy.  In  1470  the  ™'*»    '""?,   ™„,       ,    ,.      , 

H^ular  abbots  were  replaced  by  commendatory  ab-  overflow  of  Lake  Okeechobee  (1200  sq,  miles),  whose 
bots,  but  the  abuses  of  this  regime  hastened  the  de-  rMk-nmmed  shores,  18  feet  above  sea-level,  exceed  by 
dine  of  the  order.  In  1505  the  Abbey  of  Flora  and  its  lOfeetthegeneralelevationof  the  Everglades.  North 
aflSliatcd  monasteries  were  united  to  the  Order  of  Q-  °;  '"« lake,  extending  through  the  counties  of  De  Soto, 
teaux.  In  1515  other  Florian  monasteries  united  Manatee,  Usceota,  and  Brevard,  he  vast  tracts  of 
.  themselves  to  the  Grande  Chartreuse  or  to  the  Domini-  prai"e  or  Bavanna  Und  with  large  swamp  areas.  This 
cans,  and  in  1570,  after  a  century  under  the  rwme  '^  ^™  cattle  region  of  Flonda.  Farther  north,  and 
of  commendatory  abbots,  not  a  single  independent  embracing  the  counties  of  Polk.  Lake,  Orange,  Sum- 
monastery  remained,  and  the  Order  of  Flora  had  ter-Manon,  andAlachua,  is  thetertileandpicturesque 
ceased  to  exUt.  Under  the  Abbot  of  Flora  were  also  «''!"'?  *=<'i"''?T  o«  the  central  ndge  with  a  general 
four  monasteries  of  religious  women,  who  toUowed  altitude  of  200,  and  elevations  approaching  300  feet 
the  Florian  rule  above  sea-level.     This  is  the  lake  region;  Lakes  Kis- 

■lANuguB,  Anriala  Cuternnuu  (Lyom,  1642);  Dqbblli,  simmee,  Tohopekaliga,  Apopka,  Harris,  and  George 

iialmSatrxi  (Venio*.  1721);  ZienEi^AOEH,  Hitieria  Rri  LiUtr-  are  chief  amongst  thousands.    The  extensive  coastal 

S^^<i^'<i;^'',SSJ4'^  ^V«"<i*"SlS'i«"fKS  ?"«>  ^o^Prismg  the  entire  area  of  the  Gulf  and  Atr 

1719);  BcccKUHi,  Afnufoffiufn  Biiudiaijuiin  (AuEBbun,  1060^  l^ntic  seaboard  counties,  are  low-lymg  sandy  tracts, 

Qbcoouub  db  Lands,  BboH  Joachim  Abbatit  sTo.  Cut.,  etc  monotonously  level  and  frequently  marshy.     These 

Apotoaehta  (NaplM.  1859).  constitute  the  pine  region  of  Florida.     The  northern 

JiD«oNn  M.  OBBECHT.  portion  of  middle  Flonda,  between  the  Suwannee  and 
Apalachicola  Rivers,  while  corresponding  in  general 

■«>na».— The  Peninsular  or  Everglade  State,  the  altitude  and  topography  to  the  central  ndge,  differs 
mort  southern  in  the  American  Union  and  second  widely  from  all  other  parte  of  the  State.  Red  clay 
lanteHt  east  of  the  Mississippi,  lies  between  parallels  and  loam  of  surpassing  fertility  replace  the  elsewhere 
24  38  and  31'  N.  latitude  and  meridians  79°  48'  and  prevalent  thin  sandy  soils,  while  the  featureless  aspect 
87°  38  W.  longitude.  Its  name,  commemorative  of  o(  boundless  pine  plains  and  the  recurrent  sameness  of 
Its  diacovery  by  Ponce  de  Leon  at  Eastertide  (Sp,  undulating  landscape  are  replaced  by  a  rare  exubef 
Pateuaflonda),  1613,  or  less  probably  descriptive  of  ance  and  diversity  of  highland,  plain,  lake,  and 
the  verdant  aspect  of  the  country,  was  ori^nally  ap-  woodland  scenery,  Florida  is  an  exceedingly  well- 
phed  to  terntory  extending  northward  to  Vim'nia  and  wooded  and  well-watered  State.  Pine,  cypress,  cedar, 
westward  lodefinitelv  from  the  Atlantic.  Florida  is  oak,  magnolia,  hickory,  and  sweet  gum  everywhere 
bounded  north  by  Alabama  and  Geor^a,  east  by  the  abound,  while  there  are  good  supplies  of  rarer  hard- 
Atlantic,  south  by  the  Straits  of  Flonda  and  Gulf  of  woods  and  semi-tropical  varieties.  There  an  in- 
Hexico,  and  west  by  the  Gulf  and  the  Perdido  River,  eluding  the  East  Coast  Canal  nearing  completion. 
It  contains  68,680  sq.  miles,  4440  being  lake  and  river  nearly  2000  miles  of  navigable  waterways.  The  chirf 
area.    Politically,  the  State  is  divided  into  fmty-six  rivers  flowing  into  the  AtUntic  are:  St.  Mary's,  form- 


FLORIDA 


116 


FLORIDA 


ine  part  of  the  northern  boundary;  8t.  John's,  300 
mfles  long,  navigable  for  200  miles;  Indian  River, 
properly  a  salt- water  lagoon  or  sound,  forming  part  ot 
the  East  Coast  Canal.  The  Caloosahatchee,  Peace, 
Manatee,  Withlacoochee,  Suwannee,  Ocilla,  Ocklocko- 
nee,  Apalachicola,  Choctawhatchee,  Yellow  River, 
Escamoia,  and  Perdido  empty  into  the  Gulf.  The 
Kissimmee  enters  Lake  Okeechobee.  Characteristic 
of  the  State  are  its  immense  mineral  springy:  Silver, 
Wakulla,  Chipola,  Green  Cove,  and  White  Springs  are 
the  principal.  The  remarkaoly  mild  and  agreeable 
climate  of  Florida  makes  it  a  favourite  winter  resort. 
The  average  annual  temperature  ranges  from  68^  at 
Pensacola  to  70^  at  Key  West;  extremes  of  heat  or 
cold  are  rarely  experienced;  the  annual  rainfall  is 
about  60  inches. 

Resources. — Aoncuttwre.— Diversity  of  product, 
rather  than  abundance  of  yield,  is  noticeable.  Be- 
sides semi-tropical  productions,  all  varieties  common 
in  higher  latitudes^  except  a  few  cereals,  may  be  prof- 
itably cultivated  m  Florida.  The  soil,  exclusive  of 
the  impartially  distributed  fertile  hammock  lands,  i.  e. 
Umitea  areas  enriched  bv  decomposed  vegetable  de- 
posit, is  excessively  sandy  and  rather  poor  in  qual- 
ity, yet  surprisingly  responsive  to  cultivation.  Even 
where  the  soil  is  not  especially  prolific  the  warm,  humid 
climate  stimulates  a  rapid  and  vigorous  plant  growth. 
In  1905  31,233  farms  were  operated  by  whites,  14,231 
by  negroes,  20  by  others;  farm  acreac^,  4,758,874; 
1,621,362  acres  being  improved.  Value  of  farms, 
$51,464,124;  operating  expenses,  $3,914,296;  prod- 
ucts, $40,131,814;  field  crops,  $13,632,641;  fruit 
crops,  $5,423,390;  live  stock,  $14,731,521.  Crops  in 
order  of  value:  cotton,  282,078  acres,  80,485  bales, 
value  $4,749,351;  com,  455,274  acres,  4,888,958 
bushels,  value  $3,315,965;  peanuts,  sweet  potatoes, 
tomatoes,  beans,  white  potatoes,  tobacco,  celery,  hay, 
watermelons,  oats,  lettuce,  cabbage,  cucumbers.  The 
most  valuable  fruit  crop  was  the  orange:  1,768,944 
bearing  trees,  producing  2,961,195  boxes,  value  $3,- 
353,609;  followed  in  order  of  value  by  pineapples, 
grapefruit,  strawberries,  and  peaches.  Live  stock  in- 
cluded 36,131  horses,  19,331  mules,  69  asses,  1,010,454 
cattle,  604,742  swine,  115,324  sheep,  33,150  goats. 

Commerce  and  Induebriea, — The  report  for  the  last 
statistical  year  shows  a  remarkable  mcrease  in  com- 
mercial and  industrial  activities ;  1906  manufacturing 
establishments,  capital  $42,157,080,  paid  $18,048,599 
to  52,345  wage-earners;  value  of  manufactured  pro- 
ducts, $53,506,154.  The  leading  industries  and  value 
of  annual  output  are:  cigarmaking,  about  $15,000,000 
(returns  incomplete);  lumber,  $15,210,916;  naval 
stores,  $10,196,327 ;  phosphate,  $6,601,000.  The  value 
of  exports  (overlana  being  about  as  much  more,  not 
included)  was  $62,655,559  for  1906,  cigan:  comprising 
one-third  this  amount,  the  remainder  being  almost 
equally  divided  between  liunber,  naval  stores,  and 
phosphate ;  the  value  of  imports  was  $6^654,546.  The 
fisheries  of  the  west  coast  and  sponge  mdustry  of  the 
Keys  are  important,  giving  employment  toHSOOO  men 
and  yielding  an  annual  prwluct  valued  at  $1,500,000. 
The  total  assessed  valuation  of  taxable  property  in  the 
State  was  (1904)  $111,333,735;  State  debt,  $601,567. 
On  1  March^  1908,  eighteen  railroads,  with  a  total 
mileage  of  41(^4, 'main  track  2948,  miles,  were  in 
operation. 

History. — ^The  landing  of  Ponce  de  Leon  on  the 
shores  of  Florida  probably  on  the  Sunday  after  Easter, 
3  April,  1513,  is  the  first  positively  authenticated  in- 
stance of  the  presence  of  Europeans  on  the  mainland 
of  the  United  States.  This  expedition,  which  popular 
narrative  invests  with  romantic  glamour,  was  under- 
taken according  to  the  royal  patent  of  authorization 
**  to  discover  and  people  the  island  of  Bimini ' '.  Ponce 
named  the  land  Florida  in  honour  of  the  Easter  fes- 
tival, set  up  a  stone  cross  with  an  inscription,  and  im- 
pressed with  the  hostile  character  of  the  natives, 


returned  after  six  months'  exploration  to  Porto  Rico. 
His  attempt  to  establish  a  colony  in  1521  was  doomed 
to  speedy  failure.  The  voyages  of  Miruelo  (1516), 
Corclova  (1517),  Pineda  (1519),  Ayll6n  (1520),  and 
Gomez  (1524)  accomplished  little  beyond  establishing 
the  fact  that  Florida  was  not  an  island  but  part  of  a 
vast  continent.  The  disastrous  outcome  ot  the  ex- 
peditions of  Pdnfilo  Narvaez  (1527-28),  of  Hernando  de 
Soto  (153^43),  and  of  Tristan  de  Luna  (1559-61)  are 
well-known  episodes  in  the  early  history  of  America. 
On  the  failure  of  Ribault's  French  colony,  founded  at 
Port  Royal  (1562),  Ren^  de  Laudonnidre  planted  the 
new  settlement  of  Fort  Caroline  at  the  mouth  of  St. 
John's  River  (1564).  Pedro  Menendez  de  Avil^,  the 
foremost  naval  commander  of  his  day,  leamine  that 
Ribault  had  left  France  with  reinforcements  and  sup- 
plies for  the  new  colony,  set  out  to  intercept  him  and 
banish  for  ever  French  Huguenots  from  the  land  that 
belonged  by  right  of  discovery  to  Catholic  Spain. 
Menendez  never  undertook  an  enterprise  and  failed. 
He  reached  the  harbour  of  St.  Augustine  28  August, 
1565,  naming  it  for  the  saint  of  the  day.  The  found- 
ing of  the  oldest  city  in  the  United  States  merits  a 
brief  description.  After  devoting  a  week  to  recon- 
noitring, Menendez  entered  the  harbour  on  6  Septem- 
ber, llbree  companies  of  soldiers  were  sent  ashore 
under  two  captains,  to  select  a  site  and  begin  a  fort. 
On  8  September  Menendez  landed,  and  amid  the 
booming  of  artillery  and  the  blast  of  trumpets  the 
standara  of  Castile  and  Leon  was  unfurled.  The 
chaplain.  Father  Lopez  de  Mendoza,  carrying  a  cross 
and  followed  by  the  troops,  proceeded  to  meet  the 
eeneral  who  advanced  to  the  cross,  which  he  kissed  on 
bended  knee  as  did  those  of  his  staff.  The  solemn 
Mass  of  Our  Lady's  Nativity  was  then  offered  on  a 
spot  which  was  ever  afterward  called  Nombre  de  Dios. 
On  20  Sept.  Fort  Caroline  was  taken  by  surprise,  only 
women  and  children  being  spared.  The  mereiless 
slaughter  of  Ribault  and  his  shipwrecked  coinpanions 
by  Menendez  a  few  days  subsequently  is  an  indelible 
stiBiin  on  a  singularly  noble  record.  The  story,  so  as- 
siduously copied  by  successive  historiographers,  that 
Avil6s  hai^^ed  some  of  his  prisoners  on  trees  and  at- 
tached the  inscription  No  par  franceses  sino  por  LuJte- 
ranoSj  is  an  apocryphal  embellishment  (see  Spanish 
Settlements,  II,  178).  Two  years  later  De  Gourgues 
retaliated  by  slaughtering  the  Spanish  garrison  at 
Fort  Caroline. 

The  history  of  Florida  during  the  firsf  Spanish  ad- 
ministration (1565-1763)  centres  round  St.  Augustine, 
and  is  rather  of  religious  than  political  importance. 
English  buccaneers  imder  Drake  in  1586  and  again 
under  Davis  in  1665  plundered  and  sacked  the  town. 
Dbtrust  and  hostility  usually  prevailed  between  the 
Spanish  colonies  and  their  northern  English  neigh- 
bours. Governor  Moore  of  South  Carolina  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  in  1702  to  capture  St.  Au^tine. 
and  in  1704  laid  waste  the  country  of  the  civilized 
Apalachee.  Governor  Oglethorpe  of  Geor^  invaded 
Florida  in  1740,  besieging  St.  Augustine  with  a  large 
force  but  was  repulsed  by  the  Spanish  Governor  Mon- 
teano  and  forced  to  retreat.  Spain  ceded  Florida  to 
England  in  1763.  During  the  English  period  great 
efforts  were  made  to  populate  the  country  and  develop 
its  resources,  but  religion  suffered  irreparably.  During 
the  second  Spanish  occupation  (1783-1821)  some  un- 
important military  operations  took  place  in  West 
Florida  under  General  Andrew  Jackson  in  1814  and 
1818.  In  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  1819,  the 
Americans  took  possession  of  Florida  in  1821.  In 
1822  Florida  became  a  territory  of  the  United  States, 
William  P.  Duval  being  appointed  first  governor.  The 
following  year  Tallahassee  was  selected  as  the  new 
capital.  The  refusal  of  the  warlike  Seminoles  to  re- 
pair to  reservations  resulted  in  the  long,  costly,  and 
discreditable  Indian  War  (1835-42),  which  came  to  an 
end  in  the  capture  by  treachery  of  Osceola. 


ILOBIDA 


117 


FLORIDA 


Florida  was  admitted  to  Statehood  in  1845.  The 
State  seceded  from  the  Union  10  January,  1861.  In 
1862  minor  engagements  between  the  Federal  and  Con- 
federate forces  took  place ;  the  Federal  troops  occupied 
Jacksonville,  St.  Augustine,  and  Femandina,  but  the 
Confederates,  under  General  Finegan,  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Union  forces  commanded  by  General 
Seymour  at  Olustee  in  1864.  In  proportion  to  popula- 
tion Florida  furnished  more  troops  than  any  other 
Confederate  State;  they  took  an  honourable  part  in 
the  campaigns  of  Tennessee  and  Virginia,  and  bore  a 
distinguished  reputation  for  steadfast  endurance  on 
the  march  and  conspicuous  eallantzy  on  the  battle- 
field. Florida  gave  to  the  higner  ranks  of  the  Confed- 
erate service  three  major-generals,  Losing,  Anderson, 
and  Smith,  atid  the  Brigadier-Generals  Brevard,  Bul- 
lock, Finegan,  Miller,  Davis^  Finley,  Perry,  and  Shoup. 
The  State  was  represented  m  the  Confederate  Cabinet 
by  Stephen  H.  Mallory,  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  If  the 
war  proved  disastrous  to  Florida,  the  subsequent  re- 
construction added  despair  to  disaster  when  citizens 
witnessed  the  control  of  public  affairspass  into  the 
hands  of  unscrupulous  adventurers.  Tne  ordinance 
of  secession  was  repealed  in  October,  1865,  and  a 
State  government  organized  in  1866.  In  1868  a  new 
constitution  having  l^n  adopted  and  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  ratified,  Florida  was  readmitted  into  the 
Union,  but  it  was  not  till  1877,  when  Floridians  ob- 
tained political  ascendancy,  that  a  healthy  industrial 
growth  as  well  as  social  and  educational  progress  be- 
^n  to  appear.  The  present  constitution  was  adopted 
m  1886.  The  discovery  of  rich  phosphate  deposits  in 
1889  greatly  improved  economic  conditions,  and  the 
constantly  growmjg  popularit;^  of  Eastern  Florida — 
the  American  Riviera — as  a  winter  resort  contributes 
to  the  general  prosperity. 

Population. — ^The  colony  of  600  Spaniards  founded 
by  Menendez  at  St.  Augustme  in  1565  was  the  earli- 
est permanent  white  settlement  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  United  States.  Relinauishing  fruit- 
less attempts  to  establish  extensive  settlements,  Flori- 
da's Spanish  conquerors  early  subordinated  purposes 
of  colonization  to  motives  of  military  expediency,  so 
that  during  an  occupation  of  two  himdred  years  the 
white  popmation  remained  limited  to  a  few  stations  of 
strategic  importance.  In  1648  the  civilian  population 
of  St.  Augustine  was  represented  by  300  families,  and 
in  1740,  nearly  a  hundred  years  later,  it  numbered 
2143.  The  various  Spanish  garrisons  usually  aggre- 
gated about  2000  men.  In  1763,  when  Florida  passed 
under  English  rule,  the  entire  Spanish  population  of 
5700  moved  away.  During  the  twenty  years  of  Eng- 
lish occupancy  there  was  a  steady  influx  of  settlers, 
including  numbers  of  loyalists  from  the  revolted  col- 
onies. At  this  period  the  so-called  Minorcan  colony 
was  founded  at  New  Smyrna.  During  the  second 
Spanish  regime  (1783-1821)  immigration  continued 
and,  when  Florida  came  under  the  United  States  flag 
in  1821,  increased  rapidly.  The  first  U.  S.  census  of 
1830  gives  the  population  at  34,730.  For  the  thirty 
years  loUowing  a  decennial  increase  of  60  per  cent  ap- 
pears, the  population  in  1860  being  140,424.  Since 
1860  the  increase  per  decade  has  averaged  40  per  cent. 
In  1900  the  population  was  528,542,  and  in  1905,  614,- 
845,  nearly  18  times  that  of  1830,  showing  in  five 
years  an  increase  of  86,303,  or  16  per  cent.  In  1900 
whites  numbered  297,812,  coloured  230,730,  average 
number  of  inhabitants  per  square  mile  9.7.  Follow- 
ing are  detailed  statistics  of  1908  (State  census):  white, 
348,923;  coloured,  265,737 ;  other  races,  185;  average 
per  square  mile,  11.3.  Foreign  bom  white,  22,409, 
comprising  5867  Cubans,  3120  Italians,  2589  West  In- 
dians, 2051  English,  1945  Spanish,  1699  Germans, 
1059  Canadians,  610  Irish^  ana  3469  of  other  national- 
ities. The  Cuban  population  is  concentrated  mainly  at 
Tampa  and  Key  West,  Spanish  and  Italian  at  Tampa, 
West  Indian  of  both  races  at  Key  West;  the  other 


natbnalities  are  scattered  broadly  over  the  State. 
Nine  counties  exhibit  a  slightly  decreased  population 
attributed  to  a  shifting  of  negroes  from  the  farms.  In 
twelve  counties  negroes  outnumber  whites.  Leon 
county  has  the  largest  percentage  of  coloured  people, 
14,880  out  of  18,883  total,  or  78.8  per  cent;  Lee 
county  the  smallest,  399  out  of  3961  total,  or  10  per 
cent.  Leon  has  25.8  inhabitants  per  square  mile, 
Lee  only  0.8;  these  figures  are  typical  of  racial  distri- 
bution of  population  throughout  the  State.  Cities 
over  10,000:  Jacksonville  35,301^  Tampa  (estimated) 
28^,  Pensacola  21,505;  and  Key  West  20,498. 

Education. — The  organization  of  the  Florida  Edu- 
cational Society  in  1831  was  apparently  the  first  at- 
tempt made  to  inaugurate  a  public  school  system.  It 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  free  school  at  St. 
Augustine  in  1832.  During  the  ante-bellum  period, 
owmg  to  ^neral  lack  of  interest,  inefficiency  of  educa- 
tional legislation,  and  the  prejudice  that  regarded  pub- 
lic schools  as  ''pauper''  schools,  but  little  was  accom- 
plished for  the  cause  of  popular  ^ucation.  In  1860  a 
few  counties  had  organized  public  school  systems,  but 
the  advent  of  war,  and  particjilarly  the  subsequent 
dismal  process  of  reconstruction  proved  a  serious  blow 
to  educational  progress.  The  constitutional  conven- 
tion of  1865  gave  the  subject  scant  recognition,  but 
that  of  1868  adopted  in  its  constitution  Imeral  provi' 
sions,  which  were  greatly  amplified  bv  the  constitution 
of  1885.  This  constitution  established  a  permanent 
State  school  fimd,  consisting  mainly  of  proceeds  of 
public  land  sales.  State  appropriations,  and  a  one-mill 
property  tax,  the  interest  of  wnich  was  to  be  applied  to 
support  public  schools.  This  fimd  (1908)  exceeds  one 
million  dollars.  Each  coimty  constitutes  a  school 
unit  (but  when  advisable  special  school  districts  may 
be  formed)  and  is  authorized  to  levy  a  school  tax  of 
from  3  to  7  mills.  Poll-tax  proceeds  also  revert  to  the 
county  school  fund.  The  governor,  secretary  of  state, 
attorney-general.  State  treasurer,  and  State  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  form  the  State  Board  of 
Education.  County  boards  consist  of  a  coimty  super- 
intendent and  three  commissioners.  There  are  twelve 
grades  or  years  of  instruction,  eight  months  constitut- 
mg  a  school  year.  The  school  age  is  six  to  twenty-one 
years.  The  constitution  prescribes  that  "white  and 
coloured  children  shall  not  be  taught  in  the  same  school, 
but  impartial  provision  shall  be  made  for  both". 
Statistics  from  latest  biennial  report  (1906)  of  state 
superintendent  show:  total  puolic  schools,  2387; 
white  1720;  coloured  667;  enrolment:  white  81,473, 
or  66  per  cent  of  school  population,  coloured  48,992, 
or  52  per  cent  of  school  population;  total  expenditure 
for  school  year  ending  June,  1906,  $1,020,674.95  for 
white  schools,  $200,752.27  for  coloured  schools. 
There  are  2495  white  and  794  coloured  teachers.  The 
report  observes  that  while  rapid  progress  haa  been  ac- 
complished along  educational  lines,  a  comparison  with 
more  advanced  States  shows  that  in  Florida  popular 
education  of  the  masses  is  yet  in  its  initial  stage. 
"  One  of  the  greatest  hindrances  to  educational  prog- 
ress at  the  present  time  is  the  scarcitv,  not  only  of  pro- 
fessionally trained  teachers,  but  teachers  of  any  kind." 
'This  scarcity  is  ascribed  to  the  inadequate  remunerar 
tion  teachers  receive. 

The  system  of  higher  education  fostered  by  the 
State  was  reorganized  by  legislative  act  of  1905.  Sev- 
eral existing  institutions  were  abolished,  and  in  their 
stead  were  established  a  State  university  for  men,  a 
State  college  for  women,  and  a  coloured  normal  and 
industrial  school  in  which  co-education  prevafls. 
These  higher  educational  institutions  receive  generous 
support.  State  appropriations  in  1907  amounted  to 
$600,000,  while  annual  subventions  from  the  federal 
treasury  aggregate  about  $60,000,  The  University  of 
the  State  of  Florida,  Gainsville,  includes  a  normal 
department,  also  a  United  States  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  under  a  separate  managerial  staff.  The 


FLOBIDA                               118  FLORIDA 

university  faculty  numbers  15,  Experiment  Station  at  St.  Augustine,  and  the  Florida  missions  entered  the 

staff  14,  enrolment  (1908)  103.    The  Florida  Female  palmy  period  of  their  existence,  which  lasted  till  well 

College,  Tallahassee,  also  includes  a  normal  school,  past  the  middle  of  the  century.    In  1634  the  Francis- 

and  has  22  professors  and  instructors  and  240  students,  can  province  of  St.  Helena,  with  mother-house  at  St. 

The  oolouied  normal  school,  Tallahassee,  reports  a  Augustine,  contained  41  Indian  missions,  35  mission- 

facultv  of  24  and  an  enrolment  of  307.    Institutions  aries,  and  30,000  Catholic  Indians.  By  1674  evidences 

of  higher  education  under  denominational  auspices:  of  decline  begin  to  appear.    Bishop  Calderon  found 

The  John  B.  Stetson  University  (Baptist),  Deland,  in-  his  episcopal  jurisdiction  questioned  by  the  friars,  and 

corporated  1889,  affiliated  with  Chicago  University,  although  ne  confirmed  manv  Indians,  he  complained 

1898.    Its  productive  endowment  funds  amount  to  of  the  imiversal  ignorance  of  Christian  doctrine.    The 

$225,000,  while  it  has  been  the  recipient  of  munificent  arbitrary  exactions  of  successive  governors  provoked 

g'fts  and  legacies;  enrolment  (1908)  520,  faculty  49.  resentment  and  rebellion  amongst  the  Christian  In- 

ollins  College  (undenominational  evangelical),  Win-  dians,  while  the  En^ish  foe  on  the  northern  border 

ter  Park,  incorporated  1885,  possesses  an  endowment  menaced  their  very  existence/    In  1704  the  blow  fell, 

fund  of  $200,000,  faculty  20,  enrolment  148.    The  Burning,  plunder,  carnage,  and  enslavement  is  the 

Southern  College  (Methodist),  Southerland,  founded  record  of  Moore's  raid  amongst  the  Apalachee  missions. 

1902,  faculty  19,  enrolment  216.    The  Columbia  Col-  Efforts  at  re-establishment  partially  succeeded,  there 

lege  (Baptist),  Lake  C^y,  was  established  in  1907 ;  its  being;  in  1720  six  towns  of  Catholic  Indians  and  several 

faculty  numbers  12^  enrolment  143.    St.  Leo  College  missions,  but  owing  to  the  ravages  of  persistent  con- 

(Catholic),  St.  Leo,  incorporated  1889,  is  conducted  bv  flict  between  the  Spanish  and  English  colonies,  these 

the  Benedictine  Fathers,  facultv  9,  enrolment  75.  in  1763  had  languisned  to  four  missions  with  136  souls. 

The  Presbyterian  College  of  Florida,  Eustis,  opened  in  The  cession  to  England  in  1763  resulted,  not  merelv  in 

1905  and  has  at  present  9  professors  and  63  students,  the  final  extinction  of  the  missions,  but  in  the  complete 

There  is  a  business  college  located  at  Tampa  and  two  obliteration  of  Florida's  ancient  (Catholicity. 

— ^Massey's  and  Draughon's — at  Jacksonville.  FarmcUion  of  Diocesea.—St.  Augustine  began  its 

(^atholic  institutions,  beneath^  college  grade  but  existence  as  a  regularly  constituted  parish  of  the 
maintaining  a  high  standard  of  instruction,  are  the  Diocese  of  Santiago  de  Cuba.  Its  church  records, 
Academies  of  St.  Joseph  at  St.  Augustine,  Jackson-  dating  from  1594,  are  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the 
ville,  and  Loretto — the  latter  a  boys'  preparatory  present  cathedral.  The  first  recorded  episcopal  visita- 
school — of  the  Holy  Names  at  Tampa  and  Key  West,  tion  was  made  by  Bishop  Cabeza  de  Altamirano  in 
and  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  at  Pensacola.  The  num-  1606.  In  1674  Bishop  Gabriel  Dias  Vara  Calderon 
ber  of  children  under  Catholic  care  is  3704.  Denomi-  visited  the  Floridian  portion  of  his  diocese;  he  con- 
national  institutions  of  high  grade  for  the  education  of  ferred  minor  orders  on  seven  candidates,  and  during 
negroes  are  the  Cookman  Institute  (Methodist),  en-  an  itinerary  of  eight  months,  extending  to  the  Caro- 
rolment487;  the  Edward  Waters  College  (Methodist);  linian  confines,  confirmed  13,152  persons^  founded 
and  the  Florida  Baptist  College^  all  situated  at  Jack-  many  mission  churches,  and  liberally  supplied  others, 
sonville.  In  all  the  non-Catholic  institutions  co-^u-  The  permanent  residence  of  Bishops-Auxiliary  Resino 
cation  obtains.  (1709-10),  Tejada  (1735-45),  and  Ponce  y  Carasco 

Reugion. — Early  Missionary  Eiforts, — ^Theperma-  (1751-55)  at  St.  Augustine,  shows  that  despite  the 
nent  establishment  of  the  Christian  Religion  in  what  is  waning  condition  of  the  colony  and  missions  at  this 
now  the  United  States  dates  from  the  founding  of  St.  period,  the  Church  in  Florida  was  not  deprived  of 
Augustine  in  1565.  The  previous  fifty  years  exhibit  a  episcopal  care  and  vigilance.  ^  Bishop  Morell  of  San- 
record  of  heroic  though  fruitless  attempte  to  plant  the  tiago,  exiled  from  his  see  during  the  English  occupa- 
cross  on  the  soil  of  Florida.  The  solicitude  manifested  tion  of  Havana  (1662-63),  remained  four  months  at 
by  the  Spanish  Crown  for  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  St.  Augustine,  confirming  639  persons.  When  Florida 
was  sincere  and  lasting,  nor  was  there  ever  wantine  a  in  1763  passed  under  English  rule,  freedom  of  worship 
plentiful  supply  of  zealous  Spanish  missionaries  who  was  guaranteed,  but  the  illiberal  interpretation  of 
brought  to  tne  spiritual  subjugation  of  the  Western  officials  resulted  in  the  general  exodus  of  Catholics,  so 
World  the  same  steadfastness  of  purpose  and  un-  that  by  1765,  the  bi-centenary  year  of  the  Church  in 
flinchine  courage  that  achieved  withm  so  short  a  space  Florida,  a  few  defaced  church  building  presented  the 
the  mighty  conqueste  of  Spanish  arms.  Prieste  and  only  evidence  of  ite  former  Catholicity.  Five  hun- 
missionariesaccompaniedPonce  (1521),  Ally6n  (1526),  dred  survivors  of  the  New  Smyrna  colony  of  1400 
De  Soto  (1538).  and  De  Luna  (1559).  Iii  1549  the  Catholics,  natives  of  Mediterranean  lands,  settled  at 
Dominican  Father  Luis  Cancer  de  Barbastro,  hon-  St.  Augustine  in  1776  and  preserved  the  Faith  alive 
oured  as  Apostle  of  Central  America  and  Protomartyr  through  a  trying  epoch.  In  1787  Florida  became  sub- 
of  Florida,  in  attempting  to  establish  a  mission,  was  ject  to  the  newly  constituted  See  of  St.  Christo^er  of 
slain  bv  hostile  Indians  near  Tampa  Bay.  Having  Havana,  and  the  following  year  Bishop  C3rril  de  Barce- 
securea  Spanish  supremacy  by  ruthlessly  crushing  out  lona  found  the  church  at  St.  Augustine  progressing 
the  French  and  planting  a  permanent  colony  at  St.  satisfactorily  under  the  care  of  Fathers  Hassettand 
Aueustine  in  1565.  Menendez  with  indomitable  energy  O'Reilly,  who  had  arrived  on  the  retrocession  of 
and  zeal  devoted  nimself  to  the  evangelization  of  the  Florida  to  Spain  in  1783. 

Indians.    Of  the  twenty-eight  priests  who  embsurked  In  1793  Pius  VI  established  the  Diocese  of  Louisiana 

with  him  from  Spain,  four  only  seem  to  have  reached  and  the  Floridas,  appointing  the  Right  Rev.  Luis 

Florida,  oi  whom  Martfn  Francisco  Lopez  de  Mendoza  Pefialver  y  Cardenas,  with  residence  at  New  Orleans, 

Grajales  became  first  parish  priest  of  St.  Augustine,  the  as  first  bisnop.    After  Bishop  Pefialver's  promotion  to 

first  established  parish  in  the  United  States.    Pend-  the  Archbishopric  of  Guatemala  in  1801,  no  successor 

in^  the  arrival  ot  regular  missionaries,  Menendez  ap-  having  been  appointed,  Louisiana,  which  was  annexed 

pomted  soldiers  possessing  the  necessaiy  qualifications  to  the  United  otates  in  1803,  came  under  the  juria- 

as  religious  instructors  to  the  Indians.    The  Jesuite  diction  of  Bishop  Carroll  of  Baltimore  in  1806,  the 

were  the  first  to  enter  the  missionary  field ;  three  were  bishops  of  Havana  reassumingauthority  over  Florida 

sent  bv  St.  Francis  Borgia  in  1566  and  ten  in  1568;  the  until  the  appointment  of  the  Rev.  Michael  Portier  in 

few  who  survived  the  martyrdom  of  their  brethren  1825  to  the  new  Vicariate  of  Alabama  and  Florida, 

were  recalled  in  1572.    In  1577  the  Franciscans  ar-  Bishop  Portier  undertook  single-handed  the  work  of 

rived.    The  good  progress  made  by  1597  was  severely  his  vast  vicariate,  not  having  a  sinele  priest,  until  at 

checked  by  a  general  massacre  of  the  missionaries  in-  his  request  Bishop  England  of  Charleston  sent  Father 

stigated  by  a  young  chief  chafing  under  merited  repri-  Edward  Mayne  to  St.  Augustine  in  1828.    In  1850  the 

mand.    In  1609  several  Indian  chiefs  sought  baptism  See  of  Savannah  was  created  and  included  that  part  of 


FLOBIDA 


119 


FLORIDA 


Florida  which  lies  east  of  the  Apalaohicola  River;  this 
was  constituted  a  separate  vicariate  in  1857  under  the 
Right  Rev.  Augustm  Verot  as  vicar  apostolic  and 
erected  into  the  Diocese  of  St.  Augustine  m  1870,  with 
Bidiop  Verot,  who  had  occupied  the  See  of  Savannah 
since  1861,  as  first  bishop.  Bishop  Verot's  unwearied 
activity  and  seal  in  promoting  religion  and  education 
soon  bore  fruit;  schools  were  opened  by  the  Christian 
Brothers  and  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  in  1858,  but  the  out- 
br»BLk  of  the  Civil  War  frustrated  all  hopes  of  success. 
In  1866  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  were  introduced  from 
France,  and  despite  the  most  adverse  conditions^  they 
had  several  flourishing  schools  and  academies  m  op- 
eration before  many  years.  The  era  of  progress 
inaugurated  by  Bishop  Verot  continued  under  the 
adnunistration  of  Bishop  John  Moore  (1877-1901), 
whose  successor,  the  Right  Rev.  William  John  Kenny, 
was  consecrated  by  Carainal  Gibbons  18  May,  1902,  m 
the  historic  cathedral  of  St.  Augustine.  The  Catholic 
population  of  the  State,  including  1750  coloured  Catho- 
lics, is  (1908)  about  30,000.  The  Diocese  of  St.  Au- 
gustine, wholly  included  within  the  State,  contains 
about  25,000  Catholics;  there  are  49  priests  with  40 
churches  and  several  missions,  and  2897  young  people 
under  the  care  of  religious  teaching  orders.  Tuat  por- 
tion of  the  State  situated  west  of  the  Apalachicola 
River  forms  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Mobile  since  1829; 
the  Catholic  population  is  about  5000.  there  are  five 
churches  with  resident  priests  and  6  Cfatholic  schools 
with  807  pupils;  Pensacola,  founded  1696,  is  the 
Catholic  centre. 

Other  Rdiguma  Denominations, — ^The  Methodist 
Church  South  has  the  largest  membership.  The 
Florida  Conference  was  set  on  from  the  Georgia  Con- 
ference in  1844.  The  session  of  December,  1907,  re- 
ported 341  churches  and  155  ministers;  estimated 
membership  40,000.  The  Baptists  report  35,021  total 
membership,  548  churches,  370  ministers.  The  Epis- 
copalian denomination^  comprising  the  Diocese  of 
Florida  and  the  Missionary  District  of  Southern 
Florida,  organized  1892,  has  7737  communicants, 
about  12,000  total  baptised,  and  66  ministers.  These 
three  denominations  display  considerable  activity  and 
efficiency  in  missionary  and  educational  work.  The 
Baptist  State  Mission  board  supports  40  missionaries; 
while  the  Episcopalians,  with  but  10  self-supporting 
parishes,  maintain  nearly  200  missions,  incluaing  14 
churches  for  negroes  and  10  parish  schools  with  540 
pupils.  In  1894  the  Episcopal  Church  started  mission 
work  amongst  the  Semmole  Indians  of  the  Everglades, 
who  number  about  300,  but  as  the  chiefs  who  are 
arbiters  of  all  individual  rights  have  hitherto  held 
aloof,  the  result  has  been  very  discouragine.  Presby- 
terians North  and  South  number  6500  with  95  minis- 
ters, CoQgre^tionalists  2500;  other  denominations 
represented  m  the  State  are:  Adventists,  Christians, 
Lutherans,  Unitarians,  Campbellites,  Jews,  Christian 
Scientists,  and  Mormons.  Reliable  religious  statistics 
of  the  coloured  people  are  difficult  to  obtain  owin^  to 
multiplicity  of  o^nizations  and  mobility  of  religious 
temperament.  Five  distinct  branches  of  Methodists 
report  635  preachers,  400  churches,  and  7470  mem- 
bers. Baptist  organisations  approximate  the  Metho- 
dists in  strength^  while  the  coloured  membership  of 
other  denominations  is  very  small. 

Florida  Indiana, — ^The  early  explorers  found  the 
Indians  distributed  over  the  entire  peninsula.  To  the 
north-west  the  populous  tribes  of  the  Apalachee  in- 
habited the  country  watered  by  the  Suwannee  and 
Apalachicola  Rivers;  the  Timuquanans  occupied  the 
centre  of  the  peninsula,  with  numerous  settlements 
along  the  St.  John's;  tne  Calusa  in  the  south-west 
ranged  &om  Cape  Sable  to  Tampa  Bay;  on  Biscayne 
Bay  the  small  settlement  of  Tegestas  seems  to  have 
come  ori^nally  from  the  Bahamas  and  contracted 
kinship  with  the  Calusa:  along  the  Indian  River  south 
of  Cape  Canaveral  Uvea  the  Ays,  also  comparatively 


few  in  numbers  and  mentioned  only  in  connexion  with 
early  missionary  labour,  probably  having  become  ab- 
sorbed in  the  Timuquanans  under  the  unifying 
influence  of  Cluistianity.  Sufficient  data  for  an  ap- 
proximate estimate  of  population  are  wanting;  prob- 
ably the  entire  population  of  the  tribes  mentioned 
exceeded  20,000  but  not  40,000.  These  tribes  per- 
tained ethnologically  and  linguistically  to  the  great 
Muskhogean  or  Creek  family,  though  some  philologists 
consider  the  Timuquanan  language,  which  ''repre- 
sents the  acme  of  polysynthesis  ,  a  distinct  linguistic 
stock. 

The  Timu<iuanans  lived  in  great  communal  houses, 
fortified  their  villages,  practised  agriculture  to  some 
extent  and  a  few  rude  industries.  They  are  described 
as  being  of  fine  physique,  intelligent,  courageous,  gen- 
erally monogamous,  very  fond  of  ceremonial,  and 
much  addicted  to  human  sacrifice  and  superstition. 
Their  settlement  near  St.  Augustine  furnished  the 
first  Indian  converts,  in  all  probability  prior  to  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Franciscan  missionaries  in  1577.  In  1602 
Governor  Can^o  estimated  the  number  of  Christians 
amongst  them  at  1200.  A  catechism  in  the  Timu- 
quanan language  by  Father  Francisco  Pareja  was 
printed  in  ^xico  in  1612  and  a  grammar  in  1614  (re- 
printed at  Paris,  1886),  besides  other  works.  These 
were  the  first  books  printed  in  any  of  our  Indian 
tongues.  The  baptism  of  twelve  Timuquanan  chiefs 
in  1609  at  St.  Augustine  cleared  the  way  for  the  con- 
version of  the  whole  nation  to  Christianity.  English 
and  hostile  Indian  raids  diminished  their  numoers 
(1685-1735),  and  by  1763  they  had  all  but  disap- 
peared. The  Apalachee  Indians,  closer  related  to  the 
Creeks,  resembled  the  neighbourii^  Timuquanans  in 
^neral  disposition  and  manner  of  lue.  It  is  not  men- 
tioned that  they  practised  human  sacrifice,  and  in 
other  respects,  especially  after  their  conversion  to 
Christiamty,  they  exhibited  a  superiority  of  charac- 
ter over  the  other  Floridian  tribes,  being  docile  and 
tractable  to  religious  teaching  and  training.  Towards 
Narvaez  (1528)  and  De  Soto  (1539)  they  assumed  a 
surprisingly  hostile  demeanour,  in  view  of  the  ready 
response  accorded  subsequently  to  the  efforts  of  the 
missionaries.  In  1595  Father  Pedro  de  Chozas  pene- 
trated to  Ocute  in  the  Apalachee  country,  and  his  mis- 
sion proved  so  fruitful  that  the  Indians  appealed  in 
1607  for  additional  missionaries,  and  by  1640  the 
whole  tribe  was  Catholic.  The  Apalachee  coimtry 
was  invaded  and  devastated  by  hostile  Indians  and 
English  under  Moore  in  1704.  Of  thirteen  flourishing 
towns  but  one  escaped  destruction,  missionaries  were 
tortured  and  slain,  1000  Christians  were  carried  off  to 
be  sold  as  slaves,  and  of  7000  Christian  Apalachee  only 
400  escaped.  One  of  the  last  items  recorded  of  the 
tribe  is  the  testimony  of  the  French  writer  Penicaut  to 
the  edifying  piety  with  which  a  fugitive  band  that  had 
settled  near  Mobile  adhered  to  the  practices  of  religion. 

The  Calusa  or  Carlos  Indians,  with  whom  Menendez 
in  1566  endeavoured  to  establish  friendship  and  alli- 
ance, in  order  to  pave  the  way  to  their  conversion, 
showed  a  persistent  spirit  of  hostility  to  Christian 
teaching.  They  were  cruel,  crafty,  thou^  recklessly 
brave,  polygamous,  and  inveterately  addicted  to  hu- 
man sacrifice.  The  Jesuit  Father  Rogel  laboured 
fruitlessly  amongst  them  (1567-8).  The  Franciscans 
in  1697  were  even  less  successful.  In  1743  the  Jesuit 
Fathers  Monaco  and  Alana,  who  obtained  some  little 
success,  described  them  as  cruel,  lewd,  and  rapacious. 
The  remnant  of  the  tribe  moved  to  the  western  reser- 
vations about  1835.  The  Seminoles,  also  allied  to  the 
Creek  stock,  came  into  Florida  about  1750  j  very  few  of 
them  became  Christians,  as  missionary  activity  ceased 
on  the  English  occupation  in  1763.  Their  refusal 
to  withdraw  to  reservations  resulted  in  the  Indian 
War  of  1835-42.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  war  2000 
were  conveyed  to  Indian  Territory.  About  300,  defy- 
ing every  effort  of  the  United  States,  retired  to  the 


FLOBIDA 


120 


FLORIDA 


almost  inaccessible  recesses  of  the  Everglades  which 
their  descendants  occupy  to  this  day. 

Legidalum  Directly  Affecting  Reliffion. — Freedom  of 
worship  and  liberty  of  conscience  are  by  constitutional 

frovision  guaranteed  in  perpetuity  to  the  citizens  of 
lorida.  The  Declaration  of  Rights  ordains  (Sec.  5): 
"The  free  exercise  and  enjoyment  of  reli^ous  profes- 
sion and  worship  ^all  forever  be  sdlowed  m  this  State, 
and  no  person  shall  be  considered  incompetent  as  a 
witness  on  account  of  his  religious  opinions;  but  the 
liberty  of  conscience  hereby  secured  shall  not  be  so 
construed  as  to  justify  licentiousness  or  practices  sub- 
versive of,  or  inconsistent  with,  the  peace  or  moral 
safety  of  the  state  or  society."  The  constitution  fur- 
ther provides  (Sec.  6)  that  no  preference  be  given  by 
law  to  any  church  or  religious  sect,  and  forbids  the 
subvention  of  public  fimds  in  aid  of  any  reli^ous  de- 
nomination or  sectarian  institution.  Wilful  mterrup- 
tion  or  disturbance  of  *'  any  assembly  of  people  met  for 
the  worship  of  God"  is,  through  legislative  enactment 
(Gen.  Stat.  3647),  a  penal  offence.  The  reli^ous 
observance  of  Sunday  is,  by  various  prohibitory 
statutes,  indirectly  enjoined.  All  business  pursuits 
"either  by  manual  labor  or  with  animal  or  mechanical 
power,  except  the  same  be  work  of  necessity"  are  for- 
bidden on  Sunday.  Selling  goods  in  open  store,  the 
employment  of  servants,  except  in  ordinary  house- 
hold auty  and  necessary  or  charitable  work,  and  the 
discharge  of  fire-arms  on  Sunday  are  puniuiable  of- 
fences. The  printing  and  sale  of  newspapers  is  spe- 
cially exempted.  Service  and  execution  of  writs  on 
Sunaay  (smtable  provisions  obviating  possible  abuse 
of  the  statute  being  annexed)  are  declared  null  and 
void.  By  legislative  act  of  1905,  certain  games  and 
sports,  expr^BsTy  baseball,  football,  bowling,  and 
horse-racing,  are  prohibited  on  Sunday.  All  Sectors 
upon  registering  must  testify  imder  oath  in  form  pre- 
scribed, that  they  are  legally  qualified  to  vote.  All 
Stato  officials,  on  assuming  office,  are  required  to  take 
an  oath  of  loyalty  to  the  Federal  and  State  consti- 
tutions and  governments,  of  legal  qualification  for 
office,  and  of  fidelity  to  duty.  Testimony  in  the  vari- 
ous courts  is  to  be  given  under  oath.  The  officials 
authorized  to  administer  oaths  are  designated  by  stat- 
ute. The  issuance  of  search-warrante  is  forbidden, 
except  for  probable  cause,  with  specification  of  names 
and  places  and  supported  by  oath  (Dec.  of  Rights,  22); 
also  all  offences  cognizable  m  Criminal  Courts  of  Rec- 
ord are  to  be  prosecuted  upon  information  under  oath 
(Constit.,  V^  28).  By  statutory  provision  (1731)  a 
declaration  m  judicial  form  may  in  all  cases  be  substi- 
tuted for  an  oath. 

The  days  defined  as  legal  holidays  include  Sunday, 
New  Year's  Day,  Christmas  Day,  and  Good  Friday. 
The  use  of  prayer  in  the  Legislature  is  not  sanctioned 
by  legal  provision,  althou^  it  is  customary  to  ap- 
point a  chaplain  and  begin  each  session  with  prayer. 

Against  open  profanity  and  blasphemy  it  is  enacted 
(Gen.  Stat.  3542)  that  **  whoever  having  arrived  at  the 
age  of  discretion  profanely  curses  or  swears  in  smy 

gublic  street  shall  be  punished  by  fine  not  exceeding 
ve  dollars".  Heavier  penalties  are  decreed  a^inst 
the  use  of  indecent  or  ooscene  language,  and  liberal 
statutory  provision  existe  for  the  safeguarding  of  pub- 
lic morality. 

Churches,  religious  communities,  charitable  insti- 
tutions, and  cemetery  associations  may  become  incor- 
porated by  complying  with  the  provisions  of  the  gen- 
eral stetutto  regulating  non-profitable  corporations. 
Churches,  church  lots,  parsonages,  and  all  burying- 
grounds  not  held  for  speculative  purposes  are  declared 
exempt  from  taxation;  property  of  literary,  educa- 
tionaf,  and  charitable  institutions  actually  occupied 
and  uised  solely  for  the  specific  purposes  indicated 
is  likewise  exempt.  Ministers  of  the  Gospel  are  by 
statute  exempt  trom  jury  duty  and  military  service. 
All  regularly  ordained  ministers  in  communion  with 


some  church  are  authorized  to  solemnize  the  rites  of 
the  matrimonial  contract  under  the  regulations  pre- 
scribed by  law.  Marriages  of  whites  with  negroes  or 
persons  of  negro  descent  to  the  fourth  generation 
(one-eighth  negro  blood)  are  forbidden.  The  pro- 
hibited degrees,  besides  the  direct  line  of  consan- 
guinity, include  only  brother  and  sister,  imde  and 
niece,  nephew  and  aunt.  Continuous  absence  of  either 
spouse  over  sea  or  continual  absence  for  three  years 
following  voluntary  desertion,  with  presumption  of 
demise,  gives  the  other  spouse  legal  right  to  remarry. 
The  statutory  grounds  for  divorce  are:  consanguinity 
within  the  degrees  prohibited  by  law,  natural  impo- 
tence, adultery  not  connived  at  or  condoned,  extreme 
cruelty,  habitual  indulgence  in  violent  and  ungovern- 
able temper,  habitual  intemperance,  wilful,  obstinate, 
and  continued  desertion  for  one  year,  divorce  pro- 
cured by  defendant  in  another  state  or  country,  and 
bigamy.  To  file  a  bill  of  divorce  two  years'  residence 
(the  cause  of  adultery  excepted)  is  conditional.  Sepa- 
ration a  menaa  ei  toro  is  not  legally  recognized;  every 
divorce  is  a  vinculo.  Special  personal  and  local  di- 
vorce legislation  is  iinconstitutional. 

State  aid  is  prohibit^  denominational  schools.  The 
law  directe  every  teacher  "to  labor  faithfully  and 
earnestly  for  the  advancement  of  the  pupils  in  their 
studies,  deportment  and  morals,  and  to  embrace  every 
opportunity  to  inculcate,  by  precept  and  by  example, 
the  principles  of  truth^  honesty  and  patriotism,  and  the 
practice  o£  every  christian  virtue".  The  benevolent 
institutions  maintained  by  the  State  include  an  insane 
asylum  situated  at  Chattahoochee,  a  school  for  the 
blmd,  deaf,  and  dumb  at  St.  Augustine,  and  a  reform 
school  for  youthful  delinquente  at  Marianna.  A  Con- 
federate Veterans'  Home  at  Jacksonville  receives  an 
annual  appropriation.  Each  county  cares  for  ite  in- 
digent and  needy  infirm.  While  financial  support  is 
denied,  ample  provision  for  incorporation  is  afforded 
religious  charitable  institutions.  The  constitution 
orders  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  a  State 

Srison,  which  is  not  at  present  permanently  located, 
bnvicte  are  leased  through  contractors  to  turpentine 
and  phosphate  operators.  Over  these  convicte  the 
State  retains  surveillance  through  supervisors  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor.  The  law  provides  also  for 
the  appointment  and  remuneration  of  a  chaplain  for 
state  convicts.  On  1  January,  1906,  there  were  1234 
state  prisoners,  90  per  cent  of  whom  were  coloured, 
distributed  through  33  convict  camps. 

The  constitution  gives  to  each  county  the  privilege 
of  local  option  to  permit  or  prohibit  the  sale  of  liquor. 
In  a  majority  of  the  counties  prohibition  prevails. 
Where  permitted,  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxi- 
cating liquor  are  regulated  by  State,  county,  and  muni- 
cipal licence  laws.  Conveyance  of  real  and  personal 
property  by  will  is  restricted  only  by  conditions  of 
soundness  of  mind  and  age  requirement  of  twenty-one 
years  on  part  of  the  testator.  There  appear  to  be  no 
Supreme  Court  decisions  referring  to  oequeste  for 
Masses  and  charitable  purposes  or  to  the  seal  of  con- 
fession, but  the  attitude  of  both  bench  and  bar  in  the 
State  has  in  these  matters  been  ever  above  suspicion 
of  anti-Catholic  bias  or  partiality. 

Fairbanks,  History  of  Florida  (JaokBonyille,  1901):  Idbm, 
History  of  St.  AuffusHne  (New  York.  1858);  Shsa.  CathoUc 
Misnona  (New  York,  1857);  Idbu.  Historv  of  the  CaOuAie 
Church  in  the  United  Staiea  (New  York,  1886-92);  Gatschkt,  A 
Miorotion  of  the  Creek  Indiane  (PhUadeiphia.  1884);  Idem.  The 
Timuqua  Lanowwe  in  Proceedinga  of  Am.  Phil.  Soc.  (Philadel- 
phia), XVI  (1877).  627;  XVII  (1878),  490:  XVIII  (1880).  465; 
LowBRT,  The  Spanish  Settlements  (New  York,  1901-05);  Ibv- 
INQ,  The  Conquest  of  Florida  (Philadelphia,  1835);  Brinton, 
Notes  on  the  Floridian  Peninsula  (Philadelphia,  1859):  Romans, 
A  Concise  Natural  History  of  East  and  West  Florida  (New  York, 
1775);  Brbvard,  History  and  Oovemment  of  Florida  (New  York, 
1904);  Dbwhurst,  The  History  of  St.  Augustine  (New  York, 
1881);  Carroll,  HistorieeU  CoUeetions  of  South  Carolina  (New 
York,  1836):  Stbphbns,  History  of  Georgia  (New  York,  1847); 
Wallace,  Carpet  Bag  Rule  in  Florida  (Jacksonville,  1888); 
YoctJii,  Viva  Government  in  Florida  (Deland,  1905);  Wiu- 
UAMS,  Florida  (New  York,   1837);  Fibre,  The  Diaeovery  of 


nOBILEOlA 


121 


FLOBUS 


(Boston,  1892);  General  Statutes  of  the  StaU  c]  Florida 

(SX,  AugtuUne,  1906);  Willougubt,  Acrota  the  Everglaelea 
a^iladelphia,  1906);  RuiDiiUS,  La  Florida  (Madrid,  1893); 
GABcfA,  Do8  antiffuas  retacionee  de  la  Florida  (Mexico,  1902); 
Tbrnaux-Companb.  RecueU  de  jrikcea  sur  la  Floride  (Paris, 
1841);  Spragub,  The  Origin,  Progreae  and  Conclusion  of  the 
Flanda  War  (New  York,  1848);  Extant  Records  of  the  Parish  ot 
St.  Augustine  from  the  year  159Uf  preserved  in  the  (}athedral 
Archives  at  St.  Augustine.  Jambs  Vbale. 

Florilegia  (Lat.  florHegiumy  an  anthology]^  are  sys- 
tematic collections  of  excerpts  (more  or  less  copious) 
from  the  works  of  the  Fathers  and  other  ecclesiastical 
writers  of  the  early  period,  compiled  with  a  view  to 
serve  dogmatic  or  ethical  purposes.  These  encyclo- 
pedic compilations — Patristic  anthologies  as  they  may 
oe  fitly  styled — are  a  characteristic  product  of  the 
later  Byzantine  theological  school,  and  form  a  very 
considerable  branch  of  the  extensive  literature  of  the 
Greek  Cateme. 

Two  classes  of  Christian  florilegia  may  here  be  dis- 
tinguished: the  donatio  and  the  asoetical,  or  ethical. 
The  dogmatic  florilegia  are  collections  of  Patristic 
citations  designed  to  exhibit  the  continuous  and  con- 
nected teaching  of  the  Fathers  on  some  specific  doc- 
trine. The  first  impulse  to  compilations  of  this  nature 
was  given  by  the  Christological  controversies  that  con- 
vulsed the  Eastern  Church  during  the  fifth  century, 
when,  both  at  the  gatherings  of  the  ^reat  church 
councils  and  in  private  circles,  the  practical  need  had 
made  itself  definitely  felt,  of  having  at  hand,  for  ready 
reference,  a  convenient  summary  of  what  the  Fathers 
and  most  approved  theologians  had  held  and  tau^t 
concerning  certain  controverted  doctrines.  Such  a 
summary,  setting  forth  the  views  of  Nestorius  and  the 
mind  of  the  orthodox  Fathers,  was  first  laid  before  the 
Council  of  Ephesus,  in  431,  by  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria. 
Summaries  of  dogxnatic  utterances  were  used  also  at 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451,  and  at  the  Fifth  Gen- 
eral Council  in  533.  But  it  was  not  until  the  seventh 
century  that  the  do^imatic  florilegia  assumed  a  fully 
developed  and  defimte  form.  At  the  Sixth  General 
Council,  in  680,  two  of  these  collections  played  a  very 

Prominent  r61e,  one,  constructed  bv  Macarius,  the 
^atriarch  of  Antioch,  in  favour  d  the  Monothelites, 
and  the  other,  a  counter  collection  presented  bv  the 
legates  of  Pope  Agatho.^  During  the  Iconoclastic 
controversy  similar  collections  were  produced.  Men- 
tion is  made  of  one  on  the  cult  of  relics  and  images 
which  the  Synod  of  Jerusalem  sent  to  John,  Bishop  of 
Qothia,  about  760. 

The  oldest  extant,  and  at  the  same  time  most  ex- 
tensive and  valuable,  of  these  dogxnatic  compilations, 
is  the  "  Antiquorum  Patrum  doctrina  de  Verbi  incar- 
natione  "  (first  completely  edited  from  a  manuscript  in 
the  Vatican  Library  by  F.  Diekamp,  "  Doctrina  Pa- 
trum de  incamatione  verbi.  Ein  griechisches  Flori- 
legium  aus  der  Wende  des  7.  imd  8.  Jahrhunderts'', 
Monster,  1907).  It  is  extraordinarily  rich  in  frag- 
ments from  writings  of  the  Patristic  period  which  are 
now  lost.  Of  the  977  citations  (mainly  of  a  Christo- 
lo^cal  character)  which  it  contains,  751  alone  are 
from  the  works  of  the  Fathers,  representing  93  eccle- 
siastical writers.  Diekamp  ascribes  the  work  to  the 
period  between  the  years  685  and  726,  and,  though 
nothing  can  be  said  with  certeinty  concerning  the 
author,  a  slight  probability  points  to  Anastasius  of 
Sinai  as  its  compiler.  A  florilegium  somewhat  similar 
to  the  "Doctrina"  is  mentioned  by  Photius  in  his 
Bibliotheca  (Mi^e,  P.  G.,  CLIII,  1089-92),  but  not  a 
trace  of  it  survives  to-day.  Another  compilation  of 
this  kind,  coverine  the  whole  province  of  tneolo^  in 
five  books,  b  ascribed  to  the  monk  Doxopatres,  iden- 
tical perhaps  with  the  eleventh-century  John  Doxo- 
patres;  the  first  two  books,  treating  of  Adam  and 
Christ,  are  all  that  remain.  A  nimiber  of  other  dog- 
matie  floril^ia  are  still  extant  in  manuscript  form,  but 
they  have  never  been  edited,  nor  even  critically  exam- 
ined.   The  authors  of  most  of  them  are  unknown. 


The  ascetical  florilegia  are  collections  of  moral  sen- 
tences and  excerpts  dniwn  partly  from  the  Scriptures 
and  partly  from  the  Fathers,  on  such  topics  as  virtues 
and  vices,  duties  and  exercises  of  a  religious  life,  faith, 
discipline,  etc.  They  are  not  so  numerous  as  the 
dogmatic  florilegia,  and  apparently  were  all  compiled 
before  the  tenth  century.  Their  material,  as  a  nue,  is 
gathered  indiscriminately  from  various  authorities, 
though  in  some  instances  it  is  furnished  by  only  a 
single  writer,  a  distinct  preference  being  then  shown 
for  the  works  of  the  more  illustrious  Fathers,  Basil  the 
Great,  Gregory  of  Naziamsus,  and  St.  John  Chr3rsos- 
tom.  An  extensive  Christian  florile^um  of  the  sixth 
century,  entitled  rd  Upd  (Sacred  Things),  is  probably 
the  earhest  of  these  anthologies.  The  work  consisted 
originally  of  three  books,  the  first  of  which  treated  of 
God,  the  second  of  man,  and  the  third  of  the  virtues 
and  vices.  In  the  course  oi  time  it  underwent  con- 
traction into  one  book,  its  material  was  recast  and 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order  under  rlrhoi,  or  sec- 
tions, its  name  changed  to  rd  Upik  wapdXKiiXa,  ''Sacra 
Parallela''  (from  the  fact  that  in  the  third  book  a 
virtue  and  a  vice  were  iegularly  contrasted  or  paral- 
leled), and  its  authorship  widely  ascribed  to  St.  John 
Damascene.  That  the  Damascene  was  really  the  com- 
piler of  the  "  Sacra  Parallela  ".  and  that  he  used  as  his 
principal  source  the  "  Capita  tneologica",  a  florilegium 
of  Maximus  Confessor,  nas  been  maintained  recentlv 
with  much  learning  and  skill  (against  Loofs,  Wendlana, 
and  Cohn)  by  K.  Holl  ("Frafimenta  Vomicftnischer  Kir- 
chenvater  aus  den  Sacra  Parallela",  Leipzig,  1S99). 
Though  rd  lepd  is  no  longer  extant  in  its  original 
form,  considerable  portions  of  the  first  two  books  have 
come  down  to  us  in  manuscript,  and  parts  of  the  third 
are  preserved  in  "The  Bee"  (Mdissa)  of  Antonius,  a 
Greek  monk  of  the  eleventh  century  (Migne,  P.  G., 
CXXXVI,  765-1124).  Gf  the  "Sacra  Parallela" 
there  are  several  recensions,  one  of  which  is  given 
in  Migne  (P.  G.,  XCV,  1040-1586;  XCVI,  9-544). 
Other  extant  ascetical  florilegia  still  remain  unedited. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  dogmatic  florilegia,  most  of  them 
are  anonymous. 

The  character  and  value  of  the  Christian  florilegia 
cannot  be  definitely  or  finally  estimated  until  the  vari- 
ous manuscripts  that  now  lie  scattered  through  the 
libraries  of  Europe  and  the  East  have  received  a  more 
thorough  and  critical  investigation  than  has  hitherto 
been  accorded  to  them.  Questions  as  to  date,  authoi^ 
ship,  sources,  structure,  relative  dependence,  etc.,  have 
as  yet  been  treated  only  in  a  general  way.  As  the 
characteristic  production  of  an  age  of  theological 
decadence,  these  collections  of  ancient  Christian  frag- 
ments have  no  high  literary  value;  they  are.  however, 
of  great  importance  to  us,  because  they  frequently 
embody  the  only  remains  of  importsmt  Patristic 
writings.  The  difficulties  connected  with  their  use 
arise  chiefly  from  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  the 
text,  the  uncertainty  concerning  the  names  to  which 
the  fragments  have  been  ascribed,  and  the  want  of 
sufficient  data  to  determine  the  dates.  Only  a  small 
part  of  the  extant  material  has  been  printed. 

The  best  genenX  account  of  the  floril^pa  will  be  found  in 
Krumbachsr,  Oesehichte  der  byzantinisehen  lAteratur  (2nd  ed., 
Munich,  1897),  206-210,  216-218,  where  there  is  also  biblios- 
laphy  and  a  f  tul  list  of  manuscripts. — ^WACHSiiiTTB,  Studien  mu 
dm  griechischen  Florilegien  (Berlin,  1882). 

For  the  dogmatic  florilegia:  Shxbman,  Die  Oesehichte  der  dog- 
matischen  Florilegien  vom  6.  bis  8.  Jahrh,  (LeipEig,  1904).     For 


the  Sacra  Paraflda,  Loors,  Leontius  von  Bytam  (Leipzig, 
1887);  Idem,  Studien  Oher  die  Johannes  von  Datnasko  zugesehrie- 
henen  Parallden  (Halle,  1892);  and  the  above-mentioned  works 
byDzsKAMP  and  Holu  Of.  Shahan  in  Catholic  Univ.  Bulletin 
(Washington),  V,  94  sq. 

Thomas  Oestrbich. 

Flonui,  a  deacon  of  Lyons,  ecclesiastical  writer  in 
the  first  half  of  the  ninth  century.  We  have  no  infoi^ 
mation  regarding  the  place  of  birth,  the  parents,  or  the 
youth  of  this  distinguished  theologian;  out  it  is  prob- 
able  that  he  came  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Lyons 


FLOWEB 


122 


FLOTD 


not  however  from  Spain,  as  some  scholars  have  as- 
serted. A  letter  to  Bishop  Bartholomew  of  Narbomie, 
written  between  827  and  830  and  signed  b^r  Florus  as 
well  as  by  Archbishop  Agobard  anathe  priest  Hildi- 
gisus,  furnishes  us  with  Uie  first  positive  information 
we  possess  of  his  history  ("Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Epp.". 
V,  206  sqq.)-  He  was  then  a  deacon  of  the  churcn  oi 
L^ons,  which  office  he  continued  to  hold  throughout 
his  life.  From  the  fact  that  at  this  time  he  afieady 
enjoyed  a  reputation  as  a  theologian,  we  may  con- 
clude that  he  was  bom  certainly  before  the  ena  of  the 
eighth  century.  That  he  was  then  known  (827)  even 
outside  the  boundaries  of  the  church  of  Lyons  is  testi- 
fied by  the  poetic  epistle  written  about  the  same  time 
by  the  youthful  Walahf rid  Strabo  to  Archbishop  Ago- 
bard, in  which  he  speaks  of  Florus,  with  an  allusion 
to  his  name,  as  a  nower  the  fragrance  of  which  had 
spread  even  to  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  (''Versus 
Strabi  Walahfridi",  viii,  v,  17-24,  ed.  Dttmmler, 
"PoetflB  Carol,  sevi",  II  357,  m  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist."). 
Until  about  the  miadle  of  the  ninth  century,  the 
deacon  of  L^ons  followed  an  active  literary  career;  he 
was  theologian,  canonist,  liturgist,  and  poet.  He  was 
considered  one  of  the  foremost  authorities  on  theo- 
logical questions  among  the  clergy  ctf  the  Frankish 
kingdom;  and,  in  consequence,  his  opinion  was  often 
sought  in  important  ecclesiastical  matters.  When, 
after  the  deposition  of  Archbishop  A^bard  of  Lyons 
by  the  Synod  of  Diedenhofen  (835),  Bishop  Modem  of 
Autun  summoned  before  the  civil  power  certain  eccle- 
siastics of  the  church  of  Lvons,  Morus,  in  his  work 
"De  iniusta  vexatione  ecclesi»  Lugdunensis",  took 
issue  with  Modoin  and  defended  ecclesiastical  freedom. 
Other  canonical  writings  of  Florus  are  his  "Capitula 
ex  lege  et  canone  collecta"  and  his  treatise  on  the 
election  of  bishops,  "De  electionibus  episcoporum". 
Another  of  his  works,  "  Querela  de  divisione  Imperii", 
a  lament  over  the  dissensions  of  the  realm,  was  written 
by  Florus  when  the  kingdom  was  linder^ing  severe 

EDlitical  disturbance  occasioned  by  the  stnf e  between 
ouis  the  Pious  and  Lothair.  His  liturgical  writings 
are:  "De  expositione  Miss»'^  and  three  treatises 
against  Amalarius  (''Opuscula  contra  Amalarium")* 
In  these  latter  works  the  author  inveighs  against  the 
famous  Amalarius  of  Mets,  who  came  to  Lyons,  in  835, 
and  wished  to  introduce  changes  in  the  liturgy  which 
were  disapproved  of  by  Florus.  Later,  Florus  took 
part  in  the  conflict  concerning  predestination,  which 
nad  been  stirred  up  by  the  monk  Gottschalk.  Shortly 
after  the  Synod  of  Quiersy,  in  the  year  849,  he  wrote 
on  this  subject.  "De  prsdestinatione",  and  laid  down 
the  doctrine  of  a  twofold  predestination,  to  salvation 
and  to  damnation,  maintaining  at  the  same  time  the 
doctrine  of  the  free  will  of  man.  When  John  Scotus 
Eriugena  attacked  this  opinion,  Florus,  commissioned 
by  the  church  of  Lyons,  wrote  in  852  his  work  "  Liber 
adversus  Johannem  Scotum  ",  He  is  also  the  author 
of  commentaries  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  His 
next  work  was  the  completion  of  the  Martyrology  of 
Bede,  to  which  he  made  additions  for  the  various  days. 
The  chief  sources  on  which  he  relied  in  enlarging  the 
work  are  a  manuscript  from  St-Pierre  in  M&con,  and 
two  manuscripts  of  Echtemach  and  Toul,  which  may 
all  be  found  m  the  National  Library  at  Paris  (MS». 
lat.  5254, 10018  and  10158).  In  later  revisions  of  the 
martyrology,  these  additions  have  been  made  use  of. 
Finally,  the  deacon  of  Lyons  has  left  a  number  of 
poems.  After  the  year  852,  no  further  information, 
definite  as  to  time,  has  come  down  to  us  regarding 
Florus;  so  that  his  death  may  be  said,  with  probable 
exactitude,  to  have  occurred  about  the  year  860. 

The  worloB  of  FloniB  are  foand  in  P.  L.,  LXI,  1081  sqq., 
XCIV,  799  eqq..  CXIX;  in  Mon.  Oerm.  Hiat.:  Epp.,  V,  and  in 
Poela  CaroL  <wt,  II;  DOMMiaR,  ProBfalio  tu  den  Poda  Carol, 
wvit  II«  in  Mon,  Oenn.  Hut.;  Maassbn,  Bin  Kommenlar  dot 
FlaruM  von  Lyon  gu  einer  der  aooen.  SirmondiBchen  Konatiiutionen 
in  SittwunStridiU  der  Akademie  tu  Wxen,  PhU.'hist.  Klane^ 
XCII  (1878),  SOl-^25:  Babhr.  aestkichiederrOmurhenLUerahiT 


im  karoHngiachen  ZMtalfer  (Heidelberg*  1840);  Quxntin,  Lm 
marturoloaea  hiUoriquea  du  moyenrAge  (Puis,  1908),  222-408. 

J.  P.  itlRSCH. 

Flower,  Richard.    See  Leigh,  Richard. 

Floydt  John,  English  missionaxy,  wrote  un^er  the 
names,  Flxtd,  Daniel  XJesu,  Hermannub  Lkemeliub. 
Gboroe  White,  Annosus  Fideus  VERiMBNTANn8.ana 
under  the  initials  J.  R.  Some  of  his  works  have  oeen 
erroneously  attributed  to  Robert  Jennison,  S.J.  He 
was  b.  in  Cambridgeshire  in  1572;  d.  at  StrOmer,  16 
Sept.,  1649.  He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  College  at 
Eu,  then  at  the  English  College  at  Reims  (17  March, 
1588),  and  finally  the  English  Ck>llege  in  Rome  (1590), 
where  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  1  Nov.,  1592. 
Nothing  is  known  about  his  ordination,  but  in  1606 
he  was  a  missionary  priest  in  England.  On  6  April  in 
that  year  he  was  arrested  at  Worcester  while  attempt- 
ing to  visit  Yen.  Edward  Oldcome  who  was  to  suffer 
martyrdom  next  day.  Having  been  imprisoned  for 
twelve  months  he,  with  forty-six  other  priests,  was 
banished  for  life.  He  then  spent  four  years  teaching 
at  StrOmer,  though  Folev  (Records,  IV,  238)  is  mis- 
taken in  supposing  that  he  published  any  controver- 
sial works  at  that  time.  On  31  July,  1609,  he  was  pro- 
fessed of  the  four  vows,  and  soon  after  returned  to 
England,  where  he  laboured  on  the  mission  for  many 
vears,  being  often  captured,  but  effecting  his  escape 
0^  buying  off  the  pursuivants.  In  1612  he  published 
his  first  work,  '^The  Overthrow  of  the  Irotestant 
Pulpit  Babels'',  in  which  he  replied  to  Crashaw's 
'^Jesuit's  Gosper'.  He  was  in  turn  answered  by  Sir 
Edward  Hoby,  in  his  ''A  Counter-snarl  for  Ishmael 
Rabshakeh  a  Cycropedian  Lycaonite,  being  an  an- 
swer to  a  Roman  Catholic  who  writes  himself  J.  R." 
Father  Floyd  retorted  in  1613  with  "Puigatorie's 
Triumph  over  Hell,  maugre  the  barking  of  Cerberus 
in  Syr  Edward  Hooves  Coimter  Snarle  '.  This  con- 
troversy closed  with  Moby's  rejoinder  "A  Cuny-comb 
for  a  Cox-combe",  published  m  1615.  Father  Floyd 
next  turned  his  attention  to  Marc'  Antonio  de  Domi- 
nis,  foimerly  Archbishop  of  Spalatro,  who  had  aposta- 
tized and  become  Protestant  dean  of  Windsor.  Against 
him  Father  Floyd  wrote  four  works:  "Synopsis  Apos- 
tasiffi  Marci  Antonii  de  Dominis,  olim  Arcniepiscopi 
Spalatensis,  nunc  Apostats,  ex  ipsiusmet  libro  de- 
lineata"  (Antwerp,  1617).  It  was  translated  into 
English  by  Father  Henry  Hawkins,  S.J.,  in  1617, 
and  again  by  Dr.  John  Fletcher  in  1828.  "Hypo- 
crisis  Marci  Antonii  de  Dominis  detecta  seu  censura  in 
ejus  libros  de  Republic^  Ecclesiastic^"  (Antwerp, 
1620);  "Censura  X  Librorum  de  Republic^  Ecclesias- 
ticA  Marci  Antonii  de  Dominis"  (Antwerp,  1620;  Col- 
ogne, 1621);  "Monarchiffi  Ecclesiasticse  ex  scriptis  M. 
Antonii  de  Dominis  Archiepiscopi  Spalatensis  Demon- 
stratio,  duobus  libris  comprehensa"  (Cologne,  1622). 
All  four  works  appeared  under  the  signature  Fidelis 
Annosus  Venmentanus, 

In  1620  Floyd  published  "God  and  the  King",  a 
translation  of  a  work  on  loyalty;  and  in  the  foUowine 
year  a  translation  of  St.  Augustine's  "Meditations  . 
In  1623  he  was  living  in  Fleet  Lane  (Gee's  "Foot  out 
of  the  Snare")  and  in  the  same  year  he  wrote  "A 
Word  of  Comfort:  or  a  discourse  concerning  the  late 
lamentable  accident  of  the  fall  of  a  room  at  a  Catholic 
Sermon  in  the  Blackf  riars  at  London,  wherewith  about 
four-score  persons  were  oppressed";  also  a  translation 
of  Molina  ^On  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass".  In  1625  he 

Sublished  "An  Answer  to  Francis  White's  reply  to 
[r.  Fisher's  answer  to  the  Nine  Articles  offered  by 
King  James  to  Father  John  Fisher".  In  1629  and  the 
suc^eding  years  Father  Floyd  played  a  leading  part 
in  the  controversy  between  seculars  and  Jesuits  as  to 
the  desirability  of  having  a  bishop  resident  in  England. 
Bishop  Richard  Smith,  whose  presence  was  regarded  ^ 
bv  some  as  a  source  of  persecution,  had  in  fact  left 
England  for  Paris  and  was  never  able  to  return^  but 


rOOARAS 


123 


70ILLAH 


the  situation  gave  rise  to  acrimonious  discussion. 
Father  Floyd's  works  were  ''An  Apology  of  the  Holy 
Se&  Apostolick's  Proceedings  for  the  Government  of 
the  Catholicks  of  England  during  the  time  of  persecu- 
tion" (Rouen,  1630;  enlarged  Lat.  ed.,  Cologne,  1631); 
and  '^  Hermanni  LcemeHi  Antverpiensis  Spongia  <}ua 
diluuntur  Calumniffi  nomine  facultatis  Pansiensis  mi- 
podtse  libro  qui  inscribitur  Apologia",  etc.  (St-Omer, 
1631).  Both  these  works  were  condemned  by  the 
Sorbonne,  and  in  1633  Urban  VIII  stopped  the  con- 
troversy and  suppressed  all  writings  upon  the  subject. 
His  other  works  are:  ''A  Paire  of  Spectacles  for  Sir 
Humphrey  Linde  to  see  his  way  withall"  (1631); 
"The  Church  Conquerant  over  Human  Wit"  (1638); 
"The  Totall  Summ"  (1638) ;  "The  Imposture  of  Puri- 
tan Piety"  (1638).  He  left  two  unpublished  works, 
"VitaBrunehildisFrancorum  Rc^mse"  and  a  "Trea- 
tise on  Holy  Pictures".  Father  Floyd  spent  the  last 
years  of  his  life  teaching  philosophy  and  theology  at 
St.  Omer's. 

DoDD,  Churdi  Historu  (Bnuaeb.  173»-1742).  Ill,  105;  db 
Backeb.  BvU,  dea  icrivaina  delae.de  J.  (1869),  I,  1888;  Kttox, 
Douay  Diariea  (London,  1878);  Folbt,  Records  Eng.  Prov.  S.  J, 
(London,  1878,  1880,  1882).  IV.  238,  where  he  mistakes  a  date 
in  Douay  Diary  and  states  that  Floyd  was  sent  to  Rome  in  1503 
instead  of  1500;  VI,  185;  VII,  288;  Gillow,  BiU.  Diet.  Eng. 
Cath.,  s.  v.;  Cooper  in  tHd.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v.,  who  repeats 
Foi.bt'b  mistake. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Fogaras,  Archdiocese  of  (Fooarasiensis),  Hun- 
gary, of  the  Greek-Rumanian  Rite.  It  has  three  suf- 
fragan sees,  Grosswardein  (NagyV^rad),  Lugos,  and 
Szamos  Ujvdr  (Armenopolis).  Since  1733  the  resi- 
dence has  been  at  Baldszfalva  (Blaj,  Blasendorf). 
The  Diocese  of  Fo^ras  was  erected  in  1721.  suffragan 
to  the  Primate  of  Hungaiy  (the  Latin  Archbishop  of 
Gran).  In  1853  Pius  IX  re-established  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Alba  Julia  (Weissenburg.  Karlsburg),  an 
ancient  metropolitan  title,  and  unit^  it  with  the  See 
of  FogBSSus.  Since  that  time  the  head  of  the  Greek- 
Rumanian  Church  bears  the  title  of  Archbishop  of 
Fogaras  and  Alba  Julia.  Since  1697  (Synod  of  Karls- 
^burg),  when  these  Rumanians  returned  to  Catholic 
unity,  there  have  been  eleven  Catholic  titidars  of 
Alba  Julia  or  Foearas. 

The  city  of  Fogaras  (6000  inhabitants)  (in  Ger- 
man Fagreschmarkt)  is  built  on  the  Aluta.  Its  fort- 
ress played  an  important  part  in  all  the  wars  with  the 
Turks.  In  1849  the  Hungarians  were  defeated  here 
by  the  Russians.  Baldszfalva,  the  residence  of  the 
archbishop,  has  also  about  60()0  inhabitants.  Here, 
in  1848,  the  Rumanians  protested  against  political 
union  with  Hungary.  The  archdiocese  numbers 
440,000  Rumanian  Catholics.  There  are  720  priests, 
nearly  all  married,  705  parishes,  as  many  churches, 
and  several  chapels.  The  preparatory  and  theological 
seminaries  are  at  Blaj,  also  a  coll^  and  a  printing' 
establishment,  "where  the  weekly  journal  "iJnirea 
has  been  published  since  1890.  The  diocesan  schools 
for  boys  and  girls  are  attended  byr  60,000  pupils. 
There  are  3  gymnasia  for  boys  or  girls,  and  several 
eonvents. 

NiLLes,  SymbokK  ad  Uluttrandam  hietoriam  BecUtim  orienUdU 
m  terria  Corona  8.  Stephani  (Innsbruck,  1885),  passim;  Sema- 
titmvl .  .  .de  Atba  Julia  ei  FUglinu  (BaUssfalva.  1900):  Mia- 
aionet  eaOtoliea  (Rome,  1907).  785-86. 

S.  VailhI:. 
Fogmrty,  Michael.    See  Killaloe,  Diocese  of. 

Foggia,  Diocese  of  (Fodiana),  in  the  proVince  iA 
the  same  name  in  Apulia  (Southern  Italy).  The  city 
is  in  the  heart  of  a  rich  agricultural  centre,  in  a  vast 
plain  between  the  rivers  Cervaro  and  Celone.  It  grew 
up  about  the  church  of  the  Madonna  del  Sette  Veli,  to- 
day the  cathedral,  built  in  1072  by  Robert  Guiscard. 
Fogp^  is  so  named  from  the  swampy  character  of  the 
territory,  foya  or  fogia  signifying  *'  marsh  ".  It  later 
became  the  capital  of  the  district  known  as  the  Capi- 
tanata.    Frederick  II  built  an  imperial  fortress  there. 


In  1254  Manfred  defeated  there  Pope  Innocent  IVy 
though  in  the  same  place,  in  1266,  he  hunself  submitted 
to  Charles  of  Anjou,  who  in  1268  destroyed  the  city  for 
taking  part  with  the  unfortunate  Conradino.  In  1781 
a  severe  earthquake  greatly  danu^ed  the  city.  Fog- 
gia  formed  part  of  tne  Diocese  of  Troia  until  1855, 
when  it  was  made  a  diocese  by  Pius  IX,  comprising 
territory  of  the  Dioceses  of  Siponto  and  Manfredonia. 
The  first  bishop  was  Bemardmo  M.  Frascolla.  Situ* 
ated  so  near  tne  ancient  city  of  Arpi,  which  had  a 
bishop,  Pardus,  as  early  as  314,  the  bishops  of  Troia 
may  be  considered  as  successors  of  the  Bishops  of  Arpi. 
In  1907  Foggia  was  united  (B^ue  principalHer  with 
Troia.  It  is  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See. 
The  cathedral,  a  remarkable  architectural  monument, 
has  been  often  restored  and  enlarged;  it  contains  the 
mausoleum  of  the  Princes  of  Durazzo.  Worthy  of 
mention  is  the  church  of  the  Crosses,  which  is  ap- 
proached through  a  series  of  chapels..  Foggia  has  9 
parishes,  81,000  inhabitants,  2  male  and  8  female  edu- 
cational institutions,  3  religious  houses  of  men,  and  9 
of  women. 

Cappellbtti,  Le  Chiese  d*  Italia  (Venice,  1844).  XXI;  An- 
nuario  Bed.  (Rome,  1908).  U.  Benigni. 

Foillan  (Irish  Faelan,  Faolan,  Foelan,  Foa- 
lan).  Saint,  represented  in  iconography  with  a  crown 
at  his  feet  to  show  that  he  despised  the  nonours  of  the 
world.  He  was  bom  in  Ireland  early  in  the  seventh 
century  and  was  the  brother  of  Saints  Ultan  and 
Fursey^  the  latter  a  famous  missionary  who  preached 
the  Faith  to  the  Irish,  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  the 
Franks.  Foillan,  probably  in  company  with  Ultan, 
went  with  his  brother  Fursey  when  the  latter,  fleeing 
from  his  ooimtry  then  devastated  by  foreign  invaders, 
retired  to  a  lonely  island.  Fursey  soon  went  among 
the  Anglo-Saxons  and  built  a  monastery  at  Burgh 
Castle  (Cnoberesburg)  in  Suffolk,  between  634  and 
650. 

Seized  again  with  the  desire  for  solitude,  Furaey  left 
the  monastery  in  the  care  of  Foillan,  who  remained  at 
the  head  of  tne  community,  and  had  the  happiness  of 
once  more  seeing  his  brother  Fursev,  who,  having 
since  gone  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks,  came  to  visit 
him  about  650.  Soon  a  disastrous  war  broke  out  be- 
tween Penda,  the  Mercian  chief,  and  Ana,  King  of  the 
Eastern  Anglo-Saxons.  Ana  having  been  put  to  flight, 
the  monastery  of  Cnoberesburg  fell  into  the  han£  of 
the  enemies.  It  was  pillaeed,  and  its  superior,  Foillan, 
barejy  escaped  death.  He  hastened  to  ransom  the 
captive  monks,  recovered  the  relics,  put  the  holy 
books  and  objects  of  veneration  on  board  ship,  and 
departed  for  the  country  of  the  Franks,  where  his 
brother  Fursey  was  buried.  He  and  hJs  companions 
were  well  received  at  P^ronne  by  Erconwald,  Mayor 
of  the  Palace.  But  soon,  for  some  unknown  reason, 
Foillan  and  his  companions  left  P^ronne  and  went  to 
Nivelles,  a  monastery  founded  by  St.  Ita  and  St. 
Gertrude,  wife  and  daughter  of  Diuce  Pepin  I. 

Foillan,  like  so  many  other  Irishmen  who  went  to 
the  Continent  in  the  seventh  century,  was  invested 
with  episcopal  dijznity,  having  doubtless  been  a  mon- 
astic bishop  at  Cnoberesburg.  He  was  therefore  of 
great  assistance  in  the  organization  of  worship,  and 
the  holy  books  and  relics  which  he  broueht  were  great 
treasures  for  St.  Ita  and  St.  Gertrude.  As  the  monas- 
tery of  Nivelles  was  under  Irish  discipline,  the  com- 
panions of  Foillan  were  well  received  and  lived  side  by 
side  with  the  holy  women,  occupying  themselves  with 
the  details  of  worship  imder  the  general  direction  of 
the  abbess.  Through  the  liberality  of  Ita,  Foillan  was 
enabled  to  build  a  monastery  at  Fosses,  not  far  from 
Nivelles,  in  the  province  of  Namur.  After  the  death 
of  Ita  in  652,  Foillan  came  one  day  to  Nivelles  and 
sang  Mass,  on  the  eve  of  the  feast  of  St-Quentin.  The 
ceremony  being  finished,  he  resumed  his  journey, 
doubtless  undertaken  in  the  interests  of  his  monastery. 


rOLSNGCT 


124 


FOUONO 


In  the  forest  of  Seneffe  the  saint  and  his  companions 
fell  into  a  trap  set  by  bandits  who  inhabited  that 
solitude.  They  were  slain,  stripped,  and  their  bodies 
concealed.  But  they  were  recovered  by  St.  Gertrude, 
and  when  she  had  taken  some  relics  of  the  saint  his 
body  was  borne  to  the  monastery  of  Fosses,  where  it 
was  buried  about  655. 

Foillan  was  one  of  the  numerous  Irish  travellers  who 
in  the  course  of  the  seventh  century  evangelized  Bel- 
gium, bringing  thither  the  liturgy  and  sacred  vessels, 
founoing  prosperous  monasteries,  and  sharing  consid- 
erably in  the  propagation  of  the  Faith  in  these  coun- 
tries. Owing  to  tne  friendship  which  united  him  with 
Erconwald,  Mayor  of  the  Palace,  and  with  the  mem- 
bers of  Pepin's  family,  Foillan  played  a  preponderant 
part  in  Prankish  ecclesiastical  history,  as  shown  by  his 
share  in  the  direction  of  Nivelles  and  by  the  founda^ 
tion  of  the  monastery  of  Fosses.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  he  should  be  honoured  and  venerat^ 
both  at  Nivelles  and  Fosses  and  to  find  at  Le  RcbuIz 
(Belgium)  a  monastery  bearing  his  name.  As  late  as 
the  twelfth  century  the  veneration  in  which  he  was 
held  inspired  Philippe  Le  Harvengt,  Abbot  of  Bonne- 
Esp^rance,  to  compose  a  lengthy  biography  of  the 
saint.  He  is  the  patron  of  Fosses,  near  Charleroi.  In 
the  Diocese  of  Namur  his  feast  is  celebrated  on  31 
October,  in  the  Dioceses  of  Mechlin  and  Toumai  on  5 
November. 

Addilamentum  Nivialense  de  FutUmo^  ed.  Krubch,  in  Mon. 
Cferm.  Hist.:  Scriptorea  rerum  Merovingicarum,  IV,  449-451; 
Ada  88„  Vila  FoiUani,  October  (ed.  pAuit),  XIII,  383  sag. 
An  appreciation  in  GuebquiIbrb,  Ada  SS.  Bdgii  C178o),  III, 
and  Capobavb,  Nova  Legenda  Anglia  (London,  1516),  149-150; 
DB  Buck,  Commeniarius  pntvius  in  Sandum  FoiUanum.Ada 
SS.  (1883),  October,  XIII.  370-83,  supplem.,  922-25;  Rous- 
BBAU,  Vie  de  S.  Feuillien,  ivigue  el  martyr,  pcUron  de  la  ville  de 
Foasee  (Li^Re,  1739);  Brrliere,  La  plus  ancienne  vie  de  Saint 
Foillan  in  Heoue  BhUdidine  (1892),  IX.  137-139;  Kbubch  in 
Man.  Oerm.  Hid.:  loc.  cU.,  423  sqq.;  Van  deb  Ebsen,  Etttde 
crUigue  d  litUraire  eur  lea  Vita  dea  aainta  M^ovingiena  de  Van- 
eienne  Beloigue  ^iOuvain,  1907),  149-161;  Gougaud,  Vasuvre 
dea  Scotti  dona  Vaurope  conlinenttile  in  Revue  d'Hidoire  EccUair 
adurue  (1908).  IX,  27-28;  Stokkb,  Six  Montha  in  the  Foreata  of 
France  (London):  Barino-Gould,  Livea  of  the  Sainta,  s.  v.; 
BoTLBB,  Livea  of  tne  Sainta;  O'Hanlon,  Livea  of  the  Iriah  Sainta. 

L.  VAN  DER  Essen. 

FolenffO,  Tegfilo,  Italian  poet,  better  known  by 
his  pseudonym  of  Merlin  Ck>ccAio  or  Cocai;  b.  at 
Mantua  in  1496;  d.  at  the  monastexy  of  Santa  Croce 
in  Campese  in  1544.  He  received  'some  training  at 
the  University  of  Bologna  and  then  entered  the  Bene- 
dictine Order.  In  1524  or  1525,  either  through  enmity 
for  his  abbot,  Ignazio  Squarcialupi,  or  because  of  a 
temporary  impatience  of  monastic  life,  he  divested 
himself  of  the  nabit  and  acted  for  a  while  as  a  private 
tutor.  Then  repenting  of  the  step  taken,  he  made 
overtures  to  his  order  for  his  readmission,  which  was 
granted  in  1534,  only  after  he  had  done  penance  and 
had  cleared  himself  of  certain  suspicions  of  heterodoxy. 
TTiree  years  later  he  became  prior  of  the  monastery  of 
Santa  Maria  delle  Ciambre  in  Sicily.  He  returned  to 
the  mainland  in  1543.  Folengo's  fame  rests  chiefly  on 
his  "Baldus"  which  was  first  printed  in  1517  in  seven- 
teen books  or  MacaroniccBj  and  was  reprinted  in  1521 
with  eight  additional  books.  The  work,  epic  in  its 
tendencies,  belongs  to  the  category  of  burlesque  com- 
positions in  macaronic  verse  (that  is  in  a  jargon,  made 
up  of  Latin  words  mingled  with  Italian  words,  given  a 
Latin  aspect),  which  had  already  been  inaugurated 
by  Tifi  6dasi  in  his  "Macaronea".  and  which,  in  a 
measure,  marks  a  continuance  of  the  goliardic  tradi- 
tions of  the  Middle  Ages.  For  the  first  edition  of  the 
"Baldus",  Folengo  had  derived  burlesque  traits  and 
^pes  of  personages  from  the  chivalrous  romances  of 
Boiardo  and  Pulci.  His  second  edition  reveals,  in  the 
greater  amplitude  of  its  action,  in  the  improved  man- 
ner of  settmg  forth  comic  types,  and  in  its  generally 
better  developed  feeling  for  art,  the  author's  reading 
of  the  "Orlando  Furioso*'  of  Ariosto.  However,  the 
poem  is  a  parody  not  only  of  the  Italian  chivalrous 


romance  but  also  of  the  Virgilian  epic,  and,  in  its  latter 
part,  of  Dante's  "  Divine  Comedy  "  as  well.  Further- 
more, it  is  grossly  satirical  in  its  treatment  of  the  clergy 
and  at  times  borders  on  the  sacrilegious.  In  view  of  the 
general  nature  of  the  work,  it  is  easily  intelligible  that 
it  should  have  appealed  to  Rabelais,  who  found  in  it 
the  prototype  of  nis  "  Panurge  "  and  his  "  Gai^antua". 
Among  tne  lesser  works  of  Folengo  are  the  "Zani- 
tonella",  which  parodies  both  the  virgilian  pastoral 
and  the  Petrarchian  love-lyric;  the  "Orlandino" 
(1526),  which  gives  in  Italian  octaves  a  buriesque 
account  of  the  birth  and  youth  of  Roland;  the  curious 
"Caos  del  Triperuno"  (1527),  which  in  verse  and 
prose  and  in  mingled  Latin,  Italian,  and  Blacaronic 
speech,  sets  forth  allegorically  the  author's  own  previ- 
ous heretical  leanings  and  finally  states  his  confession 
of  faith;  and  the  "MoschsBa",  which  in  three  books  of 
Macaronic  distichs  relates,  somewhat  after  the  fash- 
ion of  the  "Batrachiomachia",  as  well  as  of  the 
chivalrous  romances,  the  victory  of  the  ants  over  the 
flies,  and  preludes  the  Italian  mock-heroic  poem  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  After  his  return  to  his  order, 
Folengo  wrote  only  religious  works,  such  as  the  Latin 
poem  "Janus",  wherein  he  expresses  his  repentance 
for  having  written  his  earlier  venturesome  composi- 
tions; the  "Palermitana",  in  Italian  terza  rima;  and 
the  ''Hagiomachia",  which,  in  Latin  hexameters,  de- 
scribes especially  the  lives  of  eighteen  saints. 

PoRTTOU.  Le  opera  maccheroniche  di  Merlin  Cocai  (Mantua, 
1882-1S89);  Luzio  and  Renda  in  Giomale  atorico,  XIII,  XIV, 
XXIV;  Hen  DA,  Stud-:  Folmghiani  (Florence,  1809);  Schneb- 
OANS,  Oeachichte  der  groteaken  Saiire  (Strasburg,  1894);  Fla- 
MiNi,  n  Cinquecento,  extensive  bibliography  on  pp.  &44  aqq. 

J.  D.  M.  FoBD. 

Foleyi  John  S.    See  Detroit,  Diocese  of. 

Foley,  Patrick.  See  Kildare  and  Leiqhlin, 
Diocese  of. 

Foligno,  Angela  de.    See  Angela  of  Foligno. 

FolignOi  Diocese  of  (Fulginatensis),  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Perugia,  Italy,  immediately  subject  to  the 
Holy  See.  The  city,  situated  on  the  river  Topino,  was 
founded  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Christian  cemetery 
surrounding  the  basilica  of  San  Feliciano,  outside  the 
ancient  city  of  Fulginium,  which,  after  the  battle  on 
the  Esinus  (295  b.  c),  was  annexed  to  Rome.  The 
splendour  of  the  ancient  city  is  attested  by  numerous 
ruins  of  temples,  aqueducts,  circuses,  etc.  In  the 
municipal  museum  of  Foligno  is  a  large  collection  of 
household  utensils  of  the  Roman  and  Umbrian  pe- 
riods. Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  Foligno 
"Hercules",  a  famous  statue  now  in  the  Louvre  at 
Paris.  After  the  Lombard  invasion  (565)  the  city 
formed  part  of  the  Duchy  of  Spoleto,  with  which,  in 
the  eighth  century,  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Holy  See.  During  the  thirteenth  century  it  was 
Ghibelline,  but  in  1305  the  Guelphs  under  Nello 
Trinci  expelled  the  Ghibellines  with  their  leader  Cor- 
rado  Anastasi;  thenceforth  until  1439  the  Trinci  gov- 
erned the  city  as  the  pope's  vicars.  In  1420  their  rule 
was  extended  to  Assisi,  Spello,  Bevagna,  Nocera, 
Trevi,  Giano,  and  Montefalco. 

Art  and  literature  flourished  vigorously  at  Foligno. 
Evidence  of  this  may  still  be  seen  in  the  Trinci  palace, 
with  its  magnificent  halls  decorated  by  Ottaviano 
Nelli,  Gentile  da  Fabriano,  and  others.  Better  pre- 
served is  the  chapel,  on  the  ceiling  of  which  is  pictured 
the  life  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  in  the  adjoining  room 
the  story  of  Romulus  and  Remus  is  depicted.  An- 
other room  is  called  "The  Hall  of  Astronomy";  the 
largest  is  "The  Hall  of  the  Giants",  so  called  from  its 
immense  portraits  of  personages  oi  Biblical  and  Ro- 
man history.  This  splendid  edifice  has  unfortunately 
been  disgracefully  neglected  and  now  serves  as  a  court 
of  justice,  prison,  etc.  At  the  court  of  the  Trinci,  e&- 
pecially  Nicold,  were  many  distinguished  poets,  e.  g. 
Mastro  Paolo  da  Foligno,  Fra  Tommasuccio  da  No- 


FOLIOT  1£ 

Oera,  Candido  Boat«mpi,  and  othere;  the  moat  illus' 
triouB  was  the  Domimcan  Federi^  Freisi^  Bishop  of 
Foligno  (1403).  whose  "  Quadriregio  "  is  a  kind  of  com- 
meotaiy  <m  tne  "Hall  of  the  Giante".  Ait«r  the 
murder  of  Nicold  Trinci  in  1437,  his  brother  Corrado 
began  to  rule  in  a  tyrannical  way;  Eugene  IV,  there- 
lore,  in  1439  sent  Cardinal  Vitelleschi  to  demand  his 
SUbmissioD.  Henceforth  Fohgno  enj  oyed  a  large  com- 
munal Uberty  under  a  papal  governor. 

There  is  reason  to  beiieve  that  Christianity  was  in- 
troduced at  Foligno  in  the  flret  half  of  the  second  oen- 
tuiy.  St.  Felicianus,  the  patron  of  the  city,  though 
certainly  not  the  fint  biahop,  was  consecrated  By 
Pope  Victor  and  martyred  under  Decius  (24  Janu- 
ary); the  exact  dates  of  his  biatoiy  are  uncertain 
(Acta  SS.,  Jan.,  II,  582-^;  Anslecta  BoU.,  1890, 381). 


Puui 


i.  IBM),  I)^Fuoa- 


u(B«rn 


FoUot,  Gilbert,  Bisbof  of  London.  See  Gilbbbt 
FouoT, 

Folkestone  Abbey,  or  more  correctly  Folsestonk 
PmuRY,  is  situated  in  the  east  division  of  Kent  about 
thirty-seven  miles  from  Maidstone.  It  was  oriKinatlv 
a  monastery  of  Benedictine  nuns  founded  in  630  Dy  St. 
Eanswith  or  Eanawide,  daughter  of  Eadbald,  King  of 
Kent,  who  waa  the  son  of  6t.  Ethelbert,  the  first  Chris- 
tian king  among  the  English.  It  was  dedicated  to  St. 
Peter.  Like  many  other  similar  foundations  it  was 
destroyed  b^  the  Danes.  In  1095  another  monastery 
f(»'  Benedictine  monks  was  erected  on  the  same  site  by 
Nigel  de  Mundeville,  Lord  of  Folkestone.  This  waa 
an  alien  priory,  a  cell  belonging  to  the  Abbey  of  Lonley 
or  LoUey  in  Normandy,  dedicated  to  St.  Mary  and  St. 
Eanswith,  whose  relics  were  deposited  in  the  church. 
The  chS  on  which  the  monaatery  was  built  was  grad- 
ually undermined  by  the  sea,  and  William  de  Abriacis 
in  1137  gave  the  monks  a  new  site,  that  of  the  present 
church  of  Folkestone.  Hie  conventual  buildings  were 
erected  between  the  church  and  the  sea  coasL  Being 
an  alien  priory  it  was  occasionally  aeiied  by  the  king, 
when  England  was  at  war  with  Fiance,  but  after  a 
time  it  was  made  denizen  and  independent  of  the 
mother-house  in  Normandy  and  thus  escaped  the  fata 
which  befell  most  of  the  alien  priories  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  V.  It  continued  to  the  time  of  the  disaolution 
and  was  surrendered  to  the  king  on  15  Nov.,  1535. 
The  names  of  twelve  priors  are  known,  the  last  being 
Thomas  Barrett  or  Basaett.  The  net  income  at  the 
dissolution  waa  about  £50.  It  waa  bestowed  by 
Henry  VIII  on  Edmund,  Lord  Clinton  and  Saye;  the 
present  owner  is  Lord  Radnor.  The  only  part  of  the 
monastic  buildings  remaining  is  a  Norman  doorwar, 
but  the  foundations  may  be  traced  for  a  coDsideraue 
distance. 


Latibal  Facadi,  Cathedral  of  Fouohd.  XIII  Cinturi 
UntQ  471  no  other  bishop  is  known.  St.  Vincentius  of 
Laodicea  in  Syria  waa  made  bishop  by  Pope  Honni»- 
das  in  523.  Of  subse<}uent  bishops  the  following  may 
be  mentioned:  Eusebius,  who  persuaded  King  Luit- 
prand  to  spare  the  city  (740);  Aiio  d^i  Aizi,  who 
distinguished  himself  at  the  Council  of  Rome  in  1059 
against  Berengarius;  BonfigUo  de'  BonEgli,  who  took 
part  in  the  First  Crusade;  Blessed  Antonio  Bettini 
(1401),  a  Jesuit;  IsidoroClario  (1547),  a  theologian  at 
the  Council  of  Trent.  In  II46  a  council  was  held  at 
Foli^o.  The  cathedral,  of  veiy  early  date,  and  poa- 
seaomga  beautiful  crypt,  waa  rebuilt  in  1133;  in  1201  a 
wing,  with  a  fagade,  was  added,  famous  for  its  sculp- 
turee  by  Binello  and  Rodolfo  (statues  of  Frederick 
Barbaroasa  and  of  Bishop  AnseJm),  restored  in  1903. 
Other  churches  are:  Santa  Maria  infra  Portas,  of  the 
Lombard  period,  with  Byzantine  freacoea;  SanClaudio 
(1232);  San  Domenico  (1251);  San  Giovanni  Profi- 
amma  (1231),  whose  name  recalls  the  ancient  city  of 
Forum  Flaminii.  The  monastery  of  Saaaovio  (1229), 
with  a  remarkable  cloiater  of  120  columns,  and  the 
PalasBo  Communale  are  also  noteworthy. 

The  dioceae  has  55  parishes,  31,000  mhabitants,  3 
male  and  3  female  educational  institutions,  4  religious 
houses  of  men,  and  12  of  women;  it  has  also  a  weekly 
Catholic  paper. 


Fonseca,  Joa6  IUbbiro  da,  Friar  Minor;  b,  at 
Evora,  3  Dec.,  1690;  d.  at  Porto,  16  June,  1762.  He 
waa  received  into  the  Franciscan  Order  in  the  convent 
of  Ara  Cceli  at  Rome,  8  Dec.,  1712.  As  minister  gen- 
eral of  the  order,  he  was  untiring  in  his  efforts  to  re- 
store discipline  in  places  where  it  bad  become  lax;  and 
displa^/ed  m  this  re^rd  singular  prudence,  tact,  and 
executive  ability.  In  1740  he  founded  the  large  li- 
brary in  the  old  convent  of  Ara  C(cli,  and  under  his 
direction  and  patronage,  the  "  Annales  Minorum"  of 
Wadding  were  published  at  Rome  in  seventeen  vol- 
umes, between  the  years  1731  and  1741.  Fonseca 
several  times  declined  the  episcopal  d^nity,  but  fi- 
nally accepted  (1741)  the  See  of  Oporto,  to  which  he 
waa  nominated  by  John  V  of  Portugal. 

Fi^Bi£.  Eipalla  Saarada  (Uadrid,  17*3).  XXI.  Z33  >qq. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Fonseca,  Pedro  da,  philosopher  and  theologian,  b. 
at  Cortizada,  Portugal,  1528;  d.  at  Lisbon,  4  Nov., 
1599.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jeaua  in  Coimbra  in 
1548,  and  in  1551  pasaed  to  the  University  of  Evora, 
where,  after  completing  his  studies,  he  lectured  upon 
philosophy  with  such  subtlety  and  brilliancy  aa  to  win 
tor  himself  the  title  of  the  "Portuguese  Arialotie". 
Hia  works,  which  for  over  a  century  after  his  death 
were  widely  used  in  philosophical  schools  throu^out 
Europe,  are:  " Institutionum  Dialeeticarum  Libri 
Oclo  (Lisbon,  1564);  "Commentariorum  in  Libras 
Metaphyaicorum  Aristotelis  Stagiritte"  (Rome,  1677); 
"laagoge  Philosophica"  (Lisbon,  1591).    These  works 

g speared  in  an  immense  number  of  editions  from  the 
atbolic  press  all  over  Europe.  Fonseca  also  shares 
the  fame  of  the  "Conimbricensee"  (q.  v.),  as  it  wh 


rONSEOA 


126 


rONTAKA 


during  hj8  term  of  office  as  provincial  and  largely  owing 
to  his  initiative  that  this  celebrated  work  was  under- 
taken by  the  Jesuit  professors  of  Coimbra. 

As  a  man  of  affairs,  Fonseca  was  not  less  gifted  than 
as  a  philosopher.  He  filled  many  important  posts  in 
his  order,  bemg  assistant,  for  Portueati  to  the  general, 
visitor  of  Portu^,  and  superior  of  the  professed  house 
at  Lisbon;  while  Gregory  XIII  and  rhilip  II  (from 
1580  King  of  Portugal)  employed  him  in  anairs  of  the 
greatest  ^licacy  and  consequence.  Fonseca  used  his 
mfluence  wisely  in  promoting  the  interests  of  charity 
and  learning.  Manv  great  institutions  in  Lisbon, 
notably  the  Irish  college,  owe  their  existence,  at  least 
in  great  part,  to  his  zeal  and  piety.  He  is  also  credited 
with  a  considerable  share  in  the  drawing  up  of  the 
Jesuit  Ratio  Studiorum.  But  his  greatest  claim  to 
lasting  reputation  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  first  devised 
the  smution,  by  his  acientia  media  in  God,  of  the  per- 
plezine  problem  of  the  reconciliation  of  grace  and  tree 
will,  ^vertheless  his  fame  in  this  matter  has  been 
somewhat  obscuied  by  that  of  his  disciple,  Luis  de 
Molina,  who,  having  more  fully  develooed  and  per- 
fected the  ideas  of  his  master  in  his  work  ''Ck>ncordia 
Liberi  Arbitrii  cum  Gratis  Donis",  etc.,  came  gradu- 
ally to  be  regarded  as  the  originator  of  the  doctrine. 

SoKMBHVOGSL.  Btbl.  de  la  C.  de  /..  Ill,  837;  db  Backsr, 
BibL  dee  Ecnvaina  deiaC.de  /..  I.  313.  Vll,  239;  Hurtbr. 
Nomendator;  Schkkbmann,  Zur  Oeachichte  der  Theorie  vcn  der 
Scientia  Media  in  Stimmen  aua  MariorLaach^  XVIII,  237; 
Idbm.  Die  EnUtehung  der  thomieliech-moHniatiM^iien  Cantrovene, 
Supplement  ix  to  Slimmen  ana  Maria-Laach  (Freiburg,  1880); 
Idbm,  CofUroveniarum  de  divina  gratia  liberique  arbitni  eonecfr^ 
dia  initia  el  progreuue  (Freiburg,  1881). 

John  F.  X.  Murphy. 

Fonseca  SoareSi  Antonio  da.  (Antonio  das 
Chagab),  Friar  Minor  and  ascetical  writer;  b.  at  Vidi- 
gueira,  25  June,  1631;  d.  at  Torres  Vedras,  20  Oct., 
1682.  Having  entered  the  Portuguese  army  as  a  com- 
mon soldier,  he  was  forced  to  flee  to  Bahia  in  Brassil,  as 
the  result  ot  a  duel.  There  he  abandoned  himself  to  a 
careless  and  dissolute  life,  but  was  converted  through 
the  writings  of  Louis  of  Granada  and  resolved  to  em- 
brace the  religious  life.  The  execution  of  his  resolu- 
tion was  deferred  indefinitely,  and  having  returned  to 
Portugal)  he  continued  to  lead  his  former  life  of  dissi- 
pation, until  in  1662  he  was  taken  with  a  grievous  ill- 
ness. On  his  recovery  he  hastened  to  fulfil  his  promise, 
and  was  admitted  into  the  Franciscan  Order  in  May 
of  the  same  year,  receiving  in  religion  the  name  of  An- 
tonio das  Changas.  He  soon  became  famous  through- 
out Portugal  on  account  of  his  poetical  and  ascetical 
writings,  in  which  he  combined  remarkable  erudition 
with  such  singular  elegance  of  style  as  to  give  him  a 
merited  place  among  the  classics  of  Portugal.  He 
died  imiversallv  esteemed  for  his  virtuous  life,  leaving 
a  great  part  of  his  writings  still  unpublished.  The  fol- 
lowing were  published  since  his  death:  "Faiscas  de' 
amor  divino  e  lagrimas  da  alma"  (Lisbon,  1683); 
"Obras  espirituaes"  (Lisbon,  1684-1687);  "O  Padre 
nossocommentado"  (Lisbon,  1688);  "Espelho  do  £s- 
pirito  em  que  deve  verse  e  comporse  a  Olma"  etc. 
(Lisbon,  1683);  "Escola  da  penitencia  e  flagello  dos 
peccadores"  (Lisbon,  1687);  ^' Sermons  Genuinoe"  etc. 
(Lisbon,  1690);  "Cartas  espirituaes"  (Lisbon,  1684); 
"Ramilheteespiritual"  etc.  (Lisbon,  1722). 

QonxNHO,  Vida  do  F,  Antonio  da  Fonaeoa  Soaree  (Lisbon.  1687 
and  1728);  db  Solbdao,  Hietoria  eerafioa  da  provincia  de  Portw 

*   '  ^  Stephen  M.  Donovan, 

Font.    See  Baptismal  Font. 

Fontf  Blessing  of.    See  Baptismal  Font. 

Fontana,  Carlo,  architect  and  writer;  b.  at  Bru- 
ciato,  near  Como,  1634;  d.  at  Rome,  1714.  There 
seems  to  be  no  proof  that  he  belonged  to  the  family  of 
famous  architects  of  the  same  name.  Fontana  went 
to  Rome  and  studied  architecture  under  Bernini.  His 
principal  works  in  Rome  cm%  the  Ginetti  chapel  at 


Sant'  Andrea  della  Valle;  the  Cibo  chapel  in  Madonns 
del  Popolo;  the  cupola,  great  altar,  and  ornaments  of 
the  Madonna  de'  BliracoU;  the  church  of  the  monks  of 
Santa  Marta;  the  fagades  of  the  church  of  Beata  Rita 
and  of  San  Marcolo  in  the  Corso;  the  sepulchre  of 
Queen  Christina  of  Sweden  in  St.  Peter's;  tne  palaces 
Grimani  and  Bolognetti;  the  fountain  of  Santa  Maria 
in  Trastevere,  and  that  in  the  piazza  of  St.  Peter's 
which  is  towards  Porta  Cavallegieri;  reparation  of  the 
chureh  of  Spirito  Santo  de'  Napolitani,  and  the  theatre 
of  Tordinona.  By  desire  of  Innocent  XI,  his  patron, 
he  erected  the  immense  building  of  San  Micnele  at 
Ripa;  the  chapel  of  Baptism  at  ot.  Peter's;  and  fin- 
ished Monte  Citorio.  By  request  of  Clement  XI  he 
built  the  granaries  at  Termim;  the  portico  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Trastevere^  and  the  basin  of  the  fountain  of 
San  Pietro  Montono.  He  restored  the  Library  of 
Minerva,  the  cupola  of  Montefiascone  and  the  casino  in 
the  Vatican,  and  collected  all  the  models  of  the  build- 
ing. He  sent  a  model  for  the  cathedral  of  Fulda,  and 
others  to  Vienna  for  the  royal  stables.  By  order  of 
Innocent  XI  he  wrote  a  difiFuse  description  of  the  Tem- 
plum  Vaticanum  (1694).  In  this  work  Fontana  ad- 
vised the  demolition  of  that  nest  of  houses  which 
formed  a  sort  of  island  from  Ponte  Sant'  Angelo  to  the 
piazza  of  St.  Peter's.  Fontana  made  a  calculation  of 
the  whole  expense  of  St.  Peter's  from  the  beginning  to 
1694,  which  amounted  to  46,800,052  crowns,  with- 
out including  models.  He  published  also  works  on 
the  Flavian  Amphitheatre;  the  Aqueducts;  the  inun- 
dation of  the  Tiber,  etc.  He  was  assisted  by  his 
nephews  Girolamo  and  Francesco  Fontana.  Fontana 
seems  to  have  been  considered  an  able  artist  and  a 
good  designer  and  more  successful  as  an  arehitect 

than  as  a  writer. 

MicHAUD,  Biographie  UniveredU;  Hbuzbas,  Livet  of  Cde- 
brated  Architects,  II,  264:  Lonqfbllow,  Cyclopedia  of  ArchiUc 
ture  in  Italy,  Greece  and  the  Levant,  365,  etc. :  Andbrson,  Italian 
Renaieeanee  Architecture,  168,  172,  176;  Moorb,  Character  of 
Renaiesanee  Architedure;  Rome  aa  an  Art  City  in  Lanf^unn 
Series  of  Art  Monographs,  62. 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

Fontana,  Domenico^  Roman  arehitect  of  the  Late 
Renaissance,  b.  at  Merh  on  the  Lake  of  Lugano,  1543; 
d.  at  Naples,  1607.  He  went  to  Rome  oefore  the 
death  of  Michelangelo  and  made  a  deep  study  of  the 
works  of  ancient  and  modem  masters.  He  won  in 
particular  the  confidence  of  Cardinal  Montalto,  later 
Pope  Sixtus  V,  who  in  1584  char^  him  with  the 
erection  of  the  Cappella  del  Presepio  (Chapel  of  the 
Manger)  in  S.  Mana  Maggiore,  a  poweriul  domical 
building  over  a  Greek  cross,  a  marvellously  well- 
balanc^  structure,  notwithstanding  the  profusion  of 
detail  and  overloading  of  rich  ornamentation,  which 
in  no  way  interferes  with  the  main  arehitectural 
scheme.  It  is  crowned  by  a  dome  in  the  early  style  of 
S.  Biagio  at  Montepulciano.  For  the  same  patron  he 
constructed  the  Palazzo  Montalto  near  S.  Maria  Mag- 

§iore,  with  its  skilful  distribution  of  masses  and  rich 
ecorative  scheme  of  reliefs  and  festoons,  impressive 
because  of  the  dexterity  with  which  the  artist  adapted 
the  plan  to  the  site  at  his  disposal.  After  his  accession 
as  Sixtus  V,  Montalto  appomted  Fontana  arehitect  of 
St.  Peter's,  bestowing  upon  him  amone  other  distinc- 
tions the  title  of  iGiight  of  the  Golden  Spur.  He 
added  the  lantern  to  the  dome  of  St.  Peter  s,  and  it 
was  he  who  proposed  the  prolon^tion  of  the  interior 
in  a  well-definecl  nave.  Of  more  unportance  were  the 
alterations  he  made  in  St.  John  Lateran  (c.  1586) 
where  he  introduced  into  the  loggia  of  the  north  faQade 
an  imposing  double  arcade  of  wide  span  and  ample 
sweep,  and  probably  added  the  two-story  portico  to 
the  Scala  Santa.  This  predilection  for  arcades  as 
essential  features  of  an  arehitectural  scheme,  was 
brought  out  in  the  different  fountains  designed  by 
Domenico  and  his  brother  Giovanni,  e.  g.  the  Fontana 
dell'  Acqua  Paola,  or  the  Fontana  di  Termini  planned 


rONTANA 


127 


FONTBONNS 


along  the  same  linei.  Among  profane  buildings  his 
strong  restrained  style,  with  its  sug^tion  m  the 
School  of  Vignola,  is  best  exemplifiedin  the  Lateran 
Palace  (begun  1586),  in  which  the  vigorous  applica- 
tion of  sound  structural  principles  anaa  power  of  co- 
ordination are  undeniable,  but  also  the  utter  lack  of 
imagination  and  barren  monotony  of  style.  It  was 
characteristic  of  him  to  remain  satisfied  with  a  sinde 
solution  of  an  architectural  problem,  as  shown  in  the 
fact  that  he  reapplied  the  moHf  of  the  Lateran  Palace 
in  the  later  part  of  the  Vatican  containing  the  present 
papal  residence,  and  in  the  additions  to  the  Quirinal 
Palace.  Fontana  also  designed  the  transverse  arms 
separating  the  courts  of  the  Vatican.  In  1586  he  set 
up  the  obelisk  in  the  Square  of  St.  Peter's,  of  which 
he  gives  an  account  in  "Delia  transportatione  deir 
obeusco  Vaticano  e  delle  fabriche  di  Sisto  V  "  (Rome, 
1590).  The  knowledge  of  statics  here  displayed, 
which  aroused  universal  astonishment  at  the  time,  he 
availed  himself  of  in  the  erection  of  three  other  an- 
cient obelisks  on  the  Piazza  del  Popolo,  Piazza  di  S. 
Maria  Maggiore,  and  Piazza  di  S.  Giovanni  in  Later- 
ano.  After  his  patron's  death  he  continued  for  some 
time  in  the  service  of  his  successor,  Clement  VIII. 
Soon,  however,  dissatisfaction  with  his  style,  envy, 
and  the  charge  that  he  had  misappropriated  pubhc 
moneys,  drove  him  to  Naples  where,  m  addition  to 
canals,  he  erected  the  Palazzo  Reale  on  a  design  to- 
tally devoid  of  imagination.  His  aim  was  to  execute 
a  sharply  defined  plan  in  vigorous  sequence^  without 
concern  for  detail,  employing  the  means  available  but 
without  much  originality.  The  chief  lack  in  his  work 
is  a  want  of  the  distinctive  char^ter  of  an  individual 
creation.  Undue  spaciousness,  tremendous  expanse, 
with  an  appalling  barrenness  and  coldness  and  with- 
out the  inspiration  of  inner  motif ,  are  his  ideals. 

Domenico's  brother  Giovanni  (b.  1546;  d.  at  Rome, 
1614)  is  of  less  importance.  His  cMef  creations  are 
dgantic  fountains,  spiritless  in  detail^  at  Frascati  and 
Rome,  where  the  Psilazzo  Giustiniani  is  also  ascribed 
to  him. 

GuRLBTT,  Oetehiehte  dea  BarockatiU  in  Italitn  (Stuttgart, 
1887),  I.  217-18. 

Joseph  Saueb. 

Fontuiai  Felice,  Italian  naturalist  and  physiolo- 
Qst,  b.  at  Pomarolo  in  the  Tyrol,  15  April,  1730;  d.  at 
Florence,  11  January,  1805.  He  received  his  early 
education  at  Roveredo  and  spent  several  years  at  the 
Universities  of  Padua  and  Boloena.  After  filling  the 
chair  of  philosophv  at  Pisa,  to  wnich  he  was  appointed 
by  the  Emperor  Francis  I,  he  was  summoned  to  Flor- 
ence by  the  Grand-Duke  Peter  Leopold  and  ma(}e 
court  physician.  He  was  at  the  same  time  commis- 
sioned to  ori^nize  and  equip  the  museum,  which  is 
well  known  for  its  eeoloeical  and  zoological  collec- 
tions and  its  physictu  ana  astronomical  instruments, 
some  of  which  are  of  much  historical  value.  A 
special  feature  of  the  collections  is  the  unique  set  of 
anatomical  models  which  were  made  of  coloured  wax 
imder  Fontana's  personal  direction.  They  were  of 
excellent  workmanship  and  excited  much  attention 
at  the  time.  Emperor  Joseph  II  engaged  him  to 
make  a  similar  set  for  the  Academy  of  Surgeons  in 
Vienna.  Fontana  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in 
Florence  where  his  position  as  curator  of  the  museum 
gained  for  him  the  acquaintance  of  most  of  the  scien- 
tific men  of  the  time.  Though  never  in  Holy  orders, 
he  is  said  to  have  worn  the  ecclesiastical  dress.  His 
death  was  due  to  a  fall  received  on  the  public  street, 
and  he  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce  near 
Galileo  and  Viviani.  Fontana  was  a  follower  of  Hal- 
ler  and  wrote  a  series  of  letters  in  confirmation  of 
the  latter 's  views  on  irritability.*  He  made  a  special 
study  of  the  eye  and  in  1765  carried  on  a  series  of  ex- 
periments on  the  contractile  power  of  the  iris.  He 
investigated  the  physiological  action  of  poisons,  par- 


ticularlv  of  serpents  and  of  the  laurel  berry.  He  di»- 
oovered  that  the  staggers,  a  disease  of  sheep,  is  due  to 
hydatids  in  the  brain.  He  also  fi;ave  much  attention 
to  the  studv  of  the  physical  ana  chemical  properties 
of  gases.  He  published  a  mmiber  of  memoirs  and 
though  a  laborious  writer  was  not  always  exact.  His 
chief  works  are  "De'  moti  dell'  iride"  (Lucca,  1765); 
''Ricerche  filosofiche  sopra  la  fisica  animale"  (Flor- 
ence, 1775);  ''Rioerche  fisiche  sopra  1  veneno  della 
vipera"  (Lucca,  1767),  of  which  a  larger  and  much 
extended  edition  was  published  in  two  volumes  in 
1781 ;  "Descrizioni  ed  usi  di  alcuni  stromenti  per  mi- 
surar  la  salubrity  dell'  aria"  (Florence,  1774);  "Re- 
cherches  physiques  sur  la  nature  de  I'air  d^phlogisti- 

que  et  de  I'air  nitreux"  (Paris,  1776). 

Cdvieb  in  BioQ.  Univ.  (PBiis),  XIV;  Baas,  Ou&inn  of  Hi^ 
tory  of  Medicine  (New  York,  1880). 

Henrt  M.  Brock. 

Fontbonne,  Jeanne,  in  religion  Mother  St.  John, 
second  foimdress  and  superior-general  of  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph  of  Lyons,  b.  3  March,  1759,  at  Bas- 
en-Basset.  Velay,  France;  d.  22  November,  1843,  at 
Lyons.  In  1778  she  entered  a  house  of  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  which  had  just  been  established  at  Monis- 
trol  (Haute-Loire)  by  Bishop  de  Gallard  of  Le  Puy. 
The  following  year  she  received  the  habit  and  soon 
gave  evidence  of  unusual  administrative  powers,  par- 
ticularly through  her  work  in  the  schools.  On  her 
election,  six  years  later,  as  superior  of  the  conununity, 
Mother  St.  John,  as  she  was  now  called,  co-operated 
with  the  saintly  founder  in  all  his  pious  undertakings, 
aided  in  the  establishment  of  a  hospital,  and  accom- 
plished much  good  among  the  young  girls  of  the  town. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  she  and  her  com- 
munity followed  Bishop  de  Gallard  in  refusing  to  sign 
the  Oath  of  the  Civil  (Jonstitution  of  the  Clei^^  not- 
withstanding the  example  of  the  Cur6  of  Monistrol, 
who  went  so  far  as  to  abet  the  government  officials  in 
their  persecution  of  the  sisters.  Forced  to  disperse 
her  community,  the  superior  remained  at  her  post  till 
she  was  dra^;ed  forth  by  the  mob  and  the  convent 
taken  possession  of  in  the  name  of  the  Commune, 
after  wnich  she  returned  to  her  father's  home.  Not 
long  afterwards  she  was  torn  froiti  this  refuge,  to  be 
thrown  into  the  prison  of  Saint-Didier,  ahd  only  the 
(aXa  of  Robespierre  on  the  day  before  that  appomted 
for  the  execution  saved  her  from  the  guillotine.  Un- 
able to  regain  possession  of  her  convent  at  Monistrol, 
she  and  her  sister,  who  had  been  her  companion  in 
prison,  returned  to  their  father's  house.  Twelve 
years  later  (1807),  Mother  St.  John  was  called  to 
Saint-Etienne  as  head  of  a  small  commimity  of  young 
girls  and  members  of  dispersed  congre^tions,  who  at 
the  suggestion  of  Cardinal  Fesch,  Archbishop  of  Lyons, 
were  now  established  as  a  house  of  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph.  She  restored  the  asylum  at  Monistrol,  re- 
purchased and  reopened  the  former  convent,  and  on  10 
April,  1812,  the  congregation  received  Government  au- 
thorization. In  1816  Mother  St.  John  was  appointed 
superior  general  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  and 
summoned  to  Lyons  to  found  a  general  mother-house 
and  novitiate,  which  she  accomplished  after  .many 
difficult  years  of  labour.  During  the  remainder  of  her 
Ufe  she  was  busied  in  perfecting  the  affiliation  of  the 
scattered  houses  of  the  congregation,  which  had  been 
formally  decreed  in  1828.  She  also  established  over 
two  hundred  new  communities.  An  object  of  her  spe- 
cial solicitude  was  the  little  band  which  she  sent  to  the 
United  States  in  1836  and  with  which  she  kept  in  con« 
stant  correspondence,  making  every  sacrifice  to  pro- 
vide them  with  the  necessities  of  life.  Towards  the 
end  of  her  life.  Mother  St.  John  was  relieved  of  the 
arduous  duties  of  superior,  and  spent  the  last  few 
years  in  preparation  for  the  end. 

RivAUX.  Life  of  Rev.  Mother  St.  John  Fontbonne^  tr.  (New 
York,  1887). 

F.   M.  RUDGH, 


FONTE-AVELLAITA 


128 


FONTE-AVKLLANA 


Fonto-AyeUana,  a  suppressed  order  of  hermits, 
which  takes  its  name  from  their  first  hermitage  in  the 
Apennines.  Its  founder,  Ludolph,  the  son  of  Giso, 
came  of  a  German  family  that  had  settled  in  Gubbio. 
He  was  bom  about  the  year  956;  in  977  he  left  his 
home  and,  with  a  companion  called  Julian,  began  to 
live  the  liSfe  of  a  hermit  in  a  valley  between  Monte 
Catria  and  Monte  Corvo,  in  the  Apennines.  This  val- 
ley was  known  as  Fonte-Avellana,  from  a  spring 
among  the  pine-trees.  Disciples  soon  gathered  round 
the  two  hermits;  by  989  they  were  sufficiently  numer- 
ous to  receive  a  ruJe  from  St.  Romuald,  who  was  then 
in  that  district.  This  rule  seems  to  have  been  of  great 
severity.  The  hermits  lived  in  separate  cells  and  were 
always  occupied  with  prayer,  study^  or  manual  labour. 
Four  days  a  week  they  ate  nothmg  but  bread  and 
water  in  strictly  limited  quantities.  On  Tuesdays  and 
Thursdays  they  added  a  little  fruit  and  vegetables. 
Wine  was  used  only  for  Mass  and  for  the  sick,  meat  not 
at  all.  They  observed  three  "  Lents  "  during  the  year, 
that  of  the  Resurrection,  that  of  the  Nativity,  ana 
that  of  St.  John  the  Baptist.  During  these  they  fasted 
on  bread  and  water  every  day  except  Sundays  and 
Thursdays,  when  thev  were  allowed  a  few  vegetables. 
They  wore  a  white  habit  and  their  feet  were  bare. 
Every  day,  in  addition  to  the  office,  they  recited  the 
whole  Psalter  before  dawn.  Many  wore  chains  and 
girdles  or  other  instruments  of  mortification,  and  each, 
according  to  his  devotion  and  strength,  was  accus- 
tomed to  scourge  himself,  to  make  many  genuflexions 
and  to  pray  with  arms  extended  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 

At  first  the  body  of  hermits  was  known  as  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Dove,  from  the  pure  and  gentle  char- 
acter of  its  founder;  but  when,  about  the  year  1000, 
he  built  them  their  first  regular  hermitage,  which  was 
dedicated  to  St.  Andrew,  they  soon  became  known  as 
the  Hermits  of  Fonte-Avellana.  Ludolph  is  said  by 
Ughelli  to  have  resided  the  office  of  prior  in  1009  and 
to  have  become  Bishop  of  Gubbio,  but  by  leave  of 
Benedict  VIII  he  resided  this  office  in  1012  and  re- 
tired again  to  his  hermitage.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
he  was  succeeded  in  the  priorate  Iw  Julian  about 
1009,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  satisfactory  evidence 
that  he  was  ever  Bishop  of  Gubbio.  He  died  in  1047. 
In  1034,  St.  Peter  Damian  became  a  hermit  at  Fonte- 
Avellana,  at  a  time  when,  it  is  supposed,  the  famous 
Guido  d'Arezzo  was  prior.  St.  Peter  Damian  suc- 
ceeded to  the  office  of  prior  about  1043  and  held  it 
until  his  death  in  1072.  He  made  some  modifications 
of  the  rule;  permitting  the  use  of  a  little  wine,  except 
during  the  three  Lents;  restraining  the  immoderate 
use  of  the  discipline,  which  had  outgrown  all  prudence; 
and  introducing  the  solemn  observance  of  Fndays  as  a 
commemoration  of  the  Holy  Cross,  for  which  reason 
the  hermitage,  since  the  year  1050,  has  been  known  as 
Holy  Cross  of  Fonte-Avellana. 

During  the  priorate  of  St.  Peter  Damian  several 
hermits  of  great  sanctitv  were  members  of  Fonte- 
Avellana.  The  earliest  of  these  was  St.  Dominic  Lori- 
catus,  so-called  from  the  breastplate  {lorica)  which  he 
always  wore  next  to  his  skin.  This  extraordinary 
ascetic  was  bom  about  the  year  990.  and  was  destined 
for  the  priesthood  by  his  parents,  wno  bribed  a  bishop 
to  ordam  him  before  the  canonical  age.  After  living 
for  a  few  years  as  a  secular  priest,  he  was  struck  with 
contrition  for  the  sin  of  simony  to  which  he  had  been  a 

Earty,  and  became  a  monk.  This  was  probably  at  the 
ermitage  of  Luceoli,  as  we  are  told  that  he  placed 
himself  under  the  direction  of  John  of  Monte  Feltro. 
Here  he  remained  till  about  1044,  when,  desiring  to 
increase  the  severity  of  his  penances,  he  came  to  Fonte- 
Avellana  to  be  the  disciple  of  St.  Peter  Hamian.  The 
record  of  his  mortifications  is  almost  incredible.  Be- 
sides his  cuirass,  he  wore  habitually  iron  rin^  and 
chains  round  his  limbs,  and  loaded  with  this  weight  he 
daily  prostrated  himself  a  thousand  times  or  recited 
whole  psalters  with  arms  extended  in  the  form  of  a 


cross.  Day  and  night  he  lacerated  his  body  with  a 
pair  of  scourges. 

It  had  become  the  custom  to  r^ard  the  recital  of 
thirty  psalms  while  taking  the  discipline  (i.  e.  about 
three  tnousand  strokes)  as  equivalent  to  one  year's 
canonical  penance.  So  that  to  scourge  oneself  while 
reciting  the  whole  psalter  was  to  execute  five  years  of 
penance.  St.  Dominic  Loricatus  is  related  to  have 
accomplished  in  this  manner  one  hundred  years  of  pen- 
ance (i*  c-  twenty  psalters),  spreading  the  penance 
over  one  week.  And  during  one  or  two  Lents  he  is  said 
to  have  fulfilled  in  this  way  one  thousand  years  of  pen- 
ance, scourging  himself  night  and  day  for  forty  oays, 
while  he  recited  no  less  than  two  hundred  psalters. 
Daily  he  used  to  recite  two  or  three  psalters,  and  daily 
in  Lent  eight  or  nine.  Meanwhile  he  ate  only  the 
stricter  diet  of  his  fellow-hermits  and  he  never  slept 
save  when^  from  sheer  fat^e,  he  fell  asleep  in  the 
midst  of  his  prostrations.  In  1059  St.  Peter  Damian 
appointed  him  prior  of  the  hermitage  of  Sanvicino, 
near  San  Sevenno.  Here  he  continued  his  terrible 
penances  up  to  his  death  about  1060.  His  body  still 
lies, under  the  altar  in  the  church  at  Sanvicino.  An- 
other saintly  conipanion  of  St.  Peter  Damian  was  his 
biographer,  St.  John  II  of  Lodi  (Bishop  of  Gub- 
bio), who  entered  Fonte-Avellana  about  the  year  1055 
and  became  prior  of  the  hermitage  soon  after  the 
death  of  his  fnend  in  1072,  which  office  he  retained  till 
he  was  made  Bishop  of  Gubbio,  one  year  before  his 
death  in  1106. 

In  addition,  there  were  the  blessed  brothers  Rudolph 
and  Peter,  wno  in  1054  gave  their  castle  at  Campo 
Regio  to  St.  Peter  Damian  and  retired  to  Fonte-Avel- 
lana. Rudolph  became  Bishop  of  Gubbio  in  1059  and 
in  that  vear  attended  a  council  at  Rome.  He  died  in 
1061.  Of  his  brother  Peter  little  is  known  save  that 
he  lived  a  life  of  great  mortification.  Four  years  after 
the  death  of  St.  Peter  Damian,  Gregory  VII  in  1076 
took  the  hermitage  of  Fonte-Avellana  under  the  spe- 
cial protection  of  the  Holy  See,  and  for  250  years  popes 
and  emperors  and  nobles  showered  privil^es  upon  it. 
In  1301  Boniface  VIII  subjected  the  hermitage  imme- 
diately to  the  Holy  See,  and  in  1325  John  XXII  raised 
it  to  the  status  of  an  abbey,  and  ordained  that  its  ab- 
bots should  always  receive  their  blessing  at  the  hands 
of  the  pope  or  of  his  legate  a  latere.  In  the  early  four- 
teenth century  it  had  grown  to  be  a  great  congr^ation 
with  many  subject  houses.  But  the  ^lory  of  Fonte- 
Avellana  was  soon  to  pass.  In  1393  it  was  given  in 
commendam  to  Cardinal  Bartolomeo  Media vacca,  and 
the  evils  that  follow  this  practice  soon  appeared. 
Slowly  the  fervour  of  observance  departed,  and  the 
religious  lived  rather  like  secular  clerg^r  than  like  her- 
mits. By  the  sixteenth  century  the  habit  had  changed , 
and  they  wore  a  short  white  cassock,  a  blue  noantle, 
shoes,  and  a  white  biretta. 

In  1524  the  great  Camaldolese  reformer,  S.  Paolo 
Giustiniani,  su^ested  that  the  congregation  of  Fonte- 
Avellana  should  be  united  to  his  own  order.  The  pro- 
ject then  came  to  nothing,  but  in  1568  Cardinal  Giulio 
della  Rovere,  the  commendatory  abbot  of  Fonte-Avel- 
lana, joined  with  his  brother  the  Duke  of  Urbino  in 
UTj^ng  on  Pius  V  the  canonical  visitation  of  the  her- 
mitajge.  This  was  performed  early  in  1569  by  Giam- 
battista  Barba,  general  of  the  Camaldolese,  and  in 
November  of  the  same  year  the  pope,  by  the  Bull 
''Quantum  animus  noster",  suppressed  the  ordet  of 
Fonte-Avellana,  transferred  its  members  to  Camaldoli 
or  any  other  house  they  might  choose,  and  united  all  its 
possessions  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Camaldolese 
Order.  On  6  January,  1570,  the  Camaldolese  solemnly 
entered  into  possession,  and  the  order  of  Santa  Croce 
of  Fonte-Avellana  ceased  to  exist. 

AuGUBTiNua  Florentinus,  Hiatoriarum  Camaidulensium, 
Para  II  (Venice,  1579),  209-232;  Mittarblu  and  Costadoni, 
Annalea  Camaldidense^i  (Venice.  1755-72);  Mabillon,  Annates 
O.  S.  B.,  IV  (Lucca.  1739);  HAltot,  Hiatoire  des  Ordrta  Rtiir 
gieux,  V  (Pans,  1718).  280-288;  St.  Pbtbr  Damian.  Opera  in 


FOHTEmLLI 


129 


FONTEVRAULT 


P.  L.,  CXLIV.  CXLV  (Paris.  1867);  Ada  8S„  Feb..  HI.  406- 
427;  Aug.,  VI,  811-812;  Sept.,  Ill,  146-175;  Oct.,  VI.  611-628; 
Oct..  Vni,  182-199;  Hsimbuchbr,  iHe  Orden  und  Konorega- 
iionen  der  katholiaehen  Kircke,  I  (JPaderborn,  1907),  262,  405; 
GiBBLU,  Monografia  ddV  antieo  monaaUro  di  S.  Croce  di  Fcnte- 
Avellana  (Faenza,  1896);  Riviata  Storioa  Benadeaina,  I,  466; 
II,  127. 

Lesue  a.  St.  L.  Toks. 

Fontonelle,  Abbey  of  (or  Abbey  of  Saint-Wan- 
drille),  a  Benedictine  monastery  in  Normandy 
(Seine-Inf^rieure),  near  Caudebeo-en-Caux.  It  was 
fomided  by  Saint- Wandrille  (Wandregesilus;  d.  22 
July,  667),  the  land  being  obtained  through  the  influ- 
ence of  his  friend  St-Ouen  (Audoenus).  Archbishop  of 
Rouen.  St- Wandrille  was  of  the  royal  family  of  Aus- 
trasia  and  held  a  high  position  at  the  court  of  his  kins- 
man, Dagobert  I,  but  being  desirous  of  devoting  his 
life  to  God,  he  retired  to  the  Abbey  of  Montfaucon,  in 
Champagne,  in  629.  Later  on  he  went  to  Bobbio  and 
then  to  Romain-MoiHtierSy  where  he  remained  ten 
years.  In  648  he  returned  to  Normand]^  and  founded 
the  monastery  which  afterwards  bore  ms  name.  He 
commenced  by  buildine  a  great  basilica  dedicated  to 
St.  Peter,  nearly  three  nundred  feet  long,  which  was 
consecrated  by  St-Ouen  in  657.  This  church  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  756  and  rebuilt  by  Abbot  Ansegisus 
(82^-833),  who  added  a  narthex  and  tower.  About 
862  it  was  wrecked  by  Danish  pirates  and  the  monks 
were  obli^d  to  flee  for  safety.  After  sojourning  at 
Chartres,  Boulogne,  St-Omer,  and  other  places  for 
over  a  century,  tne  commimity  was  at  lengtn  brought 
back  to  Fontenelle  by  Abbot  Maynard  in  966  and  a 
restoration  of  the  buildings  was  again  undertaken. 
A  new  church  was  built  by  Abbot  Gerard,  but  was 
hardly  finished  when  it  was  destroyed  by  lightning  in 
1012.  Undaunted  by  this  disaster  the  monks  once 
more  set  to  work  and  another  church  was  consecrated 
in  1033.  Two  centuries  later,  in  1250,  this  was  burnt 
to  the  eroimd,  but  Abbot  Pierre  Mauviel  at  once  com- 
menced a  new  one.  The  work  was  hampered  by  want 
of  funds  and  it  was  not  until  1331  that  the  building  was 
finished.  Meanwhile  the  monastery  attained  a  posi- 
tion of  great  importance  and  celebrity.  It  was  re- 
nowned for  the  fervour,  no  less  than  for  the  learning 
of  its  monks,  who  during  its  periods  of  greatest  pros- 
perity numbered  over  three  nundred.  Many  saints 
and  scholars  proceeded  from  its  cloisters.  It  was 
especially  noted  for  its  library  and  school,  where  let- 
ters, the  fine  arts,  the  sciences,  and  above  all  callig- 
raphy, were  assiduously  cultivated. 

One  of  the  most  notable  of  its  early  copyists  was 
Hardouin,  a  celebrated  mathematician  (d.  811),  and 
who  wrote  with  his  own  hand  four  copies  of  the  Gos- 
pels, one  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  a  Psalter,  three  Sacra- 
mentaries.  and  many  other  volumes  of  homilies  and 
lives  of  tne  saints,  besides  numerous  mathematical 
works.  The  Fontenelle  "Capitularies"  were  com- 
pOed  imder  Abbot  Ansegisus  m  the  eighth  century. 
The  monks  of  St- Wandrille  enjoyed  many  rights  and 
privileges,  amongst  which  were  exemption  irom  all 
river-tolls  on  the  Seine,  and  the  right  to  exact  taxes 
in  the  town  of  Caudebec.  The  charter,  dated  1319,  in 
which  were  enumerated  their  chief  privileges,  was  con- 
firmed bv  Henry  V  of  Endand  and  Normandy,  in 
1420,  ana  by  the  Coimcil  of  Basle,  in  1436.  Commen- 
datory abbots  were  introduced  at  Fontenelle  in  the 
sixteenth  century  and  as  a  result  the  prosperity  of  the 
abbey  began  to  decline.  In  1631  the  central  tower 
of  the  church  suddenly  fell,  ruining  tdl  the  adjacent 
parts,  but  fortunately  without  injuring  the  beautiful 
cloisters  or  the  conventual  buildings. 

It  was  just  at  this  time  that  the  newly  formed  Con- 
gr^ation  of  St-Maur  was  revivifying  the  monasticism 
of  France,  and  the  commendatory  abbot  Ferdinand 
de  Neuf ville  invited  the  Maurists  to  take  over  the  ab- 
bey and  do  for  it  what  he  himself  was  unable  to  accom- 
plisfa.  They  accepted  the  offer,  and  in  1636  set  about 
rebuilding  not  only  the  damaged  portion  of  the  church, 
VI.— 9 


but  also  other  parts  of  the  monastexy  as  well.  Th^ 
added  new  wings  and  gateways  and  also  built  a  great 
chapter-hall  for  the  meetings  of  the  general  chapter  of 
the  Maurist  congregation.  They  infused  new  life  into 
the  abbey,  whic^  for  the  next  hundred  and  fifty  years 
again  enjoved  some  of  its  former  celebrity.  Then 
came  the  Kevolution,  and  with  it  the  extinction  of 
monasticism  in  France.  St- Wandrille  was  suppressed 
in  1791  and  sold  by  auction  the  following  year.  The 
church  was  allowed  to  fall  into  ruins,  but  the  rest  of  the 
buildings  served  for  some  time  as  a  factory.  Later  on 
the^  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  de  Stacpoole 
family,  and  were  turned  to  domestic  uses.  The  Duke 
de  Stacpoole,  who  had  become  a  priest  and  a  domestic 
prelate  of  the  pope,  and  who  lived  at  Fontenelle  imtil 
his  death,  in  1896,  restored  the  entire  property  to  the 
French  Benedictines  (Solesmes  congregation),  and  a 
colony  of  monks  from  Ligugtg  settled  there  in  1893, 
under  Dom  Pothier  as  superior.  This  communitv  was 
expelled  by  the  French  government  in  1901,  and  is  at 
present  located  in  Belgium.  Besides  the  dhief  basilica^ 
St- Wandrille  built  several  other  churches  or  oratories, 
both  within  and  without  the  monastic  enclosure.  All 
of  these  have  either  perished  in  course  of  time,  or  been 
replaced  by  others  of  later  date,  except  one,  the  chapel 
of  St-Satumin,  which  stands  on  the  hillside  o  verlooku^ 
the  abbey.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  ecclesiastics 
buildings  now  existing  and.  though  restored  from  time 
to  time,  is  still  substantially  the  original  erection  of 
St-Wandrille.  It  is  cruciform,  with  a  central  tower 
and  eastern  apse,  and  is  a  unique  example  of  a  seventh- 
century  chapel.  The  parish  church  of  the  village  of 
St-WandriUe  also  dates  from  the  Saint's  time,  but  it 
has  been  no  altered  and  restored  that  little  of  the 
original  structure  now  remains. 

Stb-Marthb,  OaUia  Christiana  (Paris.  1760).  XI;  d'AchArt, 
Chron.  FonUmMeMe  in  SpiciUgwm^  III;  MioNS,  DicL  det 
Abbatfet  (Paris,  1856):  Langlois,  Euai  kxstorique  et  deaeriplif 
aur  VAbbaye  d«  St- Wandrille  (Rouen,  1826);  Sauvaob.  Si" 
WandrUU  iBjowm  ISS9);  Acta  SS.,  July. 

6.  Cypbian  Alston. 

Fonteyranlt,  Order  and  Abbet  of. — I.  Charac- 
ter or  THE  Order. — ^The  monasterv  of  Fontevrault 
was  founded  by  Blessed  Robert  d  Arbrissel  about 
the  end  of  1100  and  is  situated  in  a  wooded  valley  on 
the  confines  of  Anjou,  Tours,  and  Poitou,  about  two 
and  a  half  miles  south  of  the  Loire,  at  a  short  distance 
west  of  its  union  with  the  Vienne.  It  was  a  "  double " 
monastery,  containing  separate  convents  for  both 
monks  ana  nuns.  The  government  was  in  the  hands 
of  'the  abbess.  This  arrangement  was  said  to  be 
based  upon  the  text  oi  St.  John  (xix,  27),  "Behold 
thy  Mother",  but  want  of  capacity  among  the 
brethren  who  surrounded  the  foimder  would  seem  to 
be  the  most  natural  explanation.  To  have  placed  the 
fortunes  of  the  rising  mstitute  in  feeble  hands  might 
have  compromised  its  existence^  while  amon^t  the 
nuns  he  found  women  endowed  with  high  qualities  and 
in  ever^  way  fitted  for  government.  Certainly  the 
long  series  of  able  abbesses  of  Fontevrault  is  in  some 
measure  a  justification  of  the  founder's  provision. 

Fontevrault  was  the  earliest  of  the  three  orders 
which  adopted  the  double  form  and  it  may  be  useful 
to  point  out  the  chief  differences  in  rule  and  govern- 
ment which  mark  it  off  from  the  similar  institutions  of 
the  Enghsh  St.  Gilbert  of  Sempringham,  founded  in 
1135  (see  Gilbebtines).  and  that  of  the  Swedish  prin- 
cess, St.  Bridgett.  founded  in  1344  (see  Brigittines). 
At  Fontevramt  Doth  nuns  and  monks  followed  the 
Benedictine  Rule  (see  below,  II),  as  did  the  Gilbertine 
nuns,  but  the  male  religious  of  that  order  were  canons 
regular  and  followed  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.  The 
Bngittines  of  both  sexes  were  under  the  Refftila  SaU 
votoris,  an  adaptation  and  completion  of  the  Augu»- 
tinian  Rule.  The  Abbess  of  Fontevrault  was  supreme 
over  all  the  religious  of  the  order,  and  the  heads  of  the 
dependent  houses  were  prioresses.  Each  Brigittine 
house  was  independent,  and  was  ruled  by  an  abbess 


FONnSVUAXTLT  130  FOHTEVBAULT 

who  was  supreme  in  all  temporalities,  but  in  matters  priorv  of  Amesbury,  in  Wiltshire.    The  next  abbess 

spiritual  was  forbidden  to  interfere  with  the  priests,  was  Isabel  of  Valois,  great-grandchild  of  St.  Louis,  but 

who  were  under  the  confessor  general.    The  head  ot  on  her  death  there  succeed^  another  period  of  trouble 

the  Gilbertines  was  a  canon,  the  ''Master"  or  "Prior  and  decadence  lar^ly  due  to  the  disaffection  of  the 

of  All",  who  was  not  attached  to  any  one  house;  his  monks  who  were  discontented  with  their  subordinate 

power  was  absolute  over  the  whole  order.    All  three  position.    During  the  fifteenth  century  there  were 

orders  were  primarily  founded  for  nims,  the  priests  several  attempts  at  reform,  but  these  met  with  no  suo- 

beins  added  for  their  direction  or  spiritual  service,  and  cess  till  the  advent  to  i)ower,  in  1457,  of  Mary,  sister  of 

in  all  three  the  nuns  had  control  ot  the  property  of  the  Francis  U,  Duke  of  Brittany.    The  order  had  suffered 

order.    The  habit  of  the  Fontevrist  nuns  was  a  white  severely  from  the  decay  of  religion,  which  was  general 

tunic  and  suiplice  with  a  black  girdle,  a  white  guimp  about  this  time,  as  well  as  from  the  Hundred  Years 

and  black  veil ;  the  cowl  was  black.    The  monks  wore  War.    In  the  three  priories  of  St-Aignan,  Breuil,  and 

a  black  tunic  with  a  surplice  and  above  it  a  hood  and  Ste-Oroix  there  were  m  all  but  five  nims  and  one  monk, 

oapuce;  from  the  centre  of  the  last,  in  front  and  be-  where  there  had  been  187  nuns  and  17  monks  at  the 

hind,  hung  a  small  square  of  stuff  known  as  the  begimiins  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  other  houses 

"Robert".    In  winter  the  monks  wore  an  ample  were  no  better  off .    In  1459,  a  papal  commission  de- 

doak  without  sleeves.    The  original  habit  was  in  both  cided  upon  a  mitigation  of  rules  wmch  could  no  longer 

cases  more  simple.  be  enforced,  and  nuns  were  even  allowed  to  leave  the 

II.  Thb  Rule. — ^It  appears  certain  from  the  biog-  order  on  the  simple  permission  of  their  prioress.    Dis- 

raphy  of  Blessed  Robert,  which  b  known  as  the  satisfied  with  the  mitigated  life  of  Fontevrault,  Mary 


"vita  Andresd",  that  the  Rule  was  written  down  of  Brittany  removed  to  the  priory  of  La  Madeleine- 
during  the  founder's  lifetime,  probably  in  1116  or  les-Orl^ans  in  1471.  Here  she  deputed  a  commission 
1117.  This  ori^nal  Rule  dealt  with  four  points:  consisting  of  religious  of  various  orders  to  draw  up  a 
silence,  good  works,  food,  and  clothing,  and  contained  definite  Rule  based  on  the  Rules  of  Blessed  Robert,  St. 
the  injunction  that  the  aobess  should  never  be  chosen  Benedict,  and  St.  Augustine,  together  with  the  Acts  of 
from  among  those  who  had  been  brought  up  at  Fonte-  Visitations.  The  resulting  code  was  finally  approved 
vrault,  but  that  she  should  be  one  who  had  had  ex-  bv  Sixtus  IV  in  1475,  and  four  years  later  it  was  made 
perience  of  the  world  {de  conversis  wroribua).  This  ooligatory  upon  the  whole  order.  Mary  of  Brittany 
latter  injunction  was  observed  only  in  the  case  of  the  died  in  1477,  but  her  work  was  continued  bv  her  suo- 
first  two  abbesses  and  was  abrogated  by  Innocent  III  cessors,  Anne  of  Orleans,  sister  of  Louis  XII,  and  Re- 
in 1201.  We  have  three  versions  of  the  Fontevrist  n^e  de  Bourbon.  The  latter  may  well  be  stvled  the 
Rule  (P.  L.,  CLXII,  1079  sqq.),  but  it  is  clear  that  greatest  of  the  abbesses,  both  on  account  of  the  num- 
none  of  these  is  the  oridnal,  though  it  is  probable  that  bcvs  of  priories  (28)  in  which  she  ro-established  disci- 
the  second  version  is  a  fragment  or  possibl^r  a  selection  pline,  and  the  victory  which  she  gained  over  the  rebel- 
with  additions  by  the  first  abbess,  Petronilla  (for  the  lious  religious  at  Fontevrault  by  the  reform,  enforced 
argument  see  Walter,  op.  cit.  infra,  pp.  65-74).  This  with  royal  assistance  in  1502.  The  result  was  a  great 
Rule  was  merely  a  supplement  to  the  Rule  of  St.  Bene-  influx  of  novices  of  the  highest  rank,  including  several 
diet  and  there  were  no  important  variations  from  the  princesses  of  Valois  and  Sourbon.  At  Rente's  death 
latter  in  the  ordinary  conventual  routine,  though  there  were  160  nuns  and  150  monks  at  Fontevrault. 
some  additions  were  necessitated  bv  the  conaitions  of  Under  Louise  de  Bourbon  (1534-1575),  a  woman  of 
the  "double"  life.  The  rules  for  tne  nuns  enjoin  the  sincere  but  gloomy  piety,  the  order  suffered  many 
utmost  simplicity  in  the  materials  of  the  habit,  a  strict  losses  at  the  nands  of  the  Protestants,  who  even  b&- 
observance  of  silence,  abstinence  from  flesh  meat  even  sieged  the  great  abbey  itself,  though  without  success; 
for  the  sick,  and  rigorous  enclosure.  The  separation  many  nuns  apostatised,  but  twelve  more  houses  were 
of  the  nuns  from  the  monks  is  carried  to  such  a  point  reformed.  Meanor  of  Bourbon  (1575-1611)  saw  the 
that  a  sick  nun  must  be  brou^t  into  the  church  to  last  of  these  troubles.  She  had  great  influence  with 
receive  the  last  sacraments.  The  subjection  of  the  Henry  IV.  and  her  affection  for  him  was  so  great  that, 
monks  is  veiy  marked.  They  are  men  "  who  of  their  towards  tne  end  of  her  life,  when  he  was  assassinated, 
own  free  wiU  have  promised  to  serve  the  nuns  till  her  nuns  dared  not  tell  her  lest  the  shock  should  be  too 
death  in  the  bonds  otobedience,  and  that  too  with  -the  great. 

reverence  of  due  subjection.  .  .  .  They  shall  lead  a  The  Abbess  Louise  de  Bourbon  de  Lavedan,  aided 
common  conventual  life  with  no  property  of  their  by  the  famous  Capuchins,  Ange  de  Joyeuse  and  Jo- 
own,  content  with  what  the  nuns  shall  confer  upon  seph  du  Tremblay,  sought  to  improve  the  status  of  the 
them."  The  very  scraps  from  their  table  are  to  be  monks  of  St-Jean  de  I'Habit  and  made  various  \ii- 
"carried  to  the  nuns'  door  and  there  given  to  the  tempts  to  establish  theolo^cal  seminaries  for  them, 
poor  "•  A  f urative  but  penitent  monk  "  shall  ask  par-  Her  successor  Jeanne-Baptiste  de  Bourbon,  an  illegiti- 
don  of  the  Abbess  and  through  her  r^;ain  the  fellow-  mate  child  of  Henry  IV  by  the  beautiful  Charlotte  des 
ship  of  the  brethren."  The  monks  cannot  even  re-  Essarts,  has  the  credit  of  finally  giving  peace  to  the 
oeive  a  postulant  without  the  permission  of  the  abbess,  order.  In  1641  she  obtained  royal  letters  confirming 
III.  HiSTOBT  OF  THE  Qrder. — At  the  death  of  Rob-  the  reform  and  finally  quaahing  the  claims  of  the 
ert  d'Arbrissel.  in  1117,  there  are  said  to  have  been  at  monks,  who  sought  to  organise  themselves  indepen- 
Fontevrault  alone  3000  nuns,  and  in  1150  even  5000:  dently  of  the  authority  of  the  abbess.  The  following 
the  order  was  approved  by  Paschal  II  in  1112.  The  year  the  Riile  approved  by  Sixtus  IV  was  printed  at 
first  abbess,  Petronilla  of  Chemill^  (1115-1149),  was  Paris.  The  "Queen  of  Abl)e88es",  Gabrielle  de  Roche- 
succeeded  by  Matilda  of  Anjou,  who  ruled  for  five  chouart  Q67(>-1704),  sister  of  Mme.  de  Montespan 
years.  She  was  the  dai^^ter  of  Fulk,  King  of  Jerusa-  and  friend  of  Mme.  de  Maintenon,  is  said  to  have  trans- 
lem,  and  widow  of  William,  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  I.  lated  all  the  works  of  Plato  from  the  Latin  version  of 
6L  England.  The  prosperity  of  the  abbey  continued  Ficino.  The  abbey  school  was  frequented  by  the  chil- 
under  the  next  two  abocflses,  but  by  the  end  of  the  dren  of  the  highest  nobility,  and  her  successors  were 
twelfth  century,  owing  to  the  state  of  the  country  entrusted  with  the  education  of  the  daughters  of  Louis 
and  the  English  wars,  the  nuns  were  reduced  to  gain-  XV.  The  last  abbess,  Julie  Sophie  Charlotte  de  Par- 
ing their  livelihood  by  manual  work.  The  situation  daillan  d'Antin,  was  driven  from  her  monastery  by 
was  aggravated  by  internal  dissensions  which  lasted  a  the  Revolution;  her  fate  is  imknown.  Towards  the 
hundred  years,  and  prosperity  did  not  return  till  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  were  230  nuns 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  imder  the  rule  of  and  60  monks  at  Fontevrault,  and  at  the  Revolution 
Eleanor  of  Brittany,  grand-daughter  of  Henry  III  of  tiiere  were  still  200  nuns,  but  the  monks  were  few  in 
England,  who  had  tcucen  the  veil  at  the  Fontevrist  number  and  only  formed  a  community  at  the  mother- 


FOHTFBOIDS 


131 


rONTFBOIDS 


house.  In  the  course  of  his  preaching  journeys 
through  Francei  Robert  d'Arbrissel  had  founded  a 
great  number  of  houses,  and  during  the  succeeding 
centuries  others  were  given  to  the  oraer.  In  the  sev- 
enteenth centurv  the  Fontevrist  priories  numbered 
about  sixty  in  all  and  were  divided  mto  the  four  prov- 
inces of  France,  Brittany,  Gascony,  and  Auvergne. 
The  order  never  attained  to  any  great  importance  onin 
side  France  thoi^  there  were  a  few  houses  in  Spain 
and  England.  iSe  history  of  the  order  is,  as  wiU  al- 
ready have  been  seen,  that  of  the  mother-house.  The 
Angevin  kings  were  much  attached  to  Fontevrault: 
Henry  II  and  his  aueen,  Eleanor  of  Guienne,  Richard 
CoBur  de  Lion,  ana  Isabel  of  Angoultoe,  the  wife  of 
King  John,  were  buried  in  the  Cimetikre  dea  Rata  in  the 
abbey  church,  where  their  c^gies  may  still  be  seen. 
The  remains  were  scattered  at  the  Revolution. 

IV.  The  Abbey  Buildinos. — The  Abbey  of  Fonte- 
vrault was  in  four  parts :  the  Grand  Moustier,  or  convent 
of  the  nunSj  the  hospital  and  lazaretto  of  Saint-Lazare, 
the  Madeleine  for  penitent  women,  and,  some  distance 
apart,  the  monastery  of  St-Jean  de  I'Habii  for  the 
monks,  destroyed  at  the  Revolution.  The  most  nota- 
ble buildings  were  naturally  those  belonging  to  the 
nuns  with  the  great  minster  dedicated  to  Our  Lady. 
This  was  consecrated  by  PopeCallistus  II,  in  1119,  but 
the  church  was  probabl]^  rebuilt  in  the  second  half  of 
the  same  century.  It  is  a  magnificent  specimen  of 
late  Romanesque  and  consists  of  an  aisleless  nave 
vaulted  with  six  shallow  cupolas,  transepts,  and  an  ap- 
sidal  chancel  with  side  chapels.^  In  1804  the  abbey 
became  a  central  house  of  detention  for  15,000  prison- 
ers, and  the  nave  of  the  church  was  cut  up  into  four 
stories  forming  dormitories  and  refectories  for  the  con- 
victs, while  the  choir  and  transepts  were  walled  up  and 
used  as  their  chapel.  Five  of  the  six  cupolas  were  de- 
stroyed, but  the  nave  has  recently  been  cleared,  and  a 
complete  restoration  begun.  The  length  of  the  church 
is  84  metres  (about  276  ft.),  the  width  of  the  nave 
14m.  60  (about  48  ft.),  and  the  height  21m.45  (about 
70  ft.).  The  interesting  cloisters  and  chapter-house 
may  be  visited,  but  the  magnificent  refectory,  dating 
from  the  twelfth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  is  not  shown. 

V.  English  Houses. — ^These  were  the  Priories  of 
Amesbury,  in  Wiltshire,  and  Nuneaton,  in  Warwick- 
shire, and  the  CeU  of  Westwood,  in  Worcestershire, 
with  six  nuns.  Amesbury  had  been  an  abbey,  but  on 
account  of  their  evil  lives  the  nuns  were  dispersed  by 
royal  orders  and  the  monastery  given  to  Fontevrault 
in  1177.  The  community  was  recruited  from  the  high- 
est ranks  of  society  and  in  the  thirteenth  century  num- 
bered among  its  members  several  princesses  of  the 
royal  house,  among  them  Queen  Eleanor  of  Provence, 
widow  of  Henry  III.  A  survey  of  the  English  houses 
was  taken  in  1256,  when  there  were  77  choir  nuns,  7 
chaplains  and  16  conversi  at  Amesbury,  and  86  nuns  at 
Nuneaton.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the  officials 
were  appointed  by  the  Abbess  of  Fontevrault,  but  the 
bonds  uniting  the  English  nunneries  to  the  mother- 
house  were  gradually  loosened  until  from  alien  they 
became  denizen,  that  is  to  say,  practically  indepen- 
dent. In  the  last  days  some  of  the  Prioresses  of  Ames- 
bury seem  to  have  resumed  the  ancient  abbatial  title; 
at  the  dissolution,  in  1540,  the  house  was  surrendered 
by  Joan  Darrell  and  thirty-three  nuns.  A  Prior  of 
.^nesbury  is  mentioned  in  1399,  but  it  does  not  seem 
certain  that  there  were  at  any  time  regular  establish- 
mehts  of  the  Fontevrist  monks  in  England. 

VI.  Modern  Development. — In  1803  Madame 
Rose,  a  Fontevrist  nun.  opened  a  school  at  Chemill6, 
the  home  of  the  first  aboess,  and  three  years  later  was 
enabled  to  buy  a  house  and  start  community  life;  only 
temporary  vows  were  taken,  and  the  constitutions 
were  approved  by  the  Bishop  of  Angers.  A  few  years 
later  tne  habit  of  Fontevrault  was  resumed.  Twelve 
more  Fontrevists  joined  the  community,  and  the  anci- 
ent Rule  was  kept  as  far  as  possible.    In  1847  permis- 


sion was  granted  by  the  government  to  remove  the 

relics  of  Blessed  Robert  from  Fontevrault  to  Chemill6. 

and  by  1849  there  were  three  houses  of  the  revived 

cox^regation:  Chemill6  in  the  Diocese  of  Angers;  Bou- 

lor  m  the  Diocese  of  Auch;  and  Brioude  in  the  Diocese 

of  Puy.    In  this  year  a  general  chapter  was  held,  in 

which  certain  modifications  of  the  Rule  were  agreed 

upon:  the  many  fasts  were  found  ill  adapted  to  the 

work  of  teaching;  the  houses  were  made  subject  to  the 

ordinary;  and  tne  superioress  elected  only  fdr  three 

years.    There  are  no  Fontevrist  monks. 

For  full  bibliography  eee  Bbaunxer,  Hkimbugher,  and 
Waivteb  as  below. — ^The  etandard  work  is  NiOQUsrr,  Hist,  de 
VOrdre  de  Fontevrault  (Paris.  1642);  Lardisb.  Sainde  FamOU 
de  ForUevmud  (1650).  unfortUDatelv  still  in  MS.  For  the  Rule 
see  Waiavb,  Breten  Wanderpredioer  Frankreiche  (Leipxig. 
1903),  I;  R«oula  Ordinie  Fontie-Bbraldi  (Fr.  and  Lat., 
BEbris,  1642).  See  also  Heiiibuchkb,  Ord.  u.  Kong,  der  Kalh, 
Kircke  (Paderbom,  1907),  I;  Cobnisb,  FontMmUdi  Exordium 

glasserano,  1641):  H&ltot,  Hiat.  dee  Ordree  Retigieux,  VI; 
BAUNIBR,  Reeueii  hiat.  dee  arckeviekia,  etc.,  Introductqnr  vol. 
(Paris^  1906),  215-226;  Bessb,  Fontevraud  and  the  Enoliak 
BenedtcHnee  at  ths  Beginning  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  in  The 
Ampleforth  Journal,  II:  Bxbmgp,  Biahop  Oiifard  and  the  Reform 
cf  Fontevraud  in  The  Downaide  Review  (Jan.,  1886);  Jubibn, 
L'Abbeaae  Marie  de  Bretagne  et  la  rtforme  de  Vordre  da  Fonte- 
vrauU  (Angen,  1872);  Ci±UKNTrAbbeaaede  Fontevrault  au  XVII* 
Siiele  (Paris.  1869);  Usurbau,  DemOre  Abbeaee  de  I^ontevrauU 
in  Revue  MabiUon^  II.  The  only  adequate  account  of  the 
buildinra,  though  now  a  little  out  of  date,  is  given  by  Bosbb- 
B(BUr,  FontevravUt  ton  hiatoire  et  aea  monumenta  (Tours,  1890.) 

Ratuund  Websteb. 

Fontfroidet  Abbbt  of  (B.  Mabia.  de  Fonts 
Frigido),  a  Cistercian  monastery  in  the  department 
of  Aude,  six  miles  north-west  of  Narbonne,  formerly 
in  the  diocese  of  Narbonne,  now  in  that  of  Carcassone. 
It  was  founded  at  Narbonne  some  time  before  1097  by 
Aimery,  Gomit  of  Narbonne,  and  was  originally  a  filia- 
tion of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Grandsefve.  In 
1118  the  monks  settled  at  Fontfroide,  so-called  from 
a  spring  in  the  place  where  the  new  monastery  was 
built,  and  in  1146  the  Cistercian  reform  was  adopted. 
The  abbey  held  a  position  of  considerable  importance 
in  the  Middle  Ages  and  many  of  its  abbots  and  monks 
were  drawn  from  the  nobility  and  highest  families  of 
France.  One,  Jacques  Foumier,  was  elevated  to  the 
papacy  as  Benedict  XII  in  1334;  some  became  car- 
dinals, amonp^t  whom  were  Amaud  Novelli  (1310), 
Aiigustin  Tnvulce  (d.  1548),  and  Hippolyte  d'Este 
(d.  1572) ;  and  several  others  became  Bishops  of  Nar- 
bonne or  neighbouring  churches.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  three  successive  abbots  were  members  of  the 
de  La  Rochefoucauld  family.  Fontfroide  was  the 
burial  place  of  the  Counts  of  Narbonne,  its  chief  pa- 
trons, and  it  had  also  man^  royal  benefactors. 

In  1401  the  use  of  abbatial  pontificalia  was  granted 
by  Benedict  XIII^  and  other  papal  privileges  were 
conceded  at  different  times.  The  abbots  also  exei^ 
cised  dvil  jurisdiction  over  their  dependents.  Tlie 
abbey  escaped  the  intrusion  of  commendatory  abbots, 
so  common  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, and  flourished  imder  the  rule  of  monastic  supe- 
riors right  up  to  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  when  it 
was  suppressed.  The  buildings  then  became  private 
property  and,  dismantled  and  untenanted,  were  grad- 
ually falling  into  decay,  when,  in  1858,  they  were  pur- 
chased for  a  sum  of  eishty  thousand  francs  by  Pdre 
Marie-Bernard  (Louis  Bamouin),  the  foimder  of  the 
"Cistercians  of  the  Immaculate  Conception"  and  re- 
storer of  the  abbey  of  S^nanque,  whicn  had  been  in- 
corporated into  the  Order  of  Citeaux  a  year  previously. 
A  colony  of  about  a  dozen  monks,  under  rdre  Marie- 
Jean,  as  first  abbot  of  the  restored  Fontfroide,  was  sent 
there  from  S^nanque.  In  1905  the  ''Association 
Laws"  obliged  them  to  leave,  and  the  community  is 
now  domiciled  at  Tdrrega,  in  the  province  of  L6nda, 
Spain,  in  the  diocese  of  Solsona.  It  numbers  about 
thirty-one  members,  of  whom  fourteen  are  priests. 
They  belong  to  the  "Cistercians  of  the  Common  Ob- 
servance", who  were  separated  from  the  Trappists  or 
"Stricter  Observance"  m  1834.    The  monasteries  of 


rOOLS                           132  rooLg 

Fontfroide  and  Hautcombe  (in  Savoy)  now  fonn  the  In  missals  and  breviaries  we  may  say  that  it  never 
"(Congregation  of  S^nanque",  formeriy  tiiat  ''of  the  occurs.  At  best  a  prose  or  a  trope  composed  for  such 
Immaculate  Conception  ,  of  which  the  present  Abbot  an  occasion  is  here  and  there  to  be  found  in  a  gradual 
of  Fontfroide  is  the  vicar^general.  Its  constitutions  or  an  antiphonary  (Dreves,  p.  575).  It  is  reasonable 
were  approved  in  1892.  The  buildings  at  Fontfroide  to  infer  from  this  circumstance  that  though  these  ex- 
are  chiefly  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  travaganoes  took  place  in  church  and  were  attached 
and  include  the  church,  cloisters,  chapter-house,  etc.,  to  the  ordinary  services,  the  official  sanction  was  of 
comprising  two  quadrangles,  all  practically  complete,  the  slenderest. 

(See  Cistercians.)  •  The  same  conclusion  follows  from  two  well-known 

STE-MAimn,  GaUia  Chrisiiana  (Paris,  1739),  VI;  Migns,  cases  which  Father  Dreves  has  carefully  studied.    In 

^  (l5.^K?MS*b5r^iS:  t^tftSJfr'^'^  ^m  B«hop  Eudes  de  SuUy.  imposed  regujations  to 

G,  Cttprian  Aioton.  check  the  abuses  committed  m  the  celebration  of  the 

Feast  of_Fools  on  New  Year's  Day  at  Notre-Dame  in 

Fools,  Feast  of, 
licence  and  buffoonery, 

rope,  and  particularly  ii.  -. ,^, -,  - ^. in..             «                 */  ▼ 

die  ^es  took  place  every  year  on  or  about  the  feast  of  ^^JP,y?  ^^"^^  ^  mtone  the,  nrose    "  Lsetemur 

the  Circumcision  (1  Jan.).    It  was  known  by  many  ^^^"8  '  m  the  cathedral,  and  to  widd  the  precentor's 

names— festum  f atuorum,  festum  stultorum,  festum  staff,  but  this  was  to  take  place  before  the  firat  Vespers 

hypodiaconorum,  to  notice  only  some  Latin  variants  ^U^^  '©ast  were  sung.    Apart  from  this,  the  Church 

—and  it  is  difficult,  if  not  quite  impossible,  to  distin-  o^ces  proper  were  to  be  performed  as  usual,  with, 

guish  it  from  certain  other  similar  celebrations,  such,  however,  some  concession  m  the  way  of  extra  solem- 

for  example,  as  the  Feast  of  Asses  (q.  v.),  and  the  ^^Y-    During  the  second  Vespers,  it  had  been  the 

Feast  of  the  Boy  Bishop  (q.  v.).    So  far  as  the  Feast  custom  that  the  precentor  of  the  fools  should  be 

of  Fools  had  an  independent  existence,  it  seems  to  deprived  of  his  staff  when  the  verse  "Deposuit  poten- 

have  grown  out  of  a%pecial  "festival  of  the  sul>-  tesdesede'' (He  hath  put  down  the  mighty  from  theu- 

deacoM",  which  John  Beleth,  a  liturgical  writer  of  the  seat)  was  sung  at  the  Magmficat.    Seemmely  this  was 
twelfth  century  and 
to  the  day  of  the  ( 
earliest  to  draw  attention 


deacons  had  a  special  celebration  on  St.  Stephen's  day  mock  precentor  but  enacted  that  the  verae  "Depo- 

(26  Dec),  the  pnests  on  St.  John  the  Evangelist's  day  suit"  was  not  to  be  rep^t^  more  than  five  times. 

(27  Dec.)  and  again  the  choristers  and  mWservers  A  sin^  case  of  a  legitimized  Feast  of  Fools  at  Sens 

on  that  of  Holy  finocente  (28  Dec),  so  the  subdeacons  c.  1220  is  also  examm^  bjr  Father  Dreves  m  deteil. 

were  accustoined  to  hold  their  feast  about  the  same  The  ^ole  text  of  the  office  is  m  this  case  oreserved  to 

time  of  year,  but  more  particularly  on  the  festival  of  "s.    There  are  many  proses  and  mterrolations  (far- 

the  Circumcision.    This^east  of  the  subdeacons  after-  June)  added  to  the  ordmaiy  liturgy  of  the  Church, 

wards  developed  into  the  feast  of  the  lower  clergy  but  nothing  which  could  give  offence  as  unseemlv, 

(esclaffardi),  ^d  was  later  taken  up  by  certain  except  the  prose  "Orientis  partibus  ^  etc.,  partly 

brotherhoods  or  guflds  of  "fools"  with  a  definite  orcan-  guotwl  in  the  article  Asses,  Feast  of.    TJ^w  prose  or 

ization  of  theu-  own  (Chambera,  I,  373  sqq.).     There  ^conduclus",  however  was  not  a  part  of  the  office, 

can  be  little  doubt-and  medieval  censora  themselves  but  only  a  prelimmary  to  Veroers  sung  while  the  pro- 

f reely  recognized  the  fact-that  the  licence  and  buf-  J«sion  of  suMeacons  moved  from  the  church  door  to 

foonery  wfich  marked  this  occasion  had  their  origin  t^e  chou-.    Still,  as  already  stated,  there  can  be  iio 

in  pa^n  customs  of  very  ancient  date.    John  Beleth,  question  of  the  reality  of  the  abus^^^ 

whence  discusses  these  matters,  entitles  his  chapter  tiiewake  of  celebrations  of  this  kmd. 

"  De  quadam  Ubertate  Decembrica  "  and  goes  on  to  ,,  The  central  idea  seems  always  to  have  been  that  of 

explam:  "Now  the  Ucence  which  is  tken  permitted  is  t^f  old  Satunmlia  i.  e.  a  brief  social  revolution,  m 

cafled  Decembrian,  because  it  was  customary  of  old  J^^ich  power,  d^ity  or  impunity  is  conferred  for  a 

among  the  pagans  that  during  this  month  slaves  and  J?w  hours  upon  tW  ordinarily  ma  subordinate  posi- 

serving-ma&rshould  have  asSrtof  liberty  given  them,  Jion.    Whether  it  ty)k  the  form  of  the  boy  bishop  o^ 

and  should  be  put  upon  an  equality  with  their  masters  the  subdeacon  conducting  the  cathedrd  office,  the 

in  celebrating  a  con^on  fesSvity  ?  (P.  L.,  CCII,  123).  pro^y  ^usji  always  have  trembled  on  the  brink  of 

The  Feast  of  Fools  and  the  ahnost  blasphemous  burlesque,  if  not  of  the  profane.    We  can  trace  the 

extravagances  in  some  instances  associated  with  it  same  idea  at  St.  Gall  m  the  tenth  century,  where  a 

have  c^tantly  been  made  the  occasion  of  a  sweeping  student,  on  the  thirteenth  of  December  each  year 

condemnation  of  the  medieval  Church.    On  the  other  enacted  the  part  of  the  abbot.    It  will  be  sufficient 

hand  some  Catholic  writers  have  thought  it  necessary  here  to  notice  that  the  contmuance  of  the  celebration 

to  try  to  deny  the  existence  of  such  abuses.    The  ^^  the  Feast  of  Fools  was  finaUy  forbidden  under  the 

truth,  as  Father  Dreves  has  pointed  out  (Stimmen  aus  venr  severest  penalties  by  the  Council  of  Bas^e  m  1435, 

MariarLaach,XLVII,  572),  fies  midway  between  these  sad  that  this  condemnation  was  supported  by  a 

extremes.  There  can  be  no  question  that  ecclesiastical  ^^^y^T'JH^^  document  issued  by  tlie  theo  ogical 

authority  repeatedly  condemned  the  licence  of  the  faculty  of  the  Umversity  of  Pans  in  1444,  as  well  as  by 

Feast  of  FoSlTin  the  strongest  terms,  no  one  being  numerous  decrees  of  various  provincial  councils.    In 

more  determmed  in  his  efforts  to  suppress  it  than  the  th^  way  it  seems  that  the  abuse  had  pra^ically 

great  Robert  Grosseteste,  Bishop  of  Lincoln.    But  di^ppeared  ^J^re  the^rae  of  the^^^ouncJ^of  Tren^ 

these  customs  were  so  firmly  rooted  that  centuri^  eeedSS^on^^eoJie^i^hSvSb^nd^o^^t^am^^ 

passed   away  before  they  were  entirely  eradicated.  Many  of  these  are  quoted  by  Chambers  The  Mediceval  Stage,  I, 

Secondly,  it  is  equally  certain  that  the  institution  did  274-419  (London.  1903).  who  himself  d«a»8  with  the  matter 

1      J  •*     If  4.^  -C;-^-  i*  «  ..^..,  -^^^..«  »k».<.^4^«*   AorAM  more  exhaustively  than  any  other  writer.     The  best  short  arti- 

lend  itself  to  abuses  of  a  very  senous  character,  even  ^i^  ^n  the  whole  question,  as  Chambers  attests,  is  that  of 

though  the  nature  and  gravity  of  these  varied  con-  Drbvbb.  Stimmen  aua  MaHa-Laach,  XLVII.  571-587  (Frei- 

siderably  at  different  epochs.    In  defence  of  the  medi-  burg.  1894).    See  also  Leber  <^.^^j*^<^^^f^^^j;J^';^ 

1  rtu,\ u  ^-.^  «.^:^4.  \L.,»4.  -^4.  u^  !«>-♦  ^^v.*  r^f      JXT^  tattonst  vols.  IX  and  X  (Pans.  1832);  Clement.  HtaUnre  Oe- 

eval  Church  one  pomt  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.      We  ^^^^  ^^  ^   Mueun*e  Rdioieuae  (Paris.  1890).  pp.  122  sqq.; 

possess  hundreds,  not  to  say  thousands,  of  lltureical  Walter.  Daa  Bednfeet  (Vienna.  1885).     There  is  also  an  ex- 

manuscripts  of  all  countries  and  all  descriptions,  jellent  artlde  by  Heuber  in  the  Kircheniia.,  s.  v.  ^^tf,-]^ 

usc»«>uDv«  pv»  ^i,«   ^  ^i.fLu  u«„  further  bibhofcraphical  references  consult  Chevalier,  Topo-hv- 

Amongst  them  the  occurrence  of  anything  which  has  f^uvraphie,  s.  v.  Faua.  Many  articles  written  on  this  subject  ara 

to  do  with  the  Feast  of  Fools  is  extraordmanly  rare,  mere  lampoons  directed  against  the  medieval  Gburoh,  and  be- 


rORBDr-JANSOK 


Herbert  Thurston.  wrote  to  his  kinsman  and  companion  in  youth,  James 
VI  of  Scotland,  aettinx  forth  the  claima  of  the  Catholic 
FoppSt  AuBBOaiO,  generally  known  as  Caradosso,  religion.  Learning  oT  hia  whereabouts,  manjr  coun- 
Italian  eoldamith,  sculptor,  and  die  iinker,  b.  at  Mon-  trymen  visited  him,  eighteen  of  whom  he  converted  to 
donico  m  the  province  of  Como,  1445,  according  to  Catholicity,  also  three  hundred  soldiers.  To  his  sreat 
some  authorities,  and  according  to  others  in  Pa  via,  the  delight  he  waa  appointed  miBnionaiy  Apostolic  to  Scot- 
same  year;  d.  about  1527.  It  is  possible  that  this  art-  landj  but  succumted  to  an  epidemic  at  Dendemiond. 
iat  is  not  correctly  known  as  Ambrogio,  but  that  his  He  is  said  to  have  written  an  account  of  his  conver- 
Christian  name  was  Cristoforo.  He  was  in  the  service  sion,  though  it  was  never  published.  His  motherspent 
of  Lodoviooil  Moro,Dukeof  Milan, forsomeyeare.and  her  declining  yeare  near  her  son;  his  betrothed  bo- 
eiiecuted  for  him  an  exceedingly  fine  medal  and  sev-  came  a  nun  m  Rome. 

eral  pieces  of  goldsmith's  work.  tat«r  on  he  is  heard  of  ,  Bbbhahd  BoHor...  Berivter«  Otd.  Cap.  (J™".  ""{.31; 

i„ASme.worE.gforPopesJutiaaIIandLeoX.     His  ^^^^S.^u^''£f^ir^i''^i^nh}t^\1^itT, 

will  was  executed  in  1526  and  he  is  believed  to  have  Dtiar,  AHer  Mtziut  naliom  Scolua,  P.  ArxJtaagdui  (Colocne. 

died  in  the  following  year.    Cellini  refers  at  some  J**;,^"'' •^v  "''.K'i.i**^!  ^'^^"i';- S"**'"- ^S*'.^™.'* 

length  to  a  medal  struck  by  him  in  Rome,  having  upon  iflklTSaSn"  WM )!"?";«  J^N^f^rA'SSr^^;^ 

it  a  representation  of  Bramante  and  hia  design  for  LtheruBachiMe  (ConiUjiDe,  ie77,  2nd  a)..  BrBgeni.  1711). 

St.  Peter's,  and  he  speaks  of  him  as  "the  moat  excel-  Jokjc  M.  Lknhart. 
lent  goldsmith  of  that  time,  who  has  no  equal  in  the 

execution  of  dies".     He  ia  believed  to  have  been  Torbto-J«WOn,  Charles- AuouffrB-HARiB- Jo- 

responaible  for  the  terra-cotta  reliefs  in  the  Baeristy  of  seph,  Comte  ok,  Bishop  of  Nancy  and  Toul,  founder  of 

San  Satire,  works  which  in  their  remarkable  beauty  the  Association  of  the  Holy  Childhood,  b.  in  Paris, 

are  almost  equal  to  the  productions  of  Donatello,   In  France,  3  Nov.,  1785;  d.  near  Marseilles,  12  July,  1844, 

additiontotheBramanteandMoromedalsthreeotherB     He  was  the  sec- ^ 

are  attributed  to  him,  one  representing  Julius  II,  an-  ond  son  of  Count 

other  the  fourth  Duke  of  Milan,  Francesco  Sforza,  and  Michel  Palamkle 

the  third  Gian  Giacomo  TrivuUio  (1448-1518).  de  Forbin-Janson 

A  large  number  of  examples  of  fine  goldsmith's  and  of  his  wife 

work  in  the  sacristies  of  the  various  churches  of  Italy  Comelie      Henri- 


attributed  to  Foppa  with  more  or  leas  uncertainty,  ette,  princess  of 

They  eepecially  include  reliquaries,  morsee,  and  cro-  Gal^an.    He  was 

siers.     He   was   responsible  for   a  papal   mitre.     A  aKnightof  Malta 

drawing  of  this  tiara,  made  for  Julius  II,  is  in  the  from  .  childhood, 

print  room  at  the  British  Museum,  and  was  executed  and  a  soldier  at 

at  the  instance  of  an  English  collector  named  John  sixteen.    Napo- 

Talman.     An  inaccurate  engraving  of  it  by  George  leon  I  made  him 

Vertue  is  also  in  existence,  and  this  was  reproduced  by  Auditor    of    the 

MUntB  in  his  article  on  the  papal  tiara.    He  declares  CouncUofStatein 

that  the  pope  told  his  master  of  ceremonies  that  it  cost  1805.   Hisfamily 

two  hundred  thousand  ducats.  This  wonderful  work  and  the  aristoc- 

of  art  survived  the  sack  of  Rome  through  the  accident  racy  looked  for- 

of  ltd  being  in  pawn  at  the  time,  but  was  deliberately  ^'ard  to   a  most 

broken  up  and  refashioned  by  Pope  Pius  VI.     (See  brilliant  career  as 

Thurston  in  the  "Burlington  Magazine"  for  October,  a  statesman  for 

1895.)     Foppa  is  beUeved  to  have  designed  several  him,  but  he  sur- 

pendent  jewels,  but  there  is  a  good  deal  of  uncertainty  prised  all  by  en-          CHABus-AuauB™,  Com  db 

at  present  respecting  his  goldsmith's  worii,  and  but  t«ring  the   serai-                         ohbin    *hw>h 

little  can  be  attributed  to  him  with  anything  like  naryotSt-Sulpiceinthespringof ISOS.Hewasordained 

authority.  priwtinSavoy  in  ISll.and  was  raade  Vicar-General  of 

CicoQNiRA,  Sioria  ddla  SeuUura  (Prato.  1823)-,  Celuhi,  the Dioceseof Chamb£ry,buteventuallydelermined to 

niaM  BmKB.^  C«IW».-(nonooM857)i  VjjAin.  VMM  PU-  become  a  misaionarv.     Piua  VII  advised  him  to  remain 

ftgj^CFlorenc..  1878):  8..«H0.  fl  J*'«farf«r,  Jfah-o  lFlo™c«.  i^  France  where  missionary  work  was  needed.      He 

Gborqi  Cearlbb  WtLUAUaoir.  Jieededtheadvice,andwithhiafriBndtheAbbfidcRau- 

lan,  founded  the  Mi»eumairt»  de  France  and  preached 

Forbes,  Josk,  Capuchin;  b.  1570;  d.  1006.  His  with  great  success  in  all  parts  of  his  native  land.  In 
father,  John,  eighth  Lord  Forbes,  being  a  Protestant  1817  he  was  sent  to  Syria  on  a  mission,  returned  to 
and  his  mother.  Lady  Margaret  Gordon,  daughter  of  France  in  1819,  and  again  took  up  the  work  of  a  mis- 
the  fourth  Earl  of  Huntly,  a  Catholic,  John  followed  eionary  until  1823- when  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
the  reUgion  of  his  father,  while  his  elder  brother  was  Nancy  and  Joul,  and  was  consecratwi  in  Paris,  8  June, 
educate  a  Catholic.  To  preserve  his  Faith  the  latter  1824,  by  the  Archbishop  of  Rouen ;  Bishop  Cheverus 
went  to  Brussels  and  there  entered  theCapuchinorder.  of  Boston,  U.  S.  A.,wa8aconaec^ato^BndBishopFen- 
Hislette^sandtheinf1uenceofamatemaluncle,  James  wick  of  Cincinnati  a  witness.  The  French  Govem- 
Gordon,  S.J.,  led  John  into  the  Catholic  Church,  1587.  ment  did  not  cease  persecuting  him  for  his  refusal  to 
To  recover  his  son  to  Protestantism  Lord  Forbes  affi-  siraa  the  Gallican  Declaration  of  1G82;  finally,  he  waa 
anced  him  to  a  noble  Protestant  lady.  On  the  eve  of  obliged  to  leave  France  in  1830,  but  succeeded  in  get- 
the  marriage  John,  disguised  as  a  sHepherd,  lied  and,  tinghis  own  choice  of  a  coadjutor  bishop  by  threaten- 
having  eluded  his  father's  spies,  landed  in  Lille,  ing  to  return  to  Nancy.  Every  good  cause  appealed 
Pressed  into  the  English  army,  he  escaped,  was  ar-  to  his  priestly  heart,  every  good  work  to  his  purse. 
rested  by  Spanish  militia,  imprisoned  at  Antwerp,  but  He  aided  Pauline  Jaricot  in  the  establishment  of 
finally  released.  After  some  delay  he  was  admitted  to  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith.  At  the 
theCapuchin  Order,  August,  1593,  at Toumai,  and  took  request  of  Bishop  Flaget  and  Bishop  Purcell,  Gregory 
the  name  of  hia  deceased  brother,  Arahangel.  Perse-  XVI  sent  him  on  a  missionary  tour  through  the 
vering  in  spite  of  peisuasion,  force,  and  the  stratagems  United  States  of  America  in  1839. 
of  friends  to  the  contraiT, he  completedhisstudies,  was  During  his  two  years  stey  in  that  country,  he  trav- 
ordained  a  priest  and  alter  refusmg  an  E^ipointment  as  elted  far  and  wide  giving  missions  to  the  people  and 


roaOELLINI  134  FOBEB 

fetreats  to  the  clergy.  Louifiiana  was  the  first  oon-  Apostolic  and  was  emplojred  on  various  important 
spicuous  field  of  his  zeal,  and  he  brou^t  its  Catho-  missions.  The  king  sent  him  in  1497  with  two  other 
he  people  to  the  sacraments  in  numbers  which  have  envoys  to  conclude  the  truce  of  Aytoim  with  Henry 
hardly  been  equalled  since.  On  his  way  thither,  he  VII  of  England,  and  four  years  utter  he  was  em- 
oontnbuted  one-third  of  the  money  with  which  the  powered  to  negotiate  for  the  marriage  of  King  James 
Fathers  of  Mercy  bought  Spring  Hill  College  (now  a  with  King  Henry's  daughter  Margaret.  By  1502  Fore- 
Jesuit  College,  near  Mobile,  Alabama).  All  the  large  man  was  Bishop  of  Moray  (for  which  see,  notwithstand- 
cities  of  the  country,  from  New  York  to  Dubuque;  ing  the  protest  of  the  primate,  he  procured  exemption 
from  New  Orleans  to  Quebec,  were  witnesses  of  his  from  the  metropolitan  jurisdiction  of  St.  Andrews) ; 
zeal.  More  at  home  in  Canada  where  his  mother-  he  was  also  "commendatory"  abbot  of  important 
tongue  was  spoken,  he  did  wonderful  missionary  work,  monasteries  both  in  Scotland  and  England.  Appointed 
and  some  events  regarded  as  supernatural  keep  his  ambassador  to  Henry  VIII  in  1509,  he  was  oom- 
memory  alive  to  this  dav  among  tne  French-Canadian  missioned  by  his  sovereign  to  try  to  bring  about  uni- 
people.  He  attended  tne  Fourth  Provincial  Council  versa!  peace  with  a  view  to  a  new  crusade.  King 
of  Baltimore.  His  last  visit  in  the  United  States  was  Louis  of  France,  after  concluding  an  alliance  with 
to  Philadelphia,  in  November,  1S41.  when  he  assisted  the  King  of  Scots  against  England,  made  Foreman 
at  the  consecration  of  Dr.  Kennck  as  coadjutor  Archbishop  of  Bourges,  and  it  was  Pope  Julius  II 'sin- 
Bishop  of  St.  Louis.  He  left  New  York  for  France  in  tention  to  raise  him  to  the  cardinalate.  The  successor 
December,  1S41,  and  the  next  ^ear  visited  Rome  to  of  Julius,  Leo  X,  did  not  carry  out  this  intention,  but 
give  an  account  of  his  mission  in  America.  Gregory  nominatedForeman  in  1514  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews 
XVI  named  him  a  Roman  Count  and  Assistant  at  the  and  legate  a  latere.  .  He  received  at  the  same  time  the 
Pontifical  Thtone,  ''because  of  his  wonderful  zeal  for  Abbey  of  Dunfermline  in  commendam,  and  seems  to 
the  propagation  and  defence  of  the  Catholic  Faith  in  have  held  also  at  one  time  or  another  the  rich  Abbeys 
the  Umted  States  of  America".  On  his  return  to  of  Kilwinning,  Dryburgh,  and  Arbroath.  The  new 
France  he  founded  (1843)  the  Society  of  the  Holy  primate's  eight  years'  tenure  of  his  see  was  marked  by 
Childhood,  and  spent  that,  and  a  part  of  the  following  vigorous  administration ;  and  he  did  much  to  consoh- 
year  in  spreading  ^is  good  work  through  France,  date  the  episcopal  authority,  procuring  the  restoration 
Belgium,  and  England.  Death  came  tonim  unex-  ^  his  province  of  the  Dioceses  of  Dunkeld  and  Dun- 
pectedly  at  his  family  castle  of  Aygalades  near  Maz^  blane,  and  holding  an  important  s3mod,  the  enactments 
seilles.  of  which,  still  extant,  throw  an  important  li^'t  on  the 
Db  Rivikiw,  Vm  de  MordeFoHnn-Janaon,  Aftt«umnair«,  ivi-  condition  of  the  Scottish  Church  immediately  before 
wed4  Na^et  dBTmdjmmatdf  Lfrnine,  f^^daUur  de  la  Su  the  Reformation.    These  statutes  testify  to  the  pri- 

Ti::S:^Zi.^SL^^^  i^^S^^ctZ  ^.  Sr^rw^^SSi:  ^ ^'«  ?«^1 1^^  ^^^  ameUoratlon  of  the'state  of  \he 

1904).  clergy,  for  the  reform  of  abuses,  the  advancement  of 

Caiollub  p.  Maes.  learning,  and  the  augmentation  of  the  solemnity  of  the 

services  of  the  Church.    Archbishop  Foreman  was 

Forcellini,  Egcdzo,  Latin  lexicographer,  b.  at  Fe-  buried  in  Dunfermline  Abbey. 


and  he  was  of  mature  age  when  in  1704  he  entered  the  S.  ^^^^?^L  MicaML,  L««  Eeonai»  en  France  (PariB.  1862).  I; 

soon  attracted  the  attention  of  his  teacher,  Facciolati,  hUkope  ofSt,  Andrew  (Edinburi^,  ig07-O9). 

who  secured  his  assistance  in  his  lexicographical  work.  D.  O.  Hunteb-Blaib. 
Forcellini  collaborated  with  his  master  in  revising  the 

so-called  "Calepinus".  the  Latin  dictionary,  in  seven  Forer,  Laurenz,  controversialist,  b.  at  Lucerne, 

languages,  of  the  monk  Ambrosius  Calepinus.  While  1580;  d.  at  Ratisbon,  7  January,  1659.    He  entered 

engaged  in  this  work,  Forcellini  is  said  to  have  con-  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  the  age  of  twenty ,  in  Landshut, 

oeived  the  idea  of  an  entirely  new  Latin  lexicon,  the  and  made  part  of  his  studies  under  Fathers  Laymann 

most  comprehensive  ever  compiled.  Towards  the  end  and  Tanner.     He  taught  philosophy  at  Ingolstadt 

of  1718,  under  the  direction  of  Facciolati,  he  began  the  (1615-1619),  and  theology,  moral  and  controversial, 

laborious  task  of  reading  through  the  entire  body  of  for  six  years  at  Dillmgen.  in  the  latter  institution  he 

Latin  literature  as  well  as  the  whole  collection  of  in-  held  adso  tiiie  ofiBoe  of  chancellor  for  several  years.  He 

Bcriptions.    His  labours  were  interrupted  in  1724,  spent  the  years  1632-1643  in  the  Tyrol,  whither  he 

when  he  was  called  to  Ceneda,  where  he  became  pro-  had  withdrawn  with  his  illustrious  penitent  Heinrich 

fessor  of  rhetoric  and  director  of  the  seminary.    He  von  KnOringen.  Bishop  of  Augsburg,  on  account  of 

resumed  his  work  on  the  lexicon  on  his  recall  to  Padua  the  inroads  of  the  Swedes.  Forer  visited  Rome  (1645- 

in  17^1.  It  was  not  until  three  jrears  after  Forcellini's  1646)  as  the  representative  of  the  province  of  Upper 

death  that  this  great  lexicon,  on  which  he  had  spent  Germany  in  tibe  eighth  congregation.     He  became 

nearly  for^  years  of  untiring  industiy,  and  which  is  rector  of  the  college  of  Lucerne  in  1650.  Father  Som- 

the  basis  of  all  the  Latin  lexicons  now  m  use,  was  pul>-  mervogel  enumerates  sixty-two  titles  of  publications 

lished  at  Padua  in  four  folio  volumes  imder  the  title,  from  the  pen  of  Forer;  thou^  not  all  of  them  are  very 

"  Totius  Latinitatis  Lexicon  ".   In  it  are  given  both  the  voluminous,  they  show  at  least  the  writer's  versatility 

Italian  and  the  Greek  equivalents  of  every  word,  to-  and  erudition,  as  well  as  his  zeal  for  the  integrity  and 

gether  with  copious  citations  from  the  literature,  the  honour  of  the  Catholic  Faith.    He  wrote  one  or 

There  is  an  English  edition  by  Bailey  in  two  volumes  more  treatises  each  against  the  apostates  Reihing 

(London,  1828).  The  latest  complete  edition  is  that  of  and  de  Dominis,  against  Melchior  Nicolai,  Hottinger, 

De  Vit  (Prato,  1858-87).     (See  Latin  Literature.)  Kallisen,  Schopp,  Molinos,  Haberkom,  Voet,  Hoe,  the 

FBnaABi.VitodiForeeKmi  (Padua.  1792).  Ubiquists,  and  others.     Such  works  as  ''Lutherus 

Edmund  Burke.  thaumaturgus"  (Dillingen,  1624),  "Septem  charac- 

Forconinm,  Diocebe  of     See  Aquila.  teres  Lutheri"  (Dillingen,  1626),  "Quffistio  ubmam 

ante  Lutherum  protestantium  ecclesia  fuent     (Pt.  I, 

Voreman,  Andrew,  a  Scottish  prelate,  of  good  Amberg,  1653;  Pt.  II,  Ingolstadt,  1654), '' Bellum  ubi- 

border  family;  b.  at  Hatton,  near  Berwick-on-Tweed;  quisticum  vetus  et  novum  inter  ipsos  Lutheranos 

d.  1522.    His  talents  marked  him  out  for  early  promo-  bellatum  et  necdum  debellatum"  (Dillingen,  1627) 

tion  in  his  ecclesiastical  career;  through  the  innuenoe  are  directed  against  all  Protestants.    Others,  as  "  Ana- 

of  iOng  James  IV,  he  soon  became  a  prothonotaiy  tomia  anatomi®  Societatis  Jesu"  (Innsbruck,  1634), 


rOBSST 


135 


rOSGBBY 


"Mantissa  Ant-anatomi»  Jesuitice"  (Innsbruck, 
1635;  Colore,  1635),  "  Granimaticus  Proteus,  area- 
norum  Societatis  Jesu  Dsedalus"  (Ingolstadt,  1636), 
"Appendix  ad  grammaticum  Proteum"  (Ingolstadt, 
1636),  attack  tne  enemies  of  the  Society  of  Jesus; 
finally,  two  of  his  works,  written  for  Catholics,  "Di»- 
putirkunst  fOr  die  einf&ltigen  Catholischen"  (Ingol- 
stadt, 1656)  and  ''Leben  Jesu  Christi''  (Dillinsen, 
1650-1658),  have  been  re-edited  and  repuDlishea  at 
WUrzburg  (1861)  and  Ratisbon  (1856). 

HuRTBB,  NomencUUor  (Innsbruck.  1802),  I.  426  sg.;  SoM- 
MBRvoovi^  BQ>liothkme,  etc.  (Bnusela  and  Paxis,  1892).  Ill, 
868  sqq.;  Badbb  in  Kirehenlex.,  s.  v. 

A.  J.  Maab. 
Forest,  John  Antony.     See  San  Antonio,  Dio 

CBSB  OF. 

ForostarB,  Cathouc  Orders  of. — I.  On  30  July, 
1879,  some  members  of  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society 
of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  U.  S.  A.,  desiring  to  have  a 
Catholic  fraternal  insurance  society,  oreanued  one  on 
the  plan  of  the  Foresters'  courts  ana  called  it  the 
Massachusetts  Catholic  Older  of  Foresters.  It  was  so 
chartered,  and  its  membership  was  confined  to  the 
State  of  Massachusetts,  except  m  one  instance,  where  a 
court  was  fonned  at  Provioence,  Rhode  Island.  On 
1  Janua^,  1909,  the  official  report  stated  that  there 
were  235  courts  organized,  with  a  membership  of 
27,757.  Of  the  members  9679  were  women.  The 
insurance  in  force  on  31  Dec.,  1908,  was  $27,757,000. 

II.  On  24  May.  1883,  a  number  of  Catholics  of  Chi- 
cago, Illinois,'  taking  up  the  plan  of  this  Massachu- 
setts society,  organized  on  the  same  lines  the  Catholic 
Order  of  Foresters  of  Illinois.  A  flat  all-around  death 
assessment  of  one  dollar  was  adopted,  and  men  of  all 
ages  were  admitted  to  membership  at  the  same  rate. 
Later,  when  courts  were  established  in  a  number  of 
other  States  and  in  Canada,  an  international  conven- 
tion in  1895  adopted  a  graded  syvtem  of  assessment 
insurance.  Catholics  between  eighteen  and  forty- 
five  vears  of  age  are  eligible  for  membership.  From 
the  date  of  organisation  to  1  June,  1908,  it  paid  out 
$10,639,936  for  death  claims,  and  $2,500,000  in  fu- 
neral and  sick  benefits.  It  had  in  AprU,  1909,  1600 
courts  and  a  membership  of  136,212  aistributed  over 
twenty-six  States  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The 
main  offices  are  at  Chicago,  Illinois.  The  official  or- 
gan, " The  Catholic  Forester",  is  published  at  Milwau- 
kee, Wisconsin.  The  word  Illinois  in  the  original  title 
of  the  organization  was  dropped  in  1888.  as  the  mem- 
bership had  then  extended  txd^ond  the  limits  of  that 
State.  This  society  is  not  afloliated  with  the  Massa- 
chusetts Catholic  Order  of  Foresters. 

III.  A  Women's  Catholic' Order  of  Foresters  was  or- 
ganized in  1892  at  Chicago,  havine  for  its  object  be- 
nevolent co-operation  among  Catnolio  women  with 
assessment  lile-insuranoe  at  low  rates.  It  has  a 
membership  of  54,350.  with  courts  scattered  over 
many  of  the  States.    Tne  main  offices  are  at  Chicago. 

THoiiAB  F.  Mbbhan. 

Forgery,  Forger. — If  we  accept  the  definition  usu- 
ally given  by  canonists,  forgery  (Lat.  fdlaum)  differs 
very  sli^tly  from  fraud.  "Forgery",  says  Ferraris, 
who  claims  that  his  definition  ia  the  usually  ac- 
cepted one,  "is  a  fraudulent  interference  with,  or  al- 
teration of,  truth,  to  the  prejudice  of  a  third  person". 
It  consists  in  the  ddiberate  untruthfulness  of  an  asser- 
tion, or  in  the  deceitful  presentation  of  an  object,  and 
is  based  on  an  intention  to  deceive  and  to  injure  while 
using  the  externals  of  honesty.  Forgery  is  truly  a 
falsenood  and  a  fraud,  but  it  is  something  more.  It 
includes  fraudulent  misdemeanours  in  matters  regu- 
lated by  the  law,  and  endangering  the  public  peace. 
These  misdemeanours  are  divided  by  canon  law 
writers  into  three  classes — according  as  the  crime  is 
committed  by  word,  by  writing,  or  by  deed.  The 
principal  crime  in  each  of  these  classes  being  false 


witness,  falsification  of  public  documents,  and  counter- 
feiting money.  A  fourth  category  consists  in  making 
use  ofsuch  forgery,  and  is  equivalent  to  for^r^r  proper. 
This  classification,  while  slightly  superficial,  is  exact, 
and  presupposes  tne  fundamental  malice  of  the  crime 
in  question,  viz.,  that  it  is  prejudicial  to  public  security 
ana  injurious  to  the  interests  of  society  at  large,  rather 
than  to  those  of  the  individual.  ^  * ' 

Social  order  is  seriously  affected  by  false  witness, 
which  cripples  the  operation  of  justice:  by  the  change 
or  alteration  of  public  documents,  wnich  hinders  a 
right  and  proper  administration  of  public  affairs,  and 
lastly,  by  the  coining  of  base  mone^,  which  hampers 
trade  and  commerce.  If  forgery  is  committed  by 
public  officials  in  violation  of  their  professional  duties, 
the  crime  becomes  more  serious,  and  more^  prejudicial 
to  public  order.  The  interests  of  private  individuals, 
therefore^  while  not  excluded,  are  secondary  when  this 
offence  is  in  question,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the 
penalties  incurred  by  forgery,  or  complicity  therein, 
are  independent  of  the  amoimt  of  damage  it  in- 
fiicts  on  mdividuals.  Oral  forgeries^  e.  g.  false  oaths, 
false  witness  (canonists  add  the  crime  of  the  judge 
who  knowin^y  pronounces  an  unjust  sentence),  are 
treated  under  Trial;  Oath;  Witness;  Judge.  On 
the  other  hand  false  coinage  does  not  immediately  con- 
cern ecclesiastical  law,  though  some  attention  is  paid 
it  in  ihe  "  Corpus  Juris  Canonici' '  and  in  various  canon 
law  treatises.  John  XXII  punished  false  ooinu^  by 
excommunication  (Extrav.  "Gradiens",  Joan.  XXIi, 
de  crimine  falsi)  and  compared  forgers  to  alchemists 
(Extrav.  "Spondent",  inter  commO*  In  many  dio- 
ceses this  crime  was  long  a  reserved  sin  (e.  s.  in 
Naples;  "PromptaBibliotheca",  8.  v.;  see  Neapolitan 
edition  of  Ferraris,  s.  v.  Fcdsum,  n.  35).  By  such  penal 
measures  the  ecclesiastical  authority  merely  assisted 
in  suppressing  a  crime  mively  prejudicial  to  civil  wel- 
fare ;  it  did  not  come  b^ore  it  as  a  crime  against  eccle- 
siastical law. 

We  are  here  concerned  only  with  forgei^  prop- 
erly so-called,  i.  e.  the  falsification  of  pm)hc  docu- 
ments and  writings,  especialljr  Apostolic  letters. 
What  is  here  said  of  the  latter,  is  also  applicable,  in 
due  measure,  to  all  public  documents  emanating  from 
the  Roman  (Juria  or  episcopal  courts.  The  canonical 
legislation  on  this  matter  is  oetter  understood  when  we 
recall  that  the  more  usual  form  of  this  crime,  and  the 
source  of  judicial  inquiries  and  consequent  penalties, 
was  the  production  of  absolutely  fidse  documents  and 
the  alteration  of  authentic  decisions,  for  the  sake  of  cer- 
tain advantages,  e.  g.  a  benefice,  or  a  favourable  verdict. 

The  forging  of  documents  for  purely  historical  pur- 
poses, with  no  intention  of  influencing  administrative 
or  le^ative  authority,  does  not  fall  within  our  scope. 
(For  an  account  of  several  such  forgeries  see  A.  Giry, 
"Manuel  de  diplomatique".  Paris,  1894,  II,  861-87, 
and  Wattenbacn,  "  Deutschlands  (jeschichtsquellen", 
9th  ed.  appendix.)  We  are  concerned  only  with  the 
falsification  of  Apostolic  Letters,  the  only  form  of  f org- 
eiy  that  incurs  excommunication  ipso  facto  special^ 
reserved  to  the  pope.  The  most  serious  form  of  forgery 
is  that  committed  by  a  public  functionary  chai^ged  to 
draw  up  or  authenticate  official  documents,  who  vio- 
lates his  professional  duties,  by  the  fabrication  of  false 
documents,  by  forging  a  signature,  bv  fraudulent  use 
of  an  official  seal,  a  stamp,  or  the  lixe.  There  is  no 
precise  text  in  canon  law  punishing  these  crimes,  and 
canonists  always  refer  to  Koman  law,  especially  to  the 
Lex  Cornelia  "de  crimine  falsi"  (ff.  XLVIII).  Never- 
theless in  ecclesiastical  law  they  are  serious  crimes; 
and  instances  might  be  e;iven  of  officials  of  the  Roman 
Curia  who  sufferra  deatn  for  such  forgeries.  Domen- 
ico  of  Viterbo  and  Francesco  Maldente  were  tried  and 
executed  for  this  crime  in  1489.  They  had  foi^ged, 
among  other  documents,  a  Bull  authorismg  the  priests 
of  Norway  to  celebrate  Mass  without  wine  (Benedict 
XIV,  "De  Beatif.",  II,  c.  XXXII,  n.  2;  Pastor,  "His- 


fOSGSBt 


136 


rOBOE&T 


tory  of  the  Popes''  tr.  V^  351).  Again  the  sub- 
datarius,  Franoesoo  Canonici,  called  Mascabruno,  was 
condemned  to  death  on  5  April,  1652,  for  man^  for- 
eeries  discovered  only  on  the  eve  of  his  elevation  to 
tne  cardinalate. 

Canon  law  deals  mainly  with  the  attempt  to  put 
forgeries  to  a  specific  use.  It  connects  forgery  and  the 
use  of  f oreed  documents,  on  the  presumption  that  he 
who  would  make  use  of  such  documents  must  be 
either  the  author  or  instigator  of  the  forgeiy.  In 
canon  law,  forgery  consists  not  onlv  in  the  fabrication 
or  substitution  of  an  entirely  false  document,  "as 
when  a  false  bulla,  or  sc»l^  is  affixed  to  a  false  letter" 
(Licet  v, "  De  crimine  falsi '0»  but  even  by  partial  sub- 
stitution, or  by  any  alteration  affecting  the  sense  and 
bearing  of  an  authentic  document  or  any  substantial 
point,  such  as  names,  dates,  signature,  seal,  favour 
granted,  by  erasure,  by  scratching  out  or  by  writins 
one  word  over  another,  and  the  uke.  The  classical 
and  oft-commented  text  on  this  matter  is  the  chapter 
Licet  V,  ''De  crimine  falsi"  in  which  Innocent  III 
(1198)  points  out  to  the  bishop  and  chapter  of  Milan 
nine  species  of  foigery  which  had  come  under  his 
notice.  This  famous  instruction  was  given  in  order  to 
enable  his  correspondents  to  guard  against  future 
fraud.  Following  his  teaching  tne  gloss  on  this  chap- 
ter enumerates  among  the  six' points  a  judge  should 
examine  into  in  order  to  discover  a  foigeiy:  ^ 

Forma,  stylus,  filum,  membrana,  litura,  wigillum. 
Haec  sex  falsata  dant  scripturam  valere  pusillum. 

In  other  words  a  document  is  suspect,  (1)  If  its  out- 
ward appearance  differs  greatly  from  the  usual  ap- 
pearance of  such  documents.  (2).  If  the  style  varies 
from  the  usual  manner  of  the  Curia.  Chapter  iv, 
"De  crimine  falsi"  gives  us  an  example  of  this:  Inno- 
cent III  declares  a  Bull  false  wherein  the  pope  ad- 
dresses a  bishop  as  "Dear  Son"  and  not  as  "Vener- 
able Brother",  or  in  which  any  other  person  than  a 
bi^op  is  styled  "Venerable  Brother"  instead  of 
" Dear  Son",  or  in  which  the  plural  voe  is  used  to  ad- 
dress a  single  individual.  (3)  If  the  thread  which  ties 
the  leaden  seal  to  the  Bull  is  broken.  ^  (4)  If  the  parch- 
ment bears  traces  of  a  doubtful  origin  (just  as  we  dis- 
tinguish the  water-marks  and  letter-heads  of  modem 
documents).  (5)  If  there  are  any  erasures,  or  words 
scratched  out.  (6)  If  the  seal  is  not  intact,  or  is  not 
clearly  defined.  If  a  judge  discovers  an  evident  for^ 
seiy  he  ou^t  to  repuaiate  the  document  and  punish 
uie  guilty  psurty;  but  in  case  he  considers  it  merely 
doubtful  ne  ought  to  make  inquiries  at  the  office  of  the 
Roman  Curia  which  is  supposed  to  have  issued  it. 

Substitution  of  false  documents  and  tampering 
with  genuine  ones  was  (]^uite  a  trade  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  the  chapter  Dura  vi,  "De  crimine  falsi",  written 
in  1198,  (para  deci9a)^  Innocent  III  relates  that  he  had 
discovert  and  imprisoned  foigers  who  had  prepared 
a  number  of  false  Bulls,  beaxin^  forced  signatures 
either  of  his  predecessor  or  of  himself.  To  obviate 
abuses,  he  orders  imder  pain  of  excommunication  or 
suspension  that  pontifical  Bulls  be  received  only  from 
the  hands  of  the  pope  or  of  the  officials  chaiged  to 
deliver  them.  He  orders  bishops  to  investigate  sus- 
picious letters,  and  to  make  known,  to  all  those  having 
forged  letters,  that  they  are  bound  to  destroy  them, 
or  to  hand  them  over  within  twenty  days,  under 
pain  of  excommunication.  The  same  pope  legislated 
severely  against  forgery  and  the  use  of  toraed  docu- 
ments. In  the  chapter  Ad  falsariorum,  vii, "  De  crim- 
ine falsi",  written  m  I2OI2  forgers  of  Apostolic  Let- 
ters, whether  the  actual  criminals  or  their  aiders  and 
abetters,  are  alike  excommimicated,  and  if  clerics,  are 
ordered  to  be  degraded  and  given  over  to  the  secular 


arm. 


Whoever  makes  use  of  Apostolic  Letters  is  invited 
to  assure  himself  of  their  authenticity,  since  to  use 
forged  letters  is  punished  in  the  case  of  clerics  by 
privatjpn  of  benence  and  rank,  and  in  the  case  of  lay- 


men by  excommunication.  The  excommunication 
threatened  by  Innocent  III,  and  extended  to  the  for- 
gery of  supplicas  or  pontifical  dispensations,  was  in- 
coiporatea  m  the  Bull  "In  Ccena  Domini"  (no.  6), 
and  passed  thence  with  some  modifications  into  the 
constitution  "  Apostolicse  Sedis,"  where  it  is  number  9 
among  the  excommunications  lata  aenlentuB  specially 
reserved  to  the  pope.  It  affecte  "all  falsification  of 
Apostolic  Letters,  even  in  the  fonn  of  Briefs^  and  sup- 
pucas  concerning  favours  sought  or  dispensations  asked 
tor,  which  have  been  signed  by  the  Sovereign  Pontiff, 
or  the  vice-chancellors  of  the  Roman  Church  or  tiieir 
deputies,  or  by  order  of  the  pope",  also  all  those  who* 
falsely  publish  Apostolic  Letters,  even  those  in  the 
fonn  of  Brief;  lastly,  all  those  who  falsely  sign  these 
documente  with  the  name  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,, 
^e  vice-chancellor  or  their  deputies.  The  documents- 
in  question  here  are  of  two  sorte:  (a)  Apostolic  Letters,, 
in  which  the  pope  himself  speaks,  whether  they  are  in 
the  fonn  of  Bulls  or  Briefs  (q.  v.) ;  (b)  Supplicas  or  re- 
queste  addressed  to  the  pope  to  obtein  a  favour,  and 
to  which,  in  proof  that  the  request  is  granted,  the, 
pope  or  the  vice-chancellor  or  some  other  official  at- 
taches his  signature.  It  is  from  these  supplicas  thus 
signed  that  we  official  document  conveymg  the  con- 
cession is  drawn  up.  Consequently  rescripte  of  the 
Roman  Congregations  and  of  other  offices,  which  are 
not  signed  by  the  pope  or  by  his  order,  do  not  come 
under  this  heading. 

The  acts  of  falsification  herein  punished  by  excom- 
munication are  fewer  than  formerly.  In  the  first 
place,  the  principal  crime  is  the  only  one  dealt  with; 
the  aiders  and  abettors  of  the  for^ry  are  not  men- 
tioned. In  the  next  place,  by  a  strict  interpretation, 
allowable  in  penal  matters  but  certeinly  opposed  to 
the  spirit  of  the  Decretals  of  Innocent  Iil,  recent 
canoniste  exempt  from  the  ivao  facto  censure  forgers  of 
entire  Apostolic  Letters,  ana  brmg  imder  it  only  those 
who  senously  alter  authentic  documents.  It  is  cer- 
tain, in  any  case,  that  the  word  fabricanUs  of  the  Bull 
"In  Ccena  Domini"  becomes  jmblicarUea  in  the  Con- 
stitution "ApostolicsB  Sedis".  There  are  therefore 
three  acte  contemplated  by  the  latter  text;  the  falsifi- 
cation, in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  of  Apostolic 
Letters  and  supplicas;  the  publication  of  false  Apos- 
tolic Letters;  tne  forcing  of  signatures  to  supplicas. 
The  "publication"  mncn  incurs  this  censure  is  not 
the  material  divulgation  of  a  document,  but  presup- 
poses that  such  document  is  offered  as,  and  sffirmed 
to  be,  authentic.  Supplicas  with  forged  signatures  it 
would  be  useless  to  publish  since  they  cannot  teke 
the  place  of  the  official  document  conveying  the  con- 
cession; but  the  officials  issuing  Apostolic  Letters  on 
the  strength  of  such  si^ed  supplicas  would  have  been 
misled  by  the  false  signature.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  all  other  forms  of  forgery  which  escape  the 
%p90  facto  excommunication  are  subject  to  penalties 
uid  censures  ^ferendcB  sententice*'  according  to  the 
gravitv  of  the  case. 

To  nave  their  full  official  weight  before  a  tribimal, 
public  documente  must  be  presented  either  in  the 
original,  or  in  copies  certified  by  some  public  officer. 
Hence  the  note  of  falsification  aoes  not  attach  to  re- 
productions devoid  of  all  guarantee  of  authenticity: 
nevertheless  such  reproductions  are  sometimes  seri- 
ously criminal  because  of  the  perverse  intention  of 
their  authors.  Leitner  ("  Prael.  Jur.  Can."  lib.  V,  tit. 
XX,  in  a  note)  gives  two  examples  of  fraudulent  repro- 
ductions of  this  nature.  Frederick  II  of  Prussia  forged 
a  Bri^  of  Clement  XIII,  and  dated  it  30  January, 
1759,  by  which  the  pope  was  made  to  send  his  con- 
gratulations and  a  blessed  sword  to  the  Austrian  Mar- 
snal  Daun,  after  the  battle  of  Hochkirch.  A  Bull 
purporting  to  be  by  Pius  IX,  dated  28  May,  1873, 
moaifying  the  law  in  vigour  for  the  election  of  a  pope 
was  forg^,  with  the  connivance  at  least,  of  the  rrus- 
sian  Qovemment.    Another  false  document,  pub- 


CHURCH  OF  SAN  MERCURIALE,  PORLI 

;    BY    FRANCESCO    DBDPI    (117S-1180) 


p. 


roBLk 


137 


FORM 


lished  by  msoij  newspapers  in  1905,  authorized  the 
marriage  of  priests  in  South  America,  but  no  one 
placed  an^  credence  in  it.  (See  Bulls  and  Briefs.) 
All  oanonleal  oommentariaB  on  the  title  D«  crimine  faUi; 
Deeret..  lib.  V,  tit.  XX;  Exlravaa,  of  John  XXII  and  oom- 
mentary;  Fsrrarib,  Piromjfla  Bwliothecat  a.  v.  Falaum;  all 
oommentaries  on  the  Constitution  ApoatoliaB  Seditt  especially 
ISdnnacbi,  t.  I,  appendix  VIII,  p.  203. 

A.  BOUDINHON. 

ForB,  Diocese  of  (Fohouvienbis),  in  the  province 
of  Romagna  (Central  Italy),  suffragan  of  Kavenna. 
Tlie  city  of  Fori),  the  ancient  Forum  Livii,  is  situated 
between  the  rivers  Ronco  and  Montone,  and  was 
foimded  in  206  b.  c.  b^the  consul  M.  Livius  Salinator; 
destroyed  88  b.  c.  during  the  civil  war  of  Marius  and 
Sulla;  and  rebuilt  by  the  prsetor  Livius  Clodius. 
During  the  seventh  and  eightn  centuries  it  was  often 
seized  b:^  the  Lombards  (665,  728,  742),  until  its  in- 
corporation with  the  Papal  States  in  757.  In  the 
medieval  stru^le  between  the  papacy  and  the  em- 

gire  it  was  iShibelline.  On  tne  downfall  of  the 
[ohenstaufen,  Simone  Mestaguerra  had  himself  pro- 
claimed Lord  of  Fori!  (1257).  He  was  sucoeedea  by 
Maghinardo  Pagano,  U^ccione  della  Fa^uola 
(1297),  and  others,  until  m  1302  the  Ordelamcame 
into  power.  More  than  once  this  family  sought  to 
escape  from  the  overlordship  of  the  Holy  See,  and  was 
therefore  several  times  expelled,  e.  g.  in  1327-29  and 
a^in  in  1359-1375  (Gil  d'Albomoz).  Fori)  was 
seized  in  1488  by  Visconti  and  in  1499  by  Csesar  Bor- 
na,  after  whose  death  it  was  again  directly  subject  to 
tne  pope.    In  1708  it  was  sacked  by  the  Austrians. 

St.  Mercurialis  is  venerated  as  the  first  bishop, 
and  is  said  to  belong  to  the  Apostolic  Age;  it  is  cer- 
tain, however,  that  he  is  identical  with  the  Mer- 
curialis present  at  the  Council  of  Rimini  in  359. 
The  Christian  religion,  however,  must  have  been 
introduced,  and  a  see  established,  much  earlier. 
Among  the  illustrious  bishops  the  following  may  be 
enumerated:  Alessandro  (1160),  who  built  the  epis- 
copal pdaoe;  Fra  Bartolomeo  da  Sanzetto  (1351), 
compelled  to  flee  by  Francesco  degli  Ordelaffi;  Gio- 
vanni Capparelli  (1427),  banished  by  Antonio  degli 
Ordelaffi ;  Luigi  Pirano  (1437),  who  took  an  active  put 
in  the  Council  of  Ferrara.  The  following  were  natives 
of  ForU:  Blessed  Jacopo  Salomonio  (d.  1314),  a  Do- 
minican ;  Blessed  Pellegrino  Laziosi  (d.  1345),  a  Servite; 
Blessed  Marcolino  Amanni  (d.  1397),  a  Dominican. 
The  Cathedral  of  Santa  Croce  existed  as  early  as  562; 
in  1419  Martin  V  ordered  restorations  that  were  com- 
pleted in  1475;  and  it  was  again  enlarged  in  1841.  A 
noteworthy  part  of  the  cathedral  is  the  chapel  of  the 
Madonna  del  Fuoco;  the  sacred  image  contamed  there 
was  formerly  in  a  private  house,  where  it  remained 
unharmed  during  a  fire.  Also  worthy  of  mention  are: 
the  chureh  of  San  Mereuriale,  with  its  celebrated  bell- 
tower,  the  work  of  Francesco  Deddi  (1428);  San 
Biagio,  with  frescoes  by  Melozzo  da  Fori)  and  ralme- 
giani,  and  an  "Immaculate  (Donoeption^'  by  Guide 
Sleni;  Santa  Maria  dei  servi  (built  oy  Blessed  Pelle- 

S-ino,  buried  there),  with  frescoes  of  the  school  of 
iotto.  The  seminary  has  a  rich  collection  of  500 
Aldine  first  editions  and  of  pictures.  Near  Fori)  is  the 
shrine  of  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie  of  Fomo.  The  dio- 
cese has  61  parishes,  60,(XX)  inhabitants,  8  male  and 
6  female  educational  institutions,  4  relidous  houses  of 
men,  and  7  of  women,  and  a  weekly  Camolic  paper. 

CAPPELLETn,  Le  Chiese  (T Italia  (Venice,  1844),  II.  307-67; 
March  ESI,  Compendium  histor.  cdeberrima  eivitatis  ForiivienatM 
(Fori),  1678);  Robetti,  ViU  degli  lumini  iUueiri  Forliveei  (Fori), 
186»-61).  ^,    ^ 

U.  Benioni. 

Form  (Lat.  forma;  Gr.  etdot,  /lop^,  ^  jcar A  rbv  \6yow 
odffla,  rb  rl  Ijw  eiFot:  Aristotle). — The  ori^nal  meaning 
of  the  term  formt  both  in  Greek  and  Latm,  was  and  is 
that  in  common  use— cfdoi  (derived  from  elSctf,  root 
f 49«  an  obsolete  form  from  which  comes  the  second 


aorist  «lSov,  /  Me,  akin  to  Latin  video),  being  trans- 
lated, that  which  is  seen,  shape,  etc.,  with  secondary 
meanings  derived  from  this,  as  fonn^sort,  particular, 
kind,  nature.  It  is  also  uised  by  Plato  to  express 
kind,  both  as  ^nus  and  species.  From  the  primary 
and  common  signification  given  above,  an  easy  tran- 
sition is  made  to  that  in  which  it  comes  to  sigm^  the 
intrinsic  determinant  of  .quantity,  from  which  ngure 
or  shape  results,  and  thence  to  the  further  peripatetic 
and  scholastic  usage  as  the  intrinsic  determinant  of 
ansrthing  that  is  detenninable.  Thus  the  tenn  is  em- 
ployed even  in  such  expressions  as  "  form  of  contract ". 
^'form  of  worship",  and  as  theological  form,  "form  ox 
woids ' '  (the  theological  statement  of  dogmatic  truth) ;  . 
sacramental  fonn  (see  below).    In  its  more  strict 

ghilosophical  usage^  however,  it  is  limited  to  its  signi- 
cation  of  the  intrinsic  principle  of  existence  in  anjr 
determinate  essence.  This  covers  form,  whether  acci- 
denUd  or  sulMtantial.  But  there  is  a  further  extended 
use  of  the  term  form,  derived  from  the  fact  that  in  all 
its  previous  significations  it  stands  for  the  intrinsic  con- 
stitutive element  of  jbhe  species,  accidental  or  substan- 
tial, in  sensible  entities.  Hence,  all  species  or  nature, 
whether  in  itself  material  or  existent  as  immaterial,  is 
called  a  form,  though  not,  in  the  strict  meaning  of  the 
tenn.  a  formal  principle.  In  this  manner,  it  is  not  un- 
usual to  speak  of  the  angelic  form,  or  even  of  the  form 
of  God,  as  signifying  the  nature,  or  essence,  of  the 
angel  or  of  Qm.  Hence,  form  is  sometimes  also  used 
as  a  synonym  of  essence  and  nature.  Thus  also  the 
form,  or  formal  cause  of  Aristotle's  theory  of  causality, 
is  identified  with  the  essence  {rb  rl  i^p  cTrat),  as  the  form 
is  that  in  virtue  of  which  the  essence,  even  of  ma- 
terial and  composite  entities,  is  preciselv  what  it  is. 
This  point  will  be  further  considered  in  the  paragraph 
treating  of  the  development  of  the  idea  of  fonn. 

The  various  kinds  of  form  recognized  in  philosophy 
include  the  following,  of  which  brief  definitions  are 
given.  Substantial  form,  in  material  entities,  is  that 
which  determines  or  actuates  materia  prima  (see  Mat- 
ter) to  a  specific  substantial  nature  or  essence,  as  the 
form  of  hyorogen,  a  rose,  horse,  or  man.  It  is  defined 
by  Aristotle  as  the  first  entelechy  of  a  physical  body 
(De  Anima,  II,  i),  and  may  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  is 
merely  the  determinant  of  matter  (corporeal  substan- 
tial form),  or  it  may  exceed,  as  it  were,  the  potentiality 
of  the  determined  matter  (spiritual  or  subsistent  form). 
Accidentid  form  is  that  which  determines  a  substance 
to  one  or  other  of  the  accidental  modes  as  quantified, 
qualified,  relationed,  etc.  (see  Category).  As  the 
existence  of  an  "  accident "  is  a  secondary  one,  consiBt- 
ing  in  an  inexistence  of  inherence,  an  existent  sub- 
stance, as  subject  of  inherence,  is  always  connoted. 
A  separated  form  is  one  which  exists  apart  from  the 
matter  it  actuates.  No  accidental  form  can  thus  ex- 
ist, nor  can  corporeal  substantial  forms.  The  sep- 
arated form  is  that  of  man — the  human  soul.  Inher- 
ent form  is  an  accidental  form  modifying  o^  determin- 
ing substance.  The  term  is  employed  to'  emphasize 
the  distinction  of  accidental  from  substantial  forms. 
These  latter  do  not  inhere  in  matter,  but  are  co-princi- 

fles  with  it  in  the  constitution  of  material  substonces. 
'onus  of  knowledge,  according  to  Kant,  are  forms  of 
(1)  intuition  (space  and  time),  and  (2)  thought  (the 
twelve  categories  in  which  all  judgments  are  condi- 
tioned: unity,  plurality,  totality;  reality,  negation, 
limitation;  substantiality,  causality,  relation;  possi- 
bility, existence,  necessity).  They  are  all  a  priori  and 
under  them,  as  content,  fall  all  our  intuitions  and 
judgments.  The  losical  system  of  Kant  is  ^nerally 
known  as  "formal '"logic,  from  this  connexion.  So 
also  that  of  Herbart,  whose  logical  treatment  of 
thought  consists  in  the  isolation  of  the  content  from  its 
psychological  and  metaphysical  implications.  The 
pomt  is  related  to  the  whole  subject  of  epistemology 
(q.  v.).  The  attempt  to  ascertain  the  nature,  extent, 
and  validity  of  knowledge  was  made  by  Kant  throu|^ 


rOBM  138 

a  criticism,  not  of  the  content  of  thought,  but- of  its  the  matter  of  the  sacrament  of  baptism,  for  example, 
essence.  It  is  an  endeavour  to  examine  not  ^e  '*  facta  is  water;  the  sacramental  form  consists  of  the  words 
of  reason,  but  reason  itself.  .  .  .  ".  ego  U  bapHxOf  etc.,  pronoimced  by  the  minister  as  he 
The  development  of  the  philosophical  doctrine  of  iMiptizes.  The  same  terminology  is  adopted  in  the  ex- 
form  may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  Aristotie.  It  position  of  moral  theology,  as  in  the  distinction  of 
provided  a  something  fixed  and  immutable  amidst  lormal  and  material  sin. 

what  appears  to  be  involved  in  a  series  of  perpetual  The  principal  alternative  systems  professing  to  give 

changes,  thus  obviating  the  difficulty  of  the  Heracli-  an  account  of  corporeal  substances  are  those  of  Des- 

tean  position  as  to  the  validity  of  knowledge.    The  cartes,  Locke,  Mill  and  Bafn,  the  scientists  (Atomists, 

wdrra  x»p€t  destroys  the  possibility  of  a  true  knowl-  etc.).   Descartes  places  the  essence  of  bodies  in  exten- 

edge  of  UiingB  as  they  are.    Thus  Aristotle  ma^  be  sion  in  three  dimensions,  thus  identifying  quantified 

looked  upon  as  the  one  above  all  others  who  Itud  a  substance  with  quantity  and  in  noway  accounting  for 

solid  base  for  any  true  system  of  epistemoloejr.    Like  substantial  differences.     Each  substance  possesses  a 

Plato,  he  saw  the  radical  scepticism  impliedin  an  as-  " pr^-eminent  attribute,  which  constitutes  its  nature 

sertion  of  unending  change.    But  unlike  the  doctrine  and  essence  and  to  which  all  others  relate;  thus  exten- 

of  the  former,  providing  unalterable  but  separated  sion",  etc.    To  this  Locke  adds  the  qualities  of  the 

ideas  as  the  ideal  counterpart  of  sensible  things,  that  substance,  making  its  essence  consist  of  its  primary 

of  Aristotle,  by  its  distinction  of  matter  and  form,  Qualities,  or  properties  (extension,  figure  and  mobility, 

makes  it  possible  to  abstract  the  unalterable  and  eter-  divisibility  and  activity).     Locke's  doctrine,  which 

nal  from  its  concrete  and  mutable  manifestation  in  in-  seems  to  be  the  opinion  of  many  contemporary  men  of 

dividuals.    Aristotle,  however,  identifies  the  form  with  science,  labours  under  the  same  grave  mconvenience 

the  essence ;  and  this  because  the  substance  is  what  it  as  that  of  Descartes,  as,  by  a  hy^eronrproieran,  it  ao- 

is  (essentially)  by  reason  of  the  substantial  form.    It  counts  for  the  nature  of  a  given  substance  by  its  acci- 

would  be  a  mistake,  none  the  less,  to  suppose  that  his  dents.    Mill  and  Bain,  considering  substance  from  a 

doctrine  leaves  no  room  for  a  distinction  between  the  psychological  rather  than  an  ontological  viewpoint, 

two.    Indeed  Grote  clearly  shows  that  ''the  Aristo-  define  it  oy  its  relation  to  sense  perception  as  an  ex- 

telean  analvsis  thus  brings  out,  in  regard  to  each  in-  temal  and  permanent  possibility  of  our  sensations, 

dividual  substance  (or  hoc  aUquidf  to  use  his  phrase).  This  view  is  not  unlike  tnat  just  alluded  to,  inasmuch 

a  triple  point  of  view:  (1)  the  form ;  (2)  the  matter;  (3)  as  it  expresses  not  the  essence  of  bodies  but  at  most 

the  compound  or  aggre^te  of  the  two — ^in  other  words  their  activity  as  permanently  capable  of  evoking  sen- 

the  inseparable  Ena  which  carries  us  out  of  the  domain  sations  in  us.    Acdn  to  this  is  the  doctrine 'of  positiv- 

of  logic  or  abstraction  into  that  of  the  concrete  or  ism,  explaining  the  nature  of  "matter"  as  a  series  of 

reality ' '  (Grote,  "  Aristotle  ".  ed.  Bain  and  Robertson,  sensations. 

II,  182).    The  theory  is  a  fundamental  one  in  Aris-  The  topic  of  form  is,  as  has  been  seen,  closely 

totle's  "Philosophia  Prima",  presenting,  as  it  does,  a  connectea  with  epistemology.  As  was  said,  a  weapon 

phase,  and  that  perhaps  the  most  important,  of  the  for  the  defeat  of   scepticism   and   Heracliteanism 

distinction  between  the  potential  and  the  actual.    It  was  provided  by  Aristotle  in  his  doctrine  of  forms 

is  no  less  fundamental  to  the  philosophical  and  theo-  and  essences;  Aquinas,  also,  would  have  our  knowl- 

logical  system  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  which  is  represen-  edge  to  be  of  the  eternal  essences,  though  derived  by 

tative  of  the  Christian  School.    Substantial  form  is  an  way   of   contemplation   of   contingent   individuals. 


stantial  form,  the  soul.  of  concrete  beings  may  be  fitted,  inaugurates  an  epis- 

That  the  rational  soul  is  the  uniaue  form  of  the  body  temology  of  the  phenomenal.    Hegel  begins  with  the 

is  of  faith  (Council  of  Vienne;  V  Lateran:  Brief  of  idea  of  pure  being,  identical,  because  of  its  entire  lack 

Pius  IX,  15  June,  1857).    Man  is  learned  or  nealthjr  in  of  content,  with  nothing;    and  thence  evolves,  on 

virtue  of  the  accidental  ^qualifying)  forms  of  leaminjo;  idealistic  lines,  his  theory  of  knowledge.    The  ''real- 

or  health  that "  inhere  "  in  him.   Tnese,  without  detn-  ism  "  of  Herbart  is  an  attempt  to  reconcile  the  contra- 

ment  to  his  humanity,  may  be  present  or  absent.  Both  dictions  that  arise  in  the  formal  conceptions  presented 

kinds  of  form,  it  may  be  noted,  though  they  specifv  in  experience.    His  epistemological  principle  is,  there- 

their  resultant  essences,  or  quasi-essences,  are  indivicl-  fore,  a  critical  and  methodical  transformation  of  such 

uated  by  the  quantified  matter  in  the  one  case,  and  the  conceptions,  issuing  in  the  position  that  a  multiplicity 

subject  of  inhesion  in  the  other.   Thus,  while  the  acci-  of  simple,  real  essences  exists,  each  possessing  a  single 

dental  or  substantial  corporeal  form  falls  back  into  simple  quality.   Several  of  the  modem  systems  (Pra^ 

mere  potentiality  when  it  does  not  actuate  its  subject,  matism.  Modernism,  etc.),  based  directly  and  inoi- 

the  incorporeal  subsistent  form  of  man,  though  con-  rectly  upon  the  teaching  of  Kant,  assert  a  life-value  or 

tinning  to  exist  when  separated  from  the  body,  retains  work-value  to  truth,  inculcating  an  extreme  relativity 

its  habitude,  or  relationship,  to  the  matter  by  which  it  of  knowledge  and  tending  to  pure  subjectivism  and 

was  individuated.  This  doctrine  is  usual  in  the  School,  solipsism.    The  scholastic  theory  of  form  is  not  that 

but  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  Scotus  taught,  in  senerally  adopted  by  modem  scientists,  though  it  may 

distinction  to  St.  TnomasV  doctrine  of  one  substantial  Ee  noticed  that  it  is  not  directly  imputed  by  any 

form,  a  plurality  of  form  in  individuals.    Thus^  e.  g.,  scientific  system.  ^  From  Bacon  on,  empirical  science 

while  according  to  Aquinas  man  is  all  that  he  is  sub-  has  been  progressive;  and  there  is  reason  to  believe 

stantially  (corporeal,  animal,  rational,  Socrates)  in  that  the  theoretic  science  of  to-day  is  in  a  state  of 

virtue  of  his  one  soul,  according  to  Scotus  each  deter-  transition  in  its  attitude  with  regard  to  the  constitu- 

mination  (generic  or  specific)  superadds  a  form.    In  tionof  "matter'' (substance).  The  atomic  and  molec- 

this  way,  man  woidd  be  corporeal  in  virtue  of  a  cor-  ular  theories,  principally  on  account  of  the  discovery 

poreal  form,  animal  in  virtue  of  a  superadded  animal  of  the  radio-active  substances  and  their  properties,  are 

form,  etc.,  until  he  became  Socrates,  in  virtue  of  the  being  modified  or  abandoned  (at  any  rate  m  so  far  as 

ultimate  personal  form  (socraleUaa).    Occam  also  dis-  they  were  held  to  represent  the  real  constitution  of 

tinguished  between  a  rational  and  a  sensitive  soul  in  matter)  in  favour  of  the  electronic,  a  theory  not  imlike 

man,  and  taught  that  the  latter  was  corruptible.  The  that  of  the  Jesuit  Boecovich.    In  any  case  the  former 

terminology  of  the  Scholastic  doctrine  of  form  is  em-  did  not  go  farther  than  to  provide  a  theoretic  account 

ployed  by  the  Church  in  dogmatic  definitions,  such  as  of  the  construction  of  **  matter",  leaving  the  ultimate 

^t  of  the  Council  of  Vienne  cited  above^and  in  her  constitution  of  substance  unexplained.    At  this  point 

teaching  with  reguxi  to  the  sacraments.   Thus,  while  the  theory  of  hylomorphism  and  the  doctrine  of  sub- 


rOBMBt  139  rOBMOBUS 

stantia]  fonn  would  apply.    For  a  critical  ezamina-  published  a  series  of  carefully  illustrated  books.  Chief 

tion  of  the  Mechanicist  position  in  this  connexion  the  amonff  these  was  his  yeijr  successful  "Pictorial  Bible 

reader  is  referred  to  Nys's  ''Cosmologie".    Further-  and  Cnurch  History  Stones",  which  began  with"  Pio- 

more,  there  is  a  noticeaole  reaction  towards  the  schol-  torial  Bible  Stories  for  the  Young"  (1856).  An  edition 

astic  position  in  recent  biology,  in  which  a  growing  of  the  complete  work  was  published  in  1857,  followed 

sehoofof  neovitalism  is  makinjz  itself  felt.  oy  another  ia  three  volumes  with  new  illustrations  in 

AusTcyrLB,  Opera  (Puis,  1629);  &r.  Tbomab,  Opera  (Panna.  1862,  and  an  abridged  one-volume  edition  in  1871. 

'^i^^''/^^i^  ?£S:i^''^;Al'ksk^^:^^  ^  1??7  to  1864  le  took  ^rge  of  the.  mission  at 

MetaphyeicB  of  the  S^  (London.  1879):  Bi.BOTB.  Ontolooie  Wednesbury ;  durmg  which  time  he  pubk^ed  "The 

fLouvain.  1902);  Nts,  CotmolooU  Oouvain.  1906;;  DBVoiiaiis,  Fifteen  Mysteries  of  the  Rosary"  (1857),  "The  Life 

y  ^*^^ytT.r  %Ka!!!^K!^f.n!;'^^  of  St.  Benedict"  (1858),  "The  Parables  of  Our  Lord 

SSf;,a^Ar  i?Sl5"&u^ J^^^^^             B^SSSj  Jesus  Christ"  (1858), " lie  Lifeof  St.  Patrick"  (1862), 

AND  AvauNo.  The  Spectrttm of  Truih  (London,  1908);  Windm,  all  of  which  were  illustrated.  A  sermon  on  "Our  Lady 

Leipds,  1850-2);    i2en  mto  the  Truth  of  the  Cathohc  Rehgion"  (1863) 
J«n«ntoruwPAflo-    were  also  published  while  he  was  at  Wednesbury.  In 

1864  he  retired  from  active  missionary  work  and  with- 
drew to  the  Dominican  prior/  at  Hinckley  in  Leices- 


ality  (London,  1731);  Hums,  Works,  ed.  Gbbbn  and  Gaon    tershire.  where  he  spent  the  remaining  twenty  years 

ilr'S&J.«!!,>^  ^JiiS^gj,i^^T«i^??'SK«"Zf.5l?S:    of  hto  life  in  issuing  Books  a«i  pamphlets  and  &  Wp- 

mg  to  tram  the  novices.  For  some  years  he  edited 


UUDWORTB.  A  Ireatiee  concemtM  Hitemai  ana  immtuaoie  mar' 
ality  (London.^  1731);  HumBj^  Worka,  ed^jQuBN  AND^GaosB 

ed 

7L^ISanFiwwea''*'i^  "The  Monthly  Magazine  of  the  Holy" Rosary".    His 

i^'  Zf^IS  ^"?J"f2!f  wiJfSS^^  ^?Hon'  1R72V'  n«Sl  later  pubUcations  included  ''The  Cause  of  Poor  Cath- 

^  ^t.2i  ^^"LSSfc'&Trsi^^^  oHc  Ifmigmnts  Pleaded"  (1867);  "Fleury's  Historical 

Oeeikiehu  der  Philoaophie  (Berlin,  1863-8).          ^  Catechism  continued  to  the  Vatican  Council ' '  (1871) ; 

Fkancm  Avbung.  «The  Book  of  the  Holy  Roeaiy"  (1872);  "De  Anms 

Christi  Tractatus"  (1872);  "Sacrum  Septenarium" 

Formby,  Hknrt,  b.  1816;  d.  at  Nonnanton  Hall,  (1874);    "The   Children's   Forget-me-not"    (1877); 

Leicester,  12  March,  1884.   His  father,  Henry  Grene-  "Compendium  of  the  Philosophy  of  Ancient  History": 

halgh  Formby,  was  the  second  son  of  Bichard  Formby  "Little  Book  of  the  Martyrs  of  the  City  of  Rome" 

of  Formby  Hall,  Lancashire.    The  family  had  been  (1877);  "Five  Lectures  on  the  City  of  Rome"  (1877); 

Catholic  until  the  eighteenth  century,  when,  with  the  "Monotheism  .  .  .  the  primitive  Religion  of  the  City 

exception  of  a  younger  branch,  thev  iost  the  JPaith  and  of  Rome"  (1877) ; "  Ancient  Rome  and  Its  Connection 

closed  the  chapel  of  their  fifteentn-century  mansion,  with  Christian  Religion."  (Part  I,  1880:  Part  H,  un- 

Henry  Formby  was  educated  at  Clitheroe  grammar-  finished  at  his  death):  "The  Growing  Unbelief  of  the 


oestershire,  where  in  1843  he  completed  his  first  book,    Scripture  ",  his  last  work.    He  also  wrote  a  great  num- 
"  A  Visit  to  the  East*',  and  he  showed  the  interest  in    ber  of  minor  devotional  and  educational  books. 

~  The  T<Met  (22  Mareh^l884;^  TheOecotian  (June,  1885),  IV, 


_Jdwin  Burton. 
At  this  time  he  was  profoimdly  influenced  by  the  Ox- 
ford Movement,  and  soon  after  his  friend  Newman  FormoBua,  Pope  (891-896). — ^The  pontificate  of 
became  a  Catholic,  he  decided  to  resign  his  living  and  this  pope  belonra  to  that  era  of  strife  for  political 
join  the  Church.  His  reception  took  place  on  24  Jan.,  supremacy  in  Italy,  which  succeeded  the  disruption  of 
1846,  at  Oscott,  where  he  continued  studying  theology  the  Carlovingian  empire.  Formosus  was  probably  a 
till  he  was  ordained  priest,  18  Sept..  1847.  He  waa  native  of  Rome,  and  inust  have  been  bom  about  816, 
attached  to  St.  Chad's  Cathedral  where  the  careful  since,  at  his  death,  he  is  characteruBcd  by  Vulgarius  as 
performance  of  plain  chant  has  ever  been  a  noted  fear  an  old  man  of  eighty.  The  earliest  historical  infor- 
ture  of  the  services,  and  while  there  hepublished  three  mation  we  possess  concerning  him  is  his  nomination  by 
works  on  the  subject : "  The  Catholic  Christian's  Guide  Nicholas  I  as  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Porto  in  864.    Nich- 


Canto  Fermo,  Compared  with  the  Works  of  Modem  poi)e  appointed  Formosus  and  Bishop Taulus  of  Popu- 

Music,  in  Point  of  Efficiency  and  General  Fitness  for  Ionia  as  his  legates  to  Bulgaria.    Formosus  found 

the  Purpose  of  the  Catholic  Church  "  (1849).    He  also  such  favour  at  the  Bulgarian  court  that  Bogoris  peti- 

published  "The  Young   Singer's  Book  of  Songs"  tioned  Nicholas  in  867  to  appoint  none  other  than  him 

(1852),  "School  Songs  and  Poetry  to  Which  Music  Is  Archbishop  of  Bulgaria.    To  this  proposal,  however, 

Adapted"  (1852),  and  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Nicholas  aid  not  acoede,  since  the  canons  forbade  a 

"  First  Series  of  Hymns  and  Songs  for  the  Use  of  Cath-  bishop  to  leave  his  own  see  to  undertake  the  govern- 

olic  Schools  and  Families  "(1853).  Other  works  belong-  ment  of  another  diocese,  and  Formosus  returned  to 

ing  to  this  period  were:  "The  Duties  and  Happiness  Rome.    Bogoris  afterwards  renewed  his  petition  to 

of  Domestic  Service"  (1851),  "The  March  of  Intellect;  Hadrian  II  (867-872),  the  successor  of  Nicholas,  but 

or.  The  Alleged  Hostility  of  the  Catholic  Church  to  the  with  no  more  favourable  result.    In  869,  Haorian 

Diffusion   m    Knowledge   Examined"   (1852),   and  sent  Formosus  with  another  bishop  to  France  to  assist 

"State  Rationalism  in  Education;  An  Elzamination  the  local  bishops  in  allaying  the  domestic  strife  be- 

into  the  Act^l  Working  and  Results  of  the  System  tween  King  Lothair  and  his  wife  Theutberga.    Al- 

of  the  Board  of  Commissioners  of  National  Education  though  the  death  of  Lothair  on  his  return  from  Ital^ 

in  Ireland"  (1854).  (8  Au^.,  869)  left  the  mission  without  an  object,  it 

Besides  his  interest  in  ecclesiastical  music.  Father  gave  rise  to  fresh  complications  among  the  Carlovin- 

Formby  had  much  at  heart  the  use  of  pictures  as  a  gian  rulers,  and  Formosus  was  sent  with  Bishop  Gau- 

means  of  spreading  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  and  aerich  of  Velletri  to  Trent  in  872,  where  Empress 

Catholic  doctrine.    In  furtherance  of  this  purpose  be  Engelberga  and  Louis  the  German  were  discussing  the 


rOBMOSUS  140  FOBMOBim 

question  of  succession,  Louis  II  having  no  male  heir,  king:  in  Provence  (ArelateX  LouiSy  son  of  Boeo;  in 

At  first  Pope  John  VIII  (872-^2)  reposed  trust  in  North  Burgundy  (Jura),  Rudolf,  son  of  the  Count  of 

Formoeus,  and.  on  the. death  of  Louis  II  (875),  em-  Auxerre  and  ^-andson  of  Louis  the  Pious;  in  Italy, 

ployed  him  witn  two  other  bishops  to  convey  his  invi-  Berengar  of  Friaul.    The  last-mentioned  was  opposed 

tation  to  Charles  the  Bald,  King  of  France,  to  come  to  and  defeated  by  Duke  Guido  (Wido)  of  Spoleto,  who 

Rome  and  receive  the  imperial  crown  from  the  hands  thereupon  took  possession  of  Lombardy,  and  assumed 

of  the  pope.    Charles  obeyed  the  call,  was  crowned  the  title  of  king.    Ruling  now  over  the  ereater  portion 

emperor  on  Christmas  Day,  875,  and.  before  returning  of  Italy,  Guido  was  a  veiy  dangerous  neighbour  for  the 

home,  appointed  Dukes  Lambert  ana  Guido  of  Spoleto  papal  states,  especially  as  the  Archdukes  of  Spoleto 

to  aseost  the  pope  against  the  Saracens.    In  871,  these  nad  been  on  many  occasions  ensaged  in  conflict  with 

nobles  hdd  been  deprived  of  their  dignities  for  oonspir-  the  popes.   Stephen  V  (q .  v.)  had  unwillingly  crowned 

ing  against  Louis  II;    but  they  were  restored  by  Guido  ehiperor,  as  King  Amulf  had  been  unable  to  ao- 

Charles.  oept  the  pope's  invitation  to  come  to  Rome.    Conse- 

In  the  pope's  entourage  there  were  many  who  quentlv  Fonnoeus,  after  he  had  been  unanimously 

viewed  with  disapproval  the  coronation  of  Charles,  elected  pope  by  clei^  and  people,  found  himself  com- 

and  favoured  the  widowed  Empress  Engelberga  ana  pelled  to  recognize  Guido's  di@iity  and  to  crown  him 

Louis  the   German.    Fearing  severe  chastisement,  and  his  son  Lambert  Roman  f^mperor  on  April,  892. 

these  political  opponents  of  the  pope  left  Rome  se-  Important  ecclesiastical  Questions  claimed  the  pope's 

cretly  to  seek  auety  elsewhere.    Cardinal  Formosua  attention  immediately  after  his  elevation.    In  (x)n- 

was  among  the  fugitives^  as  he  dreaded  the  anger  of  stantinople,  the  patriarch  Photius  had  been  ejected 

the  pope  without  knowmg  exactly  whereby  he  had  and  Steven,  the  son  of  Emperor  Basilius,  elevated  to 

incurred  the  papal  resentment.    From  the  fact  that  the  pamarcnate.    Archbishop  Stvlian  of  Neo-Caesa- 

Formosus  haa  been  sent  by  the  pope  as  ambassador  to  rea  and  the  clerical  opponents  of  rhotius  had  written 

Charles  and  now  directed  his  flight  to  Abbot  Hugo  at  to  Stephen  V,  re(][uesting  dispensation  and  confirma- 

Tours  in  Western  France,  it  must  be  inferred  that  he  tion  for  those  clerics  who  had  reco^ized  Photius  onl^ 

was  not  fundamentally  opposed  to  the  coronation  of  under  compu^ion  and  had  received  orders  at  his 


opponents  at  the  papal  court.  As  early 
been  a  candidate  for  the  papal  see,  so  that  John  possi-  culties;  the  rule  must  be  the  sentence  of  the  Eighth 
bly  viewed  him  in  the  lieht  of  an  opponent.  (^  the  General  Council  (Can.  iv),  viz.  that  Photius  neither 
flight  of  Formosus  and  the  other  papal  officials,  John  had  been  nor  was  a  bishop,  and  all  clerics  ordained  or 
convened  a  S3mod,  19  April,  which  ordered  the  fugi-  appointed  by  him  must  resign  their  office;  the  papal 
tives  to  return  to  Rome.  As  they  refused  to  obey  legates,  Landulf  and  Romanus,  were  to  consult  with 
this  injunction,  they  were  condemned  by  a  second  Stylian  and  Theophylactus  of  Ancyra  on  the  matter, 
synod  on  30  June.  Against  Formosus,  should  he  fail  In  this  instance,  Formosus  only  corroborated  the  de- 
to  return,  sehtence  of  excommunication  and  deposi-  cisions  of  his  predecessors,  Nicholas  I  and  Hadrian  II. 
tion  were  pronoimced  by  the  first  ^^od,  the  charges  ,  A  matter  ofa  pressing  character,  affectins  the  Church 
being  that,  impelled  by  ambition,  he  had  aspired  to  in  Germanv.  next  called  for  the  papal  decision.  A 
the  Archbishopric  of  Bulgaria  and  the  Chair  of  Peter,  quarrel  had  broken  out  between  Archbishop  Hermann 
had  opposed  the  emperor  and  had  deserted  his  diocese  of  Cologne  and  Archbishop  Adalgar  of  Hamburg  con- 
without  papal  permission.  It  follows  from  this  that  oeniing  the  Bishopric  of  Bremen,  which  Hermann 
John  saw  in  Formosus  a  rival  whom  he  gravely  sua-  daimea  as  suffragan.  Formosus  decided,  in  accord- 
pected.  The  second  S3mod  of  30  June,  after  several  ance  with  the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of  Frankfort  (892), 
new  accusations  had  been  brought  a^Eunst  Formo-  that  Bremen  e^ould  remain  under  the  Archbishop  of 
BUS  (e.  g.  that  he  had  despoiled  the  cloisters  in  Rome,  Hamburg  until  new  dioceses  were  erected;  Adalgar 
had  penormed  the  divine  service  in  spite  of  the  inter-  was  to  repair  to  the  provincial  aynod  of  the  Archbishop 
diet,  had  conspired  with  certain  iniquitous  men  and  of  Cologne.  Formosus  viewecf  with  sorrow  the  polit- 
women  for  the  destruction  of  the  papal  see),  excluded  ical  troubles  that  disturbed  the  old  Prankish  king- 
him  from  the  ranks  of  the  cler^.  Such  charges,  dom  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  In  the  contest  be- 
made  against  a  man  who  was  religious,  moral,  ascetic,  tween  Udes  (Odo)  of  Paris  and  Charles  the  Simple  for 
and  intellectual  can  only  be  refeired  to  party  spirit.  the  French  crown,  the  pope,  influenced  by  the  Arch- 
The  condemnation  of  Formosus  and  tne  others  was  bishop  of  Reims,  sided  with  Charles  and  called  on 
announced  to  the  emperor  and  the  Synod  of  Ponthion  Arnold,  the  German  kine,  to  support  him.  The  polit- 
inJuly.  In  878  John  himself  came  to  France,  and  the  ical  position  in  Ital^  directly  affected  the  pope  as 
deposition  of  Formosus,  who  appeared  in  person,  was  head  of  the  ecclesiastical  estates,  and  consequently  his 
confirmed  at  the  S3mod  of  Troyes.  Accoraing  to  the  independence  as  head  of  the  Church.  Emperor  Guido 
acts  of  the  svnod,  which  are  however  of  doubtful  au-  of  Spoleto,  the  oppressor  of  the  Holv  See  and  the  papal 
thenticity,  the  sentence  of  excommunication  against  temtories,  was  too  near  Rome ;  and  the  position  of  the 
Formoeus  was  withdrawn,  after  he  had  promi^  on  papacy  seemed  venr  similar  to  its  condition  in  the 
oath  never  to  return  to  Rome  or  exercise  his  priestly  time  of  the  Lombard  kin^om,  when  Stephen  II  sum- 
functions.  The  succeeding  years  were  spent  Dv  For-  moned  Pepin  to  his  assistance.  Formoeus  secretly 
mosus  at  Sens.  John's  successor  Marinus  (882-884)  persuaded  Amulf  to  advance  to  Rome  and  liberate 
released  Formosus  from  his  oath,  recalled  him  to  Italy;  and,  in  894,  Amulf  made  his  first  expedition, 
Rome,  and  in  883  restored  him  to  his  Diocese  of  Porto,  subjujgating  all  the  country  north  of  the  Po.  Guido 
During  the  short  pontificates  of  Marinus  and  his  suo-  died  m  December  of  the  same  year,  leaving  his  son 
cessor  Hadrian  lU  (884-^885),  and  under  Stephen  V  Lambert,  whom  Formosus  had  crowned  emperor,  in 
(885^91),  we  learn  nothing  important  concerning  the  care  of  his  mother  Agiltrude,  the  implacable  op- 
Formosus.  In  September,  891,  he  was  elected  to  sue-  ponent  of  the  Carlo vingians.  In  the  autumn  of  895 
ceed  Stephen.  Under  Stephen  V  the  political  horizon  Amulf  undertook  his  second  Italian  cansaign,  and  in 
had  become  very  threatening.  Charles  the  Fat  had  Febmary,  896,  stood  before  the  walls  of  Rome.  Agil- 
reunited  the  Prankish  kingdom  in  885,  but  after  his  trude  had  fortified  herself  in  the  city,  but  Amulf  suo- 
deposition  and  death  in  887,  Amulf  of  Carinl^ia,  the  oeeded  m  entering  and  was  solemnly  crowned  by  the 
natural  son  of  Karlmann  and  the  nominee  of  the  Ger-  pope.  The  new  emperor  thence^  marched  against 
mans,  was  unable  to  preserve  its  unity.  In  the  west-  Spoleto  to  besiege  Lambert  and  his  mother,  but  wa^ 
em  kingdom.  Count  Eudes  of  Paris  came  forward  as  etruck  with  paralysis  on  the  way  and  was  unable  to 


FOBMULAUSS                         141  FOBMULAUSS 

continue  the  campaign.    Shortly  afterwards  (4  April,  known  as  the." style"  or  habitual  diction  of  chanceries 

896)  Formosus  died.    He  was  succeeded  by  Boniface  and  the  documents  that  issue  therefrom.    It  repre- 

VI,  who  reigned  only  fifteen  days.  sents  long  efforts  to  bring  into  the  document  all  neces- 

Under  Stephen  VI,  the  successor  of  Boniface,  Em-  sary  and  useful  elements  in  their  most  appropriate 

peror  Lambert  and  A^iltrude  recovered  their  author-  order,  and  to  use  technical  expressions  suited  to  the 

ity  in  Rome  at  the  begmning  of  897,  having  renounced  case,  some  of  them  more  or  less  essential,  others 

their  claims  to  the  greater  part  of  Upper  and  Central  merely  as  a  matter  of  tradition.    In  this  way  arose  a 

Italy.    Agiltrude  Ming  determinea  to  wreak  ven-  true  art  of  drafting  public  documents  or  private  acta, 

eeance  on  ner  opponent  even  after  his  death,  Stephen  which  became  the  monopoly  of  chanceries  and  notaries, 

VI  lent  himself  to  the  revolting  scene  of  sitting  in  which  the  mere  la^rman  could  only  imperfectly  imi- 

judgment  on  his  predecessor,  Formosus.    At  the  synod  tate,  and  which  in  time  developed  to  sucn  a  point  that 

convened  for  that  purpose,  ne  occupied  the  chair ;  the  the  mere  **  style  "  of  a  supposititious  deed  has  often  been 

corpse,  clad  in  papa!  vestments,  was  withdrawn  from  sufficient  to  enable  a  skutul  critic  to  detect  the  forgery. 

the  sarcophagus  and  seated  on  a  throne ;  close  by  The  earlier  Roman  notaries  (tabellianes)  had  their  own 

stood  a  c&acon  to  answer  in  its  name,  all  the  old  traditional  formulse,  and  the  drafting  of  their  acta  was 

charges  formulated  against  Formosus  unaer  John  VIII  subject  to  an  infinity  of  detail  (see  "  Novels"  of  Jus- 

beinc  revived.    The  decision  was  that  the  deceased  .tinian,  xliv,  Ixvi);  the  imperial  chanceries  of  Rome 

had  been  unworthy  of  the  pontificate,  which  he  could  and  Byzantium  were  more  remarkable  still  for  their 

not  have  validly  received  since  he  was  bishop  of  an-  formuIsB.    The  chanceries  of  the  barbarian  kingdoms 

other  see.    All  his  measures  and  acts  were  annulled,  and  that  of  the  papacy  followed  in  their  footsteps, 

and  all  the  orders  conferred  by  him  were  declared  in-  Nevertheless  it  is  not  directly  from  the  chanceries  that 

valid.    The  papal  vestments  were  torn  from  his  body;  the  formularies  drawn  up  m  the  Middle  Ages  have 

the  three  fingers  which  the  dead  pope  had  used  in  con-  come  down  to  us,  but  rather  from  the  monastic  and 

secrations  were  severed  from  nis  right  hand;  the  ecclesiastical  schools.   Therein  was  taught,  as  pertain- 

corpse  was  cast  into  a  grave  in  the  cemetery  for  stran-  in^  to  the  study  of  law,  the  art  of  drafting  public  and 

0srs,  to  bjB  removed  after  a  few  da3rB  and  consigned  to  pnvate  documents  (see  Du  Cange,  "Glossarium  med. 

tne  Tiber.    In  897  the  second  successor  of  Stephen  etinfimse  Latinitatis",  s.v.  "Dictare'')*    It  was  called 

had  the  body,  which  a  monk  had  drawn  from  the  dictare  as  opposed  to  scribere,  i.  e.  the  mere  material 

Tiber,  reinten^  with  full  honours  in  St.  Peter's.    He  execution  of  such  documents. 

furthermore  annulled  at  a  synod  the  decisions  of  the  To  train  the  dictatores,  as  they  were  known,  speci- 

court  of  Stephen  VI,  and  declared  all  orders  conferred  mens  of  public  and  private  acta  were  placed  before 

by  Formosus  valid.    John  IX  confirmed  these  acts  at  them,  ana  they  had  to  listen  to  commentaries  thereon, 

two  synods,  of  which  the  first  was  held  at  Rome  and  Thus  arose  the  yet  extant  formularies,  between  the 

the  other  at  Ravenna  (898).    On  the  other  hand  Ser-  fifth  and  the  nmth  centuries.    These  models  were 

§ius  III  (904-911)  approved  in  a  Roman  synod  the  sometimes  of  a  purely  academic  nature,  but  the  num- 
ecisions  of  Stephen^s  synod  against  Formosus;  all  ber  of  such  is  small;  in  almost  every  case  they  are 
who  had  received  orders  from  the  latter  were  to  be  taken  from  real  documents,  in  the  transcription  of 
treated  as  lay  persons,  unless  they  sought  reordina-  which  the  individualizing  references  were  suppressed 
tion.  Sergius  and  his  party  meted  out  severe  treat-  so  as  to  make  them  take  on  the  appearance  of  general 
ment  to  the  bishops  consecrated  by  Formosus,  who  in  formulae;  in  many  instances,  too,  nothing  was  sup- 
tum  had  meanwhile  conferred  orders  on  many  other  pressed.  The  formulflB  deal  with  public  documents: 
clerics,  a  policy  which  gave  rise  to  the  greatest  con-  royal  decrees  on  civil  matters,  ordmances,  etc.;  with 
fusion.  Against  these  decisions  many  books  were  documents  relative  to  legal  processes  and  the  ad- 
written,  'raich  demonstrated  the  validity  of  the  con-  ministration  of  justice ;  or  with  private  deeds  drawn  up 
secration  of  Formosus  and  of  the  orders  conferred  by  by  a  notary:  sales,  exchanges,  gifts  to  churches  and 
him  (see  Auxiliub).  monasteries,  transference  of  ecclesiastical  property,  the 
jAwwt,  Reoeata  Pontifieum  Ronumorum,  2nd  ed^  I  (Leipsis.  manumission  of  slaves,  the  settlement  of  matrimonial 
1886).  436-39;   DOmmijbb..  <?«to    Berenoarii_(B»ne,   1871);  riowrieR.  t.hft  Aw^mition  of  wills,  etn.     Finallv.  thfim  ai« 


Hbrlb,  Concaiengeach,  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburs.  1879),  IV,  661  sqq.j  of  legislation,  the  nse  of  institutions,  the  development 

Lakobn,  Oefchichu  der  r&miachmKirche,  III  (Bonn.  1892),  »6  ^f  manners  and  customs,  of  civil  history,  above  all  for 

sqq.;  RjBUMONT,  Oeachichte  der  Stadt  Rom,  U  (Berlm,  1867).  :?  '"•**!*r'*'»  ««*«  vuo«/viuo,  w*  %,»▼**  *aiowv*j,  c»i^  v^  <ux  *«* 

2^^q.  the  cnticism  of  charters  and  diplomas,  and  for  re- 

J.  P.  KiRSCH.  searches  in  medieval  philology.    In  those  times  the 

ecclesiastical  and  civu  orders  were  closely  related. 

Formularies  (Libri  Formttlarum),  medieval  col-  Many  civil  functions  and  some  of  the  highest  state 

lections  of  models  for  the  execution  of  documents  offices  were  held  by  ecclesiastics  and  monks.    The  are 

(acta),  public  or  private;  a  space  being  left  for  the  dictandi  was  taught  in  the  schools  connected  with  the 

insertion  of  names,  dates,  and  circumstances  peculiar  monasteries  and  those  under  ecclesiastical  control.  For 

to  each  case.    As  is  well  known,  it  is  practically  inevit-  quite  a  long  time  all  acta  were  drawn  up  only  in  Latin, 

able  that  documents  of  the  same  nature,  issued  from  and  as  the  vernacular  languages,  in  Romance  lands, 

the  same  office,  or  even  from  distinct  offices,  will  bear  gradually  fell  away  from  classical  Latin,  recourse  to 

a  close  r^emblance  to  one  another.    Those  charged  ecclesiastics  and  monks  became  a  matter  of  necessity, 

with  the  execution  and  expedition  of  such  documents  The  formularies  are,  of  course,  anything  but  models 

come  naturally  to  employ  the  same  formula  in  similar  of  good  Latinity;  with  the  exception  of  the  Letters 

cases :  moreover,  the  use  of  such  formula  permits  the  (Varise)  of  Cassiodorus,  and  the  St.  Gall  collection 

draftmg  of  important  documents  to  be  entrusted  to  "Sub  Salomone'',  they  are  written  in  careless  or  even 

minor  officials,  since  all  they  have  to  do  is  to  insert  in  barbarous  Latin,  though  it'  is  possible  that  their 

the  allotted  space  the  particular  information  previ-  wretched  ''style''  is  intentional,  so  as  to  render  them 

ously  supplied  them.   Fmally,  in  this  way  every  docu-  intelligible  to  the  multitude. 

ment  is  cmthed  with  all  possible  efficiency,  since  each  The  formularies  of  the  Middle  Ages  date  from  the 
of  its  clauses,  and  almost  every  word,  has  a  meanine  sixth  to  the  ninth  or  tenth  century,  and  we  still  possess 
clearly  and  definitely  intended.  Uncertainties  ana  many  once  used  in  one  or  other  of  the  barbarian  king- 
difficulties  of  interpretation  are  thus  avoided,  and  not  doms.  Many  were  edited  in  the  seventeenth  century 
unfrequently  lawsuits.   This  legal  formalism  is  usually  by  J6r6me  Bignon,  Baluze,  Mabillon,  and  others;  and 


rOBMXTLABISS  142  rOBMULABWI 

many  more  in  the  nineteenth  century^  especialiy  by  eidbth  century.    Zeumer  added  to  the  list  twelve 

two  savants  who  compiled  collections  of  them:  (l)  other  formulse  taken  from  various  manuscripts. — (e) 

Eugene  de'Rozidre,  ''Recueil  g^n^ral  des  formules  ''Formulffi  Bituricenses"^  a  name  given  to  nineteen 

usit^es  dans  I'empiie  des  Francs  du  cinouitoe  au  formulie  taken  from  dififerent ,  o(ulections,  but  all 

dixidme  sidde"  (3  vols..  Paris,  1859-71).    He  ^ups  drafted  at  Bourges;  they  date  from  720  to  the  dose  of 

these  early  medieval  formulae  under  five  prmcipal  the  eighth  century.    Stumer  added  to  them  twelve 

heads:  "Formulse  ad  jus  nublicum,  ad  jus  privatum,  formuUe  taken  from  the  Abbey  of  Saint-Pierre  de 

ad  iudiciorum  ordinem,  ad  jus  canonicum,  et  ad  ritus  Vierzon. — (f)  "Formidse  Senonenses",  two  distinct 

ecclesiasticos  spectantes".    And  he  follows  up  this  collections^  both  of  which  were  made  at  Sens,  and 

arrangement  by  a  verv  complete  set  of  tables  of  con-  preserved  m  the  same  ninth-century  manuscript.  The 

cordance.     (2)  Karl  Zeumer,  "Formulie  Merovingici  first,  ''Carts  Senonics",  dates  from  before  775,  and 

et  Karolini  svi"  (Hanover^  1886)  in  ''Mon.  Germ,  contains  fifty-one  formulae,  of  which  seven  are  for  royal 

Hist.:  Leg.",  V;  he  reproduces  the  formulae  in  the  documents,  two  are  letters  to  the  king,  and  fortj-two 

work  and  ^ves  a  more  complete  study  than  de  are  private  charters.    Zeumer  added  six  Merovmgian 

Rozidre.    In  his  pa^  will  be  found  a  complete  bib-  fonnulae.    The  second  collection,  "  Formulas  Senonen- 

liography  of  all  written  on  the  subject  baore  that  ses  reoentiores",  dates  from  the  reign  of  Louis  the 

time;  or  Chevalier.  "Topo-Bibl.",  may  be  consulted  Pious,  and  contains  eighteen  formulae,  of  which  seven 
under  the  word ''Formules". 


deal  with  judicial  acts.    SSeumer  added  five  metrical 

Some  brief  observations  will  here  suffice  on  the  formulae,  and  two  Merovingian  formulae  written  in 

formulae  used  between  the  sixth  and  the  ninth  oen-  Tironian  notes. — (g)  "FormmaePithoei".   Liamanu- 

turies  in  the  various  barbarian  kingdoms.  script  loaned  by  Pithou  to  Du  Cange  for  his  "  Gloe- 

(1)  The  Ottrogatha, — Cassiodorus,  secretary  and  sanum"  of  medieval  Latin  there  was  a  rich  collection 
afterwards  prime  minister  of  King  Theodoric,  included  of  at  least  one  hundred  and  eigiit  formulas,  drawn  up 
in  his  "Variarum  (epistolarum)  libri  XII",  particu-  originally  in  territory  governed  bv  Salic  law.  This 
larlv  in  books  six  and  seven,  and,  as  he  says,  for  the  manuscnpt  has  disappeared.  Under  the  above  head- 
guidance  of  his  successors,  a  neat  number  of  acta  ing  Zeumer  has  collected  the  various  quotations  made 
and  letters  drawn  up  by  him  forms  royal  master.  It  is  by  Du  Cange  from  this  formulary. — (h)  '^Formulae 
a  ^nuine  formulary,  though  standing  apart  by  itself.  Salic®  Bignonianae",  so  called  from  the  name  of  theic 

•Tms  collection  dates  from  before  538  (r.  L.,  LXIX).  first  editor,  Bigaon.     It  contains  twenty-seven  for- 

The  Servite  Canciani  took  ninetv-two  of  these  for-  mulae,  one  of  which  is  for  a  royal  decree;  they  were 

mulae  of  Cassiodorus  and  included  them  in  his  "Bar-  collected  in  a  oountiy  subject  to  Salic  law.  about  the 

barorum  leges  antiquae"  (Venice,  1781, 1.  19-56).  year  770. — (i)   "Formulae  Salicae  Merkeiiaknae'',   so 

(2)  The  Visigothe. — "Formulae  VisigotnicaB",  a  col-  called  from  the  name  of  their  editor,  Merkel  (about 
lection  of  the  forty-six  formulas  made  under  Kin^  Sise-  1850),  a  collection  of  sixty-six  formulae  taken  from  a 
but  (612-621).  The  king's  name  occurs  twice  m  the  Vatican  mamuscript;  they  were  not  brought  to  com- 
curious  formula  xx,  a  dowry  settlement  in  hexameter  pletion  until  after  817.  The  first  part  (1-30)  consists 
verse.  Roman  and  Gothic  law  are  followed  either  of  formulae  for  private  octo,  modelled  on"  Marculf"  and 
separately  or  together,  according  to  the  nationality  of  the  "Fonnulae  Turonenses";  the  second  part  (31-42) 
the  covenanters.  This  collection  was  published  in  1854  follows  the  "  Formulae  Bisnonianae ' ' ;  the  third  (43-45) 
by  de  Rozidre  from  a  Madrid  MS.,  which  was  copied  in  contains  tiiree  formulae  £awn  up  in  some  abbey;  the 
turn  from  an  Oviedo  MS.  of  tne  twelfth  century,  fourth  (46-66)  has  formulae  datmg  from  the  close  of 
now  lost.  the  eighth  century  and  probablv  compiled  in  some 

(3^  The  Franks*. — ^Their  formularies  are  numerous :  episcopal  town.   Two  fonnulae  of  decrees  of  the  bishops 

(a)  "  Formulae  Andecavenses",  a  collection  made  at  of  Pans  were  discovered  by  Zeumer  in  the  same  manu- 

Angers,  consisting  of  sixty  formulae  for  private  acta,  script. — (k)  "Formulae  Salicae  LindenbrogiaknaB",  so 

some  of  them  datmg  from  the  sixth  century,  but  the  called  from  the  name  of  their  first  editor,  Friedrich 

ereater  number  from  the  early  part  of  the  seventh;  the  lindenbrog,  a  Frankfort  lawyer  (1613)  who  edited 

last  three  of  the  collection  belong  to  the  end  of  the  them  togetner  with  other  documents.    The  collection 

seventh  century.    Tliev  were  first  edited  in  1685  by  contains  twenty-one  formulae  of  private  acta,  drawn 

Mabillon  from  an  eighth-century   manuscript  pre-  up  in  Salic  law  territory.    Four  others  were  added  b3r 

served  at  Fulda. — (b)  "Formulas  Arvemenses"  (also  Zeumer. — 0)  "Formulae  Imperiales  e  curia  Ludovici 

known  as  "  Baluzianae '  '^  from  Baluze,  their  first  editor,  Pii ' ',  also  known  as  "  Carpenterianae ' '  from  Carpentier 

who  issued  the  works  m  1713),  a  collection  of  eight  who  first  edited  them  in  his  "Alphabetum  Tironian- 

formulae  of  private  acta  made  at  Clermont  in  Auvergne  um ' '  (Paris,  1747).    This  is  an  important  collection  of 

during  the  ei^th  century.    The  first  of  them  is  dated  fifty-five  formulae,  drawn  up  after  the  fashion  of  the 

from  the  consulate  of  Honoriiis  and  Theodosius  (407-  charters  of  Louis  the  Pious  at  the  Abbey  of  St.  Martin 

422).— (c)  "Marculfi  monachi  formularum  libri  duo",  of  Tours,  between  828  and  832.    The  manuscript  is 

the  most  unportant  of  these  collections,  and  dedicatea  written  madnly  in  Tironian  notes.    This  collection  was 

by  its  author  to  a  Bishop  Lcmchi,  doubtless  identical  used  by  the  Carlovingian  chancexy  of  the  ninth  cen- 

with  the  Bishop  of  Paris  (650-656).    The  first  book  tury.    Zeumer  has  added  to  the  fist  two  formulas.— 

contains  thirty-seven  formtdae  of  royal  documents;  (m)  "CollectioFlaviniensis",  onehimdred  andaeven- 

the  second.  cart€B  pagenses,  or  private  acta,  to  the  teen  formulae  compiled  at  the  Abbey  of  Flavigny  in  the 

number  of  nfty-two.    The  work,  which  was  well  done,  ninth  century;  of  these,  ten  only  are  not  to  oe  met 

was  very  favourably  received,  and  became  popular  as  with  elsewhere. — (n)   ''Formulae  collectionis  Sancti 

an  official  textbook,  if  not  in  the  time  of  the  mayors  Dionysii",  a  collection  of  twenty-five  formulae  made  at 

of  the  palace,  at  least  under  the  eariy  Carlovingians.  the  Abbey  of  St-Denys  under  Charlema^e;  for  the 

During  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  it  received  a  few  most  part  it  is  taken  from  the  archives  of  the  abbey. — 

additions,  and  was  re-arranged  under  the  title  "  For-,  (o)  "Formulae  codicis  Laudunensis",  a  Lfton  mwiu- 

mulae   Marculfinae   aevi    Karolini".    Zeumer   edited  script  containing  seventeen  formulae,  of  which  the  first 

six  formulae  closely  related  to  this  collection. — (d)  five  were  drawn  up  at  the  Abbey  of  St-Bavon  in 

"  Formulae  Turonenses ' ',  also  known  as  "  Sirmondicae ' '  Ghent,  and  the  remainder  at  Laon.                            ^ 

(Baluze  edited  them  under  this  title  because  they  had  (4)  The  Alamanni.— The  most  important  of  their 

been  discovered  by  PSre  Sirmond  in  a  Langres  manu-  formulae  are:    (a)  " Formulae  Alsaticae  ",  under  which 

script).    This  collection,  made  at  Tours,  contains  name  we  have  two  collections,  one  made  at  the  Abbey 

forty-five  formulae,  two  oi  which  are  royal  documents,  of  Murbach  (Formulae  Morbacenaes)  at  the  end  of  the 

many  being  judicial  decisions,  and  the  remainder  pri-  eighth  century  and  preserved  in  a  manuscript  of  St. 

vate  acta,    ft  seems  to  belong  to  the  middle  of  the  Gall,  containing  twenty-eevenformulaSy  one  of  which  is 


rORBSULABm 


143 


rOBMULABZXS 


for  a  royal  decree;  the  other  embodies  three  formulse 
made  at  Strasburg  (Formula  Argentinenses)  and  pre- 
served in  a  Berne  manuscript. — (b)  ''Formulse  Augi- 
enses  ",  from  the  Abbe]^  of  Reichenau.  This  consists  of 
three  distinct  collections:  one  from  the  end  of  the 
e^hth  century  containing  twenty-three  formula  of 
private  acta;  another  belonging  to  the  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries  contains  forty-three  f ormuke  of  private  docu- 
ments/ the  third, ''  Formulffi  epistolares  Ausienses  ",  is 
a  "correct  letter-writer"  with  twenty-six  formukd. — 
(c)  "Formulffi  San^allenses"  (from  we  Abb^  of  St. 
Gall) ,  in  two  collections  of  this  name.  The  "  Formi^ 
Sangallenses  miscellanea"  consists  of  twenty-five  for- 
mulffi,  many  of  which  are  accompanied  by  directions 
for  their  use.  Thev  date  from  the  middle  of  the 
eighth  to  the  end  of  the  ninth  century.  The  impor- 
tant "Collectio  Sangallensia  Salomonis  III  tempore 
•  Gonscripta"  is  so  called  because  it  seems  to  have  been 
compiled  by  the  monk  Notker  at  St.  Gall,  under  Abbot 
Salomon  III  (890-920),  who  was  also  Bishop  of  Con- 
stance. Notker  died  in  912.  It  contains,  in  forty- 
seven  formuke,  models  of  royal  decrees,  of  private 
documents,  of  liUercB  fcrmatm  and  other  episcopal 
documents.  Zeumer  added  six  formula  taken  (rom 
the  same  manuscript. 

(5)  The  Bavarians. — ^Among  their  formuls  are:  (a) 
"Formula  Salisburgenses",  a  very  fine  collection  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty-six  models  of  documents  and 
letters,  published  in  1858,  by  Rockinger,  and  drawn  up 
at  Salsburg  in  the  early  part  of  the  ninth  century. — 
(b)  "CoUectio  Pataviensis"  (of  Passau),  containing 
seven  f <»mulse,  five  of  which  are  of  royal  decrees,  ex- 
ecuted at  Passau  under  Louis  the  German. — (c)  "  For- 
mula codids  S.  Emmerami",  fragments  ot  a  large 
collection  made  at  St.  Emmeram's,  Katisbon. 

(6)  Rome. — ^The  most  important  of  all  ancient  for- 
mularies is  certainly  the  "  Liber  diumus  romanorum 
pontificum",  a  collection  of  one  hundred  and  seven 
formularies  long  used  by  the  Apostolic  chancery.  If 
it  was  not  drawn  up  for  the  papal  chancery,  it  copies 
its  documents,  and  is.  largely  compiled  from  the 
"  Registrum"  or  letter-book  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
(690-604).  It  was  certainly  in  official  use  by  the 
Roman  chancery  from  the  ninth  to  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century.  This  collection  was  known  to  the 
medieval  canonists,  and  is  often  quoted  by  Cardinal 
Deusdedit  and  Yves  of  Chartres;  four  of  its  documents 
were  incorporated  into  the  ''Decretum"  of  Gratian. 
The  best  manuscript  of  the  "Liber  diumus",  written 
at  the  beginning  ot  the  ninth  century,  comes  from  the 
Roman  monasteiy  of  Santa  Croce  in  Gerusalemme, 
and  was  discovered  in  the  Vatican  Library.  About 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  learned 
Lucas  Holstenius  used  it  when  preparing  an  edition  of 
the  work  which  was  officially  stopped  and  suppressed 
on  the  eve  of  jts  appearance,  because  it  contamed  an 
ancient  profession  of  faith  in  which  the  popes  anathe- 

^matized  their  predecessor  Honorius.  In  1680  the 
Jesuit  Gamier,  using  another  manuscript  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Clermont  (Paris),  brought  out  an  edition  of  the 
"Lyher  diumus"  not  approved  by  Rome  (P.  L.,  CV). 
In  the  nineteenth  century  the  Vatican  manuscript  was 
utilized  for  two  editions,  one  by  de  Rozidre  (Paris, 
1869),  the  other  by  von  Sickel  (Vienna,  1889).  In 
1891  the  Abbate  Ceriani  discovered  at  the  Ambrosiana 
(Milan)  a  third  manuscript  as  yet  unused.  For  a  full 
bibliography  of  recent  researches  concerning  the 
"Liber  diumus"  see  the  "Topo-Bibl."  of  ChevaUer, 
8.  V.  While,  in  its  complete  form,  the  "  Liber  diumus  " 
cannot  date  back  further  than  786,  the  earliest  forms 
of  it  go  back  to  the  end  of  the  seventh  century.  Von 
Sickel  holds  that  its  opening  f  ormul»  (1-63)  are  even 
fifty  years  earlier  than  that  date.  It  is  badly  arranged 
as  a  collection,  but  wonderfully  complete.  After  a 
series  of  addresses  and  conclusions  for  papal  letters, 
that  vary  according  to  the  addressees,  there  are  f  ormulse 
eonoeming  the  installation  of  bishops,  the  consecra- 


tion of  churches,  the  administration  of  church  prop* 
erty^  the  grant  of  the  pallium,  and  various  other 
privileges.  Then  follow  models  for  the  official  corres- 
pondence on  the  occasion  of  a  vacancy  of  the  Holy  See 
and  the  election  of  a  pope,  also  directions  for  the  conr 
secration  and  the  protession  of  faith  of  the  pope-elect ; 
finally  a  ^up  of  f ormuke  affecting  various  matters  of 
ecclesiastical  administration. 

In  the  tenth  century  these  formularies  cease  to  be  in 
universal  use;  in  the  eleventh,  recourse  is  had  to  them 
still  more  rarely;  other  methods  of.  training  noturies 
are  introduced.  Copies  of  letters  are  no  lon^r  placed 
before  them.  In  their  stead,  special  treatises  of  in- 
struction are  prepared  for  these  officials,  and  manuals 
of  epistolary  rhetoric  appear,  with  examples  scattered 
here  and  there  througnout  the  text,  or  collected  in 
separate  books.  Such  treatises  on  composition,  artea 
dictaminiSf  have  hitherto  been  only  partially  studied 
and  classified,  chiefly  by  Rockinger  in  ''Briefsteller 
und  FormelbQdier  des  Al.  bis  AlV.  Jahrhunderts" 
(Munich,  1863).  The  most  ancient  of  these  manuals 
known  to  us  la  the  "Breviarium*  de  dictamine"  of 
Alberio  of  Monte  Cassino.  about  1075;  in  the  twelfth 
century  treatises  of  this  xind  become  more  frequent, 
first  in  Italy,  then  in  France,  especially  aloxig  the 
banks  of  the  Loire 'at  Orleans  and  at  Tours.  Side  by 
side  with  these  works  of  epistolary  rhetoric  we  meet 
special  treatises  for  the  use  of  clerks  in  different  chan- 
ceries, and  formularies  to  guide  notaries  public.  ^  Such 
are  the  "Formularium  tabellionum"  of  Imerius  of 
Bologna  in  the  twelfth  centuiy,  and  the  "  Summa  artis 
notanse"  of  Ranieri  of  Perugia  in  the  thirteenth;  that 
of  Sakthiel  of  Boloma  printed  at  Strasburg.  in  1516, 
and  the  very  popmar  one  of  Rolandino  tnat  went 
through  many  editions,  beginning  with  the  Turin 
edition  of  1479. 

As  to  the  papaJ  chancery,  in  general  very  faithful  to 
its  customs  and  its  ''style",  after  the  reform  of  Inno- 
cent III  many  formularies  and  practical  treatises 
appeared,  none  of  them  possessing  an  official  value. 
Tne  writings  of  Dietrich  of  Nieheim  (an  employ^  of  the 
chancery  in  1380),  "De  Stilo"  and  ''Liber  Canod- 
larisB",  nave  been  the  subject  of  critical  studies  (see 
DiBTBiCH  VON  Nieheim).  At  a  more  recent  date  we 
meet  many  treatises  on  the  Roman  chancery  and  on 
pontifical  letters,  but  they  are  not  formularies,  though 
their  text  often  contains  many  models. 

Quite  recently,  however^  there  has  appeared  an 
official  publication  of  certam  formul»  of  the  .Roman 
Chiria,  1.  e.  the  collection  of  formulse  for  matrimonial 
dispensations  granted  by  the  Dataria  Apoetolica  (see 
RoBiAN  CoNGaEGATioNB),  published  in  1901  as  "  For- 
mula Apostolicse  Datariie  pro  matrimonialibus  dish 
pensationibus,  jussu  Emi.  Card.  Pro  Datarii  Cajetani 
Aloisi-MaseUa  reformats". 

Lastly,  in  a  different  order  of  ideas,  it  may  be  well  to 
mention  a  collection  of  f ormule  for  use  in  episcopal 
courts,  the  "Formularium  legale-practicum"  of  Fran- 
cesco Monacelli  (Venice.  1737),  re-edited  by  the  Cam- 
era Apostolica  (3  vols.  lol.,  Rome,  1834). 

From  the  twelfth  century  onward  the  formularies  of 
the  papal  Curia  become  more  numerous  but  less  in- 
teresting, since  it  is  no  longer  necessary  to  have  re- 
course to  them  to  supplement  the  documents. 

The  formularies  of  the  Cancellaria  Apostolica  are 
collections  drawn  up  by  its  clerks,  iJmost  exclusively 
for  their  own  guidance;  they  interest  us  only  through 
their  relation  to  the  "Rules  of  the  Chancery"  (see 
Roman  Cctria).  The  formularies  of  the  Poeniten- 
tiaria  have  a  higher  interest  for  us ;  they  appear  during 
the  twelfth  century  when  that  department  of  Roman 
administration  was  not  restricted,  as  it  now  is,  to 
questions  of  conscience  and  the  forum  internum,  but 
served  as  a  sort  of  clearing-house  for  lesser  favours 
granted  by  the  Holy  See,  especially  for  dispensations. 
These  interesting  documents,  including  the  formu- 
laries, have  been  collected  and  edited  by  GOller  in  "Die 


FOBNOVO 


144 


F0B8TBB 


pApsUiohe  Poenitentiarie  bis  Eugen  IV. ''  (Rome, 

F^viously,  Lea  had  published  **  A  Formulary  of  the 
Pflipal  Penitentiaiy  in  the  Thirteenth  Century  "  (Philip 
deiphia,  1892),  probably  the  work  of  Cardinal  Tlioma- 
sius  of  Cfl^ua  (d.  1243).  We  must  mention  the 
''Summa  de  absolutionibus  et  dispensationibus"  of 
Nicholas  IV;  of  particular  value  also  is  the  formulary 
of  Benedict  XII  (1336  at  the  latest),  made  by  order  of 
that  pope  and  long  in  use.  It  contains  five  hundred 
and  seventy  letters  of  which  more  than  two  hundred 
are  taken  from  the  collection  of  Thomasius.  Atten* 
tion  is  also  directed  to  the  list  of  "  faculties"  conferred, 
in  1357,  on  Cardinal  Albomoz,  first  edited  by  Leca- 
cheux  in  "M^lanaes  d'Arch^ologie  et  d'Histoire  des 
^coles  frauQaises  de  Rome  et  d  Athdnes"^  in  1898; 
and  to  later  texts  in  Gdller.  It  will  suffice  if  we  make 
a  bilre  mention  of  the  taxa  or  ''taxes"  in  use  at 
the  Poenitentiaria,  to  which  were  occasionally  joined 
those  imposed  by  the  Cancellaria;  in  the  opinion  of  the 
writer,  they  are  not  in  any  way  related  to  the  f  ormu- 
lanes. 

Beridee  the  works  mentioned  above  see  Gxbt,  Manud  de 
dipUmuUiQU0  (Pftrie,  1894),  Bk.  IV,  ch.  ij  Farmvlairet  «C 
manueU;  Bk.  V,  Lea  Chaneetleriet;  from  thie  work  we  have 
lanraly  drawn;  Kobbb  in  Kir^erUex.,  8.  w.  Farmdbllckert 
and  Liber  diumua, 

A.  BOUDINHON. 

VoTnoTO.    See  Sabina,  Diocesb  of. 

Forrest,  Whxiam,  priest  and  poet;  dates  of  birth 
and  death  imcertain.  Few  personal  details  are  known 
of  him.  He  is  thought  to  nave  been  related  to  John 
Forest,  the  Franciscan  martyr,  and  was  connected 
with  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  thoush  in  what  capacity 
is  not  clear ;  probably  he  was  a  stuaent  there.  It  is  cer- ' 
tain  that  he  was  present  when  the  university,  in  1530, 
discussed  the  question  of  Henry  VIII's  divorce;  he 
also  gives  a  long  accoimt  in  his  poem  on  Catherine  of 
Aragon  of  the  rebuilding  of  the  college  when  it  was 
remodelled,  and  we  find  him  in  reoeii)t  of  a  pension 
from  it  in  1555.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Maiy  he 
was  made  a  royal  chaplain,  but  nothing  is  known  of 
what  became  of  him  sdfter  her  death.  An  interesting 
entry  occurs  in  the  State  papers  (domestic)  of  Eliza- 
beth, under  the  date  23  Dec.,  1592,  to  the  effect  that 
ft  certain  Robert  Faux  bein^  examined,  confessed  that 
**  3  or  4  years  since  he  had  given  a  gray  nag  with  a  sad- 
dle and  bridle  to  Forrest,  a  priest,  at  an  ale  house  in 
Stoke,  Northampton".  This  may  have  been  William. 
Forrest,  and  points  perhaps  to  his  being  a  fugitive  at 
the  time.  He  was  a  skilful  musician  and  collected  the 
manuscripts  of  some  of  the  best  contemporary  Eng- 
lish composers.  This  collection  is  now  preserved  m 
Oxford.  The  greater  part  of  his  poems  are  still  in  MS. 
None  of  them  are  of  great  poetical  merit,  but  some  are 
extremely  interesting  from  the  light  they  throw  upon 
certain  political,  religious,  and  social  events  of  his 
time.  Inere  are  some  enlightened  suggestions  in  his 
work  concerning  points  of  social  reform.  Warton,  in 
his  "  History  of  Kngliah  Poetiy ' ',  remarks  that  Forrest 
seems  to  have  been  able  to  '' accommodate  his  faith 
to  the  reigning  powers",  and  the  statement  rests  upon 
the  fact  that  he  dedicated  two  of  his  works  to  the  pro- 
tector Somerset.  Otherwise  he  seems  to  have  been  a 
loyal  Catholic.  Forrest's  works  are : "  History  of  Joseph 
the  Chaste"  (in  MS.,  Oxford  and  British  Muse- 
um); "The  Pleasant  Poesie  of  Princely  Practice"  (in 
MS.,  British  Museum) — ^a  long  extract  from  this  poem 
is  given  in  "Starkey's  Life  and  Letters"  (see  below); 
A  metrical  version  of  certain  Psalms  and  Canticles  (in 
MS.);  ''A  New  Ballad  of  the  Marigold",  in  praise  of 
Queen  Mary,  printed  in  thc'^Haneian  Miscellany", 
vol.  X;  "Tne  History  of  Grisild  the  Second",  a  long 
poem  upon  Catherine  of  Aragon  and  her  divorce, 
published  entire  by  the  Roxburehe  Club  (London, 
1875),  with  memoir  by  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Macray ;  '*The 
life  ot  the  Virgin  Maiy",  and  other  poems  (Harieian 
MS.,  1703). 


'  OoopBB  in  Did.  Nat,  Biog..  i.  ^4  SUarhufe  Liie  and  LeUert 
^larly  Bn^.  Text  Soc.«  London,  1878);  Wartow,  Hiet,  Ena. 
roetry,  ed.  Hasutt  (London,  1871),  IV;  Wood,  Athena  Oxon,, 
ed.  Buss  (London,  1812),  I;  Qillow,  Bibl.  DicL  Bng.  Cath., 

••  ▼•  KM.  Wabiubn. 

VOrster,  Arnold,  Goman  entomologist;  b.  at 
Aachen,  20  Jan.,*  1810;  d.  in  the  same  city,  12  Aug.. 
1884.  His  father  died  while  he  was  quite  ^oung,  ana 
it  was  only  by  strict  economy  and  by  tutoring  that  he 
was  able  to  complete  his  gymnasium  course,  which  he 
hegui  in  1824.  He  was  an  apt  student,  and  showed  a 
decided  preference  for  natural  history.  The  entomol- 
ogist Meigen,  who  resided  in  the  neighbourhood,  foe- 
tered  and  directed  this  preference  and  his  iidiuence 
may  be  traced  throughout  Fdrster's  subsequent  work 
in  entomology.  FOrster  began  the  study  of  medicine 
at  Bonn  in  1832,  but  soon  abandoned  it  to  devote  him- 
self entirely  to  natural  science.  He  made  rapid  pro- ' 
ffress,  and,  while  still  a  student,  became  assistant  to 
Qoldf uss  and  tutor  in  his  family.  In  1836  he  was  ap- 
pointed instructor  in  the  high  school — known  to-dav 
as  the  Realgymnasium — of  his  native  city,  with 
which  he  was  connected  imtil  his  death. 

FOrster  was  a  conscientious  teacher,  and  endeavoured 
to  awaken  in  his  pupils  a  love  of  and  interest  in  the  won- 
ders of  nature.  Eiis  wealth  of  knowledge  and  his  im- 
tiring  spirit  of  research  would,  however,  have  found  a 
wider  and  more  suitable  field  in  the  university  than  in 
the  gjrmnasium.  Most  of  his  leism^  was  devoted  to 
his  studies  in  entomology,  though  botanv  also  claimed 
paft  of  his  attention.  He  was  regardea  in  particular 
as  an  authority  in  the  ''microhymenoptera".  He 
was  an  indefatigable  collector  and  a  keen  observer, 
but  was  inclinea  to  magnif]^  minute  differences,  ana 
so  multiply  species  and  divisions.  FOrster  belon^^ 
to  a  number  of  societies  of  natural  history,  and  earned 
on  an  extensive  correspondence  with  entomologists 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  In  1853  he  received  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  honoris  causa  at  Bonn, 
and  in  1855  the  title  of  professor  from  the  Minister  ot 
Instruction.  He  was  aostemious  in  his  habits,  and  a 
devout  and  practical  Catholic,  conspicuous  for  his 
charity  towards  the  poor.  Among  his  papers  on  en- 
tomol<^  are  "Beitrftge  zur  Monographie  der  Ptero- 
malinen'';  "Einige  neuen  Arten  aus  derFamilie  der 
Blattwespen";  ^  Hymenopterologische  Studien"; 
"  Monographie  der  Gattungen  Campoplex  u.  Hylaeus"; 
''  Flora  Excursoria  des  Regierungsbezirks  Aachen  ". 

Wagsbbsatv,  VeHumdl.  d.  Nalurhietorieehen  Vereine  d.  preue^ 
aieehen  BkekUandef  Weetf alette  und  d,  Reoierungabenrke  Oena^ 
brUde  (Bonn,  1886),  Correepondeneblatt,  p.  38. 

Henrt  M.  Brock. 

Fonter,  Frobbniub,  Prince- Abbot  of  St.  Emmeram 
at  Ratisbon,  b.  30  Aug.,  1709,  at  KOnigsfeld  in  Upper 
Bavaria;  d.  11  Oct..  1791,  at  Ratisbon.  After  studying 
the  humanities  ana  philosophy  at  Freising  and  Ingof 
stadt,  he  entered  tne  Benedictine  monastery  of  St. 
Emmeram  at  Ratisbon  where  he  took  vows  on  8  Dec., 
1728.  He  made  his  theoloRical  studies  partly  at  his 
monastei]y  and  partly  at  Rott,  where  tne  Bavarian 
Benedictines  had  their  common  study  house.  Shortly 
after  his  elevation  to  the  priesthood,  in  1 733,  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  and  theoloey  at  St.  Emmeram 
and  for  some  time  held  the  office  ofmaster  of  novices. 
In  1745  he  was  sent  to  the  Benedictine  imiversity  at 
Salzburg  to  teach  philosophy  and  physics.  Two  years 
later  he  returned  to  his  monaste^  where  he  taught 
philosophy  and  Holy  Scripture  until  he  became  libra- 
rian and  prior  in  1750.  He  had  gained  an  enviable 
reputation  as  a  philosopher  and  scientist,  and  was  one 
of  the  first  religious  who  endeavoured  to  reconcile 
Scholastic  philosophy  with  the  Cartesian  and  the 
Leibniz- Wolffian  school.  Though  leaning  towards  the 
Leibniz- Wolffian  philosophy,  he  rejected  many  of  its 
teachings,  puch  as  the  cosmoloeical  optimism  of  Leib- 
niz and  the  mechanism  of  Wolff,  and  was  rather  an 
eclectic  than  a  slavish  follower  of  any  one  system.  In 


rOBSYIB 


145 


FOBTALBSEA 


1750  Forster  waa  chosen  one  of  the  first  members  of 
the  newly  founded  Bavarian  academy  of  sciences.  A 
year  later  he  laid  down  the  office  of  pripr  and  was 
appointed  provost  at  Hohengebraohing,  a  dependency 
ot  St.  Emmeram,  situated  about  five  miles  souUi  of 
Ratisbon.  On  24  July'  1762,  he  was  elected  as  suc- 
cessor to  the  deceased  Prince- Abbot  Johann  Baptist 
Kraus  of  St.  Emmeram. 

Forster's  election  was  the  inauguration  of  the  golden 
era  of  St.  Emmeram.  The  learned  new  prince-abbot 
endeavoured  to  impart  his  own  love  for  learning  to 
each  of  his  subjects  and  offered  them  every  facility  to 
advance  in  knowledge.  During  his  reign  the  course 
siven  in  the  natural  sciences  at  St.  Emmeram  became 
famous  throu^out  Germany  and  drew  scholars  not 
only  from  the  Benedictine  monasteries  of  Bavaria,  but 
also  from  the  houses  of  other  religious  orders.  In  order 
to  promote  the  study  of  Holy  Scripture,  Forster  called 
the  learned  Maurist  philologist,  Charles  Lancelot  of 
St-Germain-des-Pr^,  who  instructed  the  monks  of  St. 
Enmieram  in  Oriental  languages  from  1  Oct.,  1771,  to 
27  May,  1776.  To  encoura^^  his  young  monks  still 
more  in  their  respective  studies,  he  founded  a  physical, 
a  mineraloeical,  and  a  numismatic  cabinet  and  pro- 
cured the  oest  available  literature  in  the  vanous 
branches.  Forster's  chief  literary  production  is  his 
carefully  prepared  edition  of  the  works  of  Alcuin 
which  appeared  in  two  folio  volmnes  (4  parts)  at 
Ratisbon  in  1777.  It  is  reprinted  in  the  Latin  Pa- 
trology  of  Migne  (vols.  C  and  CI).  He  also  wrote  in 
Latin  five  short  philosophical  treatises  and  a  disserta- 
tion on  the  Vul^te.  From  a  codex  preserved  in  the 
library  of  the  cathedral  chapter  at  Freising  he  edited 
the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of  Aschheim  and  made  a 
German  translation  of  it  for  '' Abhandlungen  der 
Bavr.  Akad.  der  Wissenschaf  ten ' '  (1,39^60) ;  and  from  a 
cooex  in  the  library  of  St.  Emmeram  he  published  in 
Mansi's  "CoUectio  Ampl.  Gonciliorum"  (XIII,  1025- 
28),  the  d^rees  of  a  Bavarian  synod  held  during  the 
times  of  the  Agilolfiings. 

Ekdkss,  FrobeniuM  ForHer  in  Strauburffer  thsol.  StudUn 
(Fraiburs  im  Br.,  1900).  IV,  faso.  1;  Lxndnsb,  Die  SchrifisleUer 
dea  Ben^^iktiner-Orderu  in  Bayem  (Rat'iBbon,  1880).  I.  6<M)2; 
ScHNKDKB  in  Hi9t,-PolU.  Blatter  (Munich.  1901),  ckXVU. 

902-913.  Michael  Ott. 

Forster,  Thomas  Ignattub  liARiA,  astronomer 
and  naturalist,  b.  at  London,  9  Nov.,  1789;  d.  at 
Brussels,  2  Feo.,  1860.  His  literary  education  was 
n^ected,  as  his  father,  a  distinguished  botanist,  was 
a  follower  of  Rousseau.  He  made  up  this  deficiency, 
and  during  his  lifetime  became  master  of  a  number  of 
modem  languages.  His  early  studies  were,  however, 
desultory,  and  he  seems  to  have  put  off  the  choice  of  a 
profession  imtil  some  years  after  attaining  to  man's 
estate.  As  early  as  1805  he  had  compiled  a  ''Journal 
of  the  Weather''  and  had  published  hjs  "Liber  Rerum 
Naturalium ' '.  A  year  later,  inspired  by  Gall's  works, 
he  took  up  the  study  of  phrenology.  The  comet  of 
181 1  aroused  his  interest  in  astronomy,  a  science  which 
he  continued  to  piuisue,  and  eight  years  later,  on  3 
July,  1819,  he  himself  discovered  a  new  comet.  He 
finally  matriculated  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  order  to  study  law,  but  soon  abandoned  it 
for  miedicine,  taking  his  a^;ree  in  1819.  Two  yean  be- 
fore, he  had  marrira  the  daughter  of  Colonel  Beaufoy 
and  taken  up  his  residence  at  Spa  Lodge,  Tunbridge 
WeUs.  After  the  birth  of  his  only  daughter  he  moved 
to  Hartwell  in  Sussex,  and  then  went  abroad,  where  he 
spent  three  years.  His  observations  and  studies  on  the 
Continent  led  to  the  publication,  in  1824,  of  his  "Per- 
ennial Calendar".  It  was  also  during  this  period  that 
he  was  attracted  by  the  claims  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
to  which  he  became  a  convert.  ATter  his  return  to 
England  he  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  and  helped  to  found  a  meteorological  society, 
which,  however,  had  but  a  brief  existence. 

His  father  died  in  1825,  and  he  soon  after  took  up 
VI.— 10 


his  residence  in  Chelmsford  in  order  to  be  near  his 
daughter,  who  was  a  pupil  at  Newhall  Convent.  Here 
he  imdertook  a  series  of  researches  on  the  influence  of 
atmospheric  conditions  on  diseases,  and  particularly 
on  cholera.  In  1830  he  collected  and  published  the 
letters  of  Locke,  Shaftesbury,  and  Algernon  Sydney. 
In  1833  he  again  went  abroad,  where  he  spent  most  of 
his  remaining  years,  settling  finally  in  Bruges.  He 
continued  his  hterary  activity  during  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  some  of  his  writings  being  poetical.  He  also 
composed  selections  for  the  violin.  Forster  was  re- 
marJcable  for  his  versatility  and  industry.  He  num- 
berod  among  his  friends  many  of  the  prominent 
authors  and  scholars  of  his  time,  such  as  Gray,  Person, 
Shelley,  Peacock,  Herschel,  and  WhewelL  Besides 
the  works  mentioned,  he  also  wrote,  ''Researches 
about  Atmospheric  Phenomena"  (London,  1812;  2nd 
ed.,  1823) ;  **  Reflections  on  the  Destructive  Operation 
of  Spirituous  Liquors"  (London,  1812);  '' Pocket 
Ehicyclopedia  of  Natural  Phenomena"  (from  his 
father's  MSS.,  1826);  "Beobachtungen  aber  den  Eiur 
fluss  des  Luftdruckes  auf  das  GehOr"  (Frankfort. 
1835);  ''Observations  sur  I'influence  des  Com^tes" 
(1836);  "Pan,  a  Pastoral"  (Brussels,  1840);  "Essay 
on  Abnormal  Affections  of  the  Oigans  of  Sense"  (Tun- 
bridge Wells,  1841);  "Annales  (run  Ph3rsicien  Voya- 
geur"  (Bruges,  1848);  and  numerous  articles  in  "The 
Gentleman's  Biagasine". 

FoBarSB,  Reeueil  de  ma  Vie  (Frankfori-on-the-Main,  183j»); 
Bpiatoiarium  Fanierianum  (Bruges.  1845-50):  BouiiOBB  in 
DicL  Nat,  Biog,,  a.  v.;  Gillow,  BibL  Did.  Bng.  Cath.,  s.  v. 

Henrt  M.  Brock. 

Fortaleia,  Diocbsb  of  (Fortalbxxbnsis),  is  co- 
extensive with  the  State  of  Ceard  in  the  Republic  of 
BrazO,  having  an  area  of  46,912  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  850,000  souls,  of  whom  fewer  than  1000 
are  non-Gatholics.  Fortaleza,  or  Ceard,  the  episcopal 
city,  has  a  population  of  60,000.  Formerly  a  part  of 
the  Diocese  oi  Pemambuco,  this  district  was  erected 
into  a  separate  diocese,  suffrs^an  to  Bahia,  by  Pius 
IX,  8  June,  1854.  Jofto  Guenno  Gomes  was  named 
as  first  bishop  but  did  not  accept  the  appointment. 
Father  Gomes,  who  was  famous  in  his  day  both  as 
an  orator  and  as  a  philosopher,  died  in  1859;  a  bio- 
graphical notice  of  him  was  presented  to  the  His- 
toncal  Institute  of  Bahia  by  his  cousin,  Jos^  Antonio 
Teixeira.  The  first  bishop,  Luis  Antonio  dos  Santos, 
founded  th^  diocesan  seminaries  at  Fortalesa  and 
Cratcx  and,  for  the  education  of  ^rls,  the  College  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception,  besides  building  the 
church  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Fortalesa. 

Dom  Luis  Antonio  dos  Santos  having  been  elevated 
to  the  metropolitan  See  of  Bahia,  Joaquim  Jos^  Vieira 
— b.  1836,  consecrated  at  Campinas  in  the  State  of  S. 
Paulo,  9  December,  1883 — ^took  possession  of  the  See 
of  Fortalesa  on  24  February,  1884.  His  incumbency 
has  been  fruitful  in  the  increase  of  means  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  poor,  the  college  of  Canind6  and  the 
JesuEhMary-Joseph  School  at  Fortaleza  owing  their 
existence  to  his  pastoral  seal.  In  1908  this  diocese 
contained  77  parishes  with  120  priests.  The  diocesan 
seminary  is  conducted  by  the  Lasarist  Fathers;  there 
is  a  Benedictine  abbey,  with  a  college,  at  Quixadd ;  the 
Italian  Capuchins  have  charge  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
church  at  Fortaleza  and  the  church  of  St.  Francis  of 
the  Wounds  at  Canind6,  to  which  latter  is  attached  a 
college  for  poor  boys.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  have 
under  their  care  the  Misericordia  Hospital  at  Fortsr 
lesa,  the  College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  the 
JesuEhMary-Joseph  School,  and  the  lunatic  asylum  at 
Parangaba.  The  principal  lay  association  in  the  dio- 
cese is  the  Societv  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  consisting  of 
a  superior  council,  32  particular  councils,  and  156  con- 
ferences, and  maintams  10  primary  schools  and  9 
libraries,  besides  publishing,  as  its  official  organ,  the 
^Revista  do  Conselbo  Central". 

GuiLHBBifa  Stodabt. 


FOBTALITIUM  146 

• 

FortaUtiiim  FidoL    See  Spina,  Aijonbo  di.  Fort  Augustus  Abbey,  the  powers  ordinariljr  eocereiBed 

by  the  president  of  a  oongregation.    This  arranjge- 

Fort  Augustas  Abbey. — St.  Benedict's  Abbey,  at  ment  has  not  only  provided  for  regular  canonical 
Fort  Augustus,  InvemeBs-shire,  is  at  present  the  onhr  visitations  at  definite  intervals,  but  has  facilitated 
monastery  for  Benedictine  monks  in  Sootiand.  It  intercourse  with  the  Holy  See,  under  whose  inmiediate 
owed  its  inception  to  the  desire  of  John,  third  liar-  jurisdiction  the  abbey  still  remains, 
quess  of  Bute,  for  the  restoration  of  monasticism  in  a  From  its  foundation  the  monastery  made  it  a  promi- 
country  which,  before  the  Reformation,  possessed  so  nent  duty,  in  accordance  with  the  tenor  of  its  consti- 
many  glorious  abbeys  and  priories,  ana  m  later  days  tutions,  to  fulfil  St.  Benedict's  precept  regarding  the 
owned  many  others  on  the  Continent.  The  marquess  celebration  with  befitting  solemnity  of  the  liturei- 
brought  the  matter  before  the  superiors  of  the  Anglo-  cal  worship  of  the  GhunSL  Mass,  Vespers,  and  tne 
Benedictine  Gongre^tion  in  1874.  promising  substan-  Divine  Office  are  daily  celebrated  with  the  music 
tial  pecuniary  help  m  the  establishment  of  a  house  in  and  ritual  demanded  by  the  varying  importance  of 
Scotland,  with  the  understanding  that  when  two  oUier  season  or  festival.  Since  1893  the  Smeemes  version  of 
monasteries  should  have  been  f  oimded  they  should  ail  the  Gr^orian  melodies,  since  recognised  as  the  au- 
form  a  separate  Scottish  congregation.  The  suggestion  thoritative  edition  of  the  chant,  has  been  exclusively 
was  approved  of,and  the  Anglo-Benedictine  authorities  used  in  all  litur^cal  services.  The  time  that  is  not 
resolved  to  incorporate  witn  the  Scottish  monastery  occupied  b]^  choir  duties  and  other  community  exer- 
the  more  ancient  foundation  of  Sts.  Adrian  and  Denis,  cises  is  clsomed  by  a  variety  of  occupations.  The 
formerly  existing  at  Lambspring,  in  Hanover,  which  management  of  a  large  farm  and  of  an  adjoining 
was  peopled  by  English  monks  from  ld45  to  1803,  and  estate,  annually  let  to  tenants  for  shootine  purposes; 
when  suppressed  hjr  a  hostile  government  was  after-  the  generation  of  electric  light  for  the  use  of  ue  abbey 
wards  resuscitated  in  England;  inadequacy  of  funds  and  of  many  of  the  residents  of  the  village;  the  work- 
had  prevented  any  lasting  restoration  of  this  house,  ing  of  a  small  printing  press;  the  spiritual  charge  of  a 
but  with  the  help  promised  by  Lord  Bute,  it  seemed  tract  of  count^  forty  square  miles  in  extent,  containing 
possible  to  revive  it  in  Scotland.  Dom  Jerome  many  habitations  of  Gatholics  scattered  over  the  hills; 
Vaughan,  a  brother  of  Cardinal  Vaushan,  was  ap-  the  preaching  of  missions,  and  the  giving  of  retreats 
pointed  to  superintend  the  work,  ana  succeeded  m  both  within  and  without  the  abbev;  the  rendering  of 
collecting  from  rich  and  poor  in  En^nd,  Scotland,  assistance  to  the  diocesan  clergy  when  required;  Bibli- 
and  Ireland,  sufficient  means  for  the  erection  of  a  fine  cal,  theological,  musical^  artistic,  and  scientific 
monastery  at  a  cost  of  some  £70,000.  A  site  was  given  studies;  lit^ary  work,  facilitated  by  a  &ie  library  of 
by  Simon,  fifteenth  Baron  Lovat,  comprising  the  some  20,000  volumes  and  some  rare  and  precious 
buildings  of  a  dismantled  fort,  built  in  1729  and  known  manuscripts;  all  these  afford  abundant  employment 
as  Fort  Augustus,  a  title  given  in  compliment  to  to  a  community  of  abopt  fifty  monks  and  lay 
George  Augustus,  Duke  of  Cumberland,  son  of  George  brothers.  The  graceful  ^oup  of  buildings  whose 
II.  The  fort,  originally  erected  for  the  suppression  of  spires  and  turrets  rise  above  the  trees  forms  a  con- 
Highland  Jacobites,  had  been  purchased  from  the  spicuous  object  from  Loch  Ness,  and  is  visible  from  a 
Government  by  the  Lovat  family,  in  1867.  The  mo-  custance  of  many  miles.  A  church  of  large  sise,  de- 
nastic  buildings  commenced  in  1876  were  completed  signed  by  Peter  Faul  Pugin,  was  commenced  in  1890; 
in  1880.  They  occupy  the  four  sides  of  a  quadrangle  a  temporary  wooden  church  has  been  in  use  since 
about  one  himdred  feet  square.    In  one  wing  a  school  1880. 

for  boys  of  the  upper  classes  was  conducted  by  the  ,A^«**««,2£,f<«i,'A«W'««  45^%  5CJ*  ^V**^**^  Cenhiry 

monks,  with  the  assistance  of  university  graduates  and  ^^'  ^^^»  ^**  ^""^"^  ^"^  ^^«^  ^°*'  September, 
other  lay  masters,  for  about  sixteen  years,  but  was  MiCBAsii  Babrbtt. 

reluctantly  closed  in  1894,  as  its  distance  from  Eng-        — -_u.  j-.  »-.-,^^     a^  \jr  .^^^r^r.^^  t\,^^™«-  ^m 
land  and  the  dearth  of  Scottish  CathoUc  famihes  of        'ort-de-Prance,    See  Martiniqub,  Diocesb  of. 

rank  made  its  continuance  a  matter  of  difficulty.  Forte8cae»  Adrian,  Blbssbd,  Knisht  of  St.  John, 
This  school  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  a  more  refined  martyr;  b.  about  1476.  executed  10  July,  1539.  He 
style  of  equipment  than  was  usual  at  the  time  of  its  belonged  to  the  Salden  oranch  of  the  great  Devonshire 
inception.  family  of  Fortescue,  and  was  a  true  coimtry  ^ntleman 
Up  to  the  year  1882  St.  Benedict's  monastery  re-  of  the  period,  occasionally  following  the  king  in  the 
mained  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Anglo-Benedic-  wars  with  France  (1513  and  1522)^  not  unfrequently 
tine  Congregation,  but  in  response  to  the  wishes  of  the  attending  the  court,  and  at  other  times  acting;  as  jus- 
Scottish  nierarchy.  and  of  th^  leading  Scottish  nobil-  tice  of  the  peace  or  commissioner  for  subsidies.  He 
ity — notably  Loros  Lovat  and  Bute — Leo  XIII,  by  was  knighted  in  1503  (Clermont;  but  D.  N.  B.  gives 
his  Brief ''SummA  cum animilffititi&",  dated  12Deoem-  1528),  attended  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  (1520), 
ber,  1882,  erected  it  into  an  independent  abbey,  imme-  and  late  in  life  (1532)  became  a  Knight  of  St.  John, 
diately  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  thus  separating  it  When  Anne  Bolevn*became  queen.  Sir  Adrian  (whose 
from  Ei^lish  rule.    When  this  step  had  been  accom-  mother,  Alice  Boleyn,  was  Anne's  grand-aunt)  natur- 

Slished.  Lord  Lovat  made  over  the  propertv  to  the  ally  profited  to  some  extent,  but,  as  we  see  from  his 
cottisn  community,  by  signing  the  title  deeds,  which  papers,  not  very  much.  The  foundations  of  his 
for  a  time  had  been  held  over.  In  1888  Dom  Leo  worldly  fortunes  had  been  laid  honourably  at  an 
Linse  of  the  Beuron  Benedictine  Congregation,  who  earlier  date.  He  was  a  serious  thrifty  man.  pains- 
had  resided  for  more  than  tenvears  in  England,  part  taking  in  business,  careful  in  accounts,  and  a  lover  oi 
of  that  time  as  superior  of  Erdington  Priory,  near  the  homely  wit  of  that  day.  He  collected  and  signed 
Birmingham,  was  nominated  abbot  by  the  Holy  See  several  lists  of  proverbs  and  wise  saws,  which,  though 
and  received  the  abbatial  benediction  at  the  hands  of  not  very  brilliant,  are  never  offensive  or  coarse,  always 
Archbishop,  after  vards  Cardinal^  Persico,  who  had  sane,  and  sometimes  rise  to  a  high  moral  or  religious 
been  sent  to  the  abbey  as  Apostohc  Visitor.    In  1889,  level. 

special  constitutions,  based  upon  those  of  the  Beuron        All  of  a  sudden  this  quiet,  worthy  gentleman  was 

B^iedictine  Congregation,  were  adopted,  with  the  overwhelmed  by  some  unexplained  whim  of  the  Tudor 

approval  of  the  Holy  See,  for  a  term  of  ten  years,  tyrant.    On  29  August,  1534,  he  was  put  under  arrest, 

Tnese,  after  certain  modifications  suggested  by  ex-  no  one  knows  why,  but  released  after  some  months. 

?erience,  received  definite  approbation  in  1901.    In  On  3  February,  1539,  he  was  arrested  a  second  time 

905,  in  view  of  the  exceptional  position  of  the  monas-  and  sent  to  the  Tower.    In  April  he  was  condemned 

tery  as  an  independent  aobey,  the  Holy  See  conferred  untried  by  an  act  of  attainder;  in  Julv  he  was  be- 

upon  the  primate  of  the  Benedictine  Girder,  as  regards  headed .    No  specific  act  of  treason  was  alleged  against 


FOBTITUDK  147  FOBTITUDK 

lam,  imt  only  in  general  "sedition  and  refusing  alle-  Upon  the  latter  element  is  based  fortitude,  but  the 
eianoe".  The  same  attainder,  however,  Went  on  to  animal  spirit  needs  to  be  taken  up  and  guided  by  the 
decree  death  against  Cardinal  Pole  and  several  others  rational  soul  in  order  to  become  the  virtue.  It  is  in 
because  they  "adhered  themselves  to  the  Bishop  of  the  breast  that  6  Bv/tAt,  r6  BvfumHh  (courage,  passion) 
Rome".  Catholic  tradition  has  always  held  that  Sir  dwells,  midway  between  reason  in  the  head  and  con- 
Adrian  died  for  the  same  cause,  and  modem  Frotes-  eupiscence  in  the  abdomen.  Plato's  high  spirituality 
tant  critics  have  come  to  the  same  conclusion.  His  kept  him  from  speaking  too  exaltedly  of  fortitude 
cultus  has  always  flourished  among  the  Knights  of  St.  which  rested  on  Dodily  excellence:  consequently  he 
John,  and  he  was  beatified  by  Leo  XIII  in  1896.  would  have  wise  legislators  educate  theu*  citisens 

Camx,  Livm  of  the  Bnff%$h  Martyn,  I.  418-461 :  Foiitbscub  rather  in  temperance  than  in  courage,  which  is  separa- 

9iSSi^'fSnL^K^  ^^^^'  2«^3ll;  a.  K.  ble  from  wisdom  and  may  be  found  in  children  or  in 

Pon»K;u.,  mlhcUNoL  IBxoo,,  m  y.         ^   ^   pouja,.  mere  animab  (Laws,  1, 630,  C,  D,  E;  631,  C;  667,  A). 

Although  Aristotle  makes  animal  courage  only  the 

Fortitada. — (1)  Bfanliness  is  et3rmologically  what  basis  of  fortitude — ^the  will  is  courageous,  but  the  ani- 
ls meant  bv  the  Latin  word  viiiua  and  by  the  Greek  mal  spirit  co-operates  (6  M  9vitl^  ffvUfnyu) — ^he  has  not 
ia^p^Ui,  with  which  we  may  compare  dpcr^  (virtue),  a  similar  contempt  for  the  body,  and  speaks  more 
dpurrot  (best),  and  dm^p  (man).  Mas  (male)  stands  to  honourably  of  courace  when  it  hais  for  its  prime  object 
Mar8f  the  god  of  war,  as  dpaifp  ^male)  to  the  corree-  the  conquest  of  boduy  fear  before  the  face  of  death  in 
ponding  Greek  deitv  *Api|f.  While  dr3pc(a  (manliness)  battle.  Aristotle  likes  to  narrow  the  scope  of  his  vir- 
nas  been  specialised  to  signify  valour,  virtus  has  been  tues  as  Plato  likes  to  enlarge  his  scope.  He  will  not 
left  in  its  wider  generality,  and  only  in  certain  con-  with  his  predecessor  (Lackes,  191,  D,  E)  extend  forti- 
texts  is  it  limited^  as  by  Ciesar  when  he  says : "  Helvetii  tude  to  cover  all  the  firmness  or  stability  which  is  need- 
reliquos  Gallos  virtute  prsecedunt".  Here  the  writer  ful  for  every  virtue,  consequently  Kant  was  able  to 
was  certainly  not  taking  the  pious  outlook  upon  virtue,  say: "  Virtue  is  the  moral  strength  of  the  will  in  obey- 
except  in  so  tar  as  for  pnmitive  peoples  the  leading  vii^  ing  the  dictates  of  duty"  (AnthropoL,  sect.  10,  a), 
tue  is  bravery  and  the  skilful  stren^h  to  defend  their  The  Platonic  Socrates  took  another  limited  view  when 
lives  and  those  of  their  fellow-tnbesmen.  At  this  he  said  that  courage  was  the  hrwr^fkii  rdr  ^uvQw  koI  ft^ 
stage  of  culture  we  may  apply  Spinosa's  notion  that  (Laches,  199) ;  hence  he  inferred  that  it  could  be 
virtue  is  the  conservatorv  force  of  life.^  "  In  propor-  taught.  Given  that  in  themselves  a  man  prefers  vir- 
tion  as  a  man  aims  at  ana  is  successful  in  pursuing  his  tue  to  vice,  then  we  may  say  that  for  him  every  act  of 
uttUf  that  is  his  esse,  so  much  the  more  is  ne  endowed  vice  is  a  failure  of  fortitude.  Aristotle  would  liave  ad- 
with  virtue;  on  the  other  hand,  in  proportion  as  he  mitted  this  too;  nevertheless  he  chose  his  definition: 
neglects  to  cultivate  his  utHe  or  his  esse,  so  much  "  Fortitude  is  the  virtue  of  the  man  who^  being  con- 
the  greater  is  his  impotence"  (Eth.,  IV.  prop.  20).  fronted  with  a  noble  occasion  of  encountering  the  dan- 
"  Virtue  is  that  human  faculty,  which  is  aenned  only  ger  of  death,  meets  it  fearlessly"  (Eth.  Nic.,  Ill,  6). 
by  the  essence  of  man,  that  is,  which  is  limited  Such  a  spirit  has  to  be  formed  as  a  habit  upon  data 
only  by  the  efforts  of  man  to  persevere  in  his  esse"  more  or  less  favourable;  and  therein  it  resembles  other 
(prop.  22).  The  idea  is  continued  in  Propositiones  23,  virtues  of  the  moral  kind.  Aristotle  would  have  con- 
24,  25,  27.  The  will  to  hve-^-der  WtUe  zu  Uhen — is  the  troverted  Kant's  description  of  moral  stability  in  all 
root  virtue.  Of  course  Spinoza  carries  his  doctrine  virtue  as  not  being  a  quality  cultivatable  into  a  habit: 
higher  than  does  the  savage  warrior,  for  he  adds  that  "Virtue  is  the  mond  strength  of  the  will  in  obeying 
the  power  preservative  and  promotive  of  life  is  ade-  the  dictates  of  duty,  never  developing  into  a  custom 
cjuacy  of  ideas,  reasonable  conduct,  conformity  to  but  always  sprinemg  freshly  and  directly  from  the 
intelfigent  nature:  finally  that  "  the  highest  virtue  of  mind  "  (AnthropoL,  I^  10,  a).  Not  everv  sort  of  dan- 
the  intellect  is  the  knowledge  of  God"  (lib.  V,  prop,  ger  to  Me  satisnes  Aristotle's  condition  for  true  forti- 
xlii).  Spinosa  usually  mixes  the  noble  with  the  tude:  there  must  be  present  some  noble  display  of 
ignoble  in  his  vij9ws:  for  a  rude  people  his  philosophy  prowess — dX«4  jrai  jraX^y.  He  may  not  quite  pod- 
stops  short  at  virtue,  the  character  of  the  strong  man  tively  exclude  the  passive  endurance  of  martyrdom, 
defending  his  existence  a^inst  many  assaults.  ^  but  St.  Thomas  seexns  to  be  sUently  protesting  against 

Aristotle  does  not  sa^  that  fortitude  is  the  highest  such  an  exclusion  when  he  maintains  that  courage  is 

virtue;  but  he  selects  it  first  for  treatment  when  he  rather  in  endurance  than  in  onset. 
describesthemoralvirtuesie/rc^Mcyrp^orvcpidyapekt        As  a  commentator  on  Aristotle,  Professor  J.  A. 

(Eth.  Nic,  III,  6) ;  whereas  St.  Thomas  is  at  pains  to  Stewart  challenges  the  friends  of  the  martyrs  to  make 

say  explicitly  that  fortitude  ranks  third  after  pru-  a  stand  for  their  cause  when  he  says: ''  It  is  only  when 


ies  on  parade,  were  not  objects  to  disturb  the  sense  of  there  is  no  such  reserve  on  p.  286,  where  he  adds: 

proportion  in  the  mind  of  the  Friar  Preacher.    Still  ''Men  show  courage  when  they  can  take  up  arms  and 

less  could  etsrmolog^  deceive  his  jud^ent  into  think-  defend  themselves,  or  (^  where  death  is  glorious, 

ing  that  the  prime  virtue  was  the  soloier's  valour  com-  The  former  condition  may  be  realised  without  the  lat- 

mended  on  the  Victoria  Cross.     Neither  would  he  de-  ter,  in  which  case  the  dnipeia  would  be  of  a  spurious 

spise  the  tribute  "  For  Valour  "in  its  own  degree.  Irind :  the  latter  condition,  however,  cannot  be  realized 

(2)  To  come  now  to  definitions.    If  we  consult  without  the  former.    Death  in  a  good  cause  which  a 

Plato  and  Aristotle  we  find  the  former  comparing  man  man  endured  fearlessly,  but  could  not  actively  resist^ 

to  the  fgoA  Glaucus  who  from  dwelling  in  the  sea  had  could  not  be  raX^  Hparot"  (a  glorious  death).    Does 

his  divine  limbs  encrusted  beyond  recognition  with  Aristotle  positively  make  this  exclusion?    If  so,  St 

weeds  and  shells:  and  that  represents  the  human  spirit  Thomas  corrects  him  very  needfidly,  as  Britons  would 

disguised  by  the  alien  body  which  it  drags  about  as  a  admit  on  behalf  of  their  soldiers  who,  off  the  coast  of 

penalty.    The  spul  in  its  own  rational  nature  (for  our  S.  Africa  in  1862,  nobly  stood  in  their  ranks  and  went 

present  puipose  we  fuse  together  the  two  terms  f  wx<  unresistingly  down  in  the  sinking  ship,  Birkenhead, 

and  mOf^  distinguished  by  Aristotle,  into  one— the  that  they  might  give  the  civilians  a  better  chance  of 

soul)  is  simple:  man  is  compound,  ana,  beins  conflict-  being  saved.    As  specimens  of  courage  not  in  the 

in^v  compounded,  he  has  to  drive  a  pair  ofsteeds  in  hiffher  order  Aristotle  gives  the  cases  of  soldiers  whose 

his  body,  one  isnoble — the  concupiscences — the  other  skul  enables  them  to  meet  without  much  apprehen- 

relativuy  noble— the  spiritual  element,  in  which  is  sion  what  sthers  would  dread,  and  who  are  ready  to 

''go",  ''dash",  "onslaught",  "pluck",  "endurance",  flee  as  soon  as  grave  danger  is  seen:  of  animally  oour* 


FOBTUNATO           148  FOBTUHATO 

ageouB  men  whose  action  is  hardly  moral:  of  courage  courage  also  to  be  patient  imder  poverty  or  privatioD| 

miere  hope  is  largely  in  excess  over  dread:  of  i^po-  and  to  make  laudable  strug^es  to  rise  in  the  social 

ranee  which  does  not  apprehend  the  risk:  and  of  civic  scale.    It  requires  fortitude  to  mount  above  the  dea)d 

virtue  which  is  moved  by  the  sanction  of  reward  and  level  of  average  ChriBtianity  into  the  region  of  m^ 

penaltv.    In  the  above  instances  the  test  oXdyd/MWdcd  nanimity,  and,  if  opportunity  allow  it,  of  magniS- 

rb  KoKdp  wpdTTovffi — "  the  exercise  of  fortitude  is  vir-  cence,  which  are  the  allied  virtues  of  fortitude,  while 

tue  ",  a  principle  which  is  opposed  to  the  mere  pragma-  anotl^r  is  perseverance,  which  tolerates  no  occasional 

tism  that  would  measure  courage  by  eflSiciency  in  sol-  remissness,  still  less  occasional  bouts  of  dissipation  to 

diership — ^fails.    Aristotle  says  that  mercenaries,  who  relieve  the  strain  of  high-toned  morality  and  religion, 

have  not  a  high  appreciation  of  the  value  of  their  own  (5)  The  physical  conditions  of  fortitude  are  treated 

lives,  may  very  well  expose  their  lives  with  more  readi-  for  institnce  by  Bain  in  ".The  Emotions  and  the  Will ", 

ness  than  could  be  found  in  the  virtuous  man  who  and  they  are  such  as  th^:  "goodness  of  nervous  tone 

understands  the  worth  of  his  own  life,  and  who  rewds  which  keeps  all  the  currents  in  their  proper  courses 

death  as  the  v4f>at — the  end  of  his  own  individufld  ex-  with  a  certain  robust  persistence;  health  and  fresh- 

istence(0o/3cp(^aroyd*  6MMiroffWpaf  7dp).   Some  have  ness;  tonic  coolness;  light  and  buoyant  spirit;  elate 

admireki  Russian  nihilists  going  to  certain  death  with  and  sanguine  temperament;  acquired  mastery  over 

no  hope  for  themselves,  here  or  hereafter,  but  with  a  terror,  as  when  the  soldier  gets  over  the  cannon  fever 

hope  tor  future  generations  of  Russians.    It  is  in  the  of  his  first  engagement,  and  the  public  speaker  over 

hope  for  the  end  that  Aristotle  places  the  stimulus  for  the  nervousness  of  his  first  speech"  (Chap  V9  no.  17). 
the 


corum 

nobility  is  in  the  act,  the  sweetness  cniefly  in  the  an-  cultivate  the  two  departments  of  Fortitude  coniointly. 

ticipated  consequences,  excepting  so  far  as  there  is  a  8^  authors  quoted  in  this  article  and  in  the  article  Gabdinaii 

strondy  felt  nobiUty  (Aristotle,  Eth.  Nic.,  Ill,  6-9)  in  VxaTuaa.                                                   j   iticxABY. 
the  sell-sacrifice. 

(3)  St.  Thomas  keeps  as  close  to  Aristotle  as  he  may,  Fortunate  of  Breaeia,  morpholodst  and  Minorite 

departii^  from  him  as  to  the  dignitv,  perhaps,  which  of  the  Reform  of  Lombardy;  d.  at%rescia,  1701 ;  d. 

is  to  be  found  in  the  passive  martvris  aeath,  as  to  the  at  Madrid,  1754.    He  received  .the  religious  habit  in 

hope  of  future  life,  andas  to  the  character  of  virtue  as  1718.    A  distinguished  philosopher  and  theologian, 

a  matter  mainly  of  fine  conduct  iBstheticaUy.    He  Fortunato  was  alao  renowned  for  his  studies  in  the 

calls  the  specific  virtue  of  fortitude  that  which  braves  natural  sciences.^   He  was  secretary  eeneral  of   his 

the  greatest  dangers  and  therefore  that  which  meets  order,  and  stood  in  high  favour  at  the%ourbon  court 

the  risk  of  life  in  battle.    Fortitude  is  concerned  not  of  Si>ain.    A  special  importance  attaches  to  his  philo- 

so  much  with  audaciaBa  with  timor:  not  so  much  with  sopnical  works,  as  he  was  amon^  the  first  to  brine  to- 

agffredi  (attack)  as  with  avutinere  (endurance):  which  eether  the  teadiings  of  Scholastic  philosophy  ana  the 

means  that  the  courageous  man  has  to  attend  rather  discoveries  of  the  physical  sciences.    His  scientific 

to  bearing  up  against  terrifyine  circumstances  than  to  work  is  rendered  important  by  his  extensive  use  of  the 

mastering  hu  impetuosity  or  elae  to  arousing  it  to  the  microscope,  in  which  he  followed  the  lead  of  Malpighi. 

the  requisite  de^^:  principaUor  adus  fortUudinis  est  Avoiding  the  then  prevalent  discussions  on  vitalism, 

9usUnere,  immobUiter  sisUre  in  pericidis,  guam  aggredi.  he  devoted  himself  to  a  positive  study  of  the  problems 

Seneca  as  a  Stoic  also  attacks  Aristotle's  iise  of  aneer  of  ^  natural  science.    Convinced  that  a  knowledge  of 

as  an  instrument  in  the  hand  of  virtue;  he  treats  the  microscopic  anatomy  is  the  key  to  the  secrets  of  na- 

passion  as  bad  and  to  be  suppressed.    In  the  on-  ture,  he  deemed  two  things  to  be  of  prime  importance: 

slaught  is  displayed  the  animal  ^citement,  the  battle  first,  an  experimental  study  of  the  histolo^cal  consti- 

rage,  which  St.  Thomas  calls  the  irascible  passion:  and  tution  of  the  various  oi^^ans,  to  learn  their  functions; 

(tf  this  St.  Thomas  says,  what  Aristotle  says  of  9viiM  and  second,  the  separation  of  these  or^ns  into  their 

that  it  is  an  a^ncy  to  be  used  by  the  rational  will  elements,  to  determine  their  embryological  origin.    In 

within  due  limits.    Anything  like  a  malignant  desire  spite  of  ail  opposition,  this  view,  so  clearly  set  forth  in 

to  daughter  a  hated  enemy  out  of  vengeance  or  out  of  tne  works  of  Fortunato,  has  prevailed  in  pathological 

savaoe  delight  in  blood-shedding  should  be  excluded,  and  physiological  schools,  and  has  indicated  a  metnod 

For  uie  endurance  {susHnere),  says  St.  Thomas,  the  of  examinins  what  was  formerly  considered  the  most 

irascible  put  is  not  demanded,  smce  the  reasonable  complex  ana  delicate  part  of  the  human  body,  namely 

will  sufiice,  ''as  the  act  of  endurance  rests  only  with  the  central  nervous  system.    The  same  view  has  also 

the  reason  per  se".    As  a  cardinal  virtue,  which  is  a  led  to  some  of  the  most  remarkable  discoveries  in 

..  ,«•  iAl  l_  A         • 1.       At  r      i.*A         J  •  t_  •       I         T  aI_  •  ¥71       <.  A  •  •  'W 


nales  prineipalea  dicuntur  virttUea,  qucB  pracipue  sibi  same  direction.    True  to  his  purpose,  Fortunato  save 

vindicafU  id  quod  pertinet  cammuniter  ad  virtutea,   Vir-  no  heed  to  the  anti-vitalistic  controversies  of  his  day, 

tues  in  general  must  act  with  that  firmness  which  for-  and  spent  no  time  investigating  plastic  force  and  the 

titude  bratows  (II-II>  Q,  cxxiii).  ninu  formoHvus;  he  confined  nimself  to  the  micro- 

(4)  Fortitude  as  one  of  the  gifts  from  the  Holy  scopic  study  of  the  parts  of  the  organism,  and  in  this 

Ghost  is  a  supernatural  virtue,  and  passes  beyond  the  way  succeeded  in  classifying  tissues  and  oreans  many 

Aristotelian  range.    It  is  what,  as  Cnristians,  we  must  years  before  Bichat  (1800),  who  received  allthe  credit 

always  have  ui  mind  in  order  to  make  our  actions  ac-  for  the  classification.    Fortunato  was  the  first  to  dis- 

ceptable  for  eternal  life.    But  we  still  keep  hold  upon  tinguish  between  tissues  and  oi^ns.    He  established 

the  natural  principles  of  fortitude  as  those  whereon  the  idea  of  tissues,  or,  as  he  wrote,  "of  those  organic 

grace  has  to  build.    In  the  spiritual  life  of  the  ordi-  parts  which  possess  a  definite  structure  visible  with 

nary  (Christian  much  that  Aristotle  has  said  remains  the  microscope  and  characterized  by  their  component 

in  its  own  degree  true,  though  we  have  to  depart  ee-  elements".    With  sufficient  accuracy  he  described 

pecially  from  the  master's  insistence  upon  the  field  of  connective  and  bony  tissue.    The  morphological  com- 

oatUe.    Our  exercise  is  mainly  not  in  war  strictly  so-  plexus  of  the  various  tissues  he  calls  the  "system  of 

called,  but  in  moral  courage  against  the  evil  spirit  of  tissues";  and  the  physiological  complexus  of  the  vari- 
the  times,  against  improper  fashions,  against  numan  .  ous  organs  he  calls  the  "system  of  organs".    These 

respect,  against  the  common  tendency  to  seek  at  least  exact  notions  must  have  been  the  rewaxd  of  wide  and 

the  comfortable,  if  not  the  voluptuous.    We  need  difficult  investigation,  as  at  that  time  there  was  no 


FOBTUNATUS  149  FOBTUHATUS 

systematic  technic  in  microsoopy.  From  his  many  take  the  veil{  and  she  remained  at  PoitieFS.  fThe  moo- 
accurate  descriptions,  it  is  evident  that  his  researches  astray  of  Poitiers  was  very  lar^  and  contained  about 
extended  to  manv  animals^  and  particularly  to  in-  200  religious.  At  first  they  hved  without  a  definite 
sects.  In  view  of  all  this,  it  seems  warranted  to  as-  rule,  but  about  567  Rad^unde  accepted  that  of  St. 
sert  that  Fortunato  was  the  first  morpholo^t,  espe-  Csesarius  of  Aries.  At  this  time,  which  was  previous 
cially  as  not  the  slig^htest  hint  of  this  most  important  to  the  death  of  Caribert  (568),  she  caused  the  conse- 
branch  of  comparative  anatomy  is  found  in  Malpighi,  cration  as  abbess  of  her  beloved  adoptive  daughter 
Morgagni,  Leeuwenhoek,  or  HaUer,  the  path-findens  in'  Agnes.  It  was  at  the  same  period  that  Fortunatus  be- 
microscopic  anatomy.  came  the  friend  of  the  two  women  and  took  up  his  resi- 
^  GBMKI.LX,  Un  precunore  ddla  moderna  nwrfoUtqia  comparata  dence  at  Poitiers,  where  he  remained  till  the  death  of 

K.ri'.'^iSSr^  S?JSrS^i'3?^.Jl2£;„iSI^i  5!^T°i^  3  ^'^■'r^''',  Ag««,. doubtleefl.  having 

9cierue  tMhirali  (Pavia,  1908),  with  portrait  and  complete  died  shortlv  before.    The  closest  f nendship  sprang  up 

bibUosraphy.  between  them,  Fortunatus  calling  Raoegunde  his 

A.  Gemelu.  mother  and  Agnes  his  sister.    It  was  one  of  those 

TURE  Apostolic  op.  between  St.  Jerome  knd  the  Rokaii  ladies.  deUcate 

Fortunatus,    Venantiub    Honorxub   Clemxnti-  friendships  enhanced  by  solid  piety,  confirmed  in 

ANUS,  a  Christian  poet  of  the  sixth  century,  b.  between  peace  by  a  mutual  love  of  God,  and  which  dp  not 

530  and  540  in  Upper  Italy,  between  Ceneda  and  Tre-  exclude  the  charming  child's  play  usually^  marking 

viso.    He  received  his  literary  education  at  Ravenna,  feminine  friendship.     In  this  instance  it  brou^t 

Here  he  first  manifested  his  poetical  ability  by  a  poem  about  a  constant  interchange  of  letters  in  which 

celebrating  the  dedication  of  a  church  to  St.  Andrew  the  art  and  grace  of  Fortunatus  found  their  nat- 

by  the  bishop,  Vitalis.     He  appears  to  have  left  ural  vent.    He  was  an  epicure,  and  there  were  sent 

£[avenna  in  565,  crossing  the  Alps  and  a  part  of  South-  to  him  from  the  convent^  milk,  ^;g8,  dainty  dishes,  and 

em  Germany  and  reaching  in  the  autumn  the  banks  savoury  meats  in  the  artistic  arrangement  of  which  the 

of  the  Moselle.    The  stages  of  his  journey  may  be  cooks  of  antiquity  exercised  their  mgenuity.    He  did 

traced  in  his  poems.     They  were:  Mains^  where  he  not  allow  himself  to  be  outdone  and  sent  to  his  friends 

celebrated  the  construction  of  the  baptister|r  and  at  one  time  flowers,  at  another  chestnuts  in  a  basket 

church  of  St.  Georg^e  (II,  11  and  12).  ana  in  which  he  woven  by  his  own  hands.    The  little  poems  which 

compliments  the  bishop,  Sidonius  (IX,  9) ;  Cologne,  accompanied  them  are  not  included  in  the  works  pub- 

where  he  accepted  the  hospitality  of  Bishop  Caren-  hshed  by  Fortunatus  himself;  it  is  probable  that  many 

tinus  (III,  14) ;  Trier,  where  he  praises  Bishop  Nice-  of  them  are  lost,  no  great  importance  bein^  attached 

tins  (III,  11)  who  had  built  a  castle  on  the  Moselle  to  them.    Circumstances  provided  him  with  graver 

(111,12);  Metz,  which  he  describes  (III,  13).    He  then  subjects  which  necessitated  the  production  ofmore 

made  a  journey  on  the  Moselle,  of  which  he  gives  a  serious  works.    About  568  Rad^unde  received  from 

humorous  account  (VI,  8).     But  the  principal  event  Emperor  Justin  a  particle  of  the  True  Cross,  to  which 

of  his  sojourn  at  Metz  was  his  presentation  at  the  court  the  monastery  had  been  dedicated,  and  Fortunatus 

of  King  Si^bert,  where  he  arrived  at  the  time  of  the  was  commissioned  to  thank  the  emperor  and  empress 

kind's  mai^riage  with  Brunehild  (566),  for  which  oc-  for  their  gift.    This  religious  event  led  him  to  write  a 

casion  he  wrote  an  epithalamium  (VI^  1).     Shortly  series  of  poems  (II,  1-6) :  two,  the"  Vexilla  Regis  Pro- 

afterwards  Brunehild  renounced  Anamsm  for  Catho-  deunt "  and  the  "  Pange  Linsua  "  (II,  6,  2),  have  been 

licism,  and  Fortunatus  extolled  this  conversion  (VI,  adopted  by  the  Church.    The  vigorous  movement  of 

1*).    He  won  the  favour  of  the  courtiers  by  his  eulo-  these  poems  shows  that  Fortunatus  was  not  lacking  in 

gies,  notably  that  of  Gogo  and  Duke  Lupus,  the  latter  strength  and  seriousness.    Two  of  this  series  are  "  figu- 

one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  the  time,  a  real  sur-  rate    poems,  i.  e.  the  letters  of  each  verse,  being  ar- 

vival,  amid  barbarian  surroundings,  of  Roman  culture  ranged  with  due  regularity,  form  artistic  designs.    It 

and  traditions.    Fortimatus  soon  resumed  his  jour-  was  one  of  the  least  happy  inventions  of  this  period  of 

ney.     New  poems  repaid  the  hospitality  of  the  BiBbr  literary  decadence. 

ops  of  Verdun  (II,  23)  and  Reims  (III,  15);  at  •  Raoegunde  was  in  constant  communication  with 
Soissons  he  venerated  the  tomb  of  St.  Medardus  (II,  Constantinople,  for  Amalafried.  a  cousin  whom  she 
16),  and  finally  arrived  at  Paris,  where  he  praised  the  dearly  loved,  had  found  refuse  in  the  East  where  hei 
der^  for  their  zeal  in  reciting  the  Divine  Office  (II,  was  in  the  service  of  the  empire.  Through  Fortuna- 
9) .  His  description  of  the  chanting  of  the  Office  on  the  tus  Radegunde  bewailed  the  sad  lot  of  her  country  and 
eve  of  a  feast  accompanied  by  an  orchestra  is  a  curious  her  family;  this  long  elegy,  full  of  life  and  movement, 
document.  He  made  the  acquaintance  of  King  Cari-  and  addressed  to  Amalafried,  is  one  of  the  poet's  best 
bert,  whom  he  compares  to  Solomon,  Trajan,  and  and  most  celebrated  works  (Appendix,  I).  Another 
Fabius,  and  whose  Latin  eloquence  he  praises  highly  elegy  deplores  the  premature  death  of  Amalafried  (Ap- 
(VI.  2).  From  Paris  he  went  to  Tours,  which  was  pe^ix,  3).  The  death  of  Galeswintha  was  also  the  oo- 
probably  his  original  destination,  for  while  at  Ra-  casion  for  one  of  those  el^es  in  which  Fortunatus 
venna  he  had  been  miraculously  cured  of  a  disease  of  shows  himself  at  once  so  profound  and  so  natural, 
the  e^res  through  the  intercession  of  St.  Martin.  He  This  princess,  the  sister  of  Brunehild,  was  married  to 
worshipped  at  the  tomb  of  the  saint  and  gave  thanks  Chilperic,  and  had  just  been  put  to  death  by  the  order 
to  the  bishop,  Euphronius  (III,  3),  whom  he  after-  of  her  husband  (569  or  570).  Shortly  before  this  For- 
wards came  to  know  more  intimately.  tunatus  had  seen  her  arrive  from  Spain  and  pass 
From  Tours  Fortunatus  went  to  Poitiers,  attracted,  through  Poitiers  in  a  silver  chariot,  ana  it  was  on  this 
no  doubt,  by  the  renown  of  St.  Radegunde  and  her  occasion  she  had  won  the  heart  of  Radegunde.  In  re- 
monastery.  This  circumstance  had  a  decisive  infiu-  calling  these  things  and  in  his  portrayid  of  the  mother 
ence  on  the  remainder  of  his  life.  Radegunde,  daugh-  of  the  unhappy  young  woman  and  their  heart-break- 
teroftheKing"""     •     •     -   --    — -^  •       '  ./'*'.•' -^       »  ,   ,     ,      ..  ,    .     .    , 

by  Clotaire  I,  tl 
uncle,  Hermanfried, 

(531).  Hermanfried  had  slain  her  father.  She  be-  explained  to  his  "sister^  Agnes  that  his  love  was 
came,  against  her  will,  the  wife  of  Clotaire.  Her  wholly  fraternal  (XI,  6),  and  devoted  400  lines  to  the 
brother  having  been  put  to  death  by  the  Franks,  she  praise  of  virginity  (VIII,  3).  While  abounding  in  Chris- 
sought  refuge  with  St.  Medardus,  Bishop  of  Verman-  tian  sentiments  he  develops  in  a  singularly  realistic 
dois  (St-Quentin  and  Soissons),  who  caused  her  to  style  the  inoonvenienoes  of  marriage,  especially  the 


roBT                              150  rOBT 

ft 

physEologieal  sufferinps  it  imposes  upon  woman.  It  is  that  his  epithalamium  for  Sigebert  is  a  dialogue  be- 
probably  an  academic  theme.  Fortunatus  also  took  tween  Venus  and  Love.  Occasionally  one  encoimters 
part  in  ecclesiastical  life,  assisting  at  synods,  being  in  his  works  the  traditional  academic  themes,  but  in 
mvited  to  the  consecration  of  churches,  all  ot  which  general  he  refrains  from  these  literary  ornaments  less 
occasions  were  made  the  pretext  for  verses.  He  was  uirough  disdain  than  through  necessity.  Every 
especially  associated  with  Greeory  of  Tours,  who  in-  writer  of  occasional  verse  is  perforce  a  realist,  e.  g.  Sta- 
fluenced  him  to  make  and  publish  a  collection  of  his  tins  in  the  '^Silvse",  Martiid  in  his  epifirams.  In  his 
verses,  with  Leontius  of  Bordeaux,  who  sent  him  many  portrayal  of  the  barbarian  society  of  Gaul  Fortuna- 
invitations,  and  with  Felix  of  Nantes,  whom  he  tus  exhibits  the  manner  in  which  contemporary  Chris- 
praised,  especially  for  the  rectifying  of  a  watercourse  tian  thou^t  and  life  permeated  its  eross  and  uncul- 
(III,  10).  Fortunatus  was  now  a  celebrated  man  and  tured  environment.  Leaving  aside  the  bishops,  all  of 
a  muchnsoughtrfor  guest.  Rendered  more  free  by  the  them  GaUo-Romans^  it  is  the  women  of  the  period, 
death  of  his  friends,  he  visited  the  Court  of  Austiasia,  owing  to  native  intmtion  and  mental  refinement,  who 
where  he  was  received  with  greater  evidence  of  regard  are  most  sensitive  to  this  Christian  ciilture.  They  are 
than  on  a  former  occasion  when  he  had  arrived  from  the  first  to  appreciate  delicacy  of  sentiment  and  cnarm 
Italy  poor  and  unknown.  To  this  period  belongs  his  of  language,  even  refined  novelties  of  cookery,  that  art 
account  of  a  journey  on  the  Moselle  which  is  full  of  of  advanced  civilizations  and  peoples  on  whose  hands 
graceful  details  (X,  10).  He  celebrates  the  comple-  time  hangs  heavily.  From  this  point  of  view  it  may 
tion  of  the  basilica  of  Tours  in  690  (X.  6),  and  in  591  be  said  that  the  friendship  of  Fortunatus  with  Rade- 
the  consecration  of  Plato,  the  new  Bisnop  of  Poitiers,  gunde  and  Agnes  mirrors  with  great  exactness  the  life 
an  archdeacon  of  Gregory  (X,  14).    His  predecessor  of  sixth-century  Gaul. 

Maroveus,  whose  barbarous  name  indicates  that  he  The  best  edition  of  Fortunatus  is  that  of  F.  Leo  and 

was  a  person  lacking  in  culture,  had  been  entirely  B.Krusch:  the  former  edited  the  poems,  the  latter  the 

neglected  bjr  the  Roman  Fortunatus  and  his  refined  prose  writmes  in  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Auct."  (Berlin, 

friends.   This  date  is  the  last  known  to  us,  but  some  1881-85),  IvT 

time  before  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  he  succeeded  Hamsun,  De  mtd  ei  operibtu  V.  Fortunati  (Rennes,  1873); 

city  he  foUows  Plato  and  may  have  become  bishop  xxicil,  414-26:  Babdbnhbwkr.  Patniooy,  tr.  Shahan  (Fiw- 

about  600.    He  was  already  dead  when,  shortly  after  burg  im  B.,  St.  Louis,  1908),  647-50. 

this  time,  Baudonivia,  a  nun  of  the  monastery  of  the  Paxtl  Lejat. 
Holv  Cross,  added  a  second  book  to  Venantius.'  life  fA 

Radegunde.  Fort  Wayne,  Diocese  of  (Watnb  Castrensis). — 

The  poems  of  Fortunatus  comprise  eleven  books.  The  Diocese  of  Vincennes,  Indiana,  U.  S.  A.,  estab- 

The  researches  of  Wilhelm  Meyer  have  established  the  lished  in  1834,  comprised  the  whole  State  of  Indiana 

fact  that  Fortunatus  himself  published  successivelv  till  the  Holy  See,  on  22  September,  1857,  created  the 

Books  I-VIII,  about  576;  Book  IX  in  584  or  585;  Book  Diocese  of  Fort  Wayne,  assigning  to  it  that  part  of 

X  after  591.    Book  XI  seems  to  be  a  posthumous  col-  Indiana  north  of  the  southern  boundary  of  Warren, 

lection.    A  Paris  manuscript  has  happily  preserved  Fountain,  Montgomery.  Boone,  Hamilton,  Madison, 

some  poems  not  found  in  the  eleven-booK  manuscripts.  Delaware,  and  Randolph  Counties,  a  territory  or 

These  poems  form  an  appendix  in  Leo's  CKiition.  17,431  square  miles,  numbering  20,000  Catholics,  with 

Apart  from  these  occasional  poems  Fortunatus  wrote  14  priests,  20  churches,  and  two  religious  institutions, 

between  573  and  577  a  poem  m  four  books  on  St.  Mar-  witn   educational  establishments   of    the   Fathers, 

tin.    He  follows  exactly  the  accoimt  of  Sulpicius  Sev-  ^  Brothers^and  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy 

erus,  but  has  abridged  it  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  Cross.    The  Right  Rev.  John  Henry  Luers  was  nom- 

his  own  work  obscure  unless  with  the  aid  of  Sulpicius  inated  first  Bishop  of  Fort  Wayne  and  consecrated  in 

Severus.  He  wrote  in  rhythmic  prose  the  lives  of  sev-  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  10  January,  1858.    He  was  bom 

eral  saints,  St.  Albin,  Bishop  of  Angers,  St.  Hilary  and  29  September,  1819,  in  Germany,  and  emitted  to 

Pascentius,  Bishops  of  Poitiers,  St.  Marcellus  of  Paris,  America  in  1831.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  Gmcinnati, 

St.  Germanus  of  Paris  (d.  576),  his  friend  Radegunde,  11  November,  1846.    Entering  upon  the  administrar 

St.  Patemus,  Bishop  of  Avranches,  and  St.  Mecuirdus.  tion  of  the  new  diocese,  he  devoted  himself  zealously  to 

The  poetical  merit  of  Fortunatus  should  not  be  over-  the  founding  of  new  parishes  and  missions,  provided 

estimated.    Like  most  poets  of  this  period  of  extreme  a  home  for  the  orphans,  and  built  a  cathedral.    In 

decadence,  he  delights  in  description,  but  is  incapable  of  June,  1871,  during  a  vacancy  of  the  See  of  Cleveland, 

sustaining  it;  if  the  piece  is  lengthjr  his  style  runs  into  Ohio,  he  was  callea  to  that  city  to  confer  ordination 

mannerisms.  His  vocabulary  is  vaned  but  affected,  and  on  a  number  of  seminarians.    After  the  function,  on 

while  his  language  is  sufficiently  exact,  it  is  nuured  by  a  his  way  to  the  train,  he  suffered  an  apoplectic  stroke 

deliberate  obscurity.    These  defects  would  render  mm  and  feu  dead  (29  June,  1871).  .At  the  time  of  Bishop 

intolerable  had  he  not  written  in  verse;  poetic  tradi-  Luer's  death  there  were  in  the  Diocese  of  Fort  Wayne 


inferior  to  the  **  Hisperica  f amina  ".  His  versification  at  50,000. 
is  monotonous,  and  faults  of  prosody  are  not  rare.  By  The  Rev.  Joseph  Dwenger  was  then  appointed  to 
his  predilection  for  the  disticn  he  furnished  the  modd  the  see.  He  was  bom  near  Minster,  Ohio,  in  1837. 
for  most  Carlovingian  poetry.  Fortunatus,  like  a  Orphaned  at  an  early  age,  he  was  educated  by  the 
true  Roman,  expresses  with  delicate  sincerity  the  sen-  Fathers  of  the  Precious  Blood,  entered  their  commu- 
timents  of  intimac^r  and  tenderness,  especially  when  nity,  and  was  ordained  priest  4  September,  1859.  Ap> 
mournful  and  anxious.  He  interprets  with  success  pointed  professor  in  the  senunary  of  his  community, 
the  emotions  aroused  by  the  tragic  occurrences  of  sur^  he  filled  that  position  until  1862,  and  was  then  as- 
rounding  barbarian  life,  particularly  in  the  hearts  of  signed  to  parochial  work.  From  1867  to  1872  he  was 
women,  too  often  in  those  times  the  victims  of  brutal  occupied  m  preaching  missions.  He  was  consecrated 
passions.  In  this  way,  and  by  his  allusions  to  con-  14  April,  1872.  In  1874  Bishop  Dwenger  was  the 
temporary  events  and  persons,  and  his  descriptions  of  head  of  the  first  American  pilgrimage  to  Rome.  In 
churches  and  works  of  art,  he  is  the  painter  of  Mero-  1875  he  erected  an  orphan  asylum  and  manual  labour 
yingian  society.  EUs  entire  work  is  an  historical  doou-  school  for  boys  at  Lafayette.  He  was  a  zealous  pro- 
ment.  Fortunatus  has  been  praised  for  abstaining  moter  of  the  parochial  school  system.  In  1884  he 
ixom  the  use  of  mythological  allegory,  despite  the  fact  attended  the  Inird  Plenary  Council  at  Baltimore,  and 


F0BT7  151  F0BT7 

)n  the  following  March  was  deputed,  with  Bishops  Dame^theFranciscanSistersofPeipetual  Adoration, 

Moore  and  Gilmour,  to  present  the  decrees  of  the  coun-  at  Lafayette;  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  at  Notre 

cil  to  the  H^oly  Father.    In  1886  he  erected  an  asylum  Dame ;  me  Poor  Handmaids  of  Christ,  at  Fort  Wayne ; 

for  orphan  gins  at  Fort  Wayne.    In  1888  and  in  1891  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  at  Tipton. 

he  asain  went  to  Rome,  the  last  time  in  the  interest  of  ^Aljbbdiiio.  The  Dioeue  of  Fort  wmnu  (Fort  Wayne,  1907); 

the  North  American  College.    Soon  after  his  return  ^^  ^«^»«  Dtreetory  (Milwaukee  WiBoonaxn). 

he  was  attacked  by  a  lingermg  illness,  to  which  he  Bonaventurk  Hammbb. 

succimibed  22  January,  1893. 

The  Rieht'Rev.  Joseph  Rademacher,  Bishop  of       Forty  Hours' Devotion,  also  caUed  Quarani' Ore 

Nashville,  Tennessee,  was  transferred  to  Fort  Wayne,  or  written  in  one  word  Qtiarantore,  is  a  devotion  in 

13  Julv,  1893.    He  was  bom  3  December,  1840,  in  which  continuous  prayer  is  made  for  forty  hours  before 

Westphalia,  Michigan,  and  ordained  priest  2  Aueust,  the  Blessed  Sacrament  exposed.    It  is  oommoiidy  re- 

1863,  by  Bishop  Luers,  to  whose  diocese^  he  had  been  garded  as  of  the  essence  of  the  devotion  that  it  should 

affiliated.    In  April,  1883,  he  was  appointed  Bishop  be  kept  up  in  a  succession  of  churdies,  terminating  in 

of  Nashville,  Tennessee,  and  was  consecrated  24  June,  one  at  about  the  same  hour  at  which  it  commences  in 

At  Fort  Wayne  Bishop  Rademacher  applied  himself  the  next,  but  this  question  will  be  discussed  in  the  his- 

assiduously  to   increase  the  number  of  churches,  torical  summary.    A  solemn  high  Mass,  "Mass  of 

schools,  and  missions.    In  1896  he  remodelled  the  Exposition'',  is  sun^  at  the  beginning,  and  another, 

cathedral  at  an  expense  of  $75,000.     In  1898  his  the  "Mass  of  Deposition",  at  the  end  of  the  period  ot 

health  gave  way.    Symptoms  of  mental  collapse  ap-  forty  hours;  and  both  these  Masses  are  accompanied 

peared  and  he  had  to  rehnquish  the  government  of  the  by  a  procession  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  by  the 

diocese.    He  expired  pea^fully  12  January,  1900.  chantme  of  the  litanies  of  the  saints.    The  exact 

Buring  his  illness,  and  until  the  appointment  of  a  sue-  period  of  forty  hours'  exposition  is  not  in  practice  veij 

cesser.  Very  Rev.  J.  H.  Guendline,  vicaivgeneral  and  strictly  adhered  to;  for  the  Mass  of  Deposition  is 

Sastor  of  the  cathedral,  was  administrator  of  the  generally  simg,  at  ab<>ut  the  same  hour  of  the  morning, 

iocese.  two  days  after  the  Mass  of  Exposition.    On  the  inter- 

The  Rev.  H.  J.  Alerding,  pastor  of  St.  Joseph's  vening  day  a  solemn  Mass  pro  pace  is  offered — ^if  pos- 

Church,   Indianapolis,   was  appointed  successor  of  sible.  at  a  different  altar  from  the  high  kltar  upon 

Bishop  Rademacher  30  Aug.,  1900.    He  was  bom  13  whicn  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  exposed.    It  is  as- 

April,  1845,  in  Germany.    During  his  infancv  his  sumed  that  the  exposition  and  prayer  should  be  kept 

Sarents  emierated  to  the  United  States  and  settled  in  up  b^  night  as  well  as  by  day,  but  permission' is  given 

fewport,  KentucW.     He  was  ordained  priest  by  to  dispense  with  this  requirement  when  an  adequate 

Bishop  Maurice  de  St.  Palais  of  Vincennes  22  Septem-  number  of  watchers  cannot  be  obtained.    In  such  a 

ber,  1868,  and  appointed  assistant  at  St.  Joseph's  case  the  interruption  of  the  devotion  bv  n^t  does  not 

churchy  Terre  Haute,  where  he  remained  till  1871,  forfeit  the  indulgences  conceded  by  the  Holy  See  to 

attendmg,  besides,  a  number  of  missions.   From  Oc-  those  who  take  part  in  it. 

tober,  1871,  to  August,  1874,  he  was  pastor  of  Cam-  History  of  the  Devotion. — ^Although  the  precise 
bridge  City,  whence  he  was  transferred  to  Indianapolis  origin  of  the  Forty  Hours'  Devotion  is  wrapped  in  a 
and  entnisted  with  the  organization  of  St.  Joseph's  go^  deal  of  obscurit]^,  there  are  certain  facts  which 
parish,  where  he  built  the  church,  the  school,  and  a  must  ^be  accepted  without  dispute.  The  Milanese 
parochial  residence.  In  1885  he  published  ''A  His-  chronicler  Burigozzo  (see  "Arcniv.  Stor.  Ital.",  Ill, 
tory  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Diocese  of  Vincen-  537),  who  was  a  contemporary,  clearly  describes  the 
nes",  a  work  of  deep  historical  research  and  accuracy,  custom  of  exposing  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  one 
Bishop  Alerding  was  consecrated  in  the  cathedral  of  church  after  another  as  a  novelty  which  began  at 
Fort  Wayne  30  November,  1900.  Since  then  he  has  Milan,  in  Mav^  1537.  He  does  not  ascribe  the  intro- 
foimded  new  parishes,  aided  struggling  ones,  reorgan-  duction  of  this  practice  to  any  one  person;  but  he 
ized  the  parochial  school  system,  provided  for  the  gives  details  as  to  the  church  with  which  it  stcuied, 
orphans,  and  promoted  all  eood  works.  He  held  a  etc.,  and  his  notice  seems  to  have  been  actually  written 
diocesan  synod  in  the  cathedral  11  November,  1903.  in  that  year.  Less  than  two  years  afterwards,  we 
The  statutes  enacted  were  promulgated  19  March,  have  the  reply  of  Pope  Paul  III  to  a  petition  soliciting 
1904.  Among  other  salutary  regulations  the  establish-  indulgences  for  the  practice.  This  is  so  important,  as 
ment  of  six  deaneries  was  decreed — ^Fort  Wayne,  embodying  an  oflBicial  statement  of  the  original  pur- 
South  Bend,  Hammond.  Loeaiisport,  Lafayette,  ana  pose  of  the  devotion,  that  we  copy  it  here :  "Smce  [says 
Mimcie.  In  1907,  for  tne  mtietn  anniversary  of  the  the  pontiff]  .  .  .  Our  beloved  son  the  Vicar  General 
creation  of  the  diocese,  Bishop  Alerding  published  "A  of  the  Archbishop  of  Milan  at  the  prayer  of  the  in> 
History  of  the  Diocese  of  Fort  Wayne  ,  an  elaborate  habitants  of  the  said  city,  in  order  to  appease  the 
historical  work,  covering  the  period  from  1669  to  1907.  anger  of  God  provoked  by  the  offerees  of  Christians, 
Diocesan  statistics  for  1908  give  priests,  secular,  and  in  order  to  bring  to  nought  the  efforts  and  machi- 
128;  religious,  71;  churches  with  resicient  priest,  110;  nations  of  the  Turks  who  are  pressing  forward  to  the 
missions  with  churches,  43:  stations,  6;  cnapels,  49;  destruction  of  Christendom,  amongst  other  pious  prao- 
parochial  schools,  82,  witn  14,252  pupUs;  orphan  tices,  has  established  a  round  of  prayers  and  supplica- 
asylums,  2;  orphans,  239;  hospitals,  13;  old  people's  tions  to  be  offered  both  by  day  and  night  by  all  the 
homes,  2 ;  Catholic  population,  93,844.  Educational  faithful  of  Christ,  before  our  Lord's  Most  Sacred  Body, 
Institutions:  the  University  of  Notre  Dame,  in  charge  in  ail  the  churches  of  the  said  city,  in  such  a  manner 
of  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross;  St.  Joseph's  College  that  these  prayers  and  supplications  are  made  by  the 
(Collegeville),conductedbythe  Fathers  of  the  Precious  faithful  themselves  relieving  each  other  in  relays  for 
Blood.  For  girls:  academies,  11.  The  number  of  forty  houra  continuously  in  each  church  in  succession, 
pupils  in  colleges  and  academies  is  1262.  Religious  according  to  the  order  determined  by  the  Vicar.  .  .  We. 
Communities. — ^Men:  Fathers  and  Brothers  of  the  Holy  approving  in  our  Lord  so  pious  an  institution,  ana 
Cross;  Franciscans;  Fathers  and  Brothers  of  the  confirming  the  same  by  Our  authority,  grant  and 
Precious  Blood.  Women:  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Croaa;  remit",  etc.  (Sala,  "Documenti",  IV,  9;  cf.  Ratti  in 
Poor  Handmaids  of  Christ;  Franciscan  Sisters  (vari-  "La  Scuola  Cattolica"  [1895].  204). 
ious  branches);  Dominican  Sisters;  Sisters  of  the  The  parchment  is  endorsea  on  the  back  in  a  con- 
Precious  Blood;  of  Notre  Dame;  of  St.  Joseph*  of  temporaryhand,  "The  first  concession  of  Indulgence" 
Providence;  of  the  Holv  FamUy;  of  St.  Ames.  The  etc.,  and  we  may  feel  siure  that  this  is  the  earliest 
following  communities  nave  novitiates  in  tne  diocese:  pronouncement  of  the  Holy  See  upon  the  subject. 
The  Fathers  and  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Cross,  at  Notre  But  the  practice  without  doubt  spread  rapidly,  though 


F0BT7 


152 


F0ET7 


the  details  cannot  be  traced  exactly.  Already  before 
the  year  1550  this,  or  some  analogous  exposition,  had 
been  established  by  St.  Philip  Neri  for  the  Confra- 
ternity of  the  Trinity  del  Pellegrini  in  Rome;  while  St. 
Ignatius  Loyola,  at  about  the  same  period,  seems  to 
have  lent  much  encouragement  to  the  practice  of  ex- 
posing the  Blessed  Sacrament  during  the  carnival,  as 
an  act  of  expiation  for  the  sins  committed  at  that 
season.  As  tnis  devotion  also  commonly  lasted  for  a 
period  of  about  two  days  or  fortv  hours,  it  seems  like- 
wise to  have  shared  the  name  "Quaranf  Ore";  and 
under  this  name  it  is  still  maintained  in  many  places 
abroad,  more  especially  in  France  and  Italy.  This 
form  of  the  practice  was  especially  promoted  by  the 
Oratorian  Father,  Bltessed  Juvenal  Ancina,  Bishop  of 
Saluzzo,  who  has  left  elaborate  instructions  for  the 
carrying  out  of  the  devotion  with  greater  solemnity 
and  decorum.  It  seems  that  it  is  especially  in  con- 
nexion with  these  exercises,  as  they  flourished  under 
the  direction  of  the  Oratorian  Fathers,  that  we  trace 
the  beginning  of  those  sacred  concerts  of  which  the 
memory  is  perpetuated  in  the  musical  "Oratorios"  of 
our  greatest  composers.  Elaborate  instructions  for 
the  re^ilation  of  the  Quarant'  Ore  and  for  an  analo- 
^us  devotion  called  "Oratio  sine  intermissione"  (im- 
interrupted  prayer)  were  also  issued  bv  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  and  will  be  found  among  the  Acta  Medio- 
lanensis  Ecclesias".  However,  the  most  imi)ortant 
document  belonging  to  this  matter  is  the  Constitution 
"  Graves  et  diutumsB"  of  Pope  Qement  VIII,  25  Nov., 
1 592.  In  the  presence  of  numberless  dangers  threaten- 
ing the  peace  of  Christendom  and  especially  of  the 
distracted  state  of  France,  the  pontiff  stron^y  com- 
mends tiie  practice  of  imweariea  prayer.  "  We  have 
determined^',  he  says,  "to  establish  publicly  in  this 
Mother  City  of  Rome  (in  hac  alma  Urbe)  an  uninter- 
rupted course  of  prayer  in  such  wise  that  in  the 
different  churches  (ne  specifies  the  various  categories), 
on  appointed  days,  there  be  observed  'the  pious  and 
salutary  devotion  of  the  Forty  Hours,  with  such  an 
arrangement  of  churches  and  times  that,  at  every  hour 
of  the  day  and  night,  the  whole  }rear  roimd,  the  incense 
of  prayer  shall  ascend  without  mtermission  before  the 
face  of  the  Lord ' '.  It  will  be  noticed  that,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  previously  cited  Brief  of  Paul  III,  the  keynote 
of  this  document  is  anxiety  for  the  peace  of  Christen- 
dom. "Pray,"  he  says,  "for  the  concord  of  Chris- 
tian princes,  pray  for  France,  pray  that  the  enemies  of 
our  faith  the  dreaded  Turks,  who  in  the  heat  of  their 
presumptuous  fury  threaten  slavery  and  devastation 
to  all  Cnristendom.  may  be  overthrown  by  the  right 
hand  of  the  Almighty  God".  Curiously  enough  the 
document  contains  no  explicit  mention  of  tiie  exposi- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  but  inasmuch  as  this 
feature  had  been  familiar  on  such  occasions  of  public 
prayer  both  in  Milan  and  at  Rome  itself  for  more  than 
naif  a  century,  we  may  infer  that  when  the  pope 
speaks  of  "the  pious  and  salutary  devotion  of  tne 
Forty  Hours"  he  assumes  that  the  prayer  b  made 
before  the  Blessed  Sacrament  exposed.  More  than  a 
century  later  Pope  Clement  XII,  m  1731,  issued  a  very 
minute  code  of  instructions  for  the  proper  carrying  out 
of  the  Quarant'  Ore  devotion,  upon  this,  which  is 
known  as  the  "Instructio  Clementina",  a  word  must 
be  said  later. 

With  regard  to  the  actual  originator  of  the  Forty 
Hours'  Devotion  there  has  been  much  difference  of 
opinion.  The  dispute  is  too  intricate  to  be  discussed 
here  in  detail.  On  the  whole  the  evidence  seems  to 
favour  the  conclusion  that  a  Capuchin  Father,  Joseph 
Piantanida  da  Fermo,  was  the  nrst  to  organize  the  ar- 
rangement by  which  the  Forty  Hours'  Exposition  was 
trao^erred  from  church  to  church  in  Milan  and  was 
there  kept  up  without  interruption  throu^out  all  the 
year(8eeNorbertinthe"Katholik",  Aug.,  1898).  On 
the  other  hand,  the  practice  of  exposing  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  witn  solemnity  for  foity  hours  was  oer* 


tainly  older;  and  in  Milan  itself  there  is  good  evidenoe 
that  one  Antonio  Bellotto  organised  this  in  connexion 
with  a  certain  confraternity  at  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  as  early  as  1527.  Moreover,  a  Dominican, 
Father  Thomas  Nieto,  the  Bamabite,  St.  Antonio 
Maria  Zaccharia,  and  hiis  friend,  Brother  Buono  of  Cre- 
mona, known  as  the  Hermit,  have  all  been  suggested 
as  the  founders  of  the  Forty  Hours'  Devotion.  The 
claims  of  the  last  named,  Brother  Buono,  have  re- 
cently  been  urged  by  Bergamaschi  ("  La  Scuola  Cat- 
tolica",  Milan,  Sept.,  1908,  327-333),  who  contends 
that  the  Quarant'  Ore  had  been  started  by  Brother 
Buono  at  Cremona  in  1529.  But  the  evidence  in  all 
these  cases  only  goes  to  show  that  the  practice  was 
then  being  introduced  of  exposing  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment with  solemnity  on  occasions  of  great  public 
calamity  or  peril,  and  that  for  such  expositions  the 
period  of  forty  hours  was  generally  selected.  That 
this  period  of  forty  hours  was  so  selected  seems  in  sJl 
probability  due  to  the  fact  that  this  was  about  the 
length  of  time  that  the  Body  of  Christ  remained  in  the 
tomb,  and  that  the  Blessed.  Sacrament  in  the  Middle 
Ages  was  left  in  the  Easter  Sepulchre.  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  speaks  as  if  this  practice  of  praying  for  forty 
hours  was  of  very  ancient  date;  and  ne  distinctly  re- 
fers it  to  the  forty  hours  our  Lord's  Body  remained  in 
the  tomb,  seeing  that  this  was  a  period  of  watching, 
suspense,  and  ardent  prayer  on  the  part  of  all  His  dis- 
ciples, in  all  probability  this  was  the  exact  truth. 
The  practice  of  reserving  the  Blessed  Sacrament  with 
some  solemnity  in  the  Easter  Sepulchre  began  in  the 
thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century;  and  seems  in  some 

E laces,  e.  g.  at  Zara  in  Dalmatia,  to  have  been  popu- 
irly  known  as  the  "  Prayer  [or  Supplication]  of  the 
Forty  Hours".  From  this  the  idea  ^w  up  of  trans- 
ferring this  figurative  vigil  of  forty  hours  to  other  days 
and  other  seasons.^  The  transference  to  the  carnival 
tide  was  very  obvious,  and  is  likely  enough  to  have 
occurred  inaependently  to  many  different  people. 
This  seems  to  have  been  the  case  with  Father  Manare, 
S.J.,  at  Macerata,  c.  1548,  but  probably  the  idea  sug- 
gested itself  to  others  earlier  than  this. 

Rubrical  Requirements. — ^The  "Instructio  Cle- 
mentina "  for  the  Quarant'  Ore  which  has  been  already 
mentioned  stands  almost  alone  among  rubrical  docu- 
ments in  the  minuteness  of  detail  into  which  it  enters. 
It  has  also  been  made  the  subject  of  an  elaborate  com- 
mentary by  Gardellini.  Only  a  few  details  can  be 
^ven  here.  The  Blessed  Sacrament  is  always,  except 
in  the  patriarchal  basilicas,  to  be  exposed  upon  the 
high  altar.  Statues,  pictures,  and  relics  in  the  imme- 
diate neighbourhood  are  to  oe  removed  or  covered. 
At  least  twenty  candles  are  to  be  kept  burning  day  and 
night.  The  altar  of  exposition  is  only  to  be  tended  by 
clerics  wearing  surplices.  Everything  is  to  be  done, 
e.  g.  by  hanging  curtains  at  the  doorways,  by  prohib- 
iting the  solicitation  of  alms,  etc.,  to  promote  recol- 
lection and  silence.  There  must  be  continuous  relays 
of  watchers  before  the  Blessed  Sacrament  j  and  these, 
if  possible,  should  include  a  priest  or  clenc  in  higher 
orders  who  alone  is  permitted  to  kneel  within  the 
sanctuary-  At  night  the  great  doors  of  the  church 
must  be  closed  and  women  excluded.  No  Masses 
must  be  said  at  the  altar  at  which  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment is  exposed.  Precise  regulations  are  made  as  to 
the  Masses  to  be  said  at  the  time  of  Exposition  and 
Deposition.  Except  on  greater  feasts,  this  Mass  must 
be  a  solemn  votive  Mass  de  Sandissimo  Sacramento, 
No  bells  are  to  be  rung  in  the  church  at  any  private 
Masses  which  may  be  said  there  while  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  is  exposed.  When  a  votive  Mass  de  SanC" 
Hasimo  Sacramenio  cannot  be  said,  according  to  the 
rubrics,  the  collect  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  at  least 
to  be  added  to  the  collects  of  the  Mass.  No  Requiem 
Masses  are  permitted.  As  already  intimated,  the 
Mass  jrro  pace  is  to  be  sun^  on  the  second  day  of  the 
Exposition;  and  the  litanies  of  the  saints  are  to  be 


F0BT7  153  FORUM 

chanted,  under  condition^  minutely  specified,  at  the  the  Roman  Forum^  built  in  the  fifth  century,  a  chapel 

conclusion  of  the  procession  both  at  the  opening  and  was  found,  built,  like  the  church  itself,  on  an  ancient 

at  the  close  of  the  Quarant'  Ore.    Finally  it  may  be  site,  and  consecrated  to  the  Forty  Martyrs.    A  pict- 

said  that  this  ^'Instructio  Clementina"  is  the  founda-  ure,  still  preserved  there,  dating  from  the  siztn  or 

tion  upon  which  is  based  the  ritual  for  all  ordinary  seventh  century,  depicts  tne  scene  of  the  martyrdom. 

Benedictions  and  Expositions.    For  example,  the  in-  The  names  of  the  confessors,  as  we  find  them  also  in 

censing  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  at  the  words  "  Gem-  later  sources,  were  formerly  inscribed  on  this  fresco 

tori  Genitoque"  of  the  "Tantum  Ergo",  the  use  of  [Papers  of  the  British  School  at  Rome,  I  (London, 

the  humeral  veil,  and  the  giving  of  the  Blessing  with  1902),  109  sqa.].    Acts  of  these  martyrs,  written  sub- 

the  monstrance,  etc.,  are  all  exactly  prescribed  m  sec-  sequentlv,  in  Greek,  Syriac  and  Latin,  are  yet  extant, 

tion  thirty-one  of  the  same  document.  al^  a  'Testament"  of  the  Forty  Martyrs.    Their 

WiLDT  'mKirchenha.,W,  I?}-!??:  Thurston.  Len^tmd  H^v  feast  is  celebrated  in  the  Greek,  as  well  as  in  the  Latin 

Week  (London.  1904),  III,  110-148;   Raibu,  Der  Tabemakd  rhi^r^h   I^n  0  Vfart^h 

etiw*  uiid  y«tef  (Freiburg.  N08).  273-292;  NoRBBBT,  Zur  0«-  '^^^i/o^ ^      u  t7  i o  i,-i.i-^i       x     •         i;-     i  ,• 

echidUe   dee    viersigetUndigen       Oebeiee     in    Katholtk,    Aug.,         Arfo55.,March.II,12Mq.;  BO^otheGa hagioffraphxca latwa, 

1898.  16  sqq.;    Ratti  in  La  Scuolq  CaUoliea  of  Milan,  Aug.,  f^-P^^^PJS^^  ^I»  /092  Bqq.;   Ruin  art.  Acta  eincera  Jed, 

1895;  and  idao  BBBaAMASCHi  in  the  same  periodical,  Aug.  and  Ratiabon)^643  "QQ.;  ArfjB  nuiHurvm  Hemtetorum  eyr.,  fd.  Bbd- 

Sept..  1908;   BBRaAMASCHi,  DeW  Origine  delle  SS.  Quarantore  ?an,  HI  (Pans.  1892);  BoNwvncH.Tatamentd^AaMArturer 

(Cremona,  1897);    Gardbluni.  in  MOhlbaubr,  Deereta  Au^  !P.y*»«  **«*'•  ^«te<*n/M892. pp. 713  aqq;  cf.  Haumlbttbr, 

thentica  Cong,  SS.  Rituum,  I.     Further  authorities  are  cited  in  ibid.,  978  aqq.;   SyMoanum  ConeUmhnopolUanum,  ed.  Dblj- 

the  notes  to  the  chapter  of  Lent  and  Holy  WedciuBt  mentioned,  hatb  (Brumeta.  1902),  621  Mq.;   Q6rbx8,  Dt«  LtcvnumtacHe 

TTvnnvnT  TrrrmaTrkitr  Chnetenverfouung  (Jena,  1875);  Allabo,  Htetotre  dee  pereieu- 

HBBBEKT    1HUB8TON.  ^^^^^  y  ^p^  jqqqj^  3^7  ^^ 

Forty  Martyrs,  a  party  of  soldiers  who  suffered  a  J«  P«  KiRsch. 

cruel  death  for  their  ifaith,  near  Sebaste,  in  Lesser 

Armenia,  victims  of  the  persecution  of  Licinius,  who,        Fonmii    £ccLE8iABncAL.^-That   the   Church   of 

after  the  year  316,'  persecuted  the  Christians  of  the  Christ  has  judicial  and  coercive  power  is  plain  from 

East.    The  earliest  account  of  their  martyrdom  is  the  constitution  given  to  it  by  its  Divine  Founder. 

fiven  by  St.  Basil,  Bishop  of  Csesarea  (370-379),  in  a  (See  Courts,  Ecclesiastical.)  This  judicial  juris- 
omily  delivered  on  the  feast  of  the  P'orty  Martyrs  diction  is  expressed  by  the  word  Farunif  the  Latin 
(Hom.  xix  in  P.  G.,  XXXI,  507  sqq. ;  Ruinart,  Acta  designation  for  a  place  containing  a  tribunal  of  justice, 
sincera,  ed.  Ratisbon,  545  sqa.).  The  feast  is  conse-  As  tne  Church  is  a  perfect  society,  she  possesses  within 
quently  more  ancient  than  tne  episcopate  of  Basil,  herself  all  the  powers  necessary  to  direct  her  members 
whose  eulogy  on  them  was  pronouncea  only  fifty  or  to  the  end  for  which  she  was  mstituted  and  she  has  a 
sixty  years  after  their  mart^nrdom,  which  is  thus  his-  correlative  right  to  be  obeyed  by  those  subject  to  her. 
toric  beyond  a  doubt.  According  to  St.  Basil,  forty  This  right  is  caJled  jurisdiction,  and  it  is  the  source  of 
soldiers  who  had  openlv  confessed  themselves  Chris-  all  the  Church's  action  that  is  not  derived  from  the 
tians  were  condemned  by  the  prefect  to  be  exposed  power  of  Sacred  orders.  It  is  thb  jurisdiction  which 
naked  upon  a  frozen  pond  near  Sebaste  on  a  bitterly  is  the  foimdation  of  ecclesiastical  law,  both  externally 
cold  night,  that  they  might  freeze  to  death.  Among  and  internally  binding,  and  from  Apostolic  times  it 
thecon&ssors,  one yieldea  and,  leaving hb companions,  has  been  put  mto  practice  by  the  Church's  rulers.  The 
sought  the  warm  baths  near  the  lake  which  had  been  public  judicial  power  of  the  Church  is  explicitly  men- 
prepared  for  any  who  might  prove  inconstant.  One  tioned  in  Holy  Scripture  (Matt.,  xviii,  17),  and  the 
of  the  guards  set  to  keep  watch  over  the  martyrs  be-  exercise  of  it  is  also  recorded  (Acts,  xv,  29}.  In  other 
held  at  this  moment  a  supernatural  brilliancy  over-  words,  just  as  the  civil  state  has  the  legitimate  juris- 
shadowing  them  and  at  once  proclaimed  himself  a  diction  over  its  subjects  to  guide  them  to  the  end  for 
Christian,  threw  off  his  garments,  and  placed  himself  which  it  was  instituted,  because  it  is  a  perfect  society, 
beside  the  thirty-nine  soldiers  of  Chnst.  Thus  the  so  likewise  the  Church,  being  constituted  by  Christ  as 
number  of  forty  remained  complete.  At  daybreak,  a  perfect  society,  possesses  within  itself  all  the  powers 
the  stiffened  bodies  of  the  confessors,  which  stiU  necessaiv  for  lawfully  and  effectively  attaining  the  end 
showed  signs  of  life,  were  burned  and  the  ashes  cast  for  which  it  was  established. 

into  a  river.  The  Christians,  however,  collected  the  As  the  power  of  the  Church  extends  not  only  to  its 
precious  remains,  and  the  relics  were  distributed  individual  members  but  also  to  the  whole  corporate 
throughout  many  dties;  in  this  way  the  veneration  body,  not  only  to  auestiops  concerning  the  conscience 
paid  to  the  Forty  Martyrs  became  widespread,  and  but  also  to  the  public  actions  of  its  subjects,  ecclesias- 
numerous  churches  were  erected  in  their  honour.  tical  jurisdiction  is  distinguished  into  that  of  the  inter- 
One  of  them  was  built  at  Csesarea,  in  Cappadocia,  nal  and  external  forum.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  inter- 
and  it  was  in  this  church  that  St.  Basil  publicly  deliv-  nal  forum  deals  with  questions  concerning  the  welfare 
ered  his  homily.  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  was  a  special  of  individual  Christians  and  with  their  relation  to  God. 
client  of  these  holy  martyrs.  Two  discourses  in  Hence  it.  is  called  the  forum  of  conscience  (Forum 
praise  of  them,  preached  by  him  in  the  church  dedi-  amacienHcB).  It  is  also  denominated  the  forum  of 
cated  to  them,  are  still  preserved  (P.  G.,  XLVI,  749  Heaven  (Jorum  poli)  because  it  guides  the  soul  on  the 
^qa,,  773  sqq.),  and  upon  the  death  of  his  parents,  he  path  to  God.  The  internal  forum  is  subdivided  into 
laid  them  to  rest  beside  the  relics  of  the  confessors,  the  sacramental  or  penitential,  which  is  exercised  in 
St.  Ephraem,  the  Syrian,  has  also  eulogized  the  Forty  the  tribunal  of  penance  or  at  least  is  connected  with  it, 
Martyrs  (Opera,  ed.  Assemani,  II,  Gr.,  341--356 ;  Hymni  and  the  extrarpenitential  forum.  Causes  concerning 
in  SS.  40  martyres,  in  Opera,  ed.  Lamy,  III,  937-958).  the  private  ana  secret  needs  of  the  faithful  can  often 
Sozomen,  who  was  an  eye-witness,  has  left  us  (Hist,  be  expedited  outside  of  sacramental  confession.  Thus, 
Eccl.,  IX,  2)  an  interesting  account  of  the  finding  vows  may  be  dispensed,  secret  censures  may  be  ab- 
of  the  relics  in  Constantinople  through  the  instru-  solved,  occult  impediments  of  matrimony  may  be 
mentality  of  the  Empress  Pulcheria.  Special  devo-  dispensed  outside  of  the  tribunal  of  penance.  The 
tion  to  the  Forty  Martyrs  of  Sebaste  was  introduced  at  internal  forum  deals  therefore  directly  with  the  spir- 
an  early  date  into  the  West.  St.  Gaudentius,  Bishop  itual  welfare  of  the  individual  faithful.  It  has  refer- 
of  Brescia  in  the  beginnine  of  the  fifth  century  (a.  ence  to  the  corporate  body  only  secondarily,  inasmuch 
about  410  or  427),  received  particles  of  the  ashes  of  as  the  good  of  the  whole  oi^nization  is  promoted  by 
the  martyrs  during  a  vo^rage  in  the  East,  and  placed  that  .of  the  individual  members.  Owinff  to  the  nature 
them  with  other  relics  in  the  altar  of  the  Imsilica  of  the  civil  state  and  the  end  for  which  it  was  insti- 
which  he  had  erected,  at  the  consecration  of  which  he  tuted,  it  has  no  jurisdiction  corresponding  to  the 
delivered  a  discourse,  still  extant  (P.  L..  XX,  959  ecclesiastical  forum  of  conscience.  Fmally,  it  may  so 
sqq.).    Near  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  Antiqua,  in  chance  that  circumstances  may  bring  about  a  conmot 


FOBSiLNO                              154  FOBSOBIBBONI 

between  the  internal  and  external  forum.    Thus,  for  of  this  power  does  not  fall' within  the  competenoe  of 

ezamplej  a  marriage  may  be  null  and  void  in  the  forum  the  ecclesiastical  f orum,  althou^  it  was  the  custom  of 

of  conscience,  but  bindmg  in  the  external  forum  for  the  latter  to  hand  over  the  crimmal  to  the  secular  arm 

want  ofjudicial  proofs  to  tne  contrary,  and  vice  versa,  for  the  infliction  of  the  death  penal  t]^.    The  encroach- 

The  Gnurch's  jurisdiction  in  the  external  forum  has  ments  of  the  civil  power  on  the  domain  of  the  Church's 

reference  to  matters  touching  the  public  and  social  jurisdiction  have  m  our  days,  practically  though  uih 

good  of  the  corporate  body.    It  corresponds,  conse-  warrantably,  restricted  the  ecclesiastical  forum  to 

quently,  very  closely  to  the  powers  exercised  by  civil  spiritual  causes  only. 

magistrates  m  aSairs  belonging  to  their  competence.  Pubrantonblu.  PraxiaFoH  B^.  (Rome,  1883);  Laubbn- 

wSle  the  exterma  forum  may  busy  itself  with  the  ^^^/l^^^^^J^^ti^^J^^^^-  ^J^ 

concerns  of  mdividuals,  it  does  so  only  m  as  far  as  BiM.  Ccm,,  s.  v.  (Rome,  1886).  Ill;  Smith,  Elements  of  Bed, 

these  aflfect  the  public  good.    Thus  the  absolution  of  i««  (New  York,  1895).                      tx    tkt   r? 

sins  belongs  to  tne  internal  forum,  but  the  concession  Wiluam  H.  W.  Fanning. 

of  the  facmty  for  performing  such  absolution  is  an  act  «^        ^  tn                   /-n                   v      -r^ 

of  the  external  forum.    The  jurisdiction  of  the  exter-  '^■■^^fi  Diocese  op  (Fossaotnsis).— Fosaano  is 

bal  forum  is  subdivided  into  voluntary  and  necessary.  »  ^^^  "^  ^^^  prpvmce  of  Cuneo,  m  Piedmont,  North- 

Voluntary,  or  extw^judicial,  is  that  which  a  superior  «"*.  ^^^i^  ?^^^^  ^i  ^ST^'  situated  in  a  fertile 

can  exeroi^  towards  those  who  invoke  his  power,  or  P*^  °f  *^«  !>»?)"  o^  ^^%  Stura;  it  is  an  important 

even  against  those  who  are  unwilling,  but  without  his  ^ntre^or  agriculture  and  form-stock ;  other  industries 

•  using  the  formalities  prescribed  in  law.    Necessary  or  ^  silkrweavmg,  paper-makingj,  and  basket-makmg; 

contentious  jurisdiction  is  that  which  the  judge  em-  r®*?  ^  ^  some  mineral  springs  m  the  neighbour- 


The  competence  of  the  ecclesiastical  forum  arises    t'^^l^J^?^  ^°'  «°T  V^^fv*^^  "castello"  or  stroM- 
ither  from  thepersons  or  the  cause  to  be  judged.   As    ^pld  still  shown.    In  1396  the  town  was  destroyed  by 


ecclesiastical,  or  they  may  be  mixed.    Purely  civU  ""'"-s  »-"«"  *«™.v,«  «.  x^*.iM»i«jr    i**  vuc  ^^u^ynnj 

causes  would  not  of  themselves  properly  belong  to  the  y?ar  they  were  dnven  out  by  Charles  V,  after  a  long 

Chureh's  forum,  as  she  recognises  the  full  competence  ®*®JB?*  ,?_    i         .         x      j -x  •    t^«/.       j.    ,»»«*> 

of  the  state  in  inch  matters.    Accidentelly,  h6wever,  ^,  The  IVench  agam  captured  it  m  1796,  and  m  1799 

Buch  causes  might  be  brought  before  the  ecclesiastic^  ^  Austnans,  under  General  Melas,  drove  out  the 


tribunal,  as  when  a  civil  judge  is  wanting  in  his  duty  f^/^^h  imder  Championnet.    The  painter  and  arohi- 

and  the  defect  can  be  supplied  bv  an  icclesiastical  ^^'  Ambropo  da  Fcmmio,  better  fcnow^  as  "II  Bor- 

judge.    This  supposes,  however,  the  pnustical  recog-  gogpone'   designer  of  the  Certosa  at  Pavia,  was  a 

iition  of  the  dhuroh's  forum  by  the  civil  power,  .native  of  Fossano. 

Ecclesiastical  causes  themselves  are  called  civiTwhen  The  episcopal  see  dates  from  1692;  from  1801  to 

they  concern  either  spiritual  things,  as  the  sacramente,  ^^l^^^Jf  suppreMcd,  ^ter  which  it  was^ain  re- 

or  iatters  connect^I  with  them,  m  churoh  property  established,    ft  contams  25  pansh«,  and  36,000  souls, 

the  right  of  patronage,  eto.    They  are  called crfminiii  ^  ^,^^^,^"1^,?,^  ^^'l  ^/^  T"*  ^^  for  women  2 

when  they  involve^e  dealing  with  deUnquente  guilty  ?^^f**i?^«J  establishmente  for  boys  and  2  for  pis, 

of  simony,  apostasy,  schism  and  the  like.    They  Je  ^  chantable  institutions,  and  one  weekly  CatHohc 

willed  mixed  <»u8e8  when  they  are  subjects  p^^  P«£JJ;,   ^,^^  ^  ^^„.  ^.  ^^^         ^  Cappkli*™. 

decision  by  either  the  ecolesiasUcal  or  civil  forum,  as  Le ehieaedT Italia  (VenioeTlSM), XIV,  281-286. 

usurious  contracte,  concubinage,   violations  of  the  U.  Benigni. 
Churoh's  peace,  ete.   Causes  are  likewise  called  mixed 

when  they  have  both  a  spiritual  and  temporal  end.  Fossombrone  (Forum  Semfronii),  Diocese  of 
Thus  matrimony,  in  ite  sacramental  nature  as  to  val-  (Forosempronienbib),  in  the  province  of  Pesaio, 
idity  or  nullity,  belongs  to  the  Chureh;  in  ite  temporal  Italy,  a  suffragan  of  Urbino.  The  ancient  Forum 
aspect,  as  to  the  property  of  married  persons  ana  sim-  Sempronii  took  ite  name  from  Caius  Sempronius 
ilar  things,  it  may  be  dealt  with  by  the  civil  tribunals.  Gracchus.  The  city  and  ite  environs  abound  in  antiq- 
To  this  class  of  mixed  causes  can  also  be  reduced  the  uities,  especially  inscriptions.  Noteworthy  remains  are 
suppression  of  heresy,  where  Chureh  and  Stete  co-  thestetueof  thegod  Vertumnus;  theFujrlo  Pass,  con- 
operate  with  each  other  for  the  maintenance  of  the  structed  by  the  Emperor  Vespasian  (70-76)  to  shorten 
integrity  of  the  faith  and  the  preservation  of  the  civil  the  passage  of  that  mountain;  and  the  bridge  of 
peace.  Finally,  many  causes,  of  their  own  nature  Trajan  (115)  near  Calmaszo,  and  that  of  Diocletian 
civil,  are  accounted  mbced  by  canoniste,  either  because  (292),  both  over  the  Meteurus.  Near  the  Fiu-lo  Pass, 
the  Stete  relinquished  them  to  the  Church's  tribunals  duringthe  Gothic  War,  was  fought  (552)  the  battle  of 
or  custom  gradually  caused  them  to  be  relegated  to  the  Petra  rertusa  (the  pierced  rock),  in  which  Totila  was 
ecclesiastical  forum,  such  as  the  recognition  of  last  overcome  by  the  Byzantine  general,  Narses.  Fossom- 
wills  and  testemente,  the  care  of  the  poor,  ete.  ,  brone  was  included  in  the  Donation  of  Pepin,  but  re- 
The  punishmente  which  may  be  mflicted  by  the  mained  subject  to  the  Duchy  of  Spoleto  until  1198, 
external  ecclesiastical  forum  are  not  only  spiritual,  as  when  it  passed  under  papal  rule.  It  was  then  held  in 
excommimication,  but  also  temporal  or  corporal.  As  fief  of  the  Holy  See  by  different  families:  by  the 
regards  the  infliction  of  the  death  penalty,  canoniste  house  of  Este  (1210-28),  the  Malateste  (1340-1445), 
generally  hold  that  ecclesiastical  law  forbids  inferior  the  Montefeltro  (of  Urbino,  1445-1631);  from  1500  to 
churoh  tribunals  to  decree  this  punishment  directly,  1503  it  acknowledged  the  rule  of  Caesar  Borgia, 
but  that  the  pope  or  a  general  council  has  the  power,  Christianity  was  introduced  there,  according  to 
at  least  indii-ectly,  inasmuch  as  they  can  demand  that  Ughelli,  by  St.  Felicianus  of  Foligno.  The  martyrolo- 
a  Catholic  stete  inflict  thispunishment  when  the  good  mes  mention  several  martyrs:  Aquilinus,  Geminus, 
of  the  Churoh  requires  it.  Finally,  they  hold  that  Uiere  Gelasius,  Magnus  and  Donate,  also  a  bishop,  Timothy, 
is  no  valid  aigument  to  prove  that  the  direct  exercise  and  his  daughter  (4  February).    The  first  bishop  of 


grave  t 
Uiree  o 


155 

certain  date  is  Innocent,  present  at  tbe  avnodB  of  Pope  b;  Cardinal  Hai  (9pic3.  Ram.,  IX,  133)  enumerates 
^nunachiu  (604).  Other  noteworthy  oiahops  were:  the  ordera  of  the  tswrgf  aa  oaliariut,  fostoritu,  ieetor, 
f^cuinus  (1086),  present  at  the  Council  of  S«lona  as  etc.  At  fiist  the  fossore  seem  to  have  received  no  regu- 
legate  of  Gregory  VII  to  receive  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  lar  salAiy,  but  were  paid  by  individuals  for  the  work 
the  Holy  See  from  Demetrius,  Kin£  of  Dalmatia;  St.  aooompUshed;  with  the  organisation  of  the  Qmrch, 
AldebrandoFaberi  (1119),  who  died  at  the  age  of  118  however,  they  appear  to  have  been  paid  from  the  oom- 
veara ;  Blessed  Riccardo  (date  uncertain) ;  Addo  mon  tresHury.  In  the  fourth  century  the  corporation 
Ravieri  (1379),  poet  and  litUraUw;  Paul  of  Middel-  of  foaaore  were  empowered  to  sell  burial  spaces,  as  we 
burg  (1494),  of  German  origin,  a  skilful  matheroati-  learn  frem  inscriptioos.  For  example,  in  the  ceme- 
cian,  and  author  of  a  woric  on  the  computation  of  ter^of  St.  Cyriacus  two  women  bought  from  the  foaaor 
Easter;  Giacomo  Guidiocioni  (1524),  a  famous  poet  Qumtus  a  bismnu*,  or  double  grave,  rcfrosancfoi  (near 
and  writer;  Cardinal  Nicold  Ardbg^elli  (1541),  who  a  martyr's  tomb),  and  there  are  several  other  refer- 
left  an  important  correspondence;  Giulio  ^oiaini  ences  to  this  practice.  The  corporation  of  fossors, 
(1808),  internuncio  in  Russia.  The  diooeee  has  20,060  there  is  good  reason  to  believe,  did  not  oonsist  merely 
inhabitants.  40  parishes,  }  educational  institution,  a  of  the  labourers  who  excavated  the  gallsries  of  thie 
Capuchin  convent,  ana  three  religious  houses  of  catacombs;  it  included  also  the  artists  who  decorated 
women.  the  tombs,  as  appears  from  another  allusion  in  the 

C*p?ELLiTn,  LtChiae  if  jfotia  (Tcnice,^  ISM),  HI,  245-83;     "G«ta  Apud  Zenophilum"  already  cited.     Accord- 
«.-.. .  -ca^«««tn».  do.  imvt  mtuKMtmt  m  ,u»tn  IF«-     j^g  f^  ^^^  authority  two  fossors  were  brought  before 
U.  BENiam.         ^^^  judge  (inductis  et  adpliciiia  Victort  Samsuriei  et 
Sahimino  fosaoribua);   when  interrogated  as  to  their 
S  (L^t.  foaaorei,  fotaarii  tiora  fodert,  to  dig),     calling,onereplied  ttiat  he  wasafossor,  the  other  that 
B  diraiers  in  the  Roman  catacombs  in  the  firat    he  was  an  artifex.    The  latter  term  at  that  period  in- 

J  or  Kur  centuries  of  the  Christian  Era.    The    duded  the  professiona  of  painter  and  sculptor.    Thus 

determination,  from  the  first  days  of  the  Church,  of  it  would  seem  that  this  person  who  is  generically  le- 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities  to  mter  the  mortal  re-    ferred  to  as  a  foasor  is  abo  an  artist. 

Among  the  representations  of  fossors  in  the  cata- 
oombs  the  one  bc^  known,  through  Wiseman's  "  Pabi* 
ola",  is  that  of  the  fossor  Diogenes,  discovered  by 
Boldetti.  Tije  picture,  which  was  senously  injured  in 
an  attempt  to  remove  it  from  the  wall,  represents 
Diogenes  with  his  pick  over  his  right  shoulder  and  » 
sack,  probablv  containing  his  midday  meal,  on  his  left 
shoulaer,  while  in  his  left  nand  he  carries  a  staff  with  a 
li^t   attached.     The   inscription   reads:     Dioqenss 

rOBSOR,  IN  PACE  DBPOSirVS,  OCTABV  KAIfNDAS  OCTO. 

BoiB  (thefossorDiogenes,  interred  in  peace,  the  eighth 
day  before  the  calends  of  October).  The  oldest  fresco 
of  a  foasor,  or  rather  of  two  fossors,  dating  from  the 
latter  half  of  the  second  century,  is  in  one  of  the  so- 
ealled  Sacrament  Chapels  in  the  catacomb  of  8t.  Cal- 
listus.  The  figures  are  represented  pointing  toward 
three  Eucharistic  scenes,  probably  to  indicate  anoUier 
of  their  duties,  which  was  to  exclude  unauthorised  per- 
sons  from  taking  part  in  the  liturgical  celebrations 
held  occasionally  in  the  cemeteries  in  commemoration 
of  martyrs.  Representations  of  fossors  are  usually 
near  the  entrance  to  the  subterranean  cemeteries. 

I  KKAUa  in  Rtal-Bnei/it-  der  thntUidien  AlirrlltanleT  (Fniharg, 

1882),  a.  v.T  NoBTBoora  and  Bkowhlow,  Roma  Satlcrranta 
{London,  1878);  Vehabl.es  in  Diel.  Cliriat.  Anlig.,  a.  v.;  Kauf- 
I  tUKH ,  Jfaniiab  ih'  onAeoI.  crufiona  (Roma,  ISOT). 

DiooBNEs  THE  TonoH                                                                                   Mauricb  M.  IlA«airrT. 
Fourth  OutuTT,  Cktaoomb  ol  Domitlllit  —      .         ,  „  ■ ,.  

Foster,  John  Grat,  soldier,  convert,  b,  at  Whit- 

mama  of  the  faithful  in  cemeteries  reserved  exclusively  field  New  Hampshire  U.S.A.,  27  May,  1823;  d.  at 

to  Christians,  brought  into  existence  the  class  of  work-  Nashua,  New  Hampshire,  2  September,  1874.    After 

men  Icnown  as  fossors.    The  duties  of  the  Christian  graduating  at  the  West  Point  Milila^  Academy  in 

fossor  corresponded  in  a  general  way  with  those  of  the  1846,  he  served  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  Engineer  Corps 

pagan  weapiHone*,  but  whereas  the  latter  were  held  in  during  the  Mexican  War,  where  he  was  woundedat  the 

ftnytbing  but  esteem  in  pagan  society,  the  fossors  from  battle  of  Molino  del  Rey.     A  service  on  the  Coast  Sur- 

on  early  date  were  ranked  among  the  inferior  clergy  of  vey,  1 852—54,  brought  him  promotion  to  a  first  lieu- 

tfae  Chureh  (Wieland,  Ordines  Minores,  1867),  an  ex-  tenancy  and  assignment  as  assistaiit  profesi 

eellentexample  of  the  elevating  inSuence  of  Qiristian-     — ' ' '  "'— .  t.-?-.  — i  — .  ■- i-.i. 

i^  on  the  lowest  orders  of  society.     An  interesting 

literaryreferencetofoasors.intheircliaracterofone^ „. _„„„.»™,^  „_  ^  wu^ 

theorderBoftbeinferiorclergy,isfoundinthe"GeBta  mand  at  Fort  Moultrie,  Charleston  harbour,  and  dur- 
apud  Zenoohilum",  an  appendix  to  the  work  of  St.  ing  the  night  of  26  Deceml^er,  1860,  succeeded  in 
Optatus  of  Mileve  against  the  Donatists.  Speaking  of  transferring  the  garrison  under  ius  command  to  Fm* 
^e  "house  in  which  Christians  assembled"  at  Cirta  in  Sumter,  in  the  subsequent  defence  of  which  he  took 
the  year  303,  during  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  this  so  conspicuous  a  part  as  to  earn  the  brevet  rank  of 
wntisr  enumerates  first  the  higher  orders  of  the  clergy  major.  He  was  commissjoned  a  brigadier-general  of 
present,  from  the  bishop  to  the  subdeacons,  and  then  volunteers,  23  October,  1861,  and  assisted  in  Bum- 
mentions  by  name  the  fossors  Januarius,  Heraclus,  side's  North  Carolina  expedition.  It  was  at  this  time 
Fruotuoeua,  ft  ceteris /oMoribua(''Opp.  8.  Optat{",ed.  that  his  conversion  occurred,  his  baptism  toting  place 
C.  Ziwaa,  in  "Corpus  Script.  Eccl.  Lat,",  Vienna,  1893,  in  New  York,  4  November,  1861.  He  was  commander 
jfXVI,  187).  St.  Jerome  also  (Ep.  ilix)  alludes  to  of  the  Department  of  North  Carolina,  during  1862-3, 
lOHBon  as  dend,  and  a  aixth-centuiy  chronicle  edited  with  tiie  rank  of  major^generaL     The  oomUned  De- 


FOTHAD 


156 


FOUOAULT 


ptartments  of  Vii^ginia  and  North  Carolina  were  as- 
signed to  him  from  July  to  November,  1863,  and  then 
tluit  of  Ohio,  which  he  had  to  relinqiush,  owing  to  in- 
jiiries  received  by  a  fall  from  hia  horse.  lie  next 
aided  Sherman  in  the  reduction  of  Charleston,  and  for 
gallant  services  in  the  capture  of  Savannah  was  bre- 
veted brigadier-general  m  the  regular  army.  Dur- 
ing 1865-6  he  was  in  command  of  the  Department  of 
Florida,  and  then  superintended  various  river  and 
harbour  improvements.  In  the  harbours  of  Boston 
and  Portsmouth  he  conducted,  with  ^reat  ability  and 
success,  important  submarine  operations,  an  experi- 
ence which  added  the  value  of  direct  experience  to  his 
work  on  "Submarine  Blasting  in  Boston  Harbor" 
(New  York,  1869)  and  his  articles  in  various  periodi- 
cals on  engineering  subjects,  which  received  high  pro- 
fessional approval. 

POoi  (Bocton,  Sept.,  1874),  aies;  Cydopadia  ct  AtMriean 
Bioffraphy,  II,  a.  v. 

Thomas  F.  Mbshan. 

Fothad,  Saint,  sumamed  na  Canoinb  (of  the 
Canon),  a  monk  of  Fahan-Mura,  County  Donegal,  Ire- 
land, at  the  close  of  the  eighth  century.  He  oecame 
bard,  counsellor,  and  tutor  to  Aedh  Oirnidh  (the  digni- 
fied), Ard  High  (Head  King)  of  Ireland,  who  ruled 
from  794  to  818.  He  is  specially  venerated  in  the 
Irish  Church  from  the  fact  that,  m  804,  when  he  ac- 
companied King  Aedh  in  his  expedition  against  the 
Leinstermen.  he  obtained  from  that  monarch  exemp- 
tion of  the  clergy  forever  from  military  service.  His 
literary  gifts  were  so  highly  thought  of  that  St.  Aengus 
submittM  his  "Felire"^  to  him  for  his  approval,  and, 
in  return,  St.  Fothad  presented  St.  Aengus  with  a  copy 
of  his ''  Remonstrance  ",  addressed  to  King  Aedh,  pro- 
testing against  the  conscription  of  ecclesiastics.  This 
''  Remonstrance  ",  which  was  reallv  a  rhymed  judicial 
opinion,  was  known  as  a  canon  or  aectee,  and  hence  St. 
Fothad  was  ever  after  called  "Fothad  na  Canoine*'. 
It  commences  thus:  "  The  Church  of  the  living  God  let 
her  alone,  waste  her  not  *\ 

O'Hanlon,  lAvM  qf  the  IrUh  Sainta  (Dublin,  8.  d.);  Htdb, 
IaI.  Hiat,  of  Ireland  (London,  1001);  Hbalt,  Irdand^e  Ancient 
SchooU  and  Sdiolara  (Dublin,  1902);  O'Currt.  Lectures  {Thxh- 
Un,  1861) ;  Mathbw.  The  0*NeUls  of  UUler  (DubUn,  1907). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Fooard,  Constant,  ecclesiastical  writer;  b.  at 
Elbeuf,  near  Rouen,  6  Aug.,  1837;  d.  at  his  native 
place,  3  Dec..  1903.  The  whole  of  his  early  life  waa  a 
preparation  tor  the  work  on  which  his  fame  rests.  He 
studied  the  classics  at  Boisguillaume,  philosophy  at 
Issy  (185&-1857),  and  made  nis  theological  studies  at 
St-Siilpice,  Paris  (1857-61).  Among  his  profes- 
sors at  Paris  were  Abb^  John  Hogan,  who  remained 
throughout  life  the  inspirer  and  mentor  of  his  studies, 
and  Abb4  Le  Hir,  who  initiated  him  and  his  fellow- 
disciple  Vigouroux  into  Biblical  science,  to  which  they 
devoted  their  lives.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1861 
and  entered  the  "  Solitude  ",  the  novitiate  of  the  Sulpi- 
cians,  but  left  on  account  of  illness  after  several 
months  without  joining  their  society.  He  taught  for 
some  time  at  Boisguillaume,  then  pursued  the  stud^  of 
classics  at  the  college  of  Saint  Baroara,  Paris,  obtamed 
the  degree  of  Licentiate  in  Letters,  1867,  ana  resumed 
the  teaching  of  classics  at  Boisguillaume,  taking  the 
class  of  rhetoric,  1867-1876.  His  piety  drawing 
him  to  sacred  sciences,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
State  (1876)  to  the  chair  of  Holy  Scripture  in  the 
facility  of  theology  at  Rouen;  he  continued,  however, 
to  reside  at  Boisguillaume  and  to  share  in  the  duty  ot 
governing  the  student-body. 

Honours  came  to  him :  he  was  made  doctor  of  theo- 
logy (1877),  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Rouen  (1884), 
and  member  of  the  Biblical  Commission  (1903).  His 
ecclesiastical  science,  his  piety,  his  spiritual  wisdom 
were  continually  at  tne  service  of  religion  in  his  native 
diocese.  For  the  benefit  of  his  studies  he  travelled  in 
Palestine,  Syria,  Greece,  and  Italy.    The  Faculty  of 


Theology  being  suppressed  about  1884.  his  teaching 
ceased.  His  writing  are:  "La  Vie  ae  N-S  J^sus- 
Christ"  (1880);  ''Saint  Pierre  et  les  premieres  ann^es 
du  Christianisme  "  (1886) ;  "  Saint  Paul,  ses  Missions  " 
(1892);  'f  Saint  Paul,  ses  demi^res  ann^es"  (1897); 
"Saint  Jean  et  la  fin  de  T&ge  apostoUque"  (posthu- 
mous, 1904).  The  dates  witness,  incidentally,  to  the 
extremely  painstaking  character  of  his  labours.  All 
these  books  form  part  of  one  grand  work,  "  Les  Oi^ 
igines  de  TEglise'',  which  Fouard  wrote  as  an  answer 
to  the  presentation  of  the  same  subject  by  Renan,  who 
like  himself  had  been  a  pupil  of  Le  Hir.  Each  succes- 
sive book  of  the  Abb^  Fouard  immediately  gained  a 
wide  popularity  and  was  translated  into  nearly  all  the 
languages  of  Europe. 

His  work  is  esteemed  for  the  interest  of  its  narra- 
tives, the  purity  of  its  diction,  its  correctness  in  doc- 
trine, its  conservative  but  not  reactionary  critical 
viewpoint,  its  breadth  and  accuracy  of  erudition,  and 
for  its  evidently  sincere  piety,  the  manifestation  of  a 
good  and  gentle  spirit,  loving  God,  delighting  in  na- 
ture, and  earnestly  desiring  to  do  good  to  men.  With 
one  touch  of  genius,  or  greater  depth  of  feeling  (gifts 
which  were  denied  him),  he  mi^t  have  fused  the 
various  elements  of  his  writings  into  a  truly  ^at  work. 
His  works  are  not  remarkable  in  originality  of  view 
or  acuteness  of  critical  insight,  but  present,  as  a  whole, 
a  faithful  picture  of  early  Christianity,  satisfying  to 
the  Christian  heart.  Perhaps  his  most  esteemed  books 
are  the  two  on  Saint  Paul.  The  Enslish  translation 
of  his  writings  is  exceptionally  well  done. 

Bulletin  dee  Aneiene  Elhtea  de  St^ulviee  (Paris.  1904). 

John  F.  Fenlon. 

Foucanlt,  Jean-Bertrand-L^on,  physicist  and 
mechanician,  b.  at  Paris,  19  Sept.,  1819;  d.  there  11 
Feb.,  1868.  He  received  his  early  schooling  at  home 
and  showed  his  mechanical  skill  by  constructing  a 
boat,  a  mechanical  telegraph,  and  a  working  steam- 
engine.  He  passed  the  examinations  for  the  B.A.  and 
began  to  study  medicine.  Later,  unable  to  bear  the 
si^t  of  blood,lie  abandoned  medicine  and  worked  for 
Donn^  as  preparator  in  his  course  on  medical  micros- 
copy. His  elementary  mathematical  and  scientific 
training  had  been  very  deficient  and  he  supplemented 
it  ashebecame  interested  in  invention  and  experiment. 
In  1845  he  succeeded  Donn^  as  scientific  editor  of  the 
''Joumid  des  D6bats".  In  1850  he  was  awarded  the 
Copley  medal,  the  highest  honour  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London,  for  his  work  showing  the  relation  between 
mechanical  energy,  heat,  and  magnetism.  The  posi- 
tion of  physicist  of  the  Paris  Observatory  was  created 
especially  for  him  in  1855.  A  member  of  the  Bureau  of 
Longitudes  (1862),  he  was  finally  elected  to  the  Acad- 
emy in  1865.  Those  of  Berlin  and  St.  Petersburg,  and 
the  Royal  Society  of  London  also  honoured  him. 

Foucault  worked  along  several  lines.  With  Fiseau 
he  experimented  upon  the  interference  of  red  rays  and 
their  influence  on  daguerrotype  plates,  while  with 
R^gnault  he  studied  binocular  vision.  We  are  in- 
debted to  him  for  the  crucial  experiment  overtuminff 
the  corpuscular  or  emission  theory  of  light,  defended 
by  Kepler,  Newton,  and  Laplace.  Following  Ars^o's 
suggestion  he  used  the  rotating  mirror  of  Wneatstone 
to  aetermine  the  difference  between  the  velocities  of 
light  in  various  transparent  media.  Contrary  to  the 
emission  theory  he  found  that  light  travels  faster  in 
air  than  in  the  denser  medium  water  (17  May,  1850). 
la^ht  was  reflected  from  a  mirror  through  a  tube,  con- 
taining the  medium  to  be  studied,  to  a  concave  reflec- 
tor and  back  again  to  the  mirror.  If  the  mirror  was 
rotated^  the  image  was  observed  to  shift  by  an  amount 
depending  on  the  speed  of  light  through  toe  particular 
medium  in  the  tube.  Exce^ingly  accurate  measure- 
ments were  made  of  this  enormous  velocity  (about 
186,000  miles  per  second)  with  an  apparatus  occupy- 
ing only  twelve  feet  of  space.   Foucault  invented  an 


FOULQUB                               157  FOUHDATIOH 

automatic  regulator  for  the  feed  of  the  Davy  electric  repair  the  ramparts  of  Acre  and  Tyre,  but  he  had 

arc  lamp  ana  thus  made  electric  lighting  practicable,  aroused  distrust,  and  his  later  success  was  slight.    He 

llie  Foucault  pendulum  was  invented  to  ciemonstrate  retmned  to  Neuill^,  where  he  restored  the  parish 

visibly  the  rotation  of  the  earth'  the  one  exhibited  at  church,  which  is  still  in  existence.    When  Foulque 

the  Pantheon  in  Paris,  in  1851,  was  220  feet  long.  The  died,  he  was  regarded  as  a  jsaint.    He  had  taken  a 

gjrroscope  with  its  intricate  and  puzzling  movement^  decisive  part  in  the  preparation  for  the  Crusade  of 

was  another  device  invented  by  him  to  snow  also  the  1204. 

earth's  motion  around  its  axis.    This  gained  for  him  ^  L«b<tof.  HiOoin  dw  dweiw  A  Pom  (Paris.  1794).  VI:  Du 

the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  Foucault  currents  aocuminta  concerning  Foulque  are  in  Bouquet.  Hx$icrunu  de 

are  heating  currents  of  electncity  developed  m  a  disc  Prance,  XVIII  and  XIX;  Luchaiu,  Innoonu  III  {La  QuM^ion 

of  metal  rotating  between  the  poles  of  a  strong  mag-  tFOrient)  (Paris.  1907).                     Louis  Bb^hieb. 
net.  He  had  observed  and  reported  this  effect  in  1855. 

As  physicist  at  the  observatory  he  applied  himself  also  Fonndatioii  (Lat.  fundatio;  Ger.  Stiftung). — ^An  eo- 

to  the  improvement  of  large  telescopic  lenses  and  re-  clesiastical  foundation  is  the  makinp;  over  of  temporal 

flectors,  devising  a  method  for  silvering  the  surface  of  goods  to  an  ecclesiastical  corporation  or  individual, 

a  glass  reflector.   The  mercury  interrupter  used  with  either  by  gift  during  life  or  by  will  after  death,  on  the 

the  induction  coil  and  an  excellent  fonn  of  engine  condition  of  some  spiritual  work  beins  done  either  in 

governor  are  also  due  to  him.    Foucault  at  first  ap-  perpetuitv  or  for  a  long  time.    It  would  be  difficult  to 

peared  careless  in  the  performance  of  his  religious  say  exactly  when  foundations,  as  distinct  from  obla- 

duties  but  in  later  years  he  was  a  practical  Catholic,  tions  or  offering,  began  to  be  considered  as  a  normal 

A  stroke  of  paralysis  put  an  untimely  end  to  his  useful  means  of  ecclesiastical  support.   Offering  which  were 

work,  just  as  he  was  about  to  enjoy  the  comforts  of  a  gjven  on  the  occasion  c^  some  ecclesiastical  ministra- 

well-equipped  laboratory.    His  contributions  to  sci-  tion  are  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  Apostolic  Church, 

ence  are  found  in  the  ^'CompteS  rendus'',  "Procte  In  earlyChristian  times  (the  first  three  centuries)  these 

verbaux  de  la  Soci6td  Philomathique",  and  ''Biblio-  offerings  were  spontaneous,  but  in  the  course  of  time 

thdque  d'Instruction  populaire ' '.  His  collected  works  the  Church  had  to  exercise  her  right  to  demand  support 

haVe  been  put  in  order  by  C.  M.  Gabriel  and  published  from  the  faithful.  The  custom  of  giving  and  consecrat- 

by  his  motner,  "  RecueU  des  Travaux  Scientifiques  de  ing  the  first-fruits  (primitice)  to  God  and  the  mainten- 

li^on  Foucault"  (Paris,  1878).  ance  of  His  ministers  appears  to  have  lasted  until 

Puinam'a  Maoanne  (New  York).  October.  1856;  MoiaNo.  about  the  fifth  century.    Quite  ancient  also  are  the 

^^^  iSSS'-i^iir  t^".&."i4Sr'  '•^-  '*'*''  <^^'<«  t'thee  (notneoe«arily  a  tenth):  a  portion 

William  Fox.  ^  ^^®  harvest,  or  poods,  or  wealth,  offered  for  the 

same  purpose  of  mamtenance  of  the  clergy^  and  for  the 

Foulque  deNeuillyf  a  popular  Crusade  preacher;  d.  due  preservation  of  the  services  of  the  Church;  this 
March,  1202.  At  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  he  also  has  now  almost  entirely  disappeared  (see  Tithes). 
was  ciNri  at  the  churoh  of  Neuilly-sur-Mame,  in  the  Such  popular  contributions  are  often  mentioned  in 
Diocese  of  Paris  (now  the  department  of  Seine-et-  early  Christian  writers,  e.  g.  St.  John  Chrysostom, 
Oise).  According  to  Jacc^ues  de  Vitrv  he  once  led  an  Hom.  xliii,  in  Ep.  I.  ad  Cor.,  ch.  xvi;  St.  Jerome,  vol. 
irregular  life,  but  experienced  a  sudden  conversion.  VI,  in c.iiiMalacnis;  St.  Augustine,  "Enarratio in  Ps.", 
Asmtraed  of  nis  ignorance,  he  went  to  Paris  to  study  cxlvi.  Under  Emperor  Constantine  the  mutual  rela- 
under  Pierre,  a  chanter  of  Notre-Dame.  It  was  not  tions  of  the  Church  and  State  were  readjusted;  the 
long  before  his  master  noticed  his  earnestness  and  had  prerogatives  of  the  Church  and  the  sphere  of  her  action 
him  preach  in  the  church  of  Saint-S^verin  before  a  were  enlarged.  H&vinp  obtained  political  recognition, 
number  of  students.  His  eloquence  was  so  great  that  she  acquired  also  the  right  of  accepting  donations  and 
he  was  thought  to  be  inspired  by  the  Holv  Ghost,  legacies,  which,  as  a  rule,  were  set  a^art  by  the  bishops 
Large  crowds  assembled  to  hear  him  in  the  Place  for  the  erection  and  maintenance  of  hospitals  for  tne 
Champeaux  where  he  was  wont  to  preach.  He  was  sick,  orphan  asylums,  and  homes  for  tne  aged  and 
especially  severe  in  his  denimciation  of  usurers  and  those  destitute  of  all  other  means  of  support.  At  a 
dissolute  women.  In  1195,  according  to  Rigord,  with  Synod  of  Orleans  (541)  it  was  enacted  that  if  an  over- 
the  assent  of  the  Bishop  of  Paris,  he  began  to  preach  in  lord  wished  to  have  an  ecclesiastical  district  estab- 
the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  and  is  soon  af  towards  met  li^ed  on  his  propertv  he  must  previously  make  a  com* 
with  successively  in  Normandy,  at  Lisieux  and  Caen,  petent  provision  in  luid  for  tne  maintenance  of  the 
later  in  Burgundy.  Picardv,  and  Flanders.  He  was  churoh  and  of  the  ecclesiastics  who  wero  to  serve  it. 
credited  with  power  to  work  miracles,  and  from  every  To  the  volimtary  offerings  made  to  the  clergy  must  be 
quarter  the  sick  were  brought  to  him,  whom  he  cured  added  the  numerous  legacies  which  the  Churoh  began 
by  the  laying  on  of  hands  and  by  the  sign  of  the  cross,  io  receive  from  the  converted  barbarian  peoples  from 
After  1198  ne  preached  the  Fourth  Crusade  amid  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  on;  also,  at  an  earlier 
much  popular  enthusiasm.  He  declared  later  that  date,  the  contributions  of  com  and  wheat  granted 
in  threie  years  he  had  given  the  cross  to  more  than  anniially  out  of  the  public  grai^aries  by  order  of  Con- 
200,000  persons.  According  to  Jean  de  Flixecourt,  it  stantine.  In  the  West  these  revenues  were  usually  di- 
was  Pierre  le  Chantre  who  pointed  out  his  ability  as  a  vided  into  four  parts,  and  allotted  respectively  to  the 
preacher  to  Innocent  III.  In  November,  1198,  the  bishop,  the  clergy,  the  poor,  and  the  care  of  the  eocle- 
pope  conferred  upon  him  the  necessary  powers,  with  siastical  buildings.  At  the  end  of  the  twelfth  and  the 
the  right  of  choosing  his  assistants  among  the  secu-  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  enei^  dis- 
lar  dergv  (Historiens  de  France,  XIX,  369).  The  pla^red  by  the  clergy  in  political  affairs  gave  nse  to  a 
chief  of  these  were  Pierre  de  Roussi,  Eustache,  Abbot  spirit  of  public  enterprise  which  manifested  itself  in 
of  Flai,  and  Herloin,  a  monk  of  Saint-Denis.  Herloin  tne  formation  of  industrial  guilds  and  the  creation  of 
even  led  a  band  of  Breton  Crusaders  as  far  as  Saint-  charitable  institutions,  such  as  orphan  asylums,  found- 
Jean  d'Acre.  In  1200  many  nobles  of  Northern  Ibg  homes,  hospitals,  houses  for  the  aged  and  infirm, 
France  had  taken  the  cross.  On  the  nineteenth  of  hospices,  and  leper-hospitals,  the  majority  of  which 
Mareh  of  that  year  Foulque  preached  at  Li^  were  liberally  endowed.  For  an  account  of  this  won- 
(Hist,  de  France,  XVIII,  616).  After  Boniface  of  derful  era  of  popular  generosity,  see  Thomassin,''yetus 
Montserrat  had  been  chosen  leader  of  the  crusade  acnovaeccles.disciplina''.  Ill,  1-30;  and  LaUemand, 
Foulque  gave  him  the  cross  at  Soissons.  In  1201  he  "Hist,  de  la  Charity"  (Paris.  1906). 
assisted  at  the  chapter  of  Ctteaux  with  Boniface,  and  In  general,  the  Churoh  now  derives  its  support 
entrusted  to  the  Cistereians  a  portion  of  the  alms  he  mainly  from  voluntary  offerings,  dvil  aid  or  Bubady, 
had  collected  for  the  Holy  Lana.    These  were  used  to  and  pious  foundations.    Foundations  for  pious  uses 


FOUNDATIOV 


158 


FOUHDATIOH 


may  oome  under  any  one  of  the  following  beads:  leg- 
acies for  Masses;  legacies  to  a  particmar^  diocesei 
church,  school,  etc.;  to  a  charitable  institution,  e.  g. 
an  orphanage  or  a  hospital;  to  any  society  established 
for  an  educational  or  (maritable  purpose,  or  in  general 
for  a  religious  end. 

Foundations  are  contracts;  therefore  there  must  be 
mutual  consent  between  the  founder  and  the  adminis- 
trator of  the  institute  receiving  the  gift.  Moreover, 
there  is  the  obligation  of  performing  some  work  speci- 
fied in  the  deed  of  foundation.  Tiie  consent  ol  the 
bishop,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  regular  community,  the  con- 
sent of  the  regular  prelate,  must  be  obtained,  since  it 
would  not  be  just  that  ecclesiastical  institutions  should 
be  placed  under  obligations  which  they  are  unable  to 
fulnl  (Sacred  Conereeation  of  the  Coimcil,  23  Nov., 
1697).  Benedict  Xl  V  considers  supervision  of  the  ex- 
ecution of  pious  legacies  one  of  the  most  solemn  and 
important  duties  of  a  bishop  (De  Synodo,  Bk.  XIII). 
The  Council  of  Trent  says  (Sess.  XXII,  ch.  ix):  "The 
administrators,  whether  ecclesiastical  or  lay,  of  the 
fabric  of  any  cnurch  whatsoever,  even  thou^  it  be  a 
cathedral,  as  also  of  any  hospital,  confratermty,  chari- 
table institutions  called  'montes  pietatis',  and  of  any 
place  whatsoever,  shall  be  bound  to  give  in  once  a  year 
an  account  of  their  administration  to  the  ordinary^  all 
customs  and  privileges  to  the  contrary  being  set  aside : 
unless  it  should  happen  that,  in  the  institution  and 
relations  of  any  cnurch  or  fabric,  it  has  been  other- 
wise expressly  provided.  But  if  from  custom,  or  privi- 
lege, or  some  regulation  of  the  place,  their  account  has 
to  be  rendered  to  others  deputed  thereunto,  in  that 
case  also  the  ordinary  shall  be  employed  jointlv  with 
them,  and  all  acquittances  given  otherwise  shaU  be  of 
no  avap  to  the  said  administratoris." 

In  the  list  of  questions  to  be  answered  by  bishops  on 
their  Roman  visits  ad  limina  the  Congregation  of 
Propaganda  asks  the  following  (nos.  49,  50):  Are 
there  anv  pious  foundations  in  the  diocese  or  legacies 
beaueathed  for  pious  purposes?  Are  the  proceeds  of 
Bucn  bequests  properly  administered  and  the  canons 
relating  to  such  matters  attended  to?  (See  also  the 
Constitution  of  Leo  XIII  affecting  congregations  of 
simple  vows  and  known  as  "Conaitse  a  Clhristo",  8 
Dec.,  1900.)  Thf  bishop  by  a  general  statute  may 
stipiuate  that  foundations  are  onlv  to  be  accepted 
under  certain  conditions.  It  is  to  oe  noted  that  ao- 
oeptalion  without  the  consent  of  the  bishop  does  not 
invalidate  the  legacy,  but  it  is  in  the  power  of  the  bishop 
to  rescind  the  contract  if  he  judge  it  proper,  although 
in  the  case  of  Masses  in  perpetuity  Urban  VIII  ap- 
proved a  decree  which  postiuates  the  consent  of  the 
Dishop  as  necessary  before  such  obligation  can  be  in- 
curred. Tlie  founder  can,  on  the  occasion  of  his  gift, 
make  any  reservations  that  please  him^  prpvided  the 
conditions  are  possible  and  ntting,  are  m  no  wa^  ad- 
verse to  the  Divine  and  natural  law,  and  are  admitted 
by  the  bishop.  The  specific  works  which  have  to  be 
fulfilled  must  be  set  forth  in  the  deed  of  foundation. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  founder,  or  his  heirs,  and  the 
bishop  cannot  change  the  terms  of  a  foundation  once 
canonically^  erected,  especially  if  the  change  would  be 
to  the  detriment  of  a  tiiird  person. 

In  the  decrees  of  Urban  VIII,  "Cum  S»pe"  (21 
Jan.,  1625),  and  Innocent  XII,  "Nuper  a  oongrega- 
tione''  (23  Dec,  1697),  it  is  ordered  that  the  stipu- 
lated Masses  or  other  works  must  be  fulfilled  as  a 
matter  of  j  ustice ;  and,  if  not  fulfilled,  those  responsible 
for  the  omission  sin  gravely  and  are  bound  to  restitu- 
tion. Money  left  as  a  foundation  must  be  invested  as 
soon  as  possible.  A  list  of  founded  Masses  is  to  be 
kept  in  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  church;  and  when 
the  Masses  have  been  celebrated  the  fulfilment  of  the 
obligation  is  to  be  noted  in  a  book  kept  for  that  pur- 
pose. The  obligation  of  a  foundation  ceases  abso- 
lutely when  the  income  or  principal  is  lost  without 
fault  on  the  part  of  anyone;  but  non-fulfilment,  even 


for  a  lengthy  period^  does  not  prescribe  against  a 
foundation  in  perpetmty.  The  reduction  of  a  founda- 
tion obligation  is  a  matter  for  the  judgment  and  de- 
cision of  the  Holjr  See,  although  it  is  not  uncommon 
for  bishops  to  receive  faculties  to  make  such  reduction. 
Condonation  and  absolution  for  past  omissions  in  the 
fulfilment  of  f oimdation  obligations  belong  also  to  the 
Holy  See.  thoiigh  here  again  bishops  usually  receive 
triennial  faculties  to  act  in  such  circumstances.  Com- 
mutation of  the  wished  of  the  founder  similarly  be- 
longs to  the  Holy  See;  but  if  it  is  merely  a  matter  of 
interpretation  of  the  wishes  of  the  founder,  bishops  are 
competent  to  act,  since  they  are  the  executors  of  all 
pious  dispositions  whether  the  endowment  is  given  in 
the  form  of  legacy,  or  the  grant  should  take  effect 
durins  the  lifetime  of  the  donor  (Coimcil  of  Trent, 
Sess.  XXII,  ch.  viii).  It  may  be  noted  that,  with  re- 
gard to  foundations  for  Masses,  if  the  f oimder  nas  given 
no  definite  instruction  as  to  intention,  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Coimcil  has  often  decided  that  the  Masses 
must  be  applied  for  tiie  founder,  the  interpretation 
being  that  ne  intended  them  for  himself. 

The  S3mods  of  Westminster  (Eng.  tr.,  Stratford-on- 
Avon,  1886)  have  the  following  decrees:  "It  is  fitting 
that  tiie  bishop  select  from  the  oody  of  the  chapter  or 
from  the  body  of  the  clergy  prudent  men  to  help  him 
in  the  temporal  administration  of  the  diocese.  He 
diould  often  use  their  advice."  "New  obligations 
should  not  be  accepted  without  the  consent  of  the 
bishop.  If  those  wnich  he  has  already  to  fulfil  ap- 
pear to  be  too  burthensome,  or  there  does  not  exist  a 
congruous  endowment,  let  the  priest  appl^r  to  the 
bishop  or  lay  the  matter  before  him  at  the  visitation." 
"If  any  of  the  faithful  wish  to  found  a  daily  or  anni- 
versary Mass  the  matter  must  be  treated  with  the 
bishop,  and  the  sum  contributed  for  this  object  must 
be  profitably  invested  so  as  to  produce  an  annual  in- 
terest for  a  perpetual  endowment,  as  far  as  circum- 
stances of  time  and  places  will  allow,  the  canonical 
sanctions  being  obs€^*ved."  For  similar  legislation 
concerning  Ireland  see  the  "  Acta  et  Decreta  '  of  the 
plenaiy  Synod  of  Maynooth,  1900  (Dublin,  1906),  pp. 
o7~78.  In  the  United  States  secular  priests  cannot 
accept  foundations  of  Masses  without  the  written  per- 
mission of  the  bishop.  Regulars  must  have  the  oon- 
sentpf  their  superiors  general  or  provincials.  No  gen- 
eral rule  has  been  laid  down  as  to  the  requisite  amount 
of  the  fund,  each  ordinary  being  free  to  nx  the  sum  for 
his  diocese.  The  councils  of  Baltimore  ur^  that  great 
circumspection  should  be  used  in  accepting  founda- 
tions, especially  of  perpetual  Masses.  It  would  seem 
advisable  to  accept  foundations  only  on  the  following 
conditions:  That  the  obligation  to  celebrate  shaU 
cease,  if  the  fund,  no  matter  from  what  cause,  be 
either  entirely  lost  or  yield  no  income ;  that  the  ordi- 
naiv  shall  have  power  to  reduce  the  number  of  Masses 
if  tne  interest  on  the  capital,  no  matter  for  what  rea- 
sons, becomes  insuflicient  to  make  up  the  stipend  fixed 
by  the  founder;  that  if,  for  whatever  cause,  the  church 
in  which  the  Masses  are  to  be  said  is  destroyed  or 
deprived  of  a  priest,  the  Masses  can  be  said  m  any 
diurch  to  be  designated  by  the  ordinary. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  annulment  or  failure  of  a 
foundation  particular  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
civil  law  of  the  place  in  question.  In  England  (but 
not  in  Ireland)  bequests  to  what  the  civil  law  regards 
as  superstitious  uses  are  void,  as,  for  example,  to  main- 
tain a  priest,  or  an  anniversary  or  obit,  or  a  lamp  in  a 
church,  or  to  say  Masses  for  {ne  testator's  soul,  or  to 
circulate  pamphlets  inculcating  the  pope's  supremacy. 
Legacies  of  money  for  charitable  purposes,  as  for  the 
use  of  schools,  churches,  etc.,  are  valid;  but  if  the 
money  is  to  be  laid  out  in  the  purchase  of  land  for  such 
purposes,  the  direction  to  purchase  land  shall  be  dis- 
regarded and  the  money  shall  be  held  for  the  charity. 
Land  may  be  given  by  will  for  charitable  purposes; 
but,  by  the  Act  54  and  65  Vic,  c.  73,  ihe  land  must 


FOUNDLZNO 


159 


FOUNDLZNO 


(with  oertain  exceptions)  be  sold  within  a  year  from 
the  testator's  deatn;  gifts  of  land  for  charitable  pur- 
poses, otherwise  than  l!>y  wilL  are  valid  if  the  require- 
ments of  the  Act  61  and  52  Yic,  c.  42,  are  observed. 
Of  these  the  principal  ones  are:  (1)  the  conveyance 
must  be  by  deed;  (2)  the  gift  must  take  effect  twelve 
months  before  the  death  of  the  donor;  and  (3)  the 
dft  must  be  without  any  reservation  or  condition 
tor  the  benefit  of  the  donor.  For  the  English  legis- 
lation and  court  practice  concerning  trusts  and  be- 
quests for  Catholic  religious  uses  see,  in  general,  Lilly 
and  Wallis, ''  A  Manual  of  the  Law  specially  affecting 
Catholics"  (London,  1893),  135-167.  In  the  United 
States  property  cannot  leg^^  be  devised  to  a  corporar 
tion  (e.  g.  to  a  church  when  mcorporated)  unless  such 
corporation  is  authorized  by  its  charter  to  receive  b^ 
quests  by  will.  Many  theologians  believe  that  bequests 
for  religious  and  charitable  purposes  are  valid  and  oind- 
ing  in  conscience,  even  though  null  according  to  law; 
however,  D'Anmbale  does  not  agree  (Summula  Theol. 
Mor.,  II,  339). 

For  the  ecclesiastical  legislation  of  the  Diocese  of 
Quebec  see  "La  discipline  du  dioc^  de  Quebec" 
(Quebec,  1895),  131 ;  for  the  ecdesiastico-civil  law  of 
the  Province  of  Quebec,  Mignault,  "  Le  droit  paroi»- 
sial"  (Montreal,  1893),  138,  280-62.  (See  Pbopbbtt, 
Ecclesiastical;  Mass;  Endowment.) 

For  the  law  of  ecclesiastical  foimdations  in  Ger- 
many see  S&gmaller,  "Kirchenrecht"  (Freiburg, 
1904),  III,  800-^;  and  for  the  German  civil  law,  GOrtz 
in  "Staatslexikon"  (2nd  ed..  Freiburg,  1904),  V,  574- 
78.  For  France  see  BargiUiat,  "  Prselectiones  Jur. 
can."  (Paris,  1907),  nos.  1363^1 ;  also  Andr^Wagner, 
"Diet,  de  droit  canonique"  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1901),  II, 
225-28.  For  the  administration  of  the  important 
ecclesiastical  foundations  in  Hungary  see  Vering, 
"Kirchenrecht"  (3rd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1893),  149;  m 

Baden:  op.  cit.,  249-50. 

Taunton,  Law  of  the  Church  (London.  1006);  Smith,  BU- 
menta  of  Eodm.  Law  (New  York,  1886);  Bouxx,  De  EpUeopu 

iPftris,  1859);  Bargiluat,  FtcAwA.  Jur.  eon.  (27ih  ed.,  PftrU, 
907);Lucn>i,  DeviaiL  aae.  Hminum  (3rd  ed.,  Rome,  1883);  von 
Obbbcamp  in  KirchenUxikmh  b.  v.  Caiam  Pim;  FaaaARU, 
fl*Kort«.  prompb,  Cd.  Rome.  1883).  p^^  Dontobd. 

FoundUiig  Aflylnms. — Under  this  title  are  com- 
prised all  institutions  which  take  charge  of  infants 
whose  parents  or  guardians  are  unable  or  unwilling  to 
care  for  them.  At  the  present  time  many  f oundBi^ 
asylums  give  shelter  to  orphans,  but  origmally  their 
activity  was  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  rescue  and 
care  of  foundlings  in  the  strict  sense,  that  is,  infants 
who  had  been  deliberately  abandoned  by  their  nat- 
ural protectors.  The  practice  of  exposing  to  the  risk 
of  death  by  the  elements  or  by  starvation  those  infants 
whom  they  were  unwilling  to  rear  was  very  common 
among  parents  in  the  ancient  pagan  nations.  Veiy 
gener^,  too,  was  the  more  direct  method  of  infanti- 
cide. Both  methods  had  the  sanction  of  law  and 
public  opinion.  Lycurgus  and  the  Decemviri  decreed 
that  deformed  children  should  be  killed  in  the  inter- 
ests of  healthy  citizenship.  Aristotle  advocated  the 
enactment  of  laws  which  would  prescribe  the  exposure 
of  deformed  infants  and  also  of  all  infants  in  excess  of 
a  socially  usef i^  number,  and  which  would  make  the 
practice  of  abortion  compulsory  whenever  it  was  re- 
quired by  the  public  welfare.  In  his  opinion  these 
measures  shoula  find  a  place  in  the  ideal  state,  and  in 
every  existing  community  where  they  were  not 
alr^uly  approved  by  the  laws  and  customs  (Politics, 
vii,  16).  &ven  Phny  and  Seneca  thought  it  wise 
sometimes  to  allow  deformed  and  superfluous  infants 
to  perish.  In  the  city  of  Rome  two  places  were  for- 
mally set  aside  for  the  exposure  of  infants  who  were 
unwelcome  to  their  parents.  The  proportion  of 
abcmdoncd  children  that  was  rescued  was  very  small, 
and  the  purposes  for  which  they  were  rescued  were 
cruelly  s^fish.    Under  Roman  law  they  were  slaves. 


The  preyalenoe  of  these  inhuman  praetioes  in  Greek 
and  Roman  society  is  undoubtedly  explained  to  a 
great  extent  by  the  pagan  theory  that  neither  the 
fcetus  nor  the  newly  bom  child  was  in  the  full  sense  a 
human  being,  as  well  as  by  the  view  that  the  individ- 
ual existed  for  the  sake  of  the  State.  Against  both 
these  beliefs  Christianity  laid  down  the  doctrine  that 
the  human  offspring  is  mtrinsically  sacred,  and  not  a 
mere  means  to  any  end  whatever.  Hence  we  find  that 
the  first  noteworthy  condemnation  of  the  practice  of  in- 
fant exposure,  and  the  first  systematic  measures  of  reb- 
cu6,  came  from  Christian  writers,  priests,  and  bishops. 
Among  the  earliest  of  these  were  Lactantius,  Tertul- 
lian^  Justin  Martyr,  and  Cyprian.  Infiuencea  by  the 
Christian  teaching  and  practice,  the  Emperors  Gratian 
and  Valentinian  decreed  that  infanticide  should  be 
punished  by  death,  while  Justinian  relieved  foundlings 
of  the  disabilitv  of  slavery  and  placed  them  under  the 
patronage  of  tne  bishops  and  prefects.  ^  The  work  of 
rescue  was  at  first  performed  by  individuals — as,  in 
France,  by  the  deaconesses — and  the  rescued  infants 
were  adopted  into  Christian  families.  A  iparble  basin 
was  placed  at  the  church  door  in  which  unfortunate 
or  inmiman  parents  could  place  their  infants,  with  the 
assurance  that  the  latter  would  be  cared  for  by  the 
Church.  Although  mention  is  made  of  a  foundling 
asylum  at  Trier  in  the  seventh  century,  the  first  one 
of  which  tlvere  is  any  authentic  record  was  established 
in  Milan  by  the  archpriest  Datheus  in  787.  In  1070 
one  was  founded  at  Montpellier.  Innocent  III  caused 
one  to  be  erected  in  1198  at  Rome  in  connexion  with 
the  hospital  of  the  Holjr  Ghost.  The  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries  witnessed  a  great  increase  of 
foundling  asylums,  especially  in  It^.  Prominent 
among  these  were  the  institutions  at  ^^nbeck  (12(X)). 
Florence  (1316),  Nuremberg  (1331),  Paris  (1362),  and 
Vienna  (1380).  During  the  Middle  Ages  most  of  the 
foundling  asylums  were  provided  with  a  revolving 
crib  {touVf  ruoUif  DreMaden)  which  was  fitted  into  the 
wall  in  such  a  way  that  one  half  of  it  was  always  on  the 
outside  of  the  building.  In  this  the  infant  could  be 
placed,  and  then  brought  into  the  buildins  bv  turning 
the  crib.  This  device  completely  shielded  the  person 
who  abandoned  the  child,  out  it  also  multiplied  un- 
necessarily the  number  of  children  abandoned.  Hence 
it  has  been  almost  universally  abolished,  even  in 
Italy. 

Foundlins  asylums  did  not,  however,  become  gen- 
eral throu^out  Europe.  In  many  places  infants 
were  still  deposited  at  the  doors  of  the  churches,  and 
thence  taken  in  charge  by  the  church  authorities  with 
a  view  to  their  adoption  by  families.  In  France  the 
means  of  caring  for  foundlings  had  become  quite  in- 
adequate during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies. The  oneinal  foundling  asylum  of  Paris  seems 
to  have  been  no  longer  in  existence  at  this  period;  for 
the  only  institution  of  this  nature  that  we  hear  of  is 
the ''  Maison  de  la  Couche",  in  charge  of  a  widow  and 
two  servants.  So  badly  was  it  managed  that  it  had 
won  the  nickname  of  "  Maison  de  la  Mort  *\  Through 
the  all-embracing  pity  of  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul  the 
place  came  under  tne  direction  of  the  Ladies  of  Char- 
ity, and  through  his  influence  the  king  and  the  nobles 
subscribed  an  annual  sum  of  40,(XX)  frauds  to  carry  on 
the  work  of  child  saving.  As  a  result  there  was  a  great 
increase  in  the  number  of  f  oimdllng  asvlums  in  France 
during  the  seventeenth  and  eight^Bnth  centuries. 

At  present  the  care  of  foundlings  varies  consider- 
ably in  different  countries.  Methods  in  France  have 
undergone  many  changes  since  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  Under  the  government  of  the  Revo- 
lution all  f  oimdlings  were  treated  as  wards  of  the  nation, 
and  for  a  time  subsidies  were  paid  to  the  mothers 
of  ill^timate  children.  In  1811  this  l^slation 
was  repealed,  and  the  care  of  f oimdlings  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  central  authorities  to  the  depart- 
ments.   At  the  same  time  it  was  decreed  that  eveiy 


rOUHDUHQ 


160 


YOUlVDXiZlfQ 


foundling  asylum  should  be  provided  with  a  revolving 
erib.  The  consequence  was  that  the  number  of  aban- 
doned children  greatly  increased,  and  the  crib  had  to 
be  abolished.  By  the  law  of  1874  every  child  under 
two  years  of  a^  which  is  taken  care  of  for  hire  outside 
the  home  of  its  parents  becomes  an  object  of  public 
guardianship.  Nevertheless,  the  actual  work  and  ex- 
pense of  caring  for  foundlings  are  to  a  large  extent 
undertaken  by  religious  communities  and  private  as- 
sociations, both  in  asylums  and  in  families.  In  Ger- 
many the  asylum  method  seems  never  to  have  been 
as  common  as  in  Italy  and  in  France.  To-day  that 
country  has  no  foundlmg  asylum  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  term.  The  prevailing  practice  is  to  place  the  in- 
fant temporarily  in  an  institution,  usually  an  orphan 
asylum,  and  then  to  give  it  into  the  charge  of  a  family. 
Both  the  public  authorities  and  the  religious  oommu- 
nities  follow  this  system.  Since  the  days  of  Jo8ei>h 
II,  foundliDf  asylums  have  been  rather  general  in 
Austria.  When  the  mother  engages  herself  to  serve 
in  the  hospital  for  four  months  as  a  nurse,  the  child 
will  be  tak^n  in  and  kept  permanently,  that  is^  until  it 
reaches  the  age  of  ten  or,  in  some  asylums,  of  six  year^ 
In  case  the  mother  does  not  reclaim  it  at  the  end  of 
this  period,  it  is  turned  over  to  the  magistracy  of  her 
legal  residence.  When  the  child  is  not  taken  subject 
to  this  condition,  it  is  placed  in  a  family  as  soon  as  a 
suitable  one  can  be  found.  Hie  asylum  in  Vienna  is 
the  largest  in  the  world,  having  under  its  care  either 
within  or  without  its  doors  more  than  30,000  children 
every  year.  Of  the  seventy  odd  thousand  infants 
received  during  ten  ^ears  onW^  902  were  legitimate. 

In  proportion  to  its  population,  Italy  exceeds  all 
other  countries  in  the  number  of  institutions  which 
are  exclusively  devoted  to  the  care  of  foundlings.  The 
number  in  1898  was  113,  and  the  number  of  children 
cared  for  100,418.    Most  of  these,  however,  were 

§  laced  out  in  famUies,  although  the  famous  asylum  of 
lorence  (founded  1316)  sheltered  more  than  six  thou- 
sand five  hundred  in  the  year  1899.  The  revolving 
crib  has  all  but  disappeared,  owing  to  the  conviction 
of  competent  authorities  that  it  increased  both  ille^ti- 
macy  and  child-abiandonment.  In  1888  the  province 
of  Rovigo  introduced  a  system  according  to  which  all 
mothers  who  acknowledge  their  infants  are  supported 
for  one  and  one-half  years.  Experience  has  shown 
that  this  method  is  more  favourable  to  the  child  and 
less  expensive  to  the  community.  It  has  been  ex- 
tended to  otherprovinces,  was  approved  by  the  char- 
ity consress  of  Turin  in  1899,  and  has  been  embodied 
in  a  bill  introduced  in  the  Italian  Parliament.  Rus- 
sia has  two  veiy  large  foundlins  asylums,  which  were 
established  by  Catherine  II.  In  1899  the  one  at  St. 
Petersburg  cared  for  33,366  children,  while  the  Moscow 
institution  had  charge  of  39,033.  The  policy  of  the 
latter  is  to  induce  the  mother,  if  possible,  to  nurse  her 
child,  and  to  pay  her  for  this  service.  It  she  does  not 
appear,  the  infant  is  kept  only  a  few  weeks;  it  is  then 
placed  in  the  family  of  some  peasant.  In  England 
the  care  of  foundlings  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Poor  Law 
Guardians,  religious  and  private  associations,  and  the 
managers  of  the  London  Foundling  Hospital.  Those 
who  are  under  the  care  of  the  guaroiana  are  sometimes 
kept  in  the  general  workhouse,  and  sometimes  boarded 
out  in  families.  The  Catholic  authorities  place  found- 
lings both  in  the  private  family  and  in  the  orphan 
asylum.  The  London  Foundling  Hospital  (estab- 
lished 1739)  seems  to  be  the  onlv  institution  of  an^ 
considerable  size  which  is  devoted  exclusively  to  this 
class  of  unfortunates.  Scotland  has  never  had  a 
foundling  asylum,  but  utilizes  the  workhouse  and  the 
ssrstem  of  boarding-out.  These  methods  and  the  care 
of  f  oundlines  in  orphan  asylums  by  religious  commu- 
nities are  the  prevailing  ones  in  Ireland. 

About  the  only  public  institutions  available  for  the 
care  of  foundlings  m  the  United  States  are  the  county 
almshouses,  or  poorhouses.    In  most  of  the  large 


cities  there  are  foundling  asylums  under  the  manage- 
ment of  individuals,  private  associations,  or  religious 
bodies  and  communities.  In  1907  the  Catholic  infant 
asylum  of  Chicago  had  676  inmates;  that  of  Boston, 
858;  that  of  Milwaukee,  408;  that  of  San  Francisco, 
480.  In  most  places,  however,  foundlings  are  re- 
ceived in  the  Catholic  orphan  asylums,  and  are  not 
separately  classified  in  any  official  publication.  The 
same  practice  obtains  in  many  orphan  asylums  under 
the  control  of  private  persons  ana  non-Catholic  socie- 
ties. The  volume  of  the  United  States  census  (1904) 
on  benevolent  institutions  gives  the  number  of  or- 
phanages and  children's  homes,  public,  private,  and 
religious,  as  1075,  and  the  number  of  inmates  as 
92,887.  The  majority  of  these  children  are  of  course 
not  foundlings  but  orphans.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
foundlings  in  these  institutions  undoubtedly  form  only 
a  minority  of  the  whole  number  in  the  country;  for 
there  is  a  considerable  number  in  poorhouses,  and  a 
still  larger  number  in  families.  Thus,  the  State  of 
Massachusetts  places  all  the  foundlings  committed  to 
it  in  families  under  public  supervision.  Hence  it  is 
impossible  to  |g;ive  even  approximately  the  total  num- 
ber of  foundlings  in  the  country. 

The  ideal  method  of  caring  for  foundlings  is  still  as 
much  a  disputed  question  as  most  of  the  other  prob- 
lems of  practical  charity.  One  phase  of  the  ^neral 
question  has,  however,  received  a  fairly  defimte  an- 
swer. Experience  and  a  due  regard  for  the  respective 
interests  of  the  infant,  the  parent,  the  community,  and 
good  morals  have  led  to  tne  conclusion  that  in  every 
case  a  reasonable  amount  of  effort  should  be  made  to 
discover  the  parents  and  to  compel  them  to  assist  as 
far  as  possible  in  caring  for  the  child.  The  other 
method,  which  had  its  most  thorough  exemplification 
in  the  revolvinjg  crib,  tends,  indeed,  to  diminish  in- 
fanticide, but  it  also  increases  illegitimacy,  and  by 
depriving  the  infant  of  its  natural  protector  produces 
at  least  as  high  a  rate  of  mortality  as  the  inquisition 
system.  Moreover,  it  throws  upon  public  and  private 
cnarity  a  burden  that  in  many  cases  could  be  borne 
by  the  parents.  Hence  the  present  tendency  is 
everywhere  towards  the  method  which  aims  to  give 
the  child  the  benefit  of  a  mother's  care  and  to  keep 
alive  in  parents  a  proper  sense  of  their  responsibility. 

A  question  more  variously  answered  is,  whether  the 
maintenance  of  foundling  asylums  is  wise.  Those 
who  take  a  stand  for  the  negative  point  to  the  very 
high  death-rate  in  these  places  (sometimes  more  than 
90  per  cent),  to  the  smaller  expense  of  the  family  sys- 
tem, and  to  the  obvious  fact  that  the  family  is  the 
natural  home  for  young  children.  Most  of  the  Protec- 
tant countries  and  communities  prefer  the  method  of 
placing  the  foundling  in  a  family.  The  positive  argu- 
ments in  its  favour  are  unanswerable,  but  against 
them  must  be  set  the  fact  that  it  is  not  always  possible 
to  find  suitable  families  who  are  willing  to  care  for 
foundlizigs.  Experience  shows  that  sufficient  homes 
of  the  ri^t  kina  cannot  now  be  found  for  all  orphan 
children  who  have  arrived  at  an  age  which  renders 
them  more  attractive  as  well  as  more  useful  than 
utterly  helpless  infants.  It  would  seem,  therefore, 
that  institutions  are  necessary  which  will  shelter 
foundlings  for  a  number  of  years.  Nevertheless,  the ' 
foundling  asylum  should  endeavour  to  ascertain  the 
identity  of  the  parents,  to  induce  the  mothers  to  act 
aa  nurses  to  their  infants  in  the  institution,  and  to 
keep  alive  the  natural  bond  between  child  and  parent. 

HiNDBRSON.  Modem  MelKoda  of  Charity  (New  York.  1904): 
Dbvinb,  Princ%nle$  of  Relief  (New  York,  1905);  The  St.  VineerU 
de  Paul  Quartenjf  (New  York);  Proceedxnpe  of  the  National  Con- 
fereneea  of  Chanties  and  Correction  (Indianapolis,  1874-10O8); 
Bbogub,  8t.  Vincent  de  Paul,  tr.  Partridob  (London,  1899); 
Ratsinobb,  Armenpflepe  (Freiburg,  1884);  EparaxN,  Studien 
tur  FroQe,  FinddanataUen  (Prairue,  1882);  Lallbicano,  ^ia. 
Urire  dee  enfanta  abandonnia  et  oHaiaeSa  (Paria,  1886);  Rats- 
inobb in  i?«rdk«fi2er.,  8.  V.  FindelhAueer;  Bbbnabo  inLaifranda 
eneydopMie,  a.  v.  Enfanta  Trouvie, 

John  A.  Rtam. 


rOXTMTAINS                             161  FOUQUET 

Fountains  Abbe7»  a  monaateiy  of  the  Cistercian  thing  heralded  the  Renaissance  (see  Etck,  HuBssr 
Order  situated  on  the  banks  of  t^e  Skell  about  two  and  and  Jan  van),  and  little  was  wanting  to  make  it  a  dis- 
a  half  miles  from  Ripon  in  Yorkshire,  was  established  tinctively  French  movement,  whidi,  however,  the 
by  thirteen  Benedictine  monks  of  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  disasters  of  the  monarchy  prevented.  Paris  ceased  to 
York.  Wishing  to  observe  a  more  strict  discipline,  be  the  centre  of  the  new  intellectual  life.  Art,  driven 
they  obtained  m  1132  from  Thurstan,  Archbishop  ot  from  its  centre,  retreated  to  the  outlyii^  provinces 
York,  a  grant  of  land  near  Ripon.  Richard,  the  in  the  North,  the  East,  and  the  South-East,  to  the 
prior  of  St.  Maiy's,  was  the  leS^er  of  the  party.  Duchy  of  Burgundy.  The  principal  centre  was 
Leaving  St.  Mary  s  on  9  October,  they  ^^eached  Foun-  Bruges,  while  seconcfary  centres  were  established  at 
tains  on  26  December,  1132,  ana  immediately  placed  Dijon  in  Provence.  Each  of  these  had  its  masters  and 
themselves  under  St.  Bernard,  who  sent  Geoffrey  of  its  school.  The  only  remnant  of  truly  French  life 
Clairvaux  to  teach  them  the  Cistercian  Rule.  After  found  refuge  in  the  valley  of  the  Loire,  in  the  neig^- 
two  years  of  privation  and  poverty  they  decided  to  bourhood  of  Tours,  since  the  time  of  St.  Martin  Sie 
leave  England  and  seek  a  home  among  their  brethren  true  heart  of  the  nation  in  every  crisis  of  French  his- 
abroad.  This  step  was  rendered  unnecessary  when  tory.  Here  grew  up  the  first  of  our  painters  who  pos- 
Hugh,  Dean  of  York,  joined  them,  bringing  with  him  sesses  not  only  a  definite  personality  but  a  French 
money  and  property.  He  was  followed  by  two  canons  physiocnomy.  Fouquet  was  the  contemporary  of 
of  York,  Serlo  and  Tosti,  who  brought  still  more  Joan  of  Arc,  and  his  character  is  as  national  as  that  of 
wealth  by  means  of  which  the  suffering  community  the  heroine  herself.  For  the  basis  of  his  style  we 
was  relieved  and  enabled  to  carry  on  the  new  founda-  must  look  to  the  School  of  Biugund^r,  itself  simply  a 
tion.  In  1135  all  their  possessions  were  confirmed  variant  of  that  of  Bruges.  T\9urs  is  not  far  from 
to  tiiem  by  King  Stephen.  The  earliest  buildings  Bourges  and  Dijon,  ana  in  Fouquet 's  work  there  is 
erected  there  were  destroyed  in  1146  by  the  followers  alwavs  something  reminiscent  of  Claux  Sluter  and  of 
of  William,  Archbishop  of  York,  who  thus  wreaked  the  Van  Eycks.  To  this  must  be  added  some  Italian 
their  vengeance  on  Abbot  Murdac,  whom  they  con-  mannerisms.  It  is  not  known  on  what  occasion  Fou- 
sidered  the  chief  opponent  of  their  master.  The  arch-  quet  went  to  Italy,  but  it  was  certainly  about  1445,  for 
bishop  in  after  years  made  amends  for  the  excesses  while  there  he  pamted  the  portrait  of  Pope  Eugene  IV 
of  his  adherents  and  expressed  his  deep  sorrow  for  between  two  secretaries.  This  famous  work,  long  pre- 
what  had  occurred.  This  loss  did  not  check  a  rapid  served  at  the  Minerva  galleiy,  is  now  known  only  from 
development;  new  buildings  were  immediately  begun  a  sixteenth-century  eneraving.  FUarete  and  Vasari 
and  that  immense  pile,  the  ruins  of  which  still  stand,  speak  admirin^yont,wnile  Raphael  paid  it  the  honour 
was  finished  before  the  year  1250.  In  1 146  a  colony  of  of  recalling  it  m  his  ''  Leo  X*'  of  the  Pitti  Palace, 
monks  was  sent  to  Bergen  in  Norway,  and  the  monas-  Fouquet  remained  under  the  charm  of  the  early 
teries  of  Sawley,  Roche,  Wobum,  Meaux,  Kirkstall,  Italian  Renaissance.  The  influence  of  the  bas-relieis 
and  Vandy  were  founded  from  Fountains.  This  of  Ghiberti  and  Delia  Robbia^  the  paintings  of  Masac- 
period  of  prosperity  was  followed  by  one  of  want,  cio,  Paolo  Uccello,  Filippo  Lippi,  and  Gentile  da  Fa- 
cauised  by  the  constant  inroads  of  the  Scots.  On  ao-  briano  which  he  saw  at  Florence  and  at  Rome  may 
count  of  this  Edward  II  exempted  the  monks  from  alwasrs  be  traced  in  his  work.  He  appears  to  have 
all  taxation  (1319).  Among  the  worthies  of  Foun-  been  in  France  in  1450.  Some  critics  are  inclined  to 
tains  should  be  niunbered  Henry  Murdac,  its  abbot,  believe  that  he  made  a  second  journey,  for  thev  find  it 
and  afterwards  Archbishop  of  York  (1147-1153),  John  hard  to  believe  that  Fouquet  never  saw  the  "  Lives  of 
de  Pherd  (de  Fontibus)  another  abbot,  one  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  St.  Stephen"  by  FraAngelico  in  the 
createst  architects  of  his  day,  who  became  Bishop  of  chapel  of  Nicholas  V.  It  is  these  Italian  works  which 
Elv  in  1220,  and  John  de  Cfancia,  another  renowned  most  closely  resemble  his  own.  The  harmonizing  of 
biulder,  who  ruled  over  the  abbey  from  1220  to  1247.  the  two  Renaissance  movements  ^orth  and  South), 
The  names  of  thirty-eight  abbots  are  known ;  the  last  the  intimate  and  natural  fusion  of  tne  genius  of  both  in 
but  one  was  William  Thirsk,  executed  at  Tyburn  for  the  creative  soul  of  one  French  artist,  without  any 
refusing  the  Oath  of  Supremacy  (1536);  the  last  ab-  effort  or  shadow  of  pedantry,  narrowness,  or  system, 
bot  was  Marmaduke  Bradley  who  surrendered  the  constitutes  Fouquet 's  charm  and  originality.  If 
abbey  to  the  king  in  1540.  At  the  Dissolution  there  French  character  consists  in  a  certain  effacement  of 
were  thirty-one  monks  with  the  abbot,  and  the  rev-  all  racial  characteristics,  in  the  power  of  assimilation 
enue  was  estimated  at  about  £1000.  Richard  Gresham  (cf.  Michelet,  Introduction  &  la  philosophic  de  lliis- 
puichased  the  site  for  £1163;  in  1596  Sir  Stephen  toire),  no  artist  has  ever  been  more  "French"  than 
Proctor  acquired  it  for  £4500;  the  family  of  Messenger  Fouquet.  Withal  he  does  not  lack  the  savour  of  his 
nextheldit;  in  1786 Sir  W.Aislabie bought  it  for £18,-  country.  Without  poetry  or  depth  of  thought,  his 
000;  it  is  now  owned  by  the  Marquess  oiRipon.  The  style  has  at  least  two  striking  characteristics.  In  de- 
abbey  with  its  offices  stood  in  an  enclosure  of  twelve  picting  the  human  countenance,  he  possessed  to  a  rare 
acres,  and  the  present  ruins  occupy  two  acres.  The  walls  degree  the  gift  of  taking  life,  as  it  were,  by  surprise, 
of  the  church,  with  one  tower,  still  stand,  and  there  are  and  not  even  Benozzo  could  tell  a  story  as  he  could, 
very  substantial  remains  of  the  chapter  house,  cloister.  We  know  throujgh  a  contemporary  that  Fouquet 
refectory,  and  calefactory.  These  ruins  are  most  painted  pictures  m  the  church  of  Notre-Dame  la 
carefully  preserved.  Some  idea  of  the  abbey's  ereat-  Kiche  at  Tours,  but  it  is  not  known  whether  they  were 
ness  may  De  gained  from  the  fact  that  the  church  was  mural  or  altar-pieces.  He  is  known  to  have  been 
351  feet  in  length  with  a  nave  65  feet  wide;  the  refec-  charged  with  the  preparations  for  Louis  XI's  entry 
tory  was  108  feet  by  45,  and  the  cloister  300  feet  by  42.  into  the  city  in  1461 .   Of  all  his  works,  however,  there 

Rainb,  Faati  Bbaraeensea  (London.  1863),  210-217;  Wio^  remain  to-aay  a  half-dozen  portraits  and  about  a  hun- 
yS^v*  y«»»<"^  «/  FauniatTtg  ilWcw  (Surtees  Society.  If  ndon.  ,  ^^ed  miniatures.    The  oldest  of  these  portraits  ap- 

]!^\h^iZ^^'^'\^"7^Jn':^SJi^.  Pf«?  to  be  the  "Oiarlesyil "  in  fe  Ix>uyre,  a  portrft 

1846),  V.  286  sqq.;  Burton,  Moruutican  Eboracenae  (York,  striking  for  its  sadness,  its  fretful  expression,  and  the 

1768),  141.                                              G.  E.  Hind.  force  ot  its  ugliness  and  veracity.    At  the  Louvre  also 

is  the  portrait  of  "Guillaume  Juvenal  des  Ursins'', 

Fonqnet,  Jehan  (or  Jean),  French  painter  and  magnificently  obese  and  bloated,  radiant  with  gold, 

miniaturist,  b.  at  Tours,  c.  1415;  d.  about  1480.    He  Another  portrait  has  a  curious  historv.    It  is  that  of 

was  perhaps  the  son  of  Huguet  Fouquet,  who  about  Etienne  Uievidier,  the  great  patron  of  the  painter,  and 

1400  worked  for  the  Dukes  of  Orl^ns  at  Paris.    At  was  formerly  to  be  seen  in  the  church  of  Melun.    Hie 

the  end  of  the  fourteenth  centurv  French  painting  had  work  is  charming  in  breadth  of  style.    The  figure  of 

reached  a  period  of  incomparable  brilliancy.    Eveiy-  St.  Stephen  presentinghis  client  recalls  Oiorgione  by  its 


rOUQUET  162  rOUQUET 

vigour  and  delioacy.    In  1896  this  piece  found  its  way  stitutes  the  real  merit  of  his  miniatures  and  his  por- 

to  the  Berlin  Museum.    It  fonnedTpart  of  a  diptych,  traits.    Fouquet  is  a  ''naturalist"  from  conviction, 

the  other  wing  of  which  shows  the  virgin,  surroundea  This  he  is  after  his  own  fashion,  but  as  truly  as  Van 

bv  angeb,  nursing  the  Infant  Jesus.    The  Virgin  is  £vck  or  Filippo  Lippi.    He  resembles  them  in  being 

also  a  portrait,  tmit  of  the  beautiful  Agnes  Sorel  of  of  their  time,  but  he  differs  from  them  inasmuch  as 

whom  Chevalier  was  a  favourite.    This  second  wing  is  with  him  imitation  never  prevails  over  his  passionate 

at  Antwerp.    The  two  parts,  having  been  separated,  worship  of  nature. 

were  never  reimited  except  tor  a  short  time  at  Paris        This  naturalism  was  so  strone  that  Fouquet  lacked 

during  the  Exposition  of  the  French  "Primitives"  in  the  power  to  conceive  what  he  had  not  seen.    He  did 

1904.    Still  another  of  Fouquet's  portraits  must  be  not  dispense  with  models  and  all  his  works  were  not 

mentioned:  the  bust  of  a  ^oung  man  (Lichtenstein  only  observed  but  posed.    He  fails  completely  in  ideal 

collection),  dated  1456,  which  is  admirable  in  tiie  in-  scenes  and  those  of  intense  expression  (e.  e.  Calvary) 

tensity  of  touch  displayed  in  the  colour  scheme,  with  for  which  he  could  have  no  moael.    If  his  '^Last  Judg- 

its  sreyish  tone  ana  deliberate  reserve.    This  would  ment"  is  a  thrilling  picture,  it  is  because  the  memory 

be  the  master's  best  portrait,  were  it  not  for  the  pre-  of  the  ^ass-worker  came  to  the  aid  of  the  painter,  for 

cious  little  enamel  at  the  Louvre,  in  which  he  himself  the  artist  beheld  heaven  as  the  rose  window  of  acathe- 

is  depicted  in  golden  lines  on  a  black  background.  dral  (Dante,  Parad.,  xxxi).    In  " The  Martyrdom  of 

His  work  as  a  miniaturist  at  present  comprises  three  St.  Apollonia"  he  depicts  auite  clearly  a  scene  from  a 
series:  (1)  the  fragments  of  the  "  Livre  dlieures  d'Eti-  popular  mystery;  it  is,  indeed,  the  most  exact  docu- 
enne  Chevalier"  (1450-60),  forty  of  which  are  at  ment  we  possess  as  to  the  scenic  effects  in  the  niys- 
Chantillv,  two  at  the  Louvre,  oxie  at  the  Biblioth^ue  teries  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Emil  M&le,  "Le  renouveue- 
Nationale,  and  one  at  the  British  Museum ;  (2)  twenty  ment  de  Tart  par  les  myst^res "  in ''  Gazette  des  Beaux 
^iUeto  of  the ''Jewish  Antiquities  "of  Josephus  at  the  Arts",  1904.  I,  89).  This  influence  of  the  theatre  is 
Biblioth^ue  Nationale.  Tne  second  volume,  discov-  seen  throumout  the  "Book  of  Hours",  in  the  coh- 
ered by  Mr.  Yates  Thomson,  was  presentcKi  to  the  tumes,  the  decoration,  and  local  colour,  the  capricious 
French  Republic  by  King  Edward  VII  in  1908  (Dui^  and  grotesque  appearance  of  which  proceeds  directly 
rieu,  op.  cit.  infra) ;  (3)  part  of  the  illustrations  of  the  from  the  store  of  dramatic  acoessones  and  the  tinsel 
^'Chroniques  de  France  (Fr.  6465^  Bibl.  Nat.).  To  adornments  of  the  actors.  It  was  thus  that  the  age  of 
these  must  be  added:  (4)  the  frontispiece  and  miniar  Fouquet  conceived  historical  painting.  Finally  an^ 
tures  for  a  French  translation  of  the  works  of  Boccaccio  other  custom  of  Fouquet  was  to  give  as  backeroimd  to 
at  the  Royal  Library  of  Munich  (c.  1459),  and  the  the  scenes  taken  from  the  Bible  or  the  Gospel,  instead 
frontispiece  of  the  statutes  of  the  Order  of  St.  Michael  of  Palestine  of  which  he  knew  nothing.  France  or 
(c.  1462)  at  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale.  The  most  Touraine  which  he  knew  so  well.  ^  Thus  tne  represen- 
important  of  these  works,  as  well  as  the  most  famous  tation  of  ''Job"  has  as  a  decorative  background  the 
and  the  most  beautifuL  is  unquestionably  Etienne  castle  keep  of  Vincennes.  The  "Paschu  Supper" 
Chevalier's  "Book  of  Hours",  the  "Quarante  Fou-  takes  place  in  an  inn,  and  through  the  open  aoor  is 
auet ' ',  which  is  one  of  the  treasures  of  ChantiUy.  Of  seen  the  roof  of  Notre-Dame  de  I^ris.  "  Calvary"  is 
the  forty-four  pages  of  the  "Book  of  Hours  "hitherto  placed  on  the  hill  of  Montrouge.  This  excess  of 
recovered,  twenty-five  (following  the  order  of  the  naivete  must  not  lead  us  to  think  that  Foiiiquet  knew 
Breviary)  tell  the  story  of  the  Gospel  and  of  the  life  of  not  what  he  did.  The  anachronism  of  the  "  Primi- 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  fourteen  are  scenes  from  the  lives  tives"  is  a  conscious  and  voluntary  system.  Fouquet 
of  the  saints;  one,  dealing  with  the  stoiy  of  Job,  is  was  not  at  all  nat/,  as  has  been  too  frequently  as* 
an  Old-Testament  scene;  and  one,  "The  Last  Judg-  serted,  when  in  the  scene  of  the  Epiphany  he  substi- 
ment",  is  from  the  Apocalypse.  The  frontispiece,  tuted  for  one  of  the  Ma«i  of  history  tne  portrait  of  King 
two  paj^  reproducing  the  diptych  of  Melun,  and  the  Charles  VII,  in  a  mantle  ornamented  with  fleurs-de-lis, 
page  ofthe  Office  for  tne  Dead,  are  consecrated  to  the  surrounded  by  hisguards  and  rendering  homaae  to  the 
memory  of  Etienne  Chevalier.  We  are  impressed  Blessed  Virgin,  ^rhaps  this  was  a  way  of  bringing 
immediatelv  with  the  exquisite  clearness,  animation  home  the  teachine  of  the  Gospel  and  of  expressing  its 
and  life.  Italian  mannerisms  abound  in  the  details;  eternal  truths  and  undying  realities  rather  than  the 
the  artist  speaks  with  a  more  flowery  tongue  than  in  historical  incident.  Above  all  it  was  the  parii  prU  of 
his  portraite.  This  work  is  one  of  joy  in  which  the  an  age  which,  weaiy  of  abstractions  and  symbols, 
imagination  deliehte  in  lovely^  caprices.  Here  are  underwent  a  passionate  reaction  towards  the  youth- 
chubby-faced  little  angels,  flowing  draperies  and  car-  ful,  and  towards  life.  No  contemporary  expressed 
ments,  Bui^ndian  luxuriance  with  uie  laige  lolda  life  better  than  Fouquet.  He  loved  it  in  all  its  forms, 
of  its  draperies;  to  one  side  are  the  pla^ng  children  in  art,  whether  Italian,  Flemish,  Gothic,  or  Benais- 
(jouttC),  musicians  of  Prato  and  Pistoia,  pilastered  sance,  in  the  theatre  as  well  as  in  nature.  He  loved 
mches,  classic  cornices,  the  Corinthian  acanthus,  and  beautiful  horses,  beautiful  anns,  rich  costumes,  gay 
architectural  foliage  like  the  Florentine  cypress  and  colours,  beautiful  music  (his  works  are  full  of  con- 
yew.  His  stvle  is  extremelv  composite.  Nowhere  oerto).  Heloved  the  elegance  of  the  new  ut^itecture. 
else  are  ite  elemente  so  deftly  combined.  There  is  and  he  loved  also  the  tapering  spires,  the  ca^edral 
gold  everywhere,  golden  skies  and  golden  hatching,  an  windows,  and  the  pointea  towers  on  the  pepper-box 
enveloping  tissue  delicately  gilt.  Since  his  time  no  roofs.  A  thousand  details  of  the  life  of  his  times  would 
one  has  been  able  to  master  the  process,  which  is  in  have  been  lost  except  for  him,  e.  g.  a  row  of  quays  on 
fact  only  the  radiant  atmosphere  of  the  artist's  ideas  the  banks  of  the  Seme  at  the  extremity  of  the  city,  a 
and  the  colour  of  his  spirit.^  view  of  Paris  from  Montmartre  or  the  F^  aux  Qercs, 

The  fundamental  note  is  wonderfully  sustained  the  performance  of  a  mystery,  a  fiineral  scene,  the  in- 

despite  the  appearance  of  playful   improvisation«  terior  of  the  ancient  basilica  of  St.  Peter.    He  is  the 

Although  the  artist  delighte  in  allowing  tree  play  to  best  witness  of  his  time;  he  is  in  turn  good-natured, 

pleasant  reminiscences,  and  has  maoe  use  of  his  bantering,  tender,  and  emotional.    Neither  a  dreamer 

sketches  of  travel  as  adommente  for  his  ideas,  the  nor  a  mystic,  he  is  full  of  faith  and  purity.    Nothing 

basis  of  all  is  an  ardent  love  of  reality,  and  he  glances  could  be  more  chaste  than  his  work,  which  appeals  at 

at  them  only  to  refresh  his  memory.    As  a  story-teller  once  to  the  learned  and  to  the  masses.    The  mind  of 

and  dramatist  he  has  the  regard  for  the  letter  and  the  this  humble  miniaturist  was  one  of  the  best  infonned 

text  which  was  to  become  the  predominant  trait  of  the  and  most  well-ordered  of  his  time.    Above  all  he  had 

great  French  historical  painters,  Poussin  and  Dela-  alsoacreativeside,  for  he  is  one  of  the  ^reat  landscape 

croix.    But  above  all  he  feels  the  craving  for  truth,  painters  of  the  woiid.    No  one  has  depicted  as  wdl  as 

which  und^TD^th  the  embellishmente  of  his  style  oon-  ne  the  diarming  oounttysides  of  France.    Nothing 


FOUB 


163 


rOXTB 


could  be  more  sweetly  rustic  than  his  ^'Sainte  Mai^ 
Kuerite".  In  this  Fouquet  immediately  foreshadows 
Corot.  His  "Mount  of  OUves"  and  his  "Nativity" 
are  two  of  the  most  beautiful  nocturnal  scenes  ever 
painted.  Tlie  Alps  in  his  "Grandes  Chroniques"  are 
perhaps  the  earliest  example  of  mountain  landscape. 

Fouquet 's  influence  has  been  considerable.  He  had 
numerous  pupils,  the  best-known  of  whom  are  his  two 
sons  (one  of  them  has  a  "Calvary"  in  the  church  of 
Loches)  and  Jean  Colombe,  the  brother  of  the  sculp- 
tor, while  the  meatest  was  Jehan  Bourdichon,  who  m 
1507  painted  tne  famous  "Hours"  of  Anne  of  Brit- 
tany. But  none  of  these  artists  comes  near  to  the 
master  in  merit.  Fouquet  remains  the  sole  type  of  a 
French  Renaissance  which  died  out  with  his  pupils. 
After  1500  Italy  took  a  decided  lead  over  the  rest  of 
Europe,  and  France  was  imable  to  contest  her  pres- 
tige. For  more  than  two  centuries  she  lost  even  the 
memory  of  her  first  original  master.  It  is  only  in 
modem  times  that  he  has  been  drawn  from  obscurity 
and  restored  to  his  rank  amon^  the  most  charming 
men  of  genius  of  the  early  Renaissance. 

CuBMXR,  (Euwet  de  Jean  Fouquet  (Paris,  1805)  (ehromofl); 
BoucHOT*  Jean  Fouquet  in  Gazette  dee  Beaux- Arte  (1890).  II, 
273;  LapaxBUK,  Jean  Fouquet  in  Revue  de  VAH  (1897).  I,  25; 
LAiVNBflTRB.  Jean  Fouquet  in  Remie  dee  Deux  Mondee  (15  Jan., 
1902);  Fbudi.X,ndbb,  uie  Votiftafel  dee  Etienne  Chevalier  von 
Fouquet  in  JahrbQeher  of  the  Moaeum  of  Berlin  (1897).  206; 
Grutsr,  Lee  QuaranU  Fouquet  (of  Chantilly).  (Paris,  1900); 


eine  (1904),  I,  279;  Bouchot,  Dblislb,  etc.,  Expoeition  dee 
Primttifa  francaie  au  Louvre  (Paris,  1904);  DuBBisn,  Le  Livrt 
dee  Antiq^iU^  Judaiquea  (Paris,  1908). 

Louis  Gillet. 

Four  Orowned  Martyrs. — ^The  old  guide-books  to 
the  tombs  of  the  Roman  martyrs  make  mention,  in 
connexion  with  the  catacomb  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Marcel- 
linus  on  the  Via  Labicana,  of  the  Four  Crowned  Mar- 
tyrs (QiuUiufr  Coronati),  at  whose  grave  the  pilgrims 
were  wont  to  worship  (De  Rossi,  Roma  sotterranea,  I, 
178-79).  Oner  of  these  itineraries,  the  ''Epitome 
iibri  de  locis  sanctorum  martyrufti",  adds  the  names 
of  the  four  martyrs — in  reality  five — :  "  IV  Coronati, 
id  est  Claudius,  Nicoetratus,  Simpronianus,  Castorius, 
Simplicius".  Tliese  are  the  names  of  five  martyrs, 
sculptors  in  the  quarries  of  Pannonia  (now  a  part  ot 
Austria-Hungary,  south-west  of  the  Danube),  who 
gave  up  their  lives  for  their  Faith  in  the  reign  of  Dio- 
cletian. The  Acts  of  these  martyrs,  written  by  a  rev- 
enue oflSoer  named  Porphyrius  probably  in  the  fourth 
century,  relates  of  the  five  sculptors  that,  althou^  they 
raised  no  objections  to  executing  such  profane  images 
as  Victoria,  Cupid,  and  the  Chwot  of  the  Sun,  they 
refused  to  make  a  statue  of  ^sculapius  for  a  heathen 
temple.  For  this  they  were  condemned  to  death  as 
Christians.  They  were  put  into  leaden  caskets  and 
drowned  in  the  River  Save.  This  happened  towards 
the  end  of  305.  The  foregoing  account  of  the  martyr- 
dom of  the  five  sculptors  of  Paimonia  is  substantially 
authentic;  but  later  on  a  legend  sprans  up  at  Rome 
concerning  the  Quaiitor  Coronati,  accoraing  to  which 
four  Christian  soldiers  {cornicaiarii)  suffered  martyr- 
dom at  Rome  during  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  two  years 
after  the  dteth  of  the  five  sculptors.  Their  offence 
consisted  in  refusing  to  offer  sacrifice  to  the  image  of 
^sculapius.  The  Ixxiies  of  the  martyrs  were  interred 
by  St.  Sebastian  and  Pope  Melchiades  at  the  third 
nulestone  on  the  Via  Laoicana,  in  a  sandpit  where 
rested  the  remains  of  others  who  had  perished  for  the 
Faith.  Since  the  names  of  the  four  mar^red  soldiers 
could  not  be  authentically  established,  rope  Melchi- 
ades commanded  that,  the  date  of  their  death  (8  No- 
vember) bein^  the  same  as  that  of  the  Pannonian 
sculptors,  their  anniversary  should  be  celebrated  on 
that  day,  under  the  names  of  Sts.  Claudius,  Nicostra- 
tus,  Symphorianus,  Castor,  and  Simplicius.  This  re- 
port has  no  historic  foundation.    It  is  merely  a  tenta- 


tive explanation  of  the  name  QitatuorCoronatif  a  name 
given  to  a  group  of  really  authenticated  martyrs  who 
were  buried  and  venerated  in  the  catacomb  of  Sts. 
Peter  and  Marcellinus,  the  real  origin  of  which,  how- 
ever, is  not  known.  They  were  classified  with  the 
five  martyrs  of  Pannonia  in  a  purely  external  relation- 
ship. '  Numerous  manuscripts  on  tne  legend  as  well  as 
the  Roman  Martyrology  give  the  names  of  the  Four 
Crowned  Martyrs,  supposed  to  have  been  revealed  at  a 
later  date,  as  Secundus,  Severianus,  Carpoforus,  and 
Victorinus.  But  these  four  martyrs  were  not  buried 
in  Rome,  but  in  the  catacomb  of  Albano;  their  feast 
was  celebrated  on  7  August,  under  which  date  it  is 
cited  in  the  Roman  Calendar  of  Feasts  of  354.  These 
martyrs  of  Albano  have  no  connexion  with  the  Roman 
martyrs  described  above.  Of  the  Four  Crowned  Mar- 
tyre  we  know  only  that  they  suffered  death  for  the 
Faith  and  the  place  where  they  were  buried.  They 
evidently  were  held  in  great  veneration  at  Rome,  since 
in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  a  basilica  was  erected  and 
dedicated  to  them  on  the  CieHan  Hill,  probably  in  the 
nei^bourhood  of  the  spot  where  tradition  located 
their  execution.  This  became  one  of  the  titular 
churches  of  Rome,  was  restored  several  times,  and 
still  stands.  It  is  firat  mentioned  among  the  signa- 
tures of  a  Roman  council  in  595.  Pope  Leo  Iv  <nv 
dered  the  relics  removed,  about  850,  from  the  Via 
Labicana  to  the  church  dedicated  to  their  memory, 
togjether  with  the  relics  of  the  five  Paimonian  martyre, 
wmch  had  been  brought  to  Rome  at  some  period  now 
unknown.  Both  groups  of  martyra  are  commemor- 
ated on  8  November. 

HoicBRinuB,  Sanctuariumf  1, 162-^;  Wattbnbach  in  Site- 
ungeberiehte  der  k.  k.  Akademte  der  Wiee.  in  Wien,  X  (1853).  118 
sqq.;  Idbic  in  BOdxnobk,  Untereuehungen  eur  rOmiechen  Kaieer- 
geach..  Ill  (Ldpzig.  1870),  324  Bqq.;  Idbic,  Uiber  die  Leqende 
der  fU.  **Vier  GekrOnten"  in  Siteunffmeriehte  der  k.  preuee,  Akad. 
der  Wi»B.  su  Bedin:  PhU,-hi»i.  Klaeee  (1896),  1292-1302; 
Mbtbb,  Utber  die  Paeeio  ee.  Quatuor  Coronaiarum  in  Forediun- 
gen  eur  deuteehen  Geech.,  XVIII  (1878),  579  Bqq.;  (cf.  Neuea 
Archiv  fUr  iUtere  deuteche  Geeeh.,  V,  227;  XII,  426) ;  Idbic,  Ueber 
die  Paeeio  ee.  Quaiuor  Coronatorum  (Berlin,  1886);  Db  Robbi,  1 
eanti  QuaOro  Coronati  e  ta  loro  ckieaa  eul  Caio  in  Btdl.  di  archeoL 
eriet.  (1879),  45-90;  Pbtbcbbnio,  Zur  Kritik  und  WUrdigung 
der  Paeeio  ee.  Quatuor  Coronatorum  in  Sitxungeberichte  der  k.  k, 
Akademie  der  Wiea.  in  Wien,  XCVII  (1880),  761  Bqq.:  Allard, 
Hietoire  dee  pereScutiona  (PariB,  1892)^  IV,  130  aq.;  Y,  24  sqq.; 
DurouRCQ,  Lea  Geata  martyrum  romaxna  (Fftris,  1900),  153H50. 

J.  P.  KiBSCH. 

Fourier,  Peteb.    See  Peter  Fourier,  Saint. 

Four  Masters,  Annals  of  the,  the  most  extensive 
of  all  the  compilations  of  the  ancient  annals  of  Ireland. 
They  commence,  nominally  at  least^t  a.  m.  2242  and 
are  continued  down  to  a.  d.  1616.  The  entries  which 
are  bare  and  meagre  during  the  earlier  period  grow 
less  so  as  the  "  Annals''  progress,  and  towards  the  end 
they  become  in  parts  almost  like  a  history  in  their 
diffuseness.  The  principal  compiler  of  these  ''An- 
nals" was  Michael  O'Clery,  a  native  of  Donegal,  who 
had  been  by  profession  a  trained  antiquary  and  poet, 
but  who  afterwards  joined  the  Franciscan  Order,  ana 
went  to  their  Irish  house  in  Louvain.  Thence  he  was 
sent  back  to  Ireland  by  his  famous  compatriot.  Father 
John  Colean,  to  collect  the  lives  of  Irish  saints.  Many 
of  these  uves  which  he  copied  upon  that  visit,  out  of 
the  old  vellum  books  of  Ireland,  are  now  in  tne  Bur- 
gundian  Library  at  Brussels.  Afterwards,  under  the 
patronage  of  Fereal  O'Gara,  Lord  of  Moy  Gara  and 
Coolavin,  in  the  County  Sligo,  he  conceived  the  pious 
idea  of  collecting  and  redacting  all  the  ancient  vellum 
books  of  annals  which  he  could  find  throughout  Irer 
land,  and  of  combining  them  into  one  continuous 
whole.  "I  thought",  savs  O'Clery,  in  his  dedication 
to  O'Gara,  "that  I  could  get  the  assistance  of  the 
chroniclers  for  whom  I  had  most  esteem,  in  writing  a 
book  of  annals  in  which  these  matters  might  be  put  on 
record,  for  that  should  the  writing  of  them  be  ne- 
glected at  present,  they  would  not  again  be.  found  to 
be  put  on  record  even  to  the  end  of  the  world.  All  the 
best  and  most  copious  books  of  annals  that  I  coulcl 


rOWLEB  164  FOWUEB 


convent  of  Donegal  that  the  learned  friar  retired  while  the  name  of  O'Donovan  be  inseparably  connected 

engaged  upon  this  work  which  was  commenced  by  with  that  of  the  O'Clerys. 

himself  and  his  fellow  labourers  on  the  22nd  of  Janu-  O'Donotan,  ed..  AnruUa  Rioghaehta  Eireemn,  AtmaU  of  (he 

ary,  1632,  and  concluded  on  the  10th  of  August,  1636.  ^inodom  oflrdandjby  the  Four  Maaten,  from  the  eaHint  period 

hL  forebUngp  as  to  the  fate  of  the  mateiSil  tkat  he  £^,KSji£J/$SSX 

worked  from  were  prophetic.     Scarcely  one  of  the  an-  annototiona  by  Philip  HacDennott,  Esq.,  M.D.,  and  the  trana- 

cient  books  which  he  brought  together  with  such  pains  I**®'  t^ft^M***'!®^^  j  Oonnellan's  tranaUtionM  only  from  the 

has  survived  to  the  pre«ait  day-they  probabh;  per-  h^il^  Jj..*^^  S'^i^m^'s^.^              SSl 

ished  m  the  cataclysm  of  the  Cromwellian  and  Wlliiar  ^wtena  amudee  IV  Magiatronim  ex  ipao  0*CUr%i  autoifrapho  in 

mite  wars.  BMiolheea  Stmoerue  (Buckin^iam,  1826).  The  Rev.  Chaiiee 

..jy  wasFather  Colgaj,  the  celebrated  author  of  the  o^cvm^^Ledur^  on  Ihe  AW.  ma{«iii^o/*Afic£»J7ii«i  wi- 

'  Trias   Thaumaturm"    and    the    "Acta   sanctorum  ton,  142-161,  appendix  643-648:    Htdb,  LUerary  Hiatory  of 

HibemifiD  ",  who,  in  the  preface  to  this  latter  work,  first  ™f«f  %£.15°:  ^fSJ^^lT^  ff^*  ^^!^  ?«'?«;  'T**/*'- 

<^..^A««.wrl  iko.  ♦,'♦!-«.  K-f  »,k;Ai«   ♦u-^^^  «««  «^-,  «i«*»,r«  ««'««.  136-142;   Joyce,  Socuu.  Htstory  of  Ancient  IreUmd.  I, 

conferred  the  title  by  which  they  are  now  always  624-626;  Gilbbbt,  National  MSS,  of  Irdand  (London,  18^4); 

known, "  The  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters  ",  upon  these  81 1-313;  Moobb  in  Diet.  NaL  Biog, ,  •.  v.  cycUry. 

annals  of  O'Cleiy.    "As  in  the  three  works  before  Douglas  Htde. 
mentioned",  writes  Colgan,  "so  in  this  fourth  one, 

three  (helpers  of  O'Clerv)  are  eminently  to  be  praised.  Fowler,  John,  scholar  and  printer,  b.  at  Bristol, 

nameljT  Farfassa  O'Mulconry,  Peregrine  O'Cl^,  and  England,  1537;  d.  at  Namur,  Flanders,  13  Feb.,  1578- 

Peregrine  O'Duignan,  men  of  consummate  learning  in  9.    He  studied  at  Winchester  School  from  1551  to 

the  antiquities  of  their  country,  and  to  these  were  1553,  when  he  proceeded  to  New  College,  Gbrford, 

subsequently  added  the  c<M>peration  of  other  distin-  where  he  remained  till  1559.  He  became  B.A.  23  Feb., 

guished  antiquarians,  as  Maurice  O'Mulconry  who  for  1556-7  and  M. A.  in  1560,  though  Antony  k  Wood  adds 

one  month  and  Conary  O'Clery  who  for  many  months  that  he  did  not  complete  his  d^;ree  by  standiiu;  in 

laboured  in  its  promotion.    But  since  those  'Annals'  camitia.    On  Elizabeth's  accession  he  was  one  ofthe 

which  we  shall  very  frequently  have  occasion  to  quote,  fifteen  Fellows  of  New  College  who  left  of  their  own 

have  been  collected  and  compiled  by  the  assistance  accord  or  were  ejected  rather  than  take  the  Oath  of 

and  separate  study  of  so  many  authors,  neither  the  Supremacy  (Raandall,  Histoiy  of  New  College,  114). 

desire  of  brevitv  would  permit  us  always  to  quote  This  disposes  of  the  calimmv  circulated  by  Acworth  in 

them  individually,  nor  would  justice  permit  us  to  at-  his  answer  to  Sander,  called  ''De  visibiliRomanarchi&", 

tribute  the  labour  of  many  to  one,  hence  it  sometimes  to  the  effect  that  Fowler  took  the  oath  to  enable  him 

seemed  b^  to  call  them  the  'Annals  of  Donegal',  for  to  retain  the  living  of  Wonston  in  Hampshire.  There 

in  our  convent  of  Donegal  they  were  commenced  and  is,  indeed,  no  trace  of  any  desire  on  his  part  to  receive 

concluded.    But  afterwards,  for  other  reasons,  chiefly  Holy  orders  and  he  subsecmently  married  Alice  Harris, 

for  tibe  BcJce  of  the  compilere  theznselves,  who  were  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  More's  secretary.  On  leaving 

four  most  learned  masters  in  antiquarian  lore,  we  Oxford  he  withdrew  to  Louvain,  where  like  other 

have  be^i  led  to  call  them  the  'Anndk  of  the  Four  scholars  of  his  time  he  turned  his  attention  to  the 

Masters'."  craft  of  printing.    His  intellectual  attainments  were 

These  "  Annals ",  written  in  a  very  archaic  language,  such  as  to  enable  him  to  take  high  rank  among  the 

difficult  to  be  understood,  even  then,  except  by  tne  scholar>printers  of  that  age.    Thus  Antony  &  Wood 

learned,  give  us  the  reigns,  deaths,  genealosies,  etc.,  says  of  nim:  "He  was  well  skilled  in  the  Greek  and 

not  only  of  the  high-kii^  of  Irelano,  but  also  of  the  Latin  tongues,  a  tolerable  poet  and  orator,  and  a 

provincial  kings,  chiefs,  and  heads  of  distinguished  theologian  not  to  be  contemned.    So  learned  he  was 

families,  men  of  science,  historians,  poets,  etc.,  with  also  in  criticisms  and  other  polite  learning,  that  he 

their  respective  dates  given  as  accurately  as  the  Mas-  migjht  have  passed  for  another  Robert  or  Henry 

ters  are  able  to  eive  them.    Thev  record  the  demise  Stephens.    He  did  diligently  peruse  the  Theological 

and  succession  of  saints,  abbots,  bishops,  and  ecclesi-  Sununa  of  St.  Thomas  of  Aquin^  and  with  a  most  ex- 

astical  dispitaries.    They  tell  of  the  foundation  and  cellent  method  did  reduce  them  mto  a  Compendium. " 

occasionaBv  the  overthrow  of  countless  churches,  To  have  a  printing  press  abroad  in  the  hands  of  a  com- 

casties,  abbeys,  convents,  and  religious  institutions,  petent  Enslish  prmter  was  a  great  gain  to  the  Catholic 

They  give  meagre  details  of  battles,  murders,  tribal  cause,  and  Fowler  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  to  this 

wars,  wars  with  the  foreigners,  battles  with  Norsemen,  work,  winning  from  Cardinal  Allen  the  praise  of  being 

Normans,  and  English,  and  political  changes.    Some-  catholicissimua  et  docUanmua  Itbrorum  %mpre$9ar.   The 

times  they  quote  ancient  verses  in  corroboration  of  the  EnglishGovemment  kept  an  eye  on  his  work,  as  we  learn 

facts  they  mention,  but  no  such  verses  are  quoted  from  the  State  papers  (Domestic,  Eliz.,  1566-1579), 

Srior  to  the  third  century.    We  have  here  the  con-  where  we  read  the  evidence  of  one  Heniy  Simpson  at 

ensed  pith  and  substance  of  the  old  vellum  books  of  York,  in  1571,  to  the  effect  that  Fowler  printed  all  the 

Ireland  which  were  then  in  existence,  but  most  of  Enelish  books  at  Louvain  and  that  Dr.  Harding's 

which,  as  the  Four  Masters  foresaw,  have  lon^^  since  Welsh  servant,  William  Smith,  used  to  bring  the  woncs 

perished.    Their  facts  and  dates  are  not  their  own  to  the  press.  He  seems  to  have  had  a  press  at  Antwerp 

tacts  and  dates.'   From  confused  masses  of  very  an-  as  well  as  at  Louvain,  for  his  Antwerp  books  range 

cient  matter,  they,  with  labour  and  much  sifting,  drew  *fiom  1565  to  1575.  whereas  his  Louvain  books  are 

forth  their  dates,  and  as  far  as  possible  synchronized  dated  1566, 1567 ana  1568;whileoneofhi8publication8, 

their  facts.    It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  there  is  no  Gr^ory  Martin's  "Treatise  of  Schism ",  bears  the  im- 

event  in  the  whole  of  Irish  histoiy  from  the  birth  of  press,  bouay,  1578.    More  thorough  bibliographical 

Christ  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  cen-  research  than  has  yet  been  made  into  the  output  of 

tury  that  the  first  enquiry  of  the  student  about  it  his  presses  will  probablv  throw  new  light  upon  his 

must  not  be:  "  What  do  the  Four  Masters  say  of  this?  "  activity  as  a  printer.   Tne  original  works  or  translar 

These  "Annals"  have  been  published,  at  least  in  tionsforwhichhewaspersonalTy  responsible  are:  "An 

part,  three  times,  but  are  now  always  read  in  the  edi-  Oration  against  the  unlawfull  Insurrections  of  the 

tion  of  the  sreat  Irish  scholar,  John  O'Donovan.    In  Protestantes  of  our  time  under  pretence  to  reforme 

this  splendid  work  the  Irish  text  is  given  with  a  trans-  Religion"  (Antwerp,  1566),  translated  from  the  Latin 

lation  into  English  and  a  mass  of  the  most  valuable  of  Peter  Frarinus,  which  provoked  a  reply  from  Fulke; 

notes,  topographical,  genealogical,  and  historical,  the  "Ex  univers&  summ&  SacrsB  TheologisB  Doctoris  S. 


^loinB  AquiiiKti>de3umptseoncliisioiies"(LouTaJn,  the  table  immediatelybefore  him  is  atwo-handled  cup. 

1670);  "M.  MMiUi  dictorum  factorumque  memorabi-  Further  along  the  table  there  are  two  large  plates,  om 

liumLbriVI"  (Antwerp,  1577);   "Additionesin  Chro-  containing  two  fishes,  the  other  five  loaves.     At  each 

nie&Genebrandi"  (1578);  "APsalterforCatholic8",a  eictremity  of  the  picture  upon  either  side  we  notice 

controversial  work  answeiwl  by  Samraon;  episnuns  baskets  filled  with  loaves — four  baskets  at  one  end, 

and  veraes.    The  translation  of  the  "Epistle  of  Oro-  three  at  the  other. 

mus"  (Antwerp,  1565),  ascribed  to  him  by  Wood  and  As  a  very  little  reflection  will  suffice  to  prove,  no 

Pitt«,  was  really  made  by  Richard  Shacklock.    Pitts  doubt  can  be  felt  as  to  the  significance  of  the  scene, 

abo  states  tiiat  he  wrote  in  English  a  work"  Ad  Ducia-  It  depicts  beyond  queatbn  that  striking  Eucharistio 

nin  Ferin  ccnifeMionis  forma".    Fowler  ^so  edited  act,  "the  breaking  of  the  bread"  {KKini  raO  Sprcv  — 

Sir  lliomBa  Hore'a   "Dialc^ue  of  Comfort  against  fractiopani8),wbichseemstobaveBo much  impressed 

Tribulation"  (Antwerp,  1573).  our  Lord's  immediate  disciples.    The  phraae  itself  at 

PrrTa,DemuitribuiA.nitaScrifli>nbiu  lPtnt.l62iy,Vooo,  once  transports  Us  back  to  the  very'bwnningB  of 

^^irS  S^-  ,^-  ^V",,!,^"!  Sv  i?}*^*f^!'  }':,  ^r,-  Christianity.    No  wonder  that  De  Itoasi,  whose  last 

CAurek  ifufarv  (BiuhhIs,  1737),  I.  Pt.  Ill,  Bk.  II.  Alt.  a,  fol-  J,    .,  _    ,.      ...    b_j    j       _-l  !j  ;. ii.i 

lo>inE  aktost  i  Wood  in  evw  detiul;  Tiii«!aL«,  TW  years  were  gladdened  by  this  find,  described  it  as    the 

rn^usJ  Stity^opaiia  (London,   lS42)i    Knox,  Liiten  and  pearl  of  Catacomb  discoveries    .      To  pomt  out  briefly 

ytfmpripU  a(  C«^nal  AlUn   Om^    imn:   Bo»M^  Am-  tow  Constantly  this  phrase  "fnictio  panis"  recurB  in 

CLAaKX,  Rrgiitir  at  IKi  Vniveni^  of  Ox/ord  (Oxford  Hut.  8oc.,  .     ™,_;rf;„/ i:,„„r„„    „„  „„„  „„tr*Koi  w^t  «nlir 

188S},  I;  OiLLow,  fiiU.  Did.  Sng.  Caih.  (London,  issfl).  II;  early  Christian  literature,  we  may  note  that  not  only 
CoortM ID  Did.  rtat-Biog-  (I^ndon,  isnj.  XX.  is  the  "blessing  and  breoiting"  of  the  bread  mentuned 
Edwin  Burton.  in  each  of  the  four  accounts  of  the  last  Supper,  but 
Fox,  Georoe.    See  Fbmndb,  Soc.stt  of.  repeatedly  also  in  the  other  Apostolic  writings,    For 
'                                       '  example,  m  I  Cor.,  x,  16,  "  The  chalice  of  benediction, 
Vox,  Joseph  J.    See  Gbken  Bat.  which  wb  bless,  is  it  not  the  communion  of  the  blood  of 
Toxe'sBookofMartyra.    SeeBooKorM*RTTBS.  ChfW'J.    And  the  bread,  which  we  break,  U  it  not  the 
'  partaking  of  the  body  of  the  Lord?"    So  again  m 
Trwtlo  Puia  (Breaking  of  Bread),  the  name  Acts,  ii,  42,  "And  they  were  persevering  in  the  doe- 
given  to  a  fresco  in  the  ao-calJed  "Capella  Greca"  in  trine  of  the  apostles,  and  in  the  communication  of  the 
the  catacomb  of  St.  PrisciUa  situated  on  the  Via  breaking  of  bread,  and  in  prayere"  (cf.  Acts,  ii,  46). 


FBAcno  Puna 
Cnpelta  Qfwn.  CnUoomb  of  St.  PriadlU 
Salaria  Nova.  The  fresoo,  which  with  the  whole  of  And  particularly  Acts,  xz,  7,  "And  on  the  first  day  of 
the  decorations  of  the  chapel  dates  from  the  first  half  the  week,  when  we  were  assembled  to  break  bread", 
oi  ttie  second  century,  is  of  the  highest  liturgical  and  where  this  practice  is  closely  associated  with  the  ob- 
tbeoli^pcal  importance.  The  painting  is  found  upon  aervance  of  Sunday.  (Cf.  also  the  disciples  at  Em- 
the  face  of  the  arch  immediately  over  the  altar  tomb,  maua  on  Easter  day — Luke,  xxiv,  30,  35,  and  Acts, 
upon  which  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt  the  Holy  uvii,  35.)  Similar  prominence  is  given  to  this  con- 
Sacrifice  was  oflered.  By  a  providential  accident  this  ception  in  other  sub-Apostolic  writings,  notably  in  the 
particular  fresco,  having  been  covered  by  a  thick  crust  Didache  (q.  v.)  or  "Teaching  of  the  Apostles"  (ziv,  I), 
of  stalactites,  escaped  the  notice  of  the  early  explorers  whero  it  is  associated  with  tne  observance  of  the  Sun- 
of  the  catacombs,  who,  by  their  over-eagerness  and  day  as  well  as  with  the  explicit  mention  of  Sacrifice 
wnorancecombined,  often  did  much  irreparable  harm,  and  with  confession.  "And  on  the  Lord's  day  come 
ui  ttieyear.  1893,  Ugt.  Joseph  Wilpert,  the  moat  dis-  togetherandbreakbreadandgive  thanks,  having  first 
tinguished  of  a  band  of  young  scliolars  who  looked  confessed  your  transgresaions^  that  your  sacrifice  may 
upon  the  gi«at  arehnologist  De  Rossi  (q.  v.]  as  their  be  pure."  Further,  m  ch,  xi  of  the  same  eariy  trea- 
master,  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  roof  and  tise  the  consecrated  Host  is  clearly  dcsiBiatedoy  Uie 
arches  of  this  chapel  were  decorated  with  frescoes,  term  it\ivim,  i.  e.  "broken  bread".  Nothing  then 
Qiemical  reagents  were  used  to  remove  the  crust  which  could  be  more  natural  tlian  that,  in  the  earliest  form 
covered  the  surface,  and  by  the  patient  care  of  M^.  of  the  liturgy,  the  breaking  of  the  bread  should  have 
WDpert  this  delicate  operation  was  attended  with  lieen  regardea  as  the  climax  of  the  ritual  employed, 
comt^ete  success.  The  most  important  fresco  thus  and  should  have  been  for  the  early  Christians  wtiat  the 
tecovered  was  tiiat  already  referred  to  over  the  altar  Elevation  in  the  Mass  is  nowadays  for  us.  Moreover, 
tomb.  The  scene  represented  is  a  picture  of  seven  this  Eucharistic  significance  of  the  picture  is  borne  out 
persons  at  table,  six  men  and  a  woman.  It  seems  by  all  the  accessories.  The  loaves  and  the  fidies  upon 
clear  that  six  of  these  am  reclining  as  the  ancients  re-  the  table  point  directly  to  the  miraculous  multiplica- 
clined  at  their  meals.  But  the  seventh  personage,  a  tion  twice  performed  by  Ciirist.  The  association  of 
bearded  and  impressive  figure,  sits  somewhat  apart  at  this  miracle  with  the  Blessed  Euchuist  is  familiar,  not 
the  extremity  of  the  table  in  an  attitude  which  is  only  in  other  arehsological  monuments,  but  alia  in 
hi^ly  significant.  His  head  is  thrown  back,  he  has  a  early  Christian  literature.  See  for  example  Origen, 
n^i lou  or  cake  m  his  hands,  and  his  arms  stretched  "In  Hatt.",  x,  25  (P.  G.,  XIU,  902),  and  Ambrose, 
out  in  front  of  him  show  that  he  is  breaking  it.    Upon  "De  Vir^n.",I,3  (P.  L.,  XVI,  219).    Upon  the  sym- 


FRAKOS                               166  FRAKOS 

bolic  significanoe  of  the  fish  and  the  anagram  /x^»  coast  line  both  on  the  Atlantic  and  on  the  Mediterra- 
it  cannot  be  necessary  to  insist.  Both  the  inscription  nean;  moreover  the  passes  of  Belfort,  Cdte  d'Or,  and 
of  Abercius  (q.  v.)  of  the  close  of  the  second  century  Nauronse  open  up  ready  channels  of  communication 
and  that  of  Autun  a  little  later,  as  well  as  a  large  num-  between  the  Rhine,  the  English  Channel,  the  Atlantic, 
ber  of  allusions  in  early  Christian  literature,  make  it  and  the  Mediterranean.  Furthermore  it  is  note- 
dear  that  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  was  indicated  by  worthy  that  wherever  the  French  frontier  is  defended 
this  symbol  (see  e.  g.  Mowat  in  the  "Atti  del  Con-  by  lofty  mountains  (as,  for  instance,  the  Alps,  the 
gresso  Intemaz.  d'Archeol.  Crist.'',  Rome,  1902,  pp.  I^renees)  the  border  peoples  are  akin  to  the  Frendi 
2-4).  Moreover,  the  Abercius  inscription  clearly  con-  either  in  race,  speech,  or  customs  (the  Latin  races), 
veys  that  this  "great  fish"  was  to  be  the  permanent  while  on  the  other  hand  the  Teutonic  races,  differing  so 
food  of  the  soul.  We  may  also  note  that  the  one  widely  from  the  French  in  ideas  and  sentiment,  are 
female  fig\u«  among  the  guests  depicted  in  the  Fractio  physically  divided  from  them  only  by  the  low-lying 
Panis  fresco  is  veiled,  which  is  not  the  case  with  the  nills  and  plains  of  the  North-East.  Hence  it  follows 
female  figures  represented  in  those  other  banqueting  that  France  has  always  lent  itself  with  peculiar  facility 
scenes  found  in  the  catacombs  and  usually  interpreted  to  the  spread  of  any  great  ritellectual  movement, 
as  symbolic  of  the  joys  of  heaven.  The  fresco  of  which  coming  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  as  was 
we  speak  is  not,  sa  will  be  readily  imderstood,  either  the  case  with  Christianity.  France  was  the  natiiral 
entirely  realistic  or  entirely  symbolical.  That  the  highroad  between  Italy  and  England,  between  Ger- 
president  (rpocori&t)  of  the  synaxis  (assembly)  should  many  and  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  On  French  soil  the 
break  the  bread  seated,  is  probably  not  to  be  imder-  races  of  the  North  minded  with  those  of  the  South ;  and 
stood  as  implying  that  the  bishops  in  the  primitive  the  very  geographical  configuration  of  the  country 
church  were  m  fact  seated  when  they  offered  the  accounts  in  a  certain  sense  for  the  instinct  of  expan- 
liturgy .  any  more  than  the  attitude  of  the  guests  im-  sion,  the  gift  of  assimilation  and  of  diffusion,  thanks  to 
plies  that  the  eariy  Christians  reclined  on  couches  which  France  has  been  able  to  play  the  part  of  |;eneral 
when  they  assisted  at  the  Holy  Sacrifice.  On  the  distributor  of  ideas.  In  fact,  two  widely  different 
other  hand,  the  action  of  the  breaking  of  the  bread  is  worlds  meet  in  France.  A  journey  from  North  to 
cleariy  realistic.  A  further  indication  of  the  Eucha-  South  leads  through  three  distinct  zones:  the  grain 
ristic  significance  of  the  fresco  here  imder  discussion  is  ooimtry  reaching  from  the  northern  coast  to  a  line 
afforded  by  the  fact  that  in  the  fresco  next  to  it  in  the  drawn  from  M^zi^res  to  Nantes ;  the  vine  country  and 
same  chamber  is  depicted  the  sacrifice  of  Abraham,  the  region  of  berries,  southward  from  this  to  the  lati- 
On  the  other  side  is  a  representation  of  Daniel  in  the  tude  of  Grenoble  and  Perpignan;  the  land  of  olive- 
lions'  den,  to  which  Mgr.  Wilpert  also  attaches  a  earths  and  orange-groves,  extending  to  the  southern 
Eucharistic  significance  on  account  of  the  supernatural  boundary  of  the  countrv.  Its  climate  ranges  from  the 
feeding  of  Daniel  throug;h  the  intervention  of  the  foggy  promontories  of  Brittany  to  the  sunny  shores  of 
prophet  Habacuc  (Dan.,  xiv,  36).  Provence:  from  the  even  temperature  of  the  Atlantic 
WiLPBBT.in  1895,  publuhed  a  monoKraph  giyiiis  a  full  acoount  to  the  sudden  changes  which  are  characteristic  of  the 

of  this  discovery  under  the  title  Fractto  Panxa,  ate  OUeaU  Dor-  M«wli+j»rranAon       lisi  nAnrk1<>  varv  fmm  f hfl  f AiiN-linimH 

ateUuno  der  eudtariatiBehen  Opfers  (Freiburg  im  Br.).     This  was  Medltenragean.     Its  people  vary  irom  tne  law-nairCQ 

translated  into  French  Uie  next  year.     It  contains  a  collection  races  of  Jblanders  and  Lorraine,  With  a  mixture  of 

of  very  carefully  executed  photo^vures  of  the  frescoes  in  the  German  blood  in  their  veins,  to  the  olive-skinned 

SSSri?^^*b&\^'SSS;^"'r^.i£S'^^fi^1SS  i^3r  °^  ^''.^^.-  ^i«  »r«  e««ntiaUy  Latin  and 

photoKraphic  copy.    For  this  reason  the  coloured  reproduction  Mediterranean  m  tneir  extraction.    Again  ^iature  nas 

included  by  Mgr.  Wilpert  in  his  later  work  Die  Malereien  der  formed,  in  the  physiography  of  this  country,  a  multi- 

^SSt:t  te  ln1tJ^.^ZS.  ^^'^iS^^'  ^  tude  of  regions,  each  witfi  ite  own  characteristi^ite 

Fractio  Panis  is  shown  upon  plate  xv,  vol.  I.    Compare  also  own  personality,  SO  to  speak — Which,  m  former  times, 

Maruochx,  EUmenta  d'ArchioloqieChritiennf  (Pans,  1899-  popular  instinct  called  separate  countries.    Thetend- 

1902).  I.  pp.  284-299;  L«cu:rcq  in  DicL  d'Archi^Hogte,  1 3159-  ^^  ^  abstraction,  howevcr,  which  carried  away  the 

Herbert  TnuRffroN.  l«»aers  of  the  Revolution,  is  responsible  for  the  present 

purely  arbitraiy  divisions  of  the  soil,  known  as  "  de- 
France,  the  fifth  in  size  (usually  reckoned  the  partments''.  Contemporary  geography  is  glad  to 
fourth)  of  the  great  divisions  of  Europe.  avail  itself  of  the  old  names  and  of  the  old  divisions 
Descriptive  Geography. — ^The  area  of  France  is  into  "coimtries"  and  "provinces"  which  more  nearly 
207,107  square  miles;  it  has  a  coast  line  1560  miles  correspond  with  the  geolog;ical  formations  as  well  as 
and  a  lana  frontier  1525  mUes  in  length.  In  shape  it  with  tne  natural  pecmiarities  of  the  various  regions, 
resembles  a  hexagon  of  which  the  sides  are:  (1)  From  There  is  a  great  contrast  between  a  region  such  as  the 
Dunkirk  to  Point  St-Matthieu  (sands  and  dimes  from  "Massif  Central"  (the  Central  Plateau),  a  rugged  land 
Dunkirk  to  the  mouth  of  the  Somme;  cliffs,  called  inhabited  by  a  stubborn  race  that  is  often  glad  to 
/oZatMS.  extending  from  the  Somme  to  the  Ome,  except  leave  its  fastnesses,  and  those  lands  of  comfort  that 
where  their  wall  is  broken  by  the  estuary  of  the  Seine;  lie  along  the  great  Northern  Plain,  the  valley  of  the 

S'anite  boulders  intersectea  by  deep  inlets  from  the  Loire,  and  the  fertile  basin  in  which  Paris  stands, 

me  to  Point  St-Matthieu).     (2)  From  Point  St-  But  in  spite  of  this  variety  France  is  a  unit.    These 

Matthieu  to  tiie  mouth  of  the  Bidassoa  (alternate  regions,  so  unlike  and  so  diversified,  balance  and  com- 

granite  cliffs  and  inlets  as  far  as  the  River  Loire;  plete  each  other  like  the  limbs  of  a  living  body.    As 

sandy  stretches  and  arid  moors  from  the  Loire  to  the  Michelet  puts  it,  "  France  is  a  person." 

Garonne ;  sands,  lagoons,  and  dunes  from  the  Garonne  Statistics. — In  1901  France  had  39,031,000  inhabi- 

to  the  Pyrenees).     (3)  From  the  Bidassoa  to  Point  tants.  The  census  no  longer  inquires  as  to  the  reli^on 

Cerb^re    (a  formation  known  as  Pyrenean  chalk),  of  French  citizens,  and  it  is  only  by  way  of  approxima- 

(4)  From  Point  CJerb^re  to  the  mouth  of  the  Roya  (a  tion  that  we  can  compute  the  number  of  Catholics 

steep,  rocky  frontier  from  the  Fjrenees  to  the  Tech;  at  38  millions;  Protestants,  600,000;  Jews,  68,000. 

sands  and  lagoons  between  the  Tech  and  the  Rhone,  Tlie  population  of  the  French  colonies  amounts  to 

and  an  unbroken  wall  of  pointed  rocks  stretching  from  47,680,000  inhabitants,  and  in  conse<iuence  France 

the  Rhone  to  the  Roya).     (5)  From  the  Roya  to  stands  second  to  England  as  a  colonizing  power;  but 

Mount  Donon  (running  along  the  Maritime,  the  Cot-  the  difference  between  them  is  very  great,  the  colonies 

tian,  and  the  Graian  Alps,  as  well  as  the  mountains  of  of  England  having  more  than  356  millions  of  inhabi- 

Jura  and  the  Vosges).     (6)  From  Mount  Donon  to  tants. 

Dunkirk  (an  artificial  frontier  differentiated  by  few  There  are  two  points  to  be  noted  in  the  study  of 

marked  physical  peculiarities).  French  statistics.    The  annual  mean  excess  of  births 

France  is  the  only  country  in  Europe  having  a  over  deaths  for  each  10,000  inhabitants  during  the 


FRAKOE 


167 


FRANOE 


period  1901-1905  in  France  was  18,  while  in  Italy  it 
was  106,  in  Austria  113,  in  EIngland  121.  in  Germany 
149,  in  Bele;ium  155.  In  1907  the  deaths  were  more 
numerous  than  the  births,  the  number  of  deaths  being 
70,455,  while  that  of  the  births  was  only  50,535 — 
an  excess  of  19,920  deaths — and  this  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  in  1907  there  were  nearly  45,000  more 
marria^  than  in  1890.  Official  investigators  attri- 
bute this  phenomenon  to  sterile  marriages.  In  1907, 
in  only  29  out  of  86  departments,  the  number  of  births 
exceeaed  the  number  of  deaths.  It  may  perha^  be 
le^timateljT  inferred  that  the  sterility  of  marriages 
oomcides  with  the  decay  of  religious  belief.  Again,  it 
is  important  to  note  the  increase  in  population  of  the 
larger  cities  between  the  years  1789  and  1901:  Mar- 
seiUes,  from  106,000  to  491,000;  Lyons,  from  139,- 
000  to  459,000;  Bordeaux,  from  83,000  to  256,000; 
Lille,  from  13,000  to  210,000;  Toulouse,  from  55,000 
to  149,000;  Saint-Etienne,  from  9000  to  146,000. 
Paris,  which  m  1817  had  714,000  inhabitants,  had 
2,714,000  in  1901 ;  Havre  and  Roubaix,  which  in  1821 
had  17,000  and  9000  respectively,  now  have  130,()(X) 
and  142,000.  In  these  great  increases  the  multiplica- 
tion of  parishes  has  not  always  been  proportionate  to 
the  increase  of  the  population,  and  tnis  is  one  of  the 
causes  of  the  religious  mdifference  into  which  so  many 
of  the  working  people  have  fallen.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  m  former  days  nine-tenths  of  the  peo- 
ple of  France  lived  in  the  country;  that  while  556  out 
of  every  1000  Frenchmen  lived  by  agriculture  in  1856, 
that  number  had  fallen  to  419  in  1891.  The  emigrants 
from  the  country  hurried  into  the  industrial  towns, 
many  of  which  multiplied  their  population  by  fifteen, 
and  there,  accustomed  as  they  had  been  to  the  village 
beU,  the^  found  no  chureh  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
after  a  few  brief  e^nerations  the  once  faithful  family 
from  the  country  developed  the  faithless  dweller  in  the 
town. 

History,  to  the  Third  Repubuc. — ^The  Treaty  of 
Verdun  (843)  definitel^r  established  the  partition  of 
Charlemagne's  empire  into  three  independent  king- 
doms, and  one  of  tnese  was  France.  A  great  chureh- 
man,  Hincmar,  Archbishop  of  Reims  (806-82),  was  the 
deviser  of  the  new  arrangement.  He  strongly  sup- 
ported the  kingship  of  Charles  the  Bald^  under  whose 
sceptre  he  would  have  placed  Lorrame  also.  To 
Hincmar  the  dream  of  a  united  Christendom  did  not 
appear  under  the  guise  of  an  empire,  however  ideal, 
but  under  the  concrete  form  of^  a  number  of  unit 
States,  each  being  a  member  of  one  mighty  body,  the 
great  Republic  of  Christendom.  He  would  replace 
ti^e  empire  by  a  Europe  of  which  France  was  one 
member.  Under  Charles  the  Fat  (880-88)  it  looked 
for  a  moment  as  if  Charlemagne's  empire  was  about  to 
come  to  life  again;  but  the  illusion  was  temporary,  and 
in  its  st^sui  were  quickly  formed  seven  kingdoms: 
Francia,  Navarre,  Provence,  Burgundy  beyond  the 
Jura,  Lorraine,  Germany,  and  Italy.  Feudalism  was 
in  the  seething-pot,  and  the  imperial  edifice  was 
crumbling  to  dust.  Towards  the  close  of  the  tenth 
century,  m  the  Frankish  kingdom  alone,  twenty-nine 
provinces  or  fragments  of  provinces,  under  the  sway 
of  dukes,  counts,  or  viscounts,  constitute  veritable 
sovereignties,  and  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century 
there  were  as  many  as  fifty-five  of  these  minor  States, 
of  greater  or  less  importance.  As  early  as  the  tenth 
century  one  of  these  feudal  families  had  begun  to  take 
the  lead,  that  of  the  Dukes  of  Francia,  descendants  of 
Robert  the  Strong,  and  lords  of  all  the  country  be- 
tween the  Seine  and  the  Loire.  From  887  to  987  they 
successfully  defended  French  soil  against  the  invading 
Northmen,  and  Eudes,  or  Odo,  Duke  of  Francia  (887- 
898),  Robert,  his  brother  (922-923),  and  Raoul,  or 
Rudolph,  Robert's  son-in-law  (923-936),  occupied  the 
throne  for  a  brief  interval.  The  weakness  of  the  later 
Garlovinsan  kings  was  evident  to  all,  and  in  987,  on  the 
dcttkth  of  Louis  VT  Adalberon,  Arehbishop  of  Reims,  at 


a  meeting  of  the  chief  men  held  at  Senlis,  contrasted 
the  incapacity  of  the  Carlovingian  Charles  of  Lorraiue, 
the  heir  to  the  throne,  with  the  merits  of  Hugh,  Duke 
of  Francia.  Gerbert,  who  afterwards  became  Syl- 
vester II,  adviser  and  secretary  to  Adalberon,  and 
Amoul,  Bishop  of  Orleans,  also  spoke  in  support  of 
Hugh,  with  the  result  that  he  was  proclaimed  king. 
Thus  the  Capetian  dynasty  had  its  rise  in  the  person  of 
Hugh  Capet.  It  was  the  work  of  the  Church,  brought 
to  pass  by  the  influence  of  the  See  of  Reims,  renowned 
throughout  France  since  the  episcopate  of  Hincmar, 
renowned  since  the  davs  of  Clovis  for  the  privilege  of 
anointing  the  Frankish  kings  conferred  on  its  titular, 
and  renowned  so  opportunely  at  this  time  for  the 
learning  of  its  episcopal  school  presided  over  by 
Gerbert  himself. 

The  Church,  which  had  set  up  the  new  dvnasty. 
exereised  a  very  salutary  influence  over  French  social 
life.  That  the  origin  and  ^wth  of  the  "  Chansons  de 
geste",  i.  e.  of  early  epic  literature,  are  doselv  bound 
up  with  the  famous  pugrim  shrines,  whither  tne  piety 
of  the  people  resorted,  has  been  recentl>[  proved  by  the 
literary  laoours  of  M.  B4dier.  And  military  courage 
and  physical  heroism  were  schooled  and  blessed  by  the 
Chureh,  which  in  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury transformed  chivalry  from  a  lay  institution  of 
German  origin  iuto  a  religbus  one,  by  placing  among 
its  liturgical  rites  the  ceremony  of  kni^thood,  in  which 
the  candidate  promised  to  defend  truth,  justice,  and 
the  oppressed.  The  Congregation  of  Cluny,  founded 
in  910,  which  made  rapid  progress  in  the  eleventh 
century,  prepared  France  to  play  an  important  part  in 
the  reformation  of  the  Chureh  imdertaken  in  the  second 
half  of  the  eleventh  century  by  a  monk  of  Cluny,  Greg- 
ory VII,  and  gave  the  Chureh  two  other  popes  after 
him.  Urban  II  and  Paschal  II.  It  was  a  Frenchman. 
Urban  II,  who  at  the  Council  of  Clermont  (1095)  started 
the  glorious  movement  of  the  Crusades,  a  war  taken 
up  by  Christendom  when  France  had  led  the  way. 

The  reign  of  Louis  VI  (1108-37)  is  of  note  in  the 
history  of  the  Chureh,  and  in  that  of  France;  in  the 
one,  because  the  solemn  adhesion  of  Louis  VI  to  Pope 
Innocent  II  assured  the  unity  of  the  Church,  which  at 
the  time  was  seriously  menaced  by  the  Antipope  Ana- 
cletus;  in  the  other,  l>ecause  for  the  first  time  Capetian 
kin^  took  a  stand  as  the  champions  of  law  and  order 
against  the  feudal  system  ana  as  the  protectors  of 
public  rights.  A  churchman,  Su^r,  Abbot  of  St- 
Denis,  a  friend  of  Louis  VI  and  minister  under  Louis 
VII  (1137-80),  developed  and  realized  this  ideal  of 
kingl^r  duty.  Louis  VI,  seconded  by  Suger.  and 
counting  on  the  support  of  the  towns — the  com- 
munes',  as  they  were  called  when  they  had  obliged 
the  feudal  lords  to  grant  them  charters  of  freedom — 
fulfilled  to  the  letter  the  r6le  of -prince  as  it  was  con- 
ceived by  the  theology  of  the  Middle  Ages.  ''  Kings 
have  long  arms",  wrote  Suger,  **  and  it  is  their  dutv  to 
repress  with  all  their  mignt,  and  by  right  of  their 
office,  the  daring  of  those  who  rend  the  State  by 
endless  wars,  who  rejoice  in  pillage,  and  who  destroy 
homesteads  and  churches.'^  Another  French  church- 
man, St.  Bernard,  won  Louis  VII  for  the  Crusades; 
and  it  was  not  his  fault  that  Palestine,  where  the  First 
Crusade  had  set  up  a  Latin  kingdom,  did  not  remain  a 
French  colony^  in  the  service  of  the  Church.  The 
divorce  of  Louis  VII  and  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine  (1152) 
marred  the  ascendancv  of  French  influence  by  paving 
the  way  for  the  growth  of  Anglo-Norman  pretensions 
on  the  soil  of  France  from  the  Cnannel  to  the  Py^renees. 
Soon,  however,  by  virtue  of  feudal  laws  the  French 
king,  Philip  Augustus  (1180-1223),  proclaimed  him- 
self suzeram  over  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  and  John 
Lackland,  and  the  victory  of  Bouvines  which  he 
^ined  over  the  Emperor  Otto  IV,  backed  by  a  coali- 
tion of  feudal  nobles  (1214).  was  the  first  event  in 
French  history  which  called  forth  a  movement  of 
national  solidarity  around  a  French  king.    The  wai 


FRANCE 


168 


FRANCE 


against  the  Albi^nses  under  Louis  VIII  (1223-26) 
brought  in  its  tram  the  establishment  of  the  influence 
and  authority  of  the  French  monarchy  in  the  south 
of  France. 

St.  Louis  rX  (1226-1270),  "ruisselant  de  pi^t^,  et 
enflanun^  de  charity'',  as  a  contemporary  aescribes 
him,  made  kings  so  beloved  that  from  his  t%ne  dates 
that  royal  cult,  so  to  speak,  which  was  one  of  the 
moral  forces  in  olden  France,  and  which  existed  in  no 
other  country  of  Europe  to  the  same  degree.  Piety 
had  been  for  the  kings  of  France,  set  on  tneir  thrones 
by  the  Church  of  God,  as  it  were  a  duty  belonging  to 
their  charge  or  office;  but  in  the  piety  of  St.  Louis 
there  was  a  note  all  his  own,  the  note  of  sanctity. 
With  him  ended  the  Crusades,  but  not  their  spirit. 
During  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  proj- 
ect after  project,  attempt  after  attempt  to  set  on  foot 
a  crusade  was  made,  and  we  refer  to  them  merely  to 
point  out  that  the  spirit  of  a  militant  apostolate  con- 
tinued to  ferment  in  the  soul  of  France.  The  project 
of  Charles  of  Valois  (130S-09),  the  French  expedition 
under  Peter  I  of  CJyprus  agsonst  Alexandria  and  the 
Armenian  coasts  (136&-1367),  sung  of  by  the  French 
trouvdre,  Guillaume  Machaidt,  the  cni»9ide  of  John 
of  Nevers,  which  ended  in  the  bloody  battle  of  Ni- 
copolis  (1396) — in  all  these  enterprises  the  spirit  of 
St.  Louis  lived,  just  as  in  the  hearts  of  the  Christians 
of  the  East,  whom  France  was  thus  trying  to  protect, 
there  has  survived  a  lasting  gratitude  towards  the 
nation  of  St.  Louis.  If  the  feeble  nation  of  the  Maron- 
ites  cries  out  to-day  to  France  for  help,  it  is  because 
of  a  letter  written  by  St.  Louis  to  the  nation  of 
St.  Maroun  in  May,  1250.  In  the  da^rs  of  St.  Louis 
the  influence  of  French  epic  literature  in  Europe  was 
supreme.  Brunetto  Latini,  as  earlv  as  the  middle  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  wrote  that  ''of  all  speech  [par- 
lures]  that  of  the  French  was  the  most  charming,  and 
the  most  in  favour  with  every  one."  French  held 
sway  in  England  until  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century;  it  was  fluently  spoken  at  the  Court  of  Con- 
stantinople from  the  time  of  the  Fourth  Crusade,  and 
in  Greece  in  the  dukedoms,  principalities  and  baronies 
foimded  there  by  the  Houses  of  Burgundy  and  Cham- 
pagne. And  it  was  in  French  that  Rusticiano  of  Pisa, 
about  the  year  1300,  wrote  down  from  Marco  Polo's 
lips  the  story  of  his  wonderful  travels.  The  University 
of  Paris,  founded  by  favour  of  Innocent  III  between 
1208  and  1213,  was  saved  from  a  spirit  of  exclusiveness 
bv  the  happy  intervention  of  Alexander  IV,  who 
obliged  it  to  open  its  chairs  to  the  mendicant  inars. 
Among  its  professors  were  Duns  Scotus;  the  Italians, 
St.  Thomas  and  St.  Bonaventure;  Albert  the  Great,  a 
German ;  Alexander  of  Hales,  an  Englishman.  Among 
its  pupils  it  counted  Roger  Bacon,  Dante,  Raimimdus 
Lullus,  Popes  Gregory  IX,  Urban  IV,  Clement  IV, 
and  Boniface  VIII. 

France  was  also  the  birthplace  of  Gothic  art,  which 
was  carried  bv  French  architects  into  Germany.  The 
method  employed  in  the  building  of  many  Gothic 
cathedrals — i.  e.  by  the  actual  assistance  of  the  faith- 
ful— ^bears  witness  to  the  fact  that  at  this  period  the 
lives  of  the  French  people  were  deeply  penetrated  with 
faith.  An  architectural  wonder  such  as  the  cathedral 
of  Chartres  was  in  reality  the  work  of  a  popular  art 
bom  of  the  faith  of  the  people  who  worshipped  there. 

Under  Philip  IV,  the  Fair  (1286-1314),  the  royal 
house  of  France  became  very  powerful.  By  means  of 
alliances  he  extended  his  prestige  as  far  as  the  Orient. 
His  brother  Charles  of  Valois  married  Catherine  de 
Courtenav,  an  heiress  of  the  Latin  Empire  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  Kings  of  England  and  Minorca  were 
his  vaeeals,  the  King  ofScotland  his  ally,  the  Kings  of 
Naples  and  of  Himgary  connexions  by  marriage.  He 
aimed  at  a  sort  of  supremacy  over  the  body  politic  of 
Europe.  Pierre  Dubois,  his  jurisconsult,  dreamed 
that  the  pope  would  hand  over  all  his  aomains  to 
Philip  and  receive  in  exchange  an  annual  income, 


while  Philip,  would  thus  have  the  spiritual  head  of 
C!hristendom  under  his  influence.  Pmiip  IV  laboured 
to  increase  the  royal  prero^tive  and  thereby  the 
national  unity  of  France.  By  sending  magistrates 
into  the  feudal  territories,  by  defining  oertam  cases 
(ca8  royaux)  as  reserved  to  the  kind's  competency,  he 
dealt  a  heavy  blow  to  the  feudalism  of  the  Miadle 
Ages.  But  on  the  other  hand  imder  his  rule  many 
anti-Christian  maxims  began  to  creep  into  law  and 
politics.  Roman  law  was  slowly  remtroduc^  into 
the  social  organization^  and  gradually  the  idea  of  a 
united  Christendom  disappeared  from  the  national 
policy.  Philip  the  Fair,  pretending  to  rule  by  Divine 
right,  gave  it  to  be  understood  that  he  renaered  an 
accoimt  of  his  kingship  to  no  one  under  heaven.  He 
denied  the  pope's  right  to  represent,  as  the  papacy  had 
always  done  m  the  past,  the  claims  of  morality  and 
justice  where  kings  were  concerned.  Hence  arose  in 
1294-1303,  his  struggle  with  Pope  Boniface  VIII,  but 
in  that  struggle  he  was  cunning  enou^  to  secure  the 
support  of  the  Stetes-GenerS,  which  represented 
puDlic  opinion  in  France.  In  later  times,  after  cen- 
turies 01  monarchical  government,  this  same  public 
opinion  rose  against  the  abuse  of  power  committed  by 
its  kings  in  the  name  of  their  pretended  Divine 
right,  and  thus  made  an  implicit  arnende  honorable 
to  what  the  Church  had  taught  concerning  the 
oriejn,  the  limits,  and  the  responsibility  of  all  power, 
ana  which  had  been  fon^tten  or  misinteipretea 
by  the  lawyers  of  Philip  IV  when  they  set  up  their 
pagan  concept  of  the  State  as  the  absolute  source  of 
power.  The  election  of  Pope  Clement  V  (1305)  under 
Philip's  influence,  the  removal  of  the  papacy  to 
Avignon,  the  nomination  of  seven  French  popes  in 
succession,  weakened  the  influence  of  the  papacy  in 
Christendom,  though  it  has  recently  come  to  light  that 
the  Avignon  popes  did  not  always  allow  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  Holy  See  to  waver  or  disappear  in  the 
game  of  politics.  Philip  IV  and  hb  successors  may 
have  had  the  illusion  that  they  were  taking  the  place 
of  the  German  emperors  in  European  affairs.  The 
papacy  was  imprisoned  on  their  territory ;  the  German 
Empire  was  passing  through  a  crisis,  was,  in  fact, 
decaying,  and  the  kmg^  of  France  mijght  well  ima^e 
themselves  temporal  vicarb  of  God,  side  by  side  with, 
or  even  in  opposition  to,  the  spiritual  vicar  who  lived 
at  Avignon. 

But  at  this  Juncture  the  Hundred  Years  War  broke 
outj  and  the  R^nch  kingdom,  which  aspired  to  be  the 
arbiter  of  Christendom,  was  menaced  m  its  very  ex- 
istence by  England.  English  kings  aimed  at  the 
French  crown,  and  the  two  nations  fought  for  the  pos- 
session of  Guienne.  Twice  during  the  war  was  the 
independence  of  France  imperilled.  Defeated  on  the 
Ecluse  (1340),  at  Cr^  (1346),  at  Poitiers  (1366), 
France  was  saved  by  Charles  V  (1364-80)  and  by 
Duguesclin,  only  to  suffer  fresh  defeat  under  Charies 
VI  at  Agincourt  (1415)  and  to  be  ceded  by  the  Treaty 
of  Troyes  (1420)  to  Henry  V,  King  of  England.  At 
this  darkest  hour  of  the  monarchy  the  nation  itself 
was  stirred.  The  revolutionary  attempt  by  Etienne 
Marcel  (1358)  and  the  revolt  which  gave  rise  to  the 
Ordonnance  Cabochienne  (1418)  were  the  earliest  signs 
of  popular  impatience  at  the  absolutism  of  the  French 
kings,  but  internal  dissensions  hindered  an  effective 
patriotic  defence  of  the  country.  When  C!harles  VII 
came  to  the  throne,  France  had  almost  ceased  to  be 
French.  The  king  and  court  lived  beyond  the  Loire, 
and  Paris  was  the  seat  of  an  English  government. 
Blessed  Joan  of  Arc  was  the  saviour  of  French  nation- 
ality as  well  as  FVench  royalty,  and  at  the  end  of 
Charles's  reign  (1422-61)  Calais  was  the  only  spot  in 
Fhince  in  the  hands  of  the  English. 

The  ideal  of  a  united  Christendom  continued  to 
haunt  the  soul  of  France  in  spite  of  the  predominating 
influence  gradually  assumed  in  French  politics  by 
purely   national   aspirations.    From   the    reign   of 


FBAHOK                                  169  -  raiNOE 

Chaiiee  VI,  or  even  the  lastyeara  of  Charies  V,  dates  king  a  right  of  patronage  over  500  benefices  in  Ua 

tbecustomof  givingto  thef^nchkingBtheexduBive  kingdom.    Tins  was  the  beginning  of  the  praotioe 

titie  of  Rex  Cnriritanirai'mus.     Pepin  the  Short  and  adopted  hy  the  French  kin^  of  arranging  toe  gov- 

Chartmnagne  hod  been  proclaimed  "Most  Christian"  emment'  of   the   Church  directly  with   the  popes 

by  the  popes  of  their  day;    Alexander  III  had  con-  over  the  heads  of  the  bishops.     Charles  VII,  whose 

ferred  the  same  title  on  Louis  VII;  but  from  Charles  struggle  with  England  had  left  his   authority  still 

VI  onwards  the  title  comes  into  constant  use  as  the  very  precarious,  was  constrained,  in  1438.  during  the 

Trcial  prerogative  of  the  kings  of  France.     "Because  Council  of  Basle,  in  order  to  appease  tne  powerful 

^  vigour  with  which  Charlemagne,  St.  Louis,  and  prelateeofthe  Assembly  of  Bourses,  to  promulgate  the 

other  brave  French  kings,  more  than  the  other  kings  Fra^atic  Sanction,  thereby  asserting  m  France  those 

of  Christendom,  have  upheld  the  Catholic  ^aith,  the  maxims  of  the  Council  of  Basle  which  Pope  Eugene 

kings  of  France  are  known  among  the  kin^  of  Qiris-  IV  had  condemned.     But  straightway  he  Mthougbt 

tendom  as  'Most  Christian'."    "niua  wrote  Philippe  him  of  a  concordat,  and  overtures   in   this  sense 

de  Mfiiiires,  a  contemporary  of  Charles  VI.     In  later  were  made  to  Eugene  IV.  ■  Eugene  replied  that  he 

times  the  Emperor  Frederick  III,  addressing  Charies  well  knew  the  Pragmatic  Sanction — "that  odious  act" 

ancestors  have  won  for  your  name  — was  not  the  king's  own  free  doing,  and  a  concordat 

lot  to  be  sepa-  was  discussed  between  them.    Louis  XI  (1461-^), 
whose   domestic   policy 


the  title  Mott  Christian, 
rated  from  it."  From  the 
pontificate  of  Paul  II 
(1454)  the  popes,  in  ad- 
dressing Bulls  to  the  kings 
of  Fnmce,  always  use  the 
style  and  title  Itex  Chrit- 
(laniMi'mu*.  Furthermore, 
European  public  opinion 
always  looked  on  Bl.  Joan 
of  Arc,  who  saved  the 
^«neh  monarchy,  as  the 
heroine  of  Christendom, 
and  believed  that  the  Maid 
of  Orleans  meant  to  lead 
the  king  of  France  on  an- 
other crusade  when  she  had 
secured  him  in  the  peaceful 
possession  of  his  own  coun- 
try. France's  national 
heroine  was  thus  heralded 
by  the  fancy  of  her  con- 
temporaries, by  Christine 
de  iTsan,  and  by  that  Ve- 
netian merchant  whose 
letters  have  been  preserved 
for  us  in  the  Morosini 
Chronicle,  as  a  heroine 
whoee  aims  were  as  wide  as 
Christianity  itself. 

The  fift«enth  century, 
during  which  France  was 
growing  in  national  spirit, 
and  while  men's  minds  in 
France  were  still  conscious 
of  the  claims  of  Christen- 
dom on  their  country,  was 
also    the    century   during 


IT  SAtHTa-Ciena,  AtM 


aimed  at  ending  or  weak- 
ening the  new  feudalism 
which  had  grown  up  dui^ 
ing  two  centuries  through 
the  custom  of  presenting 
appanages  to  the  brothers 
of  the  King,  extended  to 
the  feudal  bishops  the  ill 
will  he  professed  towards 
the  feudal  lords.  He  de- 
tested the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion as  an  act  that  strength- 
ened ecclesiastical  feudal- 
ism, and  on  27  November, 
14Q1,  he  announced  to  the 
pope  its  suppression.  At 
the  same  time  he  pleaded, 
as  the  demand  of  nis  Par- 
liament, that  for  the  future 
the  pope  should  permit  the 
collation  to  ecclesiastical 
benefices  to  be  made  either 
wholly  or  in  part  through 
the  civil  power.  The  Con- 
cordat of  1472  obtained 
from  Rome  verj^  material 
concessions  in  this  respect. 
At  this  time,  besides  "  epis- 
copal Gallicanism  "^  against 
which  pope  and  king  were 
working  together,  we  may 
trace,  in  the  writings  of 
the  lasers  of  the  closing 
Tears  of  the  fSfleenth  cen- 
tury, the  beginnings  of  a 
"  royal  Galilean  ism  "which 
taught    that    in    France 


the  Great  Schism  and  of  the  Councils  of  Basle  and    the  Stato  should  govern  the  Church. 

of  Constance,  there  began  a  movement  among  the         TheltalianwarsundertakenbyChariee  VTII  (1493- 

powerfUl    feudal-  bishops    against    pope    and    King,     98),  and  continued  by  Louis  XH  (1498-1515),  aided 


and  forced  by  him,  as  representing  the  University  Naples  and  Milan,  did  not  quite  fulfil  the  dreams  of 
of  Paris,  on  the  Council  of  Constance,  would  have  the  French  kings.  They  had,  however,  a  threefold 
set  up  in  the  Church  an  aristocratic  regime  analo-  result  in  the  worids  of  politics,  reli^on,  and  art. 
gous  to  what  the  feudal  lords,  profiting  by  the  weak-  Politically,  they  led  foreign  powers  to  believe  that 
ness  of  King  Charies  VI,  had  dreamed  of  establishing  France  was  a  menace  to  the  balance  of  power;  and 
in  the  State.  A  royal  proclamation,  in  1418,  issued  hence  arose  alliances  to  maintain  that  balance,  such, 
after  the  election  of  Pope  Martin  V,  maintained  in  for  instance,  as  the  League  of  Venice  (1495)  and  the 
opposition  to  the  pope  all  the  privileges  and  fran-  Holy  League  (1511-12).  From  the  point  of  view  of 
chises  of  the  kingdom",  put  an  end  to  tne  custom  of  art  they  carried  a  breath  of  the  Renaissance  across 
annates,  limited  the  rights  of  the  Roman  court  in  col-  the  Alps.  And  in  the  religious  world  they  furnished 
lecting  benefices,  and  forbade  the  sending  to  Rome  of  France  an  opportunity  on  Italian  soil  of  asserting  for 
articles  of  gold  or  silver.  This  proclamation  was  as-  the  first  time  the  principles  of  royal  Gallicanism. 
8ent«dtoby  theyoungKingChanesVIIin1433,butat  Louis  XII  and  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  supported  by 
the  same  time  he  sent  Pope  Martin  V  an  embassy  ask-  the  opponents  of  Pope  Julius  II,  convened  in  Pisa  a 
ins  to  be  absolved  from  the  oath  he  had  taken  to  up-  council  that  threatened  the  r^hts  of  the  Holy  See. 
hold  the  principles  of  the  Galilean  Church  and  seeking  Matters  looked  veiy  serious.  The  understanding  be- 
to  arrange  a  concordat  which  would  give  the  French  tween  the  pope  and  the  French  kings  hung  in  the  bal- 


FRANCE 


170 


FRAHOB 


ance.  Leo  X  understood  the  daneer  when  the  victory 
of  Marignano  opened  to  Francis  I  the  road  to  Rome. 
Tlie  pope  in  alarm  retired  to  Bologna,  and. the  Con- 
cordat of  1516,  negotiated  between  the  cardinals  and 
Duprat,  the  chancellor,  and  afterwahls  approved  of 
by  the  (Ecumenical  Council  of  the  Lateran,  recognized 
the  right  of  the  King  of  France  to  nominate  not  only 
to  500  ecclesiastical  benefices,  as  Charles  VII  had  re- 
quested, but  to  all  the  benefices  in  his  kingdom.  It 
was  a  fair  gift  indeed.  But  if  in  matters  temporal  the 
bishops  were  thus  in  the  king's  hands,  their  institution 
in  matters  spiritual  was  reserved  to  the  pope.  Pope 
and  king  by  common  agreement  thus  put  an  end  to 
an  episcopal  aristocracy  such  as  the  Gfallicans  of  the 
great  councils  had  dreamed  of.  The  concordat  be- 
tween Leo  X  and  Francis  I  was  tantamount  to  a 
solemn  repudiation  of  all  the  anti-Roman  work  of  the 
^reat  ooimcils  of  the  fifteenth  centurv.  The  conclu- 
sion of  this  concordat  was  one  of  tne  reasons  why 
France  escaped  the  Reformation.  From  the  moment 
that  the  disposal  of  church  property,  as  laid  down  by 
the  concordat,  belonged  to  the  civil  power,  royalty  had 
nothine  to  gam  from  the  Reformation.  ^  Whereas  the 
kines  of  En^and  and  the  German  princelinss  saw  in  the 
Reformation  a  chance  to  gain  possession  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal property,  the  kings  of  France,  thanks  to  the  con- 
cordat, were  already  in  legal  possession  of  those  much- 
envied  goods.  When  Charles  V  became  King  of  Spain 
(1516)  and  emperor  (1519),  thus  uniting  in  his  person 
the  hereditary  possessions  of  the  Houses  of  Austria  and 
Germanv,  as  well  as  the  old  domains  of  the  House  of 
Burgundy  in  the  Low  Countries — ^uniting,  moreover, 
the  Spanish  Monarchy  with  Naples,  Sicuy,  Sardinia, 
the  Northern  parts  of  Africa,  and  certam  lands  in 
America,  fVancis  I  inaugurated  a  strug^e  between 
France  and  the  House  of  Austria.  After  forty-four  years 
of  war,  from  the  victory  of  Marignano  to  the  Treaty 
of  Cateau-Cambrdsis  (1515-59),  France  relinquished 
hopes  of  retaining  possession  of  Italy,  but  had  wrested 
the  Bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun  from  the 
empire  and  had  won  back  possession  of  Calais.  The 
Spaniards  were  left  in  possession  of  Naples  and  the 
country  around  Milan,  and  their  influence  predomi- 
nated throughout  the  Italian  Peninsula.  But  the 
dream  which  Charles  V  had  for  a  brief  moment  entei^ 
tained  of  a  world-wide  empire  had  been  shattered. 

During  this  struggle  against  the  House  of  Austria, 
France,  for  motives  of  poUtical  and  military  exigency, 
had  been  obliged  to  lean  on  the  Lutherans  of  Ger- 
many, and  even  on  the  sultan.  The  foreign  policy  of 
France  since  the  time  of  Francis  I  has  been  to  seek 
exclusively  the  good  of  the  nation  and  no  longer  to  be 

fiided  by  the  interests  of  Catholicism  at  large.  The 
ranee  of  the  Crusades  even  became  the  ally  of  the 
sultan.  But,  by  a  strange  anomaly,  this  new  political 
grouping  allowed  France  to  continue  its  protcKStion  to 
the  Christians  of  the  East.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it 
protected  them  by  force  of  arms;  but  since  the  six- 
teenth century,  by  treaties  called  capitulations,  the 
first  of  which  was  drawn  up  in  1535.  The  spirit  of 
French  policy  has  changed,  but  it  is  always  on  France 
that  the  Christian  communities  of  the  East  rel3r,  and 
this  protectorate  continues  to  exist  under  the  Third 
Republic,  and  has  never  failed  them. 

The  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  was  marked 
by  the  growth  of  Protestantism  in  France,  under  the 
forms  ox  Lutheramsm  and  of  Calvinism.  Lutheran- 
ism  was  the  first  to  make  its  entry.  The  minds  of 
some  in  France  were  already  prepared  to  receive  it. 
Six  years  before  Luther's  time,  the  mathematician 
Lefebvre  of  Etaples  (Faber  Stapulensis),  a  protdg^  of 
Louis  XII  and  of  Francis  I,  had  preached  the  necessity 
of  reading  the  Scriptures  and  of  "  bringing  back  reh- 
gion  to  its  primitive  purity".  A  certain  number  of 
tradesmen^  some  of  whom,  for  business  reasons,  had 
travelled  m  Germany,  and  a  few  priests,  were  in- 
fatuated with  the  Lutheran  ideas.  Until  1534,  Francis 


I  was  almost  favourable  to  the  Lutherans,  and  he  even 

{)roposed  to  make  Melanchthon  President  of  the  Col- 
dge  de  France.  But  on  learning,  in  1534.  that  violent 
placards  against  the  Church  of  Rome  haa  been  posted 
on  the  same  day  in  many  of  the  large  towns,  and  even 
near  the  king's  own  room  in  the  Ch&tc»u  dr  Amboise. 
he  feared  a  Lutheran  plot;  an  inquiry  was  ordered,  ana 
seven  Lutherans  were  condenmed  to  death  and  burned 
at  the  stake  in  Paris.  Eminent  ecclesiastics  like  du 
Bellay,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  and  Sadolet,  Bishop  of 
Carpentras,  deplored  these  executions  and  the  Vau- 
dois  massacre  ordered  by  d'OppMe,  President  of  the 
Parliament  of  Aix,  in  1545.  Laymen,  on  the  other 
hand,  who  ill  understood  the  Christian  ^ntleness  of 
these  prelates,  reproached  them  with  bemg  slow  and 
remiss  in  putting  down  heresy;  and  when,  imder 
Henry  II,  Calvinism  crept  in  from  Geneva,  a  policy  of 
persecution  was  inaugurated.  From  1547  to  1550,  in 
less  than  three  years,  the  chambre  ardente,  a  committee 
of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  condemned  more  than  500 
persons  to  retract  their  beliefs,  to  imprisonment,  or  to 
death  at  the  stake.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  Calvin- 
ists,  in  1555,  were  able  to  organize  themselves  into 
Churches  on  the  plan  of  that  at  Geneva;  and,  in  order 
to  bind  these  Churches  more  closely  together,  they 
held  a  synod  at  Paris  in  1559.  There  were  in  France 
at  that  time  seventy-two  Reformed  Churches;  two 
years  later,  in  1561,  the  number  had  increased  to 
2000.  The  tnethods,  too,  of  the  Calvinist  propaganda 
had  changed.  The  earlier  Calvinists,  like  the  Luther- 
ans, had- oeen  artisans  and  workingmen,  but  in  the 
course  of  time,  in  the  South  and  in  the  West,  a  number 
of  princes  and  noblemen  joined  their  ranks.  Among 
these  were  two  princes  of  the  blood,  descendants  of 
St.  Louis:  Anthony  of  Bourbon,  who  became  King  of 
Navarre  through  his  marriage  with  Jeanne  d'Albret, 
and  his  brother  the  Prince  de  Cond6.  Another  name 
of  note  is  that  of  Admiral  de  Coligny,  nephew  of  that 
Duke  of  Montmorency  who  was  tne  Premier  Baron  of 
Christendom.  Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  in  France 
Calvinism  was  no  longer  a  religious  force,  but  had  be- 
come a  political  and  military  cabal;  and  the  French 
kings  in  opposing  it  were  but  defending  their  own 
rights. 

Such  was  the  beginning  of  the  Wars  of  Religion. 
They  had  for  their  starting-point  the  Conspiracy  of 
Amboise  (15^)  by  which  the  Protestant  leaders  aimed 
at  seizing  the  person  of  Francis  II,  in  order  to  remove 
him  from  the  influence  of  Francis  of  Guise.  During 
the  reigns  of  Francis  II,  Charles  IX,  and  Henry  III,  a 
powerful  influence  was  exercised  by  the  queen-mother, 
who  made  use  of  the  conflicts  between  the  opposing 
religious  factions  to  establish  more  securely  the  power 
of  her  sons.  In  1561  Catharine  de'  Medici  arranged 
for  the  Poissy  discussion  to  try  and  bring  about  an 
understanding  between  the  two  creeds,  but  during  the 
Wars  of  Religion  she  ever  maintained  an  equivocal 
attitude  between  both  parties,  favouring  now  the  one 
and  now  the  other,  until  the  time  came  when,  fearing 
that  Charles  IX  would  shake  himself  free  of  her  influ- 
ence, she  took  a  large  share  of  responsibility  in  the 
odious  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  There  were 
eight  of  these  wars  in  the  space  of  thirty  years.  The 
firat  was  started  by  a  massacre  of  Calvinists  at  Vassy 
by  the  troopers  of  Guise  (1  March,  1562).  and  straight- 
way both  parties  appealed  for  foreign  aid.  Catharme, 
who  was  at  this  time  working  in  the  Catholic  cause, 
turned  to  Spain;  Coligny  and  Cond^  turned  to  Elisa- 
beth of  England  and  handed  over  to  her  the  port  of 
Havre.  Thus  from  the  beginning  were  foreshadowed 
the  lines  which  the  Wars  of  Religion  would  follow. 
They  opened  up  France  to  the  interference  of  such 
foreign  princes  as  Elizabeth  and  Philip  II,  and  to  the 
plunder  of  foreign  soldiers,  such  as  those  of  the  Duke 
of  Alba  and  the  German  troopers  (Reiter)  called  in  by 
the  Protestants.  One  after  another,  these  wars  ended 
in  weak  provisional  treaties  which  did  not  last.  Under 


ntAHOS  171  rRAKOB 

the  banners  of  the  Reformation  party  or  under  those  furthermore  made  them  a  political  power  by  reoog- 
of  the  League  organized  by  the  House  of  Guise  to  nizing  them  for  eight  years  as  masters  of  about  one 
defend  Catholicism,  political  opinions  ranged  them-  htmdred  towns  which  were  known  as  "places  of 
selves,  and  during  these  thirty  years  of  civil  disorder  surety"  (places  de  sHret^.  Under  favour  of  the  politi- 
monarchical  centralization  was  often  in  danger  of  calcli&uses  of  the  Edict  the  Protestants  rapidly  became 
overthrow.  Had  the  Guise  party  prevailed,  the  trend  an  impcnum  in  imperio,  and  in  1627,  at  La  Hochelle, 
of  polic^r  adopted  by  the  French  monarchy  towards  they  formed  an  alliance  with  England  to  defend,  against 
Catholicism  alter  the  Concordat  of  Francis  I  would  the  government  of  Louis  XIII  (1610-43),  the  privi- 
have  assuredly  been  less  Gallican.  That  concordat  leges  of  which  Cardinal  Richelieu,  the  king's  minister, 
had  placed  the  Church  in  France  and  its  episcopate  in  wished  to  deprive  them.  The  taking  of  La  Rochelle 
the  hands  of  the  king.  The  old  episcopal  Gallicanism  by  the  king's  troops  (November,  1628),  after  a  siege 
which  held  that  the  authority  of  the  pope  was  not  of  fourteen  months,  and  the  submission  of  the  Protest- 
above  that  of  the  Church  assembled  in  council,  and  the  ant  rebels  in  the  C^vennes,  resulted  in  a  royal  decision 
royal  Gallicanism,  which  held  that  the  king  had  no  which  Richelieu  called  the  Grdce  d'Alaia:  the  Protes- 
superior  on  earth,  not  even  the  pope,  were  now  allied  tants  lost  all  their  political  privileges  and  all  their 
against  the  papal  monarchy  strengthened  by  the  ''placesof  surety",  but  on  the  other  hand  freedom  of 
Council  of  Trent.  The  consequence  of  all  this  was  woiship  and  absolute  eouality  with  the  Catholics  were 
that  the  French  kings  refused  to  allow  the  decisions  of  guaranteed  them.  Botn  Cardinal  Richelieu  and  his 
that  council  to  bepublished  in  France,  and  this  refusal  successor,  Cardinal  Mazarin,  scrupulously  observed 
has  never  been  withdrawn.                  ^  this  guarantee,  but  under  Ix>uis  XI V  a  new  policy  was 

At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  seemed  for  an  inaugurated.    For  twenty-five  years  the  king  forbade 

instant  as  though  the  home  policy  of  France  was  to  tiie  Protestants  everything  that  the  Edict  of  Nantes 

shake  off  the  yoke  of  Gallican  opinions.    Feudalism  did  not  expressly  guarantee  them,  and  then,  foolishly 

had  been  broken;  the  people  were  eager  for  liberty;  the  imagining  that  Protestantism  was  on  the  wane,  and 

Catholics,  disheartened  by  the  corruption  of  the  Valois  that  there  remained  in  France  only  a  few  hundred 

court,  contemplated  elevating  to  the  throne,  in  sue-  obstinate  heretics,  he  revoked  the  Edict  of  Nantes 

cession  to  Henry  III,  who  was  childless,  a  member  of  (1685)  and  began  an  oppressive  policy  against  Prot- 

the  powerful  House  of  Guise.  In  fact,  the  League  had  estants,  which  provoked  the  rising  of  the  Camisards 

asked  the  Holy  See  to  grant  the  wi^  of  the  people,  in  1703-05,  and  which  lasted  with  alternations  of 

and  give  France  a  Guise  as  king.    Henry  of  Navarre,  severity  and  kindness  imtil  1784,  when  Louis  XVI 

the  heir  presumptive  to  the  throne^  was  a  Protestant;  was  obliged  to  give  Protestants  their  civil  rights  once 

Sixtus  V  had  given  him  the  choice  of  remaining  a  more.    The  verv  manner  in  which  Louis  AlV,  who 

Protestant,  and  never  reigning  in  France,  or  of  abjur-  imagined  himselif  the  religious  head  of  his  kingdom, 

ing  his  heresy,  receiving  absolution  from  the  pope  set  about  the  Revocation,  was  only  an  application  of 

himself,  and,  together  with  it,  the  throne  of  France,  the  religious  maxims  of  Gallicanism. 
But  there  was  a  third  solution  possible,  and  the  French        In  the  person  of  Louis  XIV,  indeed,  Gallicanism 

episcopate  foresaw  it,  namely,  that  the  abjuration  was  on  the  throne.    At  the  States-General,  in  1614, 

should  be  made  not  to  the  pope,  but  to  the  French  the  tiers  Hat  had  endeavoured  to  make  the  assembly 

bishops.    Gallican  eusceptibuities  would  thus  be  satis-  commit  itself  to  certain  decidedly  Gallican  declara- 

fied,  aogmatic  orthodoxy  would  be  maintained  on  the  tions,  but  the  clergy,  thanks  to  Cardinal  Duperron, 

French  throne,  and  moreover  it  would  do  away  with  had  succeeded  in  shelving  the  Question ;  then  Riche- 

the  danger  to  which  the  unity  of  France  was  exposed  lieu,  careful  not  to  embroirhimself  with  the  pope,  had 

by  the  proneness  of  a  certain  number  of  Leaguers  to  taken  up  the  mitigated  and  very  reserved  form  of 

encourage  the  intervention  of  Spanish  armies  and  the  Gallicanism  represented  by  the  theologian   DuvaL 

ambitions  of  the  Spanish  king,  Pnilip  II,  who  chenshcd  As  for  Louis  Al V,  he  considers  himself  a  God  on 

the  idea  of  setting  his  own  daughter  on  the  throne  earth — his  religion  is  the  State's;  every  subject  who 

of  France.  does  not  hold  that  religion  is  outside  of  the  State. 

The  abjuration  of  Henry  IV  made  to  the  French  Hence  the  persecutions  of  Protestants  and  of  Jansen- 

bishops  (25  Jul^,  1593)  was  a  victory  of  Catholicism  ists.     But  at  the  same  time  he  would  never  allow 

over  Protestantism,  but  none  the  less  it  was  the  vie-  a  papal  Bull  to  be  published  in  Francesi  until  hb  Par- 

tory  of  episcopal  Gallicanism  over  the  spirit  of  the  liament  had  decided  whether  it  interfered  with  the 

League.    Canonicalhr,  the  absolution  given  by  the  "liberties"  of  the  French  Church  or  the  authority  of 

bishops  to  Henry  I Y  was  unavailing,  since  the  pope  the  king.    And  in  1682  he  invited  the  cler^  of  France 

alone  could  lawnillv  give  it;  but  politically  that  say-  to  proclaim  the  independence  of  the  Galhcan  Church 

solution  was  bouna  to  have  a  decisive  effect.    From  in  a  manifesto  of  four  articles,  at  least  two  of  which — 

the  day  that  Henry  IV  became  a  Catholic,  the  League  relating  to  the  respective  powers  of  pope  and  a  coun- 

was  beaten.    Two  French  prelates  went  to  Rome  to  cil — ^broached  questions  which  only  an  cecumenical 

crave  absolution  for  Henry,    St.  Philip  Neri  ordered  council  could  decide.    In  consequence  of  this  a  crisis 

Baronius— smiling,  no  doubt,  as  he  did  so — ^to  tell  arose  between  the  Holy  See  and  Louis  XIV  which  led 

the  pope,  Whose  confessor  he,  Baronius,  was,  that  to  thirty-five  sees  bein^^  left  vacant  in  1689.    Thepol- 

he  himself  could  not  have  absolution  until  he  had  icy  of  Liouis  XIV  in  rehgious  matters  was  adopted  also 

absolved  the  King  of  France.     And  on  17  Septem-  by  Louis  XV.    His  way  of  striking  at  the  Jesuits  in 

ber,  1595,  the  Holy  See  solemnly  absolved  nenry  1763  was  in  principle  the  same  as  that  taken  by  Louis 

IV,  thereby  sealing  the  reconciliation  between  the  XIV  to  impose  Gallicanism  on  the  Church — the  royal 

French  monarchy  and  the  Church  of  Rome.     The  power  pretending  to  mastery  over  the  Church.    The 

accession  of  the  Bourbon  royal  family  was  a  defeat  domesticpolicy  of  the  seventeenth-century  Bourbons, 

for  Protestantism,  but  at  the  same  time  half  a  vie-  aided  by  Sully,  Richelieu,  Mazarin,  and  Louvois,  com- 

tory  for  Gallicanism.     Ever  since  the  year  1598  the  pleted  the  centralization  of  the  kingly  power.  Abroad, 

deiuings  of  the  Bourbons  with  Protestantism  were  the  fundamental  maxim  of  their  pohcy  was  to  keep  up 

regulated  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes.    This  instrument  the  struggle  against  the  House  of  Austria.    The  result 

not  only  accorded  to  Protestants  the  liberty  of  prac-  of  the  diplomacy  of  Richelieu  (1624-42)  and  of  Maza- 

tising  their  religion  in  their  own   homes,  in  those  rin  (1643-1661)  was  a  fresh  defeat  for  the  House  of 

towns  and  villages  where  it  had  been  established  be-  Austria;   French  arms  were  victorious  at  Rocroi,  Fri- 

fore  1597,  and  m  two  localities  in  each  bailliage,  but  boure,  NOrdlingen,  Lens,  Sommershausen  (1643-48), 

it  also  opened  to  them  all  employments  and  created  and,  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  and  that  of 

mixed  tribunals  in  which  the  judges  were  chosen  the  Pyrenees  (1659),  Alsace,  Artois,  and  Roussillon 

equally  from  mnong  Catholics  mi  Wviuists;    it  w?re  WW^xed  tQ  Freoch  territory.    In  the  stru^e 


ntAHOE                               172  FRAKOB 

Richelieu  and  Mazarin  had  the  support  of  the  Lu-  visit  of  the  Siamese  envoys  to  the  court  of  Louis 

theranprinoesof  Germany  and  of  Protestant  countries  XIV.   In  1663  the  Seminary  for  Foreign  Missions  was 

such  as  the  Sweden  of  GustaMis  Adoli)hus.    In  fact  it  founded,  and  in  1700  the  Soci^t^  des  Missions  Etran- 

may  be  laid  down  that  during  the  Thirty  Years  War,  g^res  received  its  approved  constitution,  which  has 

France  upheld  Protestantism.    Louis  XIV,  on  the  never  been  altered. 

contrary,  who  for  many  years  was  arbiter  of  the  des-  To  repeat  a  saying  of  Ferdinand  Bruneti^.  the 

tinies  of  Europe,  was  actuated  by  purely  religious  eighteenth  century  was  the  least  Christian  ana  the 

motives  in  some  of  his  wars.    Thus  the  war  against  least  French  century  in  the  history  of  France.   Reli- 

Holland,  that  against  the  League  of  Augsburg,  and  giously  speaking,  the  alliance  of  parliamentary  Gsdli- 

his  intervention  in  the  affairs  of  England  were  in  some  canism  with  Jansenism  weakened  the  idea  of  reUgion 

respects  the  result  of  a  religious  poucy  and  of  a  desire  in  an  atmosphere  already  threatened  by  the  philoso- 

to  uphold  Catholicism  in  Europe.    The  expeditions  in  phers,  and  although  the  monarchy  continued  to  keep 

the  Mediterranean  against  the  pirates  of  Barbary  have  the  style  and  title  of  ''  Most  Christian  ",  unbelief  and 

all  the  halo  of  the  old  ideals  of  Christendom — ^ideals  libertmage  were  harboured,  and  at  times  defended,  at 

which  in  the  da3n3  of  Louis  XIII  had  haunted  the  the  court  of  Louis  XV  (1715-74).  in  the  salons,  and 

mind  of  Father  Joseph,  the  famous  confidant  of  Riche-  amons  the  aristocracy.    Politically,  the  traditional 

lieu,  and  had  inspired  him  with  the  dream  of  crusades  strife  between  France  and  the  House  of  Austria  ended, 

led  by  France,  once  the  House  of  Austria  should  have  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  with  the 

been  defeated.  famous  Renveraement  dea  AUiancea  (see  Choiseul, 

The  long  and  complex  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  in  spite  of  Etienne-Fran^ois,  Due  de  ;  Fleurt,  ANDRi}-HEa- 

the  disasters  which  mark  its  close,  gained  for  France  cule  de).  This  century  is  filled  with  that  struggle  be- 

possession  of  Flanders  and  of  Franche^)omt^,  and  saw  tween  France  and  England  which  may  be  caUed  the 

a  Bourbon,  Philip  V,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV,  seated  second  Hundred  Years  War^  during  which  En^and 

on  the  throne  of  Spain.    The  seventeenth  century  in  had  for  an  allv  Frederick  II,  King  of  Prussia,  a  country 

France  was  par  excellence  a  century  of  Catholic  awak-  which  was  then  rapidly  rising  in  importance.    The 

ening.    A  number  of  bishops  set  about  reforming  command  of  the  sea  was  at  stake.   In  spite  of  men  like 

their  dioceses  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  Dupleix,    Lally-ToUendal,    and   Montcalm,    France 

Council  of  Trent,  though  its  decrees  did  not  run  offi-  lightly  abandoned  its  colonies  by  successive  treaties, 

cially  in  France.    The  example  of  It^  bore  fruit  all  the  most  important  of  which  was  the  Treaty  of  Paris 

over  the  country.    Cardinal  de  la  Kochefoucauld.  (1763).    The  acquisition  of  Lorraine  (1766)  and  the 

Bishop  of  Clermont  and  afterwards  of  Senlis,  had  purchase  of  Corsica  from  the  Genoese  (1768)  were 

made  the  acquaintance  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  poorcompensationsfor  these  losses;  and  when,  under 

Francis  Taurugi,  a  companion  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  was  Louis  XVI,  the  French  navy  once  more  lifted  its  head. 

Archbishop  of  Avignon.    St.  Francis  de  Sales  Chiis-  it  helped  in  the  revolt  of  the  English  colonies  in  Amer- 

tianized   lav  society  by  his  ''Introduction  to  the  ica,  and  thus  seconded  the  emancipation  of  the  United 

Devout  Life",  which  he  wrote  at  the  request  of  States  (1778-83). 

Henry  IV.    Cardinal  de  Bundle  and  his  disciple  de  The  movement  of  thou^t  of  which  Montesquieu, 

Condreu  founded  the  Oratory.    St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and  Diderot,  each  in  his  own 

in  founding  the  Priests  of  the  Mission,  and  M.  Olier,  fashion,  had  been  protagonists,  an  impatience  pro- 

in  founding  the  Sulpicians,  prepared  the  uplifting  yoked  by  the  abuses  incident  to  a  too  centralized 

of  the  secular  clergy  and  the  development  of  the  monarchy,  and  the  yearning  for  equality  which  was 

grands  a^inairee.     It  was  the  period,  too,  when  deeply  agitating  the  French  people,  aUprepared  the 

France  began  to  build  up  her  colonial  empire,  when  explosion  of  the  French  Revolution.    That  upheaval 

Samuel  de  Champlain  was  founding  prosperous  settle-  has  too  lone  been  regarded  as  a  break  in  the  history  of 

ments  in  Acadia  and  Canada.    At  the  suggestion  of  France.    The  researches  of  Albert  Sorel  have  proved 

P^re  Coton,  confessor  to  Henry  IV,  the  Jesuits  fol-  that  the  diplomatic  traditions  of  the  old  regime  were 

lowed  in  the  wake  of  the  colonists;  they  made  Quebec  perpetuated  under  the  Revolution;   the  idea  of  the 

the  capital  of  all  that  country,  and  gave  it  a  French-  State's  ascendancy  over  the  Church,  which  had  actu- 

man,  Mgr.  de  Montmorency-Laval,  as  its  first  bishop,  ated  the  ministers  of  Louis  XIV  ana  the  adherents  of 

The  first  apostles  of  the  Iroquois  were  the  French  the  Parliament — ^the  parlementaires — ^in  the  days  of 

JesuitSy  LaUemant  and  de  Br^beuf;  and  it  was  the  Louis  XV,  reappears  with  the  authors  of  the  "Civil 

French  missionaries,  as  much  as  the  traders  who  Constitution  ot  the  Clergy",  even  as  the  centralizing 

opened  postal  communication  over  500  leagues  of  spirit  of  the  old  monarchy  reappears  with  the  adminis- 

country  between  the  French  colonies  of  Louisiana  trative  officials  and  the  commissaries  of  the  Convention, 

and  Canada.    In  Chhi&  the  French  Jesuits,  by  their  It  is  easier  to  cut  off  a  king's  head  than  to  change  the 

scientific  labours,  gained  a  real  influence  at  Court  mental  constitution  of  a  people, 

and  converted  at  least  one  Chinese  prince.     Lastly,  The  Constituent  Assembly  (5  May,  1789-30  Sep- 

from  the  beginning  of  this  same  seventeenth  cen-  tember,  1791)  rejected  the  motion  of  the  Abb^d'Eymar 

tury,  under  uie  protection  of  Gontaut-Biron,  Mar-  declaring  the  Catholic  religion  to  be  the  religion  of  the 

quis  de  Salignac,  Ambassador  of  France,  dates  the  es-  State,  but  it  did  not  thereby  mean  to  place  the  Catho- 

tabhshment  of  the  Jesuits  at  Smyrna,  in  the  Archi-  He  religion  on  the  same  level  as  other  religions.   Voul- 

Selago,  in  Syria,  and  at  Cairo.    A  Capuchin,  P^re  limd,  addressing  the  Assembly  on  the  seemliness  of 

oseph  du  Tremblay,  Richelieu's  confessor,  established  having  one  dommant  religion,  declared  that  the  Cath- 

many  Capuchin  foundations  in  the  East.    A  pious  olic  reugion  was  founded  on  too  pure  a  moral  basis  not 

Parisian  lady,  Madame  Ricouard,  gave  a  sum  of  to  be  eiven  the  first  place.  Article  10  of  the"  Declara- 

money  for  the  erection  of  a  bishopric  at  Babylon,  and  tion  of  the  Rights  of  Man"  (August,  1789)  proclaimed 

its  firet  bishop  was  a  French  Carmelite,  Jean  Duval,  toleration,  stipulating ''  that  no  one  ought  to  be  inter- 

St.  Vincent  de  Paul  sent  the  Lazarists  into  the  galleys  f ered  witn  because  of  his  opinions,  even  relipous, 

and  prisons  of  Barbary,  and  among  the  islands  of  provided  that  their  manifestation  does  not  disturb 

Madagascar,  Bourbon,  Mauritius,  and  the  Mascarenes,  public  order"   (pourvu  que  leur  manifestation  nc 

to  take  possession  of  them  in  the  name  of  France.    On  trouble  pas  Tordre  public  ^tabli  par  IJL).    It  was  by 

the  advice  of  the  Jesuit  Father  de  Rhodes,  Propa-  virtue  of  the  suppression  of  feudal  privileges,  and 

ganda  and  France  decided  to  erect  bishoprics  in  in  accordance  with  the  ideas  professed  oy  the  lawyers 

Annam,  and  in  1660  and  in  1661  three  French  bish-  of  the  old  regime  where  church  property  was  in  ques- 

ops,  Francois  Pallu,  Pierre  Lambert  de  Ijamothe,  and  tion  that  the  Constituent  Assembly  abolished  tithes 

Cotolendi,  set  out  for  the  East.    It  was  the  activity  of  and  confiscated  the  possessions  of  the  Church,  replac- 

the  French  missionaries  that  paved  the  way  for  the  ing  them  by  an  annual  grant  from  the  treasury.   The 


nUMOB                                  173  FEAHOB 

"Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy"  was  a  more  serious  Paris,  od  24  November,  1793,  with  Chaumette  as  its 
interfereQcewith  the  life  of  French  Catholicism,  and  it  nmkesman,  demanded  the  closing  of  all  churches, 
was  drawn  up  at  the  instigation  of  Janseniat  lawyers.  But  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  was  in  favour  ni 
Without  referring  to  the  pope,  it  set  up  a  new  division  temporizing,  to  avoid  frightening  the  populace  and 
into  dioceses,  gave  the  voters,  no  inatter  who  they  ecandalising  Europe.  On  21  November,  1793,  Robes- 
might  be,  a  right  to  nominate  parish  priests  and  pierre,  speaking  from  the  Jacobin  tribune  of  the  Con- 
bi^iope,  ordered  metropolitans  to  take  charge  of  the  vention,  protested  against  the  violence  of  the  dechris- 
eanonioal  institution  of  their  sufTragana,  and  forbade  tiaDiiing  party,  ana  in  December  the  Committ«e  (rf 
the  bishops  to  seek  a  Bull  of  confirmation  in  office  Public  Safety  induced  the  Convention  to  pass  a  decree 
from  Rome.  The  Constituent  Assembly  required  all  assuring  liberty  of  worship,  and  forbidding  the  closing 
priests  to  swear  to  obey  this  constitution,  which  re-  of  the  Catholic  churches.  Everywhere  throughout  the 
ceivedtheunwillingsanetionof LouiaXVf,26Decem'  provinces  civil  war  was  breaking  out  between  the 
ber,  1700,and  was  condemned  by  Pius  VI.  Byfiriefa  peasants,  who  duns  to  their  faith  and  reli^on,  and  the 
dated  10  March  and  13  April,  Pope  Pius  VI  forbade  fBJaatic8oftheRevDlution,who,inthe  name  of  patriot- 
the  prieetA  to  take  the  oath,  and  tne  majoritjr  obeved  ism  threatened,  as  they  said,  by  the  priests,  were 
him.  Aounst  these  "unsworn"  (ituerrnenUi)  or  re-  overturning  the  altars.  Accordii^  to  the  loc^ty  in 
fractory  priests  a  period  of  persecution  soon  began,  which  they  happened  to  be,  the  propagandists  eithN 
The  Legislative  Assembly  (I  October,  1701-21  Sen-  encouraged  orhmdered  this  violence  against  relieion; 
tember,  1702),  while  it  prepared  the  way  for  the  but  even  in  the  very  bitterest  days  of  the  Terror  Uiere 
repubUo  which  both  the  g^t  parties  (the  Mountain  was  never  a  moment  when  Catholic  worship  was  aup- 
Mid  the  Girondists)  equally  pressed  throughout  France, 
wished,  only  asp^vated  the  When  Rob^ierre  had  sent 
religious  difficulty.  On  29  the  partisans  of  Hubert  and  of 
November,  17S1,  it  decreed  Danton  to  the  scaffold,  he  at- 
that  those  priests  who  had  not  tempted  to  set  up  in  France 
accepted  the  "Civil  Coostitu-  what  he  called  la  rdigion  de 
tioo  would  be  required  within  VEtre  Suprtme,  Liberty  of 
a  week  to  swear  allegiance  to  conscience  was  suppressed]  but 
the  nation,  to  the  law,  and  to  atheism  was  also  a  crime.  Quot- 
tbe  kiuK,  under  pain  of  having  ing  the  words  of  Rousseau 
tbeiraliowanees  stopped  and  of  about  the  indispensable  dog- 
being  held  as  suspects.  The  mas,  Robespierre  had  himself 
king  refused  to  approve  this,  acclaimed  as  a  religious  leader,  a 
and  (20  August,  1792)  it  de-  pontiff,  and  a  dictatot;  and  the 
creed  that  all  refractory  priests  worship  of  the  Eire  Suprime 
should  leave  France  under  pain  was  held  up  by  his  supporters 
of  ten  years'  imprisonment  or  as  the  religious  embodiment  of 
transportation  to  Guiana.  patriotism.     But  after  the  9tb 

The  Convention  (21  Septein-  of  Tbermidor  Cambon  proposed 
ber,  1792-26  October,  1795),  once  more  the  principle  of  sep- 
which  proclaimed  the  Repubho  aration  between  Church  and 
and  caused  Louis  XVI  to  be  State,  and  it  was  decided  that 
executed  (21  January,  1793),  henceforth  the  Republic  would 
folioweda  very  tortuous  policy  not  pay  the  ej^susea  of  any 
towards  religion.  AsearlyaslS  form  of  worship  (IS  Septsm- 
November,  1792^  Cambon,  in  ber,  17S4).  The  Convention 
thenameof  the  Financial  Com-  next  voted  the  laicixation  (^ 
mittee,  announced  to  the  Con-  the  primary  schools,  and  the 
vention  that  he  would  speedily  S^htb-Cuapblli.  Pahu  establishment,  at  intervals  of 
submit  a  scheme  of  general  re-  ten  days,  of  feasts  called  IHei 
f(Mm  induing  the  suppression  of  the  appropriation  for  dieadaiTeg.  When  Bishop  Gt^goire  in  a  speech  ven- 
religiouBworBnip,whicn,  be  asserted,  "cost  tne  republic  tured  to  hope  that  Cathobciam  would  some  day  spring 
100,000,000  Uvres  annually  ".  The  Jacobins  opposed  up  anew,  the  Convention  protested.  Nevertheless  the 
tins  scheme  as  premature,  and  Robespierre  declared  people  in  the  provinces  were  anxious  that  the  clergy 
it  dero^tory  to  public  morality.  During  the  first  should  resume  their  functions,  and  "constitutionaP' 
eight  months  of  its  existence  the  policy  of  the  Con-  priests,  less  in  danger  than  others,  rebuilt  the  altars 
vention  was  to  maintain  the  "Civil  Constitution"  here  and  there  throughout  the  country.  In  February, 
and  to  increase  the  penalties  against  "refractory"  1795,  Boissy-d'An^as  carried  a  measure  of  relisiouB 
priests  who  were  suspected  of  complicity  in  the  Vend^  Uberty,  and  the  very  next  d^  Mass  was  said  in  all  the 
rising.  A  deeree  dated  18  March,  1793,  punished  chapels  of  Paris.  OnEasterSunday,  1795,inthesBme 
with  death  all  compromised  priests.  It  no  longer  city  which  a  few  months  before  had  applauded  the 
aimed  at  refractoiy  priests  only,  but  any  ecclesiastic  worship  of  Reason,  almost  every  shop  closed  its  doors. 
accused  of  disloysJty  (indvisme)  by  any  six  eitisens  In  May,  1795,  the  Convention  restOTed  the  churches 
became  liable  to  transportation.  In  the  eyes  of  the  for  worship,  on  condition  that  the  pastors  should  sub- 
Revolution  there  were  no  longer  good  priests  and  bad  mit  to  the  laws  of  the  State;  in  September,  1795.  less 
priests;  for  the  sanA-euiottst  every  priest  was  a  suspect,  than  a  month  before  its  dissolution,  it  regulated  Ub. 

Then,  from  the  provinces,  stirred  up  by  the  propa-  erty  of  worship  by  a  police  law,  and  enacted  severs 

ganda  of  AndrA  Dumont,  Chaumette,  and  FoucM,  penalties  against  priests  liable  to  transportatjon  or 

therebegan  the  movement  of  dechristianization.    The  imprisonment  who  should  venture  back  on  French 

constitutional  bishop,  Gobel,  abdicated  in  November  soil.    The  Directory  (27  October,  1795-9  November, 

1793,  t<^ther  with  his  vicars-general.   At  the  feast  of  1799),  which  succeeded  the  Convention,  imposed  on  idl 

Liberty  which  took  place  in  Notre-Dame  on  10  Novem-  religiouB  ministers  (Fructidor,  Year  V)  the  obliga- 

I 1. laset  up  to  the  Goddess  of  Reason,  and  tion  of  swearing  hatred  to  royalty  and  anarchy.     ' 

^„T,J_     U .,.-     .-_plg     of     jt^,  _.^_. ,___»_,   „___._.„_-l.      .J i 

_  .  .  nattiredir  ,    ,  „  .._ 

[wieetly  vestments,  in  mockny  of  Catholic  worship,  there,  though  it  continued  t«  be  disturbed  by  the  inceo- 

panded  before  the  Convention.    The  Commune  oi  sant  arbitnry  acts  of  int^erence  on  the  part  of  the 


FRANOE                                174  FRANOE 

administrative  stafiF  of  the  Directory,  who  by  individ-  the  Constitution — ^the  "  Charte  "  as  it  was  called — and 

ual  warrants  deported  priests  charged  with  inciting  to  brought  to  the  throne  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans, 

disturbance.    In  this  way  1657  French,  and  8235  Bel-  durine  whose  reien,  as  ''King  of  the  French",  the 

g'an,  priests  were  driven  into  exile.    The  aim  of  the  establishment  of  French  rule  in  Al^ria  was  finally 

irectory  was  to  substitute  for  Catholicism  the  cuUe  completed.     One  of  the  most  admirable  charitable 

d^adaire,  and  for  Sunday  observance  the  rest  on  the  institutions  of  French  origin  dates  from  the  July 

d^adis,  or  tenth  days.    In  Paris  fifteen  churches  were  Monarchy,  namely  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  b^gun 

given  over  to  this  cult.    The  Directory  also  favoured  (1840)  by  Jeanne  Jugan,  Fanchon  Aubert,  Marie 

the  imofficial  attempt  of  Chemin,  the  writer,  and  a  few  Jamet,  and  Viiginie  Tr^aniel,  poor  working-women 

of  his  friends  to  set  up  a  land  of  national  Church  imder  who  formed  themselves  into  an  association  to  take 

the  name  of  "^Theophilanthropy";   but  Theophilan-  care  of  one  blind  old  woman.    In  1900  the  conjorega- 

thropy  and  the  cuUe  dicadaire,  while  they  disturbed  tion  thus  begun  counted  more  than  3000  Little  ^ters 

the  Church,  did  not  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  people  for  distributed  among  250  to  260  houses  all  over  the 

priests,  altars,  and  the  txuditional  festivals.  worid,  and  caring  for  28,000  old  people.    Under  the 

All  these  were  restored  by  the  Concordat  of  Napo-  July  Monarchy,  also,  the  conferences  of  St.  Vincent 
leon  Bonaparte,  who  became  Consul  for  ten  years  on  de  Paul  were  founded,  the  first  of  them  at  Paris,  in 
4  November,  1799.  The  Concordat  assured  to  French  May,  1833,  by  pious  laymen  imder  the  prompting  of 
Catholicism,  in  spite  of  the  interpolation  of  the  articUa  Ozanam,  for  the  material  and  moral  assistance  of  poor 
or^anigue^,  a  hundred  years  of  peace.  The  conduct  of  families;  in  1900  there  were  in  France  alone  1224  of 
Napoleon  I,  when  he  became  emperor  (18  May,  1804),  these  conferences,  and  in  the  whole  world  5000.  In 
towards  Pius  VII  was  most  offensive  to  the  papacv;  1895  the  city  of  Paris  had  208  conferences  caring  for 
but  even  during  those  years  when  Napoleon  was  iU-  7908  families.  The  mean  annual  receipts  of  the  con- 
treating  Pius  VII  and  keeping  him  a  prisoner,  Catholi-  ferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in  the  wnole  of  France 
cism  in  France  was  reviving  and  expanding  day  by  amount  to  2,198,566  francs  ($440,000.00  or  £88.000), 
day.  Numerous  religious  congregations  came  to  life  and  the  mean  annual  expenditure  2,221,035  francs 
again  or  grew  up  rapidly,  often  under  the  guidance  ($444,000.00  or  £88,800).  In  1906  the  receipts  of  the 
of  simple  priests  or  numble  women.  The  Sisters  of  conferences  all  over  the  world  amounted  to  13,453,228 
the  Christian  Schools  of  Mercy,  Who  work  in  hospitals  francs  ($2,690,045),  and  their  expenditures  to  13,541,- 
and  schools,  date  from  1802,  as  do  also  the  Sisters  of  504  francs  ($2,708,300),  while,  to  meet  extraordinary 
Providence  of  Langres;  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  Mon-  demands,  they  had  a  reserve  balance  of  3,069,154 
tauban  from  1804;  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  francs  ($613,830).  The  annual  expenditure  always  ex- 
Jesus  at  St-Julien-du-Gua  date  from  1805.  In  1806  ceeds  the  amoimt  annually  received.  As  Cardinal 
we  have  the  Sisters  of  Reuilly-sui^Loire,  founded  by  Hegnier  was  fond  of  saying,  ''The  conferences  have 
the  Abb^  Dujarie;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Regis  at  Aubenas,  taken  the  vow  of  poverty." 

foimded  by  the  Abb4  Theme;  the  Sisters  of  Notre-  The  Revolution  of  February,  1848,  ^tgainst  Louis 

Dame  de  Bon  Seooursat  Charly;  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  Philippe  and  Guizot,  his  minister,  who  wished  to 

of  Billom.   The  Sisters  of  Wisdom  founded  by  Blessed  maintain  a  property  qualification  for  the  suffrage,  led 

Grignon  de  Montfort  remodelled  their  institutions  at  to  the  establishment  of  the  Second  Repubhc  and 

this  time  in  La  Vendue,  and  Madame  Dupleix  was  universal  suffrage.    By  granting  liberty  of  teaching 

founding  at  Lyons  and  at  Dorat  the  Confraternity  of  (Lot  FaUauxY  and  by  sending  an  army  to  Rome  to 

Mary  and  Joseph  for  visitine  the  prisons.    The  year  assist  Pius  I  A,  it  earned  the  gratitude  of  Catholics. 

1807  saw  the  coming  of  the  Sisters  of  Christian  Teach-  At  this  point  in  history,  when  so  many  social  and 

ing  and  Nursine  {de  Vlnstruction  chritienne  et  dea  democratic    aspirations   were    being    agitated,   the 

Mtdadea)  of  St-Gildas-des-Bois  foimded  by  the  Abb^  social  efficaciousness  of  Christian  thou^t  was  dem- 

Deshayes,  and  the  great  teaching  order  of  the  Sisters  onstrated  by  the  Vicomte  de  Melun,  who  developed 

of  Ste-Chr6tienne  of  Metz.    In  1809  there  appes^ed  the  ''Soci^te  Charitable"  and  the  "Annales  de  la 

in  Aveyron  the  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary;  in  Charity "  and  carried  a  law  on  old-age  pensions  and 

18.10,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Vaur  (Ard^che),  the  mutual  benefit  societies;  and  by  Le  Privost,  founder  of 

Sisters  Hospitallers  of  Rennes,  and  the  Sisters  of  St.  the  Congregation  of  the  Brothers  of  St.  Vincent  de 

Joseph  of  Quny. — Such  was  the  fruit  of  eight  years  Paul,  who,  leading  a  religious  life  in  the  garb  of  lay- 

of  religious  revival,  and  the  list  could  easily  be  con-  men,  visited  among  the  working  classes, 

tinned  through  the  years  that  followed.  The  Second  Empire,  the  issue  of  Louis  Napolton 

In  the  Wars  of  the  Revolution,  which  began  20  Bonaparte's  coup  d^dto^  (2  December,  1851),  affirmed 

April,  1792,  the  French  missionary  qualities  which,  universal  suffrage  and  thus  secured  the  victory  of 

under  the  old  regime,  had  been  employed  in  the  service  French  democracy;  but  it  reduced  parlemefUarisme  to 

of  the  Christian  ideal  were  consecrated  to  ''  the  Rights  an  insignificant  r61e,  the  Plebiscite  being  employed  as 

of  Man"  and  to  emancipating  the  people  from    the  an  ordinary  means  of  ascertaining  the  will  of  the 

tyrants";  but  in  the  Napoleonic  Wars  which  followed,  people.    It  was  the  Second  Empire,  too,  that  gave 

these  very  peoples,  fired  with  principles  of  liberty  Nizza,  Savoy,  and  Cochin-China  to  France, 

which  had  come  to  them  from  France,  expressed  their  The  Third  Republic,  tumultuously  proclaimed,  4 

newly  developed  national  consciousness  m  a  struggle  September,  1870,  on  the  ruins  of  the  Empire  over- 

against  French  armies.    In  this  way  the  propaganda  thrown  at  Sedan,  was  victorious,  thanks  to  Thiers  and 

of  the  Revolution  had  in  the  end  a  disastrous  reac-  to  the  Army  of  Versailles,  over  the  Parisian  outbreak 

tion  on  the  very  country  where  its  ideals  originated,  called  the  CJommime  (March-May,  1871).    Effectively 

During  the  nineteenth  century  France  was  destined  to  defined  by  the  Constitution  of  18/5,  it  had  to  acquiesce 

undertake  several  wars  for  the  emancipation  of  nar-  in  the  Treaty  of  Frankfort  (1871)  by  which  Alsace  and 

tionalities— the  Greek  War  (1827-28)  under  the  Res-  Lorraine  were  ceded  to  Germany.    On  the  other  hand 

toration;  the  Italian  War  (1859)  under  the  Second  it  enriched  the  colonial  possessions,  or  the  sphere  of 

Empire — and  it  was  in  the  name  of  the  principle  of  influence,  of  France  by  tne  acquisition  of  Tongking, 

nationality  that  the  Second  Empire  allowed  German  Tunis,  and  Madagascar.    Under  the  Third  Republic  a 

unity  to  grow  until,  in  1870,  it  had  reached  its  full  parliamentary  system  with  two  chambere  was  estab- 

growth  at  the  expense  of  France.  lished  on  the  double  principle  of  a  responsible  ministry 

Under  the  Restoration  parliamentary  ^vemment  and  a  president  above  all  responsibility,  the  latter 

was  introduced  into  France.    The  Revolution  of  July,  elected  by  the  two  chambers  for  a  period  of  seven  years. 

1830,  the  "liberal"  and  "bourgeois"  revolution,  as-  Thiers,  MacMahon,  Jules  Gr^vy,  Sadi-Camot,  F^lix 

verted  against  the  absolutism  of  Charles  X  those  Faure,  Emile  Loubet,  Armand  Falli^res  have  been  suc- 

rights  which  had  been  guaranteed  to  Frenchmen  bv  oessively  at  the  head  of  the  French  State  since  1870. 


VRANOa 


176 


ntAHCI 


Hirough  all  these  changes  of  government  French 
foreign  policy,  either  knowin^y  or  by  force  of  habit 
and  precedent,  has  been  of  service  to  the  Catholic 
Churchy  service  amply  repaid  by  the  Chmtsh  in  per- 
petuating in  some  measure  the  Christian  idea!  of 
earlier  times.  The  Crimean  War,  undertaken  (1855) 
by  Napoleon  III,  originated  in  the  desire  to  protect 
Latin  Christians  in  Palestine,  the  clients  of  France, 
aeainst  Russian  encroachments.  During  the  course 
of  the  nineteenth  century  French  diplomacy  at  Rome 
and  in  the  East  has  aimed  at  safeguarding  the  pre- 
rogatives of  France  as  patron  of  Oriental  Christen- 
dom, and  of  thus  justifying  the  traditional  trust  of  the 
Orientals  in  the  "  Franks"  as  the  natural  champions  of 
Christianity  in  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Frencn  influ- 
ence in  this  field  was  threatened  bv  Austria,  Italy,  and 
Germany  in  turn;  the  first  of  tnese  powers  luleged 
certain  treaties  with  the  sultan,  dating  from  the 
eighteenth  century,  as  giving  it  the  right  to  defend 
Catholic  interests  at  the  Sybhme  Porte;  the  other  two 
made  repeated  efforts  to  induce  Italian  and  German 
missionaries  to  seek  protection  from  their  own  consuls 
rather  than  those  ot  France.  But  on  22  May,  1888, 
the  circular  '' Aspera  rerum  conditio",  signed  by  Car- 
dinal Simeoni,  Prefect  of  the  Propag^da,  commanded 
all  missionaries  to  respect  the  prerogatives  of  France 
as  their  protecting  power.  Even  at  the  present  time, 
in  spite  of  the  separation  of  Church  and  State,  the 
diplomacy  of  the  Third  Republic  in  the  East  enjoys 
the  prestige  acquired  by  the  France  of  St.  Louis  and 
Francis  I.  And  amid  all  the  ideas  and  tendencies  of 
"laicization"  this  protectorate  continues  to  exist  as 
a  relic  and  a  right  of  Christian  France. — "  Anticlerical- 
ism  is  not  an  article  for  exportation",  said  Gambetta, 
and  up  to  within  recent  years  this  has  alwa3rs  been  the 
motto  of  Republican  France.  In  spite  of  the  con- 
stant threats  under  which  the  congregations  have 
lived  during  the  Third  Republic,  it  is  unquestionable 
that  certain  important  institutes  have  seen  the  num- 
ber of  their  members  increase  notably.  This  .is 
illustrated  by  the  following  table: — 


Institute 

Members 

1879 

1900 

Soci^t6  des  Missions  Etrang^res 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny 
Daughters  of  Wisdom 
Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of  Chartres 
Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel 
Little  Brothers  of  Mary 
little  Sisters  of  the  Poor 
Brothers  of  the  Holy  Ghost 

480 
2067 
3600 
1119 

791 
3600 
2683 

515 

1200 
4000+ 
4650 
1732 
1350 
4850 
3073 
902 

Tkine  has  proved  that  vocations  to  the  religious  life 
increased  remarkably  in  the  France  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  when  they  were  entirelj^  spontaneous,  as 
compared  with  the  France  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
when  many  families,  for  worldly  reasons,  placed  theur 
dauditers  m  convents. 

MifiSiONART  France  in  the  Nineteenth  Centurt. 
— The  reawakening  of  English  Catholicism  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century  was  in  some  measure 
due  to  the  influence  of  the  French  refugee  clergy  whom 
the  Revolution  had  driven  into  exile.  And  when,  in 
1789,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  John  Carroll  was 
named  Bishop  of  Baltimore,  it  was  to  the  Sulpician 
Fathers  that  he  appealed  to  establish  his  seminary, 
thus  preparing  for  tne  part  which  that  splendid  insti- 
tute of  French  priests  was  to  take,  and  still  continues 
to  play^  in  builaing  up  the  Church  in  America.  The 
discussion  between  Monsignor  Dubourg,  Bishop  of 
New  Orieans,  and  Madame  Petit,  a  widow  of  Lvons,  on 
the  spiritual  needs  of  Louisiana  (1815),  and  the  letter 
^tten  by  the  Abb4  Jaricot  to  his  sister  Pauline,  who 


also  lived  at  Lyons,  on  the  poverty  ci  the  foreign 
xnissions  (1819),  led  these  two  ladies  to  organize,  each 
independently  of  the  other,  societies  for  the  collection 
of  alms  from  the  faithful  for  the  propagation  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  from  these  first  feeble  beginnings  was 
bom,  3  May,  1822,  the  great  work  known  to  English- 
speaking  Catholics  as  the  "Propaganda  of  Lyons". 
In  1898  this  society  collected  from  one  country  or 
another,  6,700,921  francs  ($1,140^180.00  or  £228,000) 
for  missionary  purposes.  Of  this  sum  no  less  than 
4,077,085  francs  was  contributed  by  France  alone, 
while,  in  1908,  owing  to  the  many  needs  of  the  Church 
at  home,  France's  contribution  fell  from  6,402,586 
francs  to  3,082,131  francs.  In  1898  the  work  of  the 
Sainte-Enfance  (The  Holy  Childhood),  also  of  French 
origin,  which  aspires  to  save  both  the  bodies  and  the 
souls  of  Chinese  children,  collected  3,615,845  francs 
(about  $723,000.00  or  £145,000),  of  which  1,094,092 
francs  came  from  France  alone,  while  in  1908-09,  for 
the  reason  referred  to  above,  French  generositv  could 
onlv  contribute  813,952  francs  to  this  work,  the  gen- 
eral receipts  of  which  amounted  to  3,761,954  francs. 
That  work  in  1907-08  helped  in  236  missions,  1171 
orphanages,  7372  schools,  and  2480  manual-training 
establishments.  In  1898,  again,  L'CEuvre  des  Eksoles 
d'Orient,  an  association  for  supplying  schools  in  the 
East,  colle»;ted  in  France  584,056  francs,  in  1907  it 
collected  in  France  243,634  francs,  and  in  other 
coimtries  onl^  27,596  francs.  In  1898  the  Society  of 
African  Missions  collected  50,000  francs,  the  Anti- 
Slavery  Society,  120,000  francs,  while  the  Good-Friday 
alms  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Holy  Land  amounted 
to  122,000  francs,  makmg  in  all^  for  the  year  1898,  a 
total  of  6,047,231  francs  contributed  by  France  to 
foreign  missionaries  without  distinction  of  nationality. 
But  France  furnishes  not  money  only  but  men  and 
women  to  these  missions.  Cn  the  eve  of  the  Law  of 
1901  the  Abb^  Kannengieser  compiled  the  following 
approximate  estimates  of  the  religious,  men  and 
women,  of  French  nationality  en^ged  in  mission 
work: — 

Soci^t^  des  Missions  Etrang^res 1200 

Society  of  Jesus 750 

Lazansts 500 

Augustinians  of  the  Assumption 216 

Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 813 

.    Capuchins '  160 

Dominicans 80 

Missionaries  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales 60 

Carmelites 14 

Marianists 80 

Little  Brothers  of  Mary 359 

Oblates  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales 25 

Franciscans 95 

Fathers  of  the  Holy  Spirit 429 

White  Fathers 500 

African  Missions 123 

Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate 400 

Marists 320 

Picpus  Fathers 80 

Missionaries  of  Mary 46 

Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel 53 

Redemptorists 100 

Priests  of  B^tharram 80 

Christian  Brothers  of  PloCrmel 272 

Christian  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart 34^ 

Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart 27 

Sulpician  Fathers 30 

Congregation  of  Holy  Cross 40 

Fathers  of  Mercy 21 

Children  of  Mary  Immaculate 15 

Brothers  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Annunciation  .     60 

Brothers  of  the  Holy  Family 40 

Benedictines  of  La-Pierre-qui-Vire 25 

Fathers  of  La  Salette 5 

Trappists 21 

A  similar  list  of  the  women  engaged  in  religioub 


F&ANOS 


176 


FBAKOS 


work  on  the  missions,  drawn  up  on  the  eve  of  the  Law 
of  1901,  gave  a  grand  total  of  7745  religions  men  and 
9150  religious  women  supplied  by  France  alone  for 
this  wor£  The  Missions  Etrang^res  in  1908  had  in 
its  missions  37  bishops,  1371  missionaries,  778  native 
priests,  3050  catechists,  45  seminaries,  2081  seminary 
students,  305  religious  men,  4075  religious  women, 
2000  Chinese  virgins,  5700  churches  and  chapels,  347 
cr^cA^  and  orphanages,  sheltering  20,409  children. 
484  pharmacies  and  dispensaries,  108  hospitals  'and 
lepers'  asylums.  Within  the  same  year  (1908)  it 
brought  about  the  baptism  of  33,169  adults  and 
139,956  infants.  At  Jerusalem  Cardinal  Lavig^e 
founded  in  1855  the  seminary  of  St.  Anne  for  Oriental 
rites;  the  French  Dominicans^  founded  in  1890,  at 
Jerusalem,  a  school  for  Bibhcal  study,  and  on  the 
northwest  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  near  Constantinoi>le, 
the  French  Assumptionists  reorganized  the  Uniat 
Greek  Church,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Eucharistic  Congress  of  1893,  pre- 
sided over  by  the  French  Cardinal  Lan^nieux,  as 
legate  of  Pope  Leo  XIII,  at  which  Christians  of  the 
many  Oriental  rites  were  assembled.  For  the  Lebanon 
district,  French  Jesuits  have  a  school  at  Beirut  with 
520  students,  for  the  most  part  medical,  and  a  printing 
press  unrivalled  for  its  Arabic  printing.  Besides  this 
they  have  195  elementary  schools  about  th^ir  univer- 
sity. At  Smyrna  French  Lazarists  have  a  congrega- 
tion of  16,000  Catholics  where,  in  1800,  there  were 
only  3000.  In  Syria  alone,  the  French  schools,  or 
schools  under  French  influence,  have  upwards  of 
19,000  pupils,  and  in  the  vilayet  of  Smvrna  nearly 
3000  pupils.  The  schools  of  the  French  Cfapuchins  in 
Palestine  have  1000  pupils;  those  of  the  French 
Jesuits  in  European  Turkey,  7000  pupils. 

In  1860  France  intervened  in  behalf  of  the  Chris- 
tians of  the  East,  who  were  menaced  by  the  fanaticism 
of  Turks,  Arabs,  and  Druses.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  Fuad  Pasha  is  reported  to  have  said,  pointing  to 
some  religious  who  were  present,  ''  I  do  not  fear  the 
40,000  bayonets  you  have  at  Damascus,  but  I  do  fear 
those  sixty  robc»  there".  At  Mosul,  some  French 
Dominicans,  assisted  by  Sisters  of  the  Presentation  of 
Tours,  have  had  a  residence  since  1856;  they  have 
established  hospitals,  workshops,  and  dii^nsaries 
all  over  Mesopotamia^  as  well  as  a  Syro-Chaldean 
seminary.  These  missionaries  won  back  to  Christian 
imity,  under  the  pontificate  of  Leo  XIII,  50,000  Nes- 
torians  and  30,000  Armenian  Gregorians.  In  like 
manner,  twenty-six  Jesuits  of  the  province  of  Lyons 
have  been  building  schools  throughout  Armenia  dur- 
ing the  past  thirty  years.  The  old  See  of  Babylon 
was  replaced  in  1844  by  the  See  of  Baf;dad  where  a 
French  bishop  rules  over  90,000  Catholics  of  various 
rites.  In  Persia  the  French  Lazarists  have  a  congrega- 
tion of  8000  faithful,  where,  in  1840,  there  were  only 
400.  The  French  Capuchins  established  at  Aden  are 
breaking  ground  in  Arabia.  French  Jesuits  are  evan- 
gelizins  Ceylon.  Under  the  priests  of  the  Missions 
Etran^res,  who  are  assisted  by  five  communities  of 
religious  women,  the  number  of  Catholics  in  Pon- 
dicheny  increased  tenfold  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Priests  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  of  Annecy  have 
haa  chai^  of  the  vicariate  of  Vizagapatam  since  1849. 
The  city  of  Bombay  alone  has  no  fewer  than  twenty- 
seven  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  In  Burma 
the  priests  of  the  Missions  Etrangdres  minister  to  40,000 
Catnolics,  where  there  were  only  5000  in  1800.  The 
mission  of  Siam,  made  famous  by  F^nelon,  and  ruined 
at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  numbers 
to-day  more  than  20,000  souls.  And  at  the  Penang 
Seminary  French  priests  are  f ormine  a  native  cler^. 
The  nine  French  missions  of  Tongking  and  Cochm- 
China  have  650,000  Catholics.  It  was  a  missionary, 
Mgr  Puginier,  who,  from  1880  to  1892,  did  so  much  to 
open  up  those  regions  to  French  exploration.^  "  Were 
it  not  for  the  missionariee  and  tne  Christians",  a 


Malay  pirate  once  said,  ''the  French  in  Tongking 
womld  be  as  helpless  as  crabs  without  legs.'' 

China  is  the  mission-field  of  Jesuits,  Lazarists,  and 
French  priests  of  the  Missions  Etrang^res.  The  French- 
Corean  dictionary  published  by  the  priests  of  the 
Missions  Etrangdres;  the  works  on  Chinese  philology, 
begun  in  the  ei^teenth  century  by  the  Jesuit  Amiot, 
and  carried  on  m  the  nineteenth  by  the  French  Jesuits 
in  their  Chinese  printing  establiiwinent  at  Zi-ka-wei; 
the  researches  in  natural  science  made  in  China  by  the 
Lazarist  David  and  the  Jesuits  Heude,  Desgodins, 
Dechevrens;  the  work  accomplished  in  the  fields  of 
astronomy  and  meteorology  by  the  French  Jesuits  at 
Zi-ka-wei — all  these  achievements  of  French  mission- 
aries have  won  the  applause  of  the  learned  world.  In 
the  nineteenth  centurT'  the  recovery  of  Japan  to  the 
Church  was  begun  by  Mgr  Forcade,  afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  Aix,  and  French  Marianists  are  labouring  to 
build  up  a  native  Japanese  clergy. 

In  Oceanica,  since  the  year  1836,  when  Chanel, 
Bataillon,  and  a  few  other  Ikmrists  came  to  take  posses- 
sion of  the  thousands  of  idbemds  scattered  between 
Japan  and  New  Zealand,  the  work  of  evangelizing  haa 
gone  on  through  Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  Wallis 
Islands,  New  Caledonia,  the  New  Hebrides,  and  Syd- 
ney Island.  The  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Issoudun  are  in  the  Gilbert  Isles;  the  Fathers  of  Pie- 
pus  are  working  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Tahiti,  and 
the  Marquesas.  The  fame  of  Father  Damien  (Joseph 
Damien  de  Veuster),  one  of  the  Picpus  Fathers,  tne 
apostle  of  the  lepers  at  Molokai,  has  spread  through- 
out the  world. 

In  Africa  Father  Libermann  (a  converted  Alsatian 
Jew)  and  his  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  undertook,  in  1840,  the 
evangelization  of  the  black  race.  It  has  now  spread 
oyer  the  whole  of  that  pagan  continent;  and  the  mis- 
sions established  by  M!gr  Augouard  in  Ubangi  are  in 
the  very  heart  of  the  cannibal  districts.  Jesuits,  Holy 
Ghost  Fathers,  and  Lazarists  are  working  in  Madagas- 
car; Jesuits  are  established  alone  the  Zambesi  River, 
and  the  African  Missionaries  of  Lyons  have  settle- 
ments around  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  at  Dahomey,  while  the  Oblates  of  Mary  are 
in  Natal.  In  Senegal  Mother  Anne-Marie  Javouhey, 
foundress  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny — she  of 
whom  Louis  Philippe  said:  ''Madame  Javouhey  c'est 
un  grand  homme'^— opened  the  first  French  schools  in 
1820,  and  set  on  foot  the  first  attempts  at  amciilture 
in  that  region.  In  Egypt  French  Jesuits  nave  two 
colleges 2  tne  Lyons  Missionaries,  one;  the  Brothers  of 
the  Christian  Schools  teach  more  than  1000  pupils; 
and  60  parish  schools,  with  more  than  3000  children, 
are  tmder  the  care  of  French  sisterhoods.  French 
Lazarists  minister  to  13,000  souls  in  Ab3rBsinia.  The 
ecclesiastical  province  of  Algeria,  which  in  1800  reck- 
oned 4000  souls*  had  at  the  time  of  Cardinal  Lavi- 
gerie's  death  400,000.  with  500  priests,  260  churches 
or  chapels,  and  230  schools,  while  Tunis,  which  in  1800 
had  contained  but  2000  Catholics,  numbered  27,000, 
ministered  to  by  153  religious  in  22  parishes.  The 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  were  the  pioneers  of 
the  French  language  in  Tunis,  as  tiiey  had  been 
throup^out  the  Ottoman  Empire  from  Constantinople 
to  Cairo,  and  the  Congregation  of  the  White  Fathers, 
who  sent  out  their  first  ten  missionaries  from  ALgiers 
on  the  17th  of  April,  1878,  towards  equatorial  Amca, 
founded,  in  Uganda  and  along  Lake  Tanganyika, 
Christian  communities,  one  of  which,  in  May,  1886, 
gave  to  the  Faith  150  martyrs. 

Side  by  side  with  this  peaceful  conquest  of  the 
African  Continent  by  the  initiative  of  a  French  car- 
dinal, a  place  of  honour  must  be  given  to  the  wonder- 
ful part  played  in  the  colonization  and  development 
of  French  Guiana,  since  the  year  1828,  by  Mother  Ja- 
vouhey, of  whose  efforts  in  Seneged  we  have  already 
spoken.    It  was  she,  who  under  the  July  Monarchy^ 


FRANOB  177  FRANOB 

and  at  the  reques*  of  the  Government,  undertook  in  Ecclesiastical  Divisions. — In  1789  France,  with 

Guiana  the  work  of  civilizing  the.unf  ortunate  ne&;roes  the  exception  of  the  Venaissin,  which  belonged  immedi- 

taken  by  the  men-of-war  from  the  captured  slave  snips,  ately  to  the  pope,  was  divided  into  135  dioceses :  eigh- 

and  whom  she  eventually  employed  as  free  workmen,  teen  archbisnoprics  or  ecclesiastical  provinces  with  one 


Her  example  alone  would  suffice  to  refute  the  slander  so    hundred  and  six  suffragan  sees  and  eleven  sees  depend- 


French  Treasury.    In  the  Levant  a  certam  number  of  Corsica,  suffragans  of  Genoa  or  of  Pisa.    Theeis^teea 

church  schools  receive  state  aid  as  a  help  to  the  spread-  .archiepiscopal  sees  were :  Aix,  Albi,  Arlee,  Auch,  Besan- 

ing  of  the  French  language,  but  of  late  years  these  con,  Bordeaux,  Bourges,  Cambrai,  Embrun,  Lyons, 

subventions  have  been  exposed  and  diminished.    On  Narbonne,   Paris,   Reims,   Rouen,   Sens,   Toulouse, 

12  December,  1906,  M.  Dubief,  in  moving  the  Budget  Tours,  Vienne.    In  1791   the  Constituent  Assembly 

of  Foreign  Affairs,  proposed  to  suppress  the  sums  suppressed  the  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  dioceses 


by  means  of  this  promise  he  secured  the  continuation  oordat  of  1817  made  a  fresh  arrangement,  which  was 

of  the  credit  of  92,000  francs.    It  is  a  matter  for  regret  realized  in  1822  and  1823  by  the  creation  of  new 

that  the  aim  of  the  Chambers  for  some  years  past  has  bishoprics.    France  and  its  colonies  are  at  present 

been  to  cut  down  the  assistance  given  by  France  to  divided  into  ninety  dioceses,  of  which  eighteen  are 

these  religious  schools,  and  to  create  in  the  East  metropolitan  and  seventy-two  suffragan,  as  follows:^ 

French  ^ucational  institutions  of  a  purely  secular  Metropolitans                      Suffnunns 

character.    M.  Marcel  Chariot,  in  1906,  and  M.  Au-       Aix Marseilles,  Fr6jus,  Digne,  Gap,  Nice, 

lard,  in  1907,  the  one  in  the  name  of  the  State,  the  Ajaccio. 

other  in  the  interest  of  la  Mission  Laiquej  made  a  crit-        Albi Rodez,  Cahors,  Mende,  Peipignan. 

ical  study  of  our  religious  schools  in  the  East,  and  con-        Algiers Constantine,  Oran. 

tributed  to  the  laicizing  movement  which,  ii  success-        Auch Aire,  Tarbes,  Bayonne. 

ful,  would  mean  the  dissolution  of  France's  religious  Avignon  . .  .Ntmes,  Valence^  Viviers,  Montpellier. 

dierdHe  in  the  East  and  a  lessening  of  French  pohtical  BesanQon. . .  Verdun,  Belley,  St-Di^,  Nancy, 

influence.  Bordeaux .  .Agen,    Angoiutoie,    Poitiers,   P^- 

France  AT  RoHE. — Side  by  side  with  the  part  which  gueux,  La  Rochelle,  Lugon,  La 
France  has  played  in  the  missionary  field,  the  diplo-  Basse-Terre  (Guadeloupe,  W.  I.), 
matic  activity  at  Rome  of  the  Third  Republic,  in  its  R^unron  (Indian  Ocean),  Fort-de- 
character  of  a  protector  of  pious  institutions,  is  worth  France  (Martinique,  W.  I.), 
noting.  It  tends  to  prove  the  depth,  the  reality,  the  Bourges.. .  .Germont,  Limoges,  Le  Puy,  Tulle, 
force  which  underlay  the  old  saying:  Oallia  EcdencB  St-Flour. 
Primogenita  FUia,  Cambrai ..  .Arras. 

In  1890,  on  the  occasion  of  the  French  working-  Chamb^ry..Annecy,  Tarentaise,  Maurienne. 

men's  pilgrimage,  Count  Lefebvre  de  B^haine,  the        Lyons Autun,  Langres,  Dijcm,  St-Claudey 

French  ambassador,  formally  renewed  the  claims  of  Grenoble. 

the  French  Republic  over  the  chapel  of  St.  Petronilla,        Paris Chartres,  Meaux,  Orleans,  Blois,  Ver* 

founded  by  Pepin  the  Short  in  the  basilica  of  St.  sailles. 

Peter.    The  principal  religious  establishments  over       Reims Soissons,  ChAlons^sur-Mame,  Beau- 

which  certain  prero^tives  were  exercised  b^  the  vais,  Amiens. 

French  Embassy  at  Rome,  until  its  suppression  in  Rennes..  . . Quimper,  Yannes,  St-Brieuc. 

1903,  were:  the  church  and  community  of  chaplains        Rouen Bayeux,  Evreux,  S6ez,  Coutanoes. 

of  St.  Louis  of  the  French,  the  French   national        Sens Troyes,  Nevers,  Moulins. 

church  in  Rome,  dating  back  to  a  confraternity  insti-  Toulouse. .  .Montauban,  Pamiers,  Carcassonne. 

tuted  in  1454;  the  pious  foundation  of  St.  Yves  of  the       Tours Le  Mans,  Angers,  Nantes,  Laval. 

Bretons,  which  dates  from  1455;  the  church  of  St.  Thb  Third  Republic  and  the  Chubch  in  Francs. 

Nicholas  of  the  Lorrainers,  whicn  dates  from  1622;  —The  policy  known  as  antiderical,  inaugurated  by 
the  church 
dates  from 
Pincian  Hill, 

1494,  for  the  Friars  Minor,  and  became,  in  1828,  a  the  Masonic  lodges,  which  ever  since  that  date  hava 

boarding  school  under  the  care  of  the  French  Ladies  shown  their  hatred  even  of  the  very  idea  of  God.   If 

of  the  Sacred  Heart.    There  has  also  been  an  ancient  one  carefully  follows  up  the  series  of  aspirations  ut- 

bond  between  France  and  the  Lateran  Chapter,  b^  tered  at  the  Masonic  meetings,  there  will  surelv  be 

reason  of  the  donations  made  to  the  chapter  by  Louis  found  the  first  germ  of  the  successive  laws  which  have 

XI  and  Henry-  IV,  and  the  annual  grant  apportioned  been  framed  against  the  Church.   To  justify  its  action 

to  it  by  Charles  X,  in  1825,  and  by  Nai>oleon  III,  in  before  the  people,  the  Government  has  asserted  that 

1863.    Although  this  grsnt  was  discontinued  by  the  the  sympatnies  of  a  great  number  of  Catholics,  indud- 

Republic  in  1871,  the  Lateran  Chapter  until  the  sup-  ing  many  of  the  clergy,  were  for  the  monarchical 

pression  of  the  Embassy  to  the  Holy  See  (1904)  sJwa3rs  ptuties.   This  policy  also  presented  itself  as  a  retalia- 

kept  up  official  relations  with  the  French  ambassador  tion  for  the  attempt  of  the  16th  of  May,  1877,  by 

whom,  on  the  1st  of  January  each  year,  it  charged  which  Uie  monarchists  had  tried  to  impede  in  France 

with  a  special  message  of  greeting  to  the  President  of  the  progressive  action  of  the  Liberals  (la  Oattche)  and 

the  Republic.    Lastly,  since  1230  there  has  alwa3rs  of  the  oemocratic  spirit.    Its  first  embodiments  were, 

been  a  French  auditor  of  the  Rota.    In  1472  Sixtus  in  1879,  the  exclusion  of  the  priests  from  the  admin- 

IV  formallj^  recognized  this  to  be  the  ri^t  of  the  istrative  committees  of  hospitals  and  of  boards  of 

French  nation.    The  allowance  made  by  France  to  charity;  in  1880,  certain  measures  directed  against 

the  auditor  was  discontinued  in  1882,  but  the  office  the  religious  congregations;  from  1880  to  1890^  the 

has  survived,  and  the  reorganization  of  the  tribunal  of  substitution  of  lay  women  for  nuns  in  many  hospitals; 

the  Rota  made  by  Pope  Pius  X  (September  and  Octo-  and,  in  1882  and  1886,  the  "  School  Laws"  {lois  boo- 

ber,  1906)  was  followed  by  the  appointment  ol  a  lotres)  which  will  later  on  be  discussed  in  detail. 

French  auditor.  The  Concordat  continued  to  govern  the  relations  of 
VI.— 12 


FBAKOE 


178 


FBAKOE 


Church  and  State,  but  in  1881  the  method  of  stoppage 
of  salary  (fiuppressian  de  traitement)  be^n  to  be  em- 
ployed against  priests  whose  political  attitude  was  un- 
satisfactory to  the  Government,  and  the  Law  of  1893, 
which  subjected  the  financial  administration  of  church 
property  to  the  same  rules  as  the  civil  establishments, 
occasioned  lively  concern  to  the  cler^.  As  early  as 
March,  1888,  Leo  XIII  had  written  to  President  Gr^vy 
compilaining  of  the  anti-religious  bitterness,  and  ex- 
pressing a  hope  that  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Church, 
would  find  it  possible  to  abandon  this  stru^e  if  she 
would  not  forfeit  that  unity  and  homogeneity  among 
her  citizens  which  had  been  the  source  of  her  own 
peculiar  greatness,  and  thus  oblige  history  to  pro- 
claim that  one  inconsiderate  da^'s  work  had  destroyed 
in  France  the  magnificent  achievement  of  the  ages. 
Jules  Gr6vy  repli^  that  the  religious  feeline  com- 
plained of  was  tne  outcome  mainly  of  the  hostne  atti- 
tude of  a  section  of  the  clergy  towards  the  Republic. 
Some  yjdBxs  later  (12  November,  1890),  Cardinal 
Lavigerie,  returning  from  Rome,  and  inspired  by  Leo 
XIIIj  delivered  a  speech  in  the  presence  of  all  the 
authorities,  military  and  civil,  of  Algeria,  in  which  he 
said:  ^When  the  will  of  a  people  as  to  the  form  of  its 
government  has  been  clearly  affirmed,  and  when,  to 
snatch  a  people  from  the  abysses  which  threaten  it, 
unreserved  adhesion  to  this  political  form  is  necessary, 
then  the  moment  has  come  to  declare  the  test  com- 
pleted, and  it  only  remains  to  make  all  those  sacrifices 
which  conscience  and  honour  permit  us,  and  command 
us,  to  make  for  the  good  of  our  country."  This  speech, 
which  caused  a  great  commotion,  was  followed  by  a 
letter  of  CardinalRampoUa,  Secretary  of  State  to  Leo 
XIII,  addressed  to  the  Bishop  of  St-Flour,  in  which 
the  (^uxlinal  exhorted  Catholics  to  come  forward  and 
take  part  in  public  affairs,  thus  entering  upon  the 
readiest  and  surest  path  to  the  attainment  of  that 
noble  aim,  the  good  of  religion  and  the  salvation  of 
souls.  Lastly,  a  Brief  of  L^  XIII  to  Cardinal  Lavi- 
gerie, in  the  early  part  of  the  year  1891,  assured  him 
that  his  zeal  and  activity  answered  perfectly  to  the 
needs  of  the  age  and  the  pope's  expectations. 

From  these  utterances  dates  the  policy  known  in 
France  as  the  ''Ralliement",  and  as  "Leo's  Repub- 
lican Policy".  At  once  the  Archbishops  of  Tours, 
Rouen,  Cambrai,  the  Bishops  of  Bayeux^  Langres, 
Digne,  Bayonne,  and  Grenoble  declarea  their  adhesion 
to  the  "Algiers  Programme",  and  the  Monarchical 
press  accused  them  of  "  kissine  the  Republican  feet  of 
their  executioners".  On  16  January,  1892,  a  collec- 
tive letter  was  published  by  the  five  French  cardinals, 
enumerating  all  the  acts  of  oppression  sanctioned  by 
the  Republic  against  the  Church  and  concluding,  in 
conformity  with  the  wish  of  Rome,  by  announcing  the 
following  programme:  Frank  and  loyal  acceptance  of 
political  institutions;  respect  for  the  laws  of  the  coun- 
tiy  whenever  they  do  not  clash  with  conscientious 
obligations;  respect  for  the  representatives  of  author- 
ity, combined  with  ste&dy  resistance  to  all  encroach- 
ments on  the  spiritual  domain. 

Within  a  month  seventy-five  bishops  subscribed  to 
the  above  programme,  and  in  the  atmosphere  thus 
prepared  the  voice  of  Pope  Leo  once  more  spoke  out. 
In  the  Encyclical  "Inter  innumeras  soUicitudines", 
dated  10  February,  1892,  Leo  XIII  besought  Catholics 
not  to  judge  the  Republic  by  the  irreligious  character 
of  its  government,  and  explained  that  a  distinction 
must  be  drawn  between  the  form  of  government, 
which  ought  to  be  accepted,  and  its  laws,  which  ought 
to  be  improved.  Thus  was  the  policy  of  rallying  to  the 
Republic  precisely  stated,  as  recommended  to  the 
Catholics  of  France,  and  expounded  in  the  brochures, 
in  Paris,  of  Cardinal  Perraud  and,  at  Rome,  of  Father 
Brandi,  editor  of  the  "Civilt^  Cattolica".  Anticleri- 
cals  and  Monarchists  were  alarmed.  The  Monarchists 
protested  against  the  interference  of  the  pope  in 
Frem^  politics,  and  the  Antidericals  declared  that  the 


Republic  had  no  room  for  "Roman  Republicans". 
Both  parties  asserted  that  it  was  impossible  to  distin- 
guish between  the  Republican  form  of  government 
and  the  Republican  laws.  A  trifling  incic^nt,  arising 
out  of  a  visit  paid  by  some  Frencn  pilgrims  to  the 
Pantheon  in  Rome,  which  contains  the  tomb  of  Victor 
Emmanuelj  called  forth  from  M.  Fallidres,  Minister  of 
Justice,  a  circular  against  pilgrimages  (October,  1891), 
and  occasioned  a  liv^  debate  in  the  French  Chamber 
on  the  separation  of  Cnurch  and  State.  But  in  spite  of 
these  outbreaks  of  Anticlericalism,  the  political  hori- 
zon, especially  after  the  Encyclical  of  Feoruary.  1892, 
became  more  serene.  The  policy  of  combininetne  Re- 
publican forces  by  a  fusion  of  Moderates  and  Radicals 
to  support  a  common  programme  of  Republican  con- 
centration, which  programme  was  incessantly  develop- 
ing new  anticlerical  measures  as  concessions  to  the 
radicals— gradually  went  out  of  fashion.  After  the  Oc- 
tober elections,  in  1893,  for  the  first  time  in  many  long 
years,  a  homogeneous  ministry  was  f ormcKd.  one  minis- 
try composed  exclusively  of  moderate  Repuolicans,  and 
known  as  the  Casimir  P^rier-Spuller  Ministry.  On  3 
March,  1894,  in  a  discussion  in  the  Chamber  on  the 

Srohibition  of  reli^ous  emblems  by  the  Socialist 
[ayor  of  Saint-Denis,  Spuller,  the  Mmister  of  Public 
Worship,  declared  that  it  was  time  to  make  a  stand 
agsdnst  all  fanaticisms  whatsoever — against  all  sec- 
taries, regardless  of  the  particular  sect  to  which  they 
might  belong— and  that  the  Chamber  could  rely  at 
once  on  the  vigilance  of  the  Government  to  uphold  the 
rights  of  the  State,  and  on  the  new  spirit  (esprit 
nouveau)  which  animated  the  Government,  and  tended 
to  reconcile  all  citizens  and  bring  back  all  Frenchmen 
to  the  principles  of  common  sense  and  justice,  and  of 
the  charity  necessary  for  every  society  that  wishes  to 
survive.  Thus  it  seemed  that  there  would  be  develop- 
ing, side  by  side  with  the  policy  of  raUiement  practised 
by  the  Church,  a  similar  conciliatory  policy  on  the 
part  of  the  State. 

A  letter  from  Cardinal  RampoUa,  dated  30  January, 
1895,  to  M.  Auguste  Roussel,  tormerly  an  editor  of  the 
"  Univers",  but  who  had  become  editor-in-chief  of  the 
"  V6rit^  ",  foimd  fault  with  the  latter  periodical  for  stir- 
ring up  feeling  against  the  Republic,  fostering  in  the 
minds  of  its  readers  the  conviction  that  it  was  idle  to 
hope  for  religious  peace  from  such  a  form  of  govern- 
ment, creating  an  atmosphere  of  distrust  and  discour- 
agement, and  thwarting  tne  movement  towards  ^neral 
good-feeling  which  the  Holy  See  desired,  especially  in 
view  of  the  elections.  This  letter  created  a  great  sensa- 
tion, and  newspaper  polemics  contrasted  the  Catholics 
of  the  "  Univers ' '  and  the  "  Croix ' ', "  docile  towards  Leo 
XIII",  with  the  refractory  Catholics  of  the  "  V6rit6". 
On  5  Februarv,  1896,  F^lix  Faure  wrote  as  follows  to 
Pope  Leo:  "llie  President  of  the  Republic  cannot  for- 
get the  generous  motives  which  prompted  the  advice 
given  by  Your  Holiness  to  the  Catholics  of  France, 
encouraging  them  to  accept  loyally  the  government  ot 
their  country.  Your  Holiness  regrets  that  these  ap- 
peals for  harmony  and  peace  have  not  been  every- 
where listened  to ;  and  we  join  in  those  regrets,  lliat 
enlightened  advice  given  to  the  opponents  of  the  Re- 

gublic,  for  whose  consciences  the  authority  of  the 
[ead  of  the  Church  is  'all-powerfuF,  ought  to  have 
been  followed  by  all.  Nevertheless,  we  note  at  the 
present  time,  with  regret,  that  there  are  men  who. 
under  the  cloak  of  religion,  foment  a  policy  of  discord 
and  of  strife.  It  would,  however,  be  unjust  not  to 
recognize  that,  while  the  salutary  instructions  of  Your 
Holiness  have  not  produced  all  the  effects  that  might 
have  been  expectea  of  them,  very  many  loyal  Catho- 
lics have  bowed  before  them.  At  the  same  time,  this 
manifestation  of  goodwill  produced  among  those  Re- 
publicans who  were  most  firmly  attached  to  the  ridits 
of  the  dvil  power  a  spirit  of  conciliation  whichlias 
lar^ly  contnbuted  to  mitigate  the  conflict  of  passions 
which  saddened  us." 


F&4N0B 


179 


F&ANOX 


This  letter,  published  for  the  first  time  at  the  end  of 
the  year  1905,  in  the  "White  Book"  of  the  Holy  See, 
^aoes  in  clear  relief  the  relations  existing  between  the 
Qiurch  and  the  Republic  four  years  after  the  Ency- 
clical of  February,  1892,  and  three  months  before  the 
formation  of  the  M^line  Ministry,  which  was  to  lead 
the  Republic  towards  even  greater  moderation. 
The  M^line  Ministry  (1896-98)  secured  for  Catholics 
for  two  years  a  certain  amelioration  of  their  lot. 
But  the  division  among  Catholics  i>ersisted,  and  this 
division,  which  arose  trom  their  indocility  to  Leo 
XIII,  was  the  principal  cause  of  their  defeat  in  the 
elections  of  1898,  when  the  M^line  Ministry  came  to  an 
end.  The  old  Anticlerical  Republican  party  came 
once  more  into  power:  the  Dreyfus  affair,  a  purely 
judicial  matter  arouna  which  political  factions  grew 
up,  was  made  the  pretext  on  the  morrow  of  the  death 
of  President  Faure  (16  February,  1899)  for  beginning 
a  formidable  anti-militarist,  and  anticlerical  agitation 
which  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Waldeck-Rousseau 
and  the  Combes  Ministries. 

The  Waldeck-Rousseau  Ministry  (1899-1902)  passed 
fresh  legislation  against  the  congregations  (it  will  be 
found  in  detail  at  the  end  of  this  article)  and  brought 
France  to  the  vei^  of  a  breach  with  Rome  over  the 
question  of  the  Nobis  naminavU,  These  two  words, 
which  occurred  in  episcopal  Bulls,  signified  that  the 
priest  chosen  by  the  State  to  fill  a  bishopric  had  been 
designated  and  presented  to  the  Holy  See.  On  13 
June,  1901,  when  Bulls  were  required  for  the  bishops 
of  Carcassonne  and  Annecy,  the  Waldeck-Rousseau 
Ministry  proposed  that  the  word  Nobis  should  be 
omittea,  m  order  to  affirm  more  clearly  the  State's 
right  of  nomination.  The  Combes  Ministry  (1902-05) 
continued  the  dispute  over  this  matter,  and  on  22 
November,  1903,  the  Holy  See,  to  avoid  a  breach  with 
France,  agreed  to  omit  toe  obnoxious  word,  on  con- 
dition that  in  future  the  President  of  the  Republic 
should  demand  the  canonical  institution  of  bishops  by 
letters  patent  containing  the  words.  We  name  Aim, 
and  present  him  to  Your  Holiness,  In  spite  of  this 
concession  by  the  Holy  See,  M.  Combes  set  himself  the 
task  of  planning  the  separation  of  Church  and  State. 
He  felt  that  public  opinion  was  not  yet  quite  ripe  for 
this  stroke,  and  all  his  efforts  were  directed  to  makine 
separation  inevitable.  The  laicization  of  the  navu 
and  military  hospitals  (1903-04),  the  order  prohibiting 
soldiers  to  frequent  Catholic  clubs  (9  February,  1904), 
the  vote  of  the  Chamber  (14  February,  1904),  m  favour 
of  the  motion  to  repeal  the  Falloux  Law  were  episodes 
less  serious  than  the  succession  of  calculated  acts  by 
which  the  breach  with  Rome  was  being  approached. 

Three  quarrels  succeeded  one  another.  (1 )  In  reg^uti 
to  vacant  sees,  Combes's  policy  was  to  demand  canoni- 
cal institution  for  the  candidate  of  his  choice  without 
previously  consulting  Rome.  The  Holy  See  refused 
Its  consent  in  the  cases  of  the  Bishoprics  of  Maurienne, 
Bayonne,  Ajaccio,  and  Vannes,  and  accepted  M. 
Combes's  candidate  for  that  of  Ne vers.  "  All  or  none ' ', 
relied  M.  Combes,  on  the  19  March,  1904,  to  the 
nuncio,  Mgr  Lorenzelli*  and  all  the  sees  remained 
vacant.  (2)  On  25  March,  1904,  the  Chamber 
agreed,  by  502  votes  against  12,  to  allocate  a  sum  of 
money  to  defray  the  expenses  of  a  visit  by  M.  Loubet, 
Presiaent  of  the  Republic,  to  Rome.  M.  Loubet  was 
thus  the  first  head  of  a  Catholic  State  to  pay  a  visit  to 
the  King  of  Italy  in  Rome.  A  note  from  Cardinal 
RampoUa  to  M.  Nisard,  the  French  Ambassador, 
dated  1  June,  1903,  and  a  dispatch  from  the  cardinal 
to  the  nuncio,  Lorenzelli,  dated  8  June,  had  explained 
the  reasons  why  such  a  visit  would  be  oonsiaered  a 
firave  affront  to  the  Holy  See.  On  28  April,  1904, 
Cardinal  Merry  del  Val  sent  a  protest  to  M.  Nisard 
a^iinst  M.  Loubet's  visit  to  Rome.  On  6  May,  M. 
Nisard  handed  to  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val  a  diplo- 
matic note  in  which  the  French  Government  objected 
to  the  reasons  given  by  the  Holy  See  and  to  the 


manner  in  which  they  were  presented.  At  the  same 
time,  to  prevent  the  heads  of  other  Catholic  countries 
from  following  President  Loubet's  example,  the  Holy 
See  sent  a  diplomatic  note  to  all  the  powers  in  whichnt 
was  explained  that  if,  in  spite  of  this  visit,  the  nuncio 
to  France  had  not  been  recalled,  it  was  only  for  very 
grave  reasons  of  an  order  and  nature  altogether 
special.  By  an  indiscretion,  which  has  been  attri- 
buted to  the  Government  of  the  Principality  of 
Monaco,  ''L'Humanitd",  a  newspaper  belongmg  to  the 
Socialist  deputy,  Jaurte,  published  this  note  on  17 
May.  On  ^  May,  M.  Nisard  sought  an  explanation 
from  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val;  on  21  May  was  granted 
leave  of  absence  by  his  Government;  and  on  28 
May,  in  the  Chamber,  the  Government  gave  it  to  be 
understood  that  M.  Nisard 's  departure  from  Rome 
had  a  significance  much  more  serious  than  that  of  a 
simple  leave  of  absence.  (3)  Having  learned  of  a 
letter  from  Cardinal  Serafino  Vannutelli  (17  May,  1904) 
inviting  Monsignor  Geay,  Bishop  of  Laval,  in  the 
name  of  the  Holy  Office,  to  resign  his  see,  and  of  a 
letter  in  which  Monsignor  Lorenzelli,  the  papal  nun- 
cio, re€}uested  Monsignor  Le  Nordez,  Bishop  of  Dijon, 
to  desist  from  holding  ordinations  until  further  oraers, 
the  French  Government  caused  its  charge  d'affaires  at 
Rome,  M.  Robert  de  Courcel,  to  inquire  into  the 
matter.  When,  on  9  July,  1904,  Cardinal  Merry  del 
Val  cited  Mgr  Le  Nordez  to  appear  at  Rome  within 
fifteen  days,  under  pain  of  suspension,  M.  Robert  de 
Courcel  announced  to  the  cardinal  that,  unless  this 
letter  to  Mgr  Le  Nordez  was  withdrawn,  diplomatic 
relations  between  France  and  the  Holy  See  would 
cease;  and,  on  30  July,  1904,  a  note  handed  bv  M. 
Robert  de  Courcel  to  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val  an- 
nounced that  France  had  decided  to  put  an  end  to 
these  relations. 

In  this  way  the  breach  was  effected  without  any 
formal  denunciation  of  the  Concordat.  On  10  Febru- 
ary, 1905,  the  Chamber  declared  that  "  the  attitude  of 
ihe  Vatican"  had  rendered  the  separation  of  Church 
and  State  inevitable.  Hie  ''Osservatore  Romano" 
replied  that  this  was  an  ''historical  lie".  The  discus- 
sions in  the  Chamber  lasted  from  21  March  to  3  July, 
and  in  the  Senate  from  9  November  to  6  December, 
and  on  11  December,  1905,  the  Separation  Law  was 
gazetted  in  the  "Journal  0£ciel". 

Laws  Affectina  (he  Congregations, — The  Monarchy 
had  taken  fiscal  measures  against  property  held  in 
mortmain  ("the  dead  hand"),  but  the  first  rigorous 
enactments  against  religious  congregations  date  from 
the  Revolution.  The  Law  of  13  February,  1790,  de- 
clared that  monastic  vows  were  no  longer  recognized, 
and  that  the  orders  and  congregations  in  whicn  such 
vows  were  made  were  forever  suppressed.  The  Con- 
cordat itself  was  silent  as  to  congr^tions;  but  the 
eleventh  of  the  Organic  Articles  implicitly  prohibited 
them,  declaring  that  all  ecclesiastical  estoblishmenta 
except  chapters  and  seminaries  were  suppressed. 
Two  years  Later,  a  decree,  dated  3  Messidor,  Year  XII, 
suppressing  certain  ooneregations  which  had  come 
into  existence  in  spite  of  the  law,  added  a  provision 
that  the  civil  authority  could,  by  decree,  formally 
authorize  such  associations  after  having  taken  cog- 
nizance of  their  statutes.  The  Lazarists,  the  Missions 
Etran^res,  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the 
Sulpicians  were,  in  virtue  of  this  law,  authorized  by 
decree  in  1804 ;  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools, 
in  1808.  Under  the  Restoration,  the  Chamber  of 
Peers  refused  the  king  the  right  of  creating  congrega- 
tions by  royal  warrant  (par  ordonnance)^  asserting  that 
for  each  particular  re-establishment  of  a  congregation 
a  law  was  necessary. 

Such  was  the  principle  which  ruled  until  the  year 
1901;  but  the  applications  of  that  principle  varied 
with  the  changes  of  government.  Under  tne  Second 
Empire  it  was  admitted  in  practice  that  a  simple  ad- 
ministrative authorisation  was  sufficient  to  legalize  a 


P&ANOB 


180 


FRANCE 


eongregation  of  women,  provided  that  such  congrega- 
tion adopted  the  statutes  of  a  congregation  previously 
authorized.  Under  the  Third  Republic,  it  was  on  the 
pretext  of  a  strict  enforcement  of  tne  law  that,  in  1880, 
the  Society  of  Jesus  was  dissolved,  and  the  other 
oongjregations  were  ordered  to  apply  for  authorization 
within  three  months.  The  protests  of  Catholics,  and 
the  criticisms  which  became  general  on  the  archaic 
character  of  the  laws  upon  which  these  decrees  were 
based,  had  this  much  effect,  that,  after  a  brutal  appli- 
cation of  the  decrees  to  most  of  the  congregations  of 
men,  the  Government  dared  not  apply  them  to  the 
unauthorized  congregations  of  women:  they  gradually 
became  a  dead  letter,  and  little  by  little  the  congrega- 
tions of  men  were  re-formed  in  the  name  of  individual 
liberty.  But  in  this  condition  of  affairs  onl^y  the 
f ormidly  authorized  congregations  could  be  considered 
as  "moral  persons''  before  the  law.  Since  1849  the 
religious  congregations  had  been  paying  into  the 
treasury  a  '^  mortmain  tax"  (taxe  dea  biens  de  main- 
morie)  in  lieu  of  the  succession  duties  which  the 
property  of  "  moral  persons ' '  escapes.  On  the  twofold 
consideration,  that  this  tax  did  not  touch  personal 
estate  and  that  i>roperty  held  in  unacknowledged 
mortmain  evaded  it,  the  Third  Republic  passed  the 
following  enactments:  (1)  A  law  of  increment  {droit 
d'acer<ns9efnerU)t  so  called  because  it  was  intended  to 
reach  that  increase  in  the  individual  interest  of  each 
surviving  member  of  a  congregation  in  the  common 
estate  which  should  accrue  upon  the  decease  of  a 
fellow-member.  This  duty  is  represented  bv  a  com- 
position tax  (taxe  d'abonnemerU)  assessed  at  tne  rate  of 
■3  per  cent  on  the  market  value  of  the  real  and  per- 
sonal estate  held  by  the  association.  On  real  estate 
held  by  associations  not  subject  to  the  mortmain  law, 
the  rate  is  '4  per  cent.  (2)  A  tax  of  4  per  cent  on  the 
revenue  of  propoty  owned  or  occupied  by  congrega- 
tions, this  revenue  being  assumed  equal  to  one-twenti- 
eth of  the  gross  value  of  the  propertv. 

On  1  January,  1901,  France  numbered  19,424  es- 
ti^lishments  of  religious  congregations,  with  159,628 
members.  Of  these  establishments  3126  belonged 
to  congr^Ltions  of  men;  16,298  to  congregations  of 
women  (2870  of  the  latter  being  regularly  authorized, 
'  and  13,428  unrecognized).  The  members  of  the  male 
congregations  numbered  30,136,  of  whom  23,327  be- 
lon^d  to  teaching  institutes,  552  served  in  hospitals, 
and  7277  followed  the  contemplative  vocation.  The 
value  of  real  property  taxed  as  being  held  by  congre- 
gations amounted  to  463,715,146  francs  (about  ^2,- 
000,000,  or  between  £18,000,000  and  £19,000,000), 
and  in  this  estimate  was  included  all  the  property 
devoted  by  the  religious  to  benevolent  and  educational 
purposes.  But  the  Department  of  Domains,  in  draw- 
ing up  its  statistical  report  (which  statistics  were  with 
justice  questioned),  explained  that,  in  addition  to  the 
real  property  taxed  as  belonging  to  congregations, 
account  should  be  taken  of  the  real  property  occupied 
by  them  through  the  complaisance  of  lay  corporations 
or  proprietors  whom  the  State  declared  to  be  mere 
intermediaries  (peraonnea  intenMS^ea),  and  the  depart- 
ment placed  the  combined  value  of  these  two  classes 
of  reid  property  at  1,071,775,260  francs.  To  this 
unfair  estimate  may  be  traced  the  popular  notion — 
which  was  cleverly  exploited  by  certain  political 
parties — about  le  miUiarct  des  conarigatians, 

Tlie  Law  of  Associations,  of  1  July,  1901,  provided 
that  no  congregation,  whether  of  men  or  of  women, 
could  be  formed  without  a  legislative  authorizing  act, 
which  act  should  determine  the  functions  of  such 
congregation.  Thus  ended  the  regime  of  tolerance  to 
conmefttions  of  women  which  had  been  inaugurated 
by  tne  £)mpire.  Congregations  previously  authorized 
and  those  which  should  subsequently  obtain  authori- 
zation had,  according  to  this  law,  the  status  of  "  moral 
persons";  but  this  status  held  them  to  an  obligation 
and  kept  them  perpetually  under  a  threat.    On  the 


one  hand,  it  was  enacted  that  they  must  each  3rear 
draw  up  a  list  of  their  members,  an  mventory  of  their 
possessions,  and  a  statement  of  their  receipts  and  ex- 
penses, and  must  present  these  documents  to  the 
Erefectoral  authority  upon  demand.  On  the  other 
and,  it  was  provided  that,  to  deprive  any  congrega- 
tion of  its  authorization,  nothing  more  was  re()uired 
than  an  ordinary  decree  of  the  Council  of  Ministers. 
And  lastly,  these  authorized  congregations  could 
found  "new  establishments"  only  in  virtue  of  a  decree 
of  the  Council  of  State,  and  the  Council  of  State,  in 
interpreting  the  law,  considers  that  there  is  a  "new 
establishment"  when  laymen  in  co-operation  with  one 
or  more  members  of  a  congregation  set  up  a  school  or  a 
hospital.  If  the  master  of  an  industrial  enterprise 
rewards  a  sister  for  teaching  or  caring  for  the  children 
of  his  workmen,  the  law  considers  that  there  is  a  new 
establishment,  for  which  an  authorization  of  the 
Council  of  State  is  necessary.  As  for  the  unauthorized 
congregations^  the  Law  of  1901  declared  them  dis- 
solved, allowmg  them  three  months  to  apply  for 
authorization.  Congregations  which  shoula  re-form 
after  dissolution,  or  which  should  in  the  future  be 
formed  without  authorization,  were,  by  the  same  law, 
made  liable  to  pains  and  penalties  (fines  of  from  16  to 
5000  francs;  terms  of  imprisonment  of  from  6  days  to 
one  year);  double  penalties  were  to  be  inflicted  on 
founders  and  administrators,  and  the  act  of  providine 
premises  for,  and  thus  abetting,  the  operations  of  such 
congregations  was,  in  1902,  declared  an  offense  entail- 
ing the  same  penalties.  Moreover,  the  law  made 
every  member  of  an  unauthorized  religious  congrega- 
tion incapable  of  directing  any  teaching  establishment, 
or  of  teaching  in  one,  under  pain  of  nne  or  imprison- 
ment, and  this  offence  might  entail  the  closing  of  the 
establishment.  The  Government  found  itself  face  to 
face  with  17,000  unauthorized  congregations;  it  de- 
cided to  dissolve  all  of  them  without  exception — 
educational  establishments,  industrial  establishments, 
contemplative  establishments — though  charitable  es- 
tablishments were  tolerated  provisionally. 

From  another  point  of  view  the  law  was  singularly 
arbitrary  and  juridically  defective:  it  struck  at  every 
member  of  a  relieious  con^eation  who  was  not  secu- 
larized, but  it  did  not  precisely  state  what  constitutes 
secularization.  Is  it  sufficient,  for  secularization  to  be 
effective  and  sincere,  that  the  religious — or,  to  employ 
the  current  French  term,  the  congr4ganiste--Bho}ild  be 
absolved  from  his  vows  and  should  re-enter  the  diocese 
from  which  he  originally  came?  The  prevalent  leeal 
opinion  does  not  admit  this;  it  admits  the  right  of  the 
courts  to  ascertain  whether  other  elements  of  fact  do 
not  result  in  a  virtual  persistence  of  the  congregation. 
Thus  the  courts  may  regard  as  religious  persons  who, 
in  the  eyes  of  the  Church,  are  no  longer  such;  and  the 
fact  of  being  a  congriganiaU,  which  fact  constitutes  an 
offence,  is  not  a  precise,  material  f  act^  defined  aqd  lim- 
ited by  the  letter  of  the  enactment;  it  is  a  point  upon 
which  the  interpretation  of  the  courts  remains  the 
sovereign  authority. 

The  principles  ot  liquidation  were  as  follows:  Prop- 
erty belonging  to  congriganistes  before  their  entrance 
into  the  congregation,  or  acquired  since  that  time, 
whether  by  succession  independent  of  testamentary 

E revision  (ab  intestat)  or  by  legacv  in  direct  line,  was  to 
e  restored  to  them.  Gifts  and  beouests  made  other- 
wise than  in  the  direct  line  could  not  be  legally 
claimed  bv  such  former  congriganistes  unless  they 
established  the  point  that  they  had  not  been  inter- 
mediaries (peraonnee  interpoaiea).  Benefactions  to 
congregations  could  be  reclaimed  by  the  benefactors 
or  their  heirs  within  a  term  of  six  months.  After  these 
deductions  made  by  the  congriganiatea  and  their  bene- 
factors, the  residue  of  the  estate  of  the  congregation 
was  to  i3e  subject  to  the  disposition  of  the  courts.  The 
law  refused  to  recoenize  that  property  created  by  the 
labour  or  thrift  of  the  congriganistes  neoeaaarily  ought 


r&urox  11 

to  be  distributed  amon^  them,  and  it  was  held  suffi- 
cient that,  b^  an  adiniiUBtr&tive  ruling  of  16  August, 
1901,  provision  was  made  for  allowances  to  Tormer 
con^iganiBtea  who  had  no  means  of  subsistence  or  who 
should  establish  the  fact  of  having  by  their  labour  con- 
tributed to  the  scquiaition  of  the  property  under 
liqwdation. 

The  judicial  liquidation  of  the  coDgregatioaal  ee- 
tatee  liad  some  serious  consequencea.    The  Chamber 
Boon  perceived  that  too  often  the  liquidators  inten- 
tionally complicated  the  business  with  which  they 
were  chained  (it  being  to  their  interest  to  multiply 
lawsuits  the  expenaes  of  which  could  not  in  any  case 
fall  upon  them)  and  that  the  personal  profits  derived 
by  the  liquidatora  from  these  operations  were  exorbi- 
tant.   In  confiding  so  delicate  a  business  to  irresponsi- 
ble functionaries,  the  framer  of  the  Law  of  1!H)1  had 
committed  a  grave  error  < 
of  judgment.    On  31  De- 
cember, 1907,  the  Senate 
resolved  to   nominate  a 
commission  of  inquiry  to 
examine  the  accounte  of 
'  the   liquidators,  and   the 
report  of  this  commission, 
published  early  in  Sep- 
tember,    1908,    revealed 
enormous     irregularities. 
It   was  to  satisfy  these 
belated   misgjvint^,  that 
the  Government,  m  Feb- 
ruary, 1908,  introduced  a 
bill   substituting  for  the 
irresponsible  judicial  Uq- 
uidation    an   administra- 
tive liouidation  under  the 
control    of   the    prefects. 
But  this  provision  is  to 
apply  only  to  the  congre- 

futions  which  shall  be 
issolved  hereafter;  what 
has  happened  in  the  past 
seven  years  is  irrepara- 
ble, and  when  Catholic 
publicists  speak  of  "the 
evapomtion  of  the  famous 
milhard  of  the  congrega- 
tions" the  champions  of 
the  Law  of  1901  are  pain- 
fuUv  embarrassed. 

Tke  Laicixation  of  Pri- 
mart/  Instruetion. — (a)  As  Cbobch  or  Notkb 

to  the  Matter  of  Instruc-  XVII  < 

tion.— The    Law    of    28 

March,  1882,  which  made  primary  instruction  obliga* 
t^y,  gratuitous,  and  secular  (latjue),. intentionally 
omitted  relidoua  instruction  from  the  curriculum  of 
the  public  a^ool,  and  provided  one  free  day  every 
week,  besides  Sunday,  to  allow  the  children,  if  their 

ents  saw  fit,  to  receive  religious  instruction;  but 
instruction  was  to  be  given  outside  of  the  school 
buildings.  Thus  the  priest  no  longer  had  any  right  to 
enter  the  school,  even  outside  of  class  hours,  to  hold 
catechism.  Theachoolreeulationsof  18 January,  1887, 
laid  it  down  that  the  children  could  be  sent  to  church 
for  catechism  cv  reUgiouB  exercises  only  outside  of  class 
hours,  and  that  teactiers  were  not  bound  either  to  take 
them  to  church  or  to  watch  over  their  behaviour  while 
there.  It  was  added  that  during  the  week  preceding 
the  First  Communion  teachers  were  to  allow  pupils  to 
leave  the  school  when  their  religious  duties  called  them 
to  the  church.  The  spirit  of  toe  Law  of  1S82  implied 
that  relioous  emblems  should  be  excluded  from  the 
schools,  but,  out  ctf  reeard  for  the  religious  feelings  of  the 
people  in  those  neighbourhoods,  the  prefects  allowed 
the  crucifixes  to  remain  in  a  certain  number  of  schools; 
they  took  care,  however,  that  no  reUgious  emblem 


should  be  placed  in  an^  of  the  newly  erected  school 
buildingB.  This  temporizing  policy  was  continued  by 
the  ministerial  order  of  9  April,  1903,  but  in  1906  and 
1907  the  administration  at  last  called  for  the  definitive 
disappearance  of  the  crucifix  from  all  public  schools. 
The  Law  of  1832  is  silent  as  to  the  teaching,  in  the 

Sublic  schools,  of  the  pupils'  duty  towards  God.   The 
enaie,  afteraspeechoy  Jules  Ferry,  refused  to  entei^ 
tain  the  proposal  of  Jules  Simon,  that  these  duties 
should  be  mentioned  in  the  law;  but  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation (Conaeii  iSupirieur  d«  i7na(nuduwi  PuWt^),  act- 
ing on  a  recommendation  of  Paul  Janet,  the  Spiritualist 
philosopher,  inserted  in  theexecutive  instructions,  with 
which  it  supplemented  the  text  of  the  law,  a  recom- 
mendation that  the  teacher  should  admonish  pupils 
not  to  use  the  name  of  God  lightly,  to  respect  the 
idea  of  God,  and  to  olx^  the  laws  of  God  as  revealed 
by  conscience  and  reason. 
However,    in    the  public 
schools  aependent  on  the 
municipality  of  Paris,  the 
antispiritualist    tendency 
became  so  violent  that, 
after  1882,  the  new  edi- 
tions   of    certain    school 
books    expunged,     even 
where  they  occurred    in 
selected  specimens  of  lit- 
erature, the  words  God, 
pTouidenet,  Creator.  These 
early  manifestations  led 
Catholics  to  declare  that 
the  laic  and  neutral  school 
was  in  reality  a  Godless 
school.     In   the  contro- 
versy which  arose,  some 
quotations  from  the  pub- 
lic school  l«xtbookB  be- 
came   famous.     For    in- 
stance, Ija  Fontaine  'b  lines 
Petit  poissoa  deviendra 

Pourvu   ^ue    Dieu  lui 

prfite  vie 
were  made  to  read,  "que 
Von  lui  pr£te  vie".  Ajid 
while  ifoliticians  were . 
deprecating  the  assertion 
that  the  schools  wereGod- 
less,  the  Masonic  conven- 
ticles and  the  professional 
Oua,  Ckict^HoM.  articles  written  by  certain 

«Qtury  state  pedagi^ues  were  ex- 

plajnmg  that  the  notion 
of  God  must  eventuallT  disappear  m  the  school.  In 
practice,  the  chapt«r  ol  duties  towards  God  was  one 
which  very  few  teachers  touched  upon.  In  1894,  M. 
Devinat,  afterwards  director  of  the  normal  school  of 
the  department  of  the  Seine,  wrote:  "To  teach  God, 
it  is  necessary  to  believe  in  God.  Now,  how  are  we  to 
find  in  these  days  teachers  whose  souk  are  sincerely 
and  profoundly  religious?  It  may  be  affirmed  with- 
out any  exaggeration  that  since  1882,  the  lay  public 
school  has  been  very  nearly  the  Godless  school." 

This  [rank  and  unimpeachable  testimony,  justify- 
ing, as  it  does,  all  the  sad  predictions  of  the  Catholics, 
h^  been  corroborated  by  the  experience  of  the  last 
fifteen  years.  With  the  ciy,  Laicuer  la  latqut,  a  cer- 
tain number  of  teachers  have  carried  on  on  active 
campaign  for  the  formal  elimination  of  the  idea  of 
God,  as  a  remnant  of  "Clericalism",  from  the  school 
pro^mme.  The  poweriul  organization  known  as  the 
''Ligue  de  I'Enseignement",  whooe  Masonic  affinities 
are  indisputable,  has  supported  this  movement.  For 
the  exponents  of  the  tendency,  to  be  Unique  one  must 
be  the  enemy  of  all  rational  metaphysics — to  be  laigue 
one  must  be  tta  atheist 


F&ANOS  182  F&ANOB 

The  very  idea  of  neutrality  in  education,  to  which  Brothers,  having  re-established  a  mother-houae  at 
anti-religious  teachers  have  not  alwa3rs  consistently  ad-  Lyons,  were  solicited  to  furnish  teachers  in  thirty-six 
hered,  is  nowadays  altogether  out  of  favour  with  many  towns.  The  Government  of  the  First  Empire  author- 
members  of  the  pedagogical  profession.  In  1904  the  ized  in  ten  years  880  communities  or  establishments  of 
teachers  of  the  department  of  the  Seine  advocated,  teaching  sisters;  the  Restoration,  less  generous,  au- 
almost  unanimously,  in  place  of  "  denominational  neu-  thorized  only  599 ;  the  Monarchy  of  Jiuy,  only  389. 


trality"  (n«u^aZi{^can/emoneQ6),  which  they  said  was    Until  1833  these  congregations  could  exercise  their 
a  lie  (tin  mensonge),  tne  establishment  of  a  "critical 
teaching''  (enseignemerU  critique),  which,  in  the  name 


f unctioxis  only  in  schools  controlled  b^  the  State,  for 

„,  ^,,  ,  the  Universitv  would  allow  no  infrmpement  of  its 

of  science,  should  abandon  all  reserves  in  regard  to    monopoly.  The  magnificent  tribute  to  the  educational 


denominational  susceptibilities.  But  that  neutratity  activity  of  the  clergy  which  Guizot  uttered  during  the 
was  something  very  closely  resembling  a  lie,  is  just  debates  on  the  Law  ai  1833  was  endorsed  by  the  law 
what  Catholic  orators  were  saying  in  1882:  and  thus  itself,  which,  partially  suppressing  the  monopoly  of 
the  evolution  of  the  primary  school,  and  tnese  fits  of  the  University,  established  the  prmciple  of  free  pri- 
candour  in  which  the  very  ^th  of  the  matter  is  con-  mary  teachiiig.  The  Law  of  25  March, '  1850,  held 
fessed,  justify,  after  a  quarter  of  a  century,  the  fears  "letters  of  obedience",  g^ven  by  religious  associations 
expressed  by  Catholics  at  the  very  outset.  It  is  to  be  to  their  members,  to  be  equivalent  to  the  diplomas 
feared,  moreover,  that  this  substitution  of  critical  for  ^ven  by  the  State,  which  legally  qualified  their  re- 
neutral  teaching  will  very  soon  issue  in  the  introduc-  cipients  to  be  teachers.  Between  1852  and  1860  the 
tion,  even  in  the  primary  schools,  of  lessons  on  the  Ejnpire  issued  884  decrees  recognizing  conspegations 
history  of  religions  which  shall  serve  as  weapons  or  local  establishments  of  teachmg  sisters;  from  1861 
against  Christian  revelation;  such  a  step  is  already  to  1869-^the  period  of  change  which  followed  the 
being  advocated  b^  the  Freemasons  ana  by  certain  Italian  War — while  Duruy  was  Minister  of  Public  In- 
groups  of  unbelieving  savants,  and  herein  lies  one  of  stniction,  only  77  of  these  decrees  were  issued, 
the  gravest  perils  of  to-morrow.  Bilk  introduced  by  The  Law  of  28  March,  1882,  deprived  the  "  letters  of 
MM.  Briand  and  Doumergue  impose  heavy  penalties  obedience"  of  all  their  value,  by  providing  that  every 
on  fathers  whose  children  refuse  to  make  use  of  the  teacher  must  hold  a  diploma  (brevet)  from  one  of  the 
irreligious  books  eiven  them  by  their  teachers,  and  government  jurys,  or  examining  boards.  The  con^^ 
render  it  impossible  for  parents  to  prosecute  teachers  ganiiUes  (see  above)  submitteid  to  this  formality, 
whose  immoral  and  irreligious  instruction  may  give  With  this  exception,  the  Law  upheld  the  liberty  of 
them  reason  for  complaint.  These  bills,  which  are  private  teaching.  Tne  Law  of  1886  authorized  may- 
soon  to  be  discussed,  are  now  (June,  1909)  producing  ors  and  school  inspectors  (inspectetars  d^acaeUmie)  to 
a verypainful impression.  oppose  the  opening  of  any  private  school  on  hy- 
(b)  Laicization  of  the  Teaching  Staff. — ^The  Law  of  gienic  or  moral  grounds;  in  such  cases  the  litigation 
30  October,  1886,  drawn  and  advocated  by  Ren4  was  taken  before  one  of  the  university  councils  (con- 
Goblet,  called  for  the  laicization  of  the  teaching  staff  seiU  untversitaires),  in  which  the  private  educational 
in  the  public  schools.  In  the  schools  for  boys  this  establishments  were  represented  by  elected  delegates, 
laicization  has  been  an  accomplished  fact  since  1891,  and  the  council  ^ve  a  decision.  These  coimcils  could 
since  which  date  no  Brother  of  the  Christian  Schools  also  take  disciplinary  action  against  private  teachers, 
has  acted  either  as  principal  or  as  teacher  in  public  in  the  form  of  censure  or  suspension  of  teaching  licence, 
primary  instruction.  The  difficulty  of  forming  a  body  The  masters  and  mistresses  of  private  schools  might 
of  female  lay  teachers  impeded  the  process  of  laicizing  give  reli^ous  instruction  in  their  schools,  and  were 
the  public  schools  for  girls;  but  tnis,  too,  has  been  left  free  m  the  choice  of  methods,  programmes,  and 
complete  since  1906,  except  in  some  few  commimes,  books,  but  the  state  authority,  after  consultation  with 
where  it  is  to  be  effected  before  the  year  1913.  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction  (dmseil  Sup^rieur  de 
Denominational  Primary  Instruction. — From  the  V Instruction  PtMioue),  might  prohibit  the  mtroduc- 
eleventh  century  onwards,  history  shows  unmistak-  tionanduseof  books  judg^  contrary  to  morality,  the 
able  traces,  in  most  provinces  of  France,  of  small  Constitution,  or  the  law.  An  order  of  the  Council  of 
schools  foimded  by  the  Church,  such  as  were  recom-  State,  dated  29  July,  1888,  declared  that  neither 
mended  b^  Charlemagne's  capitulary  in  the  year  789.  departments  nor  communes  had  a  legal  right  to  grant 
Tlie  ever-mcreasing  number  of  schools,  writes  Guibert  appropriations,  on  their  respective  local  budgets,  to 
de  Nogent  in  the  twelfth  century,  makes  access  to  private  schools;  thus  the  establishment  and  support  of 
them  easy  for  the  humblest.  The  seventeenth  oen-  these  schools  has  fallen  on  Catholic  charity  exclusively, 
tury  sawuie  foundation  of  a  certain  numberof  teaching  The  communes  can  only  give  assistance  to  poor  pupils 
institutes:  the  Ursulines,  who  between  the  year  1602  in  private  schools  as  individuals, 
and  the  Revolution,  founded  289  houses,  and  who  A  first,  very  serious,  attack  on  the  principle  of  free- 
numbered  9000  members  in  1792;  the  Dau^ters  of  dom  of  teachmg  was  made  by  the  Law  of  7  July,  1904, 
Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  founded  m  1630,  which  formally  declared  that  "teaching  of  every  grade 
recognized  in  1657;  the  Congregation  of  Notre-Dame,  and  every  kind  is  forbidden  in  France  to  the  congre- 
founded  by  St.  Peter  Fourier,  recognized  in  1622;  the  g^tions".  The  members  of  the  authorized  congre^ 
Brothers  of  the  CSiristian  Schools,  called,  in  the  eish-  tions,  equally  with  the  rest,  fell  under  the  disability 
teenth  century.  Brothers  of  Saint- Yon,  founded  oy  thus  created.  Every  Brother,  every  religious  woman, 
St.  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle,  and  who  had  123  classes  who  wished  to  continue  the  work  of  teaching  was 
in  1719,  when  their  founder  died,  and  550  classes  in  forthwith  compelled  to  be  secularized,  and  the  courts 
1789.  In  the  last  twentv  years  a  large  number  of  remained,  and  still  remain,  competent  to  contest  the 
monographs  which  have  been  given  restricted  publi-  l^al  value  of  such  secularizaiions.  A  clause,  the  effect 
cation  in  the  provinces,  have  presented  historical  otwhich  was  transitory,  was  introduced  empowering 
evidence  of  the  care  which  the  Church  was  devoting  to  the  Government,  according  to  the  needs  of  particular 
primary  education  diiring  the  period  immediately  pre-  localities,  to  autnorize  for  one  or  more  years  the  con- 
ceding the  Revolution.^  At  the  beginning  of  the  tinuance  of  con^riganiste  schools;  but  M.  Combes  im- 
Consmate,  Fourcroy,  anti-religious  as  he  was,  alarmed,  mediately  closed  14,404  out  of  16,904  such  schools, 
to  use  his  own  words,  at  the  "  almost  total  ineffective-  and  it  is  decreed  that  in  1910  the  last  of  the  congriga- 
ness  of  the  primary  schools*'  (nuUiU  presque  iotale),  niste  schools  shall  have  disappeared, 
recommended  it  as  a  useful  expedient,  to  confide  a  From  time  to  time  the  Ministry  publishes  lists  of 
portion  of  the  primary  teachingto  the  clergy  and  to  congriganiste  schools  which  must  be  closed  definitively 
.revive  "the  Institute  of  the  Brothers,  i^mich  had  by  the  end  of  the  school  year,  and  thus  the  Govern- 
formerly  been  of  the  greatest  service".    In  1805  the  ment  in  power  Is  the  sole  arbiter  to  accord  or  to  refuse 


FBANOE                               183  F&AKOS 

them  a  few  last  yean  of  existence.    The  bishops  are  assume  the  ecclesiastical  habit  after  two  years  of 

seeking  to  maintain  primax^  Catholic  education  or  to  studies,  and  that  the  teachers  should  be  directly  de- 

leorganize  it  with  eeculanzed  or  lay  teachers.    In  pendent  on  the  bishops.    The  circular  of  4  July,  1816, 

some  dioceses  a  movement  is  on  foot  for  the  aoquisi-  lorbade  the  ^its  siminatrea  to  receive  extems,  and 

tion  of  teaching  diplomas  by  the  seminarists.  Already  this  prohibition  was  confirmed  by  the  ordinance  of 

in  twenty-four  dioceses  there  are  diocesan  organi2a-  June,  1828,  which  limited  the  number  of  their  pupils  to 

tions  for  free  teaching— diocesan  committees,  com-  20,(X)0.     In  this  wav  the  Government  wisned  the 

posed  of  ecclesiastics  and  laymen,  which  maintain  a  petUa  a&minaire8  to  be  reserved  exclusiveW  for  the 

strict  control  of  all  the  private  schools  of  their  dioceses,  education  of  future  priests,  and  to  be  kept  trom  com- 

These  measures  have  been  imperatively  demanded  in  peting  with  the  University  in  any  sense  whatever,  and 

order  to  repair  the  losses  suffered  by  free  primaiv  upon  these  conditions  it  exempt^  them  from  taxation 

education,  the  number  of  pupils  having  fallen,  accord.-  and  from  the  control  of  the  University,  and  granted 

ing  to  statistics  compiled  in  1907  by  M.  Keller,  from  them  the  rights  of  legal  personality.    The  Ordinance 

1,600,000  to  1,000,0(X).  of  1828  was  never  formally  abrogated,  but  in  practice, 

Denaminational  Secondary  EducaJtUm. — Statistics  since  1850,  a  certain  number  of  pef^  s^tnatres,  re- 
published by  the  Education  Conmiission  {Commission  taining  certain  privileges  and  immimities  in  considera- 
d'EmeigneTMrd)  show  that,  out  of  a  total  of  162,110  tion  of  their  special  mission,  have  received  pupils  in 
pupils  m  the  secondary  schools  for  the  year  1898,  preparation  not  only  for  the  priesthood,  but  also  for  a 
50,793  belonged  to  the  Iyc6e8t  33,949  to  the  colleges,  great  variety  of  careers. 

9725  to  private  establishmenl^s  taught  by  laymen,  and  ^  Lc^lative  projects,  the  passage  of  which  is  now 
67,643  to  private  establishments  taught  by  ecclesiaa-  imminent,  will  be  a  source  of  at  least  temporary  em- 
tics.  To  these  figures  must  be  added  23,497  boys  in  barrassment  to  the  peUi8  Biminairea^  a  certain  number 
the  petUs  siminaires.  Thus,  in  the  aggregate,  the  of  which — those,  namely,  which  were  diocesan  insti- 
State  was  giving  primaiy  education  to  84,742  pupils;  tutions — ^have  disappeared  in  consequence  of  tiie  Law 
the  Church  to  91,140.  of  Separation.    Statistics  show  that  in  1906  Catholic 

The  f imdamental  law  on  secondary  education  is  still  secondary  education  poss^sed  104  fewer  colleges  and 

the  Failoux  Law  of  15  March,  1850.  ^  Any  Frenchman  22,223  fewer  pupils  than  in  1898,  and  tiiat  the  num- 

over  twenty>five  years  of  age,  having  me  degree  of  ber  of  pupils  in  the  petiU  aiminaires  had  in  eight 

Bachelor  or  a  special  diploma  of  qualification  {brevet  years  decreased  by  8711. 

de  caj>acUf)f  may,  after  passing  a  term  of  five  years  in  a  Denominational  Higher  Education. — ^Untfl  1882  the 

teaching  establishment,  open  a  house  of  secondaij  State  supported  five  faculties  of  theology:  at  Paris, 

education,  subject  to  objections  on  moral  or  hyeienic  Bordeaux,  Aix,  Rouen,  and  Lyons.    These  faculties 

grounds,  of  which  groimds  the  university  councils  are  had  no  regular  pupils,  but  omy  attendants  at  the 

the  judges.     In  contrast  with  the  case  of  private  pri-  lectures  deliverea  by  their  professors;  the  Church  at- 

roary  education.  Catholic  establishments  of  seconoary  tached  no  canonical  value  to  their  degrees;  the  State 

education  may  be  subsidized  by  the  communes  or  the  did  not  make  those  degrees  a  condition  for  any  eccle- 

departments.  siastical  appointment.    The  faculties  themselves  were 

A  first  serious  stroke  at  the  liberty  of  secondary  suppressed  by  the  Ferry  Ministry, 
education  was  delivered  by  the  Law  of  7  July,  1904,  Tne  Protestants  still  had  two  faculties  «f  theology 
depriving  the  congrfganistes  of  the  right  of  teaching,  maintained  by  the  State:  that  of  Paris,  for  Calvinists 
Otner  projects,  which  the  Government  has  already  and  Lutherans,  and  that  of  Montauban,  {or  Calvinists 
induced  the  Senate  to  accept,  are  now  pending,  and  exclusively.  The  Separation  Law  of  1905  left  tJiese 
these  would  exact  much  more  rigorous  conditions  as  to  two  faculties  to  be  supported  by  the  Protestants,  and 
pedagogic  qualifications  on  the  part  of  Catholic  second-  once  detached  from  the  university  organizations,  they 
ary  teachers  of  either  sex ;  the  Catholic  establishments  have  become  free  theological  schools, 
would  be  subject  to  a  compulsory  inspection,  bearing.  The  university  monopolv,  abolished  as  to  primary 
as  in  the  case  of  primary  education,  upon  the  con-  education  by  the  Law  of  1833,  and  as  to  secondary 
formity  of  the  teacning  with  the  Constitution  and  the  education  by  the  Law  of  1850,  was  also  abolished  for 
law;  the  Government  would  reserve  the  right  to  close  higher  education  by  the  Law  of  12  July,  1875^  which 
the  establishment  by  decree.  It  may  be  foreseen  that  permitted  any  Frenchman,  subject  to  certam  easy 
in  the  coUrse  of  the  year  1909  all  or  a  part  of  these  conditions,  to  create  establishments  of  independent 
proposals  will  become  law,  and  the  effect  will  be  dis-  higher  education.  In  the  period  between  1875  and 
astrous,  first,  to  Catholic  girls'  schools,  where  many  1907  the  InstitutCatholiquede  Paris  admitted  twentv- 
of  the  teachers,  whether  lay  women  or  secularized  cor^  nine  doctors  of  theology,  thirteen  of  canon  law,  eight 
grSganisUSf  will  not  immediately  be  in  possession  of  of  scholastic  philosophy,  one  himdred  and  ninety-two 
the  requisite  diplomas.  Such  schools  will  thus  be  of  law,  thirty-two  of  hterature,  ten  of  science.  The 
placed  at  a  further  disadvantage  in  competition  with  first  three  of  these  degrees  have  been  gained  by  can- 
the  lycSeSf  colleges,  and  courses  for  young  women  didates  under  teste  of  the  institute  itself;  the  others, 
or^nized  by  the  State  under  the  Law  of  21  December,  from  stete  boards  {jury a).  The  institute  is  preparing 
1880,  numbering  as  many  as  104,  with  8300  pupils,  in  to  set  up  a  medical  course  and  one  in  the  history 
1883,  and  in  1906  numbering  171,  with  32,500  pupils,  of  religion.  The  Institut  Catholique  de  Lille  has  con- 
Secondly,  for  the  Tpelita  adminairea  the  resulte  wiU  be  nectea  with  itself  a  school  of  higher  industrial  and 
still  more  disastrous.  commercial  instruction  (see  Baunard,  Louis)  ;  the 

These  institutions  have  hitherto  existed  under  a  Institut  Catholique  d'Angers,  one  of  agriculture.  The 
particular  stetute,  which  it  will  be  necessary  here  to  Institut  Catholique  de  Toulouse  has  but  one  faculty, 
consider.  ''Secondary  ecclesiastical  schools",  as  the  that  of  theology;  it  is  organizing  lectures  for  the  stu- 
petHa  aiminairea  were  then  called,  were  made  by  the  dente  of  literature  and  of  science  who  are  following 
decrees  of  9  April,  1809,  and  15  November,  1811,  de-  the  courses  of  the  stete  faculties, 
pendent  on  the  University.  There  was  to  be  only  one  Lawa  Affecting  Uye  Applicationa  and  Effecta  of  Re- 
secondary  ecclesiastical  school  in  each  department,  ligion  in  CimL  Life. — (a)  The  Sunday  Rest. — TTic 
and  ite  course  was  to  be  that  of  the  lyc6e  or  college  of  E^volution  had  abolished  all  institutions  which  for- 
the  Stete.  A  warrant  of  Louis  XVIII,  dated  5  Octo-  merly  existed  in  connexion  with  the  Sxmday  rest  and 
ber,  1814,  allowed  a  second  petit  a^inaire  in  each  had  substituted  the  cf^codi  (see  above)  for  the  Simday. 
department  subject  to  the  authorization  of  the  head  Under  the  Restoration  the  Law  of  18  November,  1814, 
(grand  maUre)  of  the  University  of  France ;  it  also  gave  forbade  all  "  exterior"  labour  on  Sunday:  a  trades- 
permission  for  these  institutions  to  be  esteblished  in  man  might  not  open  his  shop;  by  the  letter  of  the  law. 
ooimtiy  districte,  that  the  pupils  should  be  obliged  to  he  might  work  and  cause  others  to  work  in  his  closed 


FBANOB  184  FRAKOE 


work  on  Sunday.  The  evil  social  effects  ot  this  law  the  chief  advocate  of  which  was  the  Abb4  Lemiie, 
were  soon  perceived.  Subtile  discussions  arose  in  the  considerably  lessened  the  oblations  imposed  on 
Chambers:  should  the  weekly  rest,  which  the  labour  adults  with  recard  to  parental  consent,  and  the  dis- 
organizations demanded,  be  a  day  fixed  by  legislation,  crepancies  in  &is  respect  between  the  state  law  and 
or  should  it  be  Sunday?  It  was  for  some  time  feared  the  church  law  have,  in  consequence,  become  less 
that  such  a  legislative  prescription  would  look  like  serious. 

a  concession  to  denominationaUsm,  but  the  decision  Tlie  Law  of  20  September,  1792,  admitted  divorce, 
of  the  Committee  on  Labour  {conaeU  aupirwur  du  even  by  mutual  consent,  and  abolished  that  form  of 
travail)  and  of  many  labour  unions  was  explicit  in  separation  whidi,  while  terminating  cohabitation  and 
favour  of  the  Sunday.  On  10  July,  1906,  a  law  was  community  of  possessions,  maintains  the  indissolubil- 
passed  finally  establishing  Sunday  as  the  weekly  day  ity  of  the  civil  tx)nd.  Tlie  Civil  Code  of  1804,  though 
of  rest,  and  providing,  moreover,  numerous  restrio-  imposing  conditions  more  ri^rous  than  those  of  tne 
tions  and  exceptions  uie  details  of  which  were  to  be  Law  of  1792,  maintained  divorce^  and  at  the  same 
arranged  by  administrative  regulations.  An  uncon-  time  re-established  legal  separation  (separation  de 
acious  hom£^  to  the  Divine  law  rendered  by  an  unbe-  carve).  The  Law  of  8  May,  1816,  abolished  divorce 
lieving  parliamentaiy  majority,  this  enactment,  on  ana  maintained  separation.  The  Law  of  27  July, 
accoimt  of  a  certain  temporary  disturbance  which  it  1884,  re-established  divorce  on  the  grounds  of  the 
occasioned  in  the  country's  industry  and  commerce,  condemnation  of  one  P^y  to  an  afficting  and  in- 
and  in  the  supply  of  commodities,  was  the  object  of  famous  punishment,  of  violence,  cruelty,  and  gravb 
unfortunate  animadversions  on  Uie  part  of  certain  injuries,  of  adultery  on  the  part  of  either  husband 
journals  which  were  in  other  rtopects  defenders  of  or  wife;  it  did  not  admit  divorce  by  mutual  con- 
Catholic  interests.  The  hostility  manifested  by  a  sent;  it  maintained  separation  and  authorized  the 
certain  number  of  prominent  Catholics  towards  the  courts  to  transform  into  a  divorce,  upon  the  de- 
Sunday  rest,  and  tneir  co-operation  with  every  at-  mand  of  either  party  and  cause  shown,  at  the  end  of 
tempt  to  restrict  the  application  of  the  law,  produced  three  years,  a  separation  which  had  been  granted  at 
a  regrettable  effect  on  public  opinion.  the  smt  of  either.    This  law  has  recently  been  aggra- 

(b)  Oaths. — ^The  fonn  of  oatn  administered  in  courts  vated  by  two  enactments  which  permit  tne  adulterous 
of  justice  is  not  peculiar  to  aiiy  creed.  It  supposes  a  husband  to  contract  marxia^  with  his  accomplice  and, 
belief  in  God.  The  images  of  Christ  have  disappeared  instead  of  merely  permittmg  the  courts  to  convert 
from  the  court  rooms,  rroposals  are  beine  considered  separation  into  divorce  at  the  end  of  three  years,  de- 
by  the  Chambers  to  suopress  the  words  "aevant  Dieu  dare  this  conversion  to  be  of  right  upon  the  demand 
et  devant  les  hommes  (before  God  and  man)  iii  the  of  either  party.  ^  The  annual  proportion  of  divorces  to 
legal  form  of  oath,  or  to  authorize  a  demand  on  the  population  has  increased,  from  3.68  per  10,000  inhab- 
part  of  any  atheist  to  have  the  oath  administered  to  itants  in  1900,  to  5.57  per  10,000  inhabitants  in  1907. 
him  in  a  different  form.  (e)  Interments  and  Cemeteries. — The  Decree  of  23 
^  (c)  Immunities. — Since  the  law  made  military  ser-  Prainal,  Year  XII,  ordered  that  there  should  be  dis- 
vice  a  universal  obligation  in  France,  three  enact-  tinctions  of  religious  beliefs  in  re^urd  to  cemeteries, 
ments  have  followed  one  another:  that  of  27  July,  This  decree  wajs  abrogated  by  the  Law  of  14  Novem- 
1872,  dispensing  ecclesiastics  from  the  obligation;  ber,  1881,  and  since  then  a  Protestant  or  a  Jew  may  be 
that  of  15  July^  1889,  which  fixed  the  term  of  active  buried  in  that  part  of  the  cemetery  which  had  until 
service  for  ordinary  citieeDS  at  three  years,  and  for  then  been  reserved  for  Catholics.  The  Law  of  15 
priests  at  one  I  that  of  21  March,  1905,  fixing  the  term  November,  1887  on  free  interments,  forbids  any 
of  active  service  at  two  years  for  priests  as  for  others,  proceedings  whicn  may  contravene  the  wishes  of  a 
and  imposing  upon  them,  up  to  tne  age  of  forty-five,  deceased  person  who  has,  by  ''an  authentic  act",  ex- 
all  the  series  of  obligations  to  which  members  of  the  pressed  a  desire  to  be  buried  without  religious  cere- 
reserve  and  of  the  territorial  army  are  subject.  monies.    To  annul  such  an  "act",  the  same  normal 

(d)  Mania^. — Under  the  old  regime  parish  priests  conditions  are  required  as  for  the  revocation  of  a  will, 
officially  registered  births,  deaths  and  marriages  and  in  consequence  of  this  law  certain  death-bed  con- 
for  the  State.  In  1787  Louis  XVI  accorded  to  versions,  when  the  deceased  has  not  had  time  to  com- 
the  P^testants  the  same  privilege!  which,  indeed,  ply  with  the  legal  conditions  of  revocation,  have  been 
they  had  enjoyed  under  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  from  followed  by  non-religious  burial. 
1595  to  1685.  The  Revolutionary  laws  and  the  The  society  found^  in  1880  to  promote  cremation 
Code  Napolton  deprived  the  clergjr  of  this  status,  brou^t  about,  in  1886,  the  insertion  of  the  word 
Civil  marriage  was  instituted,  and  the  priest  was  incin^aUon  in  the  law  of  free  interments  and,  in  1889, 
forbidden  to  solemnize  any  marriage  not  previously  the  issue  of  an  administrative  order  defining  the  condi- 
contracted  in  the  presence  of  a  civil  functionary,  tions  in  which  cremation  might  be  practised.  Be- 
Immediately  after  the  separation  of  Church  and  State  tween  1889  and  1904  the  number  of  incinerations 
(1905),  the  question  was  raised,  whether  this  pro-  performed  in  the  cemetery  of  PSre  Lachaise  amounted 
hibition  was  still  to  be  maintained;    the  Supreme  to  3484. 

Court  of  Appeals  (Caur  de  Cafsation)  replied  m  the  The  Decrees  of  23  Prairial,  Year  XII,  and  of  18 

affirmative,  and  punished  a  priest  who  had  blessed  a  May,  1806,  assigned  to  the  public  establishments 

marriage  not  contracted  before  the  mayor.    Certain  whicn  had  been  constituted  to  administer  the  property 

courts  nave  admitted  that  if,  after  a  civil  marriage,  and  resources  devoted  to  public  worship  (fabrtques  and 

one  of  the  two  parties,  contrary  to  previous  engage-  consiatoirea)  a  monopoly  of  all  undertaking,  that  is  to 

ments,  should^  refuse  to  go  to  tne  church,  this  womd  say,  all  moneys  received  on  account  of  funeral  proces- 

oonstitute  an  injury  to  the  other  party  so  grave  as  to  sions,  burials  or  exhumations,  draperies,  ana  other 

justify  a  suit  for  divorce ;  but  this  opinion  is  not  unan-  objects  used  to  enhance  the  solemnity  of  funeral  pro- 

imous.    Catholics,  for  that  matter,  wish  to  abolish  the  cessions.     Most  of  the  fabrimieSj  in  the  important 

law  requiring  the  previous  civil  marriage.  towns,  exploited  this  monopoly  through  middlemen. 

Some  of  the  impediments  defined  by  the  Church  are  Some  3rears  ago,  attention  was  called  in  the  Chambers 

not  recognized  by  the  State,  such  as,  e.  g.,  the  impedi-  to  the  fact  tfa^t  the  profits  derived  from  non-religious 

ment   of   spiritual    relationship.    One    impediment  interments,  as  well  as  from  religious,  were  being  taken 

recoenized  by  the  civil  code  (articles  148-150),  but  by  the  fabriquea,  and  upon  tms  pretext  the  Law  of 

which  the  Council  of  Trent  refused  to  make  a  canoni-  28  December,  1904,  laicized  the  business  of  funeral- 


FRANOE 


185 


PRANOB 


management,  assigning  the  monopohr  of  it  to  the 
communes.  Only  the  furniture  uaed  for  the  exterior 
or  interior  decorations  of  religious  edifices  could 
thenceforward  be  provided  by  the  fabriques.  But  the 
Separation  Law  of  1905  supervened,  and  all  such 
decorative  furniture  became  the  property  of  the  asso- 
ciaiioJM  cuUudUs  (see  below) .  As  no  assodaiijon  cuUu- 
die  was  formed  for  the  Catholic  religion,  the  material 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  sequestrators  of  the  fabrique 
proper^. 

The  Law  of  Separation. — "  The  Law  of  Separation  of 
the  Churches  and  the  State"  (Loi  de  Separation  dee 
Eglie^  et  de  VEtat)  of  1905  proceeded  from  the  princi- 
ple that  the  State  professes  no  religious  belief.  Re- 
garded from  the  viewpoint  of  the  life  of  the  Church,  it 
completel}[  dissociated  the  State  from  the  appoint- 
ment of  bishops  and  parish  priests.  Soon  after  the 
passage  of  the  law  all  the  vacant  sees  received  titulars 
by  direct  nomination  of  Pius  X.  As  to  the  annual 
revenue  of  the  Church,  the  appropriation  for  public 
worship  (budget  des  cultes),  whicn  in  1905  amounted  to 
42,324,933  francs,  was  suppressed.  The  departments 
and  communes  were  f  orbiaden  to  vote  appropriations 
for  public  worship.  The  law  grants,  first,  life  pensions 
eouivalent  in  eacn  case  to  three-fourths  of  the  former 
salary  to  ministers  of  religion  who  were  not  less  than 
sixty  years  of  age  when  the  law  was  promulgated  and 
had  spent  thir^^  years  in  ecclesiastical  services  remun- 
erated by  the  State.  Secondly,  it  grants  life  pensions 
eouivalent  to  on&-half  the  former  salary  to  ministers  of 
religion  who  were  not  less  than  forty-five  years  of  a^ 
ana  had  passed  more  than  twenty  years  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal services  remunerated  by  the  State.  It  makes  ^nts 
for  periods  of  from  four  to  eight  years  to  ecclesiastics 
less  than  fort;i^-five  years  of  8^  who  shall  continue  to 
discharge  their  functions.  Tne  law  resulted^  in  the 
budget  of  1907,  in  the  elimination  of  the  item  of 
37,441,800  francs  ($7,488,360)  for  salaries  to  ministers 
of  religion  and  the  inclusion  of  29,563,871  francs 
($5,912,774)  for  the  pensions  and  allowances  of  the 
first  year,  making  a  savinjg  of  about  eight  millions. 
As  the  allowances  are  to  diminish  progressively  imtil 
the  suppression  is  complete,  at  the  end  of  eight  years, 
and  as  the  pensions  are  to  cease  with  the  lives  of  the 
pensioners,  the  appropriations  on  account  of  religious 
worship  will  decrease  notably  as  year  follows  year. 

With  respect  to  the  buildmes  which  the  Concordat 
had  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Church,  the  law  pro- 
vided that  the  episcopal  residences,  for  two  years,  the 
gresbyteries  ana  seminaries  (grands  ehninaires)^  for 
ve  years,  the  churches,  for  an  indefinite  period, 
should  be  left  at  the  disposal  of  the  associations  ctil- 
txuUes,  which  will  be  discussed  later  on  in  this  article. 
In  re^rd  to  church  property,  this  consisted  of  (a)  the 
mensce  episcopales  and  mensce  curiales  (see  Mens  a), 
which  were  composed  of  the  possessions  restored  to 
the  Church  after  the  Concordat,  toeether  with  the  sum 
total  of  the  donations  made  to  bishoprics  or  parishes 
in  the  course  of  the  intervening  century;  (b)  the  prop- 
erty of  the  parish  fabriques,  intended  to  meet  all  the 
expenses  of  public  worship,  and  derived  either  from 
possessions  restored  to  the  Church  after  the  Concordat 
or  from  gifts  and  legacies,  and  augmented  by  pew- 
rents,  collections,  and  funeral  fees.  The  Law  of  Sep- 
aration divided  the  property  of  the  meriscB  and  the 
fabriques  into  three  classes.  The  first  of  these  classes 
consisted  of  property  received  from  the  State,  and  this 
the  State  resumed;  as  to  the  second,  consisting  of 
property  not  received  from  the  State,  and  on  the  other 
nand  burdened  with  eleemosynary  or  educational  obli- 
gations, it  was  ruled  that  the  representatives  of  the 
Jabriques  could  give  it  to  public  establishments  or  to 
establishments  of  public  utility  of  an  eleemosynary  or 
educational  character,  subject  to  the  approbation  of 
the  prefect.  Lastly,  there  was  a  third  category  which 
comprised  property  not  derived  from  state  ^nts  and 
not  Durdened  with  any  obligations  or  only  with  obliga- 


tions connected  with  public  worship:  It  was  ruled 
that  such  property  should  pass  into  the  hands  of  the 
associations  culiumes,  and  that  if  no  such  body  ap- 
peared to  receive  it  it  should  be  assigped  by  decree  to 
communal  benevolent  institutions  within  the  territo- 
rial limits  of  the  parish  or  diocese. 

This  brings  us  to  the  subject  of  the  assoeiations 
cultueUes,  ifnder  the  Concordat  the  episcopal  mensa 
and  the  parochial  fabrique  were  pubhc  institutions. 
When  rehgious  worship  ceased  to  be  a  department  of 
the  public  service,  the  Chambers,  in  order  to  replace 
the  institutions  wnich  had  been  suppressed,  wished  to 
call  into  existence  certain  private  ''moral  persons'',  or 
associations.  Without  any  previous  understanding 
with  the  Holy  See,  the  rupture  with  which  was  already 
complete,  tbe  Chambers  decided  that  in  each  diocese 
and  each  parish  associations  for  relicjous  worship 
(associations  cuUueUes)  could  be  createa  to  receive  as 
proprietors  the  property  of  the  mensaj  with  the  respon- 
sibility of  taking  care  of  it.  The  transfer  of  the  prop- 
erty was  to  be  efiFected  by  decisions  of  the  former 
fabriques  in  favour  of  these  new  associations.  The  law 
imposed  a  certain  minimum  number  of  administra- 
tors on  each  association,  the  number  varying  from 
seven  to  twenty-five,  according  to  the  importance  of 
the  commune,  and  the  administrators  might  be  French 
or  foreign,  men  or  women,  priests  or  laymen.  The 
preparation  of  statutes  for  tne  associations  was  left 
entirely  free.  Very  lively  controversies  arose.  It  was 
suggested  that  the  apphcation  of  this  law  would  be 
followed  by  an  influx  of  lay  Catholics,  members  of  the 
associations  cuUueUes^  into  the  government  of  the 
Church.  Some  thought  this  anxiety  excessive;  for,  as 
the  law  allowed  a  number  of  adjacent  parishes  to  be 
administered  by  a  single  association  cuUueUe^  it 
seems  that  it  woidd  have  been,  strictly  speakmg, 
possible  for  one  association,  composed  of  the  bishop 
and  twenty-four  priests  chosen  by  him,  to  receive 
both  the  property  of  the  mensa  and  that  of  all  the 
parishes  of  the  diocese. 

But  other  reasons  for  anxiety  appeared  when  Arti- 
cles 4  and  8  of  the  Law  were  carefully  compared. 
Article  4  provided  that  these  associations  must,  in 
their  constitutions,  "  conform  to  the  general  rules  of 
organization  of  public  worship",  and  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  at  Riom,  in  1907,  the  court  refused  the  use  of  the 
church  to  a  schismatical  priest  who  was  supported  by 
a  schismatical  association  cuUueUe,  But  Article  8  pro- 
vided for  the  case  in  which  several  associations  cuUur' 
eUes,  each  with  its  own  priest,  should  lay  claim  to  the 
same  church,  and  gave  the  Council  of  State  the  ri^t 
to  decide  between  them.  "  taking  account  of  the  c^^ 
cumstances  of  fact".  Tnus,  white,  according  to  Arti- 
cle 4^  it  appeared  that  the  cti^ueSe  recognized  by,  and 
in  effective  communion  with,  the  hierarchy  must  natu- 
rally be  the  owner  of  the  property  of  the  fabrique. 
Article  8  left  to  the  Coimcil  of  State,  a  purely  lay 
authority,  the  settlement  of  any  dispute  which  might 
arise  between  a  ctdtuelle  faithful  to  the  bishop  and  a 
schismatical  cuUudte,  Thus  it  .belonged  to  the  Council 
of  State  to  pronounce  upon  the  orthodoxy  of  any  asso^ 
datum  cuttudle  and  its  conformity  with  "the  general 
rules  of  public  worship"  as  provided  by  Article  4. 

A  general  assembly  of  the  episcopate,  held  30  May, 
1906,  considered  the  question  of  the  associations 
cuUudies^  but  the  decisions  reached  were  not  divulged. 
Should  such  associations  be  formed  according  to  the 
Law,  or  must  they  refuse  to  form  any?  In  the  month 
of  March,  twenty-three  Catholic  writers  and  members 
of  the  Chambers  had  expressed,  in  a  confidential  letter 
to  the  bishops,  a  hope  that  the  cuUudtes  might  be 
given  a  trial.  The  puolication  of  this  letter  had  stirred 
up  a  bitter  controversy,  and  for  some  months  the  Cath- 
olics of  France  were  seriously  divided.  Pius  X,  in  the 
Encyclical  "Gravissimo  officii"  (10  August,  1906), 
gave  it  as  his  judgment  that  this  law,  made  without 
his  assent,  and  which  even  purported  to  be  made 


KtAMOX 


186 


fRAMOE 


agftiiist  him,  threatened  to  intrude  lay  authority  into 
the  natural  operation  of  the  ecclesiastical  organisa- 
tion; the  Encyclical  prohibited  the  formation  not  only 
of  aaaodaiums  cnUueUea,  but  of  any  form  of  association 
whatsoever  "so  long  as  it  should  not  be  certainly  and 
legally  evident  that  the  Divine  constitution  of  the 
Church,  the  immutable  rights  of  the  Roman  pontiff 
and  of  the  bishops,  such  as  their  authority  over  the 
necessary  property  of  the  Chim;h,  particularly  the 
sacred  edifices,  would,  in  the  said  associations,  be  urev- 
ocably  and  fully  secure  ". 

The  half-contradiction  between  Article  4  and  Arti- 
cle 8  was  not  the  only  serious  grievance  which  the 
Church  could  allege.  The  author  of  the  law  had 
flulhermore  restricted  in  a  singularly  parsimonious 
fashion  the  property  rights  of  the  future  associations 
cuUueUes.  They  were  permitted  to  establish  unlimited 
reserve  funds,  out  they  were  to  have  the  free  disposal 
of  only  a  portion  equivalent  to  six  times  the  mean 
annual  expenditure,  and  the  surplus  was  to  be  kept  in 
the  Caisse  des  D&pdts  et  Consignaiions,  and  employed 
exclusively  in  the  acquisition  or  conservation  of  real 
and  personal  property  for  the  use  of  religious  worslup. 
Moreover,  the  business  transactions  of  all  the  ciiUitdus 
were  to  be  under  state  inspection  and  control. 

Thus  the  law  on  the  one  hand  did  not  leave  to  the 
Church,  legally  represented  by  the  associations  cut- 
ttteUes,  the  rignt  of  freely  possessing  the  ecclesiastical 
patrimony,  oi  increasing  it  at  will,  of  disposing  of  it 
at  will :  and  on  the  other  hand  it  left  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  State  the  right,  in  any  case  of  oonflictine 
claims,  to  accept  or  to  reject  the  legitimate  claims  (h 
any  cultueUe  wnich  mi^t  be  in  communion  with  the 
hierarchy. 

The  interdict  laid  upon  the  associations  cuUueUes 
has  had  several  juridical  consequences.  First,  the 
third  of  the  classes  of  fabriques  property  described 
above  was  placed  under  seauestration,  to  be  assigned 
by  the  State  to  communal  benevolent  institutions,  of 
which  every  commune  possesses  at  least  one — the  free 
hospital  and  dispensary.  Secondly,  the  suppressed 
fabriques  were  under  regular  le^  obligations,  e.  g., 
Masses  to  be  said  as  consideration  for  pious  founda- 
tions. In  the  intention  of  the  author  of  the  law,  the 
obligation  of  causing  these  Masses  to  be  said  would 
have  fallen  upon  the  associations  cuUueUes;  as  these 
have  not  been  founded,  are  the  communal  institutions, 
which  enjoy  the  revenues  of  the  foundations,  bound  to 
fulfil  these  obligations?  For  two  years  the  responses, 
given  to  this  question  by  the  civil  authority  were  hesi- 
tating. The  Law  of  15  April,  1908,  laid  it  down  that 
these  institutions  shall  in  nowise  be  bound  to  cause 
the  Masses  to  be  said  in  prospective  consideration  of 
which  the  foundations  were  established ;  that  only  the 
founders  themselves  or  their  heirs  in  direct  line  shall 
have  the  right  to  claim,  within  a  period  of  six  months, 
restitution  of  the  capital  of  the  said  foundations,  but 
that  certain  clerical  benefit  EK>cieties  (the  mutuiditis 
sacerdotales,  organized  to  receive  the  funds  of  the  old 
diocesan  caisses  for  the  support  of  superannuated 
priests)  could  receive  incomes  from  these  foundations 
and,  in  return,  accept  the  obligation  of  the  Masses.  It 
appeared  to  the  Holy  See,  however,  that  the  constitu- 
tion of  these  benefit  societies  did  not  adequately  safe- 
guard the  riehts  of  the  bishops,  and  the  French  clergy 
were  thenceforward  forbidden  to  avail  themselves  of 
this  law.  As  the  right  of  recovery  on  account  of  non- 
ftdfilment  of  the  conditions  has  been  allowed  only  to 
heirs  in  the  direct  line,  the  numberless  pious  founda- 
tions established  bv  priests  or  other  celibates  are  for- 
ever lost.  And  at  the  present  writing  no  pious  founda- 
tion is  leedly  feasible  in  France,  because  there  is  in 
the  Churcn  no  personality  legally  qualified  to  receive 
such  a  bequest.  Hence  the  absolute  impossibility,  for 
any  French  Catholic,  of  securing  to  himself  in  perpe- 
tuity the  celebration  in  his  own  parish  churcn  ot  a 
Mass  for  the  repose  of  his  soul. 


Thirdly,  the  use  of  the  churches  was  to  be  assignea 
to  the  asaociations  cuUueUes.  on  condition  that  the  lat- 
ter should  keep  up  the  buildings.  Tlie  cuUueUes  not 
having  been  formed,  would  the  State  take  possession 
of  the  churches?  It  dared  not;  or,  rather,  it  did  not 
wish  to  drive  home  upon  the  popular  mind  the  effect 
of  the  separation.  After  a  bnef  period  of  transition, 
during  which  ridiculous  proc^verbaux  were  drawn  up 
ap;ainst  priests  who  said  Mass,  the  State  left  the  reli- 
g;ious  edifices  at  the  disposal  of  clergy  and  people,  offi- 
cially placing  assemblies  for  religious  worship  in  the 
same  offici^d  category  as  ordinary  public  gatherings; 
it  was  sufficient  for  the  religious  authority  to  make,  at 
the  beginning  of  each  year,  a  declaration  in  advance 
for  ail  the  gatherings  for  public  worship  to  be  held 
during  the  year.  Rome  forbade  the  Church  of  France 
to  comply  with  this  formality  of  an  annud  declaration, 
thus  once  more  endeavouring  to  make  the  State  under- 
stand that  l^islation  regulating  the  life  of  the  Catholic 
Church  couldnot  depend  on  the  mere  wHl  of  the  State, 
and  that  ecclesiastical  authority  could  not,  even  by  a 
simple  declaration,  actively  concur  in  any  such  legis- 
lation. Once  more  it  was  thouc^t  that  the  closing  of 
the  churches  was  imminent.  Then  came  two  new 
laws. 

The  Law  of  2  January,  1907,  permits  the  exercise  of 
reli^ous  worship  in  the  churches  purely  on  sufferance 
and  without  any  legal  title.  According  to  this  new 
law,  the  clergy  have  only  the  actual  use  of  the  edifices, 
the  maintenance  of  which  is  an  obligation  incumbent 
upon  the  proprietor — the  State  or  the  commune.  But 
grave  complications  are  to  be  expected.  If  the  pro- 
prietor refuses  the  needful  repairs,  the  church  may.be 
closed  for  the  sake  of  public  safety — unless,  that  is, 
the  faithful  tax  themselves  to  pa^r  for  repairs.  The 
Church,  tolerated  in  her  own  ouildines,  has  no  re- 
course against  any  mayor  who  might  order  the  bells  to 
be  tolled  for  a  non-religious  funeral.  At  one  time  it 
was  believed  that  the  priests  would  be  able  to  rent  the 
churches  on  lease,  but,  owing  to  the  demands  of 
ministerial  orders,  this  last  hope  had  to  be  aban- 
doned. At  last  assemblages  for  religious  worship 
werejuridically  classified  as  public  meetings,  and,  as 
the  Church  refused  to  make  the  anticipatory  declara- 
tion required  by  the  Law  of  1881.  on  public  meetings, 
a  law  passed  on  28  March,  1907,  abolisned  this  require- 
ment in  respect  of  all  public  meetings,  those  for  reli- 
gious worship  included. 

Such  was  the  patchwork  of  expedients  by  which  the 
Government,  embarrassed  by  its  own  Law  of  1905. 
and  still  refusing  to  negotiate  with  Rome,  contrivea 
what  looked  like  a  modus  vivendi.  The  voter  sees  that 
the  priest  is  still  in  the  church,  and  that  Mass  is  still 
said  there,  and  this  is  all  that  is  needed  bv  the  Gov- 
ernment to  convince  the  shallow  multitude  that  the 
Church  is  not  persecuted,  and  that  if  the  conditions  of 
its  existence  are  not  prosperous,  the  blame  must  be  laid 
on  the  successive  refusals  of  the  pope — ^the  refusal  tM 
permit  the  formation  of  cuUueUes^  the  refusal  to  per- 
mit compliance  with  the  law  in  the  matter  of  declaring 
assemblies  for  public  worship,  the  refusal  to  let  priests 
form  the  mutualiUs  approved  bv  the  State.  All  the 
evils  of  the  situation  are  due  to  the  fundamental  error 
committed  by  the  State  at  the  venr  outset,  when, 
wishing  to  reorganize  the  life  of  the  Church  in  France, 
it  broke  with  the  Holy  See  instead  of  openine  negptiar 
tions.  Hence  the  impossibility  of  the  Churcn  actively 
co-operating  in  the  execution  of  laws  enacted  by*  the 
civil  authority  in  a  purely  one-sided  fashion — ^laws 
which  took  the  place  of  a  concordat  never  regulariy 
annulled.     (See  Concordat  of  1801.) 

Civil  Regidation  of  Public  Worship. — On  this  point 
the  Law  of  1905  contains  two  classes  of  provisions. 

(a)  Rules  Relating  to  Religious  Ceremonies. — While, 
imder  the  Concoroat,  an  administrative  authoriza- 
tion was  necessary  for  the  opening  of  even  a  private 
chapel,  it  is  now  lawful  to  open  places  of  worsh^ 


raiMoi  187  nuMoi 

without  any  previous  autbomation.    A  ooayor  can  formed  by  the  Orthodox  at  the  Synod  of  OiiSaos  (6 

prohibit  processions  in  his  commuoe  simply  on  the  February,  1906),  and  re<]uiiiiis  as  a  condition  the  ao- 

firetext  oi  avoiding  public  disorder;  as  a  matter  of  ceptance  of  the  Declaratton  of  Faith  of  1S73;  in  this 

act,  in  most  of  the  ereat  cities  of  France  processions  bvxiy  the  regional  synods,  in  which  thedelegate«ofthe 

do  not  take  place.     Mayors  can  even  forbid  the  pros-  presDyteral  associations  meet,  and  the  national  synods 

ence  in  funeral  processions  of  priests  wearing   their  hold  spiritual  authority;  (2)  the  Union  desEglbes  R&- 

veatments,  but  very  few  mayors  have  ever  issued  such  formiSes  de  France,  forroed  by  the  eenire  droit  at  the 

an  order.     Both  the  parish  priest  and  the  mayor  have  Synod  of  Jornac  (June,  1907),  with  the  like  ^nodal 

authority  to  cause  the  bells  to  be  rung.    A  ministerial  organizations  and  with  the  hope,  hardly  justified  so 

circular  dated  27  January,  1907,  withholds  from  the  far,  of  receiving  the  adhesion  of  both  the  extreme 

mayor  the  ri^tto  have  the  bells  rung  for  "  civil  bap-  p^iee;    (3)  the  United  Reformed  Churches  (Egliaet 

tisms"  or  for  non-reli^us  marriages  or  burials,  but  Rijorm^e  tJniet),  a  very_  vague  grouping  of  independ- 

there  is  no  penal  sanction  for  the  transgression  of  this  ent  presbyteral  associations,  leaving  to  each  Church 

order.    It  is  now  forbidden  to  erect  or  to  affix  any  re-  its  autonomy,  restricting  the  fimctions  of  the  synods, 

ligiouB  sign  or  emblem  in' public  places  or  upon  pub-  and  representing,   in  place  of  do^a,   the  negative 

lie  monuments;  but  the  existing  emUems  remain  tendencies  called  "liberal".    In  this  new  threefold 
and  private  property  may  organization  one  feature, 

be  decorat«a,  even  extef-  the   consistory,  diaap- 

nally,  with  teligiouB  em-  peared. 

blems.  The   Lutheran  Church 

(b)  Repression  of  Inter-  has  but  sixty-seven  par- 

ference     with     Religious  ishes  in  France.     It  has 

Wor^ip.— The  law  pun-  grouped  its  ci^xieUe»  into 

ishes  with  a  fine  of  from  one  general  association. 

16  to  200  francs  and  im-  The  Jewish   denomiua- 

Srisoninent  of  from  six  tion  has  formed  the  Union 
ays  to  two  months  any-  des  Associations  Cultuelles 
one  who  by  violence,  Isradlites  en  France.  The 
threats,  or  any  act  which  central  consistoiy  is  com- 
may  be  construed  as  pres-  posed  of  the  grand  rabbi, 
sure  (pression)  has  at-  certain  rabbis  elected  by 
tempted  to  influence  an  the  graduates  of  the  Ral>- 
individual  to  exercise  or  binical  School  of  France 
to  abstain  from  exercising  who  are  em^rioyed  in  edu- 
any  religious  worship,  or  cational  or  reli^ous  funo- 
who,  by  disorderly  con-  tions,  and  lay  members 
duct,  interferes  with  the  electe<l  for  a  term  of  eight 
exercise  of  any  such  woi^  years  by  the  aswciatuma 
ship.  It  punishefl,  with  a  ciiltaelUs.  The  rabbis  are 
fine  of  from  SOO  to  3000  elected,  subject  to  the  ap- 
francs  or  imprisonment  for  proval  of  the  consistorT. 
from  two  months  to  one  Chaplaincies.— The  law 
year,  outrages  or  slanders  authorizes  the  State,  the 
against  functionaries,  if  departments,  and  the  com- 
oommitted  publicly  in  munes  to  pay  salaries  to 
places  of  religious  wor-  chaj>[ain8  in  public  insti- 
ship,  and  with  from  three  tutions  such  as  lucie»,_  col- 
months  to  two  years  im-  leges,  schools,  hospitals, 
prisoninent  any  pI«ache^  a^lums,  and  prisons.  In 
who  shall  incite  his  hearers  Tbb  CATsiDRAt.,  Buns  *^  Army  the  office  of 
to  resist  the  laws.  chaplain  has  not  been 
The  Law  of  Separalwn  and  the  ProUeianU  and  Jews,  abolished,  but  it  remains  unoccupied.  Since  1  Janua^, 
— The  Law  of  1905  suppressed  the  special  organic  arti-  1906,  no  ministerof  religion  has  been  a  member  of  the 
des  which  regiJated  IVotesCant  worship  and  the  De-  staff  of  any  military  hospital;  the  local  ministera  of 
cne  of  1S44  which  hod  organized  Jewish  worship,  religion  may  ent«r  these  hospitals  at  the  request  of 
recognised  since  1806,  and  provided,  since  1831,  with  sick  soldiers.  A  decree  dated  6  February,  1907, 
stat^paid  rabbis.  Before  1905  there  had  been  a  Re-  abolished  the  naval  chaplaincies,  but  certain  eccte- 
fonnedCSiurch  which  was  administered  in  each  pariah  siastics  who  formerly  filled  these  posts  will  con- 
by  a  presbyteral  council  elected  by  the  members  of  the  tinue  to  dischai^  the  functions  proper  to  them.  The 
denomination,  and  at  the  capital  by  a  consistory  to  State  does  not  allow  appropriations  for  the  mainte- 
which  all  the  presbyteral  councils  sent  delates,  and  nance  of  chaplaincies  in  schools  where  theie  are  no 
whichnominated  pastors  with  the  consent  of  the  Gov-  boarders.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that,  while  the  laws 
emment.  This  Church  was  very  much  divided  in  forbid  priests  to  enter  primary  schools,  they  have,  up 
theology.  It  included:  the  Orthodox,  who  had  car-  to  the  present,  admitted  to  the  secondary  schools 
ried,  inthegeneralsynodot  1872,  byOl  votes  to45,  a  chaplains  paid  out  of  the  public  purse;  the  Govem- 
declaration  of  faith  involving  as  of  necessity  the  ac-  ment  feared  that  if  this  guarantee  of  rel^ous  training 
ceptance  of  certain  dogmas;  the  Liberals,  who,  in  were  wanting  parents  would  send  their  (^tldren  to 
spite  of  their  defeat  in  1872,  continued  to  claim  for  the  private  schools.  But  a  practice  recently  established 
pastor  an  unlimited  freedom  of  teaching  in  his  own  va  a  certain  number  of  'vc^ei  tends  to  relieve  the  State 
church ;  a  midway  party  (cenfre  droit)  who  were  nearer  of  the  expense  of  chaplaincies  by  compelling  parents 
to  the  Liberals  than  to  the  Orthodox.  The  Law  of  who  wish  their  children  to  receive  religious  instruction 
1906,intenninatii]igtheofficialexistenceofaRefonned  to  pay  an  additional  sum. 

Churchj  had  this  interesting  result,  tiiat  the  theologi-         Political  Groups,   the   Pnst,   and   InleUechial  and 

eat  divisions  of  the  various  groups  openly  expressed  Social  Organizations. — Politically  speaking,  theCatho- 

tlMmsdves  in  the  formation  of  three  distinct  great  lie  group  which  receives  the  active  sympathies  of  the 

organiaationsforthe  Reformed  religion:  (I)  the  Union  Catholic  press  is  that  known  as  the  Action  Libfrale 

Nationale    des    E^ises    R^ormicB    Evaag£liquee,  Populaire,  founded  by  M.  Jacques  Piou,  a  Member  of 


FRANOE 


188 


FRANOE 


the  Chamber,  on  the  basis  indicated  for  Catholics  bv 
the  instructions  of  Leo  XIII.  This  association,  which 
was  legally  incorporated  17  May,  1902,  comprises  1400 
comnuttees  and  more  than  200,000  adherents.  It 
acts  by  means  of  lectures,  publications,  and  congresses. 
In  the  Chamber  elected  in  1906  there  were  77  deputies 
belonfiiin^  to  this  association. 

Catnohc  daily  journalism  is  represented  chiefly  by 
"L'Univers",  "La  Croix'',  and  the  "Peuple  Fran- 
cais."  The  former  of  these  papers,  founded  3 
November,  1833,  by  the  Abb^  Migne,  had  Eugene 
Veuillot  for  its  editor  from  1839  on,  and  l2>uis 
Veufllot  after  1844.  Its  adhesion  to  the  political 
directions  given  by  Leo  XIII  detached  from  the 
"Univers",  in  1893,  a  group  of  editors  who  founded 
^La  V^rit^  Fran^aise^*  this  split  ended  with  the 
amalgamation  of  the  "Univers  and  the  "V6rit6", 
19  January,  1907.  In  October,  1908,  the  "  Univers", 
under  the  management  of  M.  Fran9ois  Veuillot,  ao- 
quired  greater  importance  with  an  enlarged  form. 
"The  Gbod  Press^'  (Maison  de  la  Bonne  Presse), 
founded  in  1873  by  the  Augustinians  of  the  Assump- 
tion, inunediately  after  issued  the  "Pterin",  a  bul- 
letin of  pious  enterprises  and  pilgrimages,  and  after 
1883  a  daily  paper,  "La  Croix 'Jl,  which  has  been  edited 
since  1  April,  1900,  by  M.  F^ron  Vrau.  About  a 
hundred  local  "Croix"  ue  connected  with  the  Paris 
"Croix".  The  "Good  Press"  publishes  "Questions 
Actuelles",  "Cosmos",  "Mois  Litt^raire",  and  many 
other  periodicals^  and  with  it  is  connected  the  "  Presse 
R^onale",  which  maintains  a  certain  number  of 
provincial  papers  defending  Catholic  interests.  Many 
mdependent  papers,  either  Conservative  or  nominally 
Liberal,  are  reckoned  as  Catholic,  although  a  certain 
number  of  them  have  misled  Catholic  opimon  by  their 
opposition  to  the  programme  of  Leo  XIII. 

The  leading  Catholic  review  is  "  Le  Correspondant ". 
founded  in  1829,  formerlv  the  organ  of  tne  Liberal 
Catholics,  such  as  Montalembert  and  Falloux.  Its 
policy  is  "to  rally  all  defenders  of  the  Catholic  cause, 
whatever  their  origin,  on  the  broad  ground  of  liberty 
for  all*  to  afford  them  a  common  centre  where,  laying 
aside  differences  that  must  be  secondary  in  the  view  of 
Christians,  each  one  can  do  his  part,  in  letters,  in 
science,  in  historical  and  philosophical  studies,  in 
social  ufe,  to  win  the  victory  for  Christian  ideas". 
Monarchist  by  its  antecedents,  with  a  public  in  which 
Monarchists  form  a  large  proportion,  the  "Corres- 
pondant" has  had  for  its  editor  since  May,  1904,  M. 
Etienne  Lamv,  of  the  Academic  Fran^aise.  who  was  a 
Republican  Member  of  the  National  Assemolv  of  1871, 
ana  who,  in  1881,  brou^t  down  upon  himself  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  Republican  electors  by  his  sturd^r  op- 
position to  the  laws  suppressing  religious  congregations. 

The  chief  enterprises  for  the  benefit  of  Catholic 
students  in  Paris  are  the  Cerole  Catholique  du  Lu- 
xembourg, which  was  founded  in  1847,  and  in  1902 
became  the  Association  G^n^rale  des  Etudiants 
Catholiques  de  Paris;  the  Olivaint  and  the  Laennec 
lectures,  established  in  1875,  the  former  for  students 
in  law  and  letters,  the  latter  for  medical  students,  by 
Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus:  the  Reunion  des 
Etudiants  foimded  in  1895  by  tne  Marist  Fathers, 
and  of  which  Ferdinand  Brunetidre  was  president  of 
the  board  of  directors  until  his  death.  Besides  these, 
the  Association  Catholique  de  la  Jeunesse  Fran- 
9aise,  founded  in  1886,  now  (June,  1909)  unites  in  one 
group  nearly  100^000  young  men,  students,  peasants, 
employees  of  various  kinds,  and  labourers;  it  has  2400 
{proups  in  the  provinces  and  holds  annual  congresses 
m  wnich^  for  some  years  past,  social  questions  have 
been  actively  discussed.  It  was  at  the  congress  held 
by  this  association  at  BesanQon  in  1898  that  the 
conversion  of  Ferdinand  Bnmetidre  was  made  known 
in  a  very  remarkable  speech  of  the  famous  academi- 
cian. Since  1905  it  has  beenpubl  ishing  its  "  Annates ' ', 
and  since  1907  a  journal,  "La  Vie  Nouvelle." 


The  extremely  original  association  of  the  ''Sillon'' 
(furrow),  attractive  to  some,  disquieting  to  others, 
was  founded  in  1894  in  the  crypt  of  the  Stanislas 
colleee  and  became,  in  1898,  under  the  direction  of 
M.  Marc  Sangnier,  a  focus  of  social,  popular,  and 
democratic  action.  M.  Sangnier  and  his  frienos  de- 
velop, in  their  Cerdea  d'Hudes^  and  propagate,  in 
public  meetings  of  the  most  enthusiastic  character,  the 
twofold  idea  that  democracy  is  the  type  of  social 
organization  which  tends  to  the  highest  oevelopment 
of  conscience  and  of  civic  responsibuity  in  the  individ- 
ual, and  that  this  organization  needs  Christianity  for 
its  realization.  To  be  a  mUonnUU,  according  to  the 
adherents  of  the  Sillon,  it  is  not  enough  merely  to 
profess  a  doctrine,  but  one  must  live  a  life  more 
fully  Christian  and  fraternal.  The  Sillon  has  held  a 
national  congress  every  year  since  1902;  that  of  1909 
brought  together  more  than  three  thousand  members. 
The  character  of  the  organization  has  exposed  it  to 
lively  criticism ;  its  reception  has  not  been  me  same  in 
all  dioceses.  But  in  spite  of  obstacles,  the  tiUonnUtM 
continue  their  activity,  often  independently  of,  but 
never  in  opposition  to,  the  hierarchy,  carrying  on  their 
work  ofpenetration  in  indifferent  or  hostile  surround- 
ings. They  have  a  review,  "Le  Sillon",  and  a  news- 
paper, "L'Eveil  D^mocratique",  which  in  two  years 
has  gained  50,000. 

Catholic  imdertakings  for  the  benefit  of  the  young 
people  of  the  poorer  classes  have  developed  mightily  en 
late  years.  In  1900  the  "  Commission  des  Patronages ' ' 
drew  up  statistics  according  to  which  the  Catholics 
had  charge  of  3588  protectories  {j)aiTonage9)  and  32,- 
574  institutions  of  various  kinds  givine  dhristian  care 
to  the  young.  In  the  city  of  Paris  alone  there  were 
at  that  date  176  Catholic  protectories,  with  26,000 
young  girls  under  their  care.  The  Gymnastic  Federa- 
tion or  the  Protectories  of  France,  formed  after  the 
gymnastic  festival  which  was  held  at  the  Vatican  on 
r to  8  October,  1905,  numbers  to-day  (June,  1909)  549 
Catholic  gymnastic  societies  and  60,000  youi^  people. 

The  State  carries  on  its  fight  against  the  C£urch  on 
the  field  of  post-academic  education:  in  1894  there 
were  in  France  only  34  non-religious  {lalquM)  protec- 
tories; in  1907  there  were  2364  non-religious  protec- 
tories, 1366  for  boys  and  998  for  girls.  To  the  political 
groups,  the  journalistic  work,  the  good  works  for  the 
benefit  of  the  young,  must  be  added  the  "Catholic 
social"  imdertakings,  the  earliest  of  which  was  the 
(Euvre  des  Circles  Catholiques  d'Ouvriers,  founded 
in  1871  by  Count  Albert  de  Mun,  the  chief  result  of 
which  was  the  introduction  by  Catholics  in  the  Legis- 
lature of  a  certain  number  of  legislative  projects  on 
social  questions.  The  last  five  years  have  seen  in 
France  the  birth  and  development,  through  the  in- 
itiative of  M.  Henri  Lorin  and  the  Lyons  journal,  the 
"Chronique  du  Sud-Est",  of  the  institution  known  as 
the  aemaxnes  aocialeSf  a  series  of  social  courses  ^xich 
bring  together  a  great  many  priests  and  Catholic  \&y 
people.  This  idea  has  been  imitated  in  Catholic  * 
Spam  and  Italv.  Lastlv  a  body  of  Jesuits  have  begun 
a  valuable  collection  of  brochures  and  tracts,  under 
the  title  "L'Action  populaire",  which  forms  a  veri- 
table reference  library  for  those  who  wish  to  study 
social  Catholicism  and  an  inestimable  source  of  in- 
formation for  those  who  wish  to  join  actively  in  the 
movement. 

The  Church  in  France  during  the  First  Three  Yeare 
after  the  Law  of  Separation.— On  16  December,  1906,  a 
large  number  of  bishops  issued  a  request  to  the  parish 
priests  and  members  of  the  fabric  committees  (Ja- 
briques — see  above)  not  to  be  present  at  the  taking  of 
inventories  of  church  furniture  prescribed  by  the  Law 
of  Separation  except  as  mere  witnesses  and  after  mak- 
ing all  reserves.  A  circular,  dated  10  January,  1906, 
ordering  the  agents  of  the  Department  of  Public 
Domains  to  open  the  tabernacles,  intensified  the  feel- 
ing of  indignation  and,  inconsequence  of  an  inter- 


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44  Lolre-lafftileara. 

43  LoiroL 

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44  Lot^-Garoaaa. 
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li  Bouchaa^a-BMaa.  44  Haacha. 

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14  OuxtaL  M  Mayaaae. 

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48  DrOnML 

49  Eure. 

90  Ear»<a9-Lolr. 
31  Fialatteak 
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84  Giroada. 

86  Hautea-Alpea. 
84  Hauta-Oaroaaa. 

87  Hante-Lolre. 

88  Haata-Maraa. 

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40  Hauta-Safiaa. 

41  Hauta-8aYotok 

44  Haate-Vlaaaa. 

43  HAraolt 

44  IU»«t.yilalaa 


43MorbUiaa. 

44  Ni«vm 

44Nord. 

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49  Poy-da-lxlnra. 

70  Pjrrtnflaa^rlauM 

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77  Belne-et-Maraa. 
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FRANCE 


SHOWING  THE  BOUNDARIES  OF  THE  BCCLBBIASTICAL 
PROVINCES  AND  DIOCESES 


90 


PrvT.«rAlx. 

1  ArchdlooMe  of  Alz. 

S  IMoccse  of  Aiaocto. 

5  DIoccM  of  IHgne. 
i  DlocMB  of  Frejuo. 

6  l>loc«0e  of  Oftp. 

6  Dloceae  of  MArMllki. 

7  IMooaw  of  NloAi 


IX. 


1 

2 
3 
4 


ArehdiooaM  of  GhAmMry. 
Dlooeae  of  Anaecy. 
Dloceae  of  Maartonnfli. 
Diooaw)  of  Tkrenflafc 


X. 


II. 


3 
i 
6 


Prav.arAIU. 

Arohdlooeae  of  AJbL 
Dlooeae  of  Cahora. 
Dloceae  of  Mende. 
Dloceae  of : 
of: 


1  Anhdlooeae  of  I^jomi. 

2  Dloceae  of  Anton. 

3  Dloceae  of  Dijon. 

i  Dloceae  of  OrenoblCi. 

5  Dlooeae  of  Laaicrea. 

6  DlooeeoofSt-CUudei. 


XI. 


III. 


Arehdloceae  of  AndL 
Dlooeae  of  Aire. 
Dloceae  of  Bftyonne. 
of^ 


1  Arohdlooeae  of  Fuin 

2  Dloceae  of  Blola. 

3  Dlooeae  of  Chutreab 
i  DIooeee  of  Meanx. 

6  Dlooeae  of  Orlflaaa. 

8  Dlooaeo  of  Vei  aalllea 


ir. 


XII. 


48 


Arehdloceae  of  Artenon. 
Dloceae  of  MontpeDlar. 

Dloceae  of  NlmeiV 
Dlooeae  of  Valeaee. 
Dloceae  of  VlTima 


1 

2 
3 

6 


Arehdlooeee  of  Rafan& 
Dlooeae  of  Amlena. 
Dloceae  of  BeewTala 
Dloceae  of  Chllona  anr  M arnii 

I  of  I 


XIII. 


Arohdlooeae  of 

ofBeiley. 
lof  NancT. 
of  8tm. 
lOf  VerdmL 


XIV. 


TI. 


ArchdloceM  of  Bordaaaz. 
Dloceae  of  Agen. 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 


TII.  laaLPrev.eri 

1  Archdioceee  of  Bonriefc 

2  DIooeee  of  Clermont. 

3  DIoceee  of  Le  Poj. 

1  Dloceae  of  limosee. 

6  Dloceae  of  St-Honr. 

6  Dloceae  of  Toiler 


Till. 

1  Ardidloceee  of  CkmhiaL 
S  DIoeeaeof 


Arehdloceee  of  Hennaii 
DIoceee  of  Qolmper. 
DIooeee  of  Bt-BrUNM. 
Dloceae  o£  Vannen 


Arehdloceee  of 
DIoceee  of  Bayeaz. 
DIoceee  of  Ooataae 
DIooeee  of  Krreaz. 


Diuceae  of  Angoalfteaa. 

Diucaae  of  Fort^l*-naaoe        XT. 

(Karttadqae^  W.  L). 
La  Baaae-Tenre  (OaadtfouiMk 

W.L>. 
Dlooeae  of  La  Rodielle. 
DIoceee  of  Lacon. 

DIoceee  of  Firtenenz.  x  r  f . 

DIooeee  of  Polnera. 
DIoceee   of  RAonlon  (Indiaa 

Ocean).     Bee  map  of  BonOi 

Atrtoa.  y oL  IV,  p.  m 

XVII. 


Ardidioeeee  of 

of  Mouilna. 
I  of  Nevera 
of 


of 
of< 

of  Montanban. 
of: 


46 


1  Ardidlooeee  of  Toon. 

2  DIooeee  of  Angen. 

3  Dloceae  of  lATaL 

i  Dloceae  of  Le  Mana. 

5  DIoceee  of  Nantea. 


XVIII. 


of  North  Africa,  VoL  V,  pi'sS 

1  Archdlooeee  of  Algleiia 

2  DIoceee  of  Oouetanttaa 

3  DIoceee  of  Oran. 


it^\ 


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JH^t  CrMt  < ' 


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A      P      •  ^  ^i 


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'82> 
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I.  K  roiioo«aocl*»       ••  •* 


E   D   I   T  £i  R  ^ 


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42 


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FRANOB 


189 


FRANOS 


pellation,  was  implicitly  disavowed,  on  19  January, 
Dy  M.  Merlou,  Minister  of  Finance.  But  the  feel- 
ing lasted  and,  from  the  end  of  January  to  the  end 
of  March,  expressed  itself,  in  a  certain  number  of 
churches,  in  violent  outbreaks  a^inst  the  agents  who 
came  to  take  the  inventories.  The  breaking  open  of 
locked  doors,  the  cashiering  of  military  officers  who 
refused  to  lend  the  aid  of  theu*  troops  to  these  proceed- 
ings, the  arrest  and  prosecution  of  persons  taking  part 
in  Catholic  demonstrati6ns,  and  the  mortal  wounds 
inflicted  on  some  of  them  in  the  departments  of 
Nord  and  of  Haute-Loire  aggravated  the  public  irrita- 
tion. There  was  some  hope  among  Catholics  that  the 
general  elections,  which  were  to  take  place  in  May, 
would  result  in  defeat  for  the  Government;  but  these 
hopes  were  not  realized ;  the  Opposition  lost  fifty  seats 
in  the  balloting  of  6-20  May. 

The  first  general  gathering  of  the  bishops  was  held 
30  May,  1906.  The  Encycucal  ''Gravissimo  officii" 
(10  August,  1906),  which  rejected  the  cuUiidles,  re- 
ceived the  absolute  obedience  of  the  Catholics.  The 
attempt  to  form  schismatical  cuUueUes,  made  bv  some 
priests  and  laymen  in  eighty  localities,  met  with  deri- 
sion and  contempt,  and  these  isolated  bodies  of  schi»- 
matics  failed  to  obtain  possession  of  the  religious 
edifices  even  by  appealing  to  the  courts.  The  second 
and  third  general  gatherings  of  the  bishops  (4-7  Sep- 
tember, 1906,  and  15  January,  1907)  thanked  Pius  X 
for  the  Encyclical  and  discussed  the  organization  of 
public  worship,  in  accordance  with  a  very  definite 
programme  for  deliberation  which  the  Holy  See  had 
sent  to  Cardinal  Richard,  Archbishop  of  Paris.  On  12 
December,  1906,  Mgr.  Montagnini,  who  had  remained 
in  Paris  as  guardian  of  the  pontifical  archives,  was 
expelled  from  France  after  a  minute  domiciliary  search 
and  the  seizure  of  his  papers.  The  Vatican  protested 
in  a  circular  dated  19  December.  Various  incidents  in 
the  application  of  the  law — the  expulsion  of  Cardinal 
Richani  from  his  archiepiscopal  residence  (15  Decem- 
ber, 1906),  expulsions  ot  seminarists  from  the  semina- 
ries, l^e  employment  of  troops  at  Beaupr6au  and 
at  Auray  to  enforce  such  an  expulsion — called  forth 
livelv  protests  from  the  Catholic  press,  which  saw,  in 
all  these  episodes,  the  realization  of  the  settled  policy 
thus  expounded  by  M.  Viviani,  Minister  of  Labour,  in 
theChamber  of  Deputies,  8  November,  1906: "  Through 
our  fathers,  throu^  our  elders,  through  ourselves — all 
of  us  to^tner — we  have  bound  ourselves  to  a  work  of 
anticlencalism,  to  a  work  of  irreligion.  .  .  .  We  have 
extinguished  in  the  firmament  lights  which  shall  not 
be  rekindled.  We  have  shown  the  toilers  that  heaven 
contained  only  chimeras.'' 

Successive  meetings  of  the  bishops  have  organized 
the  work  of  the  Denier  du  Clergi.  The  organization  is 
diocesan,  not  parochial.  No  individual  is  taxed;  the 
subscriptions  are  entirely  voluntary;  but  in  many  dio- 
ceses the  diocesan  budget  fixes,  without,  however,  im- 
poeine,  the  contribution  which  each  parish  ought  to 
fumi£.  A  commission  of  control,  composed  of  priests 
and  laymen,  in  many  dioceses  takes  charge  of  tne  dis- 
bursement of  the  Denier  du  ClergL  If  a  parish  con- 
tributes insufficiently,  and  that  not  from  lack  of  means 
but  from  lack  ofgooawill,  the  bishop  can  withdraw  its 
parish  priest.  IVo  penalties  can  oe  infficted  upon 
Catholics  who  culpably  refuse  to  contribute  to  the 
support  of  religious  worship:  a  diminution  of  pomp  in 
the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  and  an  increase, 
as  affecting  such  persons,  of  incidental  burdens. 

The  first  results  of  the  Denier  du  Clergi  in  the 
various  dioceses  are  not  as  yet  well  ascertained;  they 
seem  to  justify  neither  over-enthusiastic  hopes  nor 
over-pessimistic  fears.  An  inter-diocesan  fund  {caisse) 
is  beginning  to  do  its  work  in  aiding  the  poorer  dio- 
ceses. In  many  communes  the  communal  authority, 
having  taken  possession  of  the  presbytery,  has  rented 
it  to  tne  parisn  priest  for  a  certain  sum,  but  the  law 
declares  Uiat  the  lease,  to  be  valid,  must  have  been 


ratified  by  the  prefect.  By  this  means  the  State  has 
sought  to  prevent  the  communes  from  renting  presby- 
teries too  cheap.  Of  32,093  presbyteries  existing  m 
France,  3643  were  still  occupied  rent-free  by  thepamh 
priests  at  the  beginning  of  October,  1908.  A  circular 
of  M.  Briand,  Minister  of  Justice,  has  animadverted  on 
this  fact  as  an  abuse.  It  appears  that  in  most  of  the 
dioceses  a  central  committee,  or  diocesan  bureau,  com- 
posed of  priests  and  la^en,  is  to  be  formed,  with  the 
episcopal  authority  for  its  centre,  to  combine  the  direc- 
tion of  all  the  organized  work  of  the  diocese.  Subject 
to  this  committee  there  will  be  committees  in  the  sev- 
eral arrandiesemenlSf  cantons,  and  parishes.  When 
consulted  in  May,  1907,  Pius  A  preferred  small  paro- 
chial committees  under  the  curie  to  the  formation  of 
parochial  associations  (which  might  be  interpreted  as 
an  acceptance  of  the  Law  of  1901  on  associations), 
with  an  unlimited  number  of  members.  Hie  ecclesias- 
tical seminaries,  which  the  Law  of  Separation  drove 
out  of  the  buildin£8  they  were  occupying,  have  been 
reconstituted  in  other  homes  under  the  tiUe  of  ''Ecoles 
Sup^rieures  de  Thtologie." 

At  present  one  of  the  most  serious  preoccupations  of 
the  Church  in  France  is  the  supply  of  priests.  In  1878. 
when  Mgr.  Bougaud  wrote  his  book,  "Le  gruid  p^ril 
de  I'E^se  de  France,"  there  was  a  deficiency  of 
2467  priests  in  France.  Pdre  Dudon,who  has  studied 
the  question  of  the  supply  oi  priests  very  pro- 
foundly, computes  that  in  1906,  at  tne  breaking  of  the 
Concordat,  there  was  a  deficiencv  of  3109,  and  the 
very  insecurity  of  the  position  of  the  Church  before 
the  law  fumisnes  ground  for  the  fear  that  vocations 
will  go  on  decreasing  in  frequency. 

Geography. — RBCi^rs,  La  France  in  Qioaraphie  iintiwr««2Z« 
(Paris,  1876),  II;  Vidaj<  db  jjl  Blachb,  La  France  (Paris, 
1003);  MiCHBUBT,  Tableau  de  la  France  in  vol.  II  of  the  Hit- 
toire  mentioned  below;  Dumazbt,  Voyage  en  France  (47  yob., 
Paris,  1894-1907);  Mamhat.t.,  Cathedral  CiHeB  of  France  (Lon- 
don.  1907). 

General  History. — ^Micbblbt,  Hietoire  de  France  (new  ed.,  17 
vols.,  Paris,  1871-74 — reconunended  by  its  truthfulneas  of  his- 
torical colouring  rather  than  exactness  of  detail,  a  picture 
rather  than  a  narrative);  Mabtin,  Hiatoire  de  France  (id  vols., 
Paris,  1855-60 — conscientious  research  with  anti-Oatholio  ten- 
dencies and  somewhat  out  of  date);  cf.  Epxnois,  M.  Henri  Mar' 
tin  (Paris,  1867);  Darbstb.  Histoire  de  France  (8  vols..  Paris, 
1864-73 — clear  and  judicious);  Bodlbt,  France  (2d  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1899) :  GAim>N,  Church  and  State  in  France^  lSOO-1900 
(London,  1907):  Kxtchin,  A  Histarvof  France  (Oxford,  1892* 
94).  A  group  of  specialists  under  the  direction  of  LAViflBB  have 
undertaken  the  publication  of  a  Histoire  de  France  of  which 
the  published  volumes  brin^  their  subject  down  to  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV;  this  work — the  oontributors  to  which 
are  men  of  learning,  each  following  his  own  bent,  thoui^  never 
violently — gives  Uie  last  word  of  science  at  the  present  time. 
Louis  fiAnrroL,  La  Renaieeance  (Paris,  1905).  is  the  only 
volume  which  has  yet  appeared  of  a  collection  now  being  pre- 
mired  under  the  title  Histoire  de  France  pour  loue,  Adamb,  The 
Growth  of  the  Frendi  Nation  (London,  1897). 

No  General  History  of  the  Church  of  France  is  really  worthy 
to  be  recommended.  The  principal  documents  to  oonsult  are: 
Gallia  Christiana  (q.  v.);  Jban,  Lee  ardieviquee  et  Sviguee  de 
France  de  1689  it  1801  (Paris,  1891);  Hanotaux  ed.,  Instruo- 
tions  dee  ambassadeurs  de  France  aupris  du  Saint^ii^  (Paris, 
1 888) ;  Imbart  db  la  Tonn,  A  rchives  de  r histoire  reliffteuee  de  la 
France  (A  vols,  have  appeared);  Baunard,  Vh  eiede  de  CE" 
i^ise  de  France  (Tours,  1901 — dealing  with  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury); Vipiscopai  Jrancais  au  XIX*  sOde  (Paris,  1907).  On 
the  Sources  of  the  History  of  France  the  chief  repertories  are: 
MoNOD,  Bibliomphie  de  Vhistoire  de  France  (Paris,  1888); 
Catalogue  de  Vhistoire  de  France  de  la  Bibliothimte  Nationale 
(Paris,  1855-82);  Lanolois  and  Stbxn,  Les  arthieee  de  Chie- 
toire  de  France  (Paris,  1891);  Mounxbr,  Les  eowrcm  de  Fhis- 
toire  de  France  (4  vols..  Pans,  1901-04). 

For  bibliography  of  the  French  Revolution  see  RBVOLcnoK • 
Fbbnch. 

For  France  in  the  NineteenUi  Century  see  Napolbon.  Also 
CuRRiBB,  ConsOtulional  and  Organic  Laws  of  France,  1876-1889 
(Philadeli^a,  1891):  Vxbi^astbl,  Histoire  de  la  Restauratian 
(20  vols.,  Paris,  and  tr.  London,  1888);  Thxtrbau-DanoiNj  His- 
toire dela  monarchic  de  JuiUet  (Paris);  db  la  Gorcb,  Htstoire 
du  second  Empire  (7  vols.,  Paris);  Oluvibr,  L'i?mmre  l^tiral 
(Paris,  1904-08 — 13  vols,  have  appeared)^  Lamt,  Etudes  sur 
le  second  Empire  (Paris);  Hanotaux,  Histoire  de  la  France 
contemporaine,  1870-1883  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1902-09);  Z6vort, 
Histoire  de  la  troisihne  RSpublique  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1900-05); 
CouBBRTiN,  L*Evolution  francaise  sous  la  troinhne  RipuHigue 
(tr.,  London,  1898);  Parmblb,  The  EvoliUion  of  an  Empire 
(New  York,  1897).  On  the  Religious  History  of  France  under 
the  Third  Republic:  Dbbidour,  UBglise  cathoUque  et  FBtat 
sous  la  troisihne  Ripubligue  (2  vols..  Paris,   1906-06— very 


ftnti-Ckthcdia);  l^KCAtnrwT.L'BaluedtFTaHaioialalTttiti 
RttniUiaue  (Pi,na,  1907— OiUialu::  brinn  UmBubJecCdoin 
1S7S):  Du  loatl  i  r nu^/cliqut  (FitiB.  1^);Dabri.  La  ca 
"orjjiubchiiLl 
aFranctra 


, ,. . b  Venci/clique  (Pa 

tiqiua  rtpiMicaitH  (Paru.  1803),     , —  , ^^  , 

"  '  ~~      ~1fl  Le  rlerffi  Fmncai»  ud  La  Franct  eccUtitutiqut. 

■     ■  "  ■  -     '^wot  gepan 


n  the  Idws 


SpetchBi  b1  W*LDBCI-RilII«« 


it  CoDcreffatLoiu ._.  _ 

nnrluin    19  voU..    Paris,    1907    uiu    iinni., 

and  Ribot:   De  Mun.  Iax  Im 

,_    PariL   1902):    Cohbib,    Vat  eampagnt 

lal^ui  (2  vols..  PariB,  1902  and  190«).  The  Law  on  Aseocia- 
tionahMbrondisduBwd  bvTEouiLLOTandCHiPB*L:  that  on 
Bepantion  by  R<:ville,  wilb  radicnl  tsodcncies,  aad  by  T^iu- 
aikia  and  Lakarzemj.  with  ClathoUa  undeucio.  La  Remie 
d'organUaiiim  ft  de  defense  Tfiifflfute^  published  by  the  Good 
Press  (inc«  ISOS.  gives  every  day  the  stale  of  the  law  in  ralatiao 
to  Catholic  iatereits. 

On  the  Harriage  Iaws:  SiRifET.  La  lot  du  f  f  Juin  1007  lur  U 
MarioBt  rToulaiue.  IS0S1.— On  the  tnHuenoa  of  FneaiMnoaty: 
:;  rapport  oarltmtntawe 

1890).'  On  ibt  Reli^ous  Orders:  MinunrB  imur  la  dilcr^'e 
da  conffT^ffationa  n/uuusa  {Psris,  1880);  Kannenoiehbr. 
Frwmct  (4  AUtmat/nt  (Paris.  1900).     On, the  Hissior 


i  the 

t«:  Ptoj^ET.Lttmitnotucaiholi^uafranfaiea{^vo\jL, 

Paris,  1900-1903):  RooTiBR,  Ltmdup^iw  (Paris,  18981;  Itir. 
La  j/roteciUFn  diplomatigut  tl  contuiaire  danu  la  ichdlet  da 
LnoiK  (Paris,  1899):  OoIAD.  La  rudiofuiapdlra.rKiUefniruii, 
iewia  Allemaffne  (Paris,  I9()3);  Kanmenqibbeb.  La  misnoiu 
tBHiolupia,  Frma  «  AOtmagnt  (Paris,  1900).  On  Frann  at 
Rome;  Lacboix,  Mfmoire  hutoriqus  nr  la  inslilidions  dt  la 
>'Tm«iffm«(Zdod.,  Homo.  1802).  On  0<-H't*™>l  «»— •!""■ 
SparhaoS  ivLtn  Fehbt:  Picharo.  Nmct, 

primairs  (ISthed..  Paris,  19031:  GoTAn,L' , ._ 

vols..  Pans,  1899  and  1906):  LEScmnH,  La  mtnlaiM  lab/uB  A 
r&oto  (Paris.  1906):  Des  Aujiulb.  «i>loi™  rfe  Vrmeiffaemtnt 
Obn  (Puris.  1898);  BuUetim  dt  la  ioei*ti  gfnimte  dfducaiion,  H 
J'aitriorttmeal;  EnQutlt  rur  la  rttarmi  de  rmteiammml  iitan- 
datn.  2  vols..  Phis.  1900— offisiall:  Lahahzelle.  [dcriieuni- 
■sn^trs  [Paris,  1900).  OoChvitiiblBlnstitution3:ParueAan'- 
tablB  (3d  ed.,  Paris,  1904):  La  Franet  eliarHabit  (Paris.  1809) — 
'  monogTHphs  published  by  the  Offce  ecnlraj 


JO  F&AHOI 

throuKh  Limoiiain,  Auvergno,  and  Daupliiny.  In  the 
twelfth  centuiy,  the  Hpeech  of  the  De-de-Franco 
began  to  take  tne  lead  over  all  the  others,  for  tlie  very 
good  reason  that  it  was  the  speech  of  the  royal  domain. 
Hereafier  the  French  language  poeaeases  its  form,  and 
can  give  birth  to  a,  literature. 

In  the  Middle  Ages. — Epic  Poetry. — In  France,  as 
everywhere  else,  literature  began  with  poetry,  and 
that  epic.  For  many  centuries  this  seems  to  have  been 
the  form  natural  to  the  French  mind ;  and  the  abund- 
ance of  the  output  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  breadth 
and  power  of  the  movement.  To  comprehend  more 
clearly  the  great  mass  of  epic  works  of  this  period,  we 
diatincuiah  three  subject-matters,  or  three  cycles;  the 
French,  or  national,  cycle;  the  Breton  cycle;  the 
antic  I  ue  cycle. 

The  origins  of  the  French  cycle  go  back  to  the  first 
ages  of  Frankifih  domination.  The  Frankish  f^iefs  all 
kept  their  singers,  who  celebrated  their  exploits  in 
poems  of  heroic  inspiration.  These  compositions, 
called  carUilines,  were  sung  to  the  harp,  either  at  their 
festivals  or  at  the  head  of  the  army  before  a  batUe. 
This  spontaneous  growth  of  epic  poetry  goes  on  until 
the  tenth  century;  but  after  the  tenUi  century  the 
inventive  power  of  the  poets — the  trouvhes,  as  they 
ore  called— is  exhausted ;  they  no  longer  compose  new 


diarJabla.—OB 


BocIaI  Organ  isatioL^ 
Catholje  eni«rprisa  pn 

-i.uide  onnuaire  sortil  ( 


thecl 


at  the  Eipoaition  of  1900,  the  Quids  aitnuaire  laiia  (aanual 
nnce  1905).  and  the  Manuel  lenJpmfwus  ( tOOO).  published  by 
the  Action  jttnrutaire  of  Reims,  with  the  brochures  issued  by  thje 
last  BSBociation.— On  the  OroupioE  of  Religious  Movements: 
Frainiei,  Vert  Fimum  da  taUtaiupMa  (Paris,  1907);  Guidt 
traction  retigiaae  (Paris.  1908).  GeOBQES  GotAH. 

French  LrrBBATURB. — Origin  and  Formation  of 
Ihe  French  Language. — When  the  Romans  became 
masters  of  Gaul  tney  imposed  their  language  on 
that  country  together  with  their  religion,  their  laws, 
their  customs,  and  their  culture.  The  Low  Latin, 
which  thus  became  universal  throughout  Gaul,  was 
not  alow  in  imdereoing  a  change  while  passing 
Uiiough  Celtic  and  Frankish  throats,  and  in  show- 
ing  traces  of  climate  and  of  racial  genius.  From 
this  transformation  arose  a  new  toneue,  the  Ro- 
mance, which  was  destined  to  (^radusJly  evolve 
itself  into  the  French.  The  glossaries  of  Reichenau 
and  of  Cassel  contain  many  translations  of  Latin  and 
Germanic  words  into  Romance ;  they  data  from  the 
eighth  century.  The  earliest  texts  in  our  possession 
bdong  to  the  ninth  centuiy,  and  are  moie  valuable 
from  an  archnological  than  from  aliteraiy  standpoint. 
These  are  the  formulas  called  "  Les  Serments  de  Stras- 
boare"  (the  oaths  pronounced  by  the  soldiers  of  Louis 
the  German  and  of  Charles  the  Bald,  a.  d.  842);  the 
song  or  "Prose  de  Sainte  Eulalie",  an  imitation  of  a 
Latm  hymn  of  the  Church  (about  a.  d.  880) ;  a  portion 
of  a  "  Hom^ie  sur  Jonas"  discovered  at  Vcilenciennes, 
and  written  in  a  mixture  of  Latin  and  Romance,  dat- 
ing  from  the  eariy  part  of  the  tenth  century ;  "  I^  Vie 
de  Saint  L^r",  a  bald  narrative  in  verse,  written  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  century,  lite  metamor- 
phosis, under  the  action  of  influences  now  no  longer 
.  traceable,  of  Low  Latin  into  Romance  did  not  proceed 
along  the  same  lines  everywhere  in  Gaul.  From  the 
I^yrenees  to  the  Scheldt  it  varied  with  the  varying 
localities,  and  gave  rise  to  many  dialects.  These  dia- 
lects may  be  grouped  into  two  principal  languages 
which  are  usually  named  from  the  word  used  as  an 
affirmative  in  each:  the  Romance  langu^e  of  oc  in 
the  South:  and  the  Romance  lauKUaee  of  oil  in  the 
North,  Theofllanguagecomprisedairthe  varieties  of 
speech  in  use  to  the  north  of  an  imaginary  line  drawn 
from  the  estuary  of  the  Gironde  to  the  Alps,  passing 


lanslone",  BibliolhtqtM 

songs,  but  co-ordinate,  above  all  amplify,  and,  finally, 
reducetowritingtheson^left  to  them  by  their  prede- 
cessors. By  dint  of  this  labour  of  arrangement  and 
editing  they  compose  the  charuoru  de  geide  ("history 
songs  ,  from  the  Latin  ^etla,  "thin^  done",  "his- 
tory").   Comi 

are  written  in  1 , 

couplets,   or  Idissea,   with 

riivmes  (such,  e.  g.,  as  perde  and  tuperbe).  Like  the 
old  carttUineM,  they  were  intended  to  be  sung  by  the 
trouvhe  at  feasts  or  in  battle.  They  are  all  connected 
with  real  historical  episodes,  which,  however,  are  em- 
bellished, and  often  disfigured,  with  popular  traditions 
and  the  fruits  of  the  poet's  own  imagination.  The 
most  famous  of  these  Oiantont  de  geste,  the  "  Sanson 
de  Roland",  put  into  writing  about  the  year  1080,  and 
by  an  unknown  author,  is  the  chej  d'ctuvre  of  this 
national  epic  poetry.  It  admirably  reflects  the  society 
of  the  time.  With  its  scenes  of  carnage,  its  loud  cla^ 
of  blades,  its  heroic  barons  who  sacrifice  their  lives  for 
the  emperor  and  die  after  commending  their  souls  to 
God,  it«  miraculous  intervention  of  ansels  who  receive 
the  soul  of  the  brave  warrior,  the  "  Uianson  de  Rol- 
and" places  vividly  before  the  imagination  the 
France  of  the  eleventh  century,  warlike,  violent,  still 
barbarous,  but  thoroushly  animated  by  an  ardent 
faith.  The  "Chanson  de  Roland"  is  the  most  widely 
known  of  the  chanaoTia  de  gesle,  but  a  multitude  of 
them  are  extant,  and  they  all  contain  great  beauties. 
While  some  of  them,  centring  upon  Charlemagne 
("Lo  PMerinsge  de  Charlemagne",  "Aimeri  de  ffer- 
bonne",  "Girard  de  Viane",  etc.),  celebrate  the  union 


of  France  under  the  kingship  and  conflicts  with  ezter- 
—  ■ :__  others  are  inspired  by  the  Btrugrie"  •"■•'" 


Roussillon  'Oi  by  the  ware  of  vaaaals  among  themsel  veo, 
and  by  historiiw  memories  belonging  particularly  to 
this  or  that  province  ("Raoul  de  Cambrai",  the 
"Gestedea  Lorraina",  "  Auberi  le  Bourgoing").    The 


LufDIHQ  OF  THI  KhIOUT  Or  THB  SwiN 

XIV  Century  US,.  Biblkilh^ueNatioiule,  J^ris 
interesting  element  in  all  of  them  is,  chiefly,  their 
faithful  portrayal  of  the  feudal  world,  its  virtues,  and 
■te  asperities. 

From  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  the  auccesa  of 
the  chamon*  de  geiU  is  counterbalancec  b^  that  of  the 
nmances  of  the  Breton  cycle.  Here  imagination 
roams  at  laree,  above  all  that  kind  of  imagination 
which  we  call  fantasy.  The  marvellous  plays  an  im- 
portant  part.  Manners  are  leas  violent,  more  delicate. 
Love,  almost  absent  from  the  chanxma  de  geale,  holds 
a  sreat  fdace  and  utters  itself  in  a  style  at  once  respects 
fuf  and  exalted.  We  find  evcrj^heie  the  impress  of  a 
twofold  mysticism,  that  of  chivalry  and  of  religion. 
Id  other  words,  if  tlie  chanaoni  de  geste  bear  the  slkmp 
of  the  Germanic  spirit,  the  Breton  romances  are  in- 
n>ired  by  the  Celtic.  The  central  figure  is  that  of  King 
Arthur,  a  character  borrowed  from  histo^,  the  incar- 
nation of  the  independence  of  the  Breton  race. 
Around  him  are  his  companbns,  the  kn^ts  of  the 
Bound  Table  and  Merlin  the  wizard,  "nie  Breton 
romances  were  intended  to  be  read,  not  to  be  sung: 
they  were  written,  moreover,  in  prose.  In  course  of 
time  Chrestien  de  Troyes,  a  poet  rather  facile  and  pro- 
lific than  truly  talented,  put  them  into  rhymed  verse; 
between  1160  and  1180  he  wrote  "  Perceval  le  Gallois", 
"Le  Chevalier  au  lion",  "Lancelot  en  la  charrette", 
"Cligis",  "Erec  et  Enide".  In  these  romancea 
lAuncelot  is  the  type  of  I'amour  amrUn» — the  "gen- 
tle" love  which  every  knight  must  bear  his  lady. 

As  for  the  antique  cycle,  it  is  no  more  than  a  work 
of  imitation.  The  denes,  observing  the  success  of  epic 
and  narrative  poetry,  conceived  the  idea  of  throwing 
into  the  same  form  the  traditions  of  antiquity.  The 
"Roman  d'Aleiandre"  and  the  "Roman  de  Troie", 
both  written  in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century, 
and  amusing  for  their  anachronisms  and  their  baroque 
conceits,  are,  on  the  other  hand,  long,  diffuse,  and 
mediocre. 

Lyric  PoeUy. — In  these  primitive  periods  of  history 
the  lines  of  divioon  between  various  tvpes  of  literature 
an  not  wdl  defined.    From  the  canril^  there  sprang 


l-BANOX 


of  varied  iltythm,  but  all  ending  with  the  same  refrain, 
an  adventure  of  war  or  of  love;  they  are  called  ehan- 
•OTW  dt  toiU  (spinning  songs)  or  chantom  de  danse,  be- 
cause women  sang  them  either  aa  they  spun  and  flat- 
ted or  as  they  danced  rondet.  Love  neariy  always 
plays  the  chief  part  in  them— the  love,  successful  or 
crossed,  of  a  young  eiri  for  a  beau  chevalier,  or  perhaps 
a  love  crushed  by  the  death  o(  the  beloved — such  aie 
the  themes  of  the  principal  chatuons  de  loUe  that  have 
come  down  to  us, "  Belle  Bremboure  ","  Belle  Idoine  ", 
"Belle  Ai^anlbe",  "Belle  Doette".  But  it  was  in 
Provence  that  lyric  verse  was  to  reach  its  fulleot  de- 
velopment. Subtile,  learned,  and  somewhat  artiScial, 
Provengal  poetry  had  for  its  only  theme  lovd'-an 
idealized  and  quintessential  love~-4'amour  eourioii. 
On  this  common  theme  the  troubadoura  embroidered 
variations  of  the  utmost  richness ;  the  form  which  they 
employed,  a  very  complex  one,  hadgiven  rise  to 
manifold  combinations  of  rhythms.  The  men  of  the 
North  were  dazsled  when  they  came  to  Icnow  the  Pro- 
ven^ poetry.  Strangely  enough,  it  did  not  spread 
directly  from  province  to  province  within  the  borders 
of  France,  but  by  way  of  the  Orient,  from  the  Holy 
Land,  during  the  Crusades,  where  Southern  and 
Northern  loras  met  each  other.  Soon  a  whole  group 
of  poets  of  the  oU  tongue  in  the  North  and  East — 
Conon  de  B^thune,  Gace  Brul£,  Blondel  de  Neslea, 
and  especially  Thi^oaut,  Count  of  Champagne — set  to 
work  to  imitate  the  Provencal  compositions. 

Bourgeois  and  Satirical  Literature. — The  epio  and 
the  lyric  were  essentially  aristocratic;  they  addreesed 
themselves  to  an  audience  of  barons  and  represented 
almost  exclusively  the  manners  and  feeling  of  the 
upper  classes  in  the  feudal  world.  At  the  V-ginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  after  the  emancipation  of 


and  from  that  moment  datea  the  oripn  a 
bouTgeoiae  literature.  It  begins  with  the  labiiavx,  ULue 
tales  told  in  lines  of  eight  syllablee,  pleasant  atoriea 
intended  only  to  amuse.  The  characters  they  intro- 
duce are  people  of  humble  or  middling  station — trades- 
men, artisans,  and  their  women-folk — ^who  ace  put 
through  all  sorts  of  ridiculous  adventures;  their  vioee 
and  oddities  are  ridiculed  smartly  and  with  some  de- 
gree of  malice — too  often,  also,  with  coarseness  and 
mdecency.  These  fabliaux  are  animated  by  the  Gallic 
spirit  of  irony  and  banter,  in  contrast  to  the  heroic,  or 
gentle"  (_courtoit),  spirit  which  inspires  the  epio  and 
lyric  works.  Boui^ois  and  villagers  find  here  a  real- 
istic picture  of  their  existence  and  their  manners,  but 
freely  caricatured  so  as  to  provoke  laughter. 

Combine  the  spirit  of  the  jabliatix  with  memories  of 
the  dtanton  de  geaU,  and  we  have  the  "Roman  de 
Renart",  a  vast  collection,  formed  eariy  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  of  stories  in  verae  thrown  together  with- 


RbTVABD  T9B   Fox  AS  A  UUBICUH 

XIV  Century  US.  ol  "  Romu  ds  Tttmari  ",  Bibliothiqne 
NBtiaoBle,  Puii 

out  sequence  or  connexion.  This  work,  which,  it  is 
believed^  was  preceded  bv  another  now  lost,  contains 
30,000  Imee.  Enlar^  by  successive  additions,  the 
"Roman  de  Renart"  is  the  work  not  only  of  several  au- 
thors, but  of  a  whole  country  and  a  whole  epoch. 
What  gives  it  unity,  in  spite  of  the  diversity  and  in- 
congruity of  the  stories  of  which  it  is  made  up,  is  that 
'   (Mrts  the  same  hero  appears  again  ana  a^in-^ 


}updets 


F&ANOE                                192  KtAMOI 

the  wolf,  Noble,  the  lion,  Chantecler,  the  cook,  pseudo-  In  his  WOTk  is  nothing;  to  recall  the  doominess  of  the 

animab  that  mingle  with  their  bearing  and  instincts  as  period;   he  has  seen  m  it  nothing  but  exploits  and 

animals  traits  and  feelings  borrowed  from  humanity,  neroic  adventure. 

Under  pretext  of  relating  an  intrigue  bristling  with  Froissartlmew  how  to  depict  the  outward  semblance 

complications,  in  which  Ysengrin  and  Renart  are  of  an  epoch.    Philippe  de  Comznynes,  on  the  other 

pitted  against  each  other,  the  *' Roman",  a  kind  of  hand,  the  historian  of  Louis  XI^  is  a  connoisseur 

parodv  of  the  chansons  de  gesU^  ridicules  the  nobles,  of  souls:  his  viewpoint  is  from  within.    A  minister  of 

feudal  society,  and  feudal  institutions.  Louis  aL  and  then  of  Charles  VIII,  he  is  versed  in 

Didactic  Poetry. — ^Nobles  and  bourgeois,  the  two  affairs.  He  is  much  given,  moreover,  to  analysis  of 
classes  which,  in  the  literature  of  the  Middle  A^,  character  and  the  unravelling  of  events  which  have  a 
speak  with  two  accents  so  dissimilar,  have  one  point  political  bearing.  He  goes  back  from  effects  to  causes 
of  resemblance:  the  one  class  is  as  ignorant  as  the  and  is  already  rising  to  the  conception  of  the  general 
other.  Only  the  clerics  had  any  hold  upon  science—  laws  which  govern  nistory.  One  must  not  look  for 
the  little  science  which  those  times  possessed.  It  had  either  brilliancy  or  relief  in  his  style;  but  he  has  clear- 
long  remained  shut  up  in  Latin  books  composed  in  n^i.  precision,  solidity. 

imitation  of  ancient  models,  but,  be^pnning  from  the  Tne  Drama. — Hie  fifteenth  century  would  make 
thirteenth  century,  the  clerics  conceived  the  idea  of  but  a  sorry  figure  in  the  history  of  French  literature 
bringing  the  intellectual  contents  of  these  works  with-  had  it  not  been  that  in  this  epocn  there  developed  and 
in  the  domain  of  the  vulgar  ton^e.  This  was  the  flourished  a  literary  form  which  hsid  ah^iay  been 
origin  of  didactic  literature,  in  which  the  most  impor-  inchoate  during  the  pre^ding  centuries.  Entirely 
tant  work  is  the  *' Roman  de  la  Rose",  an  immense  original  in  foundation  and  style,  that  drama  owes 
encyclopedic  work  produced  by  two  authors  with  ten-  nothing  to  antiquity.  It  was  the  Chureh,  the  great 
dencies  and  mentalities  in  absolute  mutual  opposition,  power  of  those  ajges.  which  gave  birth  to  it.  For  the 
collaborating  at  an  interval  of  forty  years.  The  first  masses  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  chureh  was  the  home 
4000  lines  of  the  "Roman  de  la  Ilose"  were  written  where,  united  in  the  same  thoughts  and  the  same  con- 
about  the  year  1236  by  Guillaume  de  Lorris,  a  charm-  soling  hopes,  they  spent  that  part  of  their  lives  which 
ing  versifier  endowed  with  every  attnUstive  quality,  was  the  best,  ana  so  the  longest  offices  of  the  Chureh 
In  the  design  of  Guillaume  de  Lorris,  the  work  is  were  the  most  beloved  by  the  people.  Conformably 
another  "Art  of  Love";  the  author  proposes  to  de-  with  this  feeling,  the  clergy  interpolated  in  the  offices 
scribe  in  it  love  and  the  effects  of  love,  and  to  indicate  representations  of  certain  events  in  religious  history, 
the  way  of  success  for  a  lover.  He  personifies  all  the  Such  was  the  liturracal  drama,  which  was  presented 
phases  and  varieties  of  love  and  ot  the  other  senti-  more  especially  at  the  feasts  oi  Christmas  ("  Les  Pas- 
roents  which  attend  it,  and  makes  of  them  so  many  teure'\  "L'Epoux",  "Les  Proph^tes")  and  Easter 
allegorical  figures.  Jealousy,  Sadness,  Reason,  Fair  ("  La  Passion  ,  "  La  Resurrection ",  "Les  Pdlerins"). 
Response  {Bel-Accueil) — such  are  the  abstractions  to  At  first  the  liturgical  drama  was  no  more  than  a  trans- 
which  Lorris  lends  a  tenuous  embodiment.  With  Jean  lation  of  the  Bible  into  action  and  dialogue,  but  little 
de  Meung,  who  wrote  the  continuation  of  the  "  Roman  by  little  it  changed  as  it  developed.  The  text  became 
de  la  Ro^",  about  1275,  the  inspiration  changes  com-  longer,  verse  took  the  place  of  prose,  the  vernacular 
pletely.  Love  is  no  longer  the  only  subject.  In  a  supphuited  Latin.  The  drama  at  the  same  time  was 
numb!er  of  prolix  discourses,  aggregating  22,000  lines  tending  to  make  for  itself  an  independent  existence 
in  length,  the  later  author  not  only  contrives  to  bring  and  to  come  forth  from  the  Chureh. 
in  a  multitude  of  notions  on  physics  and  philosophy.  In  the  fourteenth  century  there  appeared  "  Les 
but  enters  into  a  very  severe  criticism  of  contemporary  Miracles  de  Notre-Dame  ",  a  stage  presentment  of  a 
social  organization.  marvellous  event  brought  about  l>y  the  intervention 

Prose  and  the  Chroniclers. — ^Prose  separates  itself  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  Thus  was  the  drama  making  its 
from  poetry  but  slowly;  when  the  epic  outpouring  has  way  towards  its  completer  form^  that  of  the  mysteries, 
been  exhausted  history  appears  to  take  its  place.  It  is  A  mystery  is  the  exposition  in  dialogue  of  an  historical 
the  aeai  movement  of  the  Crusades  that  gives  the  incident  taken  from  Holy  Scripture  or  the  lives  of  the 
impmse.  Villehardouin,  in  his  "  Histoire  de  la  Con-  saints.  Mysteries  may  be  grouped,  according  to  their 
qu^te  de  Constantinople"  (1207),  relates  the  events  subjects,  m  three  cycles:  the  Old  Testament  cycle 
which  he  witnessed  as  a  participant  in  the  fourth  cm-  ("Le  Mystdre  du  Viel  Testament",  in  50,000  lines). 
Bade;  he  knows  how  to  see  and  how  to  tell,  with  the  New  Testament  cycle  ("La  Passion",  composed 
restraint  and  vigour,  what  he  has  seen  and  done.  His  by  Amoul  Greban  and  presented  in  1450),  the  cjrcle  of 
chronicle  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  history,  but  rather  the  saints  ("Les  Actes  dee  Ap6tres",  by  Amoul  and 
memoirs.  Joinville  attacnes  more  importance  to  the  Simon  Greban).  Metrically,  tne  mystery  is  written  in 
moral  element;  the  charm  of  his  "Histoire  de  Saint  lines  of  eight  syllables;  the  lyric  passages  were  sup- 
Louis"  (1309)  is  in  the  bonhomie^  at  once  frank  and  posed  to  be  sung.  A  prologue  serves  the  purpose  of 
deliberate,  with  which  he  sets  forth  the  king's  virtues  stating  the  theme  and  oespeaking  silence  of  the  audi- 
and  recounts  his  "chevaleries".  ence.    The  piece  itself  is  divided  into  dajrs,  each  day 

The  great  representative  of  history  in  the  Middle  occupying  as  many  lines  as  could  be  recited  at  one 
Ages  is  Froissart  (1337-1410) ;  in  him  we  have  to  deal  siance,  and  the  whole  ends  with  an  invitation  to 
with  a  veritable  writer.  Just  when  the  feudal  world  prayer:  "Chantons  Te  Deum  laudamus". 
was  entering  upon  its  period  of  decadence,  and  the  The  dramatic  system  of  the  mysteries  contains  cer- 
chivalry  of  France  had  oeen  decimated  at  (Jr^cy  and  tain  thoroughly  characteristic  elements.  First  of  all, 
Agincourt,  feudalism  and  chivalry  find  in  Froissart  the  constant  recourse  to  the  marvellous:  God,  the 
their  most  marvellous  portrayer.  His  work,  "Chron-  Blessed  Viigin,  and  the  Saints  intervene  in  the  action; 
iques  de  France,  d'Angleterre,  d'Espagne^  de  Bretagne,  later  on  abstract  characters — Justice  and  Peace,  Truth, 
Gascogne,  de  Flandre  et  autres  lieux"'  is  the  story  of  Mercy — are  added.  Then  the  mingling  of  the  tragic 
all  the  splendid  feats  of  arms  in  the  Hundred  Years'  and  the  comic:  side  by  side  with  scenes  intended  to 
War.  Pitched  battles,  assaults,  mere  skirmishes,  iso-  excite  deep  emotion,  the  authors  of  mysteries  present 
lated  raids,  deeds  of  chivalric  daring,  single  combats —  others  which  are  mere  buffoonery,  and  sometimes  of 
he  describes  them  with  a  picturesque  efi^t  and  a  di»-  the  coarsest  kind.  This  comic  element  is  borrowed 
tinction  of  style  new  in  our  literature.  An  aristocratic  from  scenes  of  modem  life;  for  anachronism  is  ram- 
writer,  he  is  aoove  all  attracted  by  the  brilliant  aspects  pant  in  the  mysteries,  contemporary  questions  are  di&- 
of  society — ^wealth,  gallantry,  chivalry.  He  scorns  the  cussed,  Christ  and  the  saints  are  depicted  as  people  of 
hcfwrgsois  and  the  common  people,  and  considers  it  the  fifteenth  century.  Lastly,  not  only  does  tne  action 
quite  natural  that  they  should  pay  the  cost  of  war.  wander  without  restraint  from  place  to  place,  but 


nUHCI  193  FRAXCn 

oocaaoiully  it  goes  on  in  several  difTerent  placM  at  the  the  arts.    Add  to  this  the  allurameDt  of  her  cUmato 

same  time.    If  the  coneeptioa  was  original  and  inter-  and  her  mannera.     Italy  of  the  Renaissance,  invaded, 

esting,  the  execution  of  it,  unfortunately,  was  very  devastated,  trampled  under  foot  by  these  meD,of  th« 

inediaore.    The  authors  of  mysteries  were  not  artiata;  North,  suddenly,  like  Greece  of  yore,  took  possession 

they  knew  nothing  of  chaiacteiMirawine,  their  charao-  of  the  rude  conquerors.    They  conceived  tne  idea  of 

teiB  are  all  of  a  piece,  without  individual  traits.  Above  another  life,  more  free,  more  ornate— in  one  word, 

all,  the  style  is  deplorable,  and  but  seldom  escapes  more  'human' — than  that  which  they  bad  been  lead- 

platitude  and  solecism.   The  fifteenth  was,  as  a  whole,  ing  for  five  or  sis  centuries ;  a  confused  feeling  of  the 

the  great  century  of  the  m^t«riea;  they  were  then  in  power  of  beauty  twined  itself  into  the  souls  of  get^ 

peifect  bannony  with  the  ideas  and  sentiments  of  the  darmet  and  Umaqveneta,  and  it  was  then  that  the 

period.   In  the  next  century,  with  the  change  of  those  breath  of  the  Renaissance,  coming  over  the  maun> 

ideas  and  sentiments,  they  were  to  enter  upon  their  tains  with  the  armies  of  Charles  VIII,  of  Louis  XII, 

decadence  and  to  disappear.  and  of  Francis  I,  completed  in  lees  than  fifty  years  the 

Did  comedy  too,  in  its  turn,  come  forth  from  the  dissipation  of  what  tittle  still  survived  of  the  medieval 

Church?    Can  we  connect  it  with  the  burlesque  ofiices  tradition." 
of  the"FeaBtof  Fool8"and  the"Feast  of  theAss"? —        If  the  language  veiy  quickly  undergoes  the  modifi- 


....  .  principal  poet  of 
pieces  were  composed  and  played  throughout  the  fif-  the  earlier  half  of 
teentb  century.  Farces,  moralities,  and  follies  the  sixteenth  cen- 
(aofus)  were  the  kinds  of  compositionB  which  the;^  cul'  tury,  Clement 
tivated.  The  farce  was  a  comic  piece  the  onl^  aim  of  Ifarot  (1497- 
which  waa  to  amuae;  although  it  did  not  issue  all  1544),  belongs,  by 
complete  from  the  /abliau,  the  farce  bore  a  strong  his  inapiiation,  to 
antUogy  to  that  form,  and,  as  the  themes  were  ideati-  both  the  Middle 
cat,  the  faroe  was  often  nothing  more  than  a /ob/iau  in  Ages  and  the  Ren- 
acuon.  The  beat  apccimen  of  the  type  is  "La  Farce  aissanee.  Of  the 
del'AvocatPatbelin"  (1470),  which  presents  a  duel  of  Middle  Ages  he 
wits  between  an  advocate  and  a  oloth-merehant,  the  has  first  ofall  his 
one  as  thorou^  a  rascal  as  the  other.'  The  morality,  scholastic  educa- 
a  comic  piece  with  moral  aims,  is  far  inferior  to  the  tion  and  also  an 
farce.  Esaentiallv  pedantic,  it  constantly  employs  uncontrolled  pas- 
allegory,  personifying  the  sentiments,  defects,  and  sion  for  alle^ries 
good  qualities  of  men,  and  sets  them  in  opposition  to  and  for  buarre 
each  other  on  the  stage.  As  for  the  folly  (totie),  and  complicated 
which  may  be  called  a  dramatic  pamphlet  or  squib,  versification.     In 

and  belongs  to  the  satiric  drama,  it  was  the  special  the   best    of    his  Pbhbih  d'Ahqecoubt 

work  of  the  "Enfanta  sans  souci"  and  lasted  but  a  "  Epttrea  "   he       xiVOniuryMS.,  V»He«i>Iibr«y 

short  whue.  sacrifices   to  the 

The  true  Utenuy  distinction  of  the  fifteenth  century  worat  of  the  faults  held  in  honour  by  the  fif teentli 

is  to  have  given  France  a  great  poet— not  the  elegant,  century :  the  taste  for  alliteration,  for  playing  up«Ki 

cold  Charlea  d'Orltens,  but  that  child  of  "  poor  and  words,  and  for  childish  tricks  of  rhyme.    On  another 

mean  extraction"  (de  powe  et  peliie  extrace),  that  side  the  infiuence  of  the  Renaissance  reveals  itself 

"mauvais  garcon"  who  was  Francois  Villon.     Insub-  in  his  work  in  ma^  imitations  of  the  Latins,  Vii|^ 

ordinate  acnolar,  haunter  of  taverns,  guilty  of  theft  Catullus,  Ovid.     The  "Epttres",  his  masterpiece, 

and  even  of  assassination,  the  marvel  is  that  he  are,  besides,  in  a  style  of  composition  borrowed 

should  have  been  able  to  evoke  his  grave  and  lofty  from  the  Latin.    A  court  poet,  attached  to  the  per> 


, d  a  patroness  of  humanists,  no  man  was  more  fav- 

thougbt  of  death  which,  for  the  first  time  in  France,  ourably  situated  for  the  effect  of  that  influeooe. 

finds  its  expression  in  the  "Ballade  des  Dames  du  Harot  is,  in  other  respects,  a  very  original  poet;  hk 

Temps  jadis".    Thus  did  the  Christian  Middle  A^  "Ej^tres"  mark  the  appearance  of  a  quality  almoct 

utter  through  Villon  what  had  been  their  essential  new  in  French  literature — wit.    The  art  of  saying 

preoccupation.  things  prettily,  of  t«lluig  a  story  cleverly,  of  winning 

The  RenaxMonee  and  the  Reformation. — When  the  pardon  for  his  mockeries  by  mocking  at  himBelf,  waa 

sixteenth  century  opens,  literature  in  France  may  be  Marat's. 

regarded  as  exhausted  and  moribund.    What  had        Gneco-Latin  imitation  is  really  only  an  aoddental 

been  lacking  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  the  enthusiasm  featutein  the  work  of  Harot;  with  the  poeta  who  sue- 

for  form,  the  worship  of  art,  combined  withalanguage  eeed  him  it  beoomee  the  very  origin  of  their  inspiration, 

sufficiently  supple  and  opulent.    The  Renaissance  For  the  poets  who  later  formecT the  group  called  "La 

was  about  to  bestow  these  dfts;  it  was  to  communi-  Pl^iade''  Joachim  du  Bellay  furnished  a  programme 

cate  the  sense  of  beauty  to  tne  writers  of  that  age  by  in  the  "DeSence  et  Illustntioa  de  la  langue  fran- 

■etting  before  them  as  models  the  great  masteipieces  caise"  (1549).    To  eschew  the  superannuatM  formu* 

of  antiquit;^.     Reversion  to  antiouit^ — this  is  the  be  and  the  "condiments"  ({pieeriee)  of  the  Middle 

characteristic  which  dominates  all  tne  hteratura  of  the  Ages,  to  imitate  without  reserve  everything  that  has 

sixteenth  century.    The  movement  did  not  attain  its  come  down  to  us  from  antiquity,  to  enrich  the  lao- 

effect  directly,  but  through  Italy,  and  as  a  sequel  to  guage   by  every  means  practicable — by  borrowing 

the  wars  of  Charles  VHI.     "The  first  contact  with  from  Greek,  from  Latin,  from  the  vocabulary  of  the 

Italy",  says  Bruneti^re,  "was  in  truth  a  kind  of  reve-  handicrafta— these  are  the  principles  which  this  author 

tation  for  us  French.     In  the  midst  of  the  feudal  bar-  lava  down  in  his  work.    And  Uiese  are  the  principles 

barism  of  which  the  fifteenth  century  still  bore  the  wnich  the  chief  of  the  "PlSiade",  Pierre  de  Ronsard 

stamp,  Italy  presented  the  spectacle  of  an  old  civili-  (1524~S6),  applies.    Ronsard's  ambition  is  to  exercise 

sation.    She  awed  the  foreigner  by  the  ancient  author-  his  wits  in  all  the  styles  of  composition  in  which  the 

ity  of  her  reliffon  and  all  tiie  pomp  of  wealth  and  of  Greeks  and  Romans  excelled.    After  their  example  be 


FRANOB                               194  FRANOE 

composed  odes,  an  epic  work  (the  "Franciade",  in  part  prose,  part  verse,  which,  with  its  irony,  gives  evi- 

which  he  aspires  to  do  for  France  what  Virgil,  with  the  dence  that  an  epoch  has  come  to  its  end,  fati^ed  with 

Mneidi,  did  for  Rome),  and  some  eclogues.    If  he  has  its  own  struggles  and  ready  for  a  great  renovation, 

utterly  failed  in  his  epic  attempt,  and  if  his  abuse  of  The  Seventeenth  Cenitary;  the  CUurical  Age, — ^The 

erudition  renders  his  odes  very  difficult  to  read,  it  seventeenth  century  is  the  most  noteworthy  epoch  in 

must  nevertheless  be  said  that  these  works  sparkle  the  history  of  French  literature.    The  circiunstances 

with  beauties  of  the  first  order.    Ronsaid  is  not  only,  of  the  age,  it  is  true,  are  peculiarly  favourable  for 

as  was  long  ago  said  of  him,  the  marvellous  workman  literary   development.    France   is   once   more   the 

of  little  pieces,  of  sonnets  and  tiny  odes;  in  brilliancy  strongest  factor  in  European  statecraft;  her  political 

of  imagination,  in  the  gift  for  inventing  new  rhjrthms,  influence  is  supreme,  thanks  to  the  wonderful  achieve- 

he  is  one  of  the  ^eatest  poets  known  to  French  litera-  ments  of  her  arms  and  the  brilliant  triumphs  of  her 

ture.    Side  by  side  with  him  Du  Bellay,  in  his  **  Re-  diplomacy.    Conscious  of  her  greatness,  she  ceases 

grets",  inaugurated  la  po^sie  tntime,  the  lyricism  of  to  be  dependent  on  foreign  literatures,  and  fashions 

confidences,  and  Jodelle  gave  to  the  world  "Cltop4-  new  literary  forms  which  she  bids  other  countries  copy, 

tre"  (1552),  the  first,  in  point  of  date,  of  the  tragedies  The  internal  peace  which  she  enjoys  favours  disin* 

imitated  from  the  antique,  thus  opening  the  way  for  terested  study  in  the  domains  of  art  and  literature, 

Robert  Gamier  and  Montchrestien.  without  the  need  of  giving  to  her  literary  creations  a 

At  the  same  time  that  the  Renaissance  was  bringing  social  or  political  tendency.    Authors  are  patronized 

us  the  feeling  for  art,  the  Reformation  was  giving  cur-  by  society  and  the  court.    Intellectual  conditions  are 

rency  to  new  ideas  and  tendencies.    The  two  inspira-  especially  favourable;  the  national  mind,  steeped  in 

tions  conmiineled  rendered  possible  the  work  ot  the  the  learning  and  culture  of  the  classes,  has  become 

two  masters  of  sixteenth-century  prose,  Rabelais  and  sufi&ciently  stren^hened  to  emancipate  itself  from  the 

Montaigne.    In   that   prodigious   nursery   tale,    in  voke  of  servile  imitation.    The  language,   capable 

which  he  scatters  buffooneries  and  indecencies  by  the  henceforth  of  giving  adequate  expression  to  every 

handful,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  think  that  the  au-  shade  of  thought,  has  become  clear^  conscious  of  its 

^or  of  "  Gargantua"  hides  a  thought  and  a  symbol  power  and  is  exclusively  French  in  S3mtax  and  vocabu- 

under  very  line  of  text.    All  the  same,  it  is  true  that  lary.    Such  are  the  circumstances,  such  the  elements, 

one  must  break  the  bone  to  find  the  "siisbtantific  which  combine  to  form  the  genesis  of  the  classical 

marrow".    Rabelais  has  a  hatred  of  the  Middle  Ages,  literature  of  France.   |It  does  not,  indeed,  claim  to 

of  its  Scholasticism  and  its  asceticism.    For  his  part,  have  determined  the  extreme  limits  beyond  which 

he  does  not  mistrust  human  nature;  he  believes  it  to  literary  activitv  in  France  may  not  range;  progress 

be  ^ood  and  wants  people  to  follow  its  law,  which  is  will  continue  throughout  the  ages  to  come.    But  in 

instmct.    His  ideal  is  the  abbey  of  Thelema,  where  the  works  of  that  period  may  be  seen  the  most  com- 

the  rule  runs:  Do  as  you  please  (Fais  ce  que  tu  you-  plete  and  perfect  presentation  of  the  distinguishing 

dras).    "Nature  is  my  gentle  ^de",  says  Montaigne  qualities  of  the  French  race;  the  ideal  counterpart,  in 

on  his  part.    This  is  one  of  the  ideas  whicn  circulate  in  miniature,  of  the  most  perfect  form  of  French  Uterar 

his  essajrs,  the  first  book  of  which  appeared  in  1580.  ture. 

In  this  sort  of  disjointed  confession,  Montaigne  speaks  It  is  characterized,  in  the  main,  by  a  tendency 
above  all  of  himself,  his  life,  his  tastes,  his  habits,  his  which  seeks  the  apotheosis  of  human  reason  in  the 
favourite  reading.  As  he  goes  alon^  he  expounds  his  realm  of  literary  activity,  and  regards  the  expression 
philosophy,  which  is  a  kind  of  scepticism,  if  you  will,  of  moral  truth  as  the  end  of  literary  composition. 
Dut  applying  exclusively  to  the  things  that  belong  to  Hence  the  fondness  of  the  literature  of  the  seventeentii 
reason,  for  with  Montaigne  the  Christian  Faith  re-  century  for  general  ideas  and  for  the  sentiments  that 
mains  intact.  What  makes  Montaigne  an  original  are  common  to  mankind,  and  its  success  in  those 
writer,  and  makes  his  part  in  French  literature  one  of  kinds  of  literature  which  are  based  on  the  general 
capital  importance,  is  nis  having  been  the  first  to  in-  study  of  the  human  heart.  It  reached  perfection  in 
troduce  into  that  literature,  by  his  minute  study  of  his  dramatic  literature,  in  sacred  eloquence  and  in  the 
own  Ego,  that  psychological  and  moral  observation  of  study  of  morals.  Hence  the  contempt  of  the  seven- 
man  which  was  to  form  the  foundation  of  great  works  teenth-century  literature  for  all  tnat  is  relative, 
in  the  next  century.  individual,  and  mutable ;  in  lyric  poetry,  which  appeals 

In  a  general  way  the  Reformation  produced  a  pro-  primarily  to  the  individual  sentiment,  in  the  descrip- 

found  impression  on  the  writers  of  the  sixteenth  cen-  tion  of  material  phenomena,  and  the  external  manifes- 

tury,  givmg  them  a  freedom  of  movement  and  of  tations  of  nature,  it  falls  short  of  success, 

thought  unknown  to  their  predecessors  of  the  Middle  For  thorough  understanding  of  the  development  of 

Ages.    On  the  other  hana,  multiplying  theological  French  literature  in  the  seventeenth  century,  we  must 

discussions,  controversies,  and  fierce  polemics  between  consider  it  in  three  periods:  (1)  from  the  year  1600  to 

Catholics  and  Protestants— dividing  France  into  two  1659,  the  period  of  preparation;  (2)  1659-1688,  the 

parties — ^it  gave  birth  to  a  whole  literature  of  conflict.  Golden  Age  of  classicism;  (3)  1688-1715,  the  period 

We  will  confine  ourselves  to  the  mention  of  Calvin  and  of  transition  between  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 

his  "Institution  de  la  religion  chr^tienne''  (1541).  centuries. 

As  a  theologian  he  need  not  concern  us  here;  we  need  First  Period  (1600-1659). — ^With  the  followers  of 

only  say  that,  by  the  simplicity  of  his  exposition,  by  Ronsard  and  those  poets  who  immediately  succeeded 

the  energy  of  his  harsh  ana  gloomy  style,  he  effects  an  him  a  kind  of  lassitude  had  seized  upon  poetry  at  the 

entrance  mto  our  literature  for  a  whole  range  of  sub-  end  of  the  sixteenth  century;  impoverished  and  spirit- 

ject-matters  which  had  until  then  been  reserved  for  ~  less,  it  handled  only  trifling  subjects.    Besides,  having 

Latin.    Calvin  was  the  teacher  of  the  Reformation:  been  long  subject  to  the  artistic  domination  of  Italy, 

Aeripp&  d'Aubign^  was  its  soldier,  but  one  who  haa  and  having  owed  allegiance  to  Spain  also  since  the 

tucen  the  pen  in  hand.    It  was  after  long  service  in  interventionof  the  Spaniards  in  the  days  of  the  League, 

the  field  that  he  composed  his ''Tragiques,  a  versified  poetry  had  become  infected  with  mannerisms,  and 

work  unlike  any  other,  a  medley  of  satire  and  epic,  suffered  a  considerable  lowering  of  tone.    A  reform 

Here  the  author  presents  a  picture  of  France  devas-  was  necessary,  and  Malherbe,  whose  "Odes"  appear 

tated  by  wars  of  religion,  ana  paints  his  adversaries  in  between  the  years  1 600  and  1 628,  undertook  it.    from 

odious  colours.    Now  and  then  hatred  inspires  him  the  first  he  repudiated  the  idea  of  servile  imitation  of 

with  fine  utterances.    After  all  these  struggles  and  all  ancient  classical  authors;  discrimination  should  be 

this  violence,  the  age  could  not  but  long  for  peace,  shown  in  borrowing  from  their  writings,  and  imitation 

could  not  but  hold  all  these  excesses  in  horror.    Such  should  be  restricted  to  features  likely  to  strengthen 

%  spirit  inspirea  the  '^Satire  M^p^"  (1594),  a  work,  the  thought.    On  the  other  hand,  if  the  langua^  <A 


nUHOE  195 

the  rixteenth  century  i  .         . 

were  not  of  the  purest;  these  Malherbe  severely  inter-  precision   ._._    „     —  ^ -» —    -^- 

dicted.  With  regard  to  proaody,  he  lays  down  tlie  Thev  favoured  also,  thou^  u  an  induect  way,  that 
strictest  rules.  Malherbe's  reform,  therefore,  aims  at  study  of  the  human  heart  which  was  the  gmnd  tbeme 
purifving  the  tenninoloKy  of  the  language,  and  fjxing  of  seventeenth  century  literature.. 
set  fonns  for  prosody.  Unluckily,  it  must  be  secured  Authority  also,  as  represented  by  Richelieu,  ea- 
at  a  heavy  price;  subordinated  unduly  to  inflexible  rolleditself  in  the  crusade  of  reform  and  added  its  Banc- 
rule,  il«  freedom  of  movement  impeded,  lyric  poetry  tion  to  the  new  disciplinary  laws.  Under  the  patron- 
is  finally  crushed  out  of  life.  Two  centuries  must  age  of  the  great  minister,  and  by  his  inspiration,  the 
elapse  before  it  tevivee  and  shakes  oS  the  yoke  of  French  AcMemf  was  founded  in  the  year  1636.  In 
Halherbe.  Nor  was  the  rule  of  Malherbe  established  virtue  of  its  origm  and  of  its  aims,  the  Academy  exei^ 
without  resistance.  Of  the  writers  of  that  time,  none  cised  officially  the  same  influence  as  the  taton.  '" 
)  less  diapoeed  to  submit  to  it  than  Mathurin  watched  over  the  purity  ot  the  h 


JUgnier  (1579-1613),  a  poet  who  in  many  wavs  recalls  regular  development.  One  of  its  members,  Vau^Ias, 
the  sixteenth  century.  Ills  satires  are  one  long  pro-  the  great  grammariiwi  of  that  age,  contributed  m  an 
test  Bgiunst  the  theory  so  dear  to  Malherbe.  An  especial  way  towards  the  achievement  of  this  object- 
enemy  to  nile  and  constraint,  R^gnier  again  and  again  If  the  new  ideal  found  its  firat  expression  in  poetry, 
insists  upon  the  absolute  freedom  of  the  poet;  the  poet  prose  also  was  soon  to  share  in  the  advantages  of  the 
mustwnteas  thespiritmoveshim;  let  every  writerbe  reform.  Baliac,  in  his  "Lettres"  (1624),  created 
what  he  is,  is  the  only  principle  he  accepts.  A  numer-  French  prose.  He  is  said  to  have  furnished  the  rules 
ousgroupofpoetssharedfi^gnier'a  views,  those  known  of  French  prose  composition;  in  fact  it  is  his  chief 


bv  tbenameof  UaGroUi^t.    Such  are  Saints  A  mant,  merittohave  taught  his  own  age,  along  with  the  art  of 

iligaphilede  Viau,  the  direct  heirs  of  thePl£iade;  and  composition,  what  the  gjreatest  minds  of  the  sixteenth 

Scarron,  whose  poetry  is  the  very  incarnation  of  the  century — what  Rabelais  and  Montaigne — had   not 

burlesque  form  imported  from  Italy.  known:  tlie  rhythm,  the  flow,  and  the  harmony  of  the 

Halherbe  would  perhaps  have  been  unable  to  com-  period.    In  this  way,  he  has  fashioned  the  magnificent 

bat  this  opposition,  had  not  two  other  forces  come  to  form,  which  the  great  prose  writers  of  the  last  half  of 

his  assistance  in  cheeking  the  flood  of  licence  that  was  the  seventeenth  century  will  find  at  their  disposal 

spreading  with  K^gnier  and  hia  associates.     The  first  when  they  seek  to  give  outward  shape  to  the  ouhlime 

01  these  was  the  culture  of  French  society.  The  rise  of  a  conceptions  of  their  minds. 

cultured  class  and  of  its  life  of  refinement,  which  took  At  the  same  time.  Voiture,  oneof  thehabitu^ofthe 

place  toward  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  IV,  is  one  HAt«l  de  Rambouillet,  gave  to  French  prose  its  rftcl- 

of  the  striking  Facts  of  the  firet  half  of  the  seventeenth  ness,  its  vigour  and  its  ease  of  movement.    BaliBO 

century.     A  new  institution,  the  talon,  presided  over  and  Voiture,  of  the  great  writeia  of  that  time,  are 

by  women,  now  makes  its  appearance;  here  men  of  the  masters  of  styles  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but 

world  meet  literary  men  to  discuss  serious  questions  Deecartee,  whose  "Discours  de  la  Mftbode"  appeared 

with  women.    The  salon  will  prove  of  service  to  in  1673,  has  left  hia  mark  deeply  stamped  on  French 

writers,  thou^  sometimes  a  hindrance  or  a  lure  to  classical   literature.     This   could   not   be   otherwise; 

false  paths,  and  the  next  two  centuries  of  literature  the  principles  which  gained  distinction  for  him  were 

will  snow  evidence  of  its  influence.     The  first  salon  the  same  as  those  invoked  for  the  literary  reform, 

was  that  of  the  Marquise  de  Rambouillet;  for  mora  But   reason,    whose   sovereign   authority   Descartes 

than  twenty  years  people   of  superior  intellect  and  proclaimed,  and  whose  power  he  demonstrated,  was 

culture  were  wont  to  gather  there.     By  exacting  from  the  same  reason  whose  aosolutism  Malherbe  sought  to 

its  euests  refinement  and  elegant  manners  it  contrib-  establish  in  literature,     liie  abstract  tone,  the  surety 


ited  to  chasten  the  laneuage  and  to  strip  it  of  all  low  of  inference  pro<«eding  directly  to  the  solution  of  one 
and  grotesque  words.  It  ia  in  the  salon  that  the  over-  or  two  questions  clearly  laid  down,  permitting  no 
refinement  called  preciosity  budded  and  bloomed,  chance  thoughts  to  lead  it  away  from  the  straight  line, 
However,  the  influence  of  the  PrScieutea  whs  perhaps  the  determination  to  take  up  only  one  subject,  roaster- 
more  harmless  than  some  would  have  us  believe.  They  ing  it  completely,  to  simplify  everything,  to  see  in 
have  enriched  the  ianugage  with  many  clever  ex-  man  only  an  abstract  soul,  without  9  body,  and  in 


FRANOE  196  FEAHOE 

this  soiil  not  the  phenomena,  but  the  substance —  never  ceases  to  enjoin,  and  which  his  friends,  Molidre. 

iheee  are  at  the  same  time  Cartesian  principles  and  Racine,  La  Fontame,  put  into  practice. 

literary  peculiarities  of  the  seventeenth  oenturv.  Moli^re,  who,  since  tne  year  1653.  had  been  playing 

The  craving  for  order  and  uniformity  which  made  in  th6  provinces  his  first  comedy,  ^'L'Etouidi'',  pro- 

itself  felt  in  every  branch  of  literature  seized  the  duced  the  "Pr^cieuses  Ridicules"  at  Paris,  in  1650, 

theatrical  world  and  achieved  the  masterpieces  of  the  and  until  his  death  (1673)  continued  to  produce  play 

classic  drama.    In  1629,  Jean  Mairet  produced  his  after  play.    To  paint  human  life  and  to  delineate 

"Sophonisbe",  in  which  the  unities  are  for  the  first  character  are  the  aims  which  Molidre  proposed  to  him- 

time  observed — ^unityof  action,  unitjr  of  time,  unity  of  self. .  Even  his  farces  are  full  of  pomts  drawn  from 

place.    The  plot  tiuns  upon  one  mcident  which  is  observation  and  study.    In  his  ^at  comedies  it  is 

tragic  without  a  trace  of  the  comic  element,  the  action  clear  that  he  rejects  everything  which  is  not  based  on  a 

does  not  extend  beyond  one  day,  and  there  is  no  change  study  of  the  heart.    Afolidne  is  not  concerned  with 

of  scene.    The  framework  of  classical  tragedy  was  plot  and  d^nauemeni;  each  incident  stands  on  its  own 

created ;  what  was  needed  was  a  writer  of  genius  to  fill  merits ;  for  him  a  comedy  is  but  a  succession  of  scenes 

in  the  structure.    Comeille  was  this  man.    In  the  whose  aim  is  to  place  a  character  in  the  full  light  of 

merveiUe  of  "  Le  Cid'',  he  gave  to  the  French  stage  its  day.    Each  of  his  characters  is  an  exhaustive  study  of 

first  masterpiece.    Lofty  sentiments,  strong  dialogue,  some  particular  failing  or  the  comprehensive  present- 

a  brilliant  style,  and  rapid  action,  not  exceeding  ment  of  a  whole  type  m  a  sincle  physiognomv.    Some 

twenty-four  hours,  were  all  combined  in  this  play,  of  his  best  types  are  not  characteristic  oi  any  one 

While  its  subject  was  taken  from  modem  historv,  period,  but  of  numanity  in  all  ages — ^the  hypocrite,  the 

Cbmeille,  after  the  famous  controversy  on  "  Le  Cid^',  miser,  the  coquette.    It  is  Moli^re's  undying  merit 

stirred  up  by  his  jealous  rivals,  returned  to  subjects  that  we  cannot  observe  in  our  experience  any  of  these 

taken  from  Roman  history  in  his  later  pieces,  which  characteristics  without  being  reminded  of  some  of 

date  from  1640  to  1643,  namelv  ''Horace",  ''Cinna",  Moli^re's  originals. 

and  "Polyeucte".    In  these  the  plot  becomes  more        In  1667  Racine,  after  his  first  attempts^  the  ''Th6- 

and  more  complicated;  the  poet  prefers  perplexing  balde"  and  "Alexandre",  reproduced  his  "Andro- 

and  anomalous  situations,  and  looks  for  variety  and  maque",  which  achieved  a  success  no  less  marked  than 

strangeness  of  incident  to  the  neglect  of  the  sentiments  that  of  the  *'  Old ' ' ;  after  that,  scarcely  a  year  passed 

and  the  passions.    The  noble  simplicity  and  serene  without  the  production  of  a  new  work.    After  oring- 

beauty  which  characterized  his  ^at  works  are  le-  ing  out  the  "  JPhMre  "  in  1677,  Raciue  withdrew  from 

placed  by  the  riddles  of  "H^raclius"  and  the  extra-  the  stage,  partly  from  a  desire  for  rest  and  partly  on 

vaganoes  of  " Attila'^  account  ofrelijgious  scruples.    The  only  dramas  pro- 

Comeille's  "  Polyeucte"  shows  traces  of  the  contro-  duced  by  him  m  this  last  period  were  '*  Esther"  (1689) 

versies  on  Divine  Grace  which  at  that  time  agitated  and  "  Athalie"  (1691).    His  tragedies  were  a  reactbn 

the  minds  of  men.    Jansenism  profoundly  influenced  against  the  heroic  and  romantic  drama  which  had 

the  entire  literature  of  the  seventeenth  century,  giving  prevailed  during  the  first  part  of  the  century.    He 

rise,  first  and  foremost,  to  one  of  its  prose  master-  places  on  the  stage  the  representation  of  realit^r;  his 

pieces,  the ''  Lettres  provinciales"  (1656-67)  of  Pascal,  plays  have  their  source  in  reason  rather  than  in  imag- 

In  these  the  author  champions  the  cause  of  his  friends  ination.    The  result  is  a  loss  of  apparent  grandeur,  on 

of  Port-Rx)yal  against  the  Jesuits.    They  display  all  the  one  hand,  but  also,  on  the  other  hand,  an  in- 

the  qualities  which  it  had  taken  sixty  years  of  progress  creased  moral  range  and  a  wider  psychology.    Aeain, 

in  literature  to  develop :  clearness  of  exposition,  beauty  instead  of  the  complicated  action  of  whichComeule  is 

of  form,  elegance  and  distinction  of  style,  a  subtile  wit.  so  fond,  Racine  substitutes  "  a  simple  action,  burdened 

graceful  irony,  and  geniality.    Divested  of  all  dull  with  little  incident,  which,  as  it  gradually  advances 

learning  and  all  dialectic  formalism,  it  placed  within  towards  its  end,  is  sustained  only  by  the  interests,  the 

the  reach  of  every  serious  mind  the  deepest  theological  sentiments  and  the  emotions  of  the  characters"  (pref- 

questions.     As  far  removed  from  the  virorous  rhe-  ace  to  "B^nlnice")*    It  is,  accordingly,  the  study  of 

toric  of  Balzac,  as  from  the  studied  wit  ofvoiture,  it  character  and  emotion  that  we  must  look  for  in  Racine, 

embodied  in  prose  the  greatest  effort  to  reach  per-  In  "Britannicus"  and  in  "Athalie"  he  has  painted 

fection  that  we  meet  with  in  the  early  part  of  the  the  passion  of  ambition;  but  it  is  love  which  domi- 

seventeenth  century.  natc«  his  tragedies.    The  vigour,  the  vehemence,  wiUi 

Second  Period. — (1659-88):  the  Great  Epoch. —  which  Racine  has  analysed  this  passion  show  what  a 
Towards  1660  all  the  literary  cnaracteristics  wnich  we  degree  of  audacity  may  coexist  with  that  classic  genius 
have  seen  gradually  developing  in  the  previous  sixty  of  which  he  himself  is  the  best  example, 
years  have  taken  definite  form.  This  is  now  reinr  In  some  points  of  detail.  La  Fontaine,  whose  "Fa- 
forced  by  the  influence  of  the  Court.  After  the  short-  bles"  begtm  to  appear  in  1668,  differs  from  the  other 
lived  trouble  of  the  Fronde,  one  man  embodies  all  the  great  classics.  He  has  a  weakness  for  the  old  authors 
destinies  of  France:  the  kinjg,  Louis  XIV,  young,  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  even  for  those  of  the 
victorious,  at  the  zenith  of  his  glory.  In  literature,  Middle  .Ajges,  for  the  words  and  phrases  of  a  bysone 
as  in  his  government,  the  king  will  successfully  carry  time,  and  certain  popular  expressions.  But  he  is  an 
out  his  taste  for  re^arity,  forharmony,  and  nobility,  utter  dassic  in  his  correctness  and  appropriateness  of 


armms  ffenre 

^         .       _                                                   .  .^                      led  perfection 

ceding  period.        ...  ^^  nature  as  he  paints  it.    The  winged  grace  with 

Henceforth  nothing  is  appreciated  in  literature  but  which  he  skims  over  every  theme^  his  Udent  for  giving 

what  is  reasonable,  natural,  and  harmoniously  pro-  life  and  interest  to  the  actors  in  his  fables,  his  oonsum- 

portionate,  and  what  depicts  the  universal  in  man.  mate  skill  in  handling  verse— all  tiiese  qualities  make 

Then  follow  in  succession  all  those  masterpieces  which  him  one  of  the  great  writera  of  the  sevente^th  oen- 

realize  this  ideal,  upheld  by  Boileau,  the  great  law  tury. 

giver  of  classicism.    Beginnmg  in  1660,  Boileau  cave  fn  thw  second  period  of  the  seventeenth  centunr, 

to  the  world  his  "  Satires^',  his  "  Epistles",  in  which  he  indeed,  all  forms  of  literature  bear  their  fine  flower,  in 

shows  himself  a  marvellous  critic,  unerring  in  his  esti-  his  " Maxims"  (1665),  the  Duke  de  La  Rochefoucauld 

mate  of  contemporary  writers,  and  his  "  Art  po^tique  "  displays  a  profound  knowledge  of  human  nature,  and 

(1674),  a  literary  code  which  held  sway  for  more  than  an  almost  perfect  literary  style.    The  "  Lettres"  of 

a  century.    Seek  the  truth,  be  guided  by  reason,  imi-  Madame  de  S^vign^.  the  first  of  which  bears  the  date 

tate  nature— these  are  the  principles  which  Boileau  1617,  are  marvels  ot  wit,  vivacity,  and  sprightliness. 


FRANOS 


197 


FRANOS 


In  his  "Mtooires"  (completed  in  1675^  Cardinal  de 
Retz  furnishes  us  a  model  lor  this  class  ot  writing.  In 
the  " Princesse  de  Cldves"  (1678)  Madame  de  La  Fa^r- 
•tte  created  the  psychological  romance.  Finally,  it 
would  be  a  misconception  of  the  classical  genius  not  to 
allow  to  religious  inspiration  a  marked  place  in  this 
period.  The  whole  course  of  the  seventeenth  century 
was  deei>ly  permeated  by  the  spirit  of  religion.  Few 
of  its  writers  escaped  that  influence ;  and  those  who 
(tid.  also  remained  outside  the  general  current  and  the 
philosophic  movement  of  the  century.  Pulpit  ora- 
tory, too,  reached  a  high  decree  of  exoellenoe.  The 
first  years  of  the  oenturv  had  oeen,  so  to  sa;^,  fragrant 
with  the  oratory  of  that  most  lovable  of  samts,  Fran- 
901S  de  Sales  (1567-1622).  He  had,  in  1602,  preached 
the  Lenten  sermons  before  Henry  IV  at  the  Louvre, 
and  ravished  his  hearers  by  the  unction  of ^  his  dis- 
course, overflowing  with  a  wealth  of  pleasing  imagery. 
The  religious  revival  was  then  universal ;  orders  were 
founded  or  reformed.  Among  them  the  Oratorians, 
like  the  Jesuits,  produced  more  than  one  remarkable 
and  vigorous  preacher.  The  Jansenists,  in  their  turn, 
introduced  into  pulpit  eloquence  a  sober  styie  without 
any  great  wealtn  ot  fancy,  without  vivacity  or  bril- 
liancy, but  simple,  grave,  uniform.  Thus,  sacred  elo- 
ciuenoe,  already  flourishing  before  1660,  gradually  rid 
itself  of  the  defects  from  which  it  had  suffered  in  the 
preceding  period — ^the  trivialities,  the  tawdiy  refine- 
ments, the  abuse  of  profane  learning.  It  was  espe- 
cially during  the  brilliant  period  extending  from  1650 
to  1688  that  Christian  eloquence  reached  its  greatest 
power  and  perfectiozi,  when  its  two  most  illustrious 
representatives  were  Bossuet  and  Bourdaloue. 

In  1659  Bossuet  preached  in  Paris,  at  the  Minims, 
his  first  course  of  Lenten  sermons ;  during  the  next  ten 
years  his  mi^ty  voice  was  heaid  pourmg  forth  elo- 
quent sermons,  panegyrics^  ^and  funeral  orations. 
Animated,  earnest,  and  familiar  in  his  sermons,  sub- 
lime in  his  funeral  orations,  simple  and  lucid  in  theo- 
logical erooeitions,  he  always  carried  out  the  principle, 
embodiea  in  a  celebrated  definition,  "of  employmg 
the  word  only  for  the  thought,  and  the  thought  for 
truth  and  virtue".  Not  only  is  he  a  maenificent  ora- 
tor, the  greatest  that  ever  occupied  uie  pulpit  in 
France,  but  he  is  also,  perhaps,  the  writer  who  has  had 
the  most  delicate  appreciation  of  the  French  language. 
Furthermore,  it  must  not  be  forjgotten  that  Bossuet,  in 
his  "Discourse  on  Universal  History"  (1681),  did  the 
work  of  a  historian.  He  is,  indeed,  the  only  historian 
of  the  seventeenth  centuiy.  In  the  art  of  mvestigat- 
ing  historical  causes,  he  is  a  master  of  exceptional 
penetration,  and  his  conclusions  have  been  confirmed 
Dv  the  most  recent  discoveries  of  historical  science. 
He  founded  the  philosophy  of  history,  and  Montes- 
quieu, in  the  following  century,  had  but  little  to  add  to 
his  work.  Bourdaloue,  who  ascended  the  pulpit  left 
vacant  by  Bossuet  (1660),  is  a  very  different  man.  In 
Bourdaloue  we  do  not  find  the  abruptness  and  famil- 
iarity of  Bossuet,  but  an  imbroken  evenness,  a  style 
always  regular  and  symmetrical,  above  all  a  logician; 
he  appeals  to  the  reason,  rather  than  to  the  imagina- 
tion and  the  sensibilities. 

From  1688  to  1715. — In  the  short  space  of  eighteen 
years  classical  literature  was  in  ite  glory.  It  resulted 
from  the  equilibrium  between  all  the  f oreee  of  society 
and  all  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  an  equilibrium  not 
destined  to  last  long.  If,  during  the  last  years  of  the 
century,  the  great  writers  still  living  preserve  their 
powers  unimpaired  to  the  end,  we  feel,  nevertheless, 
that  new  forces  are  forming.  In  1688,  the  king, 
aged  and  absorbed  by  the  cares  of  his  foreign  poUcjy, 
ceased  to  take  his  former  interest  in  literature.  Dis- 
cipline becomes  relaxed.  The  salon,  which  for  a  while 
had  been  eclipsed  by  the  Court,  graauall^r  regained  ite 
ascendancy.  Under  ite  influence,  preciosity,  which 
had  disappeu^d  during  the  great  penod  of  classicism, 
began  to  revive.    This  becomes  evident  in  a  depart- 


ment in  which  it  would  seem  the  pricieux  would  ha^ 
but  little  interest,  that  of  sacred  eloquence.  Fl6chier 
marks  an  inordinate  propensity  to  wit  and  frivolities 
of  language.  Massillon,  who  is  Fl^chier's  heir,  lacks 
the  fine  equilibrium  between  thought  and  form  which 
was  f oimd  in  Bossuet.  He  is  a  wonderful  rhetorician 
who  sacrifices  too  much  to  the  adommente  of  style. 
Besides,  the  conception  of  style  prevalent  from  1650  to 
1688  underwent  a  chance.  In  tne  writers  of  the  golden 
age  the  period  was,  perhaps,  somewhat  too  lon^,  but  it 
was  brcxEui  and  spacious,  effectively  reproducmg  the 
movemente  of  the  thought:  it  was  now  replaced^y  a 
shorter  phrase,  more  rapia  and  more  incisive.  This 
new  styfe  is  that  of  the  ^*Caract^res"  of  La  Bruyfere 
ri688).  The  appearance  of  the  "Caractdres''  marks, 
furthermore,  a  still  more  important  change  in  taste. 
La  Bruy^re,  unl&e  the  igreat  classics,  does  not  give 
himself  up  to  the  general  and  abstract  study  of  man; 
what  he  painte  is  not  the  man  of  all  time,  but  the  man 
of  his  own  day,  his  looks,  his  vices,  and  nis  ridiculous 
traite.  Picturesque  details  and  outward  peculiarities 
constitute  the  great  attraction  in  the  style  of  the 
"Caract^res";  these,  too,  distinguish  it  from  the 
works  of  the  preceding^  period.  The  same  artistic 
qualities  are  also  found  m  Saint-Simon,  who  did  not 
write  his  "M6moires"  imtil  after  1722,  the  materials 
for  which  he  had  been  collecting  since  1606.  He  is  a 
writer,  however,  who  from  many  pointe  of  view  is  con- 
nected with  the  seventeenth  century.  Saint-Simon 
not  only  gives  a  moral  portrait  of  the  person  dealt 
with  in  his  "  M^moires  ",  but  by  dint  of  violent  colours, 
of  contrasting  touches,  daring  figures  combined  into  a 
brutal,  incorrect,  passionate,  and  feverish  style,  he 
reproduces  the  pnysical  man  to  the  life.  In  dramatic 
literature  comedy  follows  the  same  tendencies.^  After 
Moli^re,  and  after  Regnard,  who  imitated  him,  the 
comedy  of  character  comes  to  an  end,  and  with  Dan- 
court  (1661-1725).  the  comedy  of  manners,  which  has 
ite  inspiration  in  the  actual,  replaces  it.  Lastly,  F^n- 
elon  introduces  into  literature  a  spirit  utterly  foreign 
to  the  pure  classics,  so  reverent  of  tradition — ^tne 
spirit  of  novelty.  T^16maque  (1600),  a  romance  imi- 
tated from  antiquity,  records  the  views  of  the  author 
on  government,  foreshadows  the  eighteenth  century, 
anaite  mania  for  reform. 

The  Eighteenth  Century, — To  do  justice  to  the  wri- 
ters of  the  eighteenth  century,  we  mui^  change  our 
point  of  view.  In  truth,  the  eighteenth  century's 
conception  of  literature  differed  prof oundly  from  that 
of  the  great  writers  of  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  The 
eighteenth  century,  moreover,  never  rises  above  medi- 
ocrity when  it  attempte  to  follow  in  the  f ooteteps  of 
the  seventeenth,  but  is  always  interesting  when  it 
breaks  loose  from  it.  To  follow  ite  literary  develop- 
ment, we  must  divide  it,  like  the  preceding  century, 
into  three  periods:  (1)  1715-50;  (2)  1750-80;  (3) 
1789  1800. 

From  17*16  to  1750.— After  the  death  of  Louis  XIV, 
the  tendencies  which  already  manifested  themselves 
in  the  last  period  of  the  seventeenth  century  become 
more  marked.  The  classical  ideal  becomes  more  and 
more  distorted  and  weakened.  Consequently,  all  the 
^;reat  branches  of  literature  which  flourished  by  follow- 
mg  this  ideal  either  decay  or  are  radically  modified. 
The  tragic  vein  in  particular  is  completely  exhausted. 
After  lUicine,  there  are  no  loneer  any  great  writers  of 
tragedy,  but  only  imitetors,  of  whom  the  most  bril- 
liant is  Volteire,  whose  versatility  fite  him  for  every 
kind  of  literature.  Comedy  shows  more  vitality  than 
tragedy.  With  Dancourt  it  had  teken  the  direction 
of  portrayal  of  manners  in  their  most  fleeting  aspecte, 
and  the  tendency  betrays  itself  in  Lesage  (1668-1747). 
"  Turcaret ",  which  places  on  the  stace  not  a  character, 
but  a  condition  in  life — that  of  the  financier,  is  a  piece 
of  direct,  profound,  and  merciless  observation.  Ap- 
plying the  same  methods  to  romantic  literature,  Le- 
sage wrote  "Gil  Bias",  which  first  appeared  in  1715, 


YRANOS  198  FRANOS 

and  in  which,  in  spite  of  a  peculiar  method  of  narration,  interlarded  with  commonplaces.    It  is  none  the  less 

borrowed  from  Spain,  the  manners  and  the  soeietv  of  true  that  in  introducing  natmul  history  into  literature 

the  time  are  drawn  to  the  life.    Thus  "Gil  Bias    in-  he  exercised  a  considerable  influence;   from  Buff  on, 

augurates  in  French  literature  the  romance  of  manners,  who  set  forth  nature  in  its  various  aspects,  a  number 

The  most  original  of  the  writers  of  comedy  in  this  of  writers  were  to  issue.    The  consequence  of  this 

period,  however,  is  Marivaux,  who,  between  1722  and  broadening  of  literature  was  the  loss  of  the  piu^ly 

1740,  produced  his  charming  works,  "La  siuprise  de  speculative  and  disinterested  character  which  it  di£h 

Tamour",  "Le  jeu  de  Tamour  et  du  hasara",  "Le  played  in  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the  sole  aim 

Le^",  "Les  fausses  confidences",  etc.    The  utmost  of  the  writer  had  been  production  of  a  beautiful  work 

rennement  in  the  analysis  of  love — a  love  that  is  timid  and  the  inciilcation  of  certain  moral  truths.    The 

and  scrupulous — ^propriety  in  thesettingsof  his  works,  writers  of  the  eighteenth  century,  on  the  contrary, 

a  subtile  wit  beanne  the  stamp  of  gooasociety,  grace  wish  to  spread  in  society  the  philosophical  and/  scien- 

and  delicacy  of  feeling — these  are  the  distinguishing  tific  theories  they  have  adopted,  ana  this  diffusion  is 

characteristics  of  Marivaux.  effected  in  the  salons.    From  the  beginning  of  the 

But  if  the  great  classical  types  are  exhausted  or  fall  century,  the  salons,  formed  from  the  debris  of  Louis 
to  pieces  in  giving  birth  to  new  forms,  literature  is  XIV's  court,  had  assumed  a  considerable  importance, 
compensated  by  the  enlargement  of  its  domain  in  some  First,  it  was  the  little  court  of  the  Duchesse  au  Maine, 
directions,  absorbing  new  sources  of  inspiration,  at  Sceaux,  and  the  salon  of  the  Marquise  de  Lambert, 
Writers  turn  away  from  the  consideration  of  man  as  a  at  Paris.  Later  on,  other  salons  were  open^,  those 
moral  imit;  on  the  other  hand,  they  devote  them-  of  Mme  Geoffrin,  Mme  du  Deffand,  MUe  de  Lespinasse. 
selves  to  the  study  of  man  regarded  as  a  product  of  the  These  salons  in  their  dav  represented  public  opinion, 
changing  conditions  of  the  State,  political,  social  and  and  authors  wrote  to  influence  the  views  of  those  who 
reli^ous.  In  fact,  this  new  direction  of  literary  activ-  frequented  them.  Moderately  perceptible  in  the  first 
ity  IS  favoured  by  the  birth  of  what  has  been  called  halt  of  the  century,  this  tendency  of  literature  to  be- 
"  the  philosophic  spirit ".  ^  After  the  death  of  Louis  come  an  instrument  of  propaganda  and  even  of  con- 
XIV,  the  severe  restraint  imposed  upon  men's  Intel-  troversy,  becomes  bolder  in  the  second, 
lects  was  at  an  end.  Respect  for  authority  and  for  the  From  1760  to  1789. — Voltaire  is  one  of  the  first  to 
social  hierarchy,  submission  to  the  dictates  of  religion  mark  the  character  of  this  period.  Of  the  writers  who 
— ^these  were  things  never  questioned  by  any  of  the  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
seventeenth-century  writers.  From  the  earliest  years  the  c;reatest  glory  surroimds  Voltaire  (1694-1778). 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  on  the  contrary*,  an  aggres-  The  kind  of  intellectual  sovereignty  which  he  enjoyed, 
sive  movement  against  every  form  of  authority^  ®P^"  ^^*  °^'y  "^  France,  but  throughout  Europe,  is  attrib- 
tual  as  well  as  temporal,  becomes  perceptible.  This  utable  to  his  great  talent  as  a  writer  of  prose  as  well  as 
two-fold  disposition — curiosity  about  human  idiosyn-  to  his  great  versatility.  There  is  no  literary  form — 
crasies  as  they  vaiy  with  times,  places,  environments,  tra^y,  comedy,  epic  poetry,  tales  in  prose,  history, 
and  governments,  and  a  spirit  of  unfettered  criticism  criticism,  or  philosophy — ^in  which  he  did  not  practise 
— ^is  met  with  in  Montesquieu,  chronologically  the  with  more  or  less  success.  It  has  been  said  of  mm  that 
first  of  the  great  writers  of  the  ei^teenth  century,  he  was  only  "second  in  everv  class",  and  again  that  he 
Montesquieu,  indeed,  does  not  manifest  any  destruc-  is  the  "first  of  mediocrities".  Though  paradoxically 
tive  incfination  in  regard  to  government  and  reli^on;  expressed,  these  verdicts  are  partial  truths.  In  no 
nevertheless,  in  the  ^Lettres  persanes"  (1721),  there  branch  of  literature  was  Voltaire  an  originator  in  the 
is  a  tone  of  satire  previously  unknown.  Montesquieu  full  sense  of  the  word.  A  man  of  varied  gifts,  living  at 
shows  himself  the  disciple  of  La  Bruy^re,  but  does  not  a  time  when  thought  extended  its  domain  in  every 
hesitate  to  discuss  subjects  from  which  his  master  direction  and  took  hold  of  every  novelty,  he  is  the 
would  have  been  obliged  to  refrain:  social  problems,  most  accomplished  and  most  brilliant  of  popularizers. 
the  royal  power,  the  papacy.  The  "  Lettres  persanes"  In  the  early  part  of  his  career,  from  1717  until  1760,  he 
is  a  pamphlet  rather  than  the  work  of  a  moralist,  confines  himself  almost  entirely  to  purely  literary  work; 
They  make  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  French  literature,  but  after  1750,  his  writings  assume  the  militant  char- 
marking  the  first  appearance  of  the  political  satire,  acter  which  henceforth  distinguishes  French  literature. 
But  the  two  truly  great  works  of  Montesquieu  are  the  In  his  historical  works,  such  as  the  "  Sidcle  de  Louis 
"Considerations  sur  la  grandeur  et  la  decadence  des  Quatorze"  (1751)  and  the  "Essai  sur  les  Moeurs" 
Remains "  (1734),  and  the  "Esprit  des  Lois"  (1748).  (1756),  he  becomes  a  controversialist,  assailing  in  his 
In  the  "Considerations",  Montesquieu,  by  undertaking  narrative  the  Church,  her  institutions,  and  her  infiu- 
to  explain  the  succession  of  events  by  the  power  <h  ence  on  the  course  of  events.  Finally,  the  "  Diction- 
ideas,  the  character  of  the  people,  the  action  and  re-  naire  philosophique"  (1764)  and  a  number  of  treatises 
action  of  cause  and  effect,  inaugurated  an  historical  dealing  both  with  philosophy  and  exegesis,  which  Vol- 
method  unknown  to  his  predecessors — certainly  not  to  taire  gave  to  the  world  between  1763  and  1776,  are 
Bossuet,  who  was  the  most  illustrious  of  them.  From  wholly  devoted  to  reli^6us  polemics.  But,  while 
the  "Considerations"  the  whole  movement  of  modem  Voltaire  shows  his  hostility  to  reli^on,  he  attacks 
historical  study  was  to  draw  its  inspiration  later  on.  In  neither  political  authority  nor  the  social  hierarchy;  he 
the  "Esprit  des  Lois",  he  studies  how  laws  are  evolved  is  conservative,  not  revolutionary,  in  this  respect, 
under  the  influences  of  government,  climate,  religion,  With  Diderot  and  the  Encyclopedist^,  however,  litera- 
and  manners.  On  all  these  subjects,  in  spite  otcer-  ture  becomes  frankly  destructive  of  the  established 
tain  errors  of  detail,  he  threw  a  light  that  was  alto-  order  of  things.  Like  Voltaire,  Diderot  is  one  of  the 
gether  new.            ^             _  most  prolific  writers  of  the  eighteenth  century,  pro- 

With  Montesquieu,   jurisprudence,   politics,   and  ducing  in  turn  romances,  philosophical  treatises  tend- 

sociology  made  tneir  entrance  into  literature.    With  ing  towards  atheism,  essays  in  art-criticism,  dramas. 

Buffon,  science  has  its  turn.    Already  Fontenelle,  in  But  it  is  only  in  productiveness  that  Diderot  can  be 

his  "  Entretiens  sur  la  plurality  des  Mondes  *\  had  pop-  compared  with  Voltaire,  for  he  has  none  of  Voltaire's 

ularized  the  most  difficult  astronomical  theories.  Biu-  admirable  literary  gifts.     He  is  above  all  an  improvi- 

fon,  in  his  "Histoire  naturelle",  the  first  volumes  of  satore,  and,  with  the  exception  of  some  pages  that  are 

which  appeared  in  1749,  set  forth  the  ideas  of  his  time  remarkable  for  movement  and  colour,  his  work  is  con- 


written  in  a  pompous,  ambitious  style  ill  suited  to  the    peared  in  1751.    The  aim  of  this  bulky  publication 
severity  of  a  scientific  subject,  and  they  are  too  often    was  to  give  a  summary  of  science,  art,  Uten\ture, 


P&AHOI  Idd  rEABOK 

philoaophy  and  politica,  up  to  the  middle  ot  the  eigh-  (1760),  in  hia  work  on  education,  "Emjlo"  (1762), 

teeuth  centuiy.     To  briog  this  enterprise  to  a  Buceeaa-  lastly  in  the  "Contrat  social"  (1762)  which  was  to  be- 

(ul  issue,  Diderot,  who  reserved  to  himaelf  the  greatest  come  the  gospel  of  the  Revolution. 
part  of  the  work,  called  to  his  assistance  numerous         From  the  publication  of  his  first  work,  Rousseau 

collaborators,  amongst  whom  were  Voltaire,  Buffon,  won  a  success  that  was  immediate  and  startling.     This 

Montesquieu,     D'Alembert    and    Condillac.      Jean-  was  because  he  brought  qualities  entirely  novel  or 

Jacques  Kousseau  was  entrusted  with  the  department  which  had  long  been  forgotten.     With  him  eloquence 

of  music.     Despite  the  assistance  of  talents  so  diverse,  returns  to  literature.     Leaving  aside  his  influence  on 

the  same  spirit  breathes  throughout  the  work.     In  the  movement  of  politics,  we  must  ^ve  him  credit  tor 

philosophy,  the  EncyelopedisU  seek  to  subvert  the  allthattheFrenchliteratureof thenineteenthcentuiy 

principles  on  which  the  existing  iustitutiona  and  the  owes  to  him.    Rousseau,  by  causing  a  reaction  against' 

authority  of  dogmain  religion  were  based.    The  Ency-  the  philosophy  of  his  time,  prepared  the  revival  of 

clopedia,  therefore,  which  embodies  all  the  opinions  of  religious  sentiment.     It  was  he  who,  by  signalizing  in 

that  age.  is  a  work  of  destruction.     However  that  his  most  beautiful  pages  the  emotions  awakened  in 

may  be,  ita  influence  was  considerable;  it  served  as  a  him  by  certain  landscapes,  aroused  in  the  popular 


RaOUL  U  FliVRB  PRBSBNTtHa  PUIUP  TBI  GoOD  WITH    "  Jaboh  " 

XV  Centuiy  MS.,  BibUotb^ua  N&lianalc,  Pkria 

r^lying-point  for  the  philosophers,  and  by  acting  on  imagination  thefeelingfornature.  Rouaaeau,  too,  by 
puUic  opinion,  as  Diderot  had  intended,  came  to  his  thoroughly  plebeian  manner  of  parading  hia  per- 
change  the  common  way  of  thinking  ".  sonality  and  displaying  his  egotism,  helped  to  develop 
The  Encyclopedia  wrought  the  ruin  of  society,  that  sentiment  of  individualism  whence  aprangthe 
but  proposed  nothing  to  take  its  place;  Jean-Jacques  lyric  poetry  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  is  also 
Rousseau  dreamed  of  effecting  its  re-constitution  on  a  responsible  for  some  of  the  most  regrettable  character- 
new  plan.  On  certain  points,  Rousseau  breaks  with  istics  of  nineteenth-century  literature — for  that  mel- 
the  philoiophes  and  the  Encyclopedists.  Both  of  ancholy  and  unrest  which  has  been  termed  "the 
these  believed  in  the  sovereignty  of  reason^  not,  as  was  distemper  of  the  age  ",  and  which  was  originally  the 
the  case  with  the  seventeenth-century_  wnters,  in  rea-  distemper  of  the  hypochondriac  Jean-Jacques;  for 
son  subject  to  faith  and  controlled  by  it,  but  in  reason  the  revolt  against  society;  for  the  belief  that  passion 
absolute,  universal,  and  refusing  to  ^mit  what  eludes  hasn^htsofitsownand  dominates  the  lives  of  mortals 
its  deductions— that  is  to  say,  the  truths  revealed  by  as  a  fatal  compulsion. 

religion.     They  also  believed  in  the  omnipotence  of  The  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  is  from  some 

science,  in  human  progress  and  in  civilization  guided  points  of  view  a  time  of  regeneration,  and  forebodes  a 

by  reason  and  science.     Rousseau,  on  the  contrary,  in  still  more  radical  and  complete  transformation  of  lit- 

his  first  notable  work,  "  Discoura  sur  les  sciences  et  les  erature  in  the  immediate  luture.     Some  branches  ot 

arts"  (1751),  assails  reason  and  science,  and  in  a  cer-  literature  that  had  been  n^lected  in  the  course  of  the 

tain  sense  denies  progress.    On  the  other  hand,  in  century  receive  new  life  and  energy,    Since  I^esage's 

niaintaining   the   natural   goodness   of   man   he   ap-  "Turcaret"  and  after  Marivaux,  comedy  had  baraly 

proaches  the  pkilosopha.     In  his  opinion,  society  has  produced  anything  above  the  commonplace:    it  re- 

Krverted  man,  who  is  by  nature  good  and  virtuous,  vives  in  the  amusmg  "Barbier  de  Seville"  (1775)  of 
B  replaced  primitive  liberty  with  despotism,  and  Beaumarchais,  full  of  life  and  rapid  movement.  Beau- 
brought  inequality  amongst  men.  Society,  therefore,  marchais  owes  much  to  his  predecessors,  to  Moli^re, 
IB  evu;  being  so,  it  must  De  abolished,  and  men  must  Re^^,  and  many  others.  His  originality  as  a  play- 
return  to  thestateof  nature,  that  happiness  may  reign  wnght  consists  in  the  political  and  social  satire  with 
■  amongthem.  This  return  to  the  natural  state  Rous-  which  his  comedies  are  filled.  Inthisrespecttheyare 
MUi  preaches  in  hia  romance,  "Lanouvelle  H^lolse"  the  children  of  the  eighteenth  century,  essential^  com- 


'     ■  1 


P&ANOS 


200 


FRANCE 


bative.  In  the  "  Barbier  de  Seville  "  the  impertinent 
Figaro  rails  at  the  privileges  of  the  aristocracy.  In 
the  ''  Manage  de  Figaro ''  tae  satire  becomes  more  vio- 
lent; the  famous  monologue  of  the  fifth  act  is  a  bitter 
invective  against  the  aristocracy,  against  the  inequal- 
ity of  social  conditions  and  the  restrictions  imposed 
on  liberty  of  thought. 

Finally,  with  Andr6  Ch^nier,  lyric  poetry  revives, 
after  the  neglect  of  the  eighteenth  century,  which  had 
looked  upon  verse-writing  as  a  mere  diversion  and  a 
frivolous  toying  with  syllables.  •  By  returning  to  an- 
cient, and  especially  Greek,  models,  in  his  "  Eclogues" 
and  his  **  Elegies"  (1785-91),  Ch^nier  begins  by  bring- 
ing into  his  poetry  a  new  note;  at  the  verv  outset  he 
renews  Ronsard's  experiment;  later  on  the  Revolu- 
tion affords  him  a  more  vigorous  inspiration.  In  pres- 
ence of  the  horrors  of  the  Terror,  stured  up  by  wrath 
and  impelled  by  indignation,  he  composea  his  "  lam- 
bes"  (1794).  In  recovering  the  sincerity  of  emotion 
and  fl;ravity  of  thought  wmch  were  wanting  to  the 
versifiers  of  the  eighteenth  century  (Jean-Baptiste 
Rousseau,  Delille  and  even  Voltaire),  Andr6  Ch^nier 
restored  to  French  poetry  the  true  voice  of  the  lyre. 

From  1789  to  1800.— In  the  throes  of  the  Revolu- 
tion there  is  an  abundance  of  writing,  but  these  works, 
mere  imitation  of  great  writers  who  flourished  during 
the  century,  are  valueless;  the  sole  author  of  note  is 
Ch^nier  (d.  1794).  It  is  true  that  under  the  influence 
of  events,  a  new  literary  genre  arises,  that  of  political 
eloquence.  The  isolated  protestations  of  the  States- 
General  under  the  monarchy  afforded  no  genuine  op- 
portunity for  public  speaking;  it  was  in  other  modes, 
notably  throufl^  the  puli)it,  that  the  eloquence  for 
which  a  stricuy  appropriate  platform  was  lacking 
must  perforce  manliest  itself  in  that  period.  But  the 
great  Revolutionary  assemblies  favoured  the  develop- 
ment of  remarkable  oratorical  gifts.  The  most  famous 
among  the  orators — and  he  was  one  who  really  pos- 
sessea  genius — ^was  Minibeau.  The  blemishes  ot  his 
style — a  congeries  of  violent  contrasts — ^the  incoher- 
ency  of  his  figures  and  the  diteordance  of  his  shades  of 
meaning — all  these  defects  vanished  in  the  mighty 
onrush  of  his  eloquence,  swept  awa^  in  an  over- 
mastering current  of  oratorical  inspiration. 

Ths  NtneteerUh  Century. — It  is  yet  too  early  to  at- 
tempt the  task  of  determining  the  due  place  of  the 
nineteenth  century  in  the  literary  history  of  France; 
the  men  and  the  affairs  of  that  century  are  still  near 
to  us,  and  in  the  study  of  literature  a  true  perspective 
can  be  obtained  onl^r  from  a  certain  distance.  A  few 
general  characteristics,  however,  may  be  taken  as 
already  fairly  ascertained. 

The  nineteenth  century  was  one  of  renascence  in 
literature:  in  it,  following  immediately  upon  great 
events,  a  great  intellectual  movement  came  mto  Ming, 
and  at  one  definitelv  assignable  moment  there  ap- 
peared a  splendid  efdorescence  of  genius;  most  of  all. 
this  movement  was  a  renascence  b^ause  it  rid  itself  of 
those  theories,  adopted  by  the  preceding  century, 
which  had  been  the  death  of  that  century's  impover- 
ished literature.  Imagination  and  feeling  reappear  in 
literature,  and  out  of  these  qualities  lync  poetry  and 
the  romance  develop.  At  the  same  time  the  sciences, 
daily  acquiring  more  importance,  exercise  a  greater 
influence  on  thought,  so  tnat  minds  take  a  new  mould. 

We  may  distinguish  three  periods  in  the  nineteenth 
oentui^:  the  first,  the  period  of  preparation,  is  that  of 
the  First  Empire;  the  second,  that  of  intellectual 
eflSorescence,  extends  from  1820  to  1850;  lastly,  the 
modem  period,  which  seems  to  us  in  these  days  less 
brilliant  because  the  works  produced  in  it  have  liot  yet 
attained  the  prestige  that  comes  with  age. 

From  1800  to  1820.— Chateaubriand  Is  the  great 
originator  of  nineteenth-century  French  literature; 
from  him  proceed  nearly  the  whole  line  of  nineteenth- 
century  writers.  In  1802  appeared  his  "G^nie  du 
Cyhristianisme";  in  this  work  Chateaubriand  not  only 


defends  Christianity,  towards  which  the  intellects  of 
the  eighteenth  century  had  been  vaguely  hostile — not 
only  snows  that  Cliristianity  is  the  greatest  source  of 
inspiration  to  letters  and  the  arts — But  also  sets  forth 
certain  literary  theories  of  his  own.  He  asserts  the 
necessity  of  breaking  with  classical  tradition,  which 
has  had  its  day  and  is  exhausted,  and  of  opening  a  new 
way  for  art.  This  is  one  of  the  great  ideas  developed 
by  this  author,  and  thenceforth  ml  is  over  with  Classi- 
cism. But  Chateaubriand's  work  and  his  influence 
were  not  limited  to  this ;  constantly  calling  attention 
to  the  interest  offered  by  the  study  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
as  he  does  in  "Le  G^nie  du  (Dhristianisme",  he  en- 
gages both  history  and  poetry  in  new  directions.  On 
another  side,  where  he  displays  his  own  personal  suf- 
ferings in  "Ren^"  (1805),  he  develops  the  sentiment 
of  the  Eao,  already  affirmed  by  Rousseau,  from  which 
modem  lyricism  springs.  Lastly,  in  the  many  beau- 
tiful pages  of  " Les  Martyrs"  or  of  his  descriptions  of 
travels,  he  furnishes  models  of  a  map;nificent  prose 
st^e,  lull  of  colour,  rhythmical,  well  ntted  to  repro- 
duce the  most  brilliant  aspects  of  nature  and  to  ex- 
press the  deepest  emotions  of  the  heart. 

Side  by  side  with  Chateaubriand,  another  great  figure 
dominates  this  first  period,  that  of  Madame  de  Sta§l. 
Where  Chateaubriand  personifies  the  reaction  against 
the  eighteenth  century,  Mme  de  Sta^l,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  the  incarnation  of  eighteenth-century  tradi- 
tions. Hers  is  the  school  of  the  Idiologuee^  lineal 
representatives  of  the  Encyclopedists.  And  yet  in 
many  respects  she  must  be  regarded  as  an  innovator. 
In  her  book  "  De  la  Litt^rature",  she  lays  the  founda- 
tions of  that  modem  literary  criticism  which  aims  to 
study  each  work  in  its  own  particular  conditions  of 
origin.  In  her  "Considerations  sur  la  Revolution 
fran9aise"  (1818),  she  is  the  first  to  inquire  into  the 
causes  of  that  great  social  effect^  thus  leading  the  wav 
where  many  of  the  great  historians  of  the  nmeteenth 
century  are  to  follow.  Lastly,  in  her  principal  work, 
"De  TAllemagne"  (1810),  she  reveab  to  France  a 
whole  literature  then  unknown  in  that  country,  the 
influence  of  which  is  to  make  itself  felt  in  the  Romantic 
writers. 

From  1820  to  1850. — In  this  period  those  literary 
ideas  of  which  the  germs  had  been  in  Chateaubriand 
found  their  fullest  expression  with  the  Romantic 
school.  Almost  all  the  writers  whose  works  appeared 
between  1820  and  1850  were  connected  witn  this 
school.  Its  theories  mav  best  be  defined  as.  the  oppo- 
site of  the  Classicist  doctrine.  The  Classics  were 
idealists;  they  held  that  art  should  above  all  be  the 
representation  of  the  beautiful ;  the  Romantics  were 
now  about  to  claim  from  the  municipality  of  literature 
a  full  license  to  give  public  representations  of  hideous 
and  grotesque  things. 

T&  Classics  hold  that  the  reason  is  the  ruling  fac- 
ulty in  poetry;  the  Romantics  protest  in  the  name  of 
imagination  and  fantasy.  The  Classics  go  to  antiq- 
uity for  the  models  of  their  art  and  the  sources  of  their 
inspiration;  the  Romantics  are  inspired  by  contem- 

Sirary  foreign  literatures,  by  Goethe,  Schiller,  and 
yron;  they  will  reach  the  point  of  swearing  by  the 
example  of  Shakespeare  as  men  in  the  seventeenth 
centurv  swore  by  the  words  of  Aristotle.  For  pagan 
mythology  they  will  substitute  the  Christian  art  of  the 
MiddleAges,  will  extol  the  Gothic  cathedral  and  put 
the  troubadours  in  the  place  of  the  rhapsodists.  The 
same  system  applies  in  respect  to  form:  where  the 
Classics  prized  clarity  and  precision  above  all  things, 
the  Romantics  will  seek  rather  glitter  and  colour  ana 
carry  their  taste  for  effect,  for  contrast,  and  for  an- 
tithesis to  the  point  of  mania. 

Though  the  Romantic  doctrine  had  its  manif^a^ 
tions  in  every  form  of  literature,  its  first  applications 
were  in  poetry.  Lamartine,  with  the  publication  of 
his  "  Mraitations  po^tiques  "  (1820),  gave  the  signal  for 
the  movement,  and  presented  the  £st  monument  di 


FRAHOS 


201 


FRAHOS 


modem  lyricism.  In  this  collection  of  his  and  in  those 
which  followed— "Nouvelles  M&iitations"  (1823), 
"Harmonies pontic ues  et  religieuses"(1830) — ^we  find 
a  combination  of  all  those  Qualities  the  lack  of  which 
had  kept  the  versifiers  of  the  preceding  oenturv  from 
being  true  poets.  The  expansbn  of  tne  mans  own 
individual  nature,  the  religious  faith  which  makes  him 
see  Divine  manifestations  m  everjrthing,  his  disquiet  in 
presence  of  the  great  pToblems  of  himian  destiny,  his 
deep  and  serious  love,  his  intimate  communion  with 
nature,  his  dreamy  melancholy — these  are  the  ^;reat  sen- 
timents from  which  Lamartine's  Ivricism  has  its  origin. 
If  Lamartine  is  the  earliest  of  the  Romantics,  the 
true  real  chief  of  the  new  school  is  Victor  Huso,  whose 
career,  from  1822  to  1885,  extends  over  tne  whole 
nineteenth  century,  but  who  by  his  inspiration  be- 


proverbes),  Musset  exhibits  some  qualities  which  are 
not  apparent  in  his  great  predecessors,  el^ance,  light- 
ness of  touch,  wit.  On  the  other  hand,  he  has  neither 
Victor  Hugo  s  variety  of  inspiration  nor  Lamartine 's 
elevation  ol  thought.  He  is  characterized  by  the  pro- 
foimd,  sincere,  penetrating  emotion  with  which  he 
expresses  the  inmost  sufferings  of  his  stricken  and 
harassed  soul.  The  peculiarity  of  Alfred  de  Vigny 
(1797-1863),  another  great  poet  of  this  period,  is  that, 
unlike  most  of  the  Romantics,  who  are  not  rich  in 
ideas,  he  is  a  thinker.  A  phflosophical  poet,  he  fills 
his  verses  not  with  sensations,  emotions,  and  personal 
confidences,  but  with  ideas  translated  into  syinbols 
C' Formes  anciens  et  modemes'';  ''Les  Destines'') 
which  express  his  pessimistic  conception  of  life.  As 
for  Thdopnile  Gautier,  while  his  youthful  enthusiasms 


]rfftrA^llo*^or<Smstiaiteni^ 


/ 


;ll09^intdCAl?9llC^(br 


Ml^l 


Pasbaqb  prom  .a  Sbrmon  of  St.  Bernard  of  Ci.airvaux 
XII-XIII  Century  MS..  Royal  Library,  Berlin 


longs  to  the  period  (1820-50)  which  we  are  now  con- 
sidering. Not  only  has  he  endeavoured  to  define  the 
romantic  ideal  in  many  of  his  prefaces,  but  he  has  set 
himself  to  realize  it  in  all  departments  of  literature^  no 
less  in  romance  and  drama  than  in  poetry.  Still,  it  is 
in  the  last  that  he  has  produced  his  finest  works. 
With  him,  however,  lyricism  results  less  from  the  out^ 
pouring  of  his  inmost  feelings  and  of  his  Ego  than  from 
a  inasterly  faculty  which  he  has  of  concentrating  his 
mind  upon  events  takine  place  around  him — events 
public  and  private — of  listening  to  their  reverbera- 
tions, their  echoes,  within  himself,  and  translating 
those  echoes  into  strophes  of  incomparable  amplitude, 
ma^ifioence,  and  diversity  of  movement.  In  a  later 
period  this  impersonal  lyrici8m,which  has  dictated  all 
nis  poetical  works  from  1831  to  1856,  gives  place  to 
another  inspiration,  the  product  of  which  is  ''La 
Ldgende  des  Slides"  (1859-76).  This  vast  epic  of 
humanity,  viewed  in  its  j^at  moments,  is,  perhaps,  a 
unioue  work  in  French  literature ;  at  any  rate  it  is  the 
work  in  which  Victor  Hugo  has  most  thoroughly  real- 
ized his  genius — a  genius  compact  of  imagination  that 
exaggerates  beings  and  things  beyond  all  measure,  of 
art  miehty  to  describe,  to  paint,  and  to  evoke,  and  a 
marvellous  gift  for  creatine  images. 

Very  different  from  botn  Lamartine  and  Victor 
Huso  is  Alfred  de  Musset  (1810-57).  In  his  poetical 
wonu  as  well  as  in  his  prose  dramas  (Oomedies  et 


and  his  Extreme  taste  for  the  picturesque  connect  him 
with  the  Romantics,  he  parts  company  with  them  in  a 
conception  of  poetry  (Emaux  et  Cam^s.  1852) 
wherein  he  makes  no  exhibition  either  of  his  Ego  or  of 
itd  sentimental  outpouring,  but  keeps  to  the  work  of 
rendering  the  aspect  of  things  outside  of  himself  with  a 

gainter's  fidelity  and  resources  of  colouring.  Tlius 
is  lyricism  forms  a  transition  between  that  of  the 
Romantics  and  that  of  the  Pamasden  school  which  is 
to  succeed  them. 

The  great  ambition  of  Romanticism  was  to  be  su- 
preme m  the  drama  as  well  as  in  poetry.  Indeed  it 
was  in  the  theatre  that  the  great  battle  was  fought  in 
which,  between  1820  and  1830.  the  partisans  of  the 
new  school  encountered  the  belated  defenders  of  the 
classical  ideal.  3ut  while  in  lyric  poetry  Romanti- 
cism succeeded  in  creating  ventable  masterpieces,  it 
was  idmost  a  failure  in  the  drama.  In  1827  Victor 
Hugo,  in  his  preface  to  "Cromwell",  expounds  the 
new  dramatic  system:  no  more  unities,  but  absolute 
liberty  for  the  author  to  develop  his  action  i  ust  as  he 
conceives  it;  the  mineling  of  the  tragic  and  tne  comic, 
which  the  Classics  abnor,  is  authorized  and  even  rec- 
ominended;  no  more  dreams,  no  more  minor  charac- 
ters introduced  into  the  piece  solely  that  the  hero  may 
explain  the  plot  to  them  for  the  benefit  of  the  audi- 
ence; on  the  other  hand  there  was  to  be  an  historical 
setting,  local  colour,  complicated  accessories,  and  au- 


FRANOE 


202 


FRANOE 


thentic  costuming.  Lastly,  Shakespeare,  Goethe,  and 
Schiller  are  the  masters  to  imitate,  not  Comeille  and 
Racine.  This  resoimdin^  preface  was  followed  by  a 
succession  of  works  in  whicn  the  authors  endeavoured 
to  apply  its  theories.  There  is  "  Henri  III  et  sa  Cour  " 
(1829),  by  ^exandre  Dimoas,  ph-e.  full  of  animation, 
but  infantile  in  its  psychol(^  and  written  in  a  bad, 
melodramatic  style;  Alfred  oe  Vigny  contributes  "Le 
More  de  Venise''^(1829)  and  "La  Mar^chale  d'Ancre" 
(1830) ;  last  comes  Victor  Hugo's  own  series  of  dramas 
in  verse  and  prose,  "Hemani"  (1830),  "Marion  -de 
Lorme"  (1831),"Lerois'amuse"  (1832),  "Ruy  Bias" 
(1838),  "Les  Burgraves"  (1843).  These  pieces  are 
characterized  by  a  wealth  of  extraordinary  mcident — 
by  dark  intrigues,  duels,  assassinations^  poisonings, 
ambuscades,  abductions;  their  historical  setting, 
above  all,  is  a  feast  for  the  eyes.  Solid  foundation 
there  is  none^  historical  truth  and  logical  action  are 
utterly  lacking.  The  dramas  of  Victor  Hugo  survive 
and  still  bear  staging  only  because  the  author  has  lav- 
ished upon  them  all  the  resources  of  his  astounding 
lyricism. 

As  for  comedy,  it  was  neglected  by  the  Romantics — 
for  Musset's  delicious,  and  often  profound,  little  pieces 
were  not  made  to  be  acted.  From  1820  to  1850  the 
comic  stage  was  dominated  by  an  author  who  was 
altogether  outside  of  the  Romantic  movement.  Scribe. 
a  prolific  writer  of  vaudevilles  with  no  power  of  vital 
observation,  but  a  great  command  of  sustained  plot. 

The  romance,  which  had  been  neglected  by  the 
great  writers  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  in  this  period  takes  a  foremost  place  in  lit- 
erature. Here  again  we  find  the  influence  of  Ro- 
manticism, though  that  influence  clashes  with  other 
tendencies.  In  the  historical  romance,  imitated 
from  Walter  Scott,  it  is  supreme.  Alfred  de  Vigny's 
"Cinq Mars"  (1826)  and  Victor  Hugo's  "  Notre-Dame 
de  Paris"  (1831)  are  distinctly  Romantic  in  the  local 
colour  which  their  authors  employ  and  the  violently 
dramatic  character  of  their  plots.  The  same  charac- 
teristics appear  in  the  innumerable  romances  of  Alex- 
andre Dumas,  pkre,  which,  although  by  no  means 
rtrong  in  literary  quality,  give  pleasure  by  their  fe- 
cu/'dity  of  invention  (Les  Trois  Mousquetaires,  1844). 
A^in,  the  romances  of  George  Sand,  at  least  those 
written  in  her  first  manner,  are  of  the  Romantic  school 
by  virtue  of  their  lyrical  exaltation  of  the  EgOj  their 
elaborate  display  of  sentiment,  and  of  passion  exag- 
gerated to  the  decree  of  paroxysm  ("  Inmana",  1832). 
Her  heroines  are  possessed  by  the  restlessness,  the 
imsatisfied  longings,  the  anguish  of  soul  which  Ren6 
suffered.  George  Sand,  however,  was  to  abandon 
Romanticism  at  a  later  period,  in  her  romances 
of  country  life  ("La  Mare  au  Diable",  "Francois  le 
Champi",  etc.,  from  1844  to  1850),  idealized  pictures 
of  peasant  life  and  true  masterpieces  of  their  class. 

But  if  George  Sand's  career  was  half  finished  before 
she  parted  wi&  Romanticism,  other  writers  in  this  de- 
partment altogether  escaped  its  influence,  abiding  by 
the  traditions  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Benjamin 
'Constant,  in  "  Adolphe'^  carries  on  the  line  of  roman- 
ces of  ps^rchologicai  analysis.  Stendhal,  too,  who  in- 
heritea  his  ideas  and  his  precise,  dry  style  from  the 
pkHosophea  of  the  eighteenth  century,  is  a  subtile  psy- 
chologist, sometimes  penetrating,  often  affected. 
Little  api>reciated  in  his  own  day,  he  will  exert  a  great 
influence  in  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
M^m6e  ver^  much  resembles  Stendhal;  he  excels  m 
the  art  of  fitting  into  the  frame  of  a  short  novel  a  fin- 
ished picture  of  his  scene  of  action  with  clean-cut, 
vigorous  indications  of  his  characters.  And  Balzac, 
the  great  master  of  the  romance  in  this  period,  owes 
^most  nothing  to  Romanticism.  A  peer  of  the  crea- 
tive geniuses — the  Shakespeares  and  Moli^re&^Balzac 
could  set  in  motion,  in  his  "Com^die  Humaine",  an 
imaginary  world  of  oeings  as  truly  living  as  the  flesh- 
snd-blood  beings  who  people  the  actual  world.    Cer- 


tain of  his  characters,  while  animated  with  an  in* 
tensely  individual  life,  present,  at  the  same  time,  so 
universal  a  portraiture  as  to  constitute  veritable  tjrpes 
corresponding  to  the  great  passions  and  sentiments  of 
humanity. 

Among  the  great  branches  of  literature  which  were 
restored  between  1820  and  1850  history  and  criticism 
must  be  reckoned.  At  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth centurjr  history  could  haraly  be  said  to  exist. 
The  philosophical  tendencies  which  it  had  acquired 
from  the  eighteenth  century  were  prejudicial  to  its 
exactitude,  but  what  it  lacked  in  a  still  more  marked 
degree  was  the  power  of  realizing  the  past— in  other 
words,  the  power  of  ima^nation — comoined  with  the 
critical  spirit.  Romanticism  supplied  it  with  the 
former  of  these  reouisites;  the  latter  it  borrowed  from 
the  sciences^  which  developed  so  rapidly  in  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  impressed  the  mind 
of  that  age  with  their  vigorous  methods.  Of  the  his- 
torians of  this  period,  some  attach  the  greater  impor- 
tance to  critical  study  and  interpretation  of  facts, 
others  devote  themselves  to  reconstructing  the  fea- 
tures of  the  past,  with  all  its  colour  and  picturesque 
quality.  To  the  former  school  belong  Guizot,  who 
traces  the  concatenation  of  facts,  showing  what  causes 
— apolitical,  social,  and  religious — ^produced  them, 
Thiers,  who,  in  his  "Le  Consulat  et  TEmpire",  lays 
bare  Napoleon's  policy  and  strategy  with  remarkable 
lucidity;  Mienet,  who  excels  in  the  art  of  singling  out 
the  essentialfeatures  of  an  epoch.  Augustin  Thierry 
and  Michelet  belong  to  the  other  school.  Thierry  pos- 
sessed in  a  rare  degree  the  sense  of  historical  verity, 
and  his  "R^cits  des  Temps  M6rovingiens"  (1838)  is 
the  first  example  in  Frencn  literature  of  a  picturesque 
history  which  is  at  the  same  time  founded  upon  exact 
erudition.  Lastly,  with  Michelet  history  becomes  in 
very  truth  a  resurrection  of  the  past.  Powerfully 
imaj^ative,  indeed  a  poet  by  instinct,  Michelet  rather 
conjures  up  history  than  relates  it.  His  "  Histoire  de 
France  "  is  a  canvas  upon  which  he  has  in  marvellous 
fashion  caused  persons,  feelings,  and  manners  to  live 
again. 

Concurrently  with  history,  and  under  the  same  in- 
fluences, literary  criticism  puts  on  a  new  physiognomy. 
It  is  no  longer  theoretic;  henqeforth  its  principal  con- 
cern is  not  to  judge  the  merits  of  literary  works,  but  to 
determine  the  conditions  in  which  they  have  been 
elaborated.  It  is  personified  in  Sainte-fieuve  (1804- 
69)^  who  traces  a  detailed  biography  and  a  careful  por- 
trait of  each  writer  and,  reconstructing  his  appearance 
and  character  in  a  thousand  scrupulously  verified  par- 
ticulars, seeks  thus  to  explain  his  works. 

Lastly,  the  religious  renascence  which  took  place  at 
the  beginning  of  the  century,  after  the  revolutionary 
frenzy,  and  wnich,  in  profane  literature,  gave  Chateau- 
briand and  Lamartine  their  inspiration,  nad  the  effect 
of  giving  back  its  force  and  its  brilliancy  to  sacred 
literature,  so  impoverished  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
Theological  controversy  reappeared  with  Lamennais, 
a  remarkable  writer  with  a  violent  imagination  and  a 
style  characterized  bv  its  strong  reliefs  ("Essai  sur 
I'indiff^rence  en  matiere  de  religion",  1817;  "Paroles 
d'un  croyant",  1834).  At  the  same  time  P6re  Lacor- 
daire  lifted  the  multitude  out  of  itself  with  his  fiery 
discourses,  and  imported  into  pulpit  eloquence  the 
burning  lyricism  of  the  Romantics. 

From  1850  to  the  End  of  the  Century. — ^This  period 
seems  confused  to  our  present  view,  which,  with  its 
necessarily  short  focus,  can  hardly  distinguish  all  the 
dominant  tendencies.  Still,  speaking  veiy  generally, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  period  was  marked  by  a  reac- 
tion against  the  lyricism  of  the  Romantics,  a  return  to 
the  study  of  reality,  and,  lastly,  the  coming  of  Positiv- 
ism, through  the  influence  of  Kenan  and  Taine,  two 
philosophers  who  acted  powerfully  upon  most  writers 
of  their  time. 

In  poetry  these  tendencies  have  expressed  them- 


rSANOE 


selves  in  the  theories  and  the  works  of  the  Parnassian  writer's  puttmg  himseU  into  his  work;  the  work  must 

poets,  so  called  because  the  first  collection  of  their  be  objective,  impersonal,  impassive.     In  the  second 

veraea  appeared  (in  1866}  under  the  title  "  Pamasae  place  he  makes  it  his  task  to  paint  life  as  it  is,  or  as  h» 

Gontemporain ".    The  Parnassian  poetry  is  character-  sees  it,  with  whatever  there  may  be  in  it  of  unloveli- 

: t    :_  »t~  c *  „i L„ 4.  _*_:,.:_„  _»**_  ? — > Lj  -t t ^-.__      Ti_f_  ji__ *  ti . :_ 


I'AnJiuil,  Full 


iied,  in  the  first  place,  bv  great  striving  after  imper-     ness  and  of  vulirarity.     This  theory  of  the  romance  is 
sonality,  the  writer  makine  it  his  object  to  avoid     in  evidence  in  aH  liis  works,  as  much  in  a  study  of  pro- 
putting  into  his  work  anything  of  his  own  personal    vincial  bourgeois  life,  like    Madame  Bova^,  as  ma 
picture  of  Paris  life,  like "I'Kducationsentunentale", 
or  a  reconatruction  of  a  vanished  civilisation,  like 
"Salammbd"  (1862). 

From  Flaubert's  example  and  from  the  miuntorpre- 
tation  of  Positivist  theories  issued  the  Naturalistic 
school.     This  again  was  realism,  but  roalism  publish- 
ing far  and  wide  its  own  scientific  pretensions  and 
seeking  to  assimilate  tlie  processes  of  Uterature  to 
those  of  science.     The  leader,  and  the  theorist,  of 
Naturalism   wiia   Emile   Zola   (1840-1902),  a  writer 
whose  gift  was  compounded  of  strength  and  triviality, 
and  whose  books  ("Lea  Rougon-Macquart",  a  series 
of  romances,  from  1871  to  1893),  are  tainted  with  an 
unpardonable  coarseness.    To  the  Naturalistic  school 
belong  the  Goncourt  brothers,  who  have  sought  to  ex- 
press reality  by  the  aid  of  a  bizarre,  tortured,  and 
pedantic  vocabulary,  and  Guy  de  Maupa^nt  (1850- 
1893),  whose  powers  of  observation,  his  intensity  of 
vision,  and  a  robust  style  borrowea  from  the  finest 
traditions  place  him  amone  the  best  writers  of  this 
group.     Alphonse  Daudet  (1840-97),  another  writer 
who  aims  to  portray  life  as  it  is,  nevertheless  stands 
apart  from  Naturalism  by  virtue  of  his  own  peculiar 
emotions;  and  next,  anxious  to  be  before  all  thmga  an     qualities  of  sensibility,  fancy,  and  irony.     If  he  haa 
artist,  the  writer  carries  to  an  excess  the  effort  to     painted  Parisian  life  (''LeNabab",187S),  he  hasnone 
attain  perfection  of  form.    The  chief  of  the  Pamas-    the  less  succeeded  in  describing  the  destinies  of  the 
sian  school  was  Leconte  de  I'lsle  (1820-1804) ;  he  does    lowly  with  a  sympathetic  tenderness.* 
not  take  himself  as  the  theme  of  his  "Pofiraes  an-         In  spite  of  the  encroaching  RjaUatio  tendencies,  the 
tiquea"  (1853)  or  his  "  Poimes  barbares "  (1862);  his     idealist  and  Romantic  romance,  in  the  manner  irf 
theme  is  the  history  of  humanity.    His  work  is  at  once     George  Sand,  survived  with  Octave  Feuillet  (1821- 
learned,  epical,  and  philosophical.    Others  belonging    91),  a  dainty  writer  who  embodies  in  a  wonderful  de- 
to  the  Pamaaaian  scboot,  though  each  with  his  own     gree  the  type  of  the  fashionable  story-teller.     How- 
personality,  are:    J.  M,  de  H«r«dia  (1842-1905),  an     ever,  after  1885,  although  Realism  is  still  the  mspira^ 
immediate  disciple  of  Leconte  de  I'lslc,  who  has  man-    tion  of  most  French  fiction.  Naturalism,  with  its  ex- 
aged  to  produce  a  complete  nicture  of  some  epoch  in     aggerationa,  its  deliberate  determination  to  be  coarse, 
each  of  the  sonnets  of  his  "Trophies"  (1893);  Sully-     its  narrow  and  brutal  [esthetics,  loses  ground  and  soon 
Prudhomme,  both  poet  of  the  interibr  lite  and  poet     falls  into  disrepute.     The  traditions  of  the  romance  of 
philosopher;   Franfois  Coppi5e,  whose  true  originality     psychological  analysis  reappear  with  ^t.  PauIBourget, 
consists  in  being  the  poet  of  the  common  people  and  of     who,  following  the  example  of  Octave  Feuillet  chooses 
their  even'day  life.     In  reaction  against  certain  ten-     fashionable  life  as  the  setting  of  his  stories.     In  recent 
dencies  of  the  Parnassians  there  appeared  in  the  last     years  M.  Bourget  has  broadened  his  manner  and  at- 
■  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Symbolist  poete,     tacked  the  great  moral  and  social  problems  of  the  hour 
grouped  around  Paul  Veriaine  (1844-1S961,  who  in     ("L'Etape",  1902;    "Un  divorce",  1904;    "L'Emi- 
aome  points  of  view  recalls  Villon,  and  St^phane  Mai-      -'"  •""-•      "  >"         ■"    •      "-<.■-.. 
larmg  (1842-1898).     It  is  as  yet  difficult  to  define  the 
action  and  the  degree  of  importance  of  these  Symbolist 
poets,  who,  moreover,  made  a  merit  of  being  oImcutb. 
At  present  Pamaasism  and  Symbolism  seem  to  have 
been  reconciled  in  the  person  of  M.  Henri  de  R^gnier 
(b.  I8B4),     We  may  mention,  also,  among  the  poets 
of  to^iay,  M.  Jean  Richepin,  a  belated  Romantic. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
romance  developed  to  an  extent  even  more  consider- 
able than  in  the  first.  It  tends  to  engulf  all  the  other 
literary  forms  and  Iiecome  itself  the  only  department 
of  literature.    It  is  a  convenient  frame  successively 

e  tendencies 

-^, J J  the  period 

from  1820  to  1850,  with,  however,  this  notable  differ- 
ence, that  the  realistic  current  becomes  much  stronger. 
This  time  the  originator  and  master  is  Gustave  Flau- 
bert, author  of  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  all  romance, 
I'Madame  Bovai^"  (1867),  The  peculiar  character- 
istic of  Flaubert  is  his  combination  of  the  elements  of  undertaken  in  his  romances  to  deal  with  questions  of 
Romanticism  with  those  of  Realism.  For  him  the  conscience.  On  another  side,  by  way  of  reaction 
great  Romantic  masters— Chateaubriand,  Victor  against  the  crass  dogmatism  of  Zola  and  his  school,  a 
Hugo — are  the  objecte  of  a  special  cult;  on  another  certain  number  of  writers,  with  a  talent  for  playing 
aide,  by  his  conception  of  art,  Flaubert  is  a  Realist,  upon  fine  shades  of  meaning  and  a  very  especial  taste 
In  tae  first  place  be  does  not  aJJmit  the  propriety  of  a    for  crowding  contrary  ideas  together,  have  taken  a 


FRANOS                             204  FBAHOE 

delight  m  filling  their  romances  with  a  subtfle  and  Apart  from  the  waverine  scepticism  and  dilettantism 

penetrating  irony.    The  master  of  this  school  is  M.  in  his  work,  his  influence  nas  been  felt  by  a  great  num- 

Anatole  France.    M.  Maurice  Barr^,  who  holds  from  ber  of  writers.    Taine  (1828-03)  inaugurated  in  his- 

Stendahl,  was,  in  his  earlier  career,  of  the  ironical  tory  the  method  o^  ''little  facts''  borrowed  from  the 

school,  but  has  more  recently  applied  himself  to  dem-  sciences.    He  classifies  and  arranges  a  mass  of  unim- 

onstrating  the  influences  of  native  soil  and  tradition  portant  events,  which  serve  him  as  documents  of  his 

C'Les  D^racinds",  1897).    Another  class  of    stoiy  epoch,  and  from  these  he  gathers  tendencies  and  laws 

writers  has  exerted  itself  to  increase  the  field  of  ro-  (Les  Origines  de  la  France  Contemporaine). '  Side  by 

manoe,  which,  with  the  Naturalists,  had  well  nigh  been  side  with  Renan  and  Taine  we  must  place  Fustel  de 

shut  up  within  the  limits  of  Parisian  life.    Some,  like  Coulanges  (1830-^9),  whose  method  is  the  scrupulous 

M.  Pierre  Loti.  marvellous  at  evoking  the  impression  anal3rsis  of  texts  and,  above  all,  the  study  of  the  laws 

of  far  distant  lands,  have  imported  an  exotic  atmo-  of  social  change.    Since  these  great  masters,  historical 

sphere;  others  have  sought  to  reproduce  with  s^pa-  literature  has  risen  to  superb  heists;  among  the  most 

tnetic  fidelity  the  manners  of  their  native  provinces,  brilliant  historians  of  our  own  dav,  it  wfll  suffice  to 

This  latter  has  been  done  for  Anjou  and  the  Vend^,  mention  MM.  Albert  Sorel,  Albert  Vandal,  and  Henry 

with  much  elevation'of  thought  and  elegance  of  style,  Houssaye. 

by  M.  Bazin  (La  Terre  qui  meurt).  Lastlv,  following  Sainte-Beuve,  some  remarkable 

The  drama,  which  haa  produced  nothing;  of  any  real  writers  have  raised  criticism  to  the  independent  razdc 
value  under  the  influence  of  Romanticism,  passed  of  a  great  department  of  literature.  Here  M.  Brune- 
through  a  period  of  great  brilliancy  after  1850.  Most  tiSre  (1849-1906)  introduced  the  idea  of  evolution, 
of  the  works  produced  since  that  date  belong  to  the  showing  how  literary  forms  are  bom,  develop,  flourish, 
comedy  of  manners,  often  containing  little  of  the  and  then  become  dissolved  and  resolved  mto  other 
comic,  which  derives  its  origin  from  the  Romantic  forms.  No  one  has  pleaded  the  cause  of  tradition 
drama — ^to  which  it  owes  its  ambition  to  reproduce  with  greater  warmth,  and  even  violence,  than  M. 
''atmosphere" — and  from  the  comedy  of  Scribe.  The  Brunetidre,  and  this  same  dassical  tradition  is  de- 
essential  characteristic  of  the  work  of  Scribe  is  the  care  fended  by  M.  Jules  Lemattre,  under  the  fluctuating 
which  he  brings  to  the  contrivance  of  his  scenes,  the  forms  of  a  clever  and  ingenious  criticism  which  has 
disposal  of  his  action,  and  the  preparation  of  his  d^  nothing  of  dilettantism  but  the  appearance,  and  by 
nouemerd.  This  dexterity  in  managing  a  plot  reap-  M«  Emile  Faguet,  in  monographs  remarkable  for  pre- 
pears  in  almost  all  the  dramatic  authors  of  the  second  cise  analjrsis  and  vigorous  relief, 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  with  whom  it  is  an  im-  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  asked:  What  stage  of  its 
portant  element  of  their  art.  Lastly,  the  influence  of  development  has  French  literature  now  reached?  and 
the  romance  makes  itself  felt;  as  the  romance  strives  what  character  is  it  likely  to  assume  in  the  course  of 
after  exact  portraiture  of  life  and  manners,  so  does  the  the  twentieth  century  7— It  would  be  vain  to  attempt 
drama.  To  resume,  the  modem  comedy  of  maimers  a  guess,  but  some  of  the  influences  which  seem  bound 
combines  Scribe's  theatrical  technique  with  Balzac's  to  affect  it  may  be  here  indicated.  First,  science  will 
observation.  increasingly  impose  on  the  writers  of  Hie  future  its 
^  The  chief  initiator  of  the  dramatic  movement  of  his  vigorous  disciplme  and  methods.  On  the  other  hand, 
time  was  Alexandre  Dumas,  Ms  (1824-96).  An  ex-  the  fact  that  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  is  losing 
tremely  penetrating  observer,  ne  had  at  the  same  time  ground  in  France  cannot  fail  to  have  the  most  pro- 
the  mental  idiosyncracy  of  a  quasi-mystical  moralist,  found  consequences  in  literature.  Lastly,  we  seem, 
At  first  his  gift  of  observation  dominates;  in  "  La  in  these  days,  to  be  assisting  at  a  social  transforma- 
Dame  aux  C&m^lias"  (1852),  "Question  d'argent"  tion,  the  shock  of  which  will  doubtless  make  itself  fcdt 
(1857),  and  "Le  pdre  prodigue"  (1859),  he  depicts  in  art  and  letters. 

rarisian  society.    Then,  from  1867  on,  the  moralist  Belgian  Literature  in  die  French  Language. — In  the 

runs  away  with  him  and  he  creates  a  new  type,  the  Middle  Ages  the  literature  in  French  which  developed 

"problem  play"  (mbce  de  thhe),  in  which,  in  an  exu-  in  the  provinces  of  Hainault,  Flanders,  Brabant^  and 

berantly  spirited  dialogue  of  dazzling  wit,  he  studies  Li^  had  all  the  characteristics  of  the  French  litera- 

and  discusses  certain  fundamental  social  questions  ture  of  that  time,  except  that  it  furnished  neither 

("  Les  id^es  de  Madame  Aubray ",  1867).    The  work  works  nor  names  of  any  mark.    In  the  sixteenth  and 

of  the  vounger  Dumas  is  often  bizarre  and  irritating  seventeenth  centuries  there  was  the  same  poverty  of 

that  of  Iknile  Au^er  (1820-89),  who  shares  public  literary  output.    In  the  eighteenth  century,  under 

favour  with  htm,  is  more  uniform.    The  dominant  the  then  universal  influence  of  French  literature,  a 

quality  in  Au^er  is  good  sense;  he  has  devoted  him-  grand  seigneur ^  the  Prince  de  Ligne  (1735-1814),  rivals 

self  to  paintuu;  bourgeois  society,  using  methods  m  easy  grace  of  style  the  French  writers  of  his  time — 

almost  identic^ with  uiose  of  the  Classics  and,  like  "the  omv  foreigner",  as  Mme.  de  Stafil  says,  "who 

them,  creating  general  types.    At  the  time  when  has  ever  become  a  model  in  French  literature,  instead 

Naturalism  was  trying  to  obtain  possession  of  the  of  being  an  imitator".    But  the  tme  expansion  of 

drama,  as  it  had  already  taken  possession  of  romance,  French  Belgian  literature — which,  however,  is  never 

Henri  Becgue  (1837-99),  who  produced  little  besides,  more  than  a  reflection  of  French  literature  properlv  so 

was  the  prmcipal  dramatist  of  that  school  ("  Les  Cor-  called — dates  from  the  formation  of  an  independent 

beaux",  1882).    But  the  movement  was  short-lived;  Belgian  kingdom.    Charles  de  Coster  (d.  1879),  the 

Naturalism  in  the  drama  soon  ran  to  excesses  which  earllBst  of  the  Belgian  writers  of  the  nineteentii  cen- 

ruined  its  reputation.    Dumas  fla,  however,  is  still  tury  worthy  of  mention,  brings  out  the  very  soul  of 

the  master  from  whom  the  contempNorary  dramatists  Flanders  in  his  legendary  romance  "Tiel  Uylenspie- 

hold,  and  Edouard  Pailleron,  Henri  Lavedan,  Mau-  gel",  which  in  other  respects  reproduces  the  qualities 

rice  Donnay,  and  Paul  Hervieu  all  owe  him  much.    It  and  defects  of  the  Romantics.    From  1880,  begin- 

is  to  be  Tioi&d  that  in  the  last  years  of  the  nineteenth  ning  with  M.  Camiile  Lemonnier,  Naturalism  reigns  in 

century  the  French  stage  witnessed  a  revival  of  the  Belgium.    Naturalism,  following  the  example  set  in 

heroic  comedy  in  M.  Eomond  Rostand's  "Cyrano  de  France,  is  dethroned  by  Symbolism,  about  1889.    It 

Bergerac"  (1897).                                              ^  may  even  be  properly  said  that  Symbolism  developed 

We  have  already  spoken  of  Renan  and  Taine  in  con-  in  Belgium  rather  than  in  France ;  its  principal  repre- 

nexion  witii  the  general  tendencies  of  this  period ;  these  sentatives  are  M.  Rodenbach,  an  exquisite  poet  who 

two  names  belong  also  to  the  literature  of  historv.  has  depicted  for  us  the  fascination  of  Bruges  (Le 

Renan  (1832-92),withhis"OriginesduChristianisme,  R^e  du  silence,  Bmoes-larMorte),  M.  Verhaeren 

opened  the  domain  of  literature  to  religious  history,  ("Les  Soirs",  1887),  ana  M.  Maeterlinck,  who  has 

which  before  had  belonged  only  to  pure  erudition,  sayed  to  create  a  Symbolistic  drama. 


FKAKQKBOHINI  205  rRAKOU 

iStciM  Lileraivn  in  Am  French  Language. — Swiss-  Nov.,  1485.  The  dau^ter  of  Louis  d'Amboiae,  Vi» 
E^och  literBiture  has  produced  great  writers,  but  has  count  de  Thouara,  she  was  betrothed  when  only  foul 
not  kept  them ;  they  have  deeert«i  their  original  eoun-  yeareold,toPeter,8econdson  of  John  V,I>ukeof  Brit- 
ti7  to  seek  natural iaation  ia  France.  This  was  the  tany,  the  marriage  being  solemnized  when  ahe  had 
casewith  J.  J.  Rousseau,  MmedeStoel,  and  Benjamin  reached  the  age  of  fifteen.  The  union  was,  liowever, 
Conatftnt.  who,  though  Swiss  by  origin,  are  thor-  not  very  happy  owing  to  the  morose  disposition  of  the 
oughly  French  writers.  In  tiie  nineteenth  century  husband  who  occasionally  ilMreatedhiswife;  but  her 
Swiss-French  literature,  above  all,  boasts  of  critics  gentleness  gradually  changed  his  heart,  he  assisted 
like  Alexandre  Vinet  (1797-1847)  and  Edmond  her  in  her  works  of  charity  and  did  penance  for  his 
Scb^rer  (1815-89),  both  distinguished  by  their  ten-  former  dissolute  life.  After  bis  succession  to  the  duke- 
dency  to  emphasise  moral  intereats,  both,  moreover,  dom  in  1450  her  wholesome  inSuence  made  itself  felt 
treatmg  chiefly  of  French  literature.  In  romance,  in  wider  circles;  she  also  intervened,  not  always  sue- 
likewise,  M.  Victor  Cherbuliei  (1829-1900),  who  ex-  cessfully,  in  the  never-ending  family  feuds.  The  duke 
celled  in  the  knack  of  weaving  into  the  plot  of  a  story  died,  leaving  no  legitimate  heir,  in  1467,  after  having 
current  questions  of  art,  science,  and  philosophy,  and  borne  teetimony  in  his  last  will  to  the  devotedness  of 
M.  Edouard  Rod  are  very  decidedly  French  writers,  his  wife.  The  latter  consecrated  her  life  to  God,  but 
1^  only  truly  Swiss  author  is  Topfer  (1799-1816),  for  several  years  she  was  unable  to  consummata  the 
who  hasleftsome  little  masterpieces  of  romance  at  sacrifice  by  entering  a  convent.  While  being  educated 
onceseotimentalaDdhumorous,  such  Ashis  "Histoire  by  her  future  motber-in-Iaw  she  had  early  distio- 
de  M .  Pencil ' '  and  his  "  Voyages  et  aventures  du  doo-  pushed  herself  by  almsdeeds  and  fervent  devotion  to 
teur  Feetus"  (1849).  .     _        .  the  Blessed  Sacrament.    Durii^  her  married  life  she 

devoted  a  large  portion  of  her  fortune  to  the  founda- 
tion of  a  convent  of  Poor  Clares  at  Nantes,  which  she 
would  have  joined  had  her  strength  allowed  it;  she 
also  took  part  in  the  preliminaries  of  the  canonisation 
of  St.  Vincent  Ferrer,  became  a  benefactress  of  the 
Dominican  convent  at  Nan  tee,  and  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Blessed  John  Soreth,  General  of  the  Canndite^ 
who  in  1452  had  established  the  first  community  of 
Carmelite  nuns.  Some  of  these,  coming  from  Li^ge, 
were  received  by  Frances  at  Vannes  {31  Oct.,  14ft3) 
where  they  were  entertained  at  the  castle  until  the 
convent  called  "The  Three  Manes"   was  habitable. 

Havi  

ate  (: 

was  ^ected  prioress  for  life  (1473),  and  became  by 
her  qdendid  example  the  model  of  a  true  Carmelite 
nun,  and,  in  a  sense,  the  foundress  of  this  branch  of 
theorder.  Theconvent provingtoosmallsheobtained, 

lglfg)_  not  without  litigation,  a  larger  one  at  Nantes,    She 

EorilBhWork*— SuHisBiniT.iSJtortffMiirvof  frnuAIiteini-  died  in  a  holy  ecstasy,  and  miracles  were  wrought  at 

&£itSh°^8ilf-^^iIi^iiS''aS'4^.'dS^M^  tiJ^  ^^  **'"'*■  ^"'■'''B  ^^^  Huguenot  wars  and  the  French 

(Laipdiiud  "-"'"-,  1900).      '              RENfDoiniic  Revolution  her  body  had  to  be  saved  twice  from  prof- 
anation. Pius  IX  beatified  her  16  July,  1863. 

n«neeiehliil,  Mabc*  Astonio,  Italian  painter;  b.  Richabs^u  diiaB.  Frontoit  i  Ambmte (isa$)i  Ada 83.. 

atBdogna,1648;d.therec.l729:bestknownfortho  Nov..  II,  ela 

decorative  works  he  carried  out  in  Parma,  Bologna,  Bknisdict  Zdoiehiuit. 
and  Genoa,  and  for  the  dra^gna  executed  for  Clement 

XI  for  certain  mosaics  in  St.  Peter's.    He  may  be  Tnaett  of  Borne,  Saint  (Bubba  di  Leoni),  one  of 

regarded  as  a  member  of  the  Eclectio  School  and  a  the  greatest  mystics  cS  the  fifteenth  century;  b.  at 

follower  of  the  Carraod,  and  his  chief  works  conmst  cd  Rome,  of  a  noble  family,  in  1384;  d.  there.  9  March, 

the  Ranuzzi  ceiling  in  Bologna,  two  fine  pictures  in  1440.    Her  youthful  desire  was  to  enter  religion,  but 

the  Bologna  GalleiT  (Annunciation  and  the  Holy  at  her  father's  wish  she  married,  at  the  age  or  twelve, 

Family)  and  one  in  the  Servite  convent  depicting  the  Lorenzo  de'  Ponziani.     Among  her  children  we  know 

founders  of  the  order.    Other  less  important  churches  of  Battista.  who  carried  on  the  familv  name,  Evange- 

in  the  same  city  are  adorned  with  his  works  and  there  lista,  a  child  of  great  gifts  (d.  1411),  and  Agnes  (d. 

arefiveof  his  painting  at  Vienna.     He  also  decorated  1413).     Prances  was  remarkable  for  her  charity  to  tJie 

a  chureh  at  Crema  m  1716,  and  a  few  years  later  poor,  and  for  her  zeal  for  souls.    She  won  away  many 

painted  a  fine  picture  of  St- lliomas  of  VillanovaeivinK  Roman  ladies  from  a  life  of  frivolity,  and  united  them 

otms  to  the  poor,  to  be  seen  in  the  Augustinian  church  in  an  association  of  oblates  attached  to  the  White 

atRimini.    He  is  believed  to  havelivedtoagreat  age.  Benedictine  monastery  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova;  later 

Historians  have  stated  that  he  visited  Madrid,  but  the  they  became  the  Benedictine  Oblate  Congregation  ol 

more  general  ofiinion  is  that  he  decUned  an  invitation  Tor  di  Speech!  f25  March,  1433)  which  was  approved 

(otJiat city,Baying thathedidnotwish toleavehisna-  bv  Eugene  IV  (4  July,  1433).    Ite  members  kd  the 

live  country.     He  painted  down  to  the  veiy  moment  lile  id  religious,  but  without  strict  cloister  or  formal 

of  his  death,  and  on  one  of  his  pictures  at  Venice  he  vows,  ana  gave  themselves  up  to  prayer  and  good 

deolane  that  he  was  seventy-eight  when  he  finished  works.    With  her  husband's  consent  Frances  prao- 

it,  and  on  another  in  Genoa,  representing  Rebecca,  tlced  continency,  and  advanced  in  a  life  of  contempla- 

that  be  was  eighty.     His  drawii^  was  vety  precise,  tion.    Her  visions  often  assumed  the  form  of  dramas 

colouring  fresh  and  vivid,  and  his  shadows  were  not  enacted  for  her  by  heavenly  personages.    She  bad  the 

so  int«nae  as  those  of  his  predecessors.  gift  of  miracles  and  ecstasy,  as  well  as  the  bodily  vi»- 

ZuHmn.Siona  iJrfj'  Amdemia  di fiotmu  (Bolosna,  I7B9>:  ion  of  her  guardian  angel,  bad  revelations  oonceming 

Western  Schism.     She  could  read  the  secrets  of  con- 

Ruioeid'AmboIie,BLBa6Kn,DuchessofBrittany,    scienees  and  detect  plots  of  diabolical  origio.    She 

ifterwards  Carmelite  nun;  b.  1427;  d.  at  Nantes,  4     was  remarkable  for  her  bumOity  and  detachment,  her 


F&AHOm 


206 


FRANdA 


obedience  and  patience,  exemplified  on  the  occasion 
of  her  husband's  banishment,  the  captivity  of  Bat- 
tista,  her  sons'  death,  and  the  loss  of  all  her  property. 
On  the  death  of  her  husband  (1436)  she  retired 
among  her  oblates  at  Tor  di  Specchi,  seeking  admis- 
sion for  charity's  sake,  and  was  made  superior.  On  the 
occasion  of  a  visit  to  her  son,  she  fell  ill  and  died  on  the 
day  she  had  already  foretold.  Her  canonization  was 
preceded  by  three  processes  (1440,  1443, 1451)  and 
Faul  V  declared  her  a  saint  on  9  May,  1608,  assigning 
9  March  as  her  feast  day.  Long  before  that,  however, 
the  f aithf  \il  were  wont  to  venerate  her  body  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  in  the  Roman  Forum, 
now  known  as  the  church  of  Santa  Francesca  Ro- 
mana. 

Armbluni,  Vita  di  S.  Franeeaoa  Romana^  ori^^Dally  written 
in  the  Roman  vernacular  of  the  fifteenth  century,  with  an  ap- 
pendix of  three  panesyrics  in  the  same  idiom,  and  edited  by 
AiuoiiiLiNi  from  a  codex  in  the  archivea  of  the  Holy  See  (Rome, 
1882):  Acta  SS..  March,  11;  Vita  di  8.  Franeeaca  Romana  fonda^ 
trice  (Rome,  1675);  Fuu^bton,  Life  of  St.  Prancea  of  Rome 
(London,  1855);  other  lives  by  Ponziubonb  (Turin,  1874);  Ra- 
BORT  (Paris,  1884);Stbubr (Mains,  1888);  Rambutbau  (Paris, 
1900);  Rivisia  Storiea  Benedettina  (1908),  III,  9;  Palasz.  Visv 
oni  di  8.  Franeeaca  Romana  in  Archivio  delta  8oc,  Romana  di 
atariapatria  (1891),  365  sqq.  (1892),  251  atiq.  On  the  interest- 
ing (eighth  century)  church  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  (now  Santa 
Francesca  Romana,  in  the  Roman  Forum)  see  Armxluni,  Le 
Chieae  di  Roma  (Rome,  1891),  15(V-52 :  C^andubry,  PUorim 
Walka  in  Rome  (London,  s.  d.);  Harb,  WeUka  in  Rome  (London, 
fl.d.). 

Francesco  Paou. 

Franchiy  Ausonio.  the  pseudonym  of  Cristoforo 
Bonavino,  philosopher;  o.  24  February,  1821,  at 
Pegii,  province  of  Uenoa;  d.  12  Septembier,  1895,  at 
Genoa.  He  entered  the  ecclesiastical  state,  and  some 
time  ^ter  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood,  was  ap- 
I>ointed  director  of  an  institution  for  secondary  educa- 
tion at  Genoa.  Soon,  however,  be  became  imbued 
with  the  doctrines  of  French  positivism  and  German 
criticism.  Doubts  arose  in  his  mind,  followed  by  an 
internal  stru^e  which  he  describes  in  his  work  on  the 
philosophy  oTthe  Italian  schools.  At  the  same  time, 
important  political  events  were  taking  place  in  Italy, 
culminating  in  the  revolution  of  1848.^  Misled,  as  he 
later  says  of  himself,  by  a  political  passion^  and  also  by 
a  kind  of  philosophicalpassion,  Franchi  abandoned 
the  priest's  habit  and  office  in  1849,  and  assumed  the 
name  of  Ausonio  Franchi  (i.  e.  free  Italian),  indicating 
thereby  his  break  with  his  own  past  and  nis  new  as- 
pirations. Henceforth  all  his  talents  were  devoted  to 
the  cause  of  intellectual  and  political  liberty.  The 
dogmatic  authority  of  the  Church  and  the  despotic 
authority  of  the  State  are  the  objects  of  his  incessant 
attacks.  Combining  Kant's  phenomenalism  and 
Comte's  positivism/ne  falls  into  a  sort  of  relativism 
and  agnosticism.  For  him,  religious  truth  and  rea- 
son, Catholicism  and  freedom,  are  irreconcilable,  and 
Franchi  does  not  hesitate  in  his  choice. 

In  1854  he  founded  the  "Ragione",  a  religious,  politi- 
cal, and  social  weekly  which  was  a  means  of  propagatr 
ins  these  ideas.  Terenzio  Mamiani,  then  Minister  of 
Education,  appointed  him  professor  of  the  history  of 

Ehilosophy  in  the  University  of  Pavia  (I860),  and 
iter  (1863)  in  the  Universitv  of  Milan,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1888.  No  work  was  published  by  him 
between  1872  and  1889.  A  change  was  again  taking 
place  in  his  mind,  not  now  due  to  passion,  but  to  the 

f)rofes8or'8  more  mature  reflection.  It  led  to  the  pub- 
ication  of  Franchi's  last  work,  in  which  he  announces 
his  return  to  the  Church,  criticizes  his  former  works 
and  arguments,  and  denounces  the  opinions  and  prin- 
ciples of  his  earlier  writings.  His  works  are:  '^£le- 
menti  di  Grammatica  generale  applicati  alle  due  lingue 
italiana  e  latina"  (Genoa,  1848-49),  under  the  name 
of  Cristoforo  Bonavino.  Under  the  name  of  Ausonio 
Franchi  he  wrote  "La  Filosofia  delle  scuole  italiane" 
(Capolago,  1852 ;  "Appendice",  Genoa,  1853) ; "  La  reli- 

S'one  del  secolo  XIXo"  (Lausanne,  1853^;  "Studi 
osofici  e  religioei:  Del  Sentimento"  (Tunn,  1854); 


"II  Razionalismo  del  Popolo"  (Geneva,  1856);  "Let 
ture  sulia  Storia  della  Filosofia  modema:  Bacone,  Des 
cartes,  Spinoza,  Malebranche"  (Milan,  1863);  "Sulla 
Teorica  del  Giudizio"  (Milan,  1870);  "La  Caduta  del 
Principato  ecclesiastico  e  la  Restaurazione  dell'  Im- 
pero  Germanico"  (Milan,  1871);  "Saggi  di  criticae 
polemica"  (Milan,  1871-72).  He  also  edited  "Ap- 
pendice  alle  Memorie  politiche  di  Felice  Orsim" 
(Turin,  1858);  "Epistolario  di  Giuseppe  La  Farina" 
(Milan,  1869);  and  "Scritti  politici  oi  Giuseppe  L( 
Farina"  (MUan,  1870). 

MouNARi  in  Nuova  ertcidopedia  italiana  (6th  ed.,  Turin, 
1875 — ),  Suppl.  1, 1111:  Dx  GnBRRKATis,  Dicttonnaire  interna- 
tional dea  ienvaina  du  umr  (Florence,  1891),  I,  356;  Moonkt, 
Auaonio  Frandti:  The  Great  Italian  PnUoaopher^a  Noble  Repara- 
tion in  American  Caiholie  Quarterly  Review,  XV  (1890),  325; 
U'ldtima  critica  di  Auaonio  Franchi  in  Civilth  Cattolica,  Seriee 
XIV.  Vol.  IV  (1889),  5  aqq.,  167  sqq.,  etc.,  and  severtU  other 
articles  in  the  same  reriew;  Mariano,  La  Tphiloaophie  contem- 
pontine  en  Italic  (Paris,  1868);  Anqrlxni,  Auaonio  Franchi 


(Rome,  1897). 


C.  A.  DUBRAT. 


Francia  (Francesco  Raibolixi),  a  famous  Bolo- 
enese  goldsmith,  en^ver,  and  artist,  b.  about  1450. 
d.  in  1517.  His  family  was  one  of  the  best  in  Bologna, 
and  owned  land  at  Zola  Predosa  His  father  was 
a  wood-carver,  but  Francesco  entered  the  guild  oi 
goldsmiths  (1482),  and  was  elected  its  head  in  the 
following  vear.  His  master  was  one  Due,  sumamed 
Francia,  doubtless  because  of  his  native  land,  and 
Francesco  adopted  this  surname,  either  throueh  grati- 
tude, or  more  probably  as  a  valuable  trade-mark. 
Like  Pisanello,  Verroccnio,  PoUaiuolo,  and  Ghirlan- 
dajo,  he  is  an  example  of  what  Italian  art  owes  to  close 
association  with  the  minor  arts.  A  ^dation  of  the 
fine  arts,  the  idea  of  greater  or  lesser  dignity  and  rank, 
did  not  then  exist  and  was  to  spring  up  only  later,  in 
the  school  of  ^iichelangelo.  This  fact  imparts  to  all 
the  SBsthetic  manifestations  of  the  classic  period  that 
unity  and  perfection  of  detail  and  life  which  imagina- 
tion and  taste  impress  on  all  things.  The  relations 
between  the  goldsmith's  art  and  painting  were  then 
particularly  close.  In  this  way  painting  was  enabled 
to  rise  above  the  vulgar  demands  of  a  pious  image- 
tie  of  the  Giottesque  t^me,  and  the  dry  and  pedantic 
learning  of  Voccello  ancf  Andrea  del  Castagno.  Art, 
ornament,  and  beauty,  which  threatened  to  disap- 
pear, were  thus  restored  to  painting.  This  is  why  the 
"industrial"  side  of  Francia's  art,  exemplified  in  his 
admirable  medals,  nieUif  and  enamels,  his  work  as  a 
jeweller,  an  armourer,  and  a  type-caster,  cannot  be  too 
strongly  insisted  on.  He  is  known  to  have  designed 
the  itaJjo  type  for  the  edition  of  Virgil  published  by 
Aldus  Manutius  (Venice,  1501).  We  know  also  that 
the  invention  of  engraving  is  partly  due  to  the  art  of 
nieUo  in  which  Francia  was  a  master.  A  few  prints 
are  ascribed  to  Francia;  in  the  art  of  engraving  he 
was  the  first  master  of  Marcantonio  Raimondo. 

Circumstances,  however,  impelled  Francia  to  be- 
come a  painter.  Very  probably  he  received  his  first 
lessons  from  Francesco  Cossa  (d.  at  Bologna^  1485), 
but  it  was  from  Lorenzo  Costa  that  he  received  his 
principal  instruction.  This  artist,  slightly  younger 
than  Francia,  had  recently  won  renown  at  !•  errara  and 
returned  in  1483  to  Bologna,  where  he  set  up  his  studio 
in  the  house  occupied  by  the  goldsmith .  More  than  one 
work  (church  of  the  Misericordia,  Bentivoglio  palace) 
resulted  from  their  friendly  collaboration.  Certain  pe- 
culiarities of  Francia,  his  familiar  scenic  arrangements, 
the  beautiful  architecture,  the  carved  thrones  of  his  Ma- 
donnas, the  little  angelic  musicians  seated  on  steps,  are 
touches  of  Ferrarese  taste  which  proclaim  theinnuence 
of  Costa.  In  landscape  Francia  felt  later  the  in- 
fluence of  Perugino  (1446^1524),  who,  in  1497,  was 
Sainting  his  "Vireo  Gloriosa"  at  San  Giovanni  in 
[onte.  These  influences,  however,  should  be  ac- 
knowledged with  all  the  reserve  imposed  in  the  case  of 
an  already  mature  man,  who  had  long  been  an  artist 
of  repute  when  he  began  to  paint.    The  earliest  ex- 


PRANOIS 


207 


F&ANOIS 


tant  works  of  Francia,  e.  g.  the  "Calvary"  of  the 
Archiginnasio  of  Bologna,  the  "Madonna"  of  Berlin, 
above  all  the  remarkable  St.  Stephen"  of  the  Casino 
Borgheae,  are  remarkable  for  a  certain  character  of 
"dilettantism"  (Burkhardt),  for  something  so  inten- 
tionally unique  and  original  that  one  does  not  know 
with  what  to  connect  them  in  all  the  history  of  paint- 
ing. We  feel  ourselves  in  the  presence  of  a  master  who 
grasps  with  firmness  his  own  ideas  and  is  extremely 
personal  in  his  tendencies,  one  who  takes  up  a  new 
craft  only  because  it  enables  him  to  apply  highly  in- 
dividual theories  or  express  his  intimate  tastes.  The 
earlv  attempts  were  followed  by  a  series  of  great 
works  dated  as  follows:  the  Felicini  reredos  (Bolo^a, 
1494),  that  of  the  Bentivoglio  (San  Giacomo  Maggiore, 
1599),  those  of  the  Scappi  and  the  Manzuoli,  the  great 
"Annunciation"  (Pinacoteca  of  Bologna,  1500),  and 
various  others  now  in  the  museums  of  Berlin  and  St. 
Petersburg.  It  is  always  the  same  subject  so  beloved 
throughout  the  fifteenth  century,  the  Virgin  sur- 
rounded by  various  saints;  even  when  styled  an 
"Annunciation",  the  treatment  remains  the  same. 
The  composition  is  necessarily  uniform,  in  deference 
to  the  law  of  symmetry.  There  is  naturally  no  ac- 
tion, the  painter's  object  being  to  produce  with  these 
motionless  figures  an  effect  of  harmony  and  recollec- 
tion. It  is  a  calm  and  tranquil  beauty  that  he 
seeks  to  rei>roduce.  But  within  these  limits  no  one. 
not  even  Giovanni  Bellini,  though  his  "Madonna  ot 
San  Zaccaria"  dates  from  1505,  achieved  so  much. 
The  orderly  disposition  of  his  ngures  and  his  well- 
balanced  Unes,  heightened  often  by  an  architectural 
background  or  by  landscapes,  produces  an  impression 
of  profound  peace.  So  much  happiness  could  have 
but  one  legitimate  expression,  i.  e.  music.  In  other 
words  the  angels  playing  on  the  harp  or  the  lute, 
whom  Francia  loved  to  introduce,  interpret  naturally 
the  emotions  awakened  by  the  harmony  of  form. 
Let  it  be  added,  and  in  this  he  differs  from  Perugino, 
that  with  him  lyricism  never  becomes  mere  formula. 
The  inspiration  of  Francia  seems  inexhaustible; 
hence  his  ability  to  vary  indefinitely,  and  always  with 
success,  the  same  theme.  Francia  was  always  too 
conscientious  to  reproduce  in  a  commonplace  way 
works  which  were  the  outcome,  on  his  part,  of  a  deep 
emotional  life.  In  this  artist  the  conventional  never 
replaces  true  sentiment,  as  in  Perugino  during  the 
last  twenty-five  years  oi  his  life. 
^  The  types  of  Francia,  though  extremely  general  in 
si^ficance,  are  none  the  less  markedly  individual; 
his  Sebastian  has  not  the  same  features,  the  same 
piety,  the  same  ecstasy  as  Bernard,  nor  is  his  figure  of 
Augustine  the  same  as  that  of  Francis.  In  execution 
he  displays  admirable  care  in  all  detajis  and  is  never 
ne^gent.  The  figures  are  irreproachaJbly  constructed, 
while  the^  ele^nt  ornamentation,  the  sculptures, 
embroideries,  tiaras,  and  dalmatics  betray  the  sharp 
and  critical  eye  of  the  goldsmith  and  engraver.  Of 
this  we  are  reminded  stul  more  forcibly  by  his  fond- 
ness for,  and  careful  selection  of,  the  best  materials  for 
his  palette,  and  his  taste  for  compact,  thick,  enam- 
elled painting,  of  itself  a  pleasure  to  the  eye.  Each 
picture  of  Francia  has  its  own  sonorous  harmony; 
throughout  his  work  we  seem  to  hear,  as  it  were,  an 
orchestration  of  colour.  We  have  here  the  principles 
of  an  entirely  new  art,  altogether  different  from  the 
ultra-intellectual  preoccupations  of  the  Florentine 
School.  Horace  had  said  that  poetrv  was  a  kind  of 
painting,  t^  pictura  poeais;  one  might  imagine  that 
in  turn  Francia  wished  to  prove  that  painting  was  a 
kind  of  music.  It  was  the  idea  likely  to  arise  in  an 
ancient  musical  city  immemorially  famous  for  its 
singers  and  its  lute-players.  Only  in  his  later  pic- 
tures, however,  e.  g.  the  "Baptism  of  Christ"  (Dres- 
den, 1509),  the  '^Deposition"  (Turin,  1515),  the 
"Sacra  Conversazione  of  Parma,  above  all  in  that  of 
London  (about  1516),  does  Francia  display  the  full 


measure  of  his  genius.  Several  of  his  frescoes  are 
known,  e.  g.  the  "Madonna  del  Terremuoto"  (Bo- 
logna, 1505)  and  two  charming  pages  from  the  life  of 
St.  Cecilia,  her  marriage  and  her  Burial,  at  San  Gia- 
como Maggiore  (1507) .  He  is  also  the  author  of  beau- 
tiful portraits  (Pitti  Palace,  also  the  UflBzi,  in  Flor- 
ence). No  doubt  his  modesty,  his  quiet  and  retired 
Ufe,  spent  entirely  at  Bologna,  his  avoidance  of  his- 
torical and  mythological  subjects,  a  mental  temper 
which  held  him  aloof  from  the  great  movement  of  the 
Renaissance  and  caused  him  to  pursue  so  novel  an 
occupation,  suffice  to  explain  the  semi-obliteration  of 
his  fame.  His  contemporaries,  nevertheless,  consid- 
ered him  a  man  of  no  small  imiK>rtance.  Raphael 
corresponded  with  him,  though  there  is  no  proof  that 
the  letter  and  sonnet  quoted  oy  Malvasia  are  authen- 
tic. In  1508  he  was  named  director  of  the  mint  of 
Bologna,  and  in  1514,  master  of  all  the  artist  corpora- 
tions of  the  city.  lie  was  handsome,  says  his  con- 
temporary Seccadinari,  very  eloquent,  well-informed, 
and  distinguished.  His  influence,  nevertheless,  was 
confined  to  Bologna.  He  lived  apart  from  the  pagan 
and  rationalistic  movement  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
was  an  isolated  man  of  great  and  noble  eif ts,  original 
and  pure  in  his  use  of  them,  in  a  word  tne  most  emi- 
nent personality  in  Northern  Italian  art  previous  to 
Titian  and  Correggio.  He  had  two  sons,  Giacomo  and 
Giulio,  b.  in  1485  and  1487. 

Vasari,  ed.  MiLANEsx,  III,  555;  Malvabxa,  Felsina  Pxttriee 
(Bolo^xia,  1641);  Calvi,  Memorie  della  vita  di  Ft,  RaSbciini 
actio  ti  Francia  (Bologna,  1812);  Duchesne,  Eatai  mw  lea 
NieUea  (Paris,  1812);  Reid,  The  Enaravinga  of  Francia  (London, 
1871);   WiLLiAiiflON,  Francia  (London,  1901). 

Louis  Gillet. 

Francis  I,  King  of  France;  b.  at  Cognac,  12  Sep- 
tember, 1494;  d.  at  Rambouillet,  31  March,  1547.  He 
was  the  son  of  Charles  of  Orleans,  Coimt  of  Angou- 
ISme,  and  Louise  of  Savoy,  and  the  husband  of  Claude 
of  France,  dau^ter  of  Louis  XII.  He  succeeded  to 
the  throne  1  January,  1515,  not  as  son-in-law,  since 
the  SaUo  Law  did  not  permit  succession  through 
women,  but  as  cousin  of  Louis  XII,  who  had  no  male 
heir.  His  victory  at  Marignano  (1515)  over  the  Swiss 
who  were  defending  Maximilian  Sf orza  established  the 
young  king's  reputation  in  Italy.  He  took  advantage 
of  this  at  the  interview  of  Bologna  **  to  brine  to  a  suc- 
cessful termination  the  efforts  of  his  pr^ecessors, 
Charles  VII  and  Louis  XI,  to  impose  on  Leo  X  the  con- 
cordat which  governed  the  organization  of  the  French 
Church  from  that  time  till  the  end  of  the  old  regime 
(see  France).  This  marked  the  beginning  of  a  series 
of  measures  destined  to  establish  in  France  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  royal  power.  Francis  I  sought  by 
every  means,  even  by  exceptional  tribunals,  to  destroy 
among  the  nobles,  both  bishops  and  seigneurs  (lords), 
the  spirit  of  independence.  The  formula  of  royal 
edicts  "  car  tel  est  notre  bon  plaisir  "  (because  it  is  our 

food  pleasure)  dates  from  nis  reign.  The  death  of 
Imperor  Maximilian  I  (1519)  led  Francis  I  to  dispute 
the  imperial  crown  with  Charles  of  Austria  who  had 
recently  inherited  the  crown  of  Spain.  The  latter  be- 
came emperor  as  Charles  V.  Surrounded  on  the 
south,  north-east,  and  east  by  the  states  of  Charles  V. 
Francis  I,  immediately  after  his  interview  of  the  Field 
of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  with  Henry  VIII  of  England 
(1520),  began  the  struggle  with  the  House  of  Austria 
which  was  to  be  prolonged,  with  occasional  truces,  un- 
til 1756.  Four  successive  wars  against  Charles  V 
filled  the  reign  of  King  Francis.  The  first,  famous  for 
the  exploits  and  death  of  Bayard,  the  "chevalier  sans 

S2ur  et  sans  reproche  *\  the  treason  of  the  Constable  de 
ourbon.  the  defeat  ot  Francis  I  at  Pa  via  (1525),  and 
his  ca]3tivity,  ended  with  the  Treaty  of  Madrid  (1526), 
by  which  he  ceded  Burgundv  to  Charles  V.  The  sec- 
ond war,  rendered  necessary  by  the  refusal  of  the  depu- 
ties of  Burgundy  to  become  the  subjects  of  the  em- 
peror, and  marked  by  the  alliance  between  Francis  I 


TBIXOIS 


208 


ntAHOIS 


and  the  ItoUtui  princes,  amoi^  them  Pope  Clement  Francis  I  {d^red  the  part  of  a  Usceaaa  in  the 
VII(LefwieofCognac,  1526),  brought  about  the  sack  spread  of  the  RemuBsauce  in' France.  He  invited 
of  Rome  by  the  imperial  troops  under  the  command  of  from  Italy  the  great  artists  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Rosso, 
the  Constable  de  Bourbon  (1527).  and  ended  with  the  Primaticcio.  Benvenuto  Cellini,  and  Andrea  del  Sarto. 
Peace  of  Cambrai  (1529),  in  reajtty  no  more  than  a  He  began  the  present  Louvre,  built  or  decorated  the 
truce.  After  its  conclusion  Francis  I,  who  had  lost  his  chfiteaux  of  Fontaiaebleau  and  Chambord,  and  was 
wife,  Claude  of  France,  in  1524,  wedded  Eleanor  of  patron  of  the  poets  Marot  Euid  du  Bellay.  His  most 
Austria,  sister  of  Charles  V.  The  third  war,  entered  valuable  service  to  Humanism  was  the  foundation  of 
upKin  b^  Francis  I  after  he  had  reorganiied  a  perma-  the  College  de  France,  intended  originally  for  the 
neat  national  army,  and  at  the  time  when  Charles  V  teaching  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin.  He  was  also 
bad  undertaken  an  expedition  gainst  Tunis,  was  the  founder  of  the  Imprimerie  Royale.  While  lie 
marked  br  the  entrance  of  the  French  troops  into  permitted  the  development  in  intellectual  circles  of 
Savoy  anil  the  entrance  of  the  troops  of  Charles  V  into  certain  Protestant  ideas  simultaneously  with  Human- 
Provence  (1536) ;  it  was  brought  to  an  end,  thanks  to  ism,  he  was  on  the  other  hand,  after  1534,  quite  hos- 
the  mediation  of  Pope  Paul  III,  by  the  treaty  of  tile  to  the  propagation  of  Protestantism  among  the 
Aigues-Mortes.  The  fourth  war,  resulting  from  the  common  people,  as  is  shown  by  his  persecution  (1545) 
amoitious  designs  of  Francis  I  on  Milan,  was  marked    of  the  Vaudois  of  Chabriires  and  M^rindol.    The 

K'     the  alliance  of  Charles  V  with  Henry  VIII,  by  the    poems  of  Francis  I,  tfaodgh  interesting  as  historical 
ench  victory   of    Ceresole  ''  '  -..     •,  .  .    . 

(1544),  and  was  ended  by  the 
Treatiee  of  Creapy  and  Ardree 
(1544  and  1546;. 

The  history  of  no  other 
reign  has  been  so  profound^ 
studied  in  modem  times  as 
that  of  Francis  I.  A  series  of 
recent  works  has  brought 
out  the  originality  and  nov; 
eltyof  his  political  maxima. 
The  struggle  against  the 
House  of  Austria  made 
Francis  I  the  ally  of  the 
Holy  See  during  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Clement  VII,  whose 
niece,  Catherine,  had  mar- 
ried Henry  II,  the  future 
King  of  France  (see  Cath- 
KRiNB  db'  MBnici),  but  he 
could  not  prevail  upon  Clem- 
ent VII  to  grant  a  divorce  to 
Henry  VIII  of  England.  Im- 

EsUeo  by  the  desire  to  menace 
harles  V  not  only  on  the 
frontiers  but  even  in  the  in- 
terior of  his  territory,  Francis 
I  sent  his  agents  mto  Ger- 
many, who  fostered  political 
and  reli^ous  anarcny  and 
favoured  the  political  ascen- 
dency of  the  Protestant 
princes.  His  policy  in  this  re- 
spect was  opposea  to  Catholic  interests  and  e  , 

posed  to  those  of  Christianity,  for  after  having  in  1522 
and  1 523  sent  Antonio  Rlncon  to  tne  King  of  Poland  and 


work.    His  tomb  and  that  of 

his  wife.  Claude  of  France. 

in  St.  Denis, 

by  PhiUbert 

Delorme,    and 

executed  by  Pierre  Bon- 

temps. 

Cataiogut  det  (u 

";^,-^ssf£ 

(10  vol.-  Pari. 

itdurJ, ^ , 

IBie-lBlB  (P&rii  1902):  Chah- 
pOLUDN-FiQ  t«c,  CoptioiW  du  Roi 
Franfoit  !•'  (Pirii.  IMl);  Poltia 
de  Francoit  I",  td.  Chuipolijoh- 
FiafiAC  (pKiii,  1847);  ysurnal  di 
Louui  de  Savoii.  ed,  Gdicbihok 
(Pkiia,  1778);  Jimmal  de  Jem 
BarOlBn,  «d.  VAuukHK  (Psrii. 
1807-eO):  Journal  fTun  bourgtoie 
de  Parie  tout  le  Ttgne  de  Franeoii 
I",  ed.  I.AUNNE  (Pari.,  ISM); 
Chnmuiue  da  Hoi  franfoit  I",  ed. 
OuirruEi  (Pari..  iSM);  Mtmoira 
de  hlartm  da  Brtlo]/.  do  FlefirarMt, 
de  Savix  do  Tavannn.  de  Vitm- 
vilte:  Hietaire  du  oentH  Mwnrur 
de  Bavard.  ed.  Rohan  (^sria, 
187B):  MoHuic,  Commtnlairet.  ed. 
DE  Ruble  (Psns.  1S64-1S72). 

UoDEHN  Wobib:  — Pahlin 
Paris.  Etadto  ear  te  rigno  de 
Franfoit  I-  (2  vols..  Pari..  188B): 
Madelin,  De  Coraentu  Bononifnoi 
(Paris,  1901):  iSiOf  ITT,  RiToiat  de 
fmneoiM  I"  el  de  CkarUe-Quinl 
(2  vols     Pwifc  1878)^  Hami.  Bn-_ 

Vlll  i  BoJ^^ur-Mer  en  ISM; 
Intrrvtniion  de  la  Fnmce  dant 
roffmre  du  di™»,  (Pari.,  ""— 


on-      BoTiiaaIA.r,  La  vrtmi*rtambaetadeiC Anionic  Rinem  m  Orient 
cKi     i"  Berne  d^Hieloirt  Modono  el  CDntempomini  agoO-1901).  11: 


_i.  L'ambattade  de  Lafm 
t.HiU.   (1801),  LXXVI 


;  et  ConUmpomino  (1902-1003). 
i.  CkoTiri  Vlll.  Louie  XII  el  Fm^ 


(1902-1903).  IV; 


I  thought  of  utilizing  the  Turks  against 

Before  he  had  even  thought  of  this  olliantM 

spread  throu  gh  out  Germany  held  him  responsible  for  the 
victories  of  the  Mussulmans  at  Belgrade  and  Rhodes. 
Francis  I  entered  into  relations  with  the  Sultan  Soli- 
man  in  1526  through  his  agent  Frangipani,  and  in  1 528 


emperor,      poliligue  oriental  de  Fnmfoit  /' 


>  IPiri*.  1903),  V;  Usau,  La 
(Parii,  igOS). 

Georqeb  GoiAtr. 

Fnncii,  CoBD  of  St.    See  Conn,  CoKFRATEBNirtBa 

JPTHE. 

„ — o-r , Franda,  Rule  op  Saint. — As  known,  St.  Francis 

Ji  Antonio  fiincon.     The  proeress  of  the  Turks  founded  three  orders  and  gave  each  of  them  a  special 

in  Central  Europe  between  1528  and  1532  iniiu«d  the  rule  (see  Francis  op  Absisi,  Saint).    Here  only  the 

reputation  of  Francis  I.    He  then  secured  tne  assist-  rule  of  the  first  order  is  to  be  considered,  i.  e.  that  of 

anceof  the  Turks  Bgainst  Charles  V  in  tie  Italian  pen-  the  Friars  Minor,  under  the  following  headings;   I. 

insula  and  in  the  Western  Mediterranean.     Then  tol-  GaiaiN  and  Contents  opthe  Rule;  II.  Intehpbbta- 

lowed  his  negotiations  with  Barbarossa  (1533-34),  at  tion  and  Observance  op  tbe  Rule. 

that  time  master  of  all  North  Africa.     In  1535  hia  am-  I.  OaioiN  and  Contents  of  the  Rule. — (1)  Origin. 

bassador  Jean  de  la  Forest  was  sent  to  Barbarossa  to  — There  is,  as  in  so  many  other  points  in  the  life  of  St. 

arrange  foraoampaign  against  the  Genoese,  and  to  the  Francis,  not  a  small  amount  of  doubt  and  controvert 

sultan  to  secure  his  aJliance  with  Francis  I  in  order  to  about  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis,     Whether  St,  Francis 

preserve   the   European   balance   of   power.     From  wrote  several  rules  or  one  rule  only,  with  several  versions, 

these  negotiations  oi  Jean  de  la  Forest  date  the  aban-  whether  he  received  it  directly  from  heaven  through 

donment  by  France  of  the  medieval  idea  of  la  Chriti-  revelation,  or  whether  it  was  the  fruit  of  long  experi- 

#nM,  or  Christendom,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  her  pro-  ence,  whether  he  gave  it  the  last  touch  or  whether  its 

tection  of  the  Cbrisbans  in  the  Bast  (see  France).  definite  form  is  due  to  the  influence  of  otben,  all  these 


FRANOIS  209  F&AN0I8 

are  questaons  which  find  different  answers.  However,  any  religious  rule  at  all.  is  quite  different.    All  that 

in  some  cases,  it  is  more  a  question  of  words  than  ot  can  be  said  is  this,  that  St.  Francis  did  not  take  as  his 

facts.    We  may  speak  of  three  successive  rules  or  of  model  anv  monastic  order,  but  simply  the  life  of  Christ 

three  successive  versions  of  the  same  rule;  that  makes  and  His  Apostles,  the  Gospel  itself, 
little  difference,  since  the  spirit  in  the  three  cases  is  the        (b)  The  Rule  of  1221 . — If  we  give  credit  to  Jacques 

same.    For  clearness,  we  shall  speak  simply  of  the  de  Vitry,  in  a  letter  written  at  Genoa,  1216  (B6hmer, 

three  rules,  the  first  of  which  is  of  the  year  1209,  the  loc.  cit.,  98),  and  to  the  traditional  "  Legend  of  the 

second  pf  1221,  the  third  of  1223;  expoimding  more  Three  Companions"  (c.  xiv),  the  rule  of  1209  was  sue- 

especially  the  one  of  1223,  as  this  is  properly  the  Rule  cessively  improved  at  the  annual  general  chapter  at 

of  St.  Francis,  the  object  of  this  article.  Portiuncula  ov  new  statutes,  the  fruit  of  ever-^prowing 

(a)   The    Rule   of  1209. — ^This  is   the  rule  St.  experience.    Jacquesde  Vitry  (loc.  cit.)  writes:  "The 

Francis  presented  to  Innocent  III  for  approval  in  the  men  of  this  Reli^on  with  great  fruit  assemble  every 

year  1209;  its  real  text  is  not  known.    If,  however,  year  at  a  determmed  place,  that  they  may  rejoice  in 

we  regard  the  statements  of  Thomas  of  Celano  (I  Cel.,  the  Lord  and  take  their  meals,  and  by  the  counsel  of 

i,  9  and   13,  ed.  d'Alen^on,  Rome,  1906)  and  St.  good  men  they  make  and  promulgate  holy  statutes, 

Bonaventure  (Legenda  major,  c.  iii),  we  are  forced  to  which  are  confirmed  by  the  Pope."    Indeed  Thomas 

conclude  that  this  primitive  rule  was  little  more  than  of  Celano  records  one  such  statute  (II  Cel.,  ii,  91): 

some  passages  of  the  Gospel  heard  in  1208  in  the  "  He  [Francis],  for  a  general  commonition  in  a  certain 

chapel  of  Portiuncula.    From  which  Gospel  preciselv  Chapter,  caused  these  words  to  be  written:  *Let  the 

these  words  were  taken,  we  do  not  know.    The  f of-  Frisin  take  care  not  to  appear  gloomy  and  sad  like 

lowing  passages,  Matt.,  xix,  21;  Matt.,  xvi,  24;  Luke,  hypocrites,  but  let  them  be  lovialand  inerry,  showing 

ix,  3,  occurring  m  the  second  rule  (i  and  xiv),  are  con-  that  theyrejoice  in  the  Lord,  and  becomingly  courte- 

sidered  as  a  part  of  the  original  one  of  1209.    They  ous."'    This  passage  is  literallv  found  in  the  rule  of 

enjoin  apostolical  life  with  all  its  renouncements  and  1221,  c.  vii.    The  traditional  "  L^nd  of  the  Three 

privations.    The  three  vows  of  obedience,  chastity,  Companions"  says  (c.  xiv):  "At  Whitsuntide  [every 

and  poverty,  essential  to  any  religious  order,  and  some  year]  all  the  brethren  assembled  unto  St.  Mary  and 

Practical  rules  of  conduct  were  added.  Thomas  of  consulted  how  best  they  might  observe  the  Rule, 
dano  says  in  this  regard  (I  CeL,  i,  13):  "Blessed  Moreover  St.  Francis  gave  unto  them  admonition,  re- 
Francis,  seeing  that  the  Lord  God  was  daily  increasing  bukes,  and  precepts,  according  as  seemed  good  unto 
the  number  [of  the  brethren]  for  that  very  purpose,  him  by  'the  counsel  of  the  Lord."  And  c.  ix:  "For 
wrote  down  simplv  and  in  few  words  for  himself  and  he  [St.  Francis]  made  divers  Rules,  and  essayed  them, 
for  his  brethren,  Doth  present  and  future,  a  pattern  before  he  made  that  which  at  the  last  he  left  unto  the 
and  rule  of  life,  using  chiefly  the  language  of  the  holy  brethren"  (translation  of  Salter,  London,  1902,  p.  88. 
Gospel  after  whose  perfection  alone  he  yearned"  [ver-  60).  During  the  years  1219-1220  in  the  absence  oi 
sion  of  Ferrers  Howell  (London,  1908),  p.  31'].  St.  the  holv  founder  in  the  East,  some  events  happened 
Bonaventure  (loc.  cit.)  and  the  so-callea  Legend  of  which  determined  Francis  to  recast  his  rule,  in  order 
the  Three  Companions"  (viii)  repeat  almost  the  same  to  prevent  similar  troubles  in  the  future.  The  only 
words.  The  fact  can  otherwise  be  gathered  from  the  author  who  informs  us  well  on  this  point  is  Jordanus 
description  of  the  early  state  of  the  order,  made  by  of  Giano  in  his  Chronicle  (Analecta  Franciscana,  I,  iv 
St.  Francis  himself  in  the  "  Testament":  "  And  when  sq.;  ed.  Bfihmer,  Paris,  1908, 9  so.).  The  vicars  left  in 
the  Lord  gave  me  some  brothers,  no  one  showed  me  charge  of  the  brothers  by  St.  Francis  having  made 
what  I  ought  to  do,  but  the  Most  High  Himself  re-  some  innovations  against  the  spirit  of  the  rule,  and  St. 
vealed  to  me  that  I  should  live  according  to  the  form  Francis  having  heard  of  this,  he  immediately  returned 
of  the  holy  Gospel.  And  I  caused  it  to  be  written  in  to  Italv  and  with  the  help  of  Csurdinal  ifgolino  re- 
few  words  and  simply,  and  Utie  Lord  Pope  confirmed  pressed  the  disorders.  Jordanus  (ed.  BChmer.  p.  15) 
it  for  me  "  (version  of  Paschal  Robinson).  These  last  then  goes  on:  "  And  thus  the  disturbers  with  the  help 
words  of  St.  Francis  refer  to  the  oral  approval  of  the  of  the  Lord  being  kept  down,  he  |Bt.  fVancis]  ie» 
original  rule,  dven  by  Innocent  III^  1209.  Angelo  formed  the  Order  according  to  its  statutes  [alias  in- 
CliSeno,  in  his  (not  printed)  "  Exposition  of  the  Rule  ",  stitutions,  InstitiUa'^.  And  the  blessed  Francis'seeing 
alleges  that  this  rule  was  approved  in  the  Fourth  that  brother  Csesanus  [of  Spires]  was  learned  in  holy 
Lateran  Council,  1215.  But  this  is  not  certain;  it  is  letters,  he  charged  him  to  embellish  with  texts  of  tfaie 
not  even  proved  that  St.  Francis  was  in  Rome  at  that  Gospel  the  Rule  which  he  himself  had  written  with 
time.  Still,  indirectly,  Angelo  Clareno  is  right,  inas-  simple  words."  The  narrative  of  Jordanus,  precious 
much  as  the  prohibition  of  founding  new  orders,  de-  though  it  be,  is  incomplete.    "Speculum  perfectionis" 


creed  at  this  council,  was  not  applied  to  St.  Francis's    fed.  Sabatier,  Paris.  1898^  c.  Ixviii),  An^lo  Clareno 

(Felice  Tocco.  "  Le  due  prime  Tribolasiom  dell' Ordine 
(Bullarium  Franciscanum,  ^  *^^  «rvo^»  nio^sik** /•#^««/4_    i?,^<^.„.r^^^^^fi 


institute.    Some  letters  of  Honorius  III,  given  1219     (Felice  Tocco.  "  Le  due  prime 


ered  as  a  general  approbation 
friars.    Tne  text  of  the  primitive 

perished  very  early,  since  Hu^  of  Digne  (Expoeitio  in  fruct.,  XII,  pars  II,  ed.  Milan,  1 510,  f .  cxxxv,  v.,  a.  Anal. 

Regulam.  Prologus  and  c.  xii)  in  the  middle  of  the  Franc,  Iv  (1906),  585]  tell  us  that  at  some  general 

thirteenth  century,  Ubertino  of  Casale(  Arbor  VitsB.Bk.  chapter  the  ministers  and  custodes,  alias  the  feamed 

V,c.  V,  Venice,  1485,  f.  E.  II,  v.,  a)  and  Angelo  Clar-  brethren,  asked  Cardinal  Ugolino  to  use  his  friendship 

eno  (Expositio  in  Regulam,  paasim)  in  the  beginning  with  St.  Francis  that  he  might  introduce  some  orgam- 

of  the  fourteenth  century,  quote  constantly  as  the  first  sation  into  the  order  according  to  the  Rules  of  St. 

rule,  confirmed  by  Innocent  HI,  the  one  written  in  Augustine,  St.  Benedict,  and  St.  Bernard,  and  that 

1221.    However,  endeavours  of  reconstruction  have  they  might  receive  some  influence.    St.  Francis  being 

been  made  by  Karl  MUller  (Die  Anf&nge  des  Minori-  questioned,  answered  that  he  was  called  to  walk  by 

tenordens  una  der  Bussbruderschaften,  Freiburg  im  tne  way  of  simplicity,  and  that  he  would  always  follow 

Br.,  1885, 185-188),  and  by  H.  BChmer  (Analekten  sur  the  folly  of  the  Cross.    The  chapter  at  w^ch  this  oo- 

Geschichte  des  Franciscus  von  Assisi,  TObinsen  and  curred  was  most  likely  the  one  of  1220. 

Leipzig,  1904, 88-89).    This  first  rule  marks  the  stage  The  authority  of  the  aforesaid  sources  may  be  con- 

of  the  order  governed  by  St.  Francis's  personal  au-  tested,  still,  an  allusion  to  those  events  may  be  seen  in 

thority,  and  it  is  ouite  natural  that  this  nrst  attempt  II  Cel.,  ii,  141.    At  any  rate  in  a  BuU  of  Honorius  HI. 

could  not  be  developed  as  later  rules  were.    But  to  Viterbo,  22  Sept.,  1220  fBull.  Franc,  I,  6),  addressed 

conclude  hence  that  Francis  did  not  intend  to  found  "to  the  Priors  or  Custodes  of  the  Fnars  Minor",  one 

an  order  properly  so  called,  in  other  words,  to  write  year  of  novitiate  is  introdnred,  in  coLi^rmity  with 

VI~14 


FRANCIS 


210 


r&AH0X8 


other  orders,  after  which  no  one  may  leave  the  order 
(c.  ii  of  the  rule  of  1221).  Furthermore  we  see  in 
0.  xviii  of  the  second  rule,  that  much  authority  is  given 
to  the  ministers  through  the  general  chapter,  which 
hitherto  had  been  frequented  by  all  the  brothers,  but 
now  is  reserved  to  the  ministers.  The  second  rule  was 
probably  published  at  the  General  Chapter  of  Portiun- 
cula,  1221,  where  for  the  last  time  all  the  friars  con- 
vened. It  was  certainly  in  use  in  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year,  since  the  Fnars  in  Germany  held  at  Augs- 
burg, Oct.  J  1221 2  a  provincial  chapter  in  accordance 
with  c.  xviii  of  this  rule  (See  Jordanus,  c.  zxiii,  Analecta 
Franciscana,  1, 9 ;  ed.  Bohmer,  p.  27) .  The  second  rule 
is  called  "  Regula  prima"  by  all  older  Franciscan  writ- 
ers, it  being  the  first  known  in  its  text,  or  also  "  Regula 
non  bullata  ",  for  it  was  never  solemnly  confirmed  by 
a  papal  Bull.  It  has  been  preserved  m  many  manu- 
scripts and  has  been  often  printed^  but  there  are  some 
noteworthy  discrepancies  of  text  in  chaps,  x  and  xii. 
The  following  remarks  may  be  added  to  characterize 
it.  The  rule  of  1221  consists  of  twenty-three  chapters, 
some  of  which  are  composed  almost  entirely  of  Scrip- 
tural texts;  in  others  many  admonitions  are  foimd  and 
towards  the  end  even  prayers.  The  introductory 
words  "  Brother  Francis  .  .  .  promises  obedience  and 
reverence  to  our  Lord  Pope  Innocent"  (d.  1216) 
show  clearlv  that  the  second  rule  is  only  an  enlarged 
version  of  the  primitive  one.  In  chaps,  iv  and  xviii  ap- 
pears an  organization,  which  at  the  time  the  first  rule 
was  written  (1209)  could  not  have  existed,  since  St. 
Francis  had  then  only  twelve  companions.  Chap,  vii,  on 
Working  and  Serving,  is  almost  certainly  of  the  primi- 
tive rule,  for  its  prohibition  "  not  to  be  chamberlains, 
nor  cellarers,  nor  overseers  in  the  houses  of  those  whom 
they  serve  ",  found  scarcely,  or  only  exceptionally,  any 
application  in  1221.  The  Life  of  Brother  Giles  (Ana- 
lecta Francisc^  iii,  74  sq.,  and  the  introduction  of 
Robinson's  "The  Golden  Sayings  of  the  Blessed 
Brother  Giles",  Philadelphia,  1907)  may  be  read  as  an 
illustration  of  this  chapter.  It  may  appear  strange 
that  neither  Thomas  of  Celano  nor  St.  Bonaventure 
mentions  this  second  rule,  which  certainly  marked  an 
important  stage  in  the  Franciscan  Ohrder.  The  reason 
thereof  may  be  because  it  was  composed  in  connexion 
with  troubles  arisen  within  the  order,  on  which  they 
preferred  to  keep  silent. 

(p)  The  Rule  of  1223. — St.  Bonaventure  (Leg.  maj., 
c.  iv)  relates  that^  when  the  order  had  greatly  in- 
creased, St.  Francis  had  a  vision  which  aetermined 
him  to  reduce  the  rule  to  a  more  compendious  form. 
(See  also  II  Cel.,  ii,  159.)  From  St.  Bonaventure 
(loc.  cit.),  "Speculum  perfectionis"  (c.  i),  and  other 
sources  we  know  that  »t.  Francis,  with  Brother  Leo 
and  Brother  Bonizo  of  Bologna  (see,  however,  on  the 
latter,  Carmichael,  "The  two  Companjons"  in  Frap- 
ciscan  Monthly,  ix  (1904),  n.  86,  p.  34-37),  went  m 
1223  to  Fonte  Colomoo,  a  beautiful  wood-covered  hill 
near  Rieti,  where,  fasting  on  bread  and  water,  he 
caused  the  rule,  the  fruit  of  his  prayers,  to  be  written 
by  the  hand  of  Brother  Leo,  as  the  Holy  Spirit  dic- 
tated. Elias,  to  whom  this  rule  was  entrusted  ^ter  a 
few  days  declared  that  he  had  lost  it,  hence  St.  Francis 
had  the  rule  rewritten.  Spiritual  sources  give  other 
rather  dramatic  circumstances,  under  which  the  new 
rule  was  communicated  to  the  provincials,  headed  bv 
Brother  Elias.  As  the  primanr  authorities  on  the  li^ 
of  St.  Francis  say  nothing  on  the  point,  it  may  be  sup- 

§osed  that  those  records  served  only  to  justify  the 
pirituals  in  their  opposition  to  the  rest  of  the  order. 
Tiie  rule  composed  m  1223  was  solemnly  confirmed  by 
the  Bull  "Solet  annuere"  of  Honorius  III,  29  Nov., 
1223  (Bull.  Franc,  I,  15),  and,  as  St.  Bonaventure 
(Leg.  maj.,  c.  iv)  and  many  other  early  Franciscan 
writers  observe,  by  the  Bull  of  the  Highest  Priest 
Jesus  Christ,  through  the  impression  of  the  Stigmata, 
14  Sept.,  1224. 
The  rule  of  1223  is  the  Franciscan  Rule  properly  so 


called,  the  rule  which  the  Friars  Minor  still  observe. 
It  is  named  by  Franciscan  authors  "Regula  bullata" 
or  "Regula  secunda".  The  question  nas  been  put 
whether  St.  Francis  was  quite  free  in  drawing  up  the 
definitive  text  of  his  rule.  From  what  has  been  al- 
ready said,  it  may  be  gathered  that  St.  Francis  suc- 
cessively aeveloped  his  rule,  adapting  it  to  the  cir- 
cumstances; hence  if  all  the  particulars  of  the  former 
rules  are  not  found  in  the  last  one  that  is  no  reason  to 
say  St.  Francis  omitted  them  against  his  own  will. 
Those  who  believe  in  an  influence  exercised  on  St. 
Francis  in  recasting  the  third  rule  appeal  to  the  fol- 
lowing points:  Firstly,  in  a  letter  (Opuscula  S.  Fran- 
cisci,  Quaracchi,  1904,  ep.  iii,  p.  108  sq.)  which  St. 
Francis  wrote  to  a  certain  minister,  perhaps  to  Elias,  he 
proposes  that  at  the  next  chapter  of  Whitsuntide  a 
chapter  of  the  rule  should  be  written  to  the  effect  that 
if  any  brother  has  sinned  venially  and  humbly  owns  it, 
they  (the  ministers  or  the  priests)  shall  "  have  abso- 
lutely no  power  of  enjoining  other  penance  save  only 
this:  go  and  sin  no  more".  Now  in  c.  vii  of  the  third 
rule  only  merciful  treatment  of  sinning  brothers  in 
general  is  recommended.  Secondly,  A^lo  Clareno 
(Trib.  i,  ed.  Tocco,  op.  cit.,  p.  58,  and  "Ibcpositio  in 
Reg.")  tells  us  that  the  dispositions  of  c.  x  in  the  third 
rule  were  much  in  favour  of  the  friars,  who  recurred  to 
their  ministers  for  the  pure  observance  of  the  rule,  but 
Honorius  III,  seeine  the  inconvenience  of  such  a  large 
concession,  modified  those  passages,  before  approving 
the  rule.  Thirdly,  Gregory  IX,  in  the  Bull  "Quo 
elongati"^  (1230),  says  that  he  knew  the  intention  of 
St.  Francis  with  regard  to  the  rule,  as  he  had  assisted 
him  when  he  wrote  it  and  obtained  its  confirmation. 
Fourthly,  in  c.  xiv  of  the  second  rule,  is  the  passage  of 
the  evangelical  prohibitions  (Luke,  ix,  3),  wnich  is  not 
to  be  found  in  the  last  rule,  and  the  reason  thereof  is 
indicated  by  Spiritual  authorities,  such  as  "Speculum 

Sjrfectionis",  c.  iii,  Aneelo  Clareno  (Trib.  1):  "the 
inisters  caused  it  to  be  removed  from  the  Rule". 
It  is  hard  to  sav  how  far  these  assertions  are  true, 
since  we  have  all  this  information,  with  the  exception 
of  that  given  by  Gregory  IX,  from  sources  that  are 
not  quite  free  of  suspicion.  Carmichael  (Dublin  Re- 
view, 1904,  CXXXIV,  n.  269,  p.  372  sq.)  has  with 
skill  attacked  all  these  arguments.  Still  some  diver- 
gence of  views  may  have  existed  on  a  few  points. 
Another  question  connected  with  the  former  one  is 
whether  the  rule  was  revealed  to  St.  Francis.  To  put 
the  question  clearly  we  should  ask,  which  of  the  three 
rules  was  revealed?  Against  the  theory  of  the  Spirit- 
uals it  is  more  reasonable  to  say  that  St.  Francis  fol- 
lowed an  inner  light  of  grace  when  taking  the  texts  of 
the  Gospel  as  his  rule  of  life  in  the  years  1208-1209. 
Only  of  that  first  rule  doed  St.  Francis  himself  speak 
as  revealed  to  him.  (See  the  words  of  his  Testament 
cited  above.)  Of  course  a  special  guidance  of  Provi- 
dence must  oe  admitted  in  a  work  m  such  importance 
as  the  definitive  Rule  of  St.  Francis. 

(2)  Contents  of  the  Rude, — ^The  rule  is  contained  in 
the  Bull  "Solet  annuere",  and  beeins  with  these  char- 
acteristic words:  "The  rule  and  life  of  the  Minor 
Brothers  is  this,  namely,  to  observe  the  holy  Gospel  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  by  living  in  obedience,  without 
property  and  in  chastity."  St.  Francis  promises 
obedience  to  Pope  Honorius  and  his  successors,  the 
other  brothers  are  to  obey  Brother  Francis  and  his 
successors  (c.  i).  Havine  thus  laid  the  solid  founda- 
tion of  unity  upon  the  Church,  St.  Francis  gives  par- 
ticulars concerning  reception,  profession,  and  vest* 
ments  of  the  brothers.  They  are  forbidden  to  wear 
shoes,  if  not  compelled  through  necessity  (c.  ii). 
Chapter  the  third  prescribes  for  the  clerics  "  the  Divine 
Ofl&ce  according  to  the  order  of  the  holy  Roman 
Church,  with  the  exception  of  the  Psalter;  wherefore 
(or,  as  soon  as)  they  may  have  breviaries".  The  lay- 
brothers  have  to  say  Paternosters,  disposed  according 
to  the  canonical  hours.    The  brothers  are  to  ''fast 


FBAHOIS 


211 


FRANCIS 


from  the  feast  of  All  Saints  until  the  Nativity  of  the 
Lord",  during  Lent,  and  every  Friday.  The  forty 
daja'  fast  (obligatory  in  the  rule  of  1221),  which  begins 
from  Epiphany,  is  left  free  to  the  good  will  of  >  the 
brothers.  Beautiful  exhortations  follow  on  the  be- 
haviour of  the  brothers  when  they  go  through  the 
world.  They  are  forbidden  to  ride  on  horseback,  un- 
less compelled  by  manifest  necessity  or  infirmity  (c.  iii) . 

'  The  next  chapter  "  strictly  enjoins  on  all  the  brothers 
that  in  no  wise  they  receive  coins  or  money,  either 
themselves  or  through  an  interposed  person".  How- 
ever, the  ministers  and  custodes  have  to  take  the  ereat- 

,  est  care  of  their  subjects  through  spiritual  friends,  ac- 
cording to  places  and  times  and  other  circumstances, 
saving  always  that,  as  has  been  said,  thejr  shall  not 
"receive  coins  or  money"  (c.  iv).  To  banish  idleness 
and  to  provide  for  their  supp6rt,  St.  Francis  insists  on 
the  duty  of  working  for  "  those  brothers  to  whom  the 
Lord  has  ^ven  the  grace  of  working".  But  they 
must  work  m  such  a  way  that "  they  do  not  extinguish 
the  spirit  of  prayer  and  devotion,  to  which  all  tem- 
poral things  must  be  subservient  .  As  a  reward  of 
their  labour  they  may  receive  things  needed,  with  the 
exception  of  coins  or  money  (c.  v).  Of  the  highest 
importance  is  chapter  vi.  It  contains  the  prescrip- 
tions of  the  most  ideal  poverty:  "The  brothers  shall 
appropriate  nothing  to  themselves^  neither  a  house  nor 
place  nor  anything.  And  as  pilgrims  and  strangers  in 
this  world  ...  let  them  go  confidently  in  quest  of 
alms."  "This,  my  dearest  brothers,  is  the  height  of 
the  most  sublime  poverty,  which  has  made  you  heirs 
and  kings  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven:  poor  in  goods,  but 
exalted  in  virtue  ..."  Then  follows  an  appeal  for 
fraternal  love  and  mutual  confidence,  "  for  if  a  mother 
nourishes  and  loves  her  carnal  son,  how  much  more 
earnestly  ought  one  to  love  and  nourish  his  spiritual 
brother!"  (c.  vi).  The  following  chapter  treats  of 
penance  to  be  inflicted  on  brothers  who  have  sinned, 
in  some  cases  they  must  recur  to  their  ministers,  who 
**  should  beware  lest  they  be  angry  or  troubled  on  ac- 
count of  the  sins  of  others,  because  anger  and  trouble 
impede  charity  in  themselves  and  in  others"  (c.  vii). 
Chapter  viu  charges  all  the  brothers  "always  to 
have  one  of  the  brothers  of  this  religion  (order)  as 
Minister  General  and  servant  of  the  whole  brother- 
hood". At  his  death  the  provincial  ministers  and  cus- 
todes must  elect  a  successor  in  the  'Whitsun  chapter. 
The  eeneral  chapter,  at  which  the  provincial  ministers 
are  always  bound  to  convene,  is  to  be  held  every  three 
years,  or  at  a  longer  or  shorter  interval,  where  the 
general  so  wishes.  After  the  Whitsun  chapter,  pro- 
vincial chapters  may  be  convoked  by  the  ministers 
(c.  viii).  A  special  chapter  on  preachers  follows  next. 
The  brothers  are  forbiaden  to  preach  in  any  diocese 
against  the  will  of  the  bishop,  and  unless  they  are  ap- 
proved by  the  minister  general.  The  brothers  must 
preach  "  for  the  utility  and  edification  of  the  people, 
announcing  to  them  vices  and  virtues,  punishment 
and  glory  ..."  (c.  ix).  "Of  the  admonition  and  cor- 
rection of  the  Brothers  "  is  the  title  of  chapter  x.  The 
ministers  "shall  visit  and  admonish  their  brothers, 
and  shall  humbly  and  charitably  correct  them,  not 
commanding  them  anything  against  their  souls  and 
our  Rule.  The  brothers  however  who  are  subject 
must  remember  that,  for  God,  they  have  renounced 
their  own  will."  If  any  brother  cannot  observe  the 
rule  spiritually,  he  must  recur  to  his  minister,  who  is 
bound  to  receive  him  kindly  (c.  x).  In  chapter  xi  the 
brothers  are  forbidden  to  have  suspicious  intimacy 
with  women,  nor  are  they  allowed  to  "  enter  monas- 
teries of  nuns,  except  those  to  whom  special  permis- 
sion has  been  granted  by  the  Apostolic  See  .  Nor 
may  they  "be  godfathers  of  men  or  women".  The 
twelfth  and  last  chapter  treats  of  those  who  wish  to 
go  among  the  Saracens  and  other  infidels,  for  which 
purpose  theymust  obtain  leave  from  their  provincial 
ministers.    The  ministers  are  bound  to  ask  of  the 


pope  a  cardinal-protector,  "so  that" — with  these 
touching  words  St.  Francis  concludes  his  rule — "  being 
always  subject  and  submissive  at  the  feet  of  the  same 
holy  Churcn,  grounded  in  the  Catholic  faith,  we  may 
observe  poverty  and  humility  and  the  holy  Gospel  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  which  we  have  firmly  promised  " 

(.•V  '  W  » 

c.  xu). 

As  may  be  seen  from  this  short  survey  the  Francis- 
can rule  contains  many  commandments,  tempered  by 
the  sweet  exhortations  of  St.  Francis.  It  is  the  tender 
voice  of  a  loving  father  that  speaks  to  his  children 
through  the  rule.  This  rule  has  been  praised  in  the 
highest  terms  by  different  authorities.  First  of  all  St. 
Francis  himself  had  a  high  idea  of  it:  "This  Rule  he 
declared  to  be  for  his  brethren  the  book  of  life,  the 
hope  of  salvation,  the  marrow  of  the  Gospel,  the  way 
of  perfection,  the  key  of  Paradise  and  the  covenant  of 
an  eternal  alliance  ..."  (II  Cel.,  ii,  158).  Nicholas 
III  (Exiit)  speaks  in  the  same  way:  "This  Rule  is 
foimded  on  the  words  of  the  Gospel,  it  has  its  force 
from  the  example  of  Christ's  life,  it  is  confirmed  by  the 
words  apd  deeds  of  the  founders  of  the  Church,  the 
Apostles".  Angelo Clareno  (Expositio)  calls  it  "the 
Rule  of  charity  and  piety  ",  "  the  Rule  of  peace,  truth 
and  piety  ".  "  The  Evangelical  Rule  "  is  a  much-used 
expression  for  it  in  old  Franciscan  literature.  The  in- 
fluence which  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis  has  exercised  for 
now  seven  hundred  years  is  immeasurable.  Millions 
have  followed  it,  finding  in  it  peace  of  heart,  and  the 
means  of  their  own  and  other  men's  sanctification. 
Nor  has  the  rule  had  less  important  effects  in  a  more 
general  way.  Unlike  all  former  rules,  it  established 
poverty  not  only  for  the  individual  members,  but  for 
the  order  as  a  whole.  '  On  this  iK>int  St.  Francis  in- 
fluenced even  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic  and  many  sub- 
sequent institutions.  As  early  as  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, Salimbene  (ed.  Holder-E^ger,  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.: 
Scnpt.,  XXXII,  256)  wrote:  "  Whoever  wants  to  found 
a  new  congregation,  always  take  somethine  from  the 
Order  of  bies^  Francis."  For  the  general  influence 
of  Franciscan  poverty  see  Dubois.  "St.  Francis  of  As- 
sisi,  social  reformer  (New  York,  1906).  The  con- 
stitution of  the  order  is  likewise  different  from  that  of 
the  monastic  orders.  It  is  strictly  hierarchical,  the 
convents  being  grouped  into  provinces  which  are  gov- 
erned by  the  provincials,  who  in  turn  are  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  minister  general,  the  head  and  ruler 
of  the  whole  order. — ^The  words  of  St.  Francis  (c.  iii 
Reg.) :  "  Let  the  clerics  perform  the  Divine  office  ac- 
coramg  to  the  order  of  the  holy  Roman  Church,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Psalter",  have  had  a  singular  re- 
sult. Through  adopting  the  shorter  breviary  of  the 
papal  Curia  the  Franciscans  made  this  breviary  popu- 
lar, reformed  it  in  many  points  and  led  to  its  oemg 
practically  received  by  the  whole  secular  clergy.  (See 
B&umer,  "Geschichtedes  Breviers",  Freiburg  im  Br., 
1895,  p.  318  sqq.;  Batiffol,  "  Histoire  du  Br6viaire  Ro- 
main  ,  Paris,  1893,  p.  142  sqq.)  The  principles  con- 
cerning preaching  as  laid  down  by  St.  Francis  in  c.  ix 
of  his  Rule  contain  the  secret  of  the  great  Franciscan 
preachers,  who  have  always  been  amon^  the  most  suc- 
cessful and  popular.  Finally,  chap,  xii  on  missions ' 
amongst  the  infidels  is  a  happy  innovation  in  reli^ous 
rules,  as  Angelo  Clareno  in  his  exposition  wisely 
observed.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  great  im- 
pulse given  to  foreign  missions  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury is  due  to  St.  Francis,  who  was  himself  a  mission- 
ary in  the  East  and  saw  some  of  his  brethren  martyred 
for  the  Faith. 

II.  Interprbtation. — ^The  ideal  that  St.  Francis 
laid  down  in  his  rule  is  very  high;  the  apostolical  life 
was  to  be  put  in  practice  by  his  brethren,  and  indeed 
we  see  that  St.  Francis  and  his  companions  lived  per- 
fectly according  to  that  standard .  But  the  number  of 
the  friars  rapidly  increasing,  and  on  the  other  hand, 
some  being  received  into  the  order  who  had  not  the 
pure  intentions  and  the  great  zeal  of  Francis,  the  rule 


FBAHOIS                              212  fRAKOIS 

gave  ri6e  to  many  controversies,  and,  as  a  consequence,  Franc,  III,  501) ,  especially  in  regard  to  lawsuits.  The 
to  many  declarations  and  expositions.  The  first  ex-  order  received  the  disposition  of  Martin  IV  at  the 
position  of  the  rule  was  given  by  St.  Francis  himself  in  chapter  of  ^lilan^  1285,  but  warned  at  the  same  time 
nis  Testament  (1226).  He  puts  there  his  own  and  his  agamst  the  multiplication  of  legal  actions  (see  Ehrle, 
first  disciples'  life  as  an  example  to  the  brothers.  Archiv  filr  Litteratur- und  Kirchengeschichte,  VI,  55). 
Moreover  ne  forbids  them  "  to  ask  for  any  letter  from  The  two  most  famous  Constitutions  on  the  Francis- 
the  Roman  Curia,  either  for  a  church  or  for  any  other  can  rule,  which  have  been  inserted  in  the  text  of 
place,  whether  under  pretext  of  preaching,  or  on  ac-  canon  law,  and  which  are  still  in  uncontested  authority 
count  of  their  bodily  persecution".  He  enjoins  also  with  the  Friars  Minor,  are  the  Bulls  "Exiit  qui  semi- 
on  all  brothers  "not  to  put  glosses  on  the  Rule",  but  nat"  of  Nicholas  III,  and  "Exivi  de  Paradiso"  of 
as  he  had  written  it  purely  and  simply,  so  ou^t  they  Clement  V.  The  Constitution  "  Exiit "  (c.  iii,  in  VI, 
"understand  it  simply  and  purely  and  with  holy  lib.  V,  tit.  xii),  prepared  with  the  advice  of  eminent 
operation  observe  it  until  the  end."  Nevertheless  we  men  in  and  outside  the  order,  given  at  Soriano  near 
have  a  great  number  of  expositions  of  the  rule,  and  it  Viterbo,  14  Aug.,  1279,  treats  the  whole  rule  both 
cannot  be  said  that  they  are,  in  their  greatest  part,  theoretically  and  practically.  Nicholas  III,  against 
asainst  the  will  of  St.  Francis.  He  himself  had  in  his  the  enemies  of  the  order,  states  that  complete  expro- 
lifetime  been  humble  enough  to  submit  in  everything  priation,  in  common  as  well  as  in  particular,  is  licit,  holv, 
to  the  decisions  of  the  Church,  and  so  he  desired  his  and  meritorious,  it  being  taught  bv  Christ  Himself, 
sons  to  do.  Even  the  Spirituals,  who  cleaved  to  the  letter  although  He,  for  the  sake  of  the  weak,  sometimes  took 
of  the  rule,  as  Olivi  and  Clareno,  were  not  against  money.  The  brothers  have  the  moderate  use  of  things 
reasonable  expounding  of  the  rule,  and  have  written  according  to  their  rule.  The  proprietorship  goes  to 
expositions  thereof  themselves.  Besides,  the  decisions  the  Holy  See,  unless  the  donor  retains  it.  The  ques- 
of  the  popes  are  not  dispenaatioru,  but  autherUic  inter-  tion  of  the  monev  is  treated  with  special  care.  The 
pretationa  of  a  rule,  that  binds  only  inasmuch  as  it  is  employment  of  the  messenger  and  spiritual  friend  is 
approved  by  the  Church.  To  proceed  with  order,  we  confirmed  and  explained.  The  friars  have  no  right 
shall  firstly  speak  of  the'  authentic  interpretations,  over  the  money,  nor  can  they  call  to  account  an  un- 
secondlv  of  the  private  expositions,  faithful  messenger.  Lest  the  great  number  of  papal 
(1)  AiUhentic  Interpretations. — ^These  are  the  papal  decisions  shoulaj)r6duce  confusion,  the  pope  declares 
Constitutions  on  the  rule.  Doubts  about  the  meamng  that  aU  former  Bulls  on  the  subject  are  abolished,  if 
and  the  observance  of  the  rule  having  risen  at  the  they  are  against  the  present  one.  However,  this  Con- 
general  chapter  of  Assisi  (1230),  a  deputation  of  stitution  aid  not  put  an  end  to  the  questions  moved  by 
prominent  men  was  sent  to  Gregory  IX,  to  obtain  a  the  more  zealous  brothers,  called  Spirituals.  It  was 
papal  decision.  .  On  28  September,  1230,  the  pope  through  their  agitation  at  the  papal  court  at  Avignon 
edited  the  Bull  "Quo  elongati'^  (Bull.  Franc,  1, 68).  a  (1309-1312)  that  Clement  V  gave  the  Constitution 
document  of  capital  importance  for  the  future  of  the  "Exivi",  6  May,  1312  (c.  i,  Clem.,  lib.  V,  tit.  xi). 
order.  In  this  Bull  the  pope,  claiming  to  know  the  in-  Whilst  Angelo  Clareno,  the  head  of  the  Spirituals, 
tentions  of  the  holy  founder,  since  he  bad  assisted  him  rejects  all  papal  declarations  on  the  rule,  he  speaks 
in  the  composition  and  approval  of  the  rule,  declares  well  of  the  Bull  "  Exivi ",  "  which  is  among  the  others 
that  for  the  tranquillity  of  conscience  of  the  friars,  the  like  a  flying  eagle,  approaching  nearest  to  the  inten- 
Testament  of  St.  Francis  has  no  binding  power  over  tion  of  the  Founder"  (Archiv  fOr  Litteratui^  und 
them,  as  Francis,  when  making  it,  had  no  legislative  Kirchengeschichte,  II.  139).  Clement  V  declares  that 
power.  Nor  are  the  brothers  bound  to  all  the  counsels  the  Friars  Minor  are  bound  to  poverty  (u8U8  pauper) 
of  the  Gospel,  but  only  to  those  that  are  expressly  in  those  points  on  which  the  rule  insists.  Character- 
mentioned  m  the  rule,  by  way  of  precept  or  of  prohibi-  istic  of  tnis  Bull  is  the  casuistic  manner  in  which  the 
tion.  Dispositions  are  made  with  regard  to  money  prescriptions  of  the  rule  are  treated.  It  declares  that 
and  property.  The  brothers  may  appoint  a  messen-  St.  Francis  wished  to  oblige  his  brothers  under  mortal 
ger  (nuntiua),  who  mav  receive  money  from  bene-  sin  in  all  thoNse  cases  in  which  he  uses  commanding 
Victors  and  in  the  latter  s  name  either  spend  it  for  the  words  or  eouivalent  expressions,  some  of  which  cases 
present  needs  of  the  friars,  or  confide  it  to  a  spiritual  are  specified.  The  Constitutions  "  Exiit  "and  "  Exivi " 
friend  for  imminent  wants.  The  principle  of  absolute  have  remained  fundamental  laws  for  the  Franciscans, 
poverty  is  maintained  for  the  individual  friar  and  for  although  they  were  in  the  most  important  point  prac- 
the  whole  community;  still  the  use  of  the  necessary  tically  suppressed  by  John  XXII,  who  m  his  Bull 
movable  objects  is  granted  them.  These  are  some  of  "  Ad  conditorem  canonum  ".  8  Dec.,  1322  (Bull.  Franc, 
the  most  striking  cnspositions  of  Gregory  IX.  whose  V,  233),  renounced  on  behalf  of  the  Apostolic  See  the 
principles  of  wise  interpretation  have  remainea  funda-  proprietorship  of  the  goods  of  which  the  order  had  the 
mentcd  for  the  order.  Innocent  IV,  in  the  Bull  "  Or-  use,  declaring  (according  to  the  Roman  law)  that  in 
dinem  vestrum",  14  Nov.,  1245  (Bull.  Franc,  I.  400),  many  things  the  use  comd  not  be  distinguished  from 
confirmed  the  dispositions  of  his  predecessor,  but  at  the  prm)erty.  Consequently  he  forbade  the  appoint- 
the  same  time  made  more  ample  concessions,  since  he  ment  of  an  Apostolic  svndic.  Martin  V  in  "  Amabiles 
allowed  the  brothers  to  recur  to  the  messenger  or  fructus",l  Nov.,  1428  (Bull.  Franc,  VII,  712),  restored 
spiritual  friend  not  only  for  things  necessary,  but  also  the  former  state  of  thmgs  for  the  Observants, 
for  things  useful  and  convenient  (commoaa).  The  (2)  Private  Expositions, — Only  the  earliest  ones, 
order,  however,  in  two  general  chapters,  at  Metz,  1249,  which  had  influence  on  the  development  of  the  order, 
and  at  Narbonne,  1260,  declined  to  receive  this  privi-  can  be  mentioned  here.  The  most  important  is  that 
lep,  inasmuch  as  it  goes  farther  than  the  concession  of  the  Four  Masters,  edited  at  least  six  times  in  old  col- 
oT  Greeory  IX.  In  the  same  Bull  Innocent  IV  de-  lections  of  Franciscan  texts,  under  the  names  of  Monu- 
clares  that  all  things  in  the  use  of  the  friars  belong  to  the  menta.  Speculum,  Firmamentum  (Brescia,  1502 :  Sala- 
Apostolic  See,  unless  the  donor  has  reserved  the  manca,  1506,  1511;  Rouen,  1509;  Paris,  1512;  Venice, 
ownership  to  himself.  A  necessary  consequence  of  1513).  The  chapter  of  the  custodes  at  Montpellier, 
this  disposition  was  the  institution  of  a  procurator  bv  1541,  had  ordered  that  the  solution  of  some  doubts 
the  same  pope  through  the  Bull  "  Quanto  studiosius  ,  about  the  rule  should  be  asked  for  from  each  province. 
19  Aug.,  1247  (Bull.  Franc.  1, 487).  This  procurator  We  know  of  two  expositions  of  the  rule  drawn  up  on 
was  to  act  in  the  name  of  the  Apostolic  See  as  a  civil  this  occasion.  Eccleston  (c.  xii,  alias  xiii,  Analecta 
party  in  the  administration  of  the  goods  in  use  of  the  Francisc,  1, 244)  speaks  of  the  short  but  severe  exposi- 
rriars.    The  faculties  of  this  procurator,  or  Apostolic  tion  which  the  friars  in  England  sent  to  the  general, 

Srndic,  were  much  enlarged  bv  Martin  IV  through  the  beseeching  him  by  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  to  let 

ull "  JSxultantes  in  Domino ' ,  18  January,  1283  (Bull,  the  rule  stand  as  it  was  given  by  St.  Francis.    Unfor- 


VBAMOIS                               213  r&ANOXS 

tunately.  the  text  of  this  declaration  has  not  been  Parisiensis  (0.  Cap.)f  whose  learned  but  extravagant 
handed  aown.  We  have,  however,  that  of  the  prov-  work  has  been  put  on  the  Index  of  forbidden  books, 
ince  of  Paris,  issued  on  the  same  occasion  by  four  Finallv,  Bonaventure  Demoye  (Medulla  S.  Evangelii 
masters  of  theology,  Alexander  of  Hales,  Jean  de  la  per  Christum  dictata  S.  Francisco  in  sua  seraphica 
Rochelle,  Robert  of  Bastia,and  Richard  of  Cornwall.  Kegula.  Antwerp,  1657)  and  Ladislas  de  Pons  (O. 
The  custos  Godfried  fi^tires  only  as  an  official  person.  Cap.),  M^itations  sur  la  Rdgle  des  Fr^res  Mineurs 
This  interesting  exposition  of  the  rule^  and  the  most  (Paris,  1808)  have  written  voluminous  works  on  the 
ancient,  for  it  was  written  in  the  spnn^  of  1242,  is  rule  for  purposes  of  preaching  and  pious  meditation, 
short  and  treats  onlv  some  dubious  pomts,  in  con-  The  Rule  of  St.  Francis  is  observed  to-day  b}[  the 
f  ormity  with  the  BuU  "  Quo  elongati "  and  two  later  Friars  Minor  and  the  Capuchins  without  dispensations, 
decisions  of  Gregory  IX  (1240,  1241).  Their  method  Besides  the  rule,  both  have  their  own  general  constitu- 
is  casuistic.  Thev  propose  doubts,  resolve  them,  and  tions.  The  Conventuals  profess  the  rule  '' juxta  Con- 
sometimes  leave  the  questions  to  the  superiors,  or  in-  stitutiones  Urbanas"  (16^),  in  which  all  former  papi^ 
voke  a  decision  of  the  pope,  although  they  speak  twice  declarations  are  declared  not  to  be  binding  on  the  Con- 
(c.  ii,  ix)  of  the  possible  danger  for  the  pure  observance  ventuals,  and  in  which  their  departure  from  the  rule, 
of  the  rule,  if  too  manv  papal  privile^  are  obtained,  especially  with  regard  to  poverty,  is  again  sanctioned. 
The  work  of  the  Four  Masters  has  had  the  same  effect  Tbxtb:— The  orisinal  of  the  Bull  *  *8olet  annuere"  is  gre- 
on  subsequent  private  expositions  as  the  Bull  "  Quo  '^^  "f  »wl«ojn  «je  aacrUty  of  8.  Francewo  at  Ania.  The 
,  °**Tr;i*v  J  *^  11  r  11  '^^  i.'fi  ij  1  A'  text  laateo  found  in  the  regwteraofHononua  III,  in  the  Vatican 
elongati "  had  on  all  foUowmg  pontifical  declarations.  Archives.  Fao-eimiles  of  both  and  also  of  '  'Exiit "  and '  *Exivl" 
The  most  prolific  writer  on  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis  was  are  published  in  '  'Seraphica  Le^alationis  Textus  Ori^nalee" 

St.  Bonaventure  who  w«  compeUed  to  answer  fie«»  i^^t  (ffiz-'^^'^Q^S^n^QT^^^^S^SS?^ 

adversaries,  such  as  Guillaume  de  Samt- Amour  and  the  rules,  with  introduotiona  on  their  origin:    Opuaeuia  S.  P, 

others.     His  treatises  are  found  in  the  Quaracchi  edi-  FrancUd  (Quaraodhi,  1904):  'B6numK,  AnaUktm  twrOmuhidUe 

tion  of  hta  works   VIII    1898    (see   Bonaventobe,  tL^^^^ ^ ^^^'f^l^J^^iJSS.S^ 

Saint).    The  standpomt  of  St.  Bonaventure  is  obser-  j-m  (Rome.  1769-1765),  V-VII  (Rome.  1898-1904).  English 

Vance  of  the  rule  as  explained  by  the  papal  declara-  translationa  of  the  second  and  third  rule:   Worka  of   .  ., .  . 

tions  and  with  wise  accommpdatfon  to  cireumstances  |!JSS!So'2.;Sir  jSf fenll^'k  ^iiS^^SSL^ 

He  himself  exercised  great  mfluence  on  the  decretal  delphia.  I90e).  25-74;  db  i*a  Wabb.  THm  WriHnoBofSt.  Franda 

"Exiit"  of  Nicholas  III.  o/ A«i«  (London.  1907).  1-36. 

About  the  same  time  as  St.  Bonaventure,  Hugo  of  jr^^^^l^^^^^bc^,'i:%  (tt  Sfi).l5?: 

Digne  (d.about  1280)  wroteseveral  treatises  on  the  rule.  385:  MOlijbb,  DieAnfdntfe  de$  Minoritanordent  und  dar  Buaa- 

His  exposition  is  found  in  the  above-mentioned  col-  hrudench^tan  (Freiburg  mi  Br.,  1885).    A  good  oorreotlve  of 

l««ttens  for  instance  in  the  " Finnamentum"  (Paris,  S5Kffl!;|l1riES.l5^tj3r75!"x^*^^ 

1512),  IV,  f.  XXXIV,  V.  (Venice,  1513),  III,  f.  XXXil,  v.  Idkm,  Dia  SpaUung  dea  Fmnciaoanermdana  in  dia  Communim 

John  of  Wales  (Guallensis)  wrote  before  1279  an  ex-  und  dia  Spiritualm  m  Archiv  far  lAUamtur'  urtd  Kwehanga' 

Edition,  edited  in  "Finnamentum'; (Venice,  1613),  '^^^^^^^^^^,'^^^^1^^^^^^ 

III.f.xxvm,v.     In  his  treatise  "DePerfectioneevan-  von  Aaaiai  wokrmid  dar  Jahra  121»-1221  (Fnbourg.  1907). 

gelica'\  John  of  Peckham  has  a  special  chapter  (c.  x)  Very  little  has  been  written  on  the  old  expositors  of  the 

on  the  ^nciscan  rule,  often  quoted  as  an  exposition.  ^t^i^HSi.  ^^iS^^I^SSTic^A'^SiSSi 

"Furoamentum",   ed.  1512,    IV,  f.    XCIV,    v;    1513,  «rpfa»wto  (Lyons.  Paris.  1870),  X-XXX.     A  list  of  aU  the  OK- 

III,  f .  hndi,  r.    David  of  Augsburg's  sober  explanation,  positors  till  the  middle  of  the  seyenteenth  century  is  given  bv 

written  be^re  the  Bull "  Exut ",  is  edited  in  mat  part  f^I^"^*  SuppUmmUumadSenpiaraa  Ord,  Afm.  (Home.  1806f. 

by  Lempp  in  "  Zeitschrift  f Qr  Kfrchengeschichte  ",  vol.  LrvABroa  Oliger. 
XIX  (Gotha,  1898-99),  15-46,  340-360.    Another  ex- 

pcxsitor  of  the  Franciscan  rule  towards  the  end  of  the  Francis  Borgia  (Span.  Francisco  de  Bobja  t 
thirteenth  century,  was  Pierre  Johannis  Olivi,  who,  be-  Araqgn),  Saint,  b.  28  October,  1510,  was  the  son  of 
sides  a  methodical  exposition  (Firmamentum,  1513,  Juan  Borgia,  third  Duke  of  Gandia,  and  of  Juana  of 
III,  f.  cvi,  r.),  wrote  a  great  number  of  tracts  relating  Aragon;  d.  30  September,  1572.  The  future  saint  was 
especially  to  Franciscan  poverty.  These  treatises,  unhappy  in  his  ancestnr.  His  grandfather,  Juan  Boiv 
comprised  under  the  name  "  De  perfectione  evan-  ^a,  tne  second  son  of  Alexander  VI,  was  assassinated 
eelica"  are  not  yet  printed  in  their  entirety  [see  Ehrle,  m  Rome  on  14  June,  1497,  by  an  unknown  hand, which 
^  Archiv  fiir  Litteratui^  und  Kirchengeschichte  ",  III,  his  family  always  believed  to  be  that  of  Cssar  Borgia. 
497,  and  Oliger,  "  Archivum  Franciscanum  Histori-  Rodrigo  Borgia,  elected  pope  in  1492  under  the  name 
cum"  (1908),!,  617].  The  theories  of  poverty  taught  of  Alexander  VI,  had  eight  children.  The  eldest, 
by  Olivi  exercised  great  fascination  over  the  Spirituals,  Pedro  Luis,  had  acauired  in  1485  the  hereditarv  Duch^ 
especially  over  Angelo  Clareno  (d.  1337^,  whose  ex-  of  Gandia  m  the  Eangdom  of  Valencia,  whicn,  at  his 
position  of  the  rule  will  shortly  be  published  by  the  death,  passed  to  his  brother  Juan,  who  had  married 
present  writer.  Of  others  who  directly  or  indirectly  Maria  Enriouez  de  Luna.  Having  been  left  a  widow 
exposed  the  rule,  or  particular  points  of  it,  we  can  only  by  the  muraer  of  her  husband,  Maria  Enriquez  with- 
name  the  best  known,  accordmg  to  the  centuries  in  drew  to  her  duchy  and  devoted  herself  piously  to  the 
which  they  lived.  Fourteenth  century:  Ubertino  of  education  of  her  two  children,  Juan  and  Isabel.  After 
Casale,  Gundisalvus  of  Vallebona,  Petrus  Aureoli,  the  marriage  of  her  son  in  1509.  she  followed  the  ex- 
Bartholomew  of  Pisa,  Bartholo  di  Sassoferrato  (a  ample  of  her  daughter,  who  haa  entered  the  convent 
lawyer).  Fifteenth  century:  St.  Bemardine  of  Siena,  of  Poor  Clares  in  Gandia,  and  it  was  through  these  two 
St.  John  Capistran,  Cristoforo  di  Varese  (not  pub-  women  that  sanctity  entered  the  Borgia  family,  and  in 
lished),  Alessandro  Ariosto  (Serena  Conscientia) ,  Jean  the  House  of  Gandia  was  begun  the  work  of  reparation 
Perrin,  Jean  Philippi.  Sixteenth  century:  Brendo-  which  Francis  Borgia  was  to  crown.  Great-grandson 
linus,  Gilbert  Nicolai,  Antonio  de  Cordova,  Jerome  of  Alexander  VI,  on  the  paternal  side,  he  was,  on  his 
3f  Politio  (O.  Cap.)}  Francis  Gonzaga.  Seventeenth  mother's  side,  the  great-s^ndson  of  the  Catholic  Kine 
century:  Peter  Marchant,  Pedro  of  Navarre,  Mat-  Ferdinand  of  Aragon.  This  monarch  had  procured 
theucci,  De  Gubematis.  Eighteenth  centur>r:  Kerk-  the  appointment  of  his  natural  son,  Alfonso,  to  the 
hove,  Kazenberger  (several  times  reedited  in  nine-  Archbishopric  of  Saragossa  at  the  age  of  nine  years, 
teenth  centurv),  Castellucio,  Viatora  Coccaleo  (O.  By  Anna  de  Gurrea,  Alfonso  had  two  sons,  who 
Gap.),  Gabrielfo  Aneelo  a  Vincentia.  Nineteenth  cen-  succeeded  him  in  his  archiepiscopal  see,  and  two 
tury:  Benoffi,  0.  M.  Con.  (Spirito  della  Reeola  de'  daughters,  one  of  whom,  Juana,  married  Diuce  Juan  of 
Frati  Minori,  Rome,  1807;  Fano,  1841)  Aloerto  a  Gandia  and  became  the  mother  of  our  saint.  By  this 
Bulsano   (Knoll,  0.  Cap.),  Winkes,  Haas,  Hilarius  marriage  Juan  had  three  sons  and  four  daughters. 


By  a  aeeond,  contracted  in  1523,  he  had  five  sona  and  In  1538,  at  Toledo,  an  eighth  child  was  bora  to  the 
five  daughters.   The  eldest  of  all  and  heir  to  the  duke-  Harqueae  of  Lombay,  and  on  1  Hay  of  the  next  year 
dom  was  Francis.   Fioualy  reared  in  a  court  which  felt  the  Empress  Isabella  died.   The  equerry  was  commis- 
the  influence  of  the  two  Poor  Clares,  the  mother  and  aioned  to  convey  her  remaina  to  Granada,  where  they 
siaterof  the  reigning  duke,  Francis  lost  his  own  mother  were  interred  on  17  May.    The  death  of  the  empieaa 
whenhe  wasbut  ten.    In  I52I,aseditionamong3t  the  caused  the  first  break  in  the  brilliant  career  of  the 
populace  imperilled  the  child's  life,  and  the  position  of  Marquess  and  Marchioness  of  Iximbay.    It  detached 
the  nobility.    When  the  disturbance  was  suppressed,  them  from  the  court  and  taught  the  nobleman  the 
FranciswBssenttoSaragoseatocontiiiue  his  education  vanity  of  Ufe  and  of  its  grandeurs.    Blessed  John  of 
at  the  court  of  his  uncle,  the  archbishop,  an  osteata-  Avila  preached  the  funeral  sermon,  and  Francis,  hav- 
tious  prelate  who  had  never  been  consecrated  nor  even  ing  made  known  to  him  his  desire  of  reforming  his  life, 
ordained  priest.    Although  in  this  court  the  Spanish  returned  to  Toledo  resolved  to  become  a  perfect  Chris- 
faith  retamed  its  fervour,  it  lapsed  nevertheless  into  tian.     On   26  June,  IUSS,  Charles  V  named  Borgia 
the  inconsisteDciespenmtted  by  the  times,  and  Francis  Viceroy  of  Catalonia,  and  the  importance  c^  the  charge 
could  not  disguise  tested  the  sterling  cjuahties  of  the  courtier.     Precise 
from   himself    the  instructions  determined  his  course  of  action.    He  was 
relation   in   which  to  reform  the  administration  ofjuslice,  put  the  flnan- 
his     grandmother  ces  in  order,  fortify  the  city  ot  Barcelona,  and  repress 
Stood  to  the  dead  outlawry.    On  his  arrival  at  the  viceregal  city,  on  23 
archbishop,  al-  August,  he  at  once  proceeded,  with  an  energy  which 
though    he    was  no  opposition  could  daunt,  to  build  the  ramparts,  rid 
much  mdebted  to  the  country  of  the  brigands  who  terrorized  it,  reform 
her  for  his   early  the  monasteries,  and  develop  learning.     During  his 
reli^ouB  training,  vice-regency  he  showed  himself  an  inflexible  justiciary. 
While  at  Saragosea  and  above  all  an  exemplary  Christian.    But  a  series  of 
Francis  cultivated  grievous  trials  were  destined  to  develop  in  him  the 
his  mind  and   at-  work  of  sanctiflcation  besun  at  Granada.     In  1543  he 
tmcted  the  atten-  became,  by  the  death  of  his  father,  Duke  of  Gandia, 
tiouof  his  relatives  and  was  named  by  the  emperor  master  of  the  houae- 
by     his      fervour,  hold  of  Prince  PhiUp  of  Spain,  who  was  betrothed  to 
Tney,  being  desir-  the  Princess  of  Portugal.    This  appointment  seemed 
ous  of  assuring  the  to  indicate  Francis  as  the  chief  minister  of  the  future 
fortune  ot  the  heir  reign,  but  by  God's  permission  the  sovereigns  of  Por- 
of     Gandia,     sent  tugal  opposed  the  appointment.    Francis  then  retired 
8».  Fbahcib  Boboia                 him  at  the  aee  of  tonisDuchyolGamiiaiand  for  three  years  awaited  the 
twelve  to  Tordesil-  termination  of  the  diapleaaure  which  barred  him  from 
bta  as  page  to  the  Infanta  Catarina,  the  youngest  court.    He  profited  by  this  leisure  to  reorganiie  his 
child  ana  companion  in  solitude  of  the  unfortunate  duchy,  to  found  a  university  in  which  he  himself  took 
queen,  Juana  the  Had.  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology,  and  to  attain  to  a 
In  1525  the  Infanta  married  King  Juan  III  of  Por-  still  higher  degree  of  virtue.    In  1546  his  wife  died, 
ti^l,  and  Francis  returned  to  Sart^ossa  to  complete  The  duke  had  invited  the  Jesuits  to  Gandia  and  be- 
hie  education.    At  last,  in  1528,  the  court  of  Charles  V  come  their  protector  and  disciple,  and  even  at  that 
was  opened  to  him,   and  the  moat  brilliant  future  time  their  model.    But  he  desired  still  more,  and  on  1 
awaited  him.    On  the  way  to  Valladolid,  while  passing,  February,  1548,  became  one  of  them  by  the  pronun- 
brilliantly  escorted,  through  AlcaM  de  Henares,  Fran-  elation  of  the  solemn  vows  of  religion,  although  au- 
cis  encountered  a  poor  man  whom  the  servante  of  the  thorized  by  the  pope  to  remain  in  the  world,  until  he 
Inquisition  were  leading  to  prison.    It  was  Ignatiua  of  should  have  fulfilled  his  obli^tions  towards  his  chil- 
Loyola.     The  young  nobleman  exchanged  a  glance  of  dren  and  his  estates — his  obhgations  as  father  and  as 
emotion  with  the  prisoner,  little  dreaming  tliat  one  ruler. 

day  they  should  be  united  by  the  closest  ties.  The  On  31  August,  1550,  the  Duke  of  Gandia  left  his 
emperor  and  empress  welcomed  Boi^a  less  as  a  sub-  estates  to  see  them  no  more.  On  23  October  he  arrived 
jeot  than  as  a  kinsman.  He  was  seventeen,  endowed  at  Rome,  threw  himself  at  the  feet  of  St.  Ignatius,  and 
with  every  charm,  aocompanied  by  a  magnificent  train  edified  by  his  rare  humility  those  especially  who  re- 
of  followers,  and,  after  the  emperor,  his  presence  was  called  the  ancient  power  of  the  Borgias.  Quick  to 
the  most  gallant  and  knightly  at  court.  In  1529,  at  conceive  great  projects,  he  even  then  urged  St.  Igna- 
the  desire  of  the  empress,  Charles  V  gave  him  in  mar-  tius  to  found  the  Roman  College,  On  4  February, 
riage  the  hand  of  Eleanor  de  Castro,  at  the  same  time  1551,  he  left  Rome,  without  making  known  his  inten- 
making  him  Marquess  of  Lombay,  master  of  the  tion  of  departure.  On  4  April,  he  reached  Aepeitia  in 
hounds,  and  equerry  to  the  empress,  and  appointing  Guipuzooa,  and  chose  as  his  abode  the  hermitage  of 
Eleanor  Camarrra  Mayor.  The  newly-created  Mar-  Santa  Magdalena  near  Oflate.  Charles  V  having  per- 
quesa  of  Lombay  enjoyed  a  privileged  station.  When-  mitted  him  to  relinquish  his  possessions,  beahdicated  in 
ever  the  emperor  was  travelling  or  conducting  a  cam-  tavourofhiselUestson.wasordained  priest 23  May,  anil 
paign,  heconflded  to  the  young  equerry  the  care  of  the  at  once  began  to  deliver  a  series  of  sermons  in  Guipuzcoa 
empress,  and  on  his  return  to  Spain  treated  him  as  a  which  revived  the  faith  of  the  country.  Nothing  was 
confidant  and  friend.  In  1535,  Charles  Vied  the  expe-  talkedof  throughout  Spain  but  this  change  of  life,  and 
ditioD  against  Tunis  unaccompanied  by  Borgia,  but  in  Ofiate  became  tne  object  of  incessant  pilgrimage.  The 
the  following  year  the  favourite  followed  his  sovereign  neophyte  was  obliged  to  tear  himself  from  prayer  in 
on  the  unfortunate  campaign  in  Provence.  Besides  order  to  preach  in  the  cities  which  called  him,  and 
the  virtues  which  made  him  the  model  of  the  court  and  which  his  burning  words,  his  example,  and  even  his 
the  personal  attractions  which  made  him  its  ornament,  mere  appearance,  stirred  profoundly.  In  I553'he  was 
the  Marquess  of  Lombay  possessed  a  cultivated  musi-  invited  to  visit  Portugal.  The  court  received  hira  as  a 
cal  taste.  He  delighted  above  all  in  ecclesiastical  com-  messenger  from  God  and  vowed  to  him,  thenceforth,  a 
positions,  and  these  display  a  remarkable  contrapuntal  veneration  which  it  has  always  preserved.  On  his  re- 
style  ana  bear  witness  to  the  skill  ot  the  composer,  turn  from  this  journey,  Francis  learned  that,  at  the 
justifying  indeed  the  assertion  that,  in  the  sixteenth  request  of  the  emperor.  Pope  Julius  III  was  willing  to 
century  and  prior  to  Palestrina,  Bo^ia  was  one  of  the  'bestow  on  him  the  cardinalate.  St.  Ignatius  prevailed 
cUef  restorers  of  sacred  music.  upon  the  pope  to  reconsider  this  decision,  but  two 


VBAMOIS 


215 


raANois 


years  later  the  project  was  renewed  and  Borgia  anx- 
lousl^r  inquired  whether  he  might  in  conscience  oppose 
a  desire  of  the  pope.  St.  Ijgnatius  again  relieved  his 
embarrassment  by  recjuestmg  him  to  pronoimce  the 
solemn  vows  of  profession,  by  which  he  engaged  not  to 
accept  any  dignities  save  at  the  formal  command  of 
the  pope.  Thenceforth  the  saint  was  reassured.  Pius 
IV  ana  Pius  V  loved  him  too  well  to  impose  upon  him 
a  dignity  which  would  have  caused  him  distress.  Greg- 
ory XIII,  it  is  true,  appeared  resolved,  in  1572,  to 
overcome  his  reluctance,  but  on  this  occasion  death 
saved  him  from  the  elevation  he  had  so  long  feared. 

On  10  June,  1554,  St.  Ignatius  named  Francis  Bor- 
gia commissary-general  of  the  Society  in  Spain.  Two 
years  later  he  confided  to  him  the  care  of  the  missions 
of  the  East  and  West  Indies,  that  is  to  say  of  all  the 
missions  of  the  Societ^r.  To  do  this  was  to  entrust  to  a 
recruit  the  future  of  his  order  in  the  peninsula,  but  in 
this  choice  the  founder  displayed  his  rare  knowledee  of 
men,  for  within  seven  years  Francis  was  to  transform 
the  provinces  confided  to  him.  He  found  them  poor  in 
subjects,  containing  but  few  houses,  and  those  scarcely 
known.  He  left  them  strengthened  by  his  influence 
and  rich  in  disciples  drawn  from  the  highest  grades  of 
society.  These  latter,  whom  his  example  haa  done  so 
much  to  attract,  were  assembled  chiefly  in  his  novi- 
tiate at  Simancas,  and  were  sufficient  for  numerous 
foundations.  Everything  aided  Borgia — ^his  name,  his 
sanctity,  his  eager  power  of  initiative,  and  his  influence 
with  the  Princess  Juana,  who  governed  Castile  in  the 
absence  of  her  brother  Philip.  On  22  April,  1555, 
Queen  Juana  the  Mad  died  at  Tordesillas,  attended  by 
Borgia.  To  the  saint's  presence  has  been  ascribed  the 
serenity  enjoyed  by  the  queen  in  her  last  moments. 
The  veneration  which  he  inspired  was  thereby  in- 
creased, and  furthermore  his  extreme  austeritv,  the 
care  which  he  lavished  on  the  poor  in  the  hospitals,  the 
marvellous  graces  with  which  God  svurounded  his 
apostolate  contributed  to  augment  a  renowii  by  which . 
he  profited  to  further  God's  work.  In  1565  and  1566 
he  founded  the  missions  of  Florida,  New  Spain,  and 
Peru,  thus  extending  even  to  the  New  World  the 
effects  of  his  insatiable  zeal. 

In  December,  1556,  and  three  other  times,  Charles 
V  shut  himself  up  at  Yuste.  He  at  once  summoned 
thither  his  old  favourite,  whose  example  had  done  so 
much  to  inspire  him  with  the  desire  to  abdicate.  In 
the  following  month  of  August,  he  sent  him  to  Lisbon 
to  deal  with  various  questions  concerning  the  succes- 
sion of  Juan  III.  When  the  emperor  died,  21  Septem- 
ber, 1558,  Borgia  was  unable  to  be  present  at  his 
bedside,  but  he  was  one  of  the  testamentary  executors 
appointed  by  the  monarch,  and  it  was  he  who,  at  the 
solemn  services  at  Valiadolid,  pronounced  the  eulo^ 
of  the  deceased  sovereign.  A  trial  was  to  close  this 
period  of  success.  In  1559  Philip  II  returned  to  reign 
m  Spain.  Prejudiced  for  various  reasons  (and  his  pre- 
judice was  fomented  by  many  who  were  envious  of  Bor- 
gia, some  of  whose  interpolated  works  had  been  recently 
condemned  by  the  Inquisition),  Philip  seemed  to  have 
forgotten  his  old  friendship  for  the  Marquess  of  Lom- 
bay,  and  he  manifested  towards  him  a  displeasure 
which  increased  when  he  learned  that  the  saint  had 
gone  to  Lisbon.  Indifferent  to  this  storm,  Francis 
continued  for  two  years  in  Portugal  his  preaching  and 
his  foundations,  and  then,  at  the  request  of  Pope  Pius 
IV,  went  to  Rome  in  1561.  But  storms  have  their 
providential  mission.  It  may  be  questioned  whether 
out  for  the  disgrace  of  1543  the  Duke  of  Gandia  would 
have  become  a  religious,  and  whether,  but  for  the  trial 
which  took  him  away  from  Spain,  he  would  have  ac- 
complished the  work  which  awaited  him  in  Italy.  At 
Rome  it  was  not  long  before  he  won  the  veneration  of 
the  public.  Cardinak  Otho  Truchsess,  Archbishop  of 
Augsburg,  Stanislaus  Hosius,  and  Alexander  Famese 
evinced  towards  him  a  sincere  friendship.  Two  men 
above  all  rejoiced  at  his  coming.    They  were  Michael 


Ghisleii,  the  future  Pope  Pius  V,  and  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  whom  Borgia's  example  aided  to  become  a 
saint.  ^ 

On  16  Februarjr,  1564,  Francis  Borgia  wss  named 
assistant  general  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  on  20 
Januanr,  1565,  was  elected  vicar-general  of  the  So^ 
ciety  of  Jesus.  He  was  elected  general  2  July,  1565,  by 
thirty-one  votes  out  of  thirty-nine,  to  succeed  Father 
James  Laynez.  Although  much  weakened  by  his 
austerities,  worn  by  attacks  of  gout  and  an  affection  of 
the  stomachy  the  new  general  still  possessed  much 
strength,  which,  added  to  his  abimdant  store  of  initiar 
tive,  his  daring  in  the  conception  and  execution  of  vast 
desijgns,  and  the  influence  which  he  exercised  over  the 
Christian  princes  and  at  Rome,  made  him  for  the 
Society  at  once  the  exemplary  model  and  the  provi- 
dential head.  In  Spain  he  nad  had  other  cares  in  addi- 
tion to  those  of  government.  Henceforth  he  was  to  be 
only  the  general.  The  preacher  was  silent.  The  direo- 
tor  of  souls  ceased  to  exercise  his  activity,  except 
through  his  correspondence,  which,  it  is  true,  was  im- 
mense and  which  carried  throughout  the  entire  world 
li^t  and  stren^h  to  kings,  bishops  and  apostles,  to 
nearly  all  who  in  his  day  served  the  Catholic  cause. 
His  chief  anxiety  being  to  strengthen  and  develop  his 
order,  he  sent  visitors  to  all  the  provinces  of  Europe,  to 
Brazil,  India,  and  Japan.  The  instructions,  with 
which  he  furnished  them  were  models  of  prudence, 
kindness,  and  breadth  of  mind.  For  the  missionaries 
as  well  as  for  the  fathers  delegated  by  the  pope  to  the 
Diet  of  Augsbui^,  for  the  confessors  of  princes  and  the 
professors  of  col&ges  he  mapped  out  wide  and  secure 
paths.  While  too  much  a  man  of  duty  to  permit  re- 
laxation or  abuse,  he  attracted  chiefly  by  his  kindness, 
and  won  souls  to  good  by  his  example.  The  edition  or 
the  rules,  at  which  he  laboured  incessantly,  was  com- 
pleted in  1567.  He  published  them  at  Rome,  dis- 
patched them  (throughout  the  Society),  and  strongly 
urged  their  observance.  The  text  of  those  now  in 
force  was  edited  after  his  death,  in  1580,  but  it  differs 
little  from  that  issued  by  Borgia,  to  whom  the  Society 
owes  the  chief  edition  of  its  rmes  as  well  as  that  of  the 
Spiritual  Exercises,  of  which  he  had  borne  the  expense 
in  1548.  In  order  to  ensure  the  spiritual  and  intellec- 
tual formation  of  the  young  religious  and  the  ap>ostolic 
character  of  the  whole  order,  it  became  necessary  to 
take  other  measures.  The  task  of  Borgia  was  to  estab- 
lish, first  at  Rome,  then  in  all  the  provinces,  wisely 
regulated  novitiates  and  flourishing  nouses  ot  study, 
and  to  develop  the  cultivation  of  the  interior  life  by 
establishing  in  all  of  these  the  custom  of  a  daily  hour 
of  prayer. 

He  completed  at  Rome  the  house  and  church  of  S. 
Andrea  in  Quirinale,  in  1567.  Illustrious  novices  flocked 
tliither,  among  them  Stanislaus  Kostka  (d.  1568), 
and  the  future  martyr  Rudolph  Acquaviva.  Since  his 
first  journey  to  Rome,  Borgia  had  been  preoccupied 
with  the  idea  of  founding  a  Roman  college,  and  while 
in  Spain  had  generously  supported  the  project.  In 
1567,  he  built  the  church  of  the  college,  assured  it  even 
then  an  income  of  six  thousand  ducats,  and  at  the 
same  time  drew  up  the  rule  of  studies,  which,  in  1583, 
inspired  the  compilers  of  the  Ratio  Studiorum  of  the 
Society.  Being  a  man  of  prayer  as  well  as  of  action, 
the  samtly  general,  despite  overwhelming  occupations^ 
did  not  permit  his  soul  to  be  distracted  f  roni  continual 
contemplation.  Strengthened  by  so  vigilant  and  holy 
an  administration  the  Society  could  not  but  develop. 
Spain  and  Portugal  numbered  many  foundations;  m 
Italy  Borgia  created  the  Roman  province,  and 
founded  several  colleges  in  Piedmont.  France  and  the 
Northern  province,  however,  were  the  chief  field  of  his 
triumphs.  His  relations  with  the  Cardinal  de  Lorraine 
and  his  influence  with  the  French  Court  made  it  possi- 
ble for  him  to  put  an  end  to  numerous  misunderstand- 
ings, to  secure  the  revocation  of  several  hostile  edicts, 
and  to  foimd  eight  colleges  in  France.    In  Flanders 


VBANOIS 


216 


nULHOIS 


and  Bohemia,  in  the  Tyrol  and  in  Gennan^ ,  he  main- 
tained and  multiplied  important  foundations.  The 
province  of  Poland  was  entirely  his  work.  At  Rome 
eveiything  was  transformed  under  his  hands.  He  had 
built  S.  Andrea  and  the  church  of  the  Roman  college. 
He  assisted  generously  in  the  building  of  the  GesiH,  cuid 
althoiudi  the  official  founder  of  that  church  was  Car- 
dinal Famese,  and  the  Roman  College  has  taken  the 
name  of  one  of  its  greatest  benefactors,  Gregory  XIII, 
Borgia  contributea  more  than  anyone  towaros  these 
foundations.  During  the  seven  years  of  his  ^vern- 
ment,  Borgia  had  introduced  so  many  reforms  mto  his 
order  as  to  deserve  to  be  called  its  second  founder. 
Thiee  saints  of  this  epoch  laboured  incessantly  to  fur- 
ther the  renaissance  of  Catholicism.  They  were  St. 
Francis  Bor^a,  St.  Pius  V,  and  St.  Charles  Borromeo. 

The  pontificate  of  Pius  V  and  the  generalship  of 
Borgia  oesan  within  an  interval  of  a  few  months  and 
ended  at  almost  the  same  time.  The  saintly  pope  had 
entire  confidence  in  the  saintly  general,  who  con- 
formed with  intelligent  devotion  to  every  desire  of  the 
pontiff.  It  was  he  who  inspired  the  pope  with  the 
idea  of  demanding  from  the  Universities  of  Perugia 
and  Bologna,  and  eventually  from  all  the  Catholic 
universities,  a  profession  of  the  Catholic  faith.^  It 
was  also  he  who,  in  1568,  desired  the  pope  to  appoint  a 
commission  of  cardinals  charg|ed  with  promotmg  the 
conversion  of  infidels  and  heretics,  which  was  thegerm 
of  the  Congregation  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith, 
established  later  by  Gregory  Xv,  in  1622.  A  pesti- 
lential fever  invaded  Rome  in  1566,  and  Borgia  or- 
SEinized  methods  of  relief,  established  ambulances,  and 
istributed  forty  of  his  religious  to  such  purpose  that 
the  same  fever  naving  broken  out  two  vears  later  it 
was  to  Boreia  that  the  pope  at  once  connded  the  task 
of  saf eguaraing  the  city. 

Francis  Borgia  had  always  greativ  loved  the  foreign 
missions.  He  reformed  those  of  India  and  the  Far 
East  and  created  those  of  America.  Within  a  few 
yetLTB,  he  had  the  glory  of  numbering  among  his  sons 
sixty-six  martyrs^  the  most  illustrious  of  whom  were 
the  fifty-three  missionaries  of  Brazil  who  with  their 
superior,  Ignacio  Asevedo,  were  massacred  by  Hugue- 
not corsairs.  It  remained  for  Francis  to  terminate 
his  beautiful  life  with  a  splendid  act  of  obedience  to 
the  pope  and  devotion  to  the  Church. 

On  7  June,  1571,  Pius  V  requested  him  to  accom- 
pany his  nephew,  Cfardinal  Bonelli,  on  an  embassy  to 
Spain  and  Portugal.  Francis  was  then  recovering 
from  a  severe  illness;  it  was  feared  that  he  had  not  the 
strength  to  bear  fatigue,  and  he  himself  felt  that  such  a 
journey  would  cost  him  his  life,  but  he  gave  it  gener- 
ously. Spain  welcomed  him  with  transports.  The 
old  aistrust  of  Philip  II  was  forgotten.  Barcelona  and 
Valencia  hastened  to  meet  their  former  vicer^  and 
saintly  duke.  The  crowds  in  the  streets  cried :  "  Where 
is  the  saint?"  They  found  him  emaciated  by  pen- 
ance. Wherever  he  went,  he  reconciled  differences 
and  soothed  discord.  At  Madrid,  Philip  II  received 
him  with  open  arms,  the  Inquisition  approved  and 
recommended  his  ^^uine  works.  The  reparation 
was  complete,  and  it  seemed  as  though  God  wished 
Ky  this  journey  to  give  Spain  to  understand  for 
the  last  time  this  living  sermon,  the  sight  of  a  saint. 
Gandia  ardently  desired  to  behold  its  holy  duke,  but 
he  would  never  consent  to  return  thither.  The  em- 
bassy to  Lisbon  was  no  less  consoling  to  Borgia. 
Among  other  happy  results  he  prevailed  upon  the 
king,  Don  Sebastian,  to  ask  in  marriage  the  hand  of 
Marguerite  of  Valois,  the  sister  of  Charles  IX.  This 
was  the  desire  of  St.  Pius  V,  but  this  project,  being 
formulated  too  late,  was  frustrated  by  the  Queen  ot 
Navarre,  who  had  meanwhile  secured  the  hancl  of  Mar- 
guerite for  her  son.  An  order  from  the  pope  ex- 
pressed his  wish  that  the  embassy  should  also  reach 
the  French  court.  The  winter  promised  to  be  severe 
and  was  destined  to  prove  fatal  to  Borgia.    Still  more 


^evous  to  him  was  to.be  the  spectacle  of  the  devasta- 
uon  which  heresy  had  caused  in  that  country,  and 
which  struck  sorrow  to  the  heart  of  the  saint.  At 
Blois^  Charles  IX  and  Catherine  de'  Medici  accorded 
Borgia  the  reception  due  to  a  Spanish  grandee,  but  to 
the  cardinal  legate  as  well  as  to  nim  they  gave  only  fair 
words  in  which  there  was  little  sincerity.  On  25  Feb- 
ruary they  left  Blois.  By  the  time  they  reached 
Lyons,  Borg^'s  lungs  were  already  affected.  Under 
these  conditions  the  passage  of  Mt.  Cenis  over  snow- 
covered  roads  was  extremely  painful.  By  exerting  all 
his  strength  the  invalid  reached  Turin.  On  the  way 
the  people  came  out  of  the  villages  cryinc:  "  We  wish 
to  see  the  saint".  Advised  of  ms  cousiirs  condition, 
Alfonso  of  Este,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  sent  to  Alexandria 
and  had  him  brought  to  his  ducal  city,  where  he  re- 
mained from  19  April  until  3  September.  His  re- 
covery was  despaired  of  and  it  was  said  that  he  would 
not  survive  the  autumn.  Wishing  to  die  either  at 
Loretto  or  at  Rome,  he  departed  in  a  litter  on  3  Sep- 
tember, spent  eight  days  at  Loretto,  and  then,  despite 
the  suffermgs  caused  by  the  slightest  jolt,  oraered  his 
bearers  to  push  forward  with  the  utmost  speed  for 
Rome.  It  was  expected  that  any  instant  might  see  the 
end  of  thisagony.  They  reached  the  "Porta  del  Popdlo" 
on  28  September.  The  dying  man  halted  his  litter  and 
thanked  God  that  he  had  been  able  to  accompli^  this 
act  of  obedience.  He  was  borne  to  his  cell  which  was 
soon  invaded  by  cardinals  and  prelates.  For  two  days 
Francis  Borgia,  fully  conscious,  awaited  death,  re- 
ceiving those  who  visited  him  and  blessing  througn  his 
younger  brother,  Thomas  Borgia,  all  his  children  and 
erandchildren.  Shortly  after  midnight  on  30  Septem- 
ber, his  beautiful  life  came  to  a  peaceful  and  painless 
close.  In  the  Catholic  Church  he  had  been  one  of  the 
most  striking  examples  of  the  conversion  of  souls  after 
the  Renaissance,  and  for  the  Society  of  Jesus  he  had 
been  the  protector  chosen  by  Providence  to  whom, 
after  St.  Ignatius,  it  owes  most. 

In  1607  the  Duke  of  Lerma,  minister  of  Philip  III 
and  grandson  of  the  holy  religious,  having  seen  his 
granddaughter  miraculously  cured  through  the  inter- 
cession of  Francis,  caused  the  process  for  his  canoniza- 
tion to  be  begun.  ^  The  ordinary  process,  beeun  at 
once  in  several  cities,  was  followed,  in  1617,  oy  the 
Apostolic  process.  In  1617  Madrid  received  the  re- 
mains of  the  saint.  ^  In  1624  the  Congregation  of  Rites 
announced  that  his  beatification  and  canonization 
might  be  proceeded  with.  The  beatification  was  cele- 
brated at  Madrid  with  incomparable  splendour.  Ur- 
bsm  Vin  having  decreed,  in  1631,  that  a  Blessed  might 
not  be  canonizM  without  a  new  procedure,  a  newpro- 
cess  was  begun.  It  was  reserved  for  Clement  X  to 
sign  the  Buliof  canonization  of  St.  Francis  Borda,  on 
20  June,  1670.  Spared  from  the  decree  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte  who,  in  1809,  ordered  the  confiscation  of  all 
shrines  and  precious  objects,  the  silver  shrine  contain- 
ing the  remains  of  the  saint,  after  various  vicissitudes, 
was  removed,  in  1901,  to  the  church  of  the  Society 
at  Madrid,  where  it  is  honoured  at  the  present  time. 

It  is  with  good  reason  that  Spain  and  the  Church 
venerate  in  St.  Francis  Borgia  a  great  man  and  a  great 
saint.  The  highest  nobles  of  Spain  are  proud  of  their 
descent  from,  or  their  connexion  with  nim.^  By  his 
penitent  and  apostolic  life  he  repaired  the  sins  of  his 
family  and  rendered  glorious  a  name,  which  but  for 
him,  would  have  remained  a  source  of  humiliation  for 
the  Church.    His  feast  is  celebrated  10  October. 

Sources:  ArchivesofOBURa  (Madrid),  of  SimancM;  National 
Archives  of  Paris;  Archives  of  the  Society  of  Jesus:  Regeate  du 
Q&rUraUU  de  Laynez  et  de  Borgia^  etc.  Literature:  Monumenta 
hiatorica  S.J.  (Madrid):  Man.  Bortnana;  Chronicon  Potarici: 
EpietolcB  Mixta;  Quadrxmeatree ;  Epialaia  Patria  Nodal,  etc.; 
Eniatola  el  inatruelxonea  8.  Iffnatii;  Orlandini  and  Sacchini, 
Hialoria  Socielaiia  Jeau:  AlcXsar,  Chrono^iatoria  de  la  proviri' 
CM  de  Toledo;  Livea  of  the  saint  by  Vasqube  (1586;  manuscript, 
still  unedited).  Ribadbnbyra  (15Q2).  Nibrbmbbro  (1643),  Bar* 
TOU  (1681),  CiBNFUBOoe  (1702);  Acta  S/?.,  Oct.,  V;  Abtrain. 
HUtoria  de  la  CQmpafi<a  de  Jeaua  en  la  Aaiatencta  de  BapaAa,  I 


THE  VIRGIN  WITH  ST.  FRANCIS  BORGIA  AND  ST.  STANISLAUS  KOSTKA 

,    0EHO4 


ST.  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISl 

CONTEMFORART     PICTURE     IN    THE    SACRO    SPECO,     BDBIACO 


rBAMOISOAN  217  FBAMOiaOAN 

■nd  II  (1902,  1905);  B«ot»nwuot.  Hirtorw  out  importance  for  the  early  history  of  all  three  Orders, 

herdldiea  de  la  moruurquia  eapaAola  (Madrid,  1902),  IV,  Gandta^  Km*  i*  ia  .>rv*  «rA4-  o,',fR^l^r>/Ur  v«.^«M»n  4^  ^^.^^UtA^  ♦iCZ 

Ciua  de  Bona;  BoUUn  de  idAcad^ia  de  ik  HiMuiia  (Madrid)!  ^^^  "  ^  ^^^  y^^  Sufficiently  proven  to  preclude  the 

Dasnm:  Suau,  8.  Francoia  de Borma  in  Lea  SainU  (Pans,  1905);  more  USUal  acCOUnt  given  above,  according  tO  whlch 

iDBM.  Hieunre  de  3.  Fron^oie  de  Borffia  (Pima,  1909).  the  Franciscan  Order  developed  into  three  distinct 

PiEKRE  SuAU.  branches,  namely,  the  first,  second,  and  third  orders, 

Frandflcan  Brothers.     See  Third  Order  Reg-  byprocessof  addition  and  not  by  process  of  division, 

uu^K,  ana  this  is  still  the  view  generally  received. 

Coming  next  to  the  present  organization  of  the 

Franciscan  Order,  a  term  commonly  used  to  desi^-  Franciscan  Order,  the  Fnars  Minor,  or  first  order,  now 
nate  the  members  of  thp  various  foundations  of  religi-  -  comprises  three  separate  bodies,  namely:  the  Friars 
ous,  whether  men  or  women,  professing  to  observe  tne  Minor  properly  so  called,  or  parent  stem,  founded,  as 
Rule  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  in  some  one  of  its  several  has  been  said,  in  1209,  the  Friars  Minor  Conventuals, 
forms.  The  aim  of  the  present  article  is  to  indicate  and  the  Friars  Minor  Capuchins,  which  grew  out  of  the 
briefly  the  oriran  and  relationship  of  these  different  parent  stem,  and  were  constituted  independent  orde^ 
foundations.  It  is  customary  to  say  that  St.  Francis  m  1517  and  1619  respectively.  All  three  orders  pro- 
founded  three  orders,  as  we  read  in  the  Office  for  4  fess  the  rule  of  the  Friars  Minor  approved  by  Honorius 
Oct.:  "Tresordineshicordinat:  ^rimumaue  Fratrum  III  in  1223^  but  each  one  has  its  particular  constitu- 
nominat  Minor um:  pauperumque  fit  Dominarum  tions  and  its  own  minister  general  (see  Capuchin 
medius:  sed  Pcenitentium  tertius  sexum  capit  ut-  Fria^  Minor;  Conventuala,  Order. of  Friars 
rumque"  (Brev.  Rom.  Scrap.,  in  Solem.  S.  P.  Fran.,  Minor).  The  various  lesser  foundations  of  Francis- 
ant.  3,  ad  Laudes).  These  three  orders,  vis.  the  Fri-  can  friars  following  the  rule  of  the  first  order,  which 
ars  Minor,  the  Poor  Ladies  or  Clares,  and  the  Brothers  once  enjoyed  a  separate  or  quasi-separate  existence, 
and  Sisters  of  Penance,  are  generally  referred  to  as  the  are  now  either  extmct,  like  the  Clareni,  Coletani,  ana 
First,  Second,  and  Third  Orders  of  St.  Francis.  Celestines,  or  have  become  amalgamated  with  the 

The  existence  of  the  Friars  Minor  or  first  order  Friars  Minor,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Observants,  Re- 
properly  dates  from  1209,  in  which  year  St.  Francis  formati.  Recollects,  Alcantarines,  etc.  (On  all  these 
obtamed  from  Innocent  III  an  unwritten  approbation  lesser  foundations,  now  extinct,  see  Friars  Minor). 
of  the  simple  rule  he  had  composed  for  the  guidance  of  As  regards  the  Second  Order,  of  Poor  Ladies,  now 
his  first  companions.  This  rule  has  not  come  down  to  commonly  called  Poor  Clu'es,  this  order  includes  all 
us  in  its  original  form;  it  was  subeeouently  rewritten  the  different  monasteries  of  cloistered  nuns  professing 
by  the  saint  and  solemnly  confirmed  by  Honorius  III,  the  Rule  of  St.  Clare  approved  by  Innocent  iV  in  1253, 
29  Nov.  2  1223  (Litt.  "  Soiet  Annuere  "}.  This  second  whether  they  observe  tne  same  in  all  its  original  strict- 
rule,  as  it  is  usually  called,  of  the  Friars  Minor  is  the  ness  or  according  to  the  dispensations  granted  by 
one  at  present  professed  throughout  the  whole  First  Urban  IV,  18  Oct.,  1263  (Litt.  ^' Beata  Clara")  or  the 
Order  of  St.  Francis  (see  Francis,  Rule  of  Saint).  constitutions  drawn  up  by  St.  Colette  (d.  1447)  and 

The  foundation  of  the  Poor  Ladies  or  second  order  approved  by  Pius  II,  18  March,  1468  (Litt.  "Etsi"). 

may  be  said  to  have  been  laid  in  1212.    In  that  year  (See  Poor  Clares.)    The  Sisters  of  the  Annunciation 

St.  Clare  (q.  v.),  who  had  besought  St.  Francis  to  be  and  the  Conceptionists  are  in  some  sense  ofifshoots  of 

allowed  to  embrace  the  new  manner  of  life  he  had  in-  the  second  order,  but  they  now  follow  different  rules 

stituted,  was  established  by  him  at  St.  Damian's  near  from  that  of  the  Poor  Ladies  (see  Annunciation, 

Assisi,  together  with  several  other  pious  maidens  who  The  Orders  of  the;    I.  Annunciadeb;    Concef- 

had  joinM  her.    It  is  erroneous  to  suppose  that  St.  tionibts). 

Francis  ever  drew  up  a  formal  rule  for  these  Poor  In  connexion  with  the  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Pen- 
Ladies,  and  no  mention  of  such  a  document  is  found  in  ance  or  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  it  is  necessary  to 
any  of  the  early  authorities.  The  rule  imposed  upon  distinguish  between  the  third  order  secular  and  the 
the  Poor  Ladies  at  St.  Damian's  about  1219  by  Car-  third  order  regular.  The  third  order  secular  was 
dinal  Ugolino,  afterwards  Gregory  IX.  was  recast  by  founded,  as  we  nave  seen,  by  St.  Francis  about  1221 
St.  Clare  towards  the  end  of  her  life,  witn  the  assistance  and  embraces  devout  persons  of  both  sexes  living  in 
of  Cardinal  Rinaldo,  afterwards  Alexander  IV,  and  in  the  world  and  following  a  rule  of  life  approved  by 
this  revised  form  was  approved  by  Innocent  IV,  9  Nicholas  IV  in  1289,  and  modified  by  Leo  XIII,  30 
Aug.,  1253  (Litt.  "Solet  Annuere").  (See  Poor  May,  1883  (Constit.  "Misericors").  It  includes  not 
Clares.)  only  members  who  form  part  of  local  fraternities,  but 

Tradition  assigns  the  year  1221  as  the  date  of  the  also  isolated  tertiaries,  hermits,  pilgrims,  etc.     (See 

foundation  of  the  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Penance,  Third  Order  Secular.)    The  earl^  history  of  the 

now  known  as  tertiaries.    This  third  order  was  de-  third  order  regular  is  uncertain  and  is  susceptible  of 

vised  by  St.  Francis  as  a  sort  of  middle  state  between  controversy.    Some  attribute  its  foundation  to  St. 

the  cloister  and  the  world  for  those  who,  wishing  to  Elizabeth  of  Hungary  (<i.  v.^  in   1228,  others  to 

follow  in  the  saint's  footsteps,  were  debarred  by  mar-  Blessed  Angelina  ofMarsciano  m  1395.    The  latter  is 

riage  or  other  ties  from  entering  either  the  first  or  said  to  have  established  at  Foligno  the  first  Franciscan 

second'  order.    There  has  been  some  difference  of  monastery  of  enclosed  tertiary  nuns  in  Italy.    It  is 

opinion  as  to  how  far  the  saint  composed  a  rule  for  certain  that  early  in  the  fifteenth  century  tertiary 

these  tertiaries.    It  is  generally  admitted,  however,  communities  of  men  and  women  existed  in  different 

that  the  rule  approved  by  Nicholas  IV,  18  Aug.,  1289  parts  of  Europe  and  that  the  Italian  friars  of  the  third 

(Litt.  "  Supra  Montem  ")  does  not  represent  the  origi-  order  regular  were  recognised  as  a  mendicant  order  by 

nal  rule  of  the  third  order.  the  Holy  See.    Since  about  1458  the  latter  body  has 

Some  recent  writers  have  tried  to  show  that  the  been  governed  by  its  own  minister  general  and  its 

third  order,  as  we  now  call  it,  was  really  the  starting-  memmrs  take  solemn  vows.    (See  Third  Order 

point  of  the  whole  Franciscan  Order.    They  assert  Regular.) 

that  the  Second  and  Third  Orders  of  St.  Francis  were  In  addition  to  this  third  order  regular,  properly  so 
not  added  to  the  First,  but  that  the  three  branches,  called,  and  quite  independently  of  it,  a  very  large 
the  Friars  Minor,  Poor  Ladies,  and  Brothers  and  Sis-  number  of  Franciscan  tertiary  congregations,  both  of 
ters  of  Penance,  grew  out  of  the  lay  confraternity  of  men  and  women,  have  been  found^,  more  especially 
penance  which  was  St.  Francis's  first  and  original  inten-  since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  These 
tion,  and  were  separated  from  it  into  different  groups  new  foundations  have  taken  as  a  basis  of  their  insti- 
by  Cardinal  Ugolino,  the  protector  of  the  order,  dur-  tutes  a  special  rule  for  members  of  the  third  order  liv- 
ing St.  Francis^  absence  in  the  East  (1219-21).  This  ing  in  community  approved  by  Leo  X,  ^  Jan.,  1521 
interesting,  it  somewhat  arbitrary,  theory  is  not  with-  (Bull  "  Inter"),  although  this  rule  is  greatly  modified 


rBAMOIS                               218  FBAMOIS 

1^  their  particular  constitutions  which,  for  the  rest,  tive  on  his  mother's  side,  his  purity  was  angelic.  Pope 
difiFer  widely  according  to  the  end  of  each  foundation.  Paul  V  desired  to  confer  an  important  bishopric  on 
These  various  congregations  of  regular  tertiaries  are  him,  but  he  steadfastly  refusal  it.  His  frequent 
either  autonomous  or  under  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  motto  was  "  Zelus  domus  tiue  comedit  me ' '.  Invited 
for  the  most  part  they  are  Franciscan  in  name  only,  by  the  Oratorians  at  Agnone  in  the  Abruzzo  to  con- 
not  a  few  of  them  having  abandoned  the  habit  and  vert  their  house  into  a  college  for  his  congregation,  he 
even  the  traditional  cord  of  the  order.  fell  ill  during  the  negotiations  and  died  there  on  the 
For  the  vexed  queation  of  the  origin  and  evolution  of  the  -vigil  of  Corpus  Christi.  He  was  beatified  bv  Pope 
three  orders,  see  Molljbr,  />ie  AnMnoeda  Minoriimgrdena  Qement  XI V  on  4  June,  1769,  and  canonized  by  Pope 

^z'Suir^r^":  i&"V'S*'si^f  ^kl?,SS-^.r ^^^  •  Pi"«  VII  on  24  May  1807     In  1838  he  was  chSsen  Z 

rkglea  et  le  aouvemement  tU  VOrdo  de  Fcgniienlia  au  XIII*  patron  Ot  the  City  of  Naples,  where  his  body  lies.     At 

^9\  .^T  2E^:!S!i^ii^  g?**^*  w  T^  V*i vV  ^VS-  ^^  ^^^  °^  ^«  ^as  buried  in  St.  Mary  Major's,  but  his  remains 

?)^'ioT^rJK:S*J?/o&cg^^^^i^^^  were  afterwards  translated  toWchu^h  of  Monteyeiv 

000. :  d'Alencon  in  Etudes  Franciicainea,  II,  646  sq^  Goetx  ginella,  which  was  given  m  exchange  to  the  Mmor 

!5  ♦K??£ir?'  IS"  ^»«*«»f'«f5«*^&  xxni.  97-107.  The  rules  Clerks  Regular  (1823)  after  their  suppression  at  the 

of  the  three  orders  are  printed  in  «^erapAu*<s  L«9ts{a/umts  Texfus  *:r«^  ^f  *^a   'C^^^k    T>^,rrv1,,4-:^.,       af    !?««««:-   :-  «^ 

OriifincUea  (Quaracchi.  1897).    A  general  oSnspectus  of  the  f"»®  ^^  *"«  French  Revolution.    St.  Francis  IS  no 

Franciscan  Order  and  iU  various  branches  is  given  in  Hols*  longer  venerated  there  With  the  old  fervour  and  devo- 

APrsL,   Mantude  HiaUfria  O.F.M.    (Freiburg,    1009);  Hbim-  tion. 

BUCiiBR,  Die  Orden  und  Kongreoationen  (Paderbom,  1907),  II,  _               _ 

307-533:  also  Patrsm.  Tableau  ajmoplique  de  taut  VOrdre  Sira-  .  Candida-Goneaoa.  Memorie  deUe  Famiglia  nobili  delta  pro- 

phique  (Paris.  1879);  and  Cosack,  St.  Francia  and  the  FratuM-  ^ncie  mendtonaU  d Italia  (Naples,  1876),  III;  Memorie  delta 

cons  (New  York,  1867).  Famiplui  Caracctolo  del  Conte  Franeeaco  dei  prineipi  Caraccioto 

PAarwAT,  PnRTNflnv  (Naples,  1893-97);  which  give  the  history  of  his  family.   Lives 

rASCHAL  ttOBINBON.  ^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  y^^^  (Na^es.  1654);  Piotblu  (Rome.  1700); 

Cbncblu  (Naples,  1769);  Fbrrantb  (Naples,  1862);TAaLiA- 

Fruel.  paracdolo,  Saint,  co-founder  with  John  \^^^^'^^^^^^i  o^TlT -ffpTT^  &Si 

Augustine  Adomo  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Mmor  rdma  (Naples,  1594);  Pibblu.  NoHzia  hiatoHca  delta  retigione  de 

aerks  Regular;  b.  in  Villa  Santa  Maria,   in  the  PP.  Chierid  RegUaH  Minon  (Rome,  uio), 

Abruzzo  (Italy),  1.3  October,  1663;  d.  at  Agnone,  4  Francesco  Paou. 
June,  1608.    He  belonged  to  the  Pisquizio  branch  of 

the  Caracciolo  and  received  in  baptism  the  name  of  Frftncifl  de  Geronimo  (Girolamo,  Hierontm o). 
Ascanio.  From  his  infancy  he  was  remarkable  for  his  Saint,  b.  17  December,  1642;  d.  11  May,  1716.  His 
gentleness  and  uprightness.  Having  been  cured  of  birthplace  was  Grotta^ie.  a  small  town  in  Apulia, 
leprosy  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  vowed  himself  to  situated  about  five  or  six  leagues  from  Taranto.  At 
an  ecclesiastical  life,  and  distributing  his  goods  to  the  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  college  of  Taranto, 
poor,  went  to  Naples  in  1585  to  study  theology.  In  which  was  under  the  care  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  He 
1587  he  was  ordained  priest  and  joined  the  confra-  studied  humanities  and  philosophy  there;  and  was  so 
temity  of  the  Bianchi  aeUa  Giustizia  (The  white  robes  successful  that  his  bishop  sent  him  to  Naples  to  attend 
of  Justice),  whose  object  was  to  assist  condemned  lectures  in  theology  and  canon  law  at  tne  celebrated 
criminals  to  die  holy  deaths.  A  letter  from  Giovanni  college  of  Gesu  Vecchio,  which  at  that  time  rivall^  the 
Agostino  Adomo  to  another  Ascanio  Caracciolo,  beg-  greatest  universities  in  Europe.  He  was  ordained 
ging  him  to  take  part  in  founding  a  new  religious  in-  there,  18  Mareh,  1666.  After  spending  four  years  in 
stitute,  having  been  delivered  by  mistake  to  our  saint,  charge  of  the  pupils  at  the  college  of  nobles  in  Naples, 
he  saw  in  the  circumstance  an  evidence  of  the  Divine  where  the  students  sumamed  nim  the  holy  prefect. 
Will  towards  him  (1588).  He  assisted  in  drawine  up  U  santo  prefettOf  he  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Society 
rules  for  the  new  congregation,  which  was  approved  by  of  Jesus,  1  July,  1670.  At  the  end  of  his  first  year^ 
Sixtus  V,  1  July,  1588,  and  confirmed  by  Gregory  XI V,  probation  he  was  sent  with  an  experienced  missioner 
18  February,  1591,  and  by  Clement  Vlll,  1  June,  1592.  to  get  his  first  lessons  in  the  art  of  preaching  in  the 
The  congregation  is  both  contemplative  and  active,  neighbourhood  of  Otranto.  A  new  term  of  four 
and  to  the  three  usual  vows  a  fourth  is  added,  namely,  years  spent  labouring  in  the  towns  and  villages  at 
that  its  members  must  not  aspire  to  ecclesiastical  di^-  missionary  work  revealed  so  clearly  to  his  superiors 
nities  outside  the  order  nor  seek  them  within  it.  his  wonderful  gift  of  preaching  that,  after  allowing 
Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  kept  up  by  ro-  him  to  complete  his  tneologicd  studies,  they  deter- 
tation,  and  mortification  is  continually  practised,  mined  to  devote  him  to  that  work,  and  sent  him  to 
The  motto  of  the  order  **  Ad  majorem  Dei  Resur^entis  reside  at  the  GesiH  Nuovo,  the  residence  of  the  pro- 
gloriam"  was  chosen  from  the  fact  that  Francis  and  fessed  fathers  at  Naples.  Francis  would  fain  have 
Adomo  made  their  profession  at  Naples  on  Low  Sun-  gone  and  laboured,  perhaps  even  laid  down  his  life, 
day,  9  April,  1589.  In  spite  of  his  refusal  he  was  as  he  often  said,  amidst  the  barbarous  and  idolatrous 
chosen  general,  9  March,  1593,  in  the  first  house  of  the  nations  of  the  Far  East.  He  wrote  frequently  to  his 
congregation  in  Naples,  called  St.  Mary  Major's  or  superiors,  begging  them  to  grant  him  that  great 
Pietrasanta,  given  to  them  by  Sixtus  V.  He  made  favour.  Finally  they  told  him  to  abandon  the  idea 
three  journeys  into  Spain  to  establish  foundations  altogether,  and  to  concentrate  all  his  zeal  and  energy 
under  the  protection  ot  Philip  II  and  Philip  III.  He  on  me  city  and  Kingdom  of  Naples.  Francis  under- 
opened  the  house  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Madrid  on  20  stood  this  to  be  the  will  of  God,  and  insisted  no  more. 
January,  1599,  that  of  Our  llady  of  the  Annunciation  Naples  thus  became  for  forty  years,  from  1676  till  his 
at  Valladolid  on  9  September,  1()01,  and  that  of  St.  death,  the  centre  of  his  apostolic  labours. 
Joseph  at  Alcaic  sometime  in  1601,  for  teaching  sci-  He  first  devoted  himself  to  stirring  up  the  relisious 
ence.  In  Rome  he  obtained  possession  of  St.  Leon-  enthusiasm  of  a  con^gation  of  workmen,  called  the 
ard's  church,  which  he  afterwards  exchanged  for  that  **  Oratorio  della  Missione'',  established  at  the  professed 
of  St.  Agnes  in  the  Piazza  Navona  (18  September,  house  in  Naples.  The  main  object  of  this  association 
1598),  and  later  he  secured  for  the  institute  the  church  was  to  provide  the  missionary  father  with  devoted 
of  San  Lorenzo  in  Lucina  (11  June,  1606),  which  was  helpers  amidst  the  thousand  difficulties  that  would 
made  over  to  him  by  a  bull  of  Pope  Paul  V,  and  which  suddenly  arise  in  the  course  of  his  work.  Encouraged 
was,  however,  annulled  by  the  cull  "Susceptum"  of  by  the  enthusiastic  sermons  of  the  director,  these 
Pope  Pius  X  (9  November,  1906).  good  people  became  zealous  co-operators.  One  re- 
st. Francis  Caracciolo  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  markable  feature  of  their  work  was  the  multitude  of 
work,  "Le  sette  stazioni  sopra  la  Passione  di  N.  S.  sinners  they  brought  to  the  feet  of  Francis.  In  the 
GesCl  Christo",  which  was  printed  in  Rome  in  1710.  notes  which  he  sent  his  superiors  concerning  his 
He  loved  the  poor.    like  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  a  rela-  favourite  missionary  work,   the  saint  takes  great 


FRAKOIS  219  f&ANOIS 

pleasure  in  speaking  of  the  fervour  that  animated  the  four,  eight,  or  ten  days,  but  never  more;  here  anc 
members  of  hb  dear  ''Oratory".  Nor  did  their  there  he  gave  a  retreat  to  a  religious  community,  but 
devoted  director  overlook  the  material  needs  of  those  in  order  to  save  his  time  he  woiSd  not  hear  theu*  con- 
who  assisted  him  in  the  good  work.  In  the  Oratory  fessions  [of.  Kecueil  de  lettres  per  le  Nozze  Malvezzi 
he  succeeded  in  establishing  a  mont  de  piit4.  The  Hercolani  (1876),  p.  28].  To  consolidate  the  good 
capital  was  increased  by  the  gifts  of  the  associate,  work,  he  tried  to  establish  everywhere  an  association 
Thanks  to  this  institute,  they  could  have  each  dav,  in  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  his  patron  and  model ;  or  else  a 
case  of  illness,  a  sum  of  four  carlines  (about  one-third  congregation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  For  twenty-two 
of  a  dollar) ;  should  death  visit  any  of  the  members  vears  he  preached  her  praises  every  Tuesday  in  the 
a  respectable  funeral  was  accorded  them,  costing  the  Neapolitan  church,  known  by  the  name  of  St.  Mar^  of 
institute  eighteen  ducats;  and  they  had  the  further  Constantinople.  Although  engaged  in  such  active 
privilege,  which  was  much  sought  after,  of  bein§  exterior  work,  St.  Francis  had  a  mystical  soul.  He 
mterred  in  the  church  of  the  Gesii  Nuovo  (see  Brevi  was  often  seen  walking  through  the  streets  of  Naples 
notizie,  pp.  131-6).  He  established  also  in  the  GesiH  with  a  look  of  ecstasy  on  his  (kce  and  tears  streaming 
one  of  the  most  important  and  beneficial  works  from  his  eyes;  his  companion  had  constantly  to  call 
of  the  professed  house  in  Naples,  the  general  Com-  his  attention  to  the  people  who  saluted  him,  so  that 
munion  on  the  third  Sunday  of  each  month  (Brevi  Francis  finally  decided  to  walk  bare-headed  in  public, 
notizie,  126).  He  was  an  indefatigable  preacher,  and  He  had  the  reputation  at  Naples  of  beine  a  great 
often  spoke  forty  times  in  one  day,  choosing  those  miracle  worker;  and  his  biographers,  as  those  who 
streets  which  he  knew  to  be  the  centre  of  some  secret  testified  during  the  process  of  his  canonization,  did 
scandal.  His  short,  energetic,  and  eloquent  sermons  not  hesitate  to  attribute  to  him  a  host  of  wonders  and 
touched  the  guilty  consciences  of  his  hearers  and  cures  of  all  kinds.  His  obsequies  were,  for  the  Nea- 
worked  miraculous  conversions.  The  rest  of  the  politans,  the  occasion  of  a  triumphant  procession;  and 
week,  not  given  over  to  labour  in  the  city,  was  spent  had  it  not  been  for  the  intervention  of  tne  Swiss  euard, 
visiting  the  environs  of  Naples;  on  some  occasions  the  zeal  of  his  followers  mi^ht  have  exposed  the  re- 
passing through  aIo  less  than  fifty  hamlets  in  a  day,  he  mains  to  the  risk  of  desecration.  In  all  the  streets  and 
preached  in  the  streets,  the  public  squares,  and  the  squares  of  Naples,  in  every  part  of  the  suburbs,  in  the 
churches.  The  following  Sunday  he  would  have  the  smallest  neighbouring  haznlets,  every  one  spoke  of  the 
consolation  of  seeing  at  the  Sacred  Table  crowds  of  holiness,  zeal,  eloquence,  and  inexhaustible  charity  of 
11,000, 12,000  or  even  13,000  persons; according  to  his  the  deceased  missionary.  The  ecclesiastical  author- 
biographers  there  were  ordinarily  15,000  men  present  ities  soon  recognized  that  his  cause  of  beatification 
at  Uie  monthly  general  Communion.  ^  ^  ^  should  be  begun.  On  2  May,  1758,  Benedict  XIV 
But  his  work  par  excellence  was  to  give  missions  in  declared  that  Trancis  de  Geronimo  had  practised  the 
the  open  air  and  in  the  low  quarters  of  the  city  of  theological  and  cardinal  virtues  in  an  heroic  degree. 
Naples.  His  tall  figure,  ample  brow,  large  dark  eyes  He  would  have  been  beatified  soon  afterwards  only 
and  aquiline  nose,  sunken  cheeks,  pallid  countenance,  for  the  storm  that  assailed  the  Society  of  Jesus  about 
and  looks  that  spoke  of  his  ascetic  austerities  produced  this  time  and  ended  in  its  suppression.  Pius  VII 
a  wonderful  impression.  The  people  crushed  forward  could  not  proceed  with  the  beatification  till  2  May, 
to  meet  him,  to  see  him,  to  kiss  his  hand,  and  to  touch  1806 ;  and  Gregory  XVI  canonized  the  saint  solemnly 
his  garments.    When  he  exhorted  sinners  to  repent-  on  26  May,  1^9. 

ance  he  seemed  to  acquire  a  power  that  was  more  than  St.  Francis  de  Geronimo  wrote  little.  Some  of  his 
natural,  and  his  feeble  voice  became  resonant  and  letters  have  b^n  collected  by  his  biographers  and  in- 
awe-inspiring.  ''He  is  a  lamb,  when  he  talks",  the  serted  in  their  works;  for  his  writings,  cf.  Sommer- 
people  said,  "  but  a  lion  when  he  preaches".  Like  the  vogel,  "  Bibl.  de  la  Comp.  de  J&us",  new  ed..  Ill,  col. 
ideal  popular  preacher  he  was,  when  in  presence  of  an  1358.  We  must  mention  by  itself  the  account  that  he 
audience  as  fickle  and  impressionable  as  the  Neapoli-  wrote  to  his  superiors  of  the  fifteen  most  laborious 
tans,  Francis  left  nothing  undone  that  could  strike  years  of  his  ministry,  which  has  furnished  the  mate- 
their  imaginations.  At  one  tiine  he  would  bring  a  rials  for  the  most  striking  details  of  this  sketch.  The 
skull  into  the  pulpit,  and  showinjg  it  to  his  hearers  work  dates  from  October,  1693.  The  saint  modestly 
would  drive  home  the  lesson  he  wished  to  impart;  at  calls  it  "Brevi  notizie  delle  cose  di  gloria  di  Dio  accar 
another,  stopping  suddenly  in  the  middle  of  nis  dis-  dute  nejgli  exercizi  delle  sacre  missioni  di  Napoli  da 
course,  he  would  uncover  his  shoulders  and  scourge  quindici  anni  in  qu&,  auanto  sic  potuto  richiamare  in 
himself  with  an  iron  chain  till  he  bled.  The  effect  was  memoria^'.  Boero  jpublished  it  in  "  S.  Francesco  di 
irresistible;  young  men  of  evil  lives  would  rush  for-  Girolamo  e  le  sue  Mjssioni  dentro  e  fuori  di  Napoli", 
ward  and  follow  the  example  of  the  preacher,  con-  p.  67-181  (Florence,  1882).  The  archives  of  the 
fessine  their  sins  aloud ;  cmd  abandoned  women  would  Society  of  Jesus  contain  a  voluminous  collection  of  his 
cast  themselves  before  the  crucifix,  and  cut  off  their  sermons,  or  rather  developed  plans  of  his  sermons.  It 
long  hair,  givine  expression  to  their  bitter  sorrow  and  is  well  to  recall  this  proof  of  the  care  he  took  in  pre- 
repentance.  This  apostolic  labour  in  union  with  the  paring  himself  for  the  ministry  of  the  pulpit,  for  his 
cruel  penance  and  the  ardent  spirit  of  prayer  of  the  biographers  are  wont  to  dwell  on  the  fact  that  his 
saint  worked  wonderful  results  amidst  the  slaves  of  eloquent  discourses  were  extemporaneous. 
vice  and  crime.  Thus  the  two  refuges  in  Naples  con-  Among  his  chief  biographers  the  following  are  worthy  of  par- 
teined  in  a  short  time  over  250  penitente  ««£;  and  in  gS^i^STn^X  SJS^oS^°aWaX^lSinSn'iS 

the  Asylum  of  the  Holy  Ghost  he  sheltered  for  a  while  superior;  he  wrote  his  life  in  1719,  jiwt  three  years  after  death 

190  children  of  these  unfortunates,  preserving  them  of  .Francis.     Six  years  later,  in  1725.  a  new  life  appeared. 

thereby  from  the  danger  of  afterwards  foUowfng  the  T^^''tirii.7^'t}^'^T^J'me''Z!r^^^ 

shameful  trade  of  their  mothers,     rle  had  the  COnsola-  ordinary  confessor.     The  most  popular  biography  is  that  writ- 

tion   of  seeing  twenty- two    of   them   embrace    the  ten  by  d«  Bonis,  who  composed  his  work  at  the  time  the  process 

religious  life.    So  also  he  changed  the  royal  convict  S'oM.?to°&e"'sl',S^«'m'^  ^"Jfl-t^JS^"^:  Z^.^-  ^ 

ships,  which  were  sinks  of  iniquity,  into  refuges  of  Hieranymo  (1751).     It  is  a  work  to  be  used  with  caution;   the 

Christian  peace  and  resignation :  and  he  tells  us  further  postulator  of  the  saint's  cause.  Muzzarelli,  extracted  from  It  a 

that  he  broueht  many  Turkish  and  Moorish  slaves  to  «^^Lli;'"V^  °'  important  facts  relating  to,  the  labours  and 

TT     .  ^  */*y«|t»**»  u««.>ij   xutiviou  tM.^\A»A^x^L»aAM.  oAMT^o  s^  mirafl|es  of  the  samt,  RaccoUa  d%  awemxnentx  nngoian  e  docu- 

the  true  faith,  and  made  use  of  the  pompous  cere-  menti  autentid  apdlanti  alia  vita  dd  B,  Francesco  di  Geronimo" 

monials  at  their  baptism  to  strike   the  hearts  and  (Rome,  1806).     LastW,  the  HiatoiredeS.  Francois  deOeroninw, 

imfunnfttmnn  nf  thA  nnAPtAt/^ni  ^Rrpvi  nntiViP    191-fi^  ®°-  "ACH  (Mbtz,   1851),  is  the  most   complete  work  on   the 

Unagmations  OI  me  spectators  ^ttrevi  notizie,  l.^l^o;.  f^xbiect,  but  strives  too  much  after  the  edification  of  the  reader. 

Whatever  time  was  unoccupied  by  his  town  mkssions  C.  Caraton,  Biblioaraphie  histarime  de  la  Compaane  de  Jiaua, 

he  devoted  to  giving  country  or  village  missions  of  ««»•  i86i-«9  (Paris,  1864).  Francis  Van  Ortrot. 


FRANCIS 


220 


FRANCIS 


Frauds  da  Sales,  Saimt.  Bishop  of  Geneva, 
Doctor  of  the  Umversal  Churcn ;  b.  at  Thorens,  in  the 
Duchy  of  Savoy,  21  August,  1567;  d.  at  Lyons,  28 
December.  1622.  His  father^  Francois  de  sales  de 
Boisv,  and  his  motiier,  Fran9o]se  de  Sionnsiz.  belonged 
to  old  Savoyard  aristocratic  families.  '  Tne  future 
saint  was  the  eldest  of  six  brothers.  His  father  in- 
tended him  for  the  magistracy  and  sent  him  at  an 
early  age  to  the  colleges  of  La.  Roche  and  Annec^. 
From  1583  till  1688  he  studied  rhetoric  and  humani- 
ties at  the  eollege  of  Clermont,  Paris,  under  the  care  of 
the  Jesuits.  While  there  he  began  a  coiuve  of  itie- 
ology.  After  a  terrible  and  prolonged  temptation  to 
despair,  caused  by  the  discussions  of  the  tneoloeians 
of  the  day  on  the  question  of  predestination,  irom 
which  he  was  suddenly  freed  as  he  knelt  before  a 
miraculous  image  of  Our  Lady  at  St.  £tienne-des- 
Grte,  he  made  a  vow  of  chastitv  and  consecrated 
himself  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  In  1588  he 
studied  law  at  Padua,  where  the  Jesmt  Father  Posse- 
vin  was  his  spiritual  director.  He  received  his  di- 
ploma of  doctorate  from  the  famous  Pancirola  in  1592. 
Having  been  admitted  as  a  lawyer  before  the  senate 
of  Chsonb^ry,  he  was  about  to  be  appointed  senator. 
His  father  had  selected  one  of  the  noblest  heiresses  of 
Savoy  to  be  the  partner  of  his  future  life,  but  Fran- 
cis declared  his  intention  of  embracing  the  eccle- 
siastical life.  A  sharp  struggle  ensued.  His  father 
would  not  consent  to  see  his  expectations  thwarted. 
Then  Claude  de  Granier,  Bishop  of  Geneva,  obtained 
for  Francis,  on  his  own  initiative,  the  position  of  Pro- 
vost of  the  Chapter  of  Geneva,  a  post  in  the  patronage 
of  the  pope.  It  was  the  highest  office  in  the  diocese, 
M.  de  Boisy  yielded  and  Francis  received  Holy  orders 
(1593). 

From  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the  seat  of  the 
Bishopric  of  Geneva  had  been  fixed  at  Annecy.  There 
with  apostolic  seal,  the  new  provost  devoted  himself 
to  preaching,  hearing  confessions,  and  the  other  work 
of  nis  ministry.  In  the  following  vear  (1594)  he 
volunteered  to  evangelize  Le  Chablais,  where  the 
Genevans  had  impo^  the  Reformed  Faith,  and 
whidi  had  just  been  restored  to  the  Duchy  of  Savoy. 
He  made  his  headquarters  in  the  fortress  of  Allinges. 
Ri^ldng  his  life,  he  journeyed  through  the  entire 
district,  preaching  constantly;  bv  dint  of  zeal,  learn- 
ing, kindness,  and  holiness  he  at  last  obtained  a  hear- 
ing. He  then  settled  in  Thonon,  the  chief  town.  He 
confuted  t^e  preachers  sent  by  tieneva  to  oppose  him ; 
he  converted  the  syndic  and  sevendprominent  Cal- 
vinists.  At  the  request  of  thepope,  Clement  VIII,  he 
went  to  Geneva  to  mterview  Tneodore  Beza,  who  was 
oolled  the  Patriarch  of  the  Reformation.  The  latter 
received  him  kindly  and  seemed  for  a  while  shaken, 
but  had  not  the  coura^  to  take  the  final  steps.  A 
large  part  of  liie  inhabitants  of  Le  Chablais  returned 
to  the  true  fold  (1597  and  1598^.  Claude  de  Granier 
then  chose  IVancis  as  his  coadjutor,  in  spite  of  his 
refusal,  and  sent  him  to  Rome  (1599). 

Pope  Clement  VIII  ratified  the  choice;  but  he 
wish^  to  examine  the  candidate  personally,^  in  pres- 
ence of  .the  Sacred  College.  The  improvised  ex- 
amination was  a  triumph  for  Francis.  "  Drink,  my 
son",  said  Uie  Pope  to  him.  ''from  your  cistern,  and 
from  your  living  wellspring;  may  your  waters  issue 
forth,  and  may  they  become  public  fountains  where 
the  world  may  quendi  its  thirst. ' '  The  prophesy  was 
to  be  realized.  On  his  return  from  Rome  the  religious 
affairs  of  the  territory  of  Gex,  a  dependency  of  France, 
necessitated  his  goine  to  Paris.  There  the  coadjutor 
formed  an  intimate  mendship  with  Cardinal  de  B^r- 
ulle,  Antoine  Deshayes,  secretaiv  of  Henry  IV,  and 
Henrv  IV  himself^  who  wished  ''to  make  a  tbud  in 
this  fair  friendship"  (Hre  de  Hera  dans  cette  belle 
amitU),  The  king  made  him  preach  the  Lent  at 
Court,  and  wished  to  keep  him  in  France.  He  uiged 
him  to  continue,  by  his  sermons  and  writings,  to  teach 


those  souls  that  had  to  live  in  the  world  how  to  have 
confidence  in  God,  and  how  to  be  genuinely  and  truly 
pious--graces  of  which  he  saw  the  great  necessity. 
On  the  death  of  Claude  de  Granier,  Francis  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Geneva  (1602).  His  first  step 
was  to  institute  catechetical  instructions  for  the 
faithful,  both  young  and  old.  He  made  prudent 
regulations  for  the  ^idance  of  his  clergy.  He  care- 
fully visited  the  parishes  scattered  throt^  the  rugged 
mountains  of  his  diocese.  He  reformed  the  religious 
communities.  His  goodness,  patience,  and  mildnesc 
became  proverbial.    He  had  an  intense  love  for  the 

SK>r,  especiallv  those  who  were  of  respectable  family, 
is  food  was  plain,  his  dress  and  his  household  simple. 
He  completely  dispensed  with  superfluities  and  lived 
with  the  greatest  economy,  in  order  to  be  able  to 
provide  more  abundantly  mr  the  wants  of  the  needy. 
He  heard  confessions,  ^ve  advice,  and  preached  in- 
cessantly. He  wrote  innumerable  letters  (mainly 
letters  of  direction)  and  found  time  to  publish  the 
numerous  works  mentioned  below.  Together  with 
St.  Jane  Frances  de  Chantal.  he  founded  (1607)  the 
Institute  of  the  Visitation  oi  the  Blessed  Virgin,  for 
young  girls  and  widows  who,  feeling  themselves  called 
to  the  religious  life,  have  not  sufficient  strength,  or 
lack  inclinatioxi.  for  the  corporal  austerities  of  the 
great  orders.  His  zeal  extended  beyond  the  limits 
of  his  own  diocese.  He  delivered  the  Lent  and  Ad- 
vent discourses  which  are  still  famous — those  at 
Dijon  (1604),  where  he  first  met  the  Baroness  de 
Chantal;  at  Chamb^ry  (1606);  at  Grenoble  (1616, 
1617^  1618),  where  he  converted  the  Mar^ohal  de 
Lesdiguidres.  During  his  last  stay  in  Paris  (Novem- 
ber, 1618,  to  September,  1619)  he  had  to  go  into  the 
pulpit  each  day  to  satisfy  the  pious  wishes  of  those 
who  thronged  to  hear  him .  "  Never",  said  ^ey, "  have 
such  holy^  such  apostolic  sermons  been  preached." 
He  came  mto  contact  here  with  all  the  distin^[uiBhed 
ecclesiastics  of  the  day,  and  in  particular  with  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul.  His  friends  tried  enei^tically  to 
induce  him  to  remain  in  France,  ofiferinff  hun  first  the 
wealthy  Abbey  of  Ste.  Genevidve  and  &en  the  coad- 
jutor-bishopric of  Paris,  but  he  refused  all  to  return 
to  Annecy. 

In  1622  he  had  to  accompany  the  Court  of  Savoy 
into  France.  At  Lyons  he  msisted  on  occupying  a 
small,  poorly  furnished  room  in  a  house  belonging  to 
the  gardener  of  the  Visitation  Convent.  There,  on 
27  I^oember,  he  was  seized  with  apoplexy.  He  re- 
ceived the  last  sacraments  and  made  his  profession  of 
faith,  repeating  constantly  the  words:  "God's  will  be 
done  I  ^  Jesus,  my  God  and  my  alll"  He  died  next 
day,  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age.  Immense 
crowds  flocked  to  visit  his  remains,  which  the  people 
o^  Lvons  were  anxious  to  keep  in  their  city.  With 
mucn  difficulty  his  body  was  brought  back  to  Annecy. 
but  his  heart  was  left  at  Lyons.  A  great  number  oi 
wonderful  favours  have  bleen  obtained  at  his  tomb 
in  the  Visitation  Convent  of  Annecy.  His  heart,  at 
the  time  of  the  French  Revolution,  was  carried  by  the 
Visitation  nuns  from  Lvons  to  Venice,  where  it  is 
venerated  to-day.  St.  Francis  de  Sales  was  beatified 
in  1661,  and  canonized  by  Alexander  VII  in  1665;  he 
was  proclaimed  Doctor  of  the  Universal  Church  by 
Pope  Pius  IX^  in  1877. 

The  foUowmg  is  a  list  of  the  principal  works  of  the 
holy  Doctor:  (1)  "Controversies",  leaflets  which  the 
zealous  missioner  scattered  among  the  inhabitants 
of  Le  Chablais  in  the  beginning,  when  these  people  did 
not  venture  to  come  and  hear  him  preach.  They 
form  a  complete  proof  of  the  Catholic  Faith.  In  the 
first  part,  the  author  defends  the  authority  of  the 
Church,  and  in  the  second  and  third  parts,  the  rules 
of  faith,  which  were  not  observed  by  the  heretical 
ministers.  The  primacy  of  St«  Peter  is  amply  vindi- 
cated. (2)  "Defense  of  the  Standard  of  the  Cross'^ 
a  demoDsteation  of  the  virtue  (a)  of  the  True  Croas; 


FRAHOIS  221  FBAN0I8 

(b),  of  the  Crucifix ;  (c)  of  the  Sign  of  the  Cross :  (d).  an  contained  in  these  works,  of  j^hich  the  Church  has 

explanation  of  the  Veneration  of  the  Cross.    (3)  ''An  said:  ''The  writings  of  Francis  de  Sales,  filled  with 

Introduction  to  the  Devout  Life",  a  work  intended  to  celestial  doctrine  are  a  bright  light  in  the  Church, 

lead  "Philothea",  the  soul  living  in  the  world,  into  pointing  out  to  souls  an  easy  and  safe  way  to  arrive 

the  paths  of  devotion,  that  is  to  say,  of  true  and  solid  at  the  perfection  of  a  Christian  life.''  (Breviariiun 

piety.    Every  one  should  strive  to  become  pious,  and  Romanum,  29  January,  lect.  VI.) 
''it  IS  an  error,  it  is  even  a  heresy",  to  hold  that  piety       There  are  two  elements  in  the  spiritual  life:  first,  a 

is  incompatible  with  any  state  of  life.^   In  the  first  struggle  against  our  lower  nature;  secondly,  union  of 

part  the  author  helps  the  soul  to  free  itself  from  all  our  wills  with  God,  in  other  words,  penance  and  love, 

mdination  to,  or  anection  for,  sin;  in  the  second,  he  St.  Francis  de  Sales  looks  chiefly  to  love.    Not  that  he 

teaches  it  how  to  be  united  to  God  by  prayer  and  the  neglects  penance,  which  is  absolutely  necessary,  but 


sacraments  j  in  the  third,  he  exercisesltin  the  practice  he  wishesit  to  be  practised  from  a  motive  of  love.  He 
of  virtue ;  m  the  fourth,  he  strengthens  it  against  requires  mortification  of  the  senses,  but  he  relies  first 
temptation ;  in  the  fifth,  he  teaches  it  how  to  form  its  on  mortification  of  the  mind,  the  will,  and  the  heart, 
resolutions  and  to  persevere.  The  "Introduction".  Thb  interior  mortification  he  requires  to  be  unceasing 
which  is  a  masteipiece  of  psychology,  practical  and  always  accompanied  by  love.  The  end  to  be 
morality,  and  common  sense^  was  translated  into  realized  is  a  life  of  loving,  simple,  generous,  and  con- 
neariy  every  langua^  even  m  the  lifetime  of  the  stant  fidelity  to  the  will  of  Goa,  which  is  nothing  else 
author,  and  it  has  smce  gone  through  innumerable  than  our  present  duty.*  The  model  proposed  is 
editions.  (4)  "Treatise  on  the  Love  of  God",  an  Christ,  whom  we  must  ever  keep  before  our  eyes, 
authoritative  work  which  reflects  perfectly  the  mind  "  You  will  studv  His  coimtenance,  and  perform  your 
and  heart  of  Francis  de  Sales  as  a  great  genius  and  a  actions  as  He  aid"  (Introd.,  2nd  part,  ch.  i).  The 
ereat  saint.  .  It  contains  twelve  oooks.  The  first  practical  means  of  arriving  at  this  perfection  are: 
four  give  us  a  history,  or  rather  explain  the  theory,  remembrance  of  the  presence  of  God,  filial  prayer,  a 
of  Divine  love,  its  birth  in  the  soul,  its  growth,  its  per-  right  intention  in  au  our  actions,  and  frequent  re- 
fection, and  its  decay  and  annihilation;  the  fifth  book  course  to  God  by  pious  and  confiding  ejaculations  and 
shows  that  this  love  is  twofold — the  love  of  compla^  interior  aspirations. 

cency  and  the  love  of  benevolence;  the  sixth  and  Besides  the  Institute  of  the  Visitation,  which  he 

seventh  treat  of  affective  love,  which  is  practised  in  founded,  the  nineteenth  century  has  seen  associations 

prayer;  the  eighth  and  ninth  deal  with  effective  love,  of  the  secular  clergy  and  of  pious  laymen,  and  several 

that  is,  with  conformity  to  the  will  of  God,  and  sub-  religious  congregations,  formed  under  the  patronage 

mission  to  His  good  pleasure.    The  last  three  resume  of  tne  holy  Doctor.    Amon^  them  we  may  mention 

what  has  preceded  and  teach  how  to  apply  practically  the  Missionaries  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  of  Annecy^he 

the   lessons   taught   therein.     (5)    ''Spiritual   Con-  Salesians,  founded  at  Turin  by  the  Venerable  Don 

ferenoes" ;  familiar  conversations  on  reUgious  virtues  Boeco,  specially  devoted  to  the  Christian  and  tecUiical 

addressed  to  the  sisters  of  the  Visitation  and  collected  education  of  the  children  of  the  poorer  classes;  the 

by  them.    We  find  in  them  that  practiced  common  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  established  at  Troyes 

sense,  keenness  of  perception,  and  delicacy  o^  feeling  (France)  by  Father  Brisson,  who  try  to  realize  in  the 

which  were  characteristic  oi  the  kind-hearted  and  religious  and  priestly  life  the  spirit  of  the  holy  Doctor, 

energetic  Saint.    (6)  "Sermons". — ^These  are  divided  such  as  we  have  described  it,  and  such  as  he  be- 

into  two  classes:  those  composed  previously  to  his  queathed  it  to  the  nuns  of  the  Visitation, 

consecration  as  bishop,  and  which  ne  himself  wrote  ^  Mackbt.  (Euvrea  deSt  Fnmfou  de  SaUaiAnneoy,  1892—); 

out  in  full;  and  the  5iK»u«e8  he  delivers!  when  a  SriSST^a^^'^^S^ftlSr);"^''!^^^^^^ 

bishop,  of  which,  as  a  rule,  only  OUtlmes  and  synopses  SeUea  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1833):  and  in  CMecHon  S.  Honors  aEyUxu 

have  oeen  preserved.     Some  of  the  latter,  however,  ffaria.  1904):    Vie  de  S.  Francoia  de  Salea^  by  Haiion  (Paris); 

we«  taten  Sown  tn««fe««  by  hiB  hearers  I^  IX,  ?^-J£'5.tep^);"r^^5SaS2Ae.^rSr'ifif 
m  his  Bull  proclaimme  him  Doctor  of  the  Church,  nuUe  (Paris.  1906,  etc.).  Mackbt  has  given  an  English  trans- 
calls  the  Saint  "The  Master  and  Restorer  of  Sacred  lation  of  the  LeUen  to  Persons  in  ths  World,  and  of  the  Letters  to 
linnniiAnrA"  Ha  in  nnp  nf  f hnoA  who  At  th«  ViAoinninv  Persons  m  Rdieion  (London):  he  has  also  published  noteworthy 
iUOquence  .     ne  is  one  or  tnose  wno  ai  me  Degmnmc  articles  on  St,  Fmneie  de  Saies  as  m  Orator  (London)  and  SL 

of  the   seventeenth    century   formed   the   beautiful  FraneisdeSalesaaaDireetorinAm.  Bed,  Rev,  ilS9B), 

French  language;  he  foreshadows  and  prepares  the  Raphael  Pebnin. 
way  for  the  great  sacred  orators  about  to  appear. 

He  speaks  simply,  naturallv,  and  from  his  heart.    To  Francifl  of  Aflsisi^  Saint,  founder  of  the  Franci»- 

3eak  well  we  need  only  love  well,  was  his  maxim,  can  Order,  b.  at  Assisi  in  Umoria,  in  1181  or  1182 — ^the 

is  mind  was  imbued  with  the  Holy  Writings,  which  exact  jrear  is  imcertain;  d.  there,  3  October,  1226.  His 

he  comments,  and  explains,  and  applies  practicallv  father,  Pietro  Bemardone,  was  a  wealthy  Assisian 

with  no  less  accuracy  than  grace.     (7)  "  Letters  ,  cloth  merchant.    Of  his  mother.  Pica,  little  is  known, 

mostly  letters  of  direction,  in  which  ihe  minister  of  but  she  is  said  to  have  belonged  to  a  noble  familyof 

God  effaces  himself  and  teaches  the  soul  to  listen  to  Provence.    Francis  was  one  of  several  children.    The 

God,  the  only  true  director.    The  advice  given  is  lepend  that  he  was  bom  in  a  stable  dates  from  the 

suited  to  all  the  circumstances  and  necessities  of  life  fifteenth  century  only,  and  appears  to  have  originated 

and  to  all  persons  of  jgood  will.    While  trying  to  in  the  desire  of  certam  writers  to  make  his  life  resem- 

efface  his  own  personality  in  these  letters^  the  saint  ble  that  of  Christ.    At  baptism  the  saint  received  the 

makes  himself  Known  to  us  and  unconsciously  dis-  name  of  Giovanni,  which  nis  father  afterwards  altered 

covers  to  us  the  treasures  of  his  soul.    (8)  A  large  to  Francesco,  through  fondness  it  would  seem  for 

number  of  very  precious  treatises  or  opuscula.  France,  whither  business  had  led  him  at  the  time  of 

Miene  (5  vols.,  quarto)  and  Viv^  (12  vols.,  octavo,  his  son's  birth.    In  any  case,  since  the  child  was  r&- 

Paris)  have  edited  the  works  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  named  in  infancy,  the  change  can  hardly  have  had 

But  the  edition  which  we  may  call  definitive  was  anything  to  do  with  his  aptitude  for  learning  French, 

Sublished  at  Annecy  in  1802,  by  the  English  Bene-  as  some  have  thou^t.   Francis  received  some  elemen* 

ictine,  DomMackey:  a  work  remarkable  ror  its  typo-  tary  instruction  from  the  priests  of  St.  George's  at 

naphical  execution,  the  brilliant  criticism  that  settles  Assisi,  though  he  learned  more  perhaps  in  the  school 

tne  text,  the  large  quantity  of  hitherto  unedited  of  the  Troubadours,  who  were  just  tnen  making  for 

matter,  and  the  interesting  study  accompanying  each  refinement  in  Italy.    However  this  may  be,  he  was  not 

volume.    Dom  Mackey  published  twelve  volumes,  very  studious,  and  his  literary  education  remained 

Father  Navatel,  S.J.,  is  continuing  the  work.    We  incomplete.    Although  associated  with  his  father  in 

may  give  here  a  brief  r6sum4  of  the  spiritual  teaching  trade,  ne  showed  litue  liking  for  a  merchant's  career, 


FBAMOIS 


222 


rBAMOIS 


and  his  parents  seem  to  have  indulged  his  every  whim. 
Thomas  of  Celano,  his  first  biographer,  speaks  in  very 
severe  terms  of  Francis's  youth.  Certain  it  is  that  the 
saint's  early  life  gave  no  presage  of  the  golden  years 
that  were  to  come.  No  one  loved  pleasure  more  than 
Francis;  he  had  a  ready  wit,  sang  merrily,  delighted 
in  fine  clothes  and  showv  display.  Handsome,  ^y, 
gallant,  and  courteous,  he  soon  became  the  pnme 
favourite  among  the  young  nobles  of  Assisi,  the  fore- 
most in  every  feat  of  arms,  the  leader  of  the  civil  revels, 
the  very  king  of  frolic.  But  even  at  this  time  Francis 
showed  an  instinctive  svmpathy  with  the  poor,  and 
though  he  spent  money  lavishly,  it  still  flowed  in  such 
channels  as  to  attest  a  princely  magnanimity  of  spirit. 
When  about  twenty,  Francis  went  out  with  the  towns- 
men to  fight  the  Perugians  in  one  of  the  petty  skir- 
mishes so  frequent  at  that  time  between  the  rival  cities. 
The  Assisians  were  defeated  on  this  occasion,  and 
Francis,  being  among  those  taken  prisoners,  was  held 
captive  for  more  than  a  year  in  Perugia.  A  low  fever 
which  he  there  contracted  appears  to  have  turned  his 
thoughts  to  the  things  of  eternity;  at  least  the  empti- 
ness of  the  life  he  had  been  leading  came  to  him  during 
that  long  illness.  With  returning  health,  however, 
Francis's  eagerness  after  ^ory  reawakened  and  his 
fancv  wandered  in  seareh  of  victories;  at  length  he 
resolved  to  embrace  a  military  career,  and  circum- 
stances seemed  to  favour  his  aspirations.  A  knight  of 
Assisi  was  about  to  join  "  the  gentle  count",  Walter  of 
Brienne,  who  was  then  in  arms  in  the  Neapolitan 
States  against  the  emperor,  and  Francis  arranged  to 
accompany  him.  His  biographers  tell  us  that  the 
night  before  Francis  set  forth  he  had  a  strange  dream, 
in  which  he  saw  a  vast  hall  himg  with  armour  all 
marked  with  the  Cross.  "These",  said  a  voice,  "are 
for  you  and  your  soldiers ".  "I  know  I  shall  be  a  great 
prince",  exclaimed  Francis  exultingly,  as  he  started 
tor  Apulia.  But  a  second  illness  arrested  his  course  at 
Spoleto.  There,  we  are  told,  Francis  had  another 
dream  in  which  the  same  voice  bade  him  turn  back  to 
Assisi.    He  did  so  at  once.    This  was  in  1205. 

Although  Francis  still  joined  at  times  in  the  noisy 
revels  of  his  former  comrsides,  his  changed  demeanour 
plainly  showed  that  his  heart  was  no  longer  with  them; 
a  yearning  for  the  life  of  the  spirit  had  already  pos- 
sessed it.  His  companions  twitted  Francis  on  his 
absent-mindedness  and  asked  if  he  were  minded  to  be 
married.  "Yes",  he  replied,  "I  am  about  to  take  a 
wife  of  surpassing  fairness. ' '  She  was  none  other  than 
that  Lady  Poverty  whom  Dante  and  Giotto  have 
wedded  to  his  name,  and  whom  even  now  he  had  be- 
gun to  love.  After  a  short  period  of  uncertainty  he 
began  to  seek  in  prayer  and  solitude  the  answer  to  his 
call ;  he  had  alresidy  given  up  his  gay  attire  and  waste- 
ful wa3rs.  One  day,  while  crossing  the  Umbrian  plain 
on  horseback,  Francis  unexpectedlv  drew  near  a  poor 
leper.  The  sudden  appearance  of  tnis  repulsive  object 
filled  him  with  disgust  and  he  instinctively  retreated, 
but  presently  controlling  his  natural  aversion  he  dis- 
mounted, embraced  the  unfortunate  man,  and  gave 
him  all  the  money  he  had.  About  the  same  time  Fran- 
cis made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome.  Pained  at  the  miserly 
offerings  he  saw  at  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter,  he  emptied 
his  purse  thereon.  Then,  as  if  to  put  his  fastidious 
nature  to  the  test,  he  exchanged  clothes  with  a  tat- 
tered mendicant  and  stood  for  the  rest  of  the  day 
fasting  among  the  horde  of  beggars  at  the  door  of  the 
basilica.  Not  long  after  his  return  to  Assisi,  whilst 
Francis  was  praying  before  an  ancient  crucifix  in  the 
forsaken  wayside  chapel  of  St.  Damian's  below  the 
town,  he  heard  a  voice  saying:  "Go,  Francis,  and 
repair  my  house,  which  as  you  see  is  falling  into  ruin." 
Taking  this  behest  literally,  as  referring  to  the  ruinous 
church  wherein  he  knelt,  Francis  went  to  his  father's 
shop,  impulsively  bundled  together  a  load  of  coloured 
drapery,  and  mounting  his  horse  hastened  to  Foligno, 
uhen  a  mart  of  some  importance,  and  there  sold  both 


horse  and  stuff  to  procure  the  money  needful  for  the 
restoration  of  St.  Damian's.  When,  however,  the  poor 
priest  who  officiated  there  refused  to  receive  the  gold 
thus  gotten,  Francis  flung  it  from  him  disdainfully. 
The  eider  Bemardone,  a  most  ni^ardly  man,  was 
incensed  beyond  measure  at  his  son's  conduct,  and 
Francis,  to  avert  his  father's  wrath,  hid  himself  in  a 
cave  near  St.  Damian's  for  a  whole  month.  When  he 
emerged  from  this  place  of  concealment  and  returned 
to  the  town,  emaciated  with  hunger  and  squalid  with 
dirt,  Francis  was  followed  by  a  hooting  rabole,  pelted 
with  mud  and  stones,  and  otherwise  mocked  as  a  mad- 
man. Finally,  he  was  dragged  home  by  his  father, 
beaten,  bound,  and  locked  in  a  dark  closet.  Freed  by 
his  mother  during  Bemardone's  absence,  Francis  re- 
turned at  once  to  St.  Damian's,  where  he  found  a 
shelter  with  the  officiating  priest,  but  he  was  soon  after 
cited  before  the-  city  consuls  by  his  father.  The  latter, 
not  content  with  having  recovered  the  scattered  gold 
from  St.  Damian's,  sought  also  to  force  his  son  to 
forego  his  inheritance.  This  Francis  was  only  too 
eager  to  do;  he  declared,  however,  that  since  he  had 
entered  the  service  of  God  he  was  no  longer  under  civil 

i'urisdiction.  Having  therefore  been  taken  before  the 
bishop,  Francis  stripped  himself  of  the  very  clothes  he 
wore,  and  gave  them  to  his  father,  saying:  "Hitherto 
I  have  called  you  my  father  on  eartn ;  nenceforth  I 
desire  to  say  only  'Our  Father  who  art  in  Heaven.*" 
Then  and  there,  as  Dante  sings,  were  solemnized 
Francis's  nuptials  with  his  beloved  spouse,  the  Lady 
Poverty,  under  which  name,  in  the  mystical  language 
afterwards  so  familiar  to  him,  he  comprehended  the 
total  surrender  of  all  worldly  goods,  honours,  and 

grivileges.  And  now  Francis  wandered  forth  into  the 
ills  behind  Assisi,  improvising  hymns  of  praise  as  he 
went.  "I  am  the  herald  of  the  great  King",  he  de- 
clared in  answer  to  some  robbers,  who  thereupon 
despoiled  him  of  all  he  had  and  threw  him  scornfully 
in  a  snow  drift.  Naked  and  half  frozen,  Francis 
crawled  to  a  neighbouring  monastery  and  there 
worked  for  a  time  as  a  scullion.  At  Gubbio,  whither 
he  went  next,  Francis  obtained  from  a  friend  the  cloak, 
girdle,  and  staff  of  a  pilgrim  as  an  alms.  Returning  to 
Assisi,  he  traversed  the  city  begging  stones  for  the 
restoration  of  St.  Damian's.  These  he  carried  to  the 
old  cnapel,  set  in  place  himself,  and  so  at  length  rebuilt 
it.  In  the  same  way  Francis  afterwards  restored  two 
other  deserted  chapels,  St.  Peter's,  some  distance 
from  the  city,  and  St.  Mary  of  the  Angels,  in  the  plain 
below  it,  at  a  spot  called  the  Porziuncola.  Meantime 
he  redoubled  his  zeal  in  works  of  charity,  more  espe- 
cially in  nursing  the  lepers. 

On  a  certain  mominjg  in  1208,  probably  24  Febru- 
ary, Francis  was  heanng  Mass  in  the  cnapel  of  St. 
Mary  of  the  Angels,  near  which  he  had  then  built  him- 
self a  hut ;  the  Gospel  of  the  day  told  how  the  disciples 
of  Christ  were  to  possess  neither  gold  nor  silver,  nor 
scrip  for  their  journey,  nor  two  coats,  nor  shoes,  nor  a 
Stan,  and  that  they  were  to  exhort  sinners  to  repent- 
ance and  announce  the  Kingdom  of  God.  Francis 
took  these  words  as  if  spoken  directly  to  himself,  and 
so  soon  as  Mass  was  over  threw  away  the  poor  frag- 
ment left  him  of  the  world's  goods,  his  shoes,  cloaE, 
ppgrim  staff,  and  empty  wallet.  At  last  he  had  found 
nis  vocation.  Having  obtained  a  coarse  woolen  tunic 
of  "  beast  colour",  the  dress  then  worn  by  the  poorest 
Umbrian  peasants,  and  tied  it  round  him  with  a 
knotted  rope.  Francis  went  forth  at  once  exhorting 
the  people  of  the  country-side  to  penance,  brotherly 
love,  andpeace.  The  Assisians  haa  already  ceased  to 
scoff  at  Francis;  they  now  paused  in  wonderment; 
his  example  even  drew  others  to  him.  Bernard  of 
Quintavalle,  a  magnate  of  the  town,  was  the  first  to 
join  Francis,  and  he  was  soon  followed  by  Peter  of 
Cattaneo,  a  well-known  canon  of  the  cathedral.  In 
the  true  spirit  of  religious  enthusiasm,  Francis  re- 
paired to  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas  and  sought  to 


FBAHOIS 


223 


FKAKOIS 


learn  God's  will  in  their  regard  b^  thiioe  openine  at  tbem.  About  1211  they  obtained  a  ^rnianenl  foot- 
random  the  book  of  the  GoHpele  on  the  altar.  Each  hold  near  Aaaisi,  throu^  the  generositvof  the  Bene- 
time  it  opened  at  passages  where  Christ  totd  His  dis-  dictines  of  Monte  Subasio,  vha  gave  tnem  the  little 
riples  to  leave  all  things  and  follow  Him.     "This  shall  chapel  of  8t.  Mary  of  the  Angels  or  the  Poriiuncola. 

be  our  rule  of  life",  exclaimed  Francis,  and  led  his  Adjoining  this  humble  sanctuary,   alicady  dear  ta 

companionsto  the  public  »iuare,  where  they  forthwith  Francis,  the  first  Franciscan  convent  was  formed  by 

rakve  away  all  their  belon^ngs  to  the  poor.     After  this  the  erection  of  a  few  small  huts  or  cells  of  wattle, 

thev  procured  rough  habits  like  that  of  Francis,  and  straw,  and  mud,  and  enclosed  by  a  hedge.     From  this 


built  themelvea    small  huts  n 


the  Porziun-    settlement,  which  became  the  cradle  of  the  Franciscan 


ecstatic  and  sayer  of  "good  words",  became  the  third  the  life  of  Francis,  the  Friars  Minor  went  forth 

follower  of  Francis.     The  little  band   divided   and  two  exhorting  the  people  of  the  surrounding  country, 

went  about,  two  and  two.  making  such  an  impression  Like  children  "careless  of  the  day",  they  wandered 

by  their  words  and  behaviour  that  before  long  several  from  place  to  place  singing  in  their  joy,  and  calling 


other  disciples  grouped 
themselves  round  Francis 
eager  to  share  his  poverty, 
among  them  being  Sab- 
batinus.  vir  bonus  et  Jus- 
tus, Moricus,  who  had  be- 
longed to  the  CruciEeri, 
John  of  Capella,  who  after- 
wards fell  away,  Philip  "  the 
Long",  and  four  others  of 
whom  we  know  only  the 
names.  When  the  number 
of  his  companions  had  in- 
creased to  eleven,  Frantns 
found  it  expedient  U>  dniw 
up  a  written  rule  for  them. 
This  first  rule,  ss  it  is  called, 
of  the  Friars  Minor  has  not 
come  down  to  us  in  its  origi- 
nsl  form,  but  it  appears  to 
have  been  very  short  and 
simple,  a  mere  informal 
adaptation  of  the  Gospel 
precepts  already  selected 
by  Francis  for  the  guidance 
of  his  first  companions,  and 
which  he  desired  to  prac- 
tise in  all  their  perfection. 
When  this  rule  was  ready 
the  Penitents  of  Aasisi,  as 
Francis  and  his  followers 
styled  themselves,  set  out 
for  Rome  to  seek  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Holy  See,  al- 
though as  yet  no  such  ap- 
t^bation  was  obligatory. 
There  are  differing  accounts 
of  Francis's  reception  by 
Innocent    III.      It    seems, 

however,    that     Guido,  

Bishop  of  Asaisij  who  was  then  in  Rome,  commended  followmg  Palm  Sunday,  and  with  two  companions 
Francis  to  Cardmal  John  of  St.  Paul,  and  that  at  the  went  to  the  Porziuncola,  where  the  friais  met  her  in 
instance  of  the  latter,  the  pope  recalled  the  saint  whose  procession,  carrying  lighted  torches.  Then  Francis, 
first  overtures  he  had,  as  it  appears,  somewhat  rudely  tiaving  cut  off  ner  hsir,  clothed  her  in  the  Minority 
rejected.  Moreover,  in  spite  of  the  sinister  predic-  habit  and  thus  received  her  to  a  life  of  poverty,  pen- 
tioQs  of  others  in  the  .Sacred  College,  who  regarded  the  ance,  and  seclusion.  Clare  stayed  provisionally  with 
mode  of  life  proposed  by  Francis  as  unsafe  and  im-  some  Benedictine  nuns  near  Assisi,  until  Francis  could 
.practicable,  Iimocent,  moved  it  is  said  by  a  dream  in  provide  a  suitable  retreat  for  her,  and  for  St.  A^es, 
which  he  beheld  the  Poor  Man  of  Assisi  upholding  the  her  sister,  and  the  other  pious  maidens  who  had  iomed 
tottering  Lateran,  gave  a  verbal  sanction  to  the  rule  her.  He  eventually  established  them  at  St.  Dami- 
•ubmitt«d  by  Francis  and  granted  the  saint  and  his  an's,  in  a  dwelling  adjoining  the  chapel  he  had  rebuilt 
companions  leave  to  preach  repentance  everywhere,  with  his  own  hands,  which  was  now  given  to  the  saint 
BeforeleavingRome  they  all  received  the  ecclesiastical  by  the  Benedictines  as  a  domicile  for  his  spiritual 
tonsure,  Francis  himself  being  ordained  deacon  lat«r  daughters,  and  which  thus  became  the  first  monastery 
on.  of  the  Second  Franciscan  Order  of  Poor  Ladies,  now 

After  their  return  to  Assisi,  the  Friars  Minor,  far     known  as  Poor  Clares  (see  Clare  of  Aaaisi,  Saint; 
thus  Francis  had  named  his  brethren — either  after  the    Poon  Clarrs). 

imnores,  or  lower  classes,  as  some  think,  or  as  others  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  (1212)  Francis's 
believe,withreferencetotheGospel (Matt., Kiv, 40-45).  burning  desire  tor  the  conversion  of  the  Saracens  led 
And  as  a  perpetual  reminder  of  their  humility — found  him  to  embark  for  Syria,  but  havins  been  ship- 
■belter  in  a  deserted  hut  at  Rivo  Torto  in  the  plain  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Slavonia,  he  had  to  return  to 
below  the  city,  but  were  forced  to  abandon  this  poor  Ancona.  The  following  spring  he  devoted  to  evangel- 
abode  by  a  rou^  peasant  ^o  drove  in  his  ass  upon    izing  Central  Italy.    About  this  time  (1213)  Francis 


St.  FaAMCts  or  Asaisi 
in  the  cell  nfaera  St.  Fnnei 
degU  Angeli,  near  Anisi 


tnemselves  the  Lord's 
strels.  The  wide  world  was 
their  cloister;  sleeping  in 
haylofts,  grottos,  or  church 
porches,  they  toiled  with 
the  labourers  in  the  fields, 
and  when  none  gave  them 
work  they  would  beg.  In 
a  short  while  Francis  and  his 
companions  gained  an  im- 
mense influence,  and  men  of 
difi'erent  grades  of  life  and 
ways  of  thought  flocked 
to  the  order.  Among  the 
new  recruits  made  about 
this  time  by  Francis  were 
the  famous  Three  Com- 
panions, who  afterwords 
wrote  his  life,  namely: 
Angelus  Tancredi,  a  noble 
cavalier;  Leo,  the  saint's 
secretary  and  confessor; 
and  Rufinus,  a  cousin  of 
St.  Clare;  besides  Juniper, 
"the  renowned  jester  of  the 
Lord". 

During  the  Lent  of  1212,  a 
new  joy,  great  as  it  was  un- 
expected, came  to  Francis. 
Clare,  a  young  heiress  of 
Assisi,  moved  by  the 
saint's  preaching  at  the 
church  of  St.  George,  sought 
him  out,  and  begged  to  be 
allowed  to  embrace  the 
new  maimer  of  life  he  had 
founded.  By  his  advice, 
Clare,  who  was  then  but 
eighteen,  secretly  left  her 
father's  house  o    "  "  -"-'-' 


rBANOIS 


224 


rBANOIS 


reoeived  from  Count  Orlando  of  Chiusi  the  mountain 
of  La  Vema,  an  isolated  peak  among  the  Tuscan 
Apennines,  rising  some  4000  feet  above  the  valley  of 
the  Casentino,  as  a  retreat,  ''especially  favourable  for 
contemplation",  to  which  he  might  retire  from  time 
to  time  for  prayer  and  rest.  For  Francis  never  alto- 
gether separated  the  contemplative  from  the  active 
life,  as  the  several  little  hermitages  associated  with 
his  memory,  and  the  quaint  regumtions  he  wrote  for 
those  living  in  them  bear  witness.  At  one  time,  in- 
deed, a  strong  desire  to  give  himself  wholly  to  a  life 
of  contemplation  seems  to  have  possessed  the  saint. 
During  the  next  year  (1214)  Francis  set  out  for  Mo- 
rocco, m  another  attempt  to  reach  the  infidels  and,  if 
needs  be,  to  shed  his  blood  for  the  Gospel^  but  while 
vet  in  Spain  was  overtaken  by  so  severe  an  illness  that 
he  was  compelled  to,  turn  back  to  Italy  once  more. 

•Authentic  details  are  unfortunately  lacking  of 
Francis's  journey  to  Spain  and  sojourn  there.  It 
probably  took  place  in  the  winter  of  1214-1215. 
After  his  return  to  Umbria  he  reoeived  several  noble 
and  learned  men  into  the  order,  including  his  future 
biographer,  Thomas  of  Celano.  The  next  ei^teen 
months  comprise,  perhaps,  the  most  obscure  period  of 
the  saint's  Hfe.  That  ne  took  part  in  the  Lateran 
Council  of  1215  may  well  be,  but  it  is  not  certain;  we 
know  from  Eccleston,  however,  that  Francis  was  pres- 
ent at  the  death  of  Innocent  III,  which  took  place  at 
Peru^,  in  July,  1216.  Shortly  afterwards,  i.  e.  very 
early  in  the  pontificate  of  Honorius  III,  is  placed  the 
concession  of  the  famous  Porziuncola  Indul^nce. 
It  is  related  that  once,  while  Francis  was  praying  at 
the  Porziuncola,  Christ  appeared  to  him  and  offered 
him  whatever  favour  he  might  desire.  The  salvation 
of  souls  was  ever  the  buraen  of  Francis's  praters, 
and  wishing,  moreover,  to  make  his  beloved  rorziun- 
cola  a  sanctuary  where  many  might  be  saved,  he 
begged  a  plenary  Indulgence  for  all  who,  having  con- 
fessed their  sins,  should  visit  the  little  chapel.  Our 
Lord  acceded  to  this  request  on  condition  that  the 
pope  should  ratify  the  Indulgence.  Francis  there- 
upon set  out  for  Perugia,  with  Brother  Masseo,  to  find 
Honorius  III.  The  latter,  notwithstanding  some 
opposition  from  the  Curia  at  such  an  unheard-of 
favour,  granted  the  Indulgence,  restricting  itj  how- 
ever, to  one  day  jrearly.  He  subsequently  nxed  2 
August  in  perpetuity,  as  the  day  for  gaining  this 
Porziuncola  Indul^nce,  commonly  known  in  Italy  as 
U  perdano  d'  Assist,  Such  is  the  traditional  account. 
The  fact  that  there  is  no  record  of  this  Indulgence  in 
either  the  papal  or  diocesan  archives  and  no  allusion  to 
it  in  the  earliest  biographies  of  Francis  or  other  con- 
temporary documents  has  led  some  writers  to  reject 
the  whole  story.  This  argumentum  ex  silerUio  has, 
however,  been  met  by  M.  Paul  Sabatier,  who  in  his 
critical  edition  of  the  ''Tractatus  de  Indulgentia"  of 
Fra  Bartholi  (see  Bartholi.  Francesco  della 
Rossa)  has  adduced  all  the  really  credible  evidence  in 
its  favour.  But  even  those  who  regard  the  granting 
of  this  Indulgence  as  traditionally  believed  to  be  an 
established  fact  of  history,  admit  tnat  its  eariy  history 
is  uncertain.    (See  Portiuncula.) 

The  first  general  chapter  of  the  Friars  Minor  was 
held  in  May,  1217,  at  Porziuncola,  the  order  being 
divided  into  provinces,  and  an  apportionment  made  of 
the  Christian  world  into  so  many  Franciscan  missions. 
Tuscany,  Lombardy,  Provence,  Spain,  and  Germany 
were  assigned  to  five  of  Francis's  principal  followers; 
for  himself  the  saint  reserved  France,  and  he  actually 
set  out  for  that  kingdom,  but  on  arriving  at  Florence, 
was  dissuaded  from  going  further  by  Cardinal  Ugolino, 
who  had  been  made  protector  of  the  order  in  1216. 
He  therefore  sent  in  his  stead  Brother  ^acificus,  who 
in  the  world  had  been  renowned  as  a  poet,  together 
with  Brother  Agnellus,  who  later  on  establish^  the 
Friars  Minor  in  England.  Although  success  came  in- 
deed to  Francis  and  his  friars,  with  it  came  also  oppo- 


sition, and  it  was  with  a  view  to  allasrmg  any  prejudices 
the  Curia  might  have  imbibed  against  their  methods 
that  Francis,  at  the  instance  of  Cardinal  Ugolino,  went 
to  Rome  and  preached  before  the  pope  and  cardinals 
in  the  Lateran.  This  visit  to  the  Eternal  City,  which 
took  place  1217-18,  was  apparentlv  the  occasion  of 
Francis's  memorable  meeting  with  St.  Dominic.  The 
year  1218  Francis  devoted  to  missionary  tours  in  Italv, 
which  were  a  continual  triumph  for  him.  He  usually 
preached  out  of  doors,  in  tne  market-places,  from 
church  steps,  from  the  walls  of  castle  court-yards. 
Allured  by  the  magic  spell  of  his  presence,  admiring 
crowds^  unused  for  the  rest  to  anything  like  popular 
preachmg  in  the  vernacular,  followed  Francis  from 
place  to  place  hanging  on  his  lips;  church  bells  rang 
at  his  approach;  processions  of  clen^  and  people 
advanced  to  meet  him  with  music  anclsinging;  they 
brought  the  sick  to  him  to  bless  and  heal,  and  kissed 
the  very  ground  on  which  he  trod,  and  even  sou^t  to 
cut  away  pieces  of  his  tunic.  The  extraorainarv 
enthusiasm  with  which  the  saint  was  everywhere  wel- 
comed was  equalled  only  by  the  immediate  and 
visible  result  of  his  preaching,  fiis  exhortations 
of  the  people,  for  sermons  they  can  hardly  be  called, 
short,  nomelv,  affectionate,  and  pathetic,  touched 
even  the  hardest  and  most  frivolous,  and  Francis  be- 
came in  sooth  a  ver^r  conqueror  of  souls.  Thus  it  hap- 
pened, on  one  occasion,  while  the  saint  was  preaching 
at  Camara,  a  small  village  near  Assisi,  that  the  whole 
congregation  were  so  moved  by  his  ''words  of  spirit 
and  life  "  that  they  presented  themselves  to  him  in  a 
body  and  begged  to  be  admitted  into  his  order.  It  was 
to  accede,  so  far  as  might  be,  to  like  requests  that 
Francis  devised  his  Third  Order,  as  it  is  now  called,  of 
the  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Penance,  which  he  in- 
tended as  a  sort  of  a  middle  state  between  the  world 
and  the  cloister  for  those  who  could  not  leave  their 
home  or  desert  their  wonted  avocations  in  order  to 
enter  either  the  First  Order  of  Friars  Minor  or  the 
Second  Order  of  Poor  Ladies.  That  Francis  pre- 
scribed particular  duties  for  these  tertiaries  is  beyond 
question.  They  were  not  to  carry  arms,  or  take  oaths, 
or  engage  in  lawsuits,  etc.  It  is  also  said  that  he  drew 
up  a  formal  rule  for  them,  but  it  is  clear  that  the 
rule,  confirmed  by  Nicholas  IV  in  1289,  does  not,  at 
least  in  the  form  in  which  it  has  come  down  to  us, 
represent  the  original  rule  of  the  Brothers  and  Sisters 
of  Penance.  In  any  event,  it  is  customary  to  assign 
1221  as  the  year  of  the  foundation  of  this  third  order, 
but  the  date  is  not  certain. 

At  the  second  general  chapter  (May,  1219)  Francis, 
bent  on  realizing  his  project  of  evangelizing  the  infi- 
dels, assigned  a  separate  mission  to  each  of  his  fore- 
most disciples,  himself  selecting  the  seat  6i  war 
between  the  crusaders  and  the  Saracens.  With  eleven 
companions,  including  Brother  Illuminate  and  Peter 
of  Cattaneo,  Francis  set  sail  from  Ancona  on  21  June, 
for  Saint-Jean  d'Acre,  and  he  was  present  at  the  si^ 
and  takine  of  Damietta.  After  preaching  there  to  the 
assembled  Christian  forces,  Francis  fearlessly  passed 
over  to  the  infidel  camp,  where  he  was  taken  prisoner 
and  led  before  the  sultan.  According  to  the  testimony 
of  Jacques  de  Vitry,  who  was  with  the  crusaders  at 
Damietta,  the  sultan  received  Francis  with  courtesy, 
but  beyond  obtaining  a  promise  from  this  ruler  of  more 
indulgent  treatment  for  the  Christian  captives,  the 
saint's  preaching  seems  to  have  effected  little.  Before 
returning  to  Europe,  the  saint  is  believed  to  have 
visited  Palestine  and  there  obtained  for  the  friars  the 
foothold  they  still  retain  as  guardians  of  the  holy 
places.  What  is  certain  is  that  Francis  was  compelled 
to  hasten  back  to  Italy  because  of  various  troubles 
that  had  arisen  there  during  his  absence.  News  had 
reached  him  in  the  East  that  Matthew  of  Nami  and 
Gregory  of  Naples,  the  two  vicars-general  whom  he 
had  left  in  charge  of  the  order,  had  summoned  a  chap- 
ter which,  among  other  innovations,  sought  to  impose 


FBANOIS 


225 


rKANOIS 


new  fasts  upon  the  friars,  more  severe  than  the  rule  Prian"  and  beeauee  a  Uudium  had  been  instituted 

requii«d.    Moreover,  Cardinal  Ugolino  had  conferred  there.-    He  moreover  bade  all  the  friars,  even  those 

on  the  Poor  Ladies  a  written  rule  which  was  praeti-  who  were  ill,  quit  it  at  once.andit  was  only  some  time 

eally  that  of  the  Benedictine  nuns,  and  Brother  Philip,  after,  when  Cardinal  Ugolino  had  publiclj^  declared 

whom  Francis  bad  charged  with  their  interests,  had  the  house  to  be  his  own  property,  that  Francis  suffered 

accepted  it.   To  make  matters  worse,  John  of  Capella,  his  brethren  to  re-ent^r  it.    Yet  strong  and  definite  as 

one  of  the  saint's  first  compamoDS,  had  assembled  a  the  saint's  convictions  were,  and  determinedly  as  his 

large  number  of  lepers,  both  men  and  women,  with  a  line  was  taken,  he  was  never  a  slave  to  a  theory  in 

view  to  formingthein  into  a  new  religious  order,  and  regard  to  the  observance  of  poverty  or  anything  else; 

had  set  out  for  Rome  to  seek  approval  for  the  rule  he  about  him,  indeed,  there  was  nothing  narrow  orlanat- 

had   dmwn   up  for   these   unfortunates.      Finally   a  ical.    As  for  his  attitude  towards  study,  Francis  desid- 

nimour  had  been  spread  abroad  that  Francis  was  erated  for  hia  friars  only  such  theological  knowledge  as 

dead,  so  that  when  the  saint  returned  to  Italy  with  was  conformable  to  the  misuon  of  the  order,  which 

Brother  Elias — he  appears  to  have  arrived  at  Venice  was  before  all  else  a  mission  of  example.    Hence  he 

in  July,  1220 — a  general  feeling  of  unrest  prevailed  regarded  the  accumulation  of  books  as  beinc  at  vari- 

among  the  friars.    Apart  from  these  difficulties,  the  ance  with  the  poverty  hia  friars  professed,  and  he 

order  was  then  passing  through  a  period  of  transition,  resisted  the  eager  desire  for  mere  book-learning,  ao 

It  had  become  evident  that  the  simple,  familiar,  and  prevalent  in  his  time,  in  so  far  as  it  struck  at  the  roota 

unceremonious  ways  which  had  marked  the  Francis  of  that  simplicity  which  entered  so  largely  into  the 


1  movement  at  its  begin- 
ning were  gradually  disappear- 
ing, and  that  the  heroic  pov- 
erty practised  by  Francis  and 
his  companions  at  the  outset 
became  less  easy  as  the  friars 
with  amaiing  rapidity  in- 
creased in  number.  And  this 
Francis  could  not  help  seeing 
on  his  return.  Cardinal  Ugo- 
lino had  already  undertaken 
the  task  "of  reconciling  in- 
spirations so  unstudied  and 
so  tree  with  an  order  of  things 
they  had  outgrown " ,  This 
remarkable  man,  who  aftei^ 
wards  ascended  the  papal 
throne  as  Gregory  IX,  was 
deeply  attache  to  Francis, 
whom  he  venerated  as  a  saint 
and  also,  some  writers  tell  us, 
mana^d  as  an  enthusiast. 
That  Cardinal  Ugolino  had  no 
small  share  in  bringing 
Francis's  lofty  ideals  "within 
range  and  compass"  seems 
bi^ond  dispute,  and  it  is  not 
difficult  to  recognise  his  hand 
in  the  important  changes  made 
in    the    organization    of   the 

order  in  the  so-called  Chapter  of  Mats.    At  this  fa-    through  negligenc—    . 

mous  assembly,  held  at  Porziuncola  at  Whitsun-  the  solitude  of  Fonte  Colombo,  and  recast  the  rule  ol 
tide,  1220  or  1221  (there  is  seemingly  much  room  the  same  lines  as  before,  its  twenty-three  chapters 
for  doubt  as  to  the  exact  date  and  number  of  the  being  reduced  to  twelveand  some  of  its  precepts  being 
earlychaptera),about  5000  friars  are  said  to  have  been  modified  in  certain  details  at  the  instance  of  Carding 
present,  besides  some  500  applicants  for  admission  to  Ugolino.  In  this  form  the  rule  was  solemnly  approved 
the  order.  Huts  of  wattle  and  mud  afforded  shelter  by  Honorius  HI,  29  November,  1223  (Litt.  "Solet 
for  this  multitude.  Francis  had  purposely  made  no  annuere").  This  Second  Rule,  as  it  is  usually  called, 
"-'n  for  them,  but  the  charity  of  the  neighbour-     or  Regula  Bullata  of  the  Friare  Minor,  is  the  o 


Lud  ideal  and 
threatened  to  stifle  the  spirit 
of  prayer,  which  be  accounted 
preferable  to  all  the  rest. 

In  1221,  BO  some  writers  tell 
us,  Francis  drew  up  a  new  rule 
tor  the  Friars  Minor.  Others 
regard  this  so-called  Rule  of 
1^1  not  as  a  new  rule,  but  as 
the  first  one  which  Innocent 
III  had  orally  approved;  Dot, 
indeed,  its  original  form,  which 
we  do  not  possess,  but  with 
such  additions  and  modifica- 
tionsas  it  had  suffer^  during 
the  course  of  twelve  yeare. 
However  this  may  be,  the 
composition  called  by  some 
the  Rule  of  1221  is  very  unlike 
any  conventional  rule  ever 
m&de.  It  was  too  lengthy  and 
unprecise  to  become  a  formal  - 
rule,  and  two  years  later 
Francis  retired  to  Fonte  Col- 
ombo, a  hermitage  near  Rieti, 
and  rewrote  the  rule  in  mora 
compendious  form.  This  re- 
vised draft  he  entrusted  to 
Brother  Elias,  who  not  long 
after  declared  he  had  lost  it 
Francis  thereupon  returned  to 


itw  towns  supplied  them  with  food,  while  knights  and 
nobles  waited  upon  them  gladly.  It  was  on  this  occa- 
sion that  Francis,  harassed  no  doubt  and  disheartened 


professed   throughout  the   First  Order  of  8t. 
Francis  (see  Francts,  RrLE  of  Saikt).    It  is  based 
the  three  vows  of  obedience,  poverty,  and  chastity, 


promptings  of  human  prudence,  and  feeling,  perhaps, 
unfitted  for  a  place  which  now  called  largely  tor 
organizing  abilities,  relinquished  hia  position  as  gen- 
er5  of  the  order  in  favour  of  Peter  of  Cattaneo.  But 
the  latter  died  in  less  than  a  year,  being  succeeded  as 
vicar-general  by  the  unhappy  Brother  Elias  (see  Euas 
r  Cortona),  who  continued  in  that  office  until  the 


his  order,  and  which  became  the  sign  to  be  contra- 
dicted. This  vow  of  absolute  poverty  in  the  first  and 
second  orders  and  the  reconciliation  of  the  religious 
with  the  BCcular  state  in  the  Third  Order  of  Penance 
are  the  chief  novelties  introduced  by  Francis  in  mon- 
astic regulation. 

during  Christmastide  of  this  year  (1223)  that 


death  of  Francis,    The  saint^  meanwhile,  during  the  the  saint  conceived  the  idea  of  celebrating  the  Nativ- 

few years  that  remained  to  him,  sought  to  impress  on  ity  "in  a  new  manner",  by  reproducing  in  a  church  at 

thefriarsby  the  silent  teaching  of  personal  example  of  Greccio  the  prmaejiio  of  Bethlehem,  and  he  has  thus 

what  sort  he  would  fain  have  them  to  be.    Already,  come  to  be  regarded  as  having  inaugurated  the  popu- 

while  passing  through  Boli^naon  his  return  from  the  lar  devotion  <rf  the  Crib.    Chnstmss  appears  indeed  to 

East,  Francis  had  refused  to  enter  the  convent  there  have  been  the  favourite  feast  of  Francis,  and  he  wished 

because  he  had  heard  it  called  the  "House  of  the  to  persuade  the  emperor  to  make  a  special  law  that 


■(■  Aodrf  tfcM  Dfwnde  >dl  lor  the  iMib  Md  Ike  nnfe  b  Uimb^  JHfifidl  ofatd 

bwM*.  M  wdt  •■  Mr  tbe  prxir,  ao  dm  >l  M#S  bme  MiiiaKtbepbnaf  God,  liunlal.__.   . 

■  I  ■»  ■  f  r  jfi  f  imt     I   r1  "vTtbMn^DM'.afwenQTMiepnltp 

E«rif  ia  AiiipMC  12Z4,  Fnaaa  ntirvi  writ  three  dotj-  cf  bunnl  hbonr,  bang  wilrtwnly 

)ijei|»anii  im  to  ''(nat  mnerf  rwk  'twiKt  Tib«r  and     tlw  fran.    UeaDwiule  •,' 

Anw", ••  DsbW «aJlMJ !*('•«»>,  tLcrelokMpaf'irt^  had  derriciinl,  and  it  ■ 

ig^  f«M  in  ptipamaifm  f<w  llifmliriJii     Dtmng  thM  Fnnfii  mt  tnt  for  Ab 

IkUku  tbt  iifftTM^  fif  '.liriM  b>*»in«  nMnt  ibaa  ever  taktn  bj  the  Ihife  canns  that  Mwrted  Un,  Gor  it 

tJM  bwdm  'i(  bi>  moli'.atirMi;  ttOa  bm  noK  perliapa,  wm  band  to  follow  (fae  dinct  nMd  liM  the  moi^ 

liwi  tiMf>i}lni#MUM[if  tfa«pMMr«irf  diwptreotMvd,  P«Ti«paiM  riwuU  attempt  to  anrPnacai  off  br  fane 

ft  WIN  og  f<r  •ti'i'jt  th^  ("-ua  'X  '7m  Vju^iaiwin  al  tbe  ■»  lliat  be  might  die  m  tfarir  oty,  whidi  woold  thm 

('.ftim  '14  HfVUtntpxi  wLile  prsyhiK '«  thn  mountaiD-  (til«r  into  pcMeaaoo  al  hit  eoreted  lelieK.     I^  «>■ 

Mtb-.lbuheMo^UiKiiiafT^lrHMnRtrjixiftbeKnph,  thenfote  undtT  a  stian^  pwnl  that  FnaaB,  ■  Jol^, 

M  a  wvfiid  of  wfavj)  tberc  appamd  on  hie  bodj'  ibe  1326,  wae  finally  botne  m  aafaty  to  the  faHfaoit'a  pi ' 

rimlfkniarlMMfdwftve  ~  " ' 

WTMmla  iM  tbe  (JrunlMH 

wfiKti,  aar*  an  wty 

writir,  had  ttiof  watr* 

bMM  imprMMO   uimid 

hi*  heart.  bfyili*TL«i>, 

vbrj  wa»  with  nt.  f  rao- 

da  wbn  be  rmnvul 

the  atifpnata,  hM  Wt 

ua  in  liiN  m>te  to  the 

MiDt'a»i)t/i<crafih  blMf 

fnf,  pre»<:rved  at  .     _. 

Amhm,  a  nkar  and  Mm-  wbenoe  bia  otdn  lk» 

pie  aorajum  nf  thn  inir'  atrugEled  into  ai^t. 

arle,  whid)  Uti  the  rnrt  On  tbe  wsy  thitbo'  he 

ia  \fMjm  attJirted  than  ai^ed  to  be  set  down, 

manv  xotAhtit  hwb^i-  and  with  painful  effort 

cal  laet.     The  aainl'a  be  invaked  a  beautiful 

rifbt  aide  ia  daiaibed  bleaaing  on  Anin, 

aa    bearinji    an    open  which,    boweva-,    his 

wound  which  looked  aa  own    eyes    oould    no 

if  made  by  a  lanM,  longa    diaeetn.      The 

while  through  biahaoda  saint's  last  daya  wen 

MUl    fmt    were    black  paaaed  at  the  PoraiuiH 

naita  of  fWh,  the  ptnota  oola  in  a  tiny  hut,  near 

of  which   were  bent  the  cfa^iel,  that  served 

baekwat^.     After  the  aa  an  infirmaiy.    The 

reneption  of  the  atiii-  arrival  there  about  this 

tnat«,  Francii  aufTered  time   of   the    Lady 

increaains    pains  jaooba  of  Settesoh, 

throu^iut    hia    frail  who   had   come   with 

her  two  sons  and  a 

peat   letmue   to   bid 
Frandfl  farewell,  csuaed 

__   ..._    some    consternation, 

a  I  w  a  y  1  woa  to  the  sinoe  womoi  were,  f  or- 

weakn<W«  of   oUien,          i„TEa,oa  o*  laa  C«*«l  or  na  PoatroireOLi  aaia  Amd.  y^AA^r,    to    enta;    the 

ho  was  ever  so  unqiar-  fnaiy.      But    Francis 

ioR  toward*  himwlf  that  at  the  last  fie  felt  con-  in  hia  tender  gratitude  to  this  Roman  noblewoman, 

atrained    to   aak   panlon   of   "Jtrother   Asa",   aa   he  who  had  been  such  a  special  benefactor  of  his  order, 

called  hia  body,  for  havinit  treated  it  so  narablv.  made  an  exception  in  her  favour,   and   "Brother 

Worn  out,  moreover,  as  Francis  now  was  by  eigh-  Jacoba"^  as  Francis  had  named  her  on  account  of 

teen  years  of  unmmittinft  l4>il,  hia  atrenKth  save  way  her  fortitude,  remained  to  the  last.    On  the  eve  of 

oompletelv,  and  at  limon  hia  nyiMKht  so  iar  failed  his  death,  the  saint,  in  imitation  of  his  Divine  Mas- 

him  that  no  was  almoat  wholly  hlintr    During  an  oc-  ter,  hod  bread  brought  to  him  and  brolcen.    Thia  he 

oestof  atipiish,  Franciapaii)  alost  vinil  toSt.  Claraat  distributed  among  those  present,  bleesing  Bernard 

At.  Damian'i,  and  it  was  in  a  liltle  hut  of  reeds,  made  of  Quintavalle,  his  first  companion,  Elias,  his  vicar, 

for  him  in  the  garden  lliiim,  tlinl  thn  saint  composed  and  all  the  others  in  order.    ''I  have  done  my  part, 

that  "Cantide  of  the  Nun",  in  whieh  his  poetic  genius  ho  said  next,  "may  Christ  teach  you  to  do  yours." 

expands  itMilf  k>  sluriouolv,    This  was  in  Si^tember,  Then  wishing  to  give  a  last  token  of  detachment 

122S.    Not  long  alterwanli  Franeis,  at  the  urgent  in-  and   to  show   he  had   no  longer  onvthing  in   oom- 

slanne  of  Drothnr  I'Jlios,  underwent  on  uDaucccsstul  mon  with  the  world,  Francis  removea  his  poor  habit 

operation  tor  the  eyne.  at  liidi.    He  seems  to  have  and  lay  down  on  the  bare  ground,  covered  with  a 

Eassed  the  winter  V£Mt-'i&  at  Hlcna,  whither  ho  had  borrowed  cloth,  rejoicing  that  he  was  able  to  keep 

nnn  token  (or  further  mwlinul  treatment.    In  April,  faith  with  bis  Lady  Poverty  to  the  end.     Aft^  a 

X'l'SA,  during  an  interval  of  iiiii)rovomcnt,  Francis  was  while  he  asked  lo  have  read  to  him  the  Passion  ao- 

mnved  lo  Corlona,  and  it  is  Ixilievt^l  to  have  been  cording  to  St.  John,  and  then  in  faltering  tones  he 

while  raating  at  the  hermilugf  of  the  (>^Ilo  there,  that  himself    intoned    Psalm    czh.      At    the    conduding 

the  saint  dintated  his  t^'stanicnt,  which  ho  describee  aa  verse,   "Bring  ray  soul  out  of  prison",  Francis  was 

a  "remindnr,  a  warning,  ond  an  exhortation".     In  led  away  from  earth  by  "Sister  Death",  in  whose 

this  touohinit  document  Praneis.  writing  from  the  full-  praise  he  hod  shortly  before  added  a  new  strophe  to 

ncMof  bis  heart,  urges  anew  with  the  simple  eloquence,  his  "Canticle  of  the  Sun".    It  waa  Saturday  evening, 

t^  tew,  bu(  qlearly  defined,  prinoiplea  that  were  to  3  Octdier,  122fl,  Fnmcis  being  then  in  the  forty-fiftb 


nAHOIS  227  nUHCIB 

yew  of  his  age,  and  the  tweatieth  from  his  perfect    iBSftr-hoiuee  and  from  eating  with  them  out  of  thA 
•onvermon  to  Christ.  same  platter.    But  above  all  it  is  his  dealing  with  the 

Thesainthad,  in  his  humOitf,  it  is  said,  expressed  a     erring  that  reveal  the  truly  Christian  spirit  of  his 
wish  to  be  buried  on  the  CoUe  d'  Inferno^  a  deepiaed     charity,     "SaintUer  than  onjr  of  the  sainta",  writes 
bill  without  Assisi,  where  criminals  were  executed.     Celano,  "among  sinners  he  was  as  one  of  themselves". 
However  this  may  be,  his  body  was,  on  4  October,     Writing  to  a  certain  ministar  in  the  order,  FntDNS 
borne  in  triumphant  procession  to  the  city,  a  halt     says:     Should  there  be  a  brother  an5'whera  in  the 
being  made  at  St.  Damian'e,  that  St.  Clare  and  her    world  who  has  sinned,  no  matter  how  great  soever  his 
companions  might  venerate  the  sacred  etigroata  now     fault  may  be,  let  him  not  go  away  after  he  has  once 
visible  to  all,  and  it  was  placed  provisionally  in  the     seen  thy  face  without  showing  pity  towards  him;  and 
church  of  St.  Geo^e  (now  within  the  enclosure  of  the     if  he  seek  not  mercy,  ask  him  if  he  does  not  desire  it. 
monastery  of  St.  Clare),  where  the  saint  had  learned     And  by  this  I  will  know  if  you  love  God  and  me." 
to  read  and  had  first  preached.    Many  miracles  are     Again,  to  medieval  notions  of  justice  the  evil-doer  was 
recorded  to  have  taken  place  at  his  tomb.     Francis     beyond  the  law  and  there  was  no  need  to  keep  faith 
was  solemnly  canonized  at  St.  Georee's  by  Gr^ory    with  him.    But  according  to  Francis,  not  only  was 
IX,  16  July,  122S.     On  the  day  following  the  P<^    justice  due  even  to  evil-doers,  but  justice  must  be 
laid  the  first  stone  of  the  great  double  church  of  St.     preceded  by  courtesy  as  by  a  herala.    Courtesy,  in- 
, Francis,  erected  in  honour  of  the  new  saint,  a"hd    deed,  in  the  saint's  quaint  concept,  was  the  younger 
thither   on   25   May,    1230,   Francis's   remains  were     sister  of  charity  and  one  of  the  qualities  of  God  Uim- 
secretty  transferreii  bv  Brother  Elias  and  buried  far     self,  Who  "of  His  courtesy",  he  declares,  "gives  His 
down  under  the  high  altar  in  the  lower  church.    Here,     sun  and  His  rain  to  the  just  and  the  unjust^'.    Tlus 
after  lying  hidden  for  six  centuries,  like  that  of  St,     habit  of  courtesy  Francis  ever  sought  to  eoj(»n  on  his 
Clare's,  Francis's  coffin  was  found,  12  December,  1S18, 
as  a  result  of  a  toilsome  search  lasting  fifty-two  nights. 
This  discovery  of  the  saint's  body  is  commemorated  in 
the  order  bv  a  special  office  on  12  December,  and  that 
of  his  translation  by  another  on  25  Hay.    His  feast  is 
kept  throughout  the  Church  on  4  October,  and  the 
impression  of  the  stigmata  on  his  body  is  celebrated 
on  17  September. 

It  has  been  said  with  pardonable  warmth  that 
Francis  ent«red  into  glory  in  his  lifetime,  and  that  he 
is  the  one  saint  whom  all  succeeding  generations  have 
agreed  in  canonising.  Certain  it  is  that  those  also 
WQO  care  little  about  the  order  he  founded,  and  who 
have  but  scant  sympathy  with  the  Church  to  which  he 
ever  gave  his  devout  allemance,  even  those  who  know 
not  Christianity  to  be  Divine,  find  themselves,  in- 
stinctively as  it  were,  looking  across  the  ages  for  guid- 
ance to  the  wonderful  Umbnan  Poverello,  and  invok- 
ing his  name  in  grateful  remembrance.  This  unique 
position  Francis  doubtless  owes  in  no  small  meas- 
ure to  his  singularly  lovable  and  winsome  personality. 
Few  saints  ever  exhaled  "the  good  odour  of  Christ" 
to  such  a  degree  as  be.  There  was  about  Francis, 
moreover,  a  cnivalry  and  a  poetry  which  gave  to  his 
other-worldlinees  a  quite  romantic  charm  and  beauty. 

Other   sainta  have  seemed  entirely  dead  to  the  world  ^'  FautciB  FsatcaiNo  nroaa  HosoRms  rv 

uound  them,  but  Francis  was  ever  thorouahly  in       ^    _  Giotw,  s.  Franewoo.  A-™ 


ftround  them,  but  i<rancis  was  ever  thorouKhl; 
touch  with  the  spirit  of  the  age.    He  delighted  iii 


of  his  native  city,  and  cherished  what  Dante  calls  the  be  kindly  received  ",  and  the  feast  which  he  spread 

Eleasant  sound  of  his  dear  land.    And  tliis  exquisit«  for  the  starving  brigands  in  the  forest  at  Mont«  Casale 

uman  element  in  Francis's  character  was  the  key  to  sufficed  to  show  that  "as  he  tai^t  so  he  wrought", 

that  far-reaching,  all-embracing  sympathy,  which  may  The  very  animals  found  in  Francis  a  tender  friend  and 

be  almost  calle<l  his  charactenstio  gift.    In  his  heart,  protoctor;  thus  we  find  him  pleading  with  the  people 

as  an  old  chronicler  puts  it,  the  whole  world  found  of  Oubbio  to  feed  the  fierce  wolf  that  had  ravidied 

refuge,  the  poor,  the  sick  sjid  the  fallen  beii^  the  their  flocks,  because  through  hunger  "  Brother  Wolf" 

objecta  of  his  solicitude  in  a  more  special  manner,  had  done  this  wrong.     And  the  early  legends  have  left 

HeedleesasFranciseverwasof  the  world's  judgments  us  many  an  idvllic  picture  of  how  beasts  and  birds 

in  his  own  re^trd,  it  was  always  his  constant  care  to  alike  susceptible  to  the  charm  of  Francis's  gentle 

mpeot  the  opinions  of  all  and  to  wound  the  feelings  of  ways,  entered  into  loving  companionship  with  him; 

none.    Wherefore  he  admonishes  the  friars  to  use  only  how  the  hunted  leveret  sought  to  attract  his  notice; 

low  and  mean  tables,  so  that  "if  a  beg^  were  to  how  the  balf-froien  bees  ciawled  towards  him  in 

eome  to  lat  down  near  them  he  might  be&ve  that  he  winter  to  be  fed  |  how  the  wild  falcon  fluttered  around 

was  but  with  his  equals  and  need  not  blush  on  account  him;  how  the  m^tingale  sang  with  him  in  sweetest 

of  his  povertv".     One  night,  we  are  told,  the  friary  content  in  the  ilex  grove  at  the  Carceri,  and  how  his 

was  aroused  oy  the  cry  'I  am  dying".    "Who  are  "little  brethren  the  oirds"  listened  so  devoutly  to  his 

vou".  exclaimed  Francb  arising,     and  whv  are  you  sermon  by  the  roadside  near  Bevagna  that  Francis 

"lamdyingof  hunger  '.answered  the  voice  chided  himself  for  not  having  thought  of  preaching  to 

__e  who  had  been  too  prone  to  fasting.     Where-  them  before.     Francis's  love  of  nature  also  stands  out 

n  Francis  had  a  table  laid  out  and  sat  down  beside  in  bold  relief  in  the  world  he  moved  in.    He  deUghted 

tbefamished  friar,snd  lest  the  lattermieht  be  ashamed  to  commune  with  the  wild  flowers,  the  crystal  spring, 

to  eat  alone,  ordered  all  the  other  brethren  to  join  in  and  the  friendly  fire,  and  to  greet  the  sun  as  it  rose 

■■" '     Francis's  devotednees  in  consoli^  the  upon  the  fair  llmbrian  vale.     In  this  respect,  in- 


dying?" 


afflicted  made  hiro  so  condescending  that  he  shrank    deed,  St.  Francis  s     gift  of  sympat 
not  from  abiding  with  the  lepers  in  their  loathly    have  been  wider  even  tban  St.  PauTs, 


for  we  find  no 


ntANOU 


228 


F&AV0I8 


evidence  in  the  great  Apostle  of  a  love  for  nature  or 
for  animals. 

Hardly  less  engaging  than  his  boundless  sense  of 
fellow-feeling  was  Francis's  downright  sincerity  and 
artless  simpBcity.  "  Dearly  beloved,"  he  once  began 
a  sermon  following  upon  a  severe  illness,  "  I  have  to 
confess  to  God  and  you  that  during  this  Lent  I  have 
eaten  cakes  made  with  lard."  And  when  the  guard- 
ian insisted  for  the  sake  of  warmth  upon  Francis  hav- 
ing a  fox  skin  sewn  imder  his  worn-out  tunic,  the 
saint  consented  only  upon  condition  that  another 
sjdn  of  the  same  size  be  sewn  outside.  For  it  was  his 
singular  study  never  to  hide  from  men  that  which  was 
known  to  God.  **  What  a  man  is  in  the  sight  of  God, " 
he  was  wont  to  repeat, ''  so  much  he  is  and  no  more  " — 
a  saying  which  passed  into  the  '^  Imitation",  and  has 
been  often  quoted.  Another  winning  trait  of  Francis 
which  inspires  the  deepest  affection  was  his  unswerv- 
ing directness  of  purpose  and  unfaltering  following 
after  an  ideal.  ''His  dearest  desire  so  long  as  he 
lived",  Celano  tells  Us,  ''was  ever  to  seek  among  wise 
and  simple,  perfect  and  imperfect,  the  means  to  walk 
in  the  way  of  truth."  To  Francis  love  was  the  truest 
of  all  truths ;  hence  his  deep  sense  of  personal  respon- 
sibility towards  his  fellows.  The  love  of  Christ  and 
Him  Crucified  permeated  the  whole  life  and  character 
of  Francis,  and  he  placed  the  chief  hope  of  redemption 
and  redress  for  a  suffering  humanity  in  the  literal  imi- 
tation of  his  Divine  Master.  The  saint  imitated  the 
example  of  Christ  as  literally  as  it  was  in  him  to  do  so ; 
barefoot,  and  in  absolute  poverty,  he  proclaimed  the 
reign  of  love.  This  heroic  imitation  of  Christ's  pov- 
erty was  perhaps  the  distinctive  mark  of  Francis's 
vocation,  and  he  was  imdoubtedly,  as  Bossuet  ex- 
presses it,  the  most  ardent,  enthusiastic,  and  desper- 
ate lover  of  ijoverty  the  world  has  yet  seen.  After 
money  Francis  most  detested  discord  and  divisions. 
Peace,  therefore,  became  his  watchword,  and  the 
pathetic  reconciliation  he  effected  in  his  last  days  be- 
tween the  Bishop  and  Potest^  of  Assisi  is  but  one  in- 
stance out  of  many  of  his  power  to  quell  the  storms  of 
Eassion  and  restore  tranquillity  to  hearts  torn  asunder 
y  civil  strife.  The  duty  of  a  servant  of  God,  Francis 
declared,  was  to  lift  up  the  hearts  of  men  and  move 
them  to  spiritual  gladness.  Hence  it  was  not  "from 
monastic  stalls  or  with  the  careful  irresponsibility  of 
the  enclosed  student"  that  the  saint  ana  his  followers 
addressed  the  people:  "they  dwelt  among  them  and 
grappled  with  the  evils  of  the  system  under  which  the 
people  groaned".  They  worked  in  return  for  their 
tare,  doing  for  the  lowest  the  most  menial  labour,  and 
speaking  to  the  poorest  words  of  hope  such  as  the 
worid  had  not  heard  for  many  a  day.  In  this  wise 
Frands  bridged  the  chasm  between  an  aristocratic 
clergy  and  the  common  people,  and  though  he  taught 
no  new  doctrine,  he  so  lar  repopularized  the  old  one 

S'ven  on  the  Moimt  that  the  Gospel  took  on  a  new 
'e  and  called  forth  a  new  love. 
Such  in  briefest  outline  are  some  of  the  salient  fea- 
tures which  render  the  figure  of  Francis  one  of  such 
supreme  attraction  that  aB  manner  of  men  feel  them- 
selves drawn  towards  him,  with  a  sense  of  personal 
attachment.  Few,  however,  of  those  who  feel  the 
charm  of  Francis's  personality  may  follow  the  saint  to 
his  lonely  height  of^rapt  communion  with  God.  For, 
however  engaging  a  '^minstrel  of  the  Lord",  Francis 
was  none  the  less  siprofound  mystic  in  the  truest 
sense  of  the  word.  Tne  whole  world  was  to  him  one 
luminous  ladder,  mounting  upon  the  rungs  of  which 
he  approached  and  behelcTGod.  It  is  very  mislead- 
ing, nowever,  to  portray  Francis  as  living  "  at  a  height 
where  dogma  ceases  to  exist",  and  still  further  from 
the  truth  to  represent  the  trend  of  his  teaching  as  one 
in  which  orthodoxy  was  made  subservient  to  "  humani- 
tariamsm".  A  very  cursory  inauiry  into  Francis's 
religious  belief  suffices  to  show  that  it  embraced  the 
entire  Catholic  dogma,  nothing  more  or  less.    If  then 


the  saint's  sermons  were  on  the  whole  moral  rather 
than  doctrinal ,  it  was  because  he  preached  to  meet  the 
wants  of  his  day,  and  those  whom  he  addressed  had 
not  strayed  from  dogmatic  truth;  they  were  still 
"hearers",  if  not  "doera",  of  the  Word.  For  this 
reason  Francis  set  aside  all  questions  more  theoretical 
than  practical,  and  returned  to  the  Gospel.  Again,  to 
see  in  Francis  only  the  loving  friend  of  all  God  s  crea- 
tures, the  joyous  singer  of  nature,  is  to  overiook  alto- 
gether that  aspect  of  nis  work  which  is  the  explanation 
of  all  the  rest — ^its  supernatural  side.  Few  lives  have 
been  more  wholly  imbued  with  the  supernatural,  as 
even  Renan  admits.  Nowhere,  perhaps,  can  there  be 
foimd  a  keener  insight  into  the  innermost  worid  of 
spirit,  yet  so  closely  were  the  supernatural  and  the 
natural  blended  in  Francis^  that  nis  very  asceticism 
was  often  clothed  in  the  guise  of  romance,  as  witness 
his  wooing  the  Lady  Poverty,  in  a  sense  that  almos^ 
ceased  to  be  figurative.  For  Francis's  singularly 
vivid  imagination  was  impregnate  with  the  imagery  of 
the  chansons  de  geste,  and  owing  to  his  markedly 
dramatic  tenden^,  he  delighted  in  suiting  his  action 
to  his  thought.  So,  too,  the  saint's  native  turn  for  the 
picturesque  led  him  to  unite  religion  and  nature.  He 
found  in  all  created  things,  however  trivial,  some  re- 
flection of  the  Divine  penection,  and  he  loved  to  ad- 
mire in  them  the  tieauty,  power,  wisdom,  and  good- 
ness of  their  Creator.  And  so  it  came  to  pass  that  he 
saw  sermons  even  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything. 
Moreover,  Francis's  simple,  childlike  nature  fastened 
on  the  thought,  that  if  all  are  from  one  Father  then 
all  are  real  kin.  Hence  his  custom  of  claiming 
brotherhood  with  all  manner  of  animate  and  inani- 
mate objects.  The  personification,  therefore,  of  the 
elements  in  the  "Canticle  of  the  Sun"  is  something 
more  than  a  mere  literary  figure.  Francis's  love  of 
creatures  was  not  simply  the  offspring  of  a  soft  or  sen- 
timental disposition ;  it  arose  rather  from  that  deep 
and  abiding  sense  of  the  presence  of  God,  which  imder- 
lay  all  he  said  and  did.  Even  so,  Francis's  habitual 
cheerfulness  was  not  that  of  a  careless  nature,  or  of 
one  untouched  by  sorrow.  None  witnessed  Francis's 
hidden  struggles,  his  long  agonies  of  tears,  or  his  secret 
wrestlings  in  prayer.  And  if  we  meet  him  making 
dumb-show  of  music,  by  playing  a  couple  of  sticks 
like  a  violin  to  give  vent  to  his  ^ee,  we  also  find  him 
heart-sore  with  foreboding  at  the  dire  dissensions  in 
the  order,  which  threatened  to  make  shipwreck  of  his 
ideal.  Nor  were  temptations  or  other  weakening 
maladies  of  the  soul  wanting  to  the  saint  at  any  time. 
Francis's  lightsomeness  had  its  source  in  that  entire 
surrender  of  everything  present  and  passing,  in  which 
he  hac^  foimd  the  intenor  liberty  of  the  cnildren  of 
God ;  it  drew  its  strength  from  his  intimate  union  wi^ 
Jesus  in  the  Holy  Commimion.  The  mystery  of  the 
Holy  Eucharist,  being  an  extension  of  the  Passion, 
held  a  preponderant  place  in  the  life  of  Francis,  and  he 
had  nothing  more  at  neart  than  all  that  concerned  the 
cultus  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  Hence  we  not  only 
hear  of  Francis  conjuring  the  clergy  to  show  befitting 
respect  for  everythmg  connected  with  the  Sacrifice  of 
the  Mass,  but  we  abo  see  him  sweeping  out  poor 
churches,  q^uesting  sacred  vessels  for  them,  and  provid- 
ing them  with  altar-breads  made  by  himself.  So  great, 
indeed,  was  Francis's  reverence  for  the  priesthood, 
because  of  its  relation  to  the  Adorable  Sacrament,  that 
in  his  humility  he  never  dared  to  aspire  to  that  dignity. 
Humility  was,  no  doubt,  the  saint's  ruling  virtue. 
The  idol  of  an  enthusiastic  popular  devotion,  he  ever 
truly  believed  himself  less  than  the  least.  Eaually 
admirable  was  Francis's  prompt  and  docile  obeoience 
to  the  voice  of  grace  within  him,  even  in  the  early  days 
of  his  ill-defined  ambition,  when  the  spirit  of  interpre- 
tation failed  him.  Later  on,  the  saint,  with  as  clear  a 
sense  of  his  message  as  any  prophet  ever  had,  yielded 
ungrudging  submission  to  wnat  constituted  ecclesias- 
tical authority.    No  reformer,  moreover,  was  ever 


ASSIST 

CHTRCH   AND    CONVENT  OF  SAN    TRANCEaCO 
CATHEDRAL    OF    SAN    RUriNO    WITH    VIEW    OF 


spirit  of  reform ;  he  strove  U.     

correct  abuses  by  holding  up  an  ideal.     He  stretched  we  might  by  following  bis  familiar  figure"  construct  K 

out  his  arms  in  yearnine  towards  those  who  longed  for  history  of  Christian  art,   from  the  predeccason  of 

the  "better  gifts".    The  others  he  left  alone.  Cimabue  down  to  Guido  Reni,  Rubens,  and  Van 

And  thus,  without  strife  or  scliism,  God's  Poor  Lit-  Dyck". 

tie  Han  of  Assisi  became  the  meamt  of  renewing  the  Probably  the  oldest  likeness  of  Francis  that  has 

youth  of  the  Church  and  of  initiatiag  the  most  pot«nt  come  down  to  us  is  that  preserved  in  the  Sacro  Spteo 

and  popular  religious  movement  since  the  beginnings  at  Subiaco.    It  is  said  that  it  was  painted  by  a  Bene- 

of  Cnnstianity.     No  doubt  this  movement  had  its  dictine  monk  during  the  saint's  visit  there,  which  may 

social  as  well  as  its  religious  side.     That  the  Third  have  been  in  1218.    The  absence  of  the  stigmata,  halo. 

Order  of  St.  Francis  went  far  towards  re-€hriatianiiing  and  title  of  saint  in  this  fresco  form  its  chief  claim  to 

medieval  society  is  a  matter  of  history.     However,  be   considered   a  contemporary  picture ;    it   is   not, 

Francis's  foremost  aim  was  a  religious  one.  To  rekin-  however,  a  real  portrait  m  the  modem  sense  of  the 

die  the  love  of  God  in  the  world  and  reanimate  the  life  word,  and  we  ar«  dependent  for  the  traditional  pre- 

of  the  spirit  in  the  hearts  of  men — such  was  his  mis-  sentment  of  Francis  rather  on  artists'  ideals,^  like  the 

'  in.    But  because  St.  Francis  sought  first  the  King-  Delia  Robbia  statue  at  the  Poriiuncola,  which  is  surely 

*  "    '       '  ■•■    ■  (jjg  saint's            "" 


dom  of  God  and  His  jus- 
tice, many  other  things 
wereaddMuntohim.  And 
bis  own  exquisite  Fran- 
ciscan spirit,  as  it  is  called, 
passing  out  into  the  wide 
world,  became  an  abiding 
source  of  inspiration.  Per- 
haps it  savours  of  exaagei^ 
ation  to  say,  as  has  oeen 
said,  that "  all  the  threads 
of  civilLiation  in  the  sub- 
sequent centuries  seem  to 
hark  back  to  Francis", 
and  that  since  his  day 
"the  character  of  the 
whole  Roman,  Church  is 
visibly  Umbrian".  It 
would  be  difficult,  none 
the  leas,  to  overestimate 
the  efTect  produced  by 
Francis  upon  the  mind  td 
bis  time,  or  the  quicken- 
ing power  he  wielded  on 
U)e  generations  which 
have  succeeded  him.  To 
mention  two  aspects  only 
of  his  all-pervading  influ- 
ence, Francis  must  surely 
be  reckoned  among  those 
to  whom  the  worlo  of  art 
and  letters  is  deeply  in- 
debted. Prose,  OB  Arnold 
obeervea,  could  not  satisfy 
the  saint's  ardent  soul,  so 
he  made  poetry.  He  was, 
indeed,  too  little  versed  in 
the  laws  of  composition  to  advance  far 
tion.     But  his  was  the  first  cry  of  a  n 

which  found  its  highest  expression  in  the   "Divin_     , ..„..    ,   ,      -„  --   -- -- 

Comedy";  wherefore  Francis  has  been  styled  the  of  the  different  persons  whom  be  addresses.  Short, 
precuraor  of  Danl«.  What  the  saint  did  was  to  simple,  and  informal,  Francis's  writings  breathe  ttie 
teach  a  people  "accustomed  to  the  artificial  versi-  unstuaied  love  of  the  Gospel  and  enforce  the  same 
fication  of  courtly  Latin  and  Provengal  poets,  the  practicalmorality,  while  theyabound  inallegoriesand 
use  of  their  native  tongue  in  simple  spontaneous  personification  and  reveal  an  intimate  interweaving  of 
hymns,  which  became  even  more  popular  with  the  Biblical  phraseology.  Not  all  the  saint's  writings  have 
Laudi  and  Caniici  of  his  poet--follower  Jacopone  of  come  down  to  us,  and  not  a  few  of  these  formerly 
Todi".  Insofar,  moreover,  as  Francis's  repriMento/io,  attributed  to  him  are  now  with  greater  likelihood 
as  SaUmbene  calls  it,  of  the  stable  at  Bethlehem  is  the  ascribed  to  others.  The  extant  and  authentic  oputcula 
first  mystery-play  we  hear  of  in  Italy,  he  is  said  to  of  Francis  comprise,  besides  the  rule  of  the  Friars 
have  borne  a  part  in  the  revival  of  the  drama.  How-  Minor  and  some  fragments  of  the  other  Seraphic  legis- 
ever  this  may  be.  if  Francis's  love  of  song  called  forth  lation,  several  letters,  including  one  addraased  "  to  aJl 
the  beginnings  ol  Italian  vetse,  his  life  no  less  brought  the  Christians  who  dwell  in  the  whole  world  ",  a  series 
about  the  birth  of  Italian  art.  His  story,  says  Ruakin,  of  spiritual  counsels  addressed  to  his  disciples,  the 
became  a  passionate  tradition  painted  evervwhere  "LaudesCreaturarum"  or  "Canticle  of  theSun", and 
with  delight.  Full  of  colour,  dramatic  poasioilities,  some  lesser  praises,  an  Office  of  the  Passion  compiled 
and  human  interest,  the  early  Franciscan  legend  af-  for  his  own  use,  and  a  few  other  orisons  which  show  us 
forded  the  moat  pooular  material  for  painters  since  FrancisevenasCelanosawhim, "not somuchaman's 
the  life  of  Christ.  No  sooner,  indeed,  did  Francis's  praying  as  prayer  itself".  In  addition  to  the  saint's 
figure  make  an  appearance  in  art  than  it  became  at    writings  the  sources  of  the  history  of  Francis  include  s 


I  samt  8  vera  effigiet.  aa 
Bysantine  so-called 
portrait  can  ever  be,  and 
the  graphic  description  of 
Francis  given  by  Celano 
(Vita  Prima,  chtxxiii).  Of 
less  than  middle  height, 
we  are  told,  and  frail  in 
form,  Francis  had  a  long 
vet  cheerful  face  and  soft 
but  strong  voice,  -small 
brilliant  black  eyes,  dark 
brown  hair,  and  a  sparse 
beard.  His  person  was  in 
no  way  imposing,  yet 
there  was  about  the  saint 


most  attractive. 

The  literary  materials 
for  the  history  of  St. 
liVancis  are  more  than  us- 
ually copious  and  authen- 
tic. There  are  indeed  few 
if  any  medieval  lives  more 
thoroughly  documented. 
We  have  ro  the  first  place 
the  saint's  own  writings. 
These  are  not  voluminous 
and  were  never  written 
with  a  view  to  setting 
forth  his  ideas  systematic- 
ally, yet  they  bear  the 
stamp  of  bis  personality 
and  are  marked  by  the 
same  unvarying  features 
of  his  preacliing.  A  few 
"from  the  woras  of  the 
n  all  sufficing,  and  theee  he  i^- 
peats  asiin  and  again,  adapting  them  to  the  needs 


F&AV0I8 


230 


F&4N0I8 


number  of  early  papal  Bulls  and  some  other  diplo- 
matic dbcuments.  as  they  are  called,  bearing  upon  his 
life  and  work.  Tnen  come  the  biographies  properly  so 
called.  These  include  the  lives  written  1229-1247  by 
Thomas  of  Celano^  one  of  Francis's  followers;  a  joint 
narrative  of  his  life  compiled  by  Leo,  Rufinus,  and 
Angelus,  intimate  companions  of  the  saint,  in  1246; 
and  the  celebrated  legend  of  St.  Bonaventiu^,  which 
appeared  about  1263;  besides  a  somewhat  more  po- 
lemic lepend  called  the  "Speculum  Ferfectionis",  at- 
tributed to  Brother  Leo,  the  date  of  which  is  a  matter 
of  controversy.  There  are  also  several  important 
thirteenth-century  chronicles  of  the  order,  like  those 
of  Jordan,  Eccleston,  and  Bernard  of  Besse,  and  not  a 
few  later  works,  such  as  the  "Chronica  XXlV.  Gen- 
eralium  "  and  the  "  Liber  de  Conf ormitate  ",  which  are 
in  some  sort  a  continuation  of  them.  It  is  upon  these 
works  that  all  the  later  biographies  of  Francis's  life  are 
based. 

Recent  years  have  witnessed  a  trulv  remarkable 
upgrowth  of  interest  in  the  life  and  work  of  St.  Fran- 
cis, more  especially  among  non-Catholics,  and  Assisi 
has  become  m  consequence  the  goal  of  a  new  race  of 
pilgrims.  This  interest,  for  the  most  part  literary  and 
academic,  is  centred  mainly  in  the  stud^  of  the  primi- 
tive documents  relating  to  the  saint's  history  and  the 
beginnings  of  the  Franciscan  Order.  Although  inau- 
gurated some  vears  earlier,  this  movement  received  its 
greatest  impulse  from  the  publication  in  1894  of  Paul 
Sabatier's  Vie  de  S.  Francois",  a  work  which  was 
almost  simultaneously  crowned  by  the  French  Acad- 
emy and  placed  upon  the  Index.  In  spite  of  the 
author's  entire  lack  of  sympathy  with  the  saint's  re- 
ligious standpoint,  his  biography  of  Francis  bespeaks 
vast  erudition,  deep  research,  and  rare  critical  insight, 
and  it  has  opened  up  a  new  era  in  the  study  of  Fran- 
ciscan sources.  To  further  this  study  an  International 
Society  of  Franciscan  Studies  was  foimded  at  Assisi  in 
1902,  the  aim  of  which  is  to  collect  a  complete  library 
of  works  on  Franciscan  history  and  to  compile  a  catar 
logue  of  scattered  Franciscan  manuscripts;  several 
periodicals,  devoted  to  Franciscan  documents  and  dis- 
cussions exclusiveljr,  have  moreover  been  established 
in  di£ferent  countries.  Although  a  large  literature 
has  grown  up  aroimd  the  figurb  of  the  Poverello  within 
a  short  time,  nothing  new  of  essential  value  has  been 
added  to  what  was  already  known  of  the  saint.  The 
energetic  research  work  of  recent  years  has  resulted 
in  the  recovery  of  several  important  early  texts,  and 
has  called  f  ortn  many  really  nne  critical  studies  deal- 
ing with  the  sources,  but  the  most  welcome  feature 
of  the  modem  interest  in  Franciscan  origins  has  been  the 
careful  re-editing  and  translating  of  Francis's  own  writ- 
ings and  of  netu-ly  all  the  contemporary  manuscript 
authorities  bearing  on  his  life.  Not  a  few  of  the  con- 
troverted questions  connected  therewith  are  of  con- 
siderable import,  even  to  those  not  especially  students 
of  the  Franciscan  legend,  but  they  could  not  be  made 
intelligible  within  the  limits  of  the  present  article.  It 
must  suffice,  moreover,  to  indicate  only  some  of  the 
chief  works  on  the  life  of  St.  Francis. 

The  writings  of  St.  Francis  have  been  published  in 

"Opuscula  S.  P.  Francisci  Assisiensis"  (Quaracchi, 

1904) ;  Bfihmer,  "  Analekten  sur  Geschichte  des  Fran- 

ciscus  von  Assisi"  (Tubingen,  1904);   U.  d'Alengon, 

"Les  Opuscules  de  S.  Francois  d'  Assise"  (Paris. 

1905);   Robinson,  "The  Writings  of  St.  Francis  of 

Assisi"  (Philadelphia,  1906). 

The  text  of  the  dmerent  rules  is  given  in  Serapkiea  Lef/ialo' 
tumia  Textua  originale$  (Quaraochi.  1807):  see  also  Carmichabl, 
The  Origin  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Franeia  in  Dublin  Review,  CXXXI V 
(1904),  357-85.  The  early  BuIIb  are  found  in  BuUar.  Franda- 
eonum.  ed.  Sbabalba,  I  (Rome,  1759).  panim.  ,  For  the  early 
legends  or  lives  of  St.  Francis:  8.  Franciact  Aaau.  vxta  et  mtro- 
ada,  ete.,  auetore  Fr,  Thoma  de  Ceiano,  ed.  E.  D'Ai^NgoN 
(Rome,  1906);  tr.  Fbrheiw-Howbix.  Tke  Livea  of  SL  Franeia 
bu  Thoa.  of  Ceiano  (London.  1908);  TriumSociorumS.Fran^ 
naci  Lmenda.  ed.  Faloci  (Foligno,  1898);  Saltbr.  The  Leomd 
of  8L  franeia  few  the  Three  Companiona  (London,  1902);  Br. 
BoNAVBNTUBa,  Leffonda  Dua  de  Vitd  S.  Franciaa  (Quaraochi, 


1898):  tr.  Sai/ibb,  The  Life  ef  Si.  Franeia  by  St.  BonavmUun 
(London,  1904);  Speculum  Perfectionia.  ed,  Babatxbr  (Paris, 
1898);  tr.  Evans.  The  Mirror  of  Perfection  (London,  1898)  and 
Da  La  Wabb  (London,  1902).  For  the  contemporary  chroni- 
cles see:  Chronica  fr.  Jordani^  ed.  B^hmbb  (Paris,  1908);  £o- 
CLBSTON,  De  AdverUu  Fratrum  Minontm  m  Angliam  in  AnaU 
ecta  Franciacanat  I  ((Quaracchi,  1885),  217-57;  tr.  Cuthbbbt, 
The  Friara  and  How  They  Came  to  England  (London,  1903); 
BaasB,  Liber  de  Laudibue,  ed.  Fbldbb  (Rome  and  (Quaracchi. 
1897);  Adua  B.  Franciaei  et  Soeiorum  ejua,  ed.  Sabatibb  (Paris, 
1902):  see  also  Chron.  XXIV.  Oeneralium  in  AnaleeL  Franeia.t 
III  (Quaraochi,  1897),  1-574;  Babth.  Puanus.  De  Conformi' 
tale  vUm  B.  P.  Franciaei  ad  vUam  D.  N.  Jeau  Chriati  in  AnaL 
Franeia,  TV  (Quaraochi.  1906);  Wadding,  Annalea  Minorum, 
I-II  (Rome,  1731-1732),  passun:  Idem.  Seriptorea  Ord.  Minor., 
ed.  Nabobochia  (Rome,  1906),  77-78;  Sutbkbns  in  Ada  SS., 
II,  Oct.,  Comm.  Prav.,  545  soq. 

Modem  biographies.  (1)  8y  CJatholics:  (}balippb.  Vie  de  S. 
FranQoia  (Pftns,  1728);  tr.  €)batorxanb  (New  York,  1899); 
Papinx,  Storia  di  S.  Franeeaeo  (Foligno,  1825-27);  ()havin, 
Hiat.de  S.  Francoia  (Pft.ris.  1841);  Paniilo,  Storia  Compendioaa 
di  S.  Franeeaeo  (Rome,  1874-76);  Eng.  adaptation  by  Cusacx, 
St.  Franciiand  the  Franciacana  (New  York.  1867);  Lb  Mon- 
NXBB.  Hiatoire  deS.  Franpoia  (Puis.  1889);  tr.  by  aTsBTiABT 
(London.  1894);  Chbirvn.  Leben  dea  heUigen  Frandacua  (Inns- 
bruck, 1899);  db  Ca±BJMct.  S.  Francoia  (7th  ed.,  Paris,  1900); 
tr.O'CjoNNOB  (3rd  ed.,  London.  1901);  Bakan.  S.  Franeiaco  de 
Aaia  (new  ed.,  Biadrid.  1903).  Tarduoci.  Vita  di  S.  Fran- 
cesco (Mantua,  1904):  SchnObbb,  Frana  von  Aaaiai  (Munich, 
1905);  JoBaBNSBN,  Den  heUige  Frana  af  Aaaiai  (Copenhagen^ 
1907).  By  Non-Catholics:  Vogt,  Der  hi.  Franz  von  Aaaiai 
(TQbingen,  1840);  Hasb,  Frana  von  Aaaiai  (Leipsig.  1858;  new 
ed.,  1892);  Oliphant,  Franeia  of  Aaaiai  (London,  1871);  Saba- 
rns.  Vie  de  S.  Francoia  (Flaris,  1894);  tr.  Houobton  (New 
York,  1894);  KNOX-LrrrLS,  St.  Franeia  of  Aaaiai  (London,  1897; 
new  ed.,  1904);  Stoddart,  Franeia  of  Aaaiai  (London,  1903). 
What  may  be  called  the  temperament  of  the  early  Fivncisoan 
movement  is  reflected  in  the  Sacrum  Commercium  B.  Franciaei 
cum  Diomind  Paupertate,  ed.  E.  d'Albn^on  (Rome,  1900);  tr. 
Cabkichabl,  The  Lady  Poverty  (London,  1901);  and  in  the 
Fiorelti  di  S.  Franeeaeo.  The  best  Italian  version  of  the  latter 
is  that  of  Obsarb  (Verona,  1822),  which  has  been  often  re- 
printed; Latin  text  ed.  Sabatibr,  Floretum  S.  Franciaei  (Paris, 
1902);  there  are  several  English  translations  of  the  Fioretti, 
e.  g.  The  Little  Flower  of  S.  Franeia,  ed.  Arnold  (London, 
1908).  For  the  influence  of  St.  Francis  on  early  Italian  poetry: 
OzANAM,  Lea  Poitea  Franeiacaina  en  Italic  (6th  ed.,  Paris.  1882), 
thoui^  some  of  the  statements  it  contains  may  now  need  revis- 
ion. Thodb's.  Franz  von  Aaaiai  und  die  Anfdnge  der  Kunat  der 
Renaiaaance  in  Italian  (new  ed..  Berlin.  1905)  may  be  regarded, 
in  spite  of  its  defects  from  a  theolojKical  standpoint,  as  an  au- 
thority as  to  Francis's  artistic  influence.  See  also  Saltbr, 
Franeiacan  Legenda  in  Italian  Art  (London,  1905),  and  Wbbt- 
LAKB,  On  the  Authentic  Portraiture  of  St.  Franeia  (London, 
1897).  ()n  the  topographv  of  S.  Francis's  life:  Goff.  Aaaiai  of 
SL  Franeia  (London.  1908);  Cavanna,  UUmbria  Serafiea  Ulua- 
trata  parallde  alia  vita  di  S.  Franeeaeo  (Assisi,  1909).  See  also 
DxTFF  Qordon,  The  Story  of  Aaaiai  (London.  1900),  o.  ii  and 
passim;  db  SEiiXNCouBT,  Homea  af  the  First  Franciacana  (Lon- 
don, 1905);  JoRaBNSBN.  Pilgrim  Walka  in- Franeiacan  Italy 
(London,  1908).  The  chronology  of  St.  Francis's  life  b  dealt 
with  by  Patbbm,  Appunti  critiei  auUa  Crondogia  deUa  vita  di  S. 
Franeeaeo  in  MiacdL  Franciacana  (Foligno.  1902).  I,  fasc.  Ill: 
FiBHBR,  Der  heUige  Franziakua  wahrend  der  Jahre  lB19-ltBl 
(Fribourg,  1907);  Robinson.  Chronelogieal  DiffieuUiea  in  the 

Life  0*  ^    " '-  '-    ^"^' "• '-    "-*-'"    "^ ^'■ 

1908). 

also  CuTHBBRT.  St.  Froncia  and  Modem  Society  in  Cath.  World 
(June.  1908).  299-314. 

On  the  sources  of  the  history  of  St.  Frauds,  the  recent  re- 
search movement,  and  its  results:  Lrmjc.  The  Soureea  af  the 
Hiatory  af  S.  Franeia  in  Enq.  Hiat.  Rev.  (Oct.,  1902).  643-677; 
Franeiacan  Literature  in  Edinburgh  Rev.  (Jan..  1904),  150  sqq.; 
Db  Kbrval,  Lea  Sources  de  VHiatoire  de  S.  FranQoia  in  Bulut' 
tino  Critico  (Florence.  1905),  three  articles;  Fzbrbns,  La  ^uss- 
ti€me  Franciacaine  in  Rev.  a' Hiat.  Eedia.  (15  Jan.,  1907).  sqq. 
For  an  admirable  up^to-date  biographical  sketch  of  Francis  see 
Gratixn,  S.  Francoia  d*  Assise  in  Etudes  Franciscaines  (Paris, 
Oct.,  1907,  359-482.  A  synopsis  of  the  principal  books  dealing 
with  the  life  and  work  of  Francis  is  given  by  Robinson.  A 
Short  Introdudion  to  Franciscan  Literature  (New  York.  1907). 
Further  bibliographical  references  of  St.  Francis  are  to  be 
found  in  CShbvaubr,  R&pertoire  des  sources  historigues  du  Moyen 
Age  (now  ed..  Paris,  1905),  1, 1560-1571;  Hurtbr,  ATomenctoior, 
II,  353;  and  under  articles,  Francis,  Rulb  of  Saint;  Fban- 
cxbcanb;  Abbibi;  Portiuncula,;  Stigmata;  etc. 

Paschal  Robinson. 

Francis  of  Fabriano,  Blessed,  priest  of  the  Order 
of  Friars  Minor:  b.  2  Sept.,  1251;  d.  22  April,  1322. 
His  birth  and  childhood  were  remarkable  for  evident 
siens  of  future  sanctity.  He  was  also  gifted  with  rare 
tsSents.  Having  successfully  completed  the  study  of 
humanities  and  of  philosophy,  he  asked  for  admission 
at  a  neighbouring  Franciscan  convent,  in  1267.  Under 
the  guidance  of  able  masters  he  made  rapid  progress  in 
religious  perfection.    Subsequently  he  applied  him- 


SmiHont  (R 
e,  ISQS},  163; 


;Raiiie,  leSOl,  115;  Sbihauu,  8h| 


town  and  vicinitjr.  As  misaion&ry  Bleesed  Fnmois 
has  become  a  ghinJng  example  to  the  preachers  of  the 
Seraphic  Order.  He  was  a  man  of  prayer  and  untiring 
study.  In  aocordanoe  with  the  words  of  the  rule, 
"Ut  sint  examinata  et  casta  eorum  eloquia",  he  was 
eply  ooavinced  that  the  friars  must  announce  to  the 


Ever 


deeply  01 
faithful  I 


f^tWiil  only  well-grounded  and  authentic  doctrine, 
unambiguous  and  carefully  sifted  lan^tMe.  E\ 
mindful  of  this  principle,  Francis  logical^  took 


further  step  which  has  aignaliied  him  as  a.  f ar«ighted 
and  truly  progressive  member  of  his  order.  As  a  con- 
sequence of  the  extensive  proportions  theologicBl 
studies  hod  assumed  since  the  time  of  8t.  Francis,  the 
humble  collections  of  biblical  and  patristic  works, 
which  were  found  in  the  early  Franciscan  commuDi' 
tiee,  no  longer  met  the  de- 
mands of  the  student  and 


chased  with  bis  father's 
monejr  a  handsome  library, 
the  first  on  an  extended 
scale  established  in  the 
order.  He  loved  to  call  it 
the  "beat  workshop  in  the 
convent ",  and  its  catalogue, 
mentioned  by  Wadding, 
contains  numerous  works 
of  the  Fathers,  the  masters 
of  Uieology,  biblical  com- 
mentators,      pbiloeophers. 


athe 


iati< 


preachers,  which  shows  that 
Francis  was  indeed,  in  this 
respect,  quite  abreast  of  his 
time.  No  wonder,  then, 
that  we  find  all  his  biogra- 
pheis  in  accord  with  Mark 
of  Lisbon,  who  styles  him  a 
"moat  learned  man  and  re- 
nowned preacher".  Of  the 
writings  of  Francis  Venim- 
beni  uttle  has  been  pub- 
lished. His  "Chronica 
Marcbife  et  Fabriani",  his 
"De  veritate  et  excellentift 
Indulgentite  S.  Marite  de 
Portiuncula",  and  the 
"Opusculum  de  serie  et 
mr^ia  Ministronim  Generalium",  all  three  probably 
lormiiig  one  extensive  chronicle,  have  unfortunately 
disappeared,  save  a  few  precious  fragmenta  bearing 
on  the  most  salient  questions  of  early  PYanciscan 
history.  Besides  several  treatises  of  a  philosophical, 
ascetical,  and  didactic  character,  he  wrote  an  "Ars 
Prsdicantium",  numerous  "Sermons",  and  a  beauti- 
ful el^y  on  the  death  of  St.  Bonaventure.  Despite 
his  literary  pursuits  and  manifold  missionary  occu- 
pations Francis  found  ample  time  for  ascetical  prac- 
tices and  works  c^  an  all-embracing  charity.  God 
testified  to  the  aanctitv  of  His  servant  by  many  signs 
and  miracles.  His  ciJt  was  approved  by  Pius  VI  in 
1775. 


MuriLlo,  Miueo  < 


jl  Blewed  Fnincta  w 


DoMimc  Fmi.  uhI  other  oontemporary  n 
hu  eollMted  and  utIUisd  iheir  KwuDts  tar  1 
anANI.  MiKelL  Fnneue..  X,  69  sq.,  atiiiinsi 
cant  bioiruhars  □(  F,.  uid  recommends  eif 
by  Loiai  Taho:  Ditcarto  laudalerio  del  B. 
bmi  da  Fabham,  (Fmbriaao,  1881).  uid  Vile 
da  Fobnatu  dOT  iWiths  dei  Miwri  [Fiibriuia 


by  PouaNANi.  op.  at..  89-72,— CI,  be  Cl*bi,  L'AartoU 
Sfntph.,  tr.  Um  of  Uu  SaiaU  and  BluHd  a/  Ac  Uiru  Ordtn  of 
».  Prmcii  (Tmuntoo,  1882—).  II,  171-176;  Widdimq,  Anaaia 
atoma,  1731—),  III,  241,  34S,  IV,  370-278,  «00,  VI,  377-386; 


S.  (VeDi«;  173*—),  ApriuTlii'sS-oi 
THOIUB  PliASSlUHN, 

Fnmcis  of  FuiU,  SAmr,  founder  of  the  Order  of 
Minims;  b.  in  1416,  at  Paula,  in  Calabria,  Italy;  d. 
2  April,  1507,  at  Plessis,  France.    His  parents  were 
remarkable  for  the  holiness  of  their  lives.    Remaining 
childless  for  some  years  after  their  marriage  they  had 
recourse  to  prayer,  especially  commending  themselves 
to  the  intercession  of  St.  Francis  of  Asaisi.    Three 
children  were  eventually  bom  to  them,  the  eldest  of 
whom  was  Francis.     When  still  in  the  cradle  he 
suffered  from  a  swelling  which  endangered  the  sight  of 
one  of  his  eyes.    His  parents  again  hiiJd  recourse  to  St. 
Francis  of  Amisi,  and  made  a  vow  that  their  son 
ehouM  pass  an  entire  year  in  the  "little  liabit"  of  St. 
Francis  in  one  of  the  con- 
vents of  his  order^  a  not  un- 
common p  raotice  m  the  Mkl- 
db  Ages.     The  child  was 
immediately  cured.     From 
his  early  years  Francis 
showed  signs  of  extraordi- 
nary sanctity,  and  at  the 
age  of  thirteen,  being  ad< 
monished  W  a  vision  of  a 
Franciscan  friar,  he  entered 
a  convent  of  the  Franciscan 
Order  in  order  to  fulfil  the 
vow  made  by  his  parents. 
Here   he   gave  great  edifi- 
cation by  his  love  of  prayer 
and  mortification,  hw  pro- 
found   humility,    and    his 
prompt  obedience.    At  the 
completion  of,  the  year  be 
went  with  his  parents  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  Asaisi,  Rome, 
and  other  places  of  devo- 
tion.    Returning  to  Paula 
be  selected  a  retired  spot  on 
his  father's  estate,  and  there 
lived  in  solitude;  but  later 
on  he  found  a  more  retired 
dweUing  in  a  cave  on  the 
sea    coast.      Here    he   re- 
mained alone  for  about  six 
years  giving  himself  to 
prayer  and  mortification. 
."Zj!-^  ...    *  .     In  1435  two  oompanions 

JP™do,M»<Wd  jj^jugjj  him  in  hie  retreat, 

and  to  accommodate  them  Francis  caused  three  cells 
and  a  chapel  to  be  built:  in  this  way  the  new  ord^ 
was  begun.  The  number  of  his  disciples  gradual!]' 
increased,  and  about  1454,  with  the  jwrmission  oif 
PyrrhuB,  Archbishop  of  Coaen^a,  Francis  built  a  large 
monaateiy  and  church.  The  building  of  this  monas- 
tery was  the  occasion  of  a  great  outburst  of  enthusi- 
asm and  devotion  on  the  part  of  the  people  towards 
Francisj  even  the  nobles  carried  stones  and  joined  in 
the  work.  Their  devotion  was  increased  by  the  many 
miraclis  which  the  saint  wrought  in  answer  to  their 
prayera.  The  rule  of  life  adopted  by  Francis  and  his 
religious  was  one  of  extraoroinary  severity.  They 
observed  perpetual  abstinence  and  lived  in  great  pov- 
erty, but  the  distinguidiing  mark  of  the  order  was 
humility.  They  were  to  seek  to  live  unknown  and 
hidden  from  the  world.  To  express  thia  character 
which  he  would  have  his  disciples  cultivate.  Francis 
eventually  obtained  from  the  Holy  See  tnat  they 
should  be  styled  Minims,  the  leaat  of  all  religious.  In 
1474  SixtuB  IV  gave  him  permission  to  wnt«  a  rule 
for  hia  community,  and  to  assume  the  title  of  Hermits 
of  St.  Francis:  tlua  rule  was  formally  approved  by 
Alexander  VI,  who,  however,  changed  their  title  into 
that  of  Minims.    After  the  approbation  of  the  order. 


F&AV0I8  232  F&ANOIS 

Francis  founded  several  new  monasteries  in  Calabria  held  till  1544.    The  influence  which  Francis  exerted 

and  Sicily.    He  also  establishcKl  convents  of  nuns,  directly  in  the  University  of  Salamanca  and  indirectly 

and  a  third  order  for  people  living  in  the  world,  after  in  tlie  universities  of  Alcal^  Coimbra,  Evora,  Seville, 

the  example  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi.  Valladolid,  and  others,  forms  an  interesting  chapter  in 

He  had  an  extraordinary  gift  of  prophecv:  thus  he  the  histoir^  of  theolog^.    More  than  any  other  theo- 

foretold  the  capture  of  Otranto  by  the  Turks  in  1480,  logian  of  his  time,  he  ministered  to  the  actual  intel- 

and  its  subsequent  recovery  by  the  King  of  Naples,  lectual  needs  of  the  Church.    Scholasticism  had  lost 

Also  he  was  gifted  with  discernment  of  consciences,  its  former  presti^,  and  was  passing  through  the  most 

He  was  no  respecter  of  persons  of  whatever  rank  or  critical  period  in  its  history.    The  times  had  changed, 

position.    He  rebuked  tne  King  of  Naples  for  his  ill-  and  it  required  a  master  to  adapt  speculative  thought 

doing  and  in  consequence  suffered  mucn  persecution,  to  the  new  conditions.    The  revival  of  theological  ao- 

When  Louis  XI  was  in  his  last  illness  he  sent  an  em-  tivity  in  the  Catholic  universities  of  this  period,  con- 

bassy  to  Calabria  to  b^  the  saint  to  visit  him.  sequent  upon  the  doctrines  of  the  reformers,  and  the 

Francis  refused  to  come  nor  could  he  be  prevailed  development  of  theological  speculation  inspired  Fran- 

upon  until  the  pope  ordered  him  to  go.    He  tnen  went  cis  to  inaugurate  a  movement  for  the  restoration  of 

to  the  king  at  Plessis-les-Tours,  and  was  with  him  at  scholastic  pnilosophy,  and  to  give  to  theological  science 

his  death.    Charles  VIII,  Louis's  successor,  much  ad-  a  purer  diction  and  an  improved  literary  form.    With 

mired  the  saint  and  during  his  rei^  kept  him  near  the  foresi^t  and  ability  he  devoted  all  his  energies  to  the 

court  and  frequent!;^  consulted  him.    This  king  built  undertakins,  and  his  success  is  attested  by  the  many 

a  monastery  for  Minims  at  Plessis  and  another  at  excellent  theological  works  that  were  produced  in 

Rome  on  the  Fincian  Hill.    The  regard  in  which  Spain  during  the  sixteenth  centuiy.    Among  his  dis- 

Charles  VIII  held  the  saint  was  shared  by  Louis  XII,  ciples   were   Melchior  Cano,  Bartholomew  Medina, 

who  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1498.    Francis  was  IX>minic  de  Soto,  and  Martin  de  Ledesma,  by  whose 

now  anxious  to  return  to  Italy,  but  the  king  would  not  efforts  and  that  of  the  great  Carmelite  teachers  a  new 

permit  him,  not  wishing  to  lose  his  counsels  and  direc-  zest  was  given  to  the  study  of  St.  Thoma^  and  by 

tion.    The  last  three  months  of  his  life  he  spent  in  whose  aid  Francis  was  able  to  extend  his  influence  to 

entire  solitude,  preparing  for  death.    On  Maundy  the  other  universities  of  Spain.    He  is  justly  styled 

Thursdav  he  gathered  his  community  around  him  and  the  father  of  the  Salmantacensis  School,  and  especially 

exhorted  them  especially  to  have  mutual  charity  of  the  new  Scholasticism.    His  style,  simple  and  im- 

amon^t  themselves  and  to  maintain  the  rigour  of  rhetorical,  is  the  more  noteworthy  for  havm^  attained 

their  life  and  in  particular  perpetual  abstinence.  The  its  simplicity  in  the  golden  age  of  Humanism.    He 

next  day,  Good  Friday,  he  agsiin  called  them  together  left  a  laree  number  of  valuable  manuscripts,  but  his 

and  gave  them  his  last  instructions  and  appointed  a  only  published  work  is  the  "  Relectiones  XII  Theo- 

vicar-general.    He  then  received  the  last  sacraments  J^S^cse  in  duo  libros  distinctse"  (Antwerp,  1604). 

and  asked  to  have  the  Passion  according  to  St.  John  The  most  important  of  his  impublished  works  is  his 

read  out  to  him,  and  whilst  this  was  being  read,  his  "Commentana  in  universam  Summam  S.  Thomse". 

soul  passed  away.    Leo  X  canonized  him  in  1519.    In  „9«^*P»  ^^'^  Echard.  Script.  Ord.  Freed,,  II.  128;  Toubon, 

1562  the  Huguenote  broke  open  his  tomb  and  found  ^olti^S^.  S'^:\riiit^l^Tk'ii^TA% 

his  body  mcorrupt.     They  dragged  it  forth  and  burnt  505  sqq..  518  sqq.,  where  a  detailed  description  of  his  unpub- 

it,  but  some  of  the  bones  were  preserved  by  the  Catho-  liAed  works  is  ^ven. 

lies  and  enshrined  in  various  churches  of  his  order.  Joseph  Schroeder. 
The  Order  of  Minims  does  not  seem  at  any  time  to  •_i**_j*«xt>  t  '^  *  ' 
have  been  very  extensive,  but  they  had  houses  in  'T*'™?  Regis  Olet,  Blessed,  a  Lazanst  mission- 
many  countries.  The  definitive  rule  was  approved  *"7  ^  China;  b.  1748,  martyred,  18  Feb.,  1820.  His 
in  1606  by  JuHus  II,  who  also  approved  a  rule  forthe  father  was  a  merchant  of  Grenoble  in  France,  his 
nuns  of  the  order.  The  feast  of  St.  Francis  of  Paula  mother's  name  was  Claudme  Bourguy.  He  w;as  the 
is  kept  by  the  universal  Church  on  2  April,  the  day  on  t?nth  of  fifteen  children.  The  family  was  deeply  reh- 
whicn  he  (tied.  gious,  several  members  of  it  havmg  consecrated  them- 
Ada  SS.,  2  April;  lives  by  Holland  (Paris,  1874).  Ferrantb  selves  to  God.  Francis  attended  the  Jesuit  college  at 
(Monsa,  1881).  Pradibr  (Pfcris,  1903).  See  BvTi.m,  Lives  of  the  Grenoble  and  afterwards  entered  the  diocesan  semi- 
AiifK..  2  April;  Girt.  Vu»  dee  •<'}^^^J^J^]*^'^  nary  which  was  in  charge  of  the  Oratorians.    His  ex- 

*ATHER  UUTHBEBT.  ^^^  ,^^^  ^  pj^^^^j^  ^^^  La^j^  ^j^^^  ^  Cultivated 

mind.  On  6  Mar.,  1769,  he  entered  the  novitiate  of 
Francis  of  Vlttoria,  Spanish  theologian;  b.  about  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission  or  Lazarists,  at  Lyons. 
1480,  at  Vittoria,  province  of  Avila,  in  Old  Castile:  There  he  made  his  vows  in  1771  and  was  ordained 
d.  12  August,  1646.  While  still  ypimg,  he  moved  priest  in  1773.  The  same  year  he  went  as  professor  of 
with  his  parents  from  their  native  city  to  Burgos,  at  moral  theologv  to  the  diocesan  seminary  at  Annecy. 
that  time  the  ordinary  sojourn  of  the  sovereigns  of  His  zeal  and  learning  produced  excellent  fruits.  In 
Castile.  He  received  his  early  education  in  the  schools  the  sixteenth  year  of  his  stay  at  Annecy  he  was  sent  to 
of  that  place,  and,  on  the  oonapletion  of  his  academic  Paris  for  the  election  of  a  superior  general  of  the  con- 
studies,  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic.  While  he  gregation.  He  did  not  return,  for  the  new  superior 
devoted  his  energies  to  the  study  of  the  sacred  sciences,  general  appointed  him  director  of  the  internal  semi- 
the  mastery  of  which  made  him  an  ornament  to  the  nary,  at  the  mother  house  in  Paris.  Scarcely  a  year  had 
Church,  to  nis  order,  and  to  the  universities  of  Spain,  elapsied  when  the  sacking  of  St.  Lazare,  on  the  eve  of 
he  was  assiduous  in  the  practice  of  piety.  After  his  the  taking  of  the  Bastille,  scattered  his  flock.  Afany 
religious  profession  he  was  sent  to  the  convent  of  St.  of  the  young  men  returned  to  the  dismantled  house 
James  in  Paris,  then  the  chief  house  of  studies  of  the  the  next  day  and  gathered  around  their  director,  but 
order  and  affiliated  with  the  University  of  Paris,  the  fury  of  the  revolution  prevented  their  remaining, 
where  he  made  the  best  use  of  the  advuitages  held  out  It  was  at  this  period  that  his  ambition  to  become  a 
to  him  for  the  prosecution  of  his  philosophical  and  missionary  was  manifested.  His  superior  yielded  to 
theological  studies.  In  1516,  he  was  appointed  to  his  desires,  and  he  was  sent  to  China  in  1791.  The 
teach  m  this  convent,  and  it  was  here,  in  all  proba-  first  post  assigned  him  was  in  Kiang-Si,  one  of  the 
bility,  that  he  had  for  his  pupil  Dominic  de  Soto.  In  most  destitute  Christian  settlements  in  China.  He 
1522,  he  returned  to  Spain  and  taught  theoloey  in  the  had  great  difficulty  in  acquiring  the  language,  which 
Dominican  College  of  St.  Gregory  at  Vallaoolid  till  he  never  fully  mastered.  The  next  year  he  was  sent 
1524,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  principal  chair  of  to  Hou-Kouang  where  he  laboured  for  27  years, 
-theology  in  the  Umversity  of  Salamanca  which  he  Death  soon  deprived  him  of  his  two  brother-priests, 


FBJUV0I8 


233 


FRANCIS 


and  for  several  years  he  ministered  alone  to  a  vast 
district.  In  spite  of  difficulties,  he  succeeded  in  keep- 
ing up  the  fervour  of  the  Christians  and  bringing  many 
pagans  into  the  fold.  In  July,  1812.  his  church  and 
school-house  were  destroyed,  but  ne  escaped.  In 
1818  the  persecution  broke  out  again  with  renewed 
fury.  After  several  remarkable  escapes  from  the 
searching  parties,  he  was  betrayed  by  a  Chinese  Chris- 
tian, for  tne  1500  dollars  set  on  his  head,  and  was 
taken,  16  June,  1819.  He  had  to  undereo  the  greatest 
cruelty  for  five  weeks,  but  not  a  worcTof  complaint 
escaped  him.  Being  transferred  to  another  prison,  he 
was  treated  more  humanely  and  found  there  Father 
Chen,  a  Chinese  Lazarist,  from  whom  he  could  receive 
the  sacraments.  On  1  Jan.^  1820,  however,  sentence 
of  death  was  passed  on  him.  The  execution  took 
place,  18  Feb.,  1820.  He  was  tied  to  a  stake  erected 
like  a  cross,  and  was  strangled  to  death,  the  rope  hav- 
ing been  relaxed  twice  to  give  him  a  three-fold  death 
agony.  He  was  beatified  by  Pope  Leo  XIII,  27  May, 
1900,  and  his  feast  day  is  on  17  February.  His  re- 
mains rest  in  the  chapel  of  the  mother  house  of  the 
Lasarists,  in  Saris.  His  holy  life  and  death  were  the 
inspiration  of  Blessed  John  Gabriel  Perboyre,  also  a 
Lazarist,  who  was  martyred  in  China  in  1840. 

Lives  by  Vadris  (Paris,  1853);  Dbmindxd  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1803);  RoNGsarr  (Paris,  1900);  db  Monobstt  jParis,  1906). 

B.  Kandolfh. 

Frands  Solanns,  Saint,  South  American  mission- 
ary of  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor;  b.  at  Montilla,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Cordova,  Spain,  10  March,  1549;  d.  at  Lima, 
Peru,  14  July,  1610.  His  parents,  Matthew  Sanchez 
Solanus  and  Aima  Ximenes,  were  distinguished  no  less 
for  their  noble  birth  than  for  their  virtue  and  piety. 
When  Francis  was  twenty  years  old.  he  was  received 
into  the  Franciscan  Order  at  Montilla,  and  after  his 
ordination,  seven  years  later,  he  was  sent  by  his  super- 
iors to  the  convent  of  Arifazza  as  master  of  novices. 
In  1589  he  sailed  from  Spain  for  the  New  World,  and 
havine  landed  at  Panama,  crossed  the  isthmus  and 
embarked  on  a  vessel  that  was  to  convey  him  to  Peru. 
His  missionary  labours  in  South  America  extended 
over  a  period  of  twenty  years  during  which  time  he 
spared  no  fatigue,  shrank  from  no  sacrifice  however 
^reat,  and  feared  no  danger  that  stood  in  the  way  of 
evangelizing  the  vast  and  savagp  regions  of  Tuciunan 
and  Paraguay.  So  successful,  indeed,  was  his  apo&- 
tolate  that  he  has  been  aptly  styled  the  Thaumaturgus 
of  the  New  World.  Notwithstanding  the  number  and 
difficulty  of  the  dialects  spoken  b^  the  Indians,  he 
learned  them  all  in  a  very  short  time,  and  it  is  said 
that  he  often  addressed  tribes  of  different  tongues  in 
one  lan^age  ai^d  was  understood  by  them  all.  Be- 
sides being  engaged  in  active  missionary  work,  he  filled 
the  office  of  custoe  of  the  convents  of  his  order  in  Tucur 
man  and  Paraguay,  and  later  was  elected  guardian  of 
the  Franciscan  convent  in  Lima,  Peru.  In  1610,  while 
preaching  at  Truxillo  he  foretold  the  calamities  that 
were  to  befall  that  city,  which  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthcfuake  eight  years  later,  most  of  the  inhabitants 
perishine  in  the  ruins.  The  death  of  St.  Francis,  which 
ne  himself  had  foretold,  was  the  cause  of  general  grief 
throughout  Peru.  In  his  funeral  sermon  at  the  burial 
of  the  saint,  Father  Sebastiani,  S.J.,  said  that  **  Divine 
Providence  had  chosen  Father  Francis  Solanus  to  be 
the  hope  and  edification  of  all  Peru,  the  example  and 
gloiy  of  Lima  and  the  splendour  of  the  Seraphic  Oiv 
der''.  St.  Francis  was  beatified  by  Clement  X,  in 
1675,  and  canonized  by  Benedict  XIII,  in  1726.  His 
feast  is  kept  throughout  the  Franciscan  Order  on  the 
twenty-fourth  of  July. 

Life  of  St.  Francis  Soianus  (New  York.  1888);  Lao.  Lives  of 
the  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the  Three  Orders  of  St.  Francis  (Taun- 
too.  1886),  II,  509-522;  Acta  5S..  July,  V.  847-910. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Francis  Xavier,  Saint,  b.  iti  the  Castle  of  Xavier 
near  Sanguesa,  in  Navarre,  7  April,  1506;  d.  on  the 


Island  of  Sancian  near  the  coast  of  China,  2  December, 
1552.  In  1525^  having  completed  a  preliminary  course 
of  studies  in  his  own  country,  Francis  Xavier  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  entered  the  College  de  Sainte-Barbe. 
Here  ne  met  the  Savoyard,  Pierre  Favre,  and  a  warm 
personal  friend^ip  sprang  iip  between  them.  It  was 
at  this  same  college  tnat  St.  Ignatius  Loyola,  who  was 
already  planning  the  foundation  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  resided  for  a  time  as  a  guest  in  1529.  He  soon 
won  the  confidence  of  the  two  yoimg  men;  first  Favre 
and  later  Xavier  offered  themselves  as  his  companions, 
and  were  the  first  to  associate  themselves  with  hun  in 
the  formation  of  the  Society.  Four  others,  Lainez. 
Salmer6n,  Rodriguez,  and  Bobadilla,  having  joined 
them,  the  seven  made  the  famous  vow  of  Montmartre, 
15  Aug.,  1534. 

After  completing  his  studies  in  Paris  and  filling  the 
post  of  teacher  there  for  some  time,  Xavier  left  the  city 
with  his  companions  15  November,  1536,  and  turned 
his  steps  to  Venice,  where  he  displayed  zeal  and  char- 
ity in  attending  the  sick  in  the  hospitals.  On  24  Jime, 
1537,  he  received  Holy  orders  with  St.  Ignatius.  The 
following  year  he  went  to  Rome,  and  after  doing  apos- 
tolic work  ^ere  for  some  months,  during  the  spring  of 
1539  he  took  part  in  the  conferences  which  St.  imatius 
held  with  his  companions  to  prepare  for  the  definitive 
foundation  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  The  order  was 
approved  verbally  3  September,  and  before  the  writ- 
ten approbation  was  secured,  which  was  not  imtU  a 
year  later,  Xavier  was  appointed,  at  the  earnest  solici- 
tation of  John  III,  King  of  Portujgali  to  evangelize  the 
people  of  the  East  Indies.  He  left  Rome  16  Mareh, 
1540,  and  reached  Lisbon  about  June.  Here  he  re- 
mained nine  months,  giving  many  admirable  examples 
of  apostolic  zeal. 

On  7  April,  1541,  he  embarked  in  a  sailing  vessel  for 
India,  and  after  a  tedious  and  dangerous  voyage 
landed  at  Goa,  6  May,  1542.  The  first  five  months  he 
spent  in  preaching  and  ministering  to  the  sick  in  the 
hospitals.  He  would  go  through  the  streets  ringing  a 
little  bell  and  inviting  the  chiloren  to  hear  the  word  of 
God.  When  he  had  gathered  a  number,  he  would  take 
them  to  a  certain  church  and  would  there  explain  the 
catechism  to  them.  About  October,  1542,  he  started 
for  the  pearl  fisheries  of  the  extreme  southern  coast  of 
the  peninsula,  desirous  of  restoring  Christianity  which, 
although  introduced  years  before,  had  almost  disap- 
peared on  account  of  the  lack  of  priests.  He  devoted 
almost  three  years  to  the  work  of  preaching  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Western  India,  converting  many,  and  reaching 
m  his  journeys  even  the  Island  of  Cevlon.  Many  were 
the  difficulties  and  hardships  which  Xavier  had  to 
enooimter  at  this  time,  sometimes  on  account  of  the 
cruel  persecutions  whicn  some  of  the  petty  kings  of  the 
country  carried  on  against  the  neopnytes,  and  again 
because  the  Portuguese  soldiers,  far  from  seconding 
the  work  of  the  saint,  retarded  it  by  their  bad  example 
and  vicious  habits. 

In  the  spring  of  1545  Xavier  started  for  Malacca. 
He  laboured  there  for  the  last  three  months  of  that 
vear,  and  idthough  he  reaped  an  abimdant  spiritual 
harvest,  he  was  not  able  to  root  out  certain  abuses, 
and  was  cciiscious  that  many  sinners  had  resisted  his 
efforts  to  bring  them  back  to  God.  About  January, 
1546,  Xavier  left  Malacca  and  went  to  the  Molucca 
Idands,  where  the  Portuguese  had  some  settlements, 
and  for  a  year  and  a  half  he  preached  the  Gospel  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Amboyna^  Temate,  Baranura,  and 
other  lesser  islands  which  it  has  been  difficult  to  iden- 
tify. It  is  claimed  by  some  that  during  this  expedition 
he  landed  on  the  Island  of  Mindanao,  and  for  this 
reason  St.  Francis  Xavier  has  been  called  the  first 
Apostle  of  the  Philippines.  But  althou^  this  state- 
ment is  made  by  some  writers  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury^ and  in  the  Bull  of  canonization  issued  in  1623,  it 
is  said  that  he  preached  the  Gospel  in  Mindanao,  up  to 
the  present  time  it  has  not  been  proved  absolutely 


F&ANCK                                234  nUNCK 

that  St.  Francis  Xavier  ever  landed  in  the  Philip-  apostolic  zeal  which  animated  him,  and  the  stupend- 

pines.  ous  miracles  which  God  wrought  through  him.  explain 

By  July,  1547,  he  was  again  in  Malacca.    Here  he  this  marvel,  which  has  no  equal  elsewhere.   Tne  list  of 

met  a  Japanese  called  An^r  (Han-Sir),  from  whom  he  the  principal  miracles  may  be  found  in  the  Bull  of 

obtained  much  information  about  Japan.    His  zeal  canonization.    St.  Francis  Xavier  is  considered  the 

was  at  once  aroused  by  the  idea  of  introducing  Chris-  neatest  missionary  since  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  and 

tianity  into  Japan,  but  for  the  time  being  the  affairs  of  the  zeal  he  displayed,  the  wonderful  miracles  he  per- 

the  Society  demanded  his  presence  at  Goa.  whither  he  formed,  and  the  great  number  of  souls  he  brought  to 

went,  taking  Anger  with  nim.    During  tne  six  vears  the  light  of  the  true  Faith,  entitle  him  to  this  distino- 

that  Xavier  had  been  working  among  the  infidels,  tion.    He  was  canonized  with  St.  Ignatius  in  1622, 

other  Jesuit  missionaries  had  arrived  at  Goa,  sent  although  on  accoimt  of  the  death  of  Gregory  XV,  the 

from  Europe  bv  St.  Ignatius;  moreover  some  who  had  Bull  of  canonization  was  not  published  unul  the  fol- 

been  bom  in  the  country  had  been  received  into  the  lowing  year. 

Society.   In  1548  Xavier  sent  these  missionaries  to  the  The  body  of  the  saint  is  still  enshrined  at  Goa  in  the 

principal  centres  of  India,  where  he  had  established  church  which  formerly  belonged  to  the  Society.    In 

missions,  so  that  the  work  might  be  preserved  and  1614  by  order  of  Claudius  Acquaviva,  Gcoieral  of  the 

continued.    He  also  established  a  novitiate  and  house  Society  of  Jesus,  the  right  arm  was  severed  at  the 

of  studies,  and  having  received  into  the  Society  Father  elbow  and  conveyed  to  Rome,  where  the  present  altar 

Coeme  de  Torres,  a  Spanish  priest  whom  he  had  met  in  was  erected  to  receive  it  in  the  diurch  of  the  GesCl. 

the  Moluccas,  he  started  with  him  and  Brother  Juan  Monummta   Xateriana   ex   atOoonphiB   vd   ex   antiqtncnbue 

Femtodez  for  Japan  towards  the  end  of  June,  1549.  eximpliB  coUeera  (Madrid.  1809;*1000).  a  opUection  of  aU  the  letten 

Tho  TanAnABA  Ancmr    vrhn  haA  h^pn  hanf  ixod  af  Ona  ®'  "^^  »**°*  ***"  *"»  earliert  biosraphy.  by  Vaugnamo,  hitherto 

ine  Japanese  Anger,  wno  naa  Oeen  OaptlZWl  at  UOa  unpubliahed;  Polanoo,   Vita  Ignatii  ioMa  H  rerum  SoeiekUu 

and  given  the  name  of  Pablo  de  Santa  Fe,  .accom-  Jeeu  hitUma  (Madrid.  1894);  Cbob,  SairU  MnnfoU-Xatier  de 

panied  them.  ^  Compagnie  de  Jinte  rroulouBe,  1804):  AbtbIin,  Hiatoria  de 

A  '^^?klS'*'^li^?  '^P  f  Kagoehixna  in  Japan,  15  g^^SSSf  fl^f^,  Z^t^^^sthlS^S^t^ 

Aug.,  1549.  Thejentire  first  year  was  devoted  to  learn-  igo2). 

ing  the  Japanese  language  and  translating  into  Japa-  Amtonio  AstrIin. 
nese,  with  the  help  of  Pablo  de  Santa  F^,  the  principal 

articles  of  faith  and  short  treatises  which  were  to  be  Fraack,  Kaspar,  theologian  and  controvereiaUst; 

employed  in  preaching  and  catechizing.   When  he  was  b.  at  Ortrand,  Saxony,  2  Nov.,  1543:  d.  at  Ingolstadt, 

able  to  express  himself,  Xavier  began  preaching  and  12  March,  1584.    His  parents  were  Lutherans  and  his 

made  some  converts,  but  these  aroused  the  ill  will  of  early  religious  instruction  filled  him  with  enthusi- 

the  bonzes,  who  had  him  banished  from  the  city,  asm  for  the  new  doctrine.    His  earnest  desire  for  the 

Leaving  Kagoshima  about  Ausust,  1550,  he  pene-  conversion  of  his  country  led  him  to  choose  the  min- 

trated  to  the  centre  of  Japan,  and  preached  the  Gospel  istry  as  his  field  of  labour,  and  such  was  his  zeal  and 

in  some  of  the  cities  of  southern  Japan.    Towards  the  success  as  a  preacher  that  Count  Ladislaus  of  Haag, 

end  of  that  year  he  reached  Meaco,  then  the  principal  who  had  but  recentl^r  introduced  the  reformed  faith 

city  of  Japan,  but  he  was  unable  to  make  any  headway  into  his  province,  invited  him  to  his  court.    The  pre- 

here  because  of  the  dissensions  then  rending  the  coun-  mature  aeath,  however,  of  Ladislaus  prevented  Franck 

try.   He  retraced  his  steps  to  the  centre  of  Japan,  and  from  carT3ring  out  the  proposed  plans  of  reform.   Duke 

during  1551  preached  in  some  important  cities,  form-  Albert,  the  successor  of  Ladislaus,  resolved  to  restore 

ing  the  nucleus  of  several  Christian  communities,  the  Catholic  religion,  and  to  that  end  called  to  his 

which  in  time  increased  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  assistance  the  famous  convert  and  preacher,  Martin 

After  workin|s  about  two  years  and  a  half  in  Japan  Eisengrein.    His  intercourse  with  E^isenpein  soon  led 

he  left  this  mission  in  charge  of  Father  Cosme  de  Franck  to  see  the  errors  of  the  new  creedl   In  1566,  he 

Torres  and  Brother  Juan  Femdndez,  and  returned  to  matriculated  at  the  University  of  Ingolstadt,  devoted 

Goa,  arriving  there  at  the  beginning  of  1552.    Here  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Fathers  and  the  early 

domestic  troubles  awaited  him.     Certain  disagree-  Christian  Church,  and  on  25  Jan.,  1568,  made  a  formal 

ments  between  the  superior,  who  had  been  left  in  profession  of  the  Catholic  Faith.    Albert,  recognizing 

charge  of  the  missions,  and  the  rector  of  the  college,  nim  as  a  man  of  great  usefulness  in  reclaiming  to  the 

had  to  be  adjusted.    This,  however,  being  arranged,  Faith  many  strayed  souls,  obtained  from  Plus  V  a 

Xavier  turned  his  thoughts  to  China,  and  began  to  dispensation  to  have  him  ordained  a  priest.    Before 

plan  an  escpedition  there.   During  his  stay  in  Japan  he  beginning  his  missionary  labours,  he  published  a  work 

nad  heara  much  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  and  tnou|^  setting  forth  the  reasons  and  justification  of  his  return 

he  probably  had  not  formed  a  proper  estimate  of  its  to  the  ancient  faith:  ''Klare  vnd  Grlindtliche  vrsa- 

extent  and  ^rreatness,  he  nevertheless  imderstood  how  chen  Warumb  M.  Caspar  Franck  Von  der  Sect,  zu 


tained  from  the  Viceroy  of  India  the  appointment  of  apostolic  labours  in  Haag  and  Krailburg  were  crowned 

ambassador,  and  in  April,  1552,  he  left  Goa.    At  with  success.    In  1572,  he  was  again  in  the  University 

Malacca  the  party  encoimtered  difficulties  because  the  of  Ingolstadt,  pursuing  his  theological  studies,  and  the 

influential  Portusuese  disapproved  of  the  expedition,  following  year  ne  was  appointed  its  rector,  which  office 

but  Xavier  knew  now  to  overcome  this  opposition,  and  he  again  hdd  later  for  several  consecutive  terms.    On 

in  the  autumn  he  arrived  in  a  Portuguese  vessel  at  the  the  occasion  of  the  Generid  Jubilee  in  1575,  he  set  out 

small  island  of  Sancian  near  the  coast  of  China.   While  for  Rome,  won  at  Siena  the  doctorate  in  theoloc^  and 

planning  the  best  means  for  reaching  the  mainland,  shortly  tuterwards  Gregory  XIII  conferred  on  Sm  the 

ne  was  taken  iU,  and  as  the  movement  of  the  vessel  title  of  Prothonotary  Apostolic  and  Comes  Lateranen- 

seemed  to  aggravate  his  condition,  he  was  removed  to  sis.   His  vast  erudition^  zeal,  and  power  of  penetration 

the  land,  where  a  rude  hut  had  been  built  to  shelter  place  h™  on  the  long  list  of  learned  men  who  directed 

him.    In  these  wretched  surroimdings  he  breathed  his  the  destiny  of  the  University  of  Ingolstadt  during  the 

last.  sixteenth  century.    His  polemical  writings  manifest 

It  is  truly  a  matter  of  wonder  that  one  man  in  the  earnest  and  painstaking  labour  and  an  intimate  f amil- 

short  space  of  ten  vears  (6  May,  1542 — 2  Dec.,  1552)  iarity  with  patristic  literature.    Among  his  more  iin- 

could  nave  visited  so  many  countries,  traversed  so  portant  works  may  be  mentioned:  "Brevis  et  Pia 

many  seas,  preached  the  Gospel  to  so  many  nations,  Institutio  de  puro  verbo  Dei  et  clara  S.  Evangelii 

and  converted  so  many  infidels.    The  incomparable  luce"  (Ingolstadt,  1571);  ''Tractatus  de  ordinaria, 


nuHoo 


235 


l^tima  et  apoetolica  vocatione  sacerdotum  et  cozi- 

cionatorum",    etc.    (Ineolstadt,    1571)  j     "Casparia 

Ftunoi  de  eaEtemo,  visibili  et  nierarchico,  EcclesuD 

Gatholicffi  sacerdotio",  etc.  (Cologne,  1575):  "Cata- 

logus  hsereticonim"  (Inp^olstadt,  1576);  '^Ebmlicatio 

totiua  historisB  Passionis  et  Mortis  Domini^',  etc. 

(Ingolstadt,  1572):  "  Fundamentum  Catholics  Fidei 

contra  Schmidelin''  (Ingolstadt,  1578). 

Rlfls,  Die  ConvertUen  $eU  der  RefomuUum  (1866).  II,  15-84: 
HuBTBR,  Nomenelator;  Mbdbbsx,  Annalet  Ing<UaUuL  (Ingol- 
stadt,  1782),  I,  312  and  II,  90  0qq. 

Joseph  Schroedeb. 
Franco,  Antipopb.    See  Boniface  VII,  Antipopb. 

• 

Franco,  Giovanni  Battista  (frequently  known  as 
II  Semolei),  Italian  historical  painter  and  etcher,  b. 
at  Udine  in  1510 ;  d.  at  Venice  in  1580.  He  studied  in 
Rome,  giving  special  attention  to  the  works  of  Michel- 
angelo, and  taking  great  interest  in  designing  alle- 
gorical decorations  on  a  large  scale.  .  He  worked  with 
Yasari  in  canning  out  some  decorative  work  in  a  pal- 
ace for  Ottaviano  de'  Medici,  but  is  better  known  for 
his  portraits  of  the  Medici  family,  which  were,  how- 
ever, to  a  great  extent  copies  from  the  works  of  other 
men.-  His  designs  for  mai  olica  were  of  importance  and 
were  executed  for  the  Duke  of  Urbino;  but  pejhaps  he 
ia  better  remembered  for  his  etchings,  of  which  there 
are  over  a  hundred,  than  for  any  other  works.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  instructed  m  the  art  of  etching 
by  Marc' Antonio,  and  his  plates  are  marked  B.  F.  V.F. 
(Battista  Franco  Venetus  Fecit).  They  are  not  par- 
ticularly alttractive,  as  their  execution  is  somewhat 
mechanical,  but  there  is  a  certain  light  and  easy  spirit 
about  them  by  which  they  can  be  recognized.  About 
half  the  number  are  original  works,  the  others  being 
derived  from  paintings  by  Raphael,  Titian,  and  others. 

Vababi.  Le  Vite  dei  pUion  (Florence.  1878-1885);  Micbibu. 
NoHne  d*  Opera  di  dieegno  (Bologna.  1884). 

George  Chables  Williambon. 

Frank,  Michael  Sioismund,  Catholic  artist  and 
rediscoverer  of  the  lost  art  of  glass-painting;  b.  1  June, 
1770,  at  Nuremberg;  d.  at  Mimich,  16  January, 
1S47.  His  father  was  a  dealer  in  provisions,  living 
in  comfortable  circumstances,  who  destined  his  boy 
to  become  his  successor  in  business.  But  these  plans 
were  thwarted  by  Si^ismund's  passionate  fondness  for 
art.  The  mother,  without'  her  husband's  knowledge, 
had  him  instructed  in  drawing  in  the  local  academy, 
an  institution  of  moderate  merit.  Young  Frank's 
proeress  was  so  marked  as  to  astonish  his  friends. 

Having  lost  his  father  in  eariy  youth,  Frank  was 
apprenticed  to  his  godfather  Neuoert,  who  carried  on 
at  Nuremberg  the  lousiness  of  lacquering  and  decor- 
ating wooden  boxes  and  caskets.  His  progress  in  this 
work  was  rapid,  but  he  stayed  less  than  a  year  with 
Neubert.  After  returning  to  the  house  of  his  mother, 
who  had  married  a  second  time,  he  once  more  en- 
thusiastically devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  drawing, 
meantime  painting  boxes  for  other  manufacturers  at 
Nuremberg  and  earning  enough  to  pay  his  expenses. 
On  completing  his  twenty-first  year  his  parents  in- 
duced him  against  his  inclination  to  wed  Marie  H. 
Blechkoll,  the  daughter  of  an  hotel-keeper  who  brought 
him  as  her  dowry  the  inn  Zur  Himmelsleiter  which 
exists  to  this  day.  But  Frank  was  not  bom  to  be  an 
innkeeper.  He  continued  his  art  studies  whOe  his  wife 
mana^^ed  the  hotel.  However,  he  now  turned  his 
attention  to  painting  porcelain,  to  which  art  one  of  his 
guests,  the  skilful  porcelain-painter  Trost,  had  intro- 
duced him.  His  success  was  immediate,  and  when, 
after  a  married  life  of  five  years,  his  wife  died,  he  sola 
the  hotel  and  established  a  porcelain  factory.  The 
undertaking,  which  brought  nim  a  good  income,  led 
him  to  travel  in  Austria,  Himgary,  and  Turkey;  at 
Vienna  hie  made  the  acquaintance  of  several  prominent 
artists,  under  whose  instruction  he  perfected  himself 
as  a  oolpurist. 


At  the  banning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  how- 
ever, when  Western  Germany  repeatedly  became  the 
scene  of  French  invasions,  Frank's  business  interests 
suffered  severely.  It  was  then  that  his  attention  was 
turned  in  a  wholly  new  direction.  At  l&e  shop  of  a 
business  friend  named  Wirth  he  met  an  En^ishman 
to  whom  Wirth  sold  some  fragments  of  ancient  col- 
oured glass  for  what  seemed  to  Frank  a  large  sum. 
On  inquiry  he  fotmd  that  the  high  price  paid  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  art  qf  painting  m  g^ass  which  had 
been  coloured  whUe  molten — an  art  which  had  pro- 
duced so  many  of  the  magnificent  church  and  palaoe 
windows  during  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  early  Renais- 
sance— ^had  been  entirely  lost  during  the  eighteenth 
century.  Frank  determined  to  recover  the  lost  secret 
of  this  art.  Unaided  and  imtaught,  he  toiled  for  sev- 
eral years  to  accomplish  his  purpose;  his  savu^  fast 
disappeared,  and  his  success  seemed  more  and  more 
doubtful.  His  friends  expressed  fears  that  he  would 
become  a  financial  and  mental  wreck,  and  urged  him 
to  give  up  his  fruitless  efforts.  But  Frank  persevered, 
and  in  1804  there  came  a  turn  in  his  fortimes.  He  had 
foimd  at  last  the  method  of  producing  coloured  glass 
which  he  had  so  long  sought.  His  mst  commission 
was  to  paint  the  coat  of  arms  of  the  Rhenish  Count 
Schenk,  for  his  chapel  at  Greifenstein  in  Franconia. 
When  this  riass-pamting  was  seen  by  the  travelling 
agent  of  a  Condon  art  house  named  Rauh,  a  Nurem- 
berger  like  Frank  himself,  he  recognised  at  once  that 
Fnmk's  work  was  practically  the  same  as  the  ancient 
glass-painting,  the  secret  of  which  had  been  lost.  He 
hastened  to  Nuremberg,  saw  Frank,  and  made  busi- 
ness arran^ments  with  him.  Frank  now  made  several 
himdred  pieces  for  the  English  market,  some  of  which 
made  their  way  to  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore.  But 
the  disappearance  of  Rauh  in  1807  put  an  end  to 
Frank's  prosperity  and  mi^t  have  had  serious  con- 
sequences had  not  King  Maximilian  I  of  Bavaria  be- 
come the  artist's  patron  (1808).  So  favourable  was 
the  impression  made  on  the  king  by  Frank's  execution 
of  the  royal  Bavarian  coat  of  arms  that  the  monarch 
not  only  paid  him  generously,  but  turned  over  to  him 
for  factory  purposes  the  building  called  the  Zwinger, 
in  Nuremberg.  Henceforth  Frank  produced  many 
works  for  Kmg  Maximilian,  such  as  the  "  Circum- 
cision ",^ter  Heinrich  Goltzius;  the  "Nativity", after 
Bolzwerth;  the  "Passion",  six  parts  after  Lucas  van 
Leyden ;  the  Mosque  of  Cordova ; ''  St.  Barbara  ",  after 
Holbein;  the  "Judgment  of  Solomon",  after  Raphael; 
the  ''Magi",  after  Rubens.  For  King  Louis  I,  also, 
Frank  executed  many  commissions,  especially  the  g^ass 
decorations  of  the  cathedral  of  Ratisbon. 

Li  1818  Maximilian  appointed  Frank  painter  in 
g^ass  at  the  royal  porcelam  factonr  in  Mimich,  with  a 
salary  of  800  florins  annually.  When,  in  1827,  Maxi- 
milian's successor  established  the  royal  institute  for 
glass-painting,  Frank  was  entrusted  with  all  the  ar- 
rangements and  with  the  technical  management,  par- 
ticmarly  with  the  preparation  of  the  colours  to  be 
used  and  the  manufacture  of  the  coloured  glass  plates. 
He  was  also  charged  with  instructing  assistants  in  the 
secrets  of  his  craft.  Here  he  worked  imtil  1840  when 
he  retired  with  an  annual  pension  of  1200  florins. 

He  was  the  father  of  many  children,  of  whom  the 
most  prominent  is  the  well-known  historicar  painter 
Julius  Frank.  Among  his  friends  were  the  ^reat  physi- 
cist Fraui^ofer  and  the  Viennese  g)ass-pamter  Mohn, 
who  bore  enthusiastic  testimony  to  the  excellence  of 
Frank's  colouring,  especially  his  reds  and  his  flesh 
colour. 

MiUeUvnqen  dee  Vefbandee  deutecher  Olaemdteni  (Munich, 
1907);  VON  SCHADKN  in  his  Skiexen  (Munich^829). 

Charles  G.  Herbebmann. 

Fraakenbergr,  Johann  Heinbich,  Graf  von. 
Archbishop  of  Mechlin  (Malines),  Primate  of  Belgium, 
and  cardinal;  b.  18  September,  1726,  at  Groes-Glogau, 


FRANKFORT  236  FRAHKFORT 

■ 

Silesia;  d.  at  Breda,  11  June,  1804.  He  belonged  to  an  the  Government  that  his  conscience  would  not  permit 
ancient  family  devotedly  attached  to  the  Bouse  of  him  to  concur  in  the  establishment  of  the  General 
Hapsburg^and  which  remained  so  after  the  conquest  of  Seminary.  De«pite  all  threats,  he  thenceforth  re- 
Silesia  by  Fr^6i^<^lc  ^^  (1740).  Although  he  was  the  mained  nrm.  The  emperor  called  on  him  to  express 
solemaleheirof  his  family  and  assured  of  the  protection  his  opinion  on  the  doctrines  then  tai^t  at  the  Gen- 
of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa,  he  decided,  when  quite  eral  Seminary,  whereupon  the  cardinal  condemned 
yoimg,  to  become  a  priest.  He  attended  the  Jesuit  that  teaching  in  his  ''Declaration" — a  document 
college  of  his  native  city,  went  later  to  the  University  which  created  a  profoimd  impression  throughout  Bel- 
of  Breslau,  and  thence  to  the  German  College  at  gium.  The  country  was  alreadv  disturbed  by  insur- 
Rome,  where  he  obtained  the  degrees  of  Doctor  of  rectionary  movements,  and  the  Government  was 
Theology,  and  of  Canon  Law,  and  was  ordained  a  obliged  to  close  the  General  Seminary.  It  was  too 
priest  10  August,  1749.  On  his  return  to  Austria,  he  late,  however,  to  repress  the  rebelhous  agitation, 
was  made  ccMtdjutor  to  the  Bishop  of  GOrz  in  Cami-  The  Government  sought,  therefore,  to  make  the  car- 
ola  (1750-54),  dean  of  the  collegiate  church  of  All  dinal  responsible  for  it,  and  wished  to  place  him  under 
Saints  at  Prague  (1754),  later  of  that  of  Sts.  Cosmas  arrest.  From  his  place  of  refuge,  the  cardinal  pro- 
and  Damian  at  Alt-Bunzlau  in  Bohemia  (1756),  and  tested  against  the  accusation:  "I  take  heaven  and 
finally  Archbishop  of  M^hlin  and  primate  of  the  Au»-  earth  to  witness",  said  he,  **  that  I  have  had  no  share 
trian  Low  Countries  on  27  May,  1759.  In  this  ex-  or  influence  whatever  in  this  insurrection.  The  entire 
alted  post,  as  in  those  which  he  had  previously  occu-  Netherlands  will  bear  witness  to  this  fact  and  do  me 

Eiedj  his  life  was  an  example  of  every  private  and  pub-  justice  in  this  respect."  The  Government,  finding  it 
c  virtue.  It  was  not  long  before  he  was  called  on  to  necessary  to  abandon  the  criminal  process  it  had  be- 
defend  the  dignity  and  mdependence  of  his  office  gxm  against  the  cardinal,  exhibited  a  conciliatory 
against  the  Austrian  Government,  which,  even  imder  temper.  In  the  meantime,  however,  Uie  revolution 
Maria  Theresa,  was  foreshadowing  the  petty  tyranny  broke  out.  The  new  administration  found  him 
of  Joseph  II.  Despite  his  great  devotion,  to  Maria  friendly,  and  he  was  henceforth  officially  a  member  of 
Theresa,  he  more  than  once  resisted  the  improper  the  States-General.  At  the  same  time  he  held  aloof 
exactions  of  her  ministers,  who  wished  him  to  grant  from  purely  political  discussions  and  confined  himself 
Lenten  dispensations  according  to  their  pleasure,  and  to  recommending  political  union.  He  received  with 
interfered  m  the  most  annoymg  manner  in  matters  submission  and  respect  the  re-establishment  of  the 
that  pertained  exclusively  to  ecclesiastical  jurisdio-  Austrian  Government,  to  which  he  had  always  be^i 
tion.  He  enjoyed,  however,  the  personal  favour  of  attached.  On  the  arrival  of  the  French  he  had  to 
Maria  Theresa,  who  sought  to  have  him  made  Arch-  undergo  new  trials.  He  refused  the  pension  whic6 
bishop  of  Vienna,  and  in  1778  exerted  herself  to  the  the  Government  wished  to  grant  him  in  compensation 
uttermost  to  obtain  for  him  the  cardinaPs  hat.  The  for  the  suppression  of  his  revenue,  declared  his  opposi- 
situation  changed  with  the  accession  of  Joseph  II,  a  tion  to  the  oath  exacted  of  the  clergy,  and  was  nnally 
disciple  of  the  "philosophers"  and  imbued  with  the  brutalljr  expelled  from  Belgium  (1797).  He  retired  to 
principles  of  an  "enlightened  despotism".  This  em-  Emmerich  m  Prussia,  where,  aged,  sick,  and  poor,  he 
peror  oegan  that  politico-ecclesiastical  system,  known  lived  on  the  charity  ot  his  flock^  ana  continued  to  warn 
as  Josephinism,  which  meant  substantially  the  abso-  them  against  those  ecclesiastics  who  had  taken  the 
lute  supremacy  of  the  State.  Each  imperial  en-  oath.  His  apostolic  courage  and  hb  constancy  in 
croachment  on  the  inalienable  rights  of  the  Church  these  trials  elicited  solemn  eulogies  from  both  Pius  VI 
was  opposed  by  Frankenberg  with  commendable  and  Pius  VII.  In  deference  to  the  pope's  request  and 
fortitude,  and  yet  in  a  gentle  manner  and  with  such  to  render  possible  the  execution  of  the  concordat,  he 
respect  for  the  civil  authority  that  the  cardinal  resigned,  20  November,  1801,  the  Archbishopric  of 
brought  upon  himself  tihe  bitter  reproaches  of  such  Medilin.  Driven  from  Emmerich  bv  the  King  of 
unffinching  zealots  as  the  ex-Jesuits,  Feller  and  De-  Prussia  at  the  instance  of  the  French  Government, 
doyar.  'Hia  protests,  however,  were  met  by  the  which  affected  to  regard  him  as  a  conspirator,  he  re- 
Government  m  an  ill-humoured  and  disdainful  way.  tired  to  Borken  in  the  territory  of  Mttnster  (1801), 
It  affected,  indeed,  to  pa^  no  attention  to  them.  The  and,  after  the  suppression  of  this  principahty,  to 
most  serious  of  the  conflicts  was  that  which  broke  out  Breda,  where  he  died.  His  courage,  self-abnegation, 
with  regard  to  the  General  Seminary,  founded  at  Lou-  and  patience  in  the  face  of  persecution  and  adversity 
vain  in  1786  by  the  emperor,  and  to  which  he  ordered  make  him  one  of  the  noblest  figures  of  the  Catholic 
the  bishops  to  send  their  students,  closing  at  the  same  episcopate  during  the  eighteenth  century. 

time  their  diocesan  seminaries.     The  heretical  teach-  ^^Clabmbns.  Hiatoire  dea  Archwtmea  de  Maiinea  (Lourain, 

ing  of  the  professors  in  this  new  institution,  and  the  '^J^JS^^^,  ^SSy^  ^^"^^«^*  "'^^^^  ^ 
avowed  purpose  of  using  it  as  an  instrument  of  eccle-  Godefroid  Kurth. 

siastical  reform  and  a  weapon  against  "  ultramontan- 

ism",  soon  provoked  among  the  students  an  agitation        Frankfort,  Cottncil  of,  convened  in  the  summer 

that  ended  in  a  general  dispersion.    The  irritated  of  794,  ''  by  the  grace  of  God,  authority  of  the  pope, 

emperor,    forthwith,    summoned    the    cardinal    to  andcommandof  Charlemagne"  (can.  i),  and  attenaea 

Vienna  to  intimidate  him  by  means,  as  he  wrote  to  by  the  bishops  of  the  Prankish  kingdom,  Ital^,  and 

Kaunits.  "  of  those  vigorous  and  unanswerable  argu-  the  province  of  Aquitania,  and  even  by  ecclesiastics 

ments  ot  which  you  know  so  well  how  to  make  use",  from  England.    The  council  was  summoned  prima- 

m,  bereft  of  his  advisers,  threatened  with  indefinite  rily  for  the  condemnation  of  Adoptionism  (q.  y.). 

detention  at  a  great  distance  from  his  diocese;  reared.  According  to  the  testimony  of  contemporaries  two 

moreover,  in  those  principles  of  respect  for  the  sov-  papal  legates  were  present,  Theophylact  and  Stephen, 

ereign  power,  which  to  us  seem  so  exaggerated,  the  representing  Pope  Adrian  I.    After  an  allocution  by 

cardinal  consented  to  sign  a  rather  equivocal  declara-  Charlemagne,  tne  bishops  drew  up  two  memorials 

tion,  in  which  he  stated  that  he  was  convinced  of  his  against  the  Adoptionists,  one  containing  arguments 

obligation  to  conform  to  the  imperial  decrees  "rela-  from  patristic  writings;    the  other,  arguments  from 

tive  to  the  General  Seminary",  out  reserved  to  him-  Scripture.    The  first  was  the  ''Libellus  sacrosylla- 

self  the  right  to  appeal  to  the  emperor  in  cases  where  bus",  written  by  Paulinus,  Patriarch  of  Aauileia,  in 

the  eternal  salvation  of  souls  appeared  to  him  to  be  the  name  of  the  Italian  bishops;  the  secona  was  the 

imperilled.  ''Epistola  Synodica",  addressed  to  the  bishops  of 

On  his  return  to  Belgium,  Frankenberg  regained  Spain  by  those  of  Germany,  Gaul,  and  Aquitania.    In 

his  former  energy.     He  felt  himself  upheld  by  the  the  first  of  its  fiftv-six  canons  the  council  condemned 

ardent  Catholic  spirit  of  the  nation,  and  announced  to  Adoptionism,  and  in  the  second  repudiated  the  Sec- 


FBANKTOBT 


237 


raAMKrosT 


ond  Council  of  Niocea  (787) ,  which,  according  to  the  benevolent  inatitutiona  and  foundations,  mention  may 
faulty  Latin  translation  <m  its  Acts  (see  Caboune  be  made  of  the  almshouse  (founded  1593),  the  Catho- 
BooKs),  seemed  to  decree  that  the  same  kind  of  lie  home  for  girls,  the  working-womea'B  home,  and  the 
worship  BhoOld  be  paid  to  imagea  aa  to  the  Blesaed  children's  home;  among  the  hoapitals  under  Catholic 
Trinity,  though  the  Greek  text  clearfy  distinguishes  direction  are  that  of  the  Brothers  of  Mercy,  the  hoa- 
between  XoTpefa  and  rporxiivrn.  The .  remaining  piee  of  the  Brothers  of  Mercy,  and  the  hoapital  of  St. 
iSf ty-four  canons  dealt  with  metropolitan  jurisdiction,  Elizabeth,  under  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  The  moat  im- 
monastic  discipline,  superstition,  etc.  portant  of  the  numerous  Catholic  associations  (about 

a,5^«,Xj5fc^^(™toj.  ,.j7jjnj^_Hj^    ,„,  .^   Bod.W  A«jci.ti«n,th,  Cjlholl.  Ch^ 

>,n,i- .,,  __  __ ,_  "  -j^coa.cone.,  ity  Association,  the  Elizabeth  Society,  the  Society  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the  Cathohc 
Journeymen's  Union,  the  Merchants' 


a  Mjlhu..  cm.  erne. 
13  K].— ^Ths  euiorw  of  the  oound 
iiii>.i.,XCVn. 

Leo  a.  K&IJ.T. 


of  Wiesbaden,  in  the  Prussian  prov- 
ince of  HeBse-Nassau;  it  lies  on 
both  sides  of  the  Main,  twenty-four 
miles  above  ite  confluence  with  the 
Rhine  at  Mainz.  On  J  December, 
1905,  the  city  had  a  population  of 
334,978,  of  whom  105,814  were  Cath- 
(riics,  and  23,476  Jews. 

Frankfort  is  partly  under  the  ec- 
olesiastieal  jurisdiction  of  the  Diocese 


city  is  divided  into  six  parishes;  of 
thrae  the  city-parish  proper  is  sub- 
divided into  six  independent  eo- 
cleaiastioal  districts,  ana  one  curacy; 


M  (1419-1911) 


Union,  the  Workmen's  Union,  the 
People's  Union  of  Catholic  Germany 
(VoVctverein),  the  Congr^tion  of 
Mary  for  Girls,  etc.  (See  "  Handbuoh 
far  die  Katholiken  von  Frankfurt  a. 
M.",  Frankfort,  J903.) 

Recent  excavations  have  confirmed 
the  belief  that  the  present  cathedral 
stands  on  the  site  of  a  Roman  fort, 
built  during  the  reign  of  Domitian  by 
the  Fourteenth  L^on,  and  that  a 
Roman  settlement  grew  up  about  it. 
lluring  the  reign  of  Hadrian  the 
fortress  was  abandoned,  but  the  set- 
tlement continued  to  grow,  and  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  third  century 
was  seized  by  the  Germans,  first  fa^ 
the  Alamanni,  and  later  by  the 
Franks.  The  earliest  mention  of  this 
colony  occurs  in  Einhard's  annals 
for  793,  where  it  is  called  Villa  Fnut- 
conofurt.  In  794  an  important  im- 
perial and  ecclesiastical  council  was 


the  Catholic  soldiers  have  a  military  C-ihodml  of  St.  Bartholomew,  Frank-  convened  here  in  the  royal  palace, 
church  of  their  own.     Of  the  twenty-  lori-on-tae-MUQ  ^  ^^^  German  kings,  Louis  the  Pious 

fiveCatholic  churches  and  chapels  in  Frankfort,  the  (814-^0)  and  more  especially  Louis  the  German  often 
moat  important  is  the  cathedral  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  used  Frankfort  aa  the  royal  residence;  in  the  year  of 
which  tne  elections  and  coronations  of  the  German  the  tatter's  death,  it  is  designated  as  in-incipofia  ««Je« 
emperors  were  held;  it  stands  on  the  pile  formerly  orieni(di»  regni,  Louis  the  German  buHt  the  church 
occupied  by  the  church  of  the  Saviour  (SalvatoT'  of  the  Saviour,  later  the  cathedral,  and  founded  the 
kiTCM),  which  was  built  by  Louis  the  German  (850-  chapter  of  St,  Bartholomew,  consisting  of  one  abbot 
75),  and  rebuilt  in  1239,  in  Gothic  style,  and  the  name  and  twelve  priests.  During  the  t«n^  century  Frank- 
changed  to  St.  Bartholomew.  Between  1315  and  feat  declined  in  importance;  in  the  year  1007  it  was  a 
,ooQ  *k.  .v_; _  pubUc-village  (rf  the  e- 


1  the  choir  ^ 
modelled,  and  the  tran- 
sept in  1346;  the  famous 
tower  {PJarrtarm)  was 
added  between  1415  and 
1512.  After  the  confla- 
gration (tf  1867,  the  whole 
church  was   restored   by 


pire  without  fortifica- 
tions, a  viUa  daminica 
at  indominiecda,  which, 
however,  was  inhabited 
by  freemen,  as  well  as  bv 
serfs.  During  the  twelfth 
century  it  rose  to  the 
rank  of  a  city;  between 
1127  and  1142  the  fiiat 
city  wall  was  built;  by 


8&Ai£ar.  FatNEroRT-OM-THi-UuH 


1150  Frankfor 
tribunal  of  its  own;  in 
1172  it  was  made  a  mu- 
nicipality (municiptMm): 
and  in  1219  was  removed 
from  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  king.    Trade  and  ia- 


Kaiserdom  lu  Frankfurt 
a.  M.",  Frankfort,  1907.) 
Noteworthy  also  are  the 
church  of  St.  Leonard,  a 
Gothic  hall  church  (i.  e. 

with  aisles,  but  without  wiQumg,     iraae  ana  la- 

clerefltoriea),  with  five  naves,  erected  between  the  thir-  dustry  received  a  powerful  impetus;  the  Fraiikfort 

teenth  and  the  sixteenth  century;  the  church  of  the  fair  became  one  of  the  most  important  of  Germany; 

Teutonic  Knights  {DeuUchorderukvthe),  dedicated  in  tiie  city  gradually  acquired  control  of  the  territory 

1309,rebuilt  1748-50,  and  restored  1883;  and  the  Gothic  round  about,  and  played  an  important  rAle  in  the  po- 

churchof  Our  Lady(Lie6/raiieniircAe),  built  1325-1509.  litical  struggles,  particularly  as  a  member  of  the  Con- 

Thecareofsoulsisinchargeof  31  secular  priests.     The  federation  of  the  Rhine.     Louis  the  Bavarian  (1314- 

religiouB  orders  and  congregations  represented  in  the  47),  whom  Franltfort  supported  in  his  conBicts  with 

cityare:CapuchinB(5fathersand3brothers), Brothers  the   Holy   See,    notwithstanding  a  papal   interdict, 

of  MerCT,  Ursulines,  Handmaids  of  Ctiriat,  and  Sisters  granted  the  city  important  prerogatives.     The  Golden 

of  the  Poor  of  St.  Francis  from  the  mother-house  at  Bull  of  Charles  IV  (1349-78)  constituted  Frankfort 

Aachen.     The  Catholic  schools  include  1  high  school  the  legal  electoral  city  of  the  German  emperors;   the 

for  boys  2  high  schools  for  girls,  1  institute  for  teach-  city  had  already  been  the  scene  of  the  election  of  tea 

ers^  8  elementary  schools,  3  homes  for  children,  6  monarcha,  between  1147and  1300.    After  1356  thirty- 

Imitting-  and  eewing.«cfaoola.    Of  the  10  Catholic  seven  German  emperors  were  elected  at  Frankfort, 


238  FRANKS 

where,  after  Maximilian  II,  the  coronation  ceremony  Assembly)  and  the  German  National  Assembly^,  and 
also  took  place,  inst^ui  of  at  Aachen.  A  celebrated  in  1863  of  the  German  FUnterUag  (Diet  of  Prmcee). 
description  of  this  ceremony  is  to  be  found  in  Frankfort  having  voted  in  the  Federal  Diet  against 
Goethe's  "  Wahrheit  und  Dichtmig".  The  unfortu-  Prussia  (14  June,  1866),  on  16  Julv  the  city  was  in- 
nate difficulties  between  Frankfort  and  the  electoral  vested  by  the  Prussians  and  condemned  to  pay  a 
princes  of  the  Palatinate  and  the  nobles  of  the  vicinitv.  heaver  fine,  and  on  8  October  was  annexed  to  the 
m  1389,  reduced  the  citv  to  great  straits,  but  could  Prussian  Monarchy.  At  Frankfort  the  peace  between 
not  shatter  its  power,  internal  dissensions,  like  the  France  and  Germanv  was  signed,  10  Ma^,  1871. 
insurrection  of  the  guilds  (1358-66)  and  the  uprisings  Under  Prussian  rule  the  city  has  attained  a  high  com- 
between  1389  and  1408,  were  finally  brought  to  an  end  mercial  and  industrial  importance. 

by  the  victory  of  the  ruline  families.  Rtxtbh,  Evangduehea  Denkmal  der  Stadi  Frankfurt  am  Mayn 

The  Rrformation  found  8i«edy  aooeptwjBe  among  [l^^i^Jio^^^'^c^ii^^^a^^S^ 

the  majonty  of  the  city  COimcil  and  the  middle  classes,  aUuU  Frankfurt  (Frankfort,  1819);    KsiEaK,  Frankfurter  BUr- 

chiefly  owing  to  the  strained  relations  which  the  un-  ofrmau  wui  Zvst&nde  im  M.  A.  (Frankfort,  1862);   Idbm, 

just  <fiBtributi<«  Of  taxes  had  brot^t  about  between  &n£;SS5SM/iJ^~"rji??Vfl?J?& 

the   clergy  and   people.     In    1525   the   dOCtnnes   of  73);  Frankfurt  und  teine  Bauten  herauaqep^en  torn  An^itekten- 

Luther  were  preached  in  Frankfort  for  the  first  time;  wid  Ingenieuryerein  (Frankfort.  1886);  BOcher.  Die  BevUker- 

in  1533  by  conunand  of  the  council,  CathoUc  services  ^^^^  ^S^I^ISpSw^a^?.  'i^T^e^^J^^^ri^ 

were  entirely  suspended  for  some  time;  finally,  after  Hadt  Frankfurt  a.  M.  (Frankfort.  1806):  Hobnb.  Oe$di%chte 

1548,  of  the  three  Catholic  chapters  only  that  of  St.  wmFrankfuHa,  Af.  (Frankfort.  1W2);  Boehmbb-Lau.  Codex 

Baptliolomew  with  the  cath«lral  «main«i  in  pes-  J^SSW^Sl^^S'S&JJS  '^^l^S^H^S^V^. 

session  of  the  Cathohcs.     On  the  defeat  of  the  Smal-  tmoen  dee  Vereina  far  Qeaeh.  und  AUertumakunde  in  Frankfurt 

kaldic  Lea^e  (1546),  which  Frankfort  had  joined  in  «•  Af .  (Frankfort,  i860-). 

1536,  the  city  was  forced  to  surrender  to  an  imperial  Jobbph  Linb. 
armv  and  pay  80,000  gold  gulden.    During  the  revolt 

of  Maurice  of  Saxony  (1552)  against  Charles  V,  Franks,  The,  were  a  confederation  formed  in  West- 
Frankfort  supported  the  emperor  and  withstood  a  em  Germany  of  a  certain  number  of  ancient  barba- 
siege  by  his  enemies.  During  the  succeeding  decades  rian  tribes  who  occupied  the  right  shore  of  the  Rhine 
the  city  gained  in  prosperity  what  it  lost  ii^  political  from  Mains  to  the  sea.  Their  name  is  first  mentioned 
prestige.  A  serious  danger,  however,  menaced  it  in  by  Roman  historians  in  connexion  with  a  battle  fought 
the  revolt  of  the  middle  classes  against  the  misrule  of  against  this  people  about  the  year  241.  In  the  third 
the  patricians  (1612-16),  headed  by  the  pastry-cook  century  some  of  them  crossed  the  Rhine  and  settled  in 
and  gingerbread-baker,  Vincenz  Fettmilch.  This  Belgic  Gaul  on  the  banks  of  the  Mouse  and  the  Scheldt, 
shook  the  city  government  to  its  very  f oimdations,  andthe  Romans  had  endeavoured  to  expel  them  from 
and  only  ended  with  the  decapitetion  of  seven  of  the  tibe  territory.  ConstantiusChlorus  and  his  descendants 
leaders,  and  the  victory  of  the  ruling  families  who  re-  continued  the  stru^e,  and,  although  Julian  the  Apoo- 
tained  their  supremacy  until  the  dissolution  of  the  tate  inflicted  a  senous  defeat  on  them  in  359.  he  did 
German  Empire.  Durine  the  Thirty  Years  War  the  not  succeed  in  exterminating  them,  and  eventually 
citisens  were  decimated  by  famine  and  plague,  par-  Rome  was  satisfied  to  make  them  her  more  or  less 
ticularly  in  1635,  and  the  city  suffered  severely  from  faithful  allies.  After  their  overthrow  bjr  Julian  the 
Louis  XlV's  wars  of  conquest.  Frankfort  was  in-  Apostate,  the  Franks  of  Belgium,  becoming  peaceful 
vested  by  tho  French  (1759-62)  during  the  Seven  settlers,  appear  to  have  ^ven  the  empire  no  further 
Years  War,  and  likewise  during  the  Revolutionary  trouble,  satisfied  with  having  found  shelter  and  suste- 
period  (1792  and  1795).  By  the  Imperial  Delegates  nance  on  Roman  soil.  They  even  espoused  Rome's 
Enactment  (1803)  Frankfort  was  declared  a  free  neu-  cause  during  the  great  invasion  of  406,  but  were  over- 
tral  city  of  tne  empire,  and  at  the  same  time  all  mon-  powered  by  the  ruthless  hordes  who  devastated  Bel- 
asteries,  with  the  exception  of  the  propcarty  of  the  Teu-  gium  and  overran  Gaul  and  a  part  of  Italv  and  Spain, 
tonic  ICnights,  were  secularised.  After  the  dissolu-  Thenceforth  the  Belgian  provmces  ceased,  to  be  imder 
tion  of  the  German  Empire,  the  city  was  granted  to  the  control  of  Rome  and  passed  under  the  rule  of  the 
Karl  Dalbeing,  previously  Elector  of  Mains,  and  in  Franks. 

1810  was  made  the  capital  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  When  they  first  attracted  attention  in  history  the 

Frankfort.    Under  Didberg's  mild  rule.  Christians  of  Franks  were  established   in  the  northern  part  of 

all  denominations  were  granted  equal  recognition,  and  Belgic  Gaul,  in  the  districts  where  their  Germanic 

the  year  1811  was  marked  by  the  emancipation  of  the  diafect  is  still  spoken.    Gregory  of  Tours  tells  us  that 

Jews.    The  Vienna  Congress  made  Frankfort  a  free  their  chief  town  was  Dispaigum,  which  is  perhaps 

imperial  city  of  the  new  German  Confederation  and  Tongres,  and  that  thcry  were  under  a  family  of  kings 

the  seat  of  the  Federal  Diet,  which  meant  for  the  city  distinguished  by  their  long  hair,  which  they  allowed  to 

great  political  prestige  and  orilliant  possibilities  from  flow  over  their  shoulders,  while  the  other  Frankish  war- 

a  social  point  of  view.    Beginning  in  1818  various  riors  had  the  back  of  the  head  shaved.   This  family 

conferences  were  held  at  Frankfort  to  make  some  ar-  was  known  as  the  Merovingians,  from  the  name  of  one 

rangement  with  the  Holy  See  for  the  ecclesiastical  of  its  members,  to  whom  national  tradition  had  as- 

reorganisation  of  the  states  represented;  these  were  cribed  a  sea-eod  as  ancestor.  Clodion.  the  first  king  of 

Baden,  Wartemberg,  Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  this  dynasty  Known  to  history,  began  his  series  of  con- 

Nassaii,  Frankfort,  Hohensollem-Heckingen,  Hohen-  quests  in  Northern  Gaul  about  the  year  430.  He  pcpe- 

sollem-Sie|maringen,  and  others.  ^  Negotiations  cover-  trated  as  far  as  Artois,  but  was  driven  back  by  Aetius, 

ing  several  years  finally  resulted  in  the  erection  of  the  who  seems  to  have  succeeded  in  keeping  him  on 

province  of  the  Upper  Rhine  (Oherrfieiniache  Kitchen-  friendly  terms  with  Rome.   In  fact,  it  seems  that  his 

provinz).    The  Fnmkfort  Riot  of  1833  presented  some  son  Merovseus  fought  with  the  Romans  aeainst  Attila 

serious  aspects  for  the  city;  the  proceedings  of  the  on  the  Mauriac  pudns.    Childeric,  son  of  Merovsus. 

Federal  Diet  against  the  press  ana  the  whole  system  also  served  the  empire  under  Count  ^gidius  and  sub- 

of  unions  and  associations  gave  rise  to  a  revolutionary  sequently  under  Count  Paul,  whom  ne  assisted  in 

movement,  which  the  Diet  undertook  to  suppress,  repelling  the  Saxons  from  An^rs.    Childeric  died  at 

After  the  attempted  insurrection  had  been  easily  put  Toumai,  his  capital,  where  his  tomb  was  found  in 

down,  the  city  nad  to  maintain,  at  its  own  expense,  1653  (Cochet,  Le  tombeau  de  Childeric,  Paris,  1859). 

a  Prusso-Austrian  garrison  from  1833  to  1842.    In  But  Childeric  did  not  transmit  to  his  son  Clovis,  who 

1848-49  Frankfort  was  the  seat  of  the  VorparlamerU  succeeded  him  in  481,  the  entire  inheritance  left  by 

(a  provisional  assembly  preparatory  to  the  National  Clodion.  The  latter  seems  to  have  reigned  over  all  the 


PRAirXS  239  PRAirXS 

I 

/  » 

Ci»-Rheniah  Franks,  and  the  monarchy  was  divided  them^  augmented  the  estates  he  had  left  them.  The 

among  his  descendants,  although  the  exact  time  of  the  principal  events  of  their  reign  were:  (1)  The  destruo- 

division  is  not  known.  There  were  now  two  Frankish  tion  of  the  Kingdom  of  Thurin^  by  Thierry  in  531, 

groups:  the  Ripuarians,  who  occupied  the  banks  of  which  extended  Frankish  power  into  the  heart  of  what 

the  ithine  and  whose  kings  resided  at  Clolo^e,  and  the  is  now  Germany;  (2)  the  conquest  of  the  Kingdom 

Salians  who  had  establShed  themselves  in  the  Low  of  the  Burgundians  by  Childebert  and  Clotaire  in  532, 

Ck>untries.  The  Salians  did  not  form  a  single  kingdom ;  after  their  brother  Cfodomir  had  perished  in  a  previ- 

besides  the  Kingdom  of  Toumai  there  were  kingdoms  ous  attempt  to  overthrow  it  in  524;  (3)  the  cession  of 

with  centres  at  Cambrai  and  Tongres.    Their  sover-  Provence  to  the  Franks  by  the  Ostro^ths  in  536,  on 

eijgns,  both  Salisji  and  Hipuarian,  belonged  to  the  condition  that  the  former  would  assist  them  in  the 

Merovingian  family  and  seem  to  have  been  descended  war  just  declared  against  them  by  Emperor  Justinian, 

from  Clodion.  But  instead  of  helping  the  Ostrogotns,  the  Franks 

When  Clovis  began  to  reign  in  481,  he  was,  like  his  imder  Theudebert,  son  of  Thierry,  taking  shameful  ad- 
father.  King  of  Toumai  only,  but  at  an  early  date  he  vantage  of  this  oppressed  people,  cruelly  pillaged 
began  his  career  of  conquest.  In  486  he  overthrew  the  Italy  until  the  bands  under  the  command  of  Leuthar 
monarchy  that  Syagrius,  son  of  ^gidius,  had  carved  and  Butilin  were  exterminated  by  Narses  in  553.  The 
out  for  himself  in  Northern  Gaul,  and  set  up  his  court  death  of  Theudebert,  in  548,  was  soon  followed  by  that 
at  Soissons ;  in  490  and  491  he  took  possession  of  the  of  his  son  Theobald,  in  555,  and  by  the  death  of  C!hild»- 
Salian  Kingdoms  of  Cambrai  and  Tongres;  in  496  he  bert  in  558,  Clotaire  I,  the  last  of  the  four  brothers, 
triumphantiy  repelled  an  invasion  of  the  Alamanni;  becoming  sole  heir  to  the  ^tate  of  his  father,  Clovis. 
in  500  he  interposed  in  the  war  of  the  Burgundian  Clotaire  reduced  the  Saxons  and  Bavarians  to  a  state 
kings;  in  506  he  oonciuered  Aquitaine;  and  at  length  of  vassalage,  and  died  in  561  leaving  four  sons;  once 
he  annexed  the  Ripuarian  Kingdom  of  Colore,  more  the  monarchy  was  divided,  beine  partitioned  in 
Henceforth  Gaul,  from  the  Pyrenees  to 'the  Rhme,  about  the  same  wav  as  on  the  death  of  Clovis  in  511: 
was  subject  to  Clovis,  with  the  exception  of  the  terri-  Gontran  reigned  at  Orleans,  Charibert  at  Paris,  Sigebert 
tory  in  the  south-east,  i.  e.  the  kingdom  of  the  Bur-  at  Reims,  and  Chilperic  at  Soissons.  Charibert's  death 
gundians  and  Provence.  Established  at  Paris,  Clovis  in  567  and  the  division  of  his  estate  occasioned  quar- 
govemed  this  kingdom  by  virtue  of  an  agreement  con-  rels  between  Chilperic  and  Sigebert,  alreadv  at  odds 
duded  with  the  bishops  of  Gaul,  according  to  which  on  account  of  their  wives.  Unlike  his  brothers,  who 
natives  and  barbarians  were  to  be  on  terms  of  equality,  had  been  satisfied  to  marry  serving-women.  Sigebert 
and  all  cause  of  friction  between  the  two  races  was  re-  had  won  the  hand  of  the  beautiful  Bnmehilae,  daugh- 
movedwhen,  in  496,  the  king  was  converted  to  Catholi-  ter  of  Athanajrild,  King  of  the  Visigoths.  Chilp^o 
cism.  The  Frankish  kingdom  thereupon  took  its  place  had  followed  Si^bert's  example  by  marrying  Gale- 
in  history  under  more  promising  conditions  than  were  swintha,  Brunehilde's  sister,  but  at  the  instigation  of 
to  be  found  in  any  other  state  foimded  upon  the  ruins  his  mistress,  Fredegonda.  he  soon  had  Galeswintha 
of  the  Roman  Empire.  All  free  men  bore,  the  title  of  assassinated  and  placed  Fredegonda  upon  Hie  throne. 
Frank,  had  the  samepolitical  status,  and  were  eligible  BrunehHde's  determination  to  avenge  the  death  of  her 
to  the  same  offices.  Besides,  each  individual  observed  sister  involved  in  bitter  strife  not  only  the  two  women 
the  law  of  the  people  among  whom  he  belonged;  the  but  their  husbands.  In  575  Sigebert,  who  was  repeat- 
Gallo-Roman  lived  according  to  the  Roman  c»de,  the  edly  provoked  by  Chnperic,  tc^k  the  field,  resolved  to 
barbarian  according  to  the  Salian  or  Ripuarian  law;  bring  the  quarrel  to  a  conclusion.  Chilperic,  already 
in  other  words,  the  law  was  personal,  not  territorial,  banished  from  his  kinsdom,  had  taken  refuge  behind 
If  there  were  any  privileges  the^  oelonged  to  the  thewallsofTournai,  whence  he  had  no  hope  of  escape, 
Gallo-Romans,  who,  in  the  beginning  were  the  onlv  when,  just  as  Sigebert 's  soldiers  were  about  to  raise 
ones  on  whom  the  episcopal  dignity  was  conferred.,  him  to  the  throne,  he  was  felled  by  assassins  sent 
The  ling  governed  the  provinces  through  his  counts,  by  Frede^nda.  Immediately  the  aspect  of  affairs 
and  had  a  considerable  voice  in  the  selection  of  the  changed:  Bnmehilde,  humiliated  and  taken  prisoner, 
clerrar.  The  drawing  up  of  the  Salian  Law  (Lex  SaUca)^  esca;^  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  and  after  the 
which  seems  to  date  from  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  most  thriHins  adventures,  while  Frede^nda  and  Chil- 
Qovis,  and  the  Goimcil  of  Orl^ans^  convoked  by  him  peric  exulted  in  their  triumph.  The  rivalry  between 
and  held  in  the  last  year  of  his  reign,  prove  that  the  the  two  kinedoms,  henceforth  known  respectiveh^  as 
legislative  activity  of  this  king  was  not  eclipsed  by  his  Austrasia  (Kingdom  of  the  East)  and  Neustria  (King- 
m^itary  ener^  (see  Clovis).  Although  founder  of  a  dom  of  the  West),  only  grew  fiercer.  Gontran's  king- 
kingdom  destmed  to  such  a  brilliant  future,  Clovis  did  dom  continued  to  be  ^dled  Burgundy.  First  the 
not  know  how  to  shield  it  against  a  custom  in  vogue  nobles  of  Austrasia  and  then  Brunehude,  who  had 
among  tiie  barbarians,  i.  e.  the  division  of  power  become  regent,  led  the  campaign  against  Chilpa|io, 
among  the  sons  of  the  kinp.  This  custom  originated  who  perished  in  584  at  the  hand  of  an  assassin.  Ae 
in  the  pagan  idea  that  all  kmgs  were  intended  to  reign  murderer  could  not  be  ascertained.  Durinjg  this  period 
because  wev  were  descended  from  the  gods.  Divine  of  intestine  strife.  King  Gontran  was  vainlv  endeav- 
blood  flowed  in  the  veins  of  all  the  king's  sons,  each  of  curing  to  wrest  Septimania  from  the  Visigotns,  as  well 
whom,  therefore,  being  a  king  by  birth,  must  nave  his  as  to  defend  himself  against  the  pretender  Gondowald, 
share  of  the  kinedom.  This  view,  incompatible  with  the  natural  son  of  Clotaire  I,  who,  aided  by  the  nobles, 
the  formation  of  a  powerful,  durable  monarchv,  had  tried  to  seize  part  of  the  kingdom,  but  fell  in  the  at- 
been  vigorously  rejected  by  Genseric  the  Vandal,  who,  tempt.  When  Gontran  died  in  592,  his  inheritance 
to  secure  the  indivisibility  of  his  kingdom,  had  estab-  passed  to  Childebert  II,  son  of  Sigebert  and  Brun»- 
lished  in  his  family  a  certain  order  of  succession,  hilde,  and  after  this  king's  death  in  595  his  states  were 
Either  because  he  died  suddenly  or  for  some  other  rea-  divided  between  his  two  sons,  Theudebert  II  taking 
son,  Clovis  took  no  measures  to  abolish  this  custom,  Austrasia,  and  Thierry  II  Burgundy.  In  600  and  604 
which  continued  among  the  Franks  until  the  middle  the  two  brothers  imited  their  forces  against  Clotaire 
of  the  nint^  century  and,  more  than  once,  endangered  II,  son  of  Chilperic  and  Fredegonda,  and  reduced  him 
their  nationality.  to  the  condition  of  a  petty  king.  Soon,  however,  jeal- 

After  the  death  of  Clovis,  therefore,  his  four  sons  ousy  sprang  up  between  the  two  brothers,  they  waged 
divided  his  kingdom,  each  reigning  from  a  different  war  against  each  oUier,  and  Theudebert,  twice  de- 
centre:  Thierry  at  Metz,  Clodomir  at  Orleans,  Childe-  feated,  was  killed.  The  victorious  Thierry  was  about 
bert  at  Paris,  and  Clotaire  at  Soissons.  The^  contin-  to  inflict  a  like  fate  on  Clotaire  II,  but  died  in  613, 
ued  the  career  of  conquest  inaugurated  by  their  father,  being  still  young  and  undoubtedly  the  victim  of  the 
and,  in  spite  of  the  frequent  discords  that  divided  excesses  that  hsA  shortened  the  careers  of  most  of  the 


FRANKS                                240  FRANKS 

Merovingian  princes.  Bnmehilde,  who,  throughout  done  in  the  past.  He  too  was  soon  forced  to  give  Aus- 
the  reigps  of  ner  son  and  grandsons,  had  been  very  trasia  a  separate  government,  which  he  confided  to 
influential,  now  assumed  the  guardianship  of  her  great-  his  son  Sigebert  III,  with  Cunibert  of  Cologne  as  his 
grandson,  Sigebert  II,  and  the  government  of  the  two  councillor  and  Adal^il,  son  of  Amulf  of  Metz  and  son- 
kingdoms.  But  the  earlier  struggle  between  monaiv  in-law  of  Pepin,  as  mayor  of  the  palace.  Pepin,  who 
chical  absolutism  and  the  independence  of  the  Frank-  had  lost  royal  favour,  was  temporarily  deprived  of  any 
ish  nobility  now  broke  out  with  tragic  violence.  It  had  voice  in  the  government.  .The  reign  of  Dagobert  I 
long  been  latent,  but  the  sight  of  a  woman  exercising  was  one  of  such  great  pomp  and  outward  show,  that 
absolute  power  caused  it  to  break  forth  with  boimdless  contemporaries  compared  it  to  that  of  Solomon ;  how- 
fury.  The  Austrasian  nobles,  eager  to  avenge  the  sad  ever,  it  marked  a  decline  in  the  military  prowess  of  the 
fate  of  Theudebert  on  the  descendants  of  Thierry,  Franks.  They  subdued,  it  is  true,  the  small  nations  of 
joined  with  Clotaire  II,  I^ing  of  Neustria,  who  took  the  Bretons  and  Basques,  but  were  themselves  beaten 
possessionof  the  Kingdoms  of  Burgundy  and  Austrasia.  bv  the  Prankish  merchant  Samo,  who  had  created  a 
The  children  of  Thierry  II  .were  slain.  Brunehilde,  Slavonic  kingdom  on  their  eastern  confines.  Dagobert 
who  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victor,  was  tied  to  the  relieved  the  situation  only  b^  exterminating  the  Bid- 
tail  of  a  wild  horse  and  perished  (613).  She  hsul  erred  gars  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Bavaria.  Like  most 
in  imposing  a  despotic  government  on  a  people  who  of  his  race,  Da^bert  was  subject  to  the  females  of  his 
chafed  ua&T  ^vemment  of  any  kind.  Her  punish-  family.  He  died  young  and  was  biiried  in  the  cele- 
ment  was  a  frightful  death  and  the  cruel  calumnies  brated  Abbey  of  Saint-Denis  which  he  hsul  foimded 
with  which  her  conquero^^  blackened  her  memory,  and  which  subsequently  became  the  burial-place  of  the 
The  nobles  had  triumphed.  Theydictated  to  Clotaire  kings  of  France.  After  his  death  Austrasia  and  Neus- 
II  the  terms  of  victory  and  he  accepted  them  in  the  tria  (the  latter  united  with  Bursundy)  had  the  same 
celebrated  edict  of  614,  at  least  a  partial  capitulation  destiny  under  their  respective  kings  and  mayors  of 
of  Prankish  royalty  to  tbe  nobility.  The  kmg  prom-^  the  palace.'  In  Neustria  the  joung  king,  Clovis  II, 
iaed  to  withdraw  his  counts  from  {he  provinces  under  reiened  under  the  guardianship  of  nis  mother,  Nan- 
his  rule,  i.  e.  he  was  virtusdly  to  abandon  these  parts  thude,  with  Aega,  and  later  Erkinoald,  as  mayor  of 
to  the  nobles,  who  were  also  to  have  a  voice  in  the  the  palace.  Sigebert  III  reigned  in  Austrasia  with 
selection  of  his  prime  minister  or  ''mayor  of  the  pal-  Pepm  of  Landen,  who  had  returned  and  was  installed 
ace"  as  he  was  then  called.  He  likewise  promised  to  as  mayor  of  the  palace  after  the  death  of  Dagobert. 
abonsh  the  new  taxes  and  to  respect  the  immunity  of  Th^  history  of  Australia  is  better  known  to  us  as  far  as 
the  clergy,  and  not  to  interfere  in  the  elections  of  657  because,  at  that  time,  it  hsul  a  chronicler.  On  the 
bishops.  He  had  idso  to  continue  Australia  and  Neu»-  death  of  Pepin  of  Landen  in  639,  Otto,  mayor  of  the 
tria  as  separate  governments.  Thus  ended  the  conflict  palace,  took  the  reins  of  power,  but  was  overthrown 
between  the  Prankish  aristocracy  and  the  monarchical  and  replaced  by  Grimoald,  son  of  Pepin.  Grimoald 
power ;  with  its  close  began  a  new  period  in  the  history  went  even  further ;  when,  in  656,  Sigebert  III  died,  he 
of  the  Merovingian  monarchy.  As  time  went  on  conceived  the  bold  plan  of  seizing  the  crown  for  the 
royalty  had  to  reckon  more  and  more  with  the  aristoc-  benefit  of  his  family.  He  banished  young  Dagobert  II, 
racy.  The  Merovingian  dynasty,  traditionally  accus-  son  of  Sigebert,  to  an  Irish  monastery.  Not  daring  to 
tomed  to  absolutism,  and  incapable  of  altering  its  ascend  the  throne  himself,  he  followed  the  example  of 
point  of  view,  was  gradually  deprived  of  all  exer-  Odoacer  and  save  it  to  his  son  Childebert.  But  this 
cise  of  authority  by  tne  triumphant  nobility.  In  the  attempt,  as  bold  as  it  was  premature,  caused  his  down- 
shadow  of  the  throne  the  new  power  continued  to  fall.  He  was  delivered  up  to  Clovis  II  by  the  Austrar 
grow  rapidly,  became  the  successful  rival  of  the  royal  sian  nobles  and,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  seems 
house,  and  finally  supplanted  it.  The  great  jiower  of  to  have.^rished  in  pnson.     Clovis  II  remained  sole 


ace 

househoh  ^  ^ 

he  acquired  steadily  greater  importance  imtil  he  came  father  as  head  of  the  entire  monarchy  under  the  c^uar- 

to  share  the  royal  prerogative,  and  eventually  reached  dianship  of  his  mother,  Bathilde,  with  Erkinoald  as 

the  exalted  position  of  prime  minister  to  the  sovereign,  mayor  of  the  palace.    But  like  Clotaire  II,  in  614, 

The  indifference  of  the  latter,  usually  more  absormd  Clovis  was  constrained  in  660  to  grant  Austrasia  a 

in  his  pleasures  than  in  public  affairs,  favoured  the  separate  rule,  and  appointed  his  brother  Childeric  II 

encroachments  of  the  "mayor  of  the  palace'',  and  its  king,  with  Wulfoald  as  mayor  of  the  palace.   Aus- 

this  ofBce  finally  became  the  hereditary  right  of  one  trasia  was  now  overshadowed  by  Neustria  owing  to 

family,  whidi  was  destined  to  replace  the  Merovin-  the  strong  personality  of  Ebrom,  Erkinoald 's  suc- 

giay  and  become  the  national  d3rnasty  of  the  Franks,  cessor  as  mayor  of  the  palace.  Like  Brunehilde, Ebroin 

SulK  then  were  the  transformations  which  occurred  sought  to  establish  a  strong  ^vemment  and,  like  her, 

in  the  political  life  of  the  Franks  after  the  downfall  drew  upon  himself  the  passionate  opposition  of  the 

of  Brunehilde  and  during  the  reign  of  Clotaire  II  (614-  aristocracy.    The  latter^  under  the  leadership  of  •St. 

29).   While  ^is  king  ^vemed  Neustria  he  wasobliged,  L^r  (Leodeg&rius),  Bishop  of  Autun,  succeeded  in 

as  has  been  said,  to  give  Austrasia  a  separate  govern-  overthrowing  Ebroin.    He  and  King  Thierry  III  who, 

ment,  his  son  Dagobert  becoming  its  king,  with  .^^ulf  of  in  670,  hsul  succeeded  his  brother  Clotaire  III,  were  con- 

Metz  as  councillor  and  Pepin  of  Landen  as  mayor  of  si^ed  to  a  convent,  Childerio  II,  King  of  Austrasia, 

the  psdace  (623).  These  two  men  were  the  ancestors  being  summoned  to  replace  him.  Once  again  monai^ 

of  the  Carlovin^an  family.    Amulf  was  Bishop  of  chical  unity  was  re-established,  but  it  was  not  destined 

Metz,  though  resident  at  court,  but  in  627  he  resisned  to  last  long.  Wulfoald,  mayor  of  Austrasia,  was  ban- 

his  episcopal  see  and  retired  into  monastic  solitude  at  ished,  also  St.  L^ger.   Childeric  II  was  assassinated  and 

Remiremont,  where  he  died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity,  for  a  short  time  general  anarchy  reigned.    However, 

Pepin,  incorrectly  called  of  Landen  (since  it  was  only  Wulfoald,  who  managed  to  return,  proclaimed  Kine 

in  the  twelfth  century  that  the  chroniclers  of  Brabant  of  Austrasia  young  Dagobert  II,  who  had  come  back 

began  to  associate  him  with  that  locality),  was  a  great  from  exile  in  Ireland,  while  St.  L^^r,  reinstated  in 

lora  from  Eastern  Belgium.  With  Amiuf  he  had  been  Neustria,  upheld  Kine  Thierry  III.  But  Ebroin,  who 

at  the  head  of  the  Austrasian  opposition  to  Brune-  meanwhile  nsul  been  forgotten,  escaped  from  prison, 

hilde.  He  invaded  Neustria,  defeated  the  mayor  Leude- 

On  the  death  of  Clotaire  II,  Dagobert  I,  his  only  sius,  Erkinoald 's  son,  who,  with  the  approval  of  St. 

heir,  re-established  the  imity  of  the  Prankish  mon-  L^ger,  was  governing  this  kingdom,  reassumed  the 

ardiy  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  as  Clovis  had  power,  and  inaltreated  the  Bishop  of  Autim,  whom  he 


FRANKS 


241 


FRANKS 


caused  to  be  slain  by  hired  assassins  (678).  He  after- 
wards attacked  Austrasia,  banished  Wulfoald,  and 
had  King  Thierry  III  acknowledged.  The  opposition 
shown  Ebroin  by  the  Austrasian  nobles  under  the 
leadership  of  Pepin  II  and  Martin  was  broken  at 
Lafifaux  (Latofao),  where  Martin  perished,  and  Pepin 
disappeared  for  a  while.  Ebroin  was  then  for  some 
years  real  sovereign  of  the  Frankish  monarchy  and 
exercised  a  degree  of  power  that  none  save  Clovis  I 
and  Clotaire  I  had  possessed.  There  are  few  characters 
of  whom  it  is  as  difficult  to  form  a  just  estimate  as  of 
this  powerful  political  genius  who,  without  any  le^ 
autiiority,  and  solely  by  dint  of  his  indomitable  will, 
aoQuired  supreme  control  of  the  Frankish  monarchy 
ana  warded  off  for  a  time  the  reforms  of  the  aristoo- 
racy.  Tlie  friendship  professed  for  Ebroin  by  Saint 
Ouen,  the  great  Bishop  of  Rouen,  seems  to  indicate 
t^at  he  was  oetter  than  his  reputation,  which,  like  that 
of  Brunehilde,  was  intentionally  blackened  by  chron- 
iclers who  sympathized  with  the  Frankish  nobles. 

Ebroin's  disappearance  afforded  full  scope  to  the 
power  of  the  family  which  was  now  called  on  to  give 
a  new  dynasty  to  the  Franks.  Forced  to  remain  in  ob- 
scurity for  over  twenty  years,  in  consequence  of  Gri- 
moald's  crime  and  downfall,  this  family  finally  reap- 
peared at.  the  head  of  Austrasia  imder  Pepin  11, 
mappropriately  called  Pepin  of  Heristal.  There  flowed 
in  the  veins  of  Pepin  II,  son  of  Adalgisil  and  of  St. 
Begga,  daughter  of  Pepin  I,  the  blood  of  the  two  illus- 
trious men  who,  by  the  overthrow  of  Brunehilde,  had 
established  a  moderate  monarchy  in  Auslrasia.    De- 
spite the  defeat  inflicted  on  him  by  Ebroin,  Pepin  re- 
mained the  leader  and  the  hope  of  the  Austrasians, 
and,  aiter  the  death  of  his  dreaded  adversary,  vi^r- 
ously  resumed  the  struggle  against  Neustria,  a  kmg- 
dom  which  was  then  disturbed  by  the  rivalry  between 
Waratton,  mayor  of  the  palace,  and  his  son  Gislemar. 
From  681  to  686  the  functions  of  mayor  were  alter- 
nately discharged  by  Waratton  and  Gislemar,  again 
by  Waratton,  and  finally,  at  his  death,  by  his  son-in- 
law  Berthar.  Pepin,  who  seems  to  have  hsui  amicable 
relations  with  Waratton,  would  not  acknowledge  Ber- 
thar, whom  he  overthrew  in  the  battle  of  Testri  near 
Soissons  (687);  in  this  way  Austrasia  avenged  the 
above-mentioned  defeat  at  Laffauz.    The  death  of 
Berthar,  assassinated  in  688,  removed  the  last  ob- 
stacle to  the  authority  of  Pepin  in  Neustria,  who  was 
thenceforth  simultaneously  mayor  of  the  palace  for  all 
three  kingdoms.  So  vast  was  his  power  that  from  that 
date  history  merely  mentions  the  names  of  the  Mero- 
vingian kings  whom  he  kept  on  the  throne;  Thierry 
III  (d.  691),  Clovis  III  (d.  695),  Childebert  III  (d. 
711),  and  Dagobert  III  (d.  715).    Indeed,  it  is  only 
through  respect  for  a  traditional  fiction  of  history  that 
Pepin  II  is  not  put  down  as  the  first  sovereign  of  the 
Carlovingian  dynasty.   The  direction  of  the  destinies 
of  the  Frankish  monarchy  now  passed  from  the  hands 
of  the  Salian  into  those  of  the  Ripuarian  Franks. 
These  constituted  the  Germanic  element  of  the  nfition 
which  took  the  place  of  the  Roman  party  in  the 
government.   Their  policy  was  better  adapted  to  the 
spirit  of  the  times  inasmuch  as  it  abolished  the  tradi- 
tional absolutism  of  the  Merovingians.    Fintdly  the 
Carlovingians  had  the  merit  and  the  satisfaction  (for 
it  was  both)  of  re-establishing  unity  in  the  Frankish 
monarchy  which  had  been  so  frequently  divided ;  from 
687  to  843,  that  is,  for  over  a  century  and  a  half,  all 
the  Franks  were  united  imder  the  same  government. 
But  Pepin  II  did  not  confine  himself  to  restoring 
Frankish  unity;  he  extended  the  frontiers  of  the  mon- 
archy by  subouine  the  Frisians,  his  neighbours  on  the 
north.  These  restless  barbarians,  who  occupied  a  large 
portion  of  the  present  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlancu, 
were  fanatical  pagans;  Ratbod,  their  duke,  was  a 
bitter  enemy  of  Christianity.    Pepin  forced  him  io 
surrender  Western  Frisia,  which  nearly  corresponded 
to  the  present  provinces  of  South  and  North  Hol- 
VT,— 16 


land,  and  obliged  him  to  keep  the  peace  for  the  rest  of 
his  life. 

Pepin  could  now  consider  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Franks  as  an  hereditary  patrimony,  and  he  conferred 
the  mayoralty  of  Neustria  on  his  son  Grimoald.    At 
his  death  in  714,  which  was  subseouent  to  that  of  his 
two  sons  Grimoald  and  Drogon,  ne  bequeathedjbhe 
entire  monarchy,  as  a  family  heritage,  to  nis  gandson 
Theodoald,  Gnmoald's  son,  still  a  minor.    This  act 
was  a  political  blunder  suggested  to  the  clear-minded 
Pepin  on  his  death-bed  bynis  wife  Plectrude.  Pepin 
had  a  son  Charles  by  a  mistress  named  Alpalde,  who 
at  his  father's  death  was  twenty-six  years  of  a^  and 
c^uite  capable,  as  events  showed,  of  vigorously  cfefend* 
ing  the  paternal  inheritance.    It  cannot  be  said  that 
the  stigma  of  illegitimacy  caused  him  to  be  put  aside, 
for  Theodoald  was  also  a  natural  son,  but  the  blooa 
of  the  ambitious  Plectrude  coursed  through  the  lain 
ter's  veins,  and  she  reigned  in  his  name.   The  people, 
however,  would  not  now  submit  to  the  regency  of  a 
woman  any  more  than  in  the  time  of  Brunehilde. 
There  was  a  universal  uprising  among  the  Neustrians, 
Aquitanians,  and  Frisians.   iSsewhere  may  be  found 
an  account  of  these  struggles.  (See  Charles  Martel.) 
Here  it  suffices  to  say  that  Plectrude  was  soon  ca^t 
aside  and  Charles  Martel,  whom  she  had  thrown  into 
prison,  escaped  and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
national  Austrasian  party.  Defeated  at  first,  but  soon 
victorious  over  all  his  enemies,  Charles  reduced  nearly 
all  the  rebellious  tribes  to  obedience,  not  only  those 
just  named,  but  also  the  Bavarians  and  Alamanni. 
His  greatest  service  to  civilization  was  the  ^orious 
victory  over  the  Arabs  between  Tours  and  Poitiers 
(732),  which  earned  him  the  name  of  Martel,  the  ham- 
mer. This  conquest  saved  Christianity  and  preserved 
Europe  from  the  power  of  the  Mussulmans.    It  was 
not,  however,  Charles's  last  encounter  with  the  Arabs : 
he  banished  them  from  Provence  and  in  739  defeated 
them  again  on  the  banks  of  the  Berre  near  Narbonne. 
This  sovereign,  whose  exclusively  military  career  con- 
sisted in  restoring,  by  dint  of  force,  an  empire  that  was 
crumbling  away,  could  not  escape  the  accusation  of 
havine  abetted  violence  in  others  and  resorted  to  it 
himself.  He  has  especidUy  been  charged  with  secular- 
izing many  ecclesiastical  estates,  which  he  took  from 
churches  and  abbeys  and  gave  m  fief  to  his  warriors  as 
a  recompense  for  their  services.    This  land  actually 
remainea  the  property  of  the  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ments in  question,  but  its  hereditary  usufruct  was 
assured  to  the  new  occupants.  This  expedient  enabled 
Charles  Martel  to  collect  an  army  and  secure  faithful 
followers.    Another  no  less  censurable  practice  was 
that  of  conferring  the  highest  ecclesiastical  dignities 
upon  tmworthy  persons  whose  only  right  was  that 
they  were  loyal  soldiers  of  Charles  Martel .  However,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  these  measures  enabled  him 
to  muster  the  forces  with  which  he  saved  Christian 
civflization  at  Toura.   He  also  aided  efficaciously  St. 
Boniface  in  his  project  of  spreading  the  Christian 
Faith  throughout  Germany.    Such  were  the  popular- 
ity and  prestige  of  Charles  that  when,  in  737,  King 
Thierry  IV  di^,  he  saw  no  necessity  of  providing  a 
successor  for  him,  and  reigned  alone.    He  died  at 
Quierzy-siuvOise  21  October,  741,  after  having  divided 
t^e  provinces  between  his  two  sons:  Carloman  re- 
ceived Austrasia  with  its  Germanic  dependencies,  and 
Pepin,   Neustria,   Burgundy,   and   Provence,   while 
Grifon,  a  natural  son,  was  excluded  from  the  succes- 
sion as  Charles  himself  had  been. 

Pepin  and  Carloman  reined  together  imtil  747. 
supporting  each  other  in  their  various  enterprises  ana 
combatins  the  same  enemies.  During  the  nrst  yeare 
of  their  aoministration  they  had  to  subdue  the  revolts 
of  the  Aquitanians,  the  Saxons,  the  Alamanni,  as  well 
as  those  of  their  brother  Grifon,  and  of  Odilo,  Duke  of 
Bavaria.  They  con(]^uered  all  the  rebels,  but  left  to 
Aquitaine  and  Bavaria  their  national  dukes  while  tiiey 


ntANZELIK                            242  ntAHZKLDf 

abolished  the  Duchy  of  Alamannia.    They  also  under-  ably  embodsring  Catholic  doctrine  on  this  important 

took  the  great  work  of  reforming  the  Prankish  Church,  point :  **  ut  melius  esset ' ',  said  the  pope, ''  ilium  regon 

into  whicn  several  generations  of  civil  wars  had  in-  vocari,  qui  potestatem  haberet,  quam  ilium  qui  sine 

troduoed  great  disorders.    National  councils  convoked,  reeali  potestate  maneret ' '  [it  weieoetter  for  him  to  be 

by  their  efforts,  in  Austrasia  (at  Estinnes,  or  Lestinnes)  caUed  King  who  holds  the  power  than  the  one  who  r»- 

and  Neustria  (at  Soissons)  the  work  of  which  was  mains  (king  in  name)  without  the  regal  power].  Re- 

oompleted  by  a  large  council  attended  by  the  bishops  assured  by  this  decision,  Pepin  hesitated  no  longer, 

of  both  countries,  were  largely  instrumental  in  restor-  and  had  himself  proclaimed  king  at  Soissons  in  751. 

ing  order  and  discipline  in  the  Church,  in  eliminating  Childeric  III  was  sent  to  end  his  days  in  a  cloister. 

abuses  and  in  rootmg  out  superstition.  St.  Boniface,  The  nature  of  the  authority  with  which  Pepin  was  in- 

the  soul  of  this  great  work,  after  having,  to  some  ex-  vested  was  emphasized  for  the  firat  time  among  the 

tent,  created  the  Church  of  Germany,  nad  also  the  Franks,  by  the  coronation  ceremony,  which  imparted  a 

glory  of  regenerating  the  Prankish  Church.    While  religious  nature  to  his  power  and  imprinted  upon  him 

deeply  absorbed  in  this  twofold  task  of  defending  the  a  sacred  character.    It  has  been  said,  but  without  proof, 

kingdom  and  reforming  the  Church,  the  two  brothers  that  St.  Boniface  attended  the  coronation.    In  this 

thought  of  reinstating  a  Merovingian  king  (743),  al-  wa^,  after  having  exercised  the  royal  power  almost 

though  for  six  years  the  nation  had  existed  without  unmterruptedly  for  over  a  century,  the  (Mcendants  of 

one.    It  would  seem  that  they  were  led  to  do  this  by  Amulf  and  Pepin  finally  assumed  the  title  of  sover- 

the  necessity  of  removing  one  of  the  objections  that  eignty,  and  the  Carlovingian  dynasty  replaced  that  of 

could  be  made  to  their  authority,  at  a  time  when  it  the  Merovingians  on  the  Prantish  throne. 

was  assailed  on  all  sides  and  when  they  were  treated  Qrboobt  or  Tonss,  Hiatoria  Franeorum  (538-94);  the 

as  usurpers.    Under  these  circumstances  they  placed  ■•venth-century  chronicle  attributed  to  a  certain  FREDMAimja, 

€»  uout^i^     xjuxA^o^v^s^  V  «^«»>«av»ux^  u^«jr  v*«T^  and  itfl  ttghth-oentury  oontinuaUon;  these,  with  the  Liber  Hta* 

Upon  the  throne  Chlldenc  III,  the  last  Merovmgian  torim  and  the  lives  of  the  Merovingian  saints  are  included  in  the 

kmg.  Man,  Otrm,  Hiat.:  Script,  rtr,  Merov.,  ^a.1^*  ^^!  ^*  ^^  Salioa, 

When  the  task  common  to  both  brothers  was  nearly  J^)**^^'  •'  «•  S«»™  ^«'>  ^ww.  the  Lex  Saliea  (London, 

accomplished,  Carloman,  yielding  to  the  inclination  Modebn  Works.— Richttbr.  Annalen  da  frankUchen  Reioh» 

he  had  always  felt  for  the  religious  life,  relinquished  «*»  Zeitalter  der  Merovinqer   (Halle,    1873);    ScRUi/na,    Daa 

all  hb  states  In  favour  of  Pepm  and  retu«d  to  a  clotater  SJSSZS^  ^S^^^JS^^^i^^Sitl^rr^TH 

on  Mt.  Soracte  near  Rome  (747).     Pepm,  who  thus  QhuU  mirovingienne  (Paris,  s.  d,)\  Batew  and  PnvrsR  in  La- 

remained  alone  at  the  head  of  the  vast  Prankish  mon-  y™»?.  ^SnSi^  ^  France,  II;  Vacamdard,  Vie  de  eaint  Ouen 
archy,  reaped  all  the  fruit  of  their  combined  labours.  ^*^*™»  1902).  Godbfroi  Kurth. 
It  was  easy  for  him  to  subdue  a  last  revolt  by  Grifon,  ' 
who  perished  in  Italy.  Afterwards  he  enjoyed  a  few  Franielin,  Johann  Baptist,  cardinal  and  theolo- 
years  of  peace,  a  rare  privilege  in  those  stormy  times,  aan;  b.  at  Aldein,  in  the  T^rrol,  15  April,  1816:  d.  at 
Having  now  become  undisputed  master  of  the  greatest  Rome,  11  Dec.,  1886.  Despite  their  poverty,  his  par- 
nation  of  Europe,  and  conndent  of  being  able  to  trans-  ents  sent  him  at  an  early  age  to  tne  neignbouring 
mit  intact  to  his  sons  the  power  he  hacTreceived  from  Pranciscan  college  at  Bohsanp.  In  1834  he  entered  the 
his  father,  Pepin  considered  the  question  whether  the  Societv  of  Jesus  at  Graz,  and  after  some  years  spent 
time  had  not  come  to  assume  the  name  to  which  his  in  hijgher  studies  and  teaching  in  Austrian  Polana,be- 
sovereign  authority  entitled  him.  Such  a  step  could  gan  m  1845  his  course  of  theology  in  the  Roman  col- 
hardly  l>e  objected  to  when  he  was  virtually  king,  lege  of  the  Society,  where  he  also  acted  as  assistant  in 
Since  the  Merovingian  who  occupied  the  throne  was  Hebrew,  in  which  he  was  especially  proficient.  Driven 
there  only  at  Pepin's  will,  it  was  surely  Pepin's  priv-  from  Rome  bv  the  Revolution  of  1848,  he  went  sucoes- 
ilege  to  remove  him.  Einnard  describes  the  character  sively  to  Eng^d,  Belgium,  and  France,  where  he  was 
of  the  rovalty  of  the  last  Merovingians  whom  the  ordamed  in  1840.  In  1850  he  returned  to  the  Roman 
princes  of  Pepin's  family  tolerated  or  replaced  upon  college  as  assistant  professor  of  dogma,  and  lecturer 
the  throne.  "This  king  to  whom  nothing  royal  had  on  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  Chaldean,  in  1853  he  became 
been  left  save  the  title  of  king,  sat  upon  the  throne  prefect  of  studies  in  the  German  college  and  in  1857 
and,  with  long  hair  and  unkempt  beard,  played  the  professor  of  dogmatic  theology  in  the  Roman  college, 
part  of  master.  He  ^ve  audience  to  the  ambassadors  where  he  remained  for  nineteen  years,  winning  for 
who  came  from  various  countries  and  issued  replies  himself  by  his  lectures  and  publications  a  foremost 
that  had  been  dictated  to  him,  as  if  coming  from  nim-  place  among  the  theologians  or  that  time.  During  this 
self.  In  reality,  outside  of  a  hollow  name  and  a  doubt-  period  he  acted  as  consuitor  to  several  Roman  Congre- 
f  ul  pension  paid  him  at  the  will  of  the  mayor  of  the  gations,  and  aided  in  the  preliminaries  of  the  Vatican 
palace,  he  had  nothing  for  his  own  save  a  small  farm  uouncil,  in  which  he  afterwards  served  as  papal  theo- 
yielding  a  meagre  income,  and  here  he  lived  with  a  logian.  In  1876,  despite  his  sincere  and  strenuous  pro- 
small  number  of  serfs.  When  he  went  out,  he  rode  in  tests,  he  was  raised  to  the  cardinalate  by  Pius  TX. 
an  ox-cart  driven  by  a  rustic  driver.  In  this  vehicle  This  di^tv  made  almost  no  change  in  his  scrupu- 
he  annually  attendea  the  C^mps  c2e  ilfai.  Them^^r  lously  simple  and  laborious  life.  He  continued  his  use 
of  the  palace  alone  controlled  public  affairs."  'Hiis  of  poor  garments;  occupied  but  two  bare  rooms  in  the 
description,  it  is  true,  is  somewhat  of  a  caricature,  and  Jesuit  novitiate  of  Sant' Andrea;  rose  every  morning  at 
tiiere  is  evidence  in  public  charters  that  the  position  four  and  spent  the  time  till  seven  in  devotional  exer- 
of  the  Merovingian  kings  was  not  as  insecure  as  Ein-  cises,  always  hearins  Mass  after  sayine  his  own;  fasted 
hard  says.  Nevertheless,  it  expresses  well  the  marked  every  Saturday^  ana  towards  the  end  of  his  days  Fri- 
contrast  between  the  humiliatms  position  of  the  king  days  also,  besides  using  other  forms  of  corporal 
and  Uie  exalted,  powerful  stanaing  of  the  mavor  of  penance. 

the  palace.  It  can  be  understood,  therefore,  that  in  Though  of  delicate  health,  Franzelin  had  always 
751,  JPepin  and  the  Prankish  nobles  inight  well  discuss  been  a  constant  and  most  laborious  worker,  never 
the  question  as  to  whether  he  should  assume  the  kin^y  allowing  himself  any  recreation  during  his  long  years 
crown.  The  question  had  a  moral  side,  namdy.  of  poor  health,  severe  toil,  and  painful  scruples,  save 
whether  it  was  lawful  to  assume  a  title  which  seemed  the  short  recreation  after  diimer  and  supper.  As  a 
to  belong  to  another.  It  was  decided  to  appeal  for  a  cardinal  his  sole  departure  from  strict  adnerence  to 
solution  to  the  sovereign  pontiff,  recognized  by  all  as  Jesuit  rule  was  to  omit  this  daily  recreation.  More- 
the  custodian  and  inteipreter  of  the  moral  law.  A  over,  though  constantly  engaged  as  Prefect  of  the  . 
Prankish  embassy  left  for  Rome  and  submitted  the  Congregation  of  Indulgences  and  Relics,  and  consul- 
question  to  Pope  Zachary.  The  latter's  reply  was  tor  of  several  other  Congregations^  he  steadily  refused 
given  in  the  form  of  a  dedaration  of  principles  admir-  the  aid  of  a  secretary.   His  entire  mcome  as  a  cardinal 


rR4S0An 


be  distributed  among  the  poor,  the  foreign 
Hid  OMiveata  whose  property  had  been  eeiied  by  the 
Italian  Government.  Aa  a  theologian  Franielin  takes 
hi^  nuik.  From  the  first  hia  works  were  rew^niied 
as  a  mine  of  rich  material  for  the  preacher  no  less  than 
the  professor;  and  for  years  be  was  accustomed  to 
receive  numerous  letters  from  priests  in  all  parte  of  the 
world,  spontaneously  aclmowledgin^  the  ereat  aid  in 
preachiiig  they  had  derived  from  bis  books.  Of  his 
works, which  have  gone  through  numerous  editions,  the 
treatise  "  T>e  Diviiia  Traditione  et  Scriptura"  (Rome, 
1870)  is  considered  classical.  The  others  are  "De  88. 
Eucharistis  Baorameoto  et  Sacrificio"  (1868);  "De 
Saorameatis  in  Genere"  (1868);  "De  Deo  Trino" 
(1869);  "De  Deo  Uno"  (1870);  "De  Verbo  Incar- 
nato"(I670);  some  smaller  treatises,  and  the  posthu- 
mous "De  Ecelesia  Christi"  (1887). 

BoHAvaHiA.  RaaaUa  di  Mmorxi  inlomo  aOa  viUt  dtlT  Bm. 
Cardinalt  Oiasanni  Bailitla  Fnmtitin  [Rome,  1S8T):  Walbh, 
John  Baplitl  Framdin,A  Bktich  and  a  Sfudu  (Dubtin,  18S5); 
Comnunlarmt  dt  VHa  Bmitunlitnmi  AuetorA  in  FsiJiiaLIH's 
pasthumoiu  mrk,  Dt  Soslano  ChrUli  (Rotoe,  1SB7) ;  IluBTsa, 
aommcUiior. 

John  F.  X.  MtmPHT. 

Fraseatl,  Diocbsb  op  (Tuscuiana),  on«  <d  the 
six  suburbicarian  (i.  e.  neighbouriDg)  dioceses  from  an 
immemorial  date  closely  related  to  the  Roman 
Church.  The  city  ot  Fraacati  is  about  twelve  miles 
from  Rome  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Alban  Hills, 
pleasantly  and  healthfully  situated.  Its  principal 
source  of  wealth  is  its  vineyards,  which  yield  an  ex- 
cellent wine.  The  history  of  the  city  (population, 
10,000)  is  bound  up  with  that  of  ancient  Tueoulum, 
which,  according  to  the  l^end,  was  founded  bvTelo- 
gonuB.  the  son  of  Ulysses  and  Circe.  Id  the  idngl^ 
perioa  Tusculum  was  an  ally  of  Rome,  to  which  it 
later  became  subject.  After  the  expulsion  of  Tttr- 
quinius  Superbus,  Octavius  Hanilius,  the  tyrant  of 
Tusculum,  and  son-in-law  of  Tarquinius,  roused  the 
Idtin  communes  against  the  Roman  Republic  (507 
B.C.);  they  were  routed,  however,  at  the  battle  c€ Lake 
Re^us  (496  b.c).  In  493  the  Latin  League  with 
Rome  was  renewed.  After  the  disastrous  cuttles  of 
Vesuvius  and  Trifanum  (338  b.c),  Rome,  in  order  to 
detach  Tusculum  and  other  towns  from  the  Latin 
League,  conferred  on  them  \he  privilege  of  the  highest 
citiienship  (ju*  auffragii  et  honurum).  While  the 
other  Latm  towns  waned  steadily,  Tusculum  grew  and 
heeatne  in  ^e  course  of  time  tne  favourite  pleasure 
resort  of  the  rich  Roman  nobles,  whose  sumptuous 
villas  were  scattered  over  the  slopes  of  the  hill;  many 
of  them  can  even  yet  be  identifi«l  among  the  mass  of 
ruins.  The  Villa  of  Lucullus.  now  the  Wla  Torlonia, 
the  most  splendid  of  them  all,  was  famous  for  its  li- 
brary. The  Villa  of  Agrippina,  the  Villa  of  Claudius, 
and  those  of  the  Flavian  emperors  stood  on  the  site  of 
modern  Frascati.  That  of  Marcus  Forcius  Cato,  the 
Censor,  rose  on  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  village  of 
Monte  Poriio  Catmie,  named  therefrom.  Tiboius, 
Julia,  and  Vespasian  also  had  villas  at  Tusculum. 
The  exact  site  ot  Cicero's  villa,  where  he  wrote  the 
"Disputationes  Tusculame"  and  other  works,  is  a 
matter  of  learned  controversy.  In  the  opinion  of 
some  it  occupied  the  present  site  of  the  monastery  of 
Grottaf errata;  others  hold  that  it  was  near  the  mod- 
em Villa  Rufinella.  A  more  probable  opinion  is  that 
it  stood  on  the  knoll  above  Grottaferrata.    To  adorn 


S  rRASOATX 

of  the  Greek  theatre,  the  fortress  with  nu^alithio 
walls,  and  an  amphitheatre  locally  known  as  Souola  di 
Cicerone  (Cicero's  School) ;  there  are  also  rough  roads 
paved  with  huge  polygonal  blocks  of  stone,  and  lined 
with  tombs,  grottoes,  etc.  Excavations  were  be^un 
by  the  Jesuits  in  I74I,  and  were  placed  by  Lucien 
Bonaparte  under  the  direction  oE  Biondi  and  Amati  in 
1819;  later  Maria  Christina  of  Savoy  had  the  work 
carried  on  by  Canina.  who  wrot«  a  description  of  the 
discoveries.  Some  oi  the  most  beautiful  sculptures  in 
the  Vatican  Museum  and  elsewhere  at  Rome  were 
found  at  Tusculum. 

Among  the  many  inscriptions  found  at  Frascati 
very  tew  are  Christian,  and  the  excavations  so  tar 
show  no  trace  of  early  Christianity.     The  basilica  of 
the  monastery  at  Grottaferrata,  and  the  chapel  of   ' 
Stui  Ceeario,  close  to  the  modem  episcopal  residence. 


financially.  When  he  was  exiled  in  58  b.c.  the  villa 
was  sacked,  and  the  Consul  Gabinius  carried  oft  much 
booty  to  his  own  house.  On  the  top  of  the  hill  near 
the  western  gate  of  the  old  town,  there  are  to  be  seen 
even  to-day  the  ruins  of  an  immense  villa,  discovered 
by  Canina,  who  drew  a  plan  of  it;  it  is  commonly  but 
erroneously  known  as  the  Villa  of  Tiberius.  The  an- 
cient town  was  built  along  the  ridge  of  the  hill,  about 
2000  feet  above  the  sesr-level.    Th^  remun  the  ruins 


CXTHMBKUL  or  S.   FlVTHO,   Fkukuti 
Dessned  by  Giroliuao  Foataoft 

are  the  only  Christian  monuments  that  antedat«  tiio 
destruction  of  ancient  Tusculum  in  1191.  Nevertb^ 
lees  from  its  very  proximity  to  Rome,  Tusculum  must 
have  received  the  Christian  Faith  at  an  early  date. 
Perhaps  the  villa  of  the  Acilii,  a  Christian  family,  on 
the  site  of  which  stands  the  monastery  of  Grottafer- 
rata, was  the  cradle  of  Christianity  for  the  people  of 
Tusculum.  The  first  known  Bishop  of  Tusculum  is 
Vitalianus  in  680,  whose  subscription  appears  on  Pope 
Agatho's  letter  to  the  Sixth  General  Coimcil.  Being 
one  of  the  suburbicarian  bishops,  the  Bishop  of  Tuscu- 
lum from  the  seventh  century  was  bound  to  take  his 
turn  in  replacing  the  pope  at  the  functions  in  the  Lat- 
eran;  but  it  is  not  till  the  tune  of  Bishop  Pietro  (1050) 
that  we  find  the  title  of  cardinal  given  to  the  Bishop  <^ 
Tusculum.  From  the  tenth  century  onwards  the 
Counts  of  Tusculum  exercised  a  preponderant  inSu- 
ence  over  the  Government  of  Rome  and  the  papacy 
itself.  Theophylactus,  Senator  of  the  Romans  and 
founder  of  the  family,  was  the  husband  of  Theodora, 
who  under  Serous  III  was  absolute  mistress  of  Rome, 
and  whose  daughter  Marosia  married  Alberic  I,  Mar- 
erave  of  Camenno  and  Duke  of  Bpoleto,  father  of  AI- 
berio  II,  who  from  932  to  954  ruled  Rome  under  th« 


FRAS8XN                               244  FRATIOSLLI 

title  of  Patrician  and  Senator,  and  obtained  from  the  V;  Giuliano  Oesarini  (1444);^Bes8arion  (1449);  Ale»- 
Romans  the  assurance  that  after  his  death  his  son  sandro  Famese  (1519), afterwards  Paul  III;  Giovanni 
Octavian  should  be  made  pope  (John  XII).  When  Pietro  Caraffa  (1550),  afterwards  Paul  IV;  Giovanni 
John  XII  was  deposed  (963),  the  Counts  of  Tusculum  Antonio  Serbelloni  (1583);  Loremso  Corsini  (1725), 
yielded  for  a  time  to  the  Crescenzi,  but  their  power  afterwards  Clement  XII;  Henry  Benedict,  Duke  of 
was  soon  restored  to  them.  From  1012  to  1044  three  York  (1761-1807),  son  of  James  III,  the  English  Pre- 
popes  of  the  gre&t  Tusculan  family  succeeded  one  an-  tender  (Cardinal  York  left  his  rare  collection  of  books 
other:  B^i^ict  VIII,  his  brother  John  XIX,  and  to  the  seminary  library) ;  Bartolomeo  Pacca  (1818); 
their  nephew  Benedict  IX.  The  Tusculan  domina-  Francesco  Xaverio  Castiglione  (1821),  afterwards  Pius 
tion,  it  IS  well  Imown,  was  far  from  creditable  to  the  VIII ;  Luigi  Micara,  the  Capuchin  (1837) ;  Jean-Bap- 
Roman  Church.  Benedict  VIII  alone  has  a  claim  to  tiste  Pitra  (1879) ;  and  Francesco  di  Paola  Satolli 
our  respect  (Kleinermanns.  "  Papst  Benedict  VIII ",  (1904),  for  several  years  the  first  Apostolic  Delegate  at 
in  "Der  KatJiolik",  1887.  II,  407,  480,  624).  It  was  Washington,  U.  S.  A.  In  the  Diocese  of  Frascati  is 
Count  Qre^^ory  I,  father  ot  Benedict  VIII,  who  gave  to  situated  Monte  Compatri,  the  ancient  Labicum,  whose 
St.  Nilus  (1002)  the  monastery  of  Grottaferrata.  In  cardinal-bishops  are  often  mentioned  in  medieval  his- 
the  conflict  over  Investitures  between  Paschal  II  and  tory.  The  diocese  has  8  parishes  and  16,000  souls,  9 
Henry  V  (1111),  while  Tolomeo,  Count  of  Tusculum^  monasteries  for  men  (among  them  the  famous  Abbey 
was  on  the  emperor's  side,  Cardinal-Bishop  Giovanm  of  Grottaferrata,  and  one  Camaldolese  monastery). 

led  the  Roman  opposition  to  Henry.     Under  Alexan-  ToicMAsaETn,  DeUa  oampagna  Romana  in   Archivio  ddUi 

der  III  however  Bishop  Imaro  efded  with Antipope  ^j.f^j^^StJ^j^^^tjl^u'^'^^^M'^^ 

Victor  IV,  though  Tusculum  itself  was  m  favour  of  utmiche  ddC  antico  Tuscoh  (Rome.  1836);   Groasz-Gondi.  U 

Pope  Alexander.     The  town  also  opposed  the  Roman  viUe  hueuUme  del  riruudn^nto  (Rome.  1901);    iDiai,  Le  vUU 

Senate  in  its  attempt  to  deprive  the  popesof  their  tem-  ft«<^»«  ^  ^  d«"»<»  CRo°«.  i«>7).  t.^^^^^ 
poral  power.  In  1 182  the  Romans  made  war  on  Tu&-  ^  •  ^^^lo**'- 
culum,  whereupon  Archbishop  Christian  of  Mwnz  was  FrMBen,  Claude,  celebrated  Scotist  theologian  and 
caUed  m  by  Pope  Lucius  III  and  defeated  the  Romans,  philosopher  of  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor;  b.  near 
In  1191,  Hennr  VI  recalled  the  German  garrison  from  ^^ronne,  France,  in  1620;  d.  at  Paris,  26  February, 
Tusculum  ^d,  as  a  result,  the  town  was  soon  de-  1711,  ge  entered  the  Franciscan  Older  at  P^ronne  m 
Btroyed  by  the  Romans  and  never  regained  its  former  ^is  seventeenth  year;  and  after  the  year  of  novitiate 
prestiM  (Lugan,  L  ongme  di  Frascati  e  la  distru-  ^^s  sent  to  Paris,  where  he  completed  his  studies  and 
none  di  Tivoli,  Rome,  1891).  remained  for  thirty  years  as  professor  of  philosophy 
In  tune  the  people  of  Tusculum  gathered*  around  ^nd  theology.  In  1662  he  was  made  doctor  of  the 
the  Castello  di  San  Ceaano,  and  the  village  thus  begun  Sorbonne,  and  as  definitor  general,  to  which  office  he 
was  called  Frascatk  either  because  of  the  fraache  (wat-  ^^s  elected  in  1682,  he  took  part  in  the  general  chap- 
ties)  of  which  the  first  huts  were  built,  or  because  the  ^„  ^f  the  order  at  Toledo  and  Rome.  Outside  of  the 
locahty  had  ahready  been  known  as  Fraacarw,  which  ^^^j.  his  counsel  was  sought  not  only  by  ecclesiastics 
m  Low  Latin  means  a  place  covered  with  underbnwh.  ^ut  likewise  by  secular  dignitaries,  Kmg  Louis  XIV  of 
From  the  fifteenth  cwitury  Frascati  once  more  be-  France,  in  particular,  holding  him  in  high  esteem.  He 
came  a  favounte  health  rwort  of  Roman  cardii^  ^jj^  ^t  the  ripe  old  age  of  mnety-one  years,  seventy- 
t:i       _    X              XI.    -j./i       xL.i.          ^    -  _     .           ...           .  .      ^tincs 

nicus". 

IV,  a  vast  structure  with  a  splendid  portico,  now  used  ^^  and^  whcJEtfTy  prerentj^oM^of  the  Thrology  of 

as  a  Jesuit  coUege;  Villa  Taverna,  now  Borgh^ana,  D^^g  Scotus.    Few,  if  any,  of  the  numerous  interpre- 

founded  m  1614;  Villa  Falcomen,  the  work  of  Bor-  ^ers  and  commentators  of  Scotus  have  succeeded  so 

rommi  (1648),  with  paintings  by  Carlo  Maratta  (The  ^^u  ^s  Frassen  in  combining  simplicity  of  style  and 

Birth  of  Venus),  Ciro  Fern,  and  Pierleone   Ghea«i  clearness  of  method  with  that  subtleness  of  thoudit 

(caricatures  and  portraits  of  hunself) ;  m  1901  it  was  ^hich  characterizes  Scotistic  theology  as  a  whole,  fte 

bought  by  the  Trappists  and  now  belongs  to  the  Ger-  y^i^g  ^f  the  work  is  enhanced  by  frequent  quotations 

man   Emperor;    Villa  LanceUotti  with  its  glorious  from  the  Fathers,  and  by  an  impartial  statement  of  all 

forest  drives,  where  may  be  seen  the  httle  church  of  controverted  questions  in  scholastic  theology.    The 

San  Michele,  over  which  is  a  small  roomrn  which  Car-  ^^  volume  is  prefaced  with  a  chronological  list  and  a 

dinal  Baromus  wrote  his  "Aimales  Ecd^iastici   ;  brief  historical  and  dogmatical  account  of  the  different 

Villa  Rufinella,  higher  up  the  hill,  a  Jesmt  college  heresies  from  the  beginnings  of  Christianity  to  the  fif- 

from  1740  to  1773,  which  later  belonged  to  the  House  ^eenth  centuiy.    The  latest  edition  of  the  "Scotus 

of  Savoy,  and  is  now  umted  to  the  Villa  LanceUotti:  Academicus",  published  by  the  Friars  Minor  (Rome, 

Villa  Aldobrandmi  (or  Belvedere),  the  most  beautiful  1900-02)  in  twelve  volumes,  was  prepared  from  notes 

of  the  Frascati  villas,  built  m  1603  by  Pietro  Cardinal  jgf ^  hy  the  author  himself  and  preserved  in  the  BibUo- 

Aldobrandim  from  designs  by  Giovanm  Fontana,  with  th^ue  Nationale  of  Paris.   Eariier  editions  were  those 

paintings  by  H  Cavahere  d  Ajpino  and  by  Domem-  ^f  ^^ris  (1672-77),  Rome  (1721),  and  Venice  (1744). 

chine  (the  Myth  of  ApoUo);  Villa  Torlonia,  with  its  prassen  is  also  the  author  of  a  "Cursus  Philosophi®", 

numerous  fountains;    Villa  Sora,  built  by  Gregory  published  at  Paris  in  1688  and  at  Venice  in  1767.    On 

XIII,  now  used  as  a  Salesian  boardme  school.  Among  §cripture,  he  wrote  "  Disquisitiones  Biblicae",  vol.  I 

the  important  churohes  are:  the  cathedral,  the  work  (Paris,   1682);    vol.  II:   "  Disquisitiones  in  Penta- 

of  Girolamo  Fontana;  the  Gesii,  with  its  mutation  teuchum"  (Rouen,  1705). 

cupola  painted  by  the  Jesuit  Oblate  Pozzo :  San  Rocco.  Hurtbb,  Nomendator. 

formerly  known  as  S.  Maria  in  Vivario,  the  cathedral  Stephen  M.  Donovan. 
imtil  1700;  Madonna  di  Capo  Croce,  and  Madonna 

delle  Scuole  Pie.  FraticeUi  (or  Fratricelli),  a  name  given  to  vari- 

Among  the  Tusculum  bishops  of  note  are  Egidius,  ous  heretical  sects  which  appeared  in  the  fourteenth 

sent  by  John  XII  to  Poland  in  964;  the  learnt  Jac-  and  fifteenth  centuries,  principallv  in  Italy.   The  word 

ques  de  Vitry  (1228),  who  preached  against  the  Al-  bein^  frequently  a  misnomer,  a  definition  is  apposite, 

bigenses;  Pietro  di  Lisbona  (1276),  chief  physician  of  Considered  philologically,  FraticeUi  is  a  diminutive 

Gregory  IX,  and  afterwards  pope  as  John  XXI ;  Ber-  derived  from  the  Italian  /rate  (plural  frati).   Frati  was 

engarius  of  Fr^ol  (1309),  who  collaborated  on  the  a  designation  of  the  members  of  the  mendicant  orders 

"  Liber  Sextus  Decretalium"  of  Boniface  VIII;  Bal-  founded  during  the  thirteenth  century,  principally  the 

dassare  Coosa  (1419)i  after  his  submission  to  Martin  Franciscans  or  Friars  Minor.  The  Latm  FraterculuB 


FBATIOELU 


245 


FBATIOELU 


does  not  occur  in  the  old  records  which  concern  the 
Fraticelli.  Etymologically  the  name  Friars  Minor 
(Fratrea  Minorea)  is  equivalent  to  the  diminutive 
FraticeUuB,  The  ideal  of  the  founder  of  the  Friars 
Minor,  St.  Francis,  was  that  his  disciples  by  evangeli- 
cal poverty,  complete  self-denial,  and  humility,  should 
leaa  the  world  back  to  Christ.  The  Italian  people 
designated  as  Fraticelli  all  the  members  of  religious, 
particularly  mendicant,  orders,  and  especially  solitai^ 
les,  whether  these  observed  a  definite  rule  or  regulated 
their  own  lives. 

In  this  article  the  name  Fraticelli  is  confined  to 
heretical  sects  which  separated  from  the  Franciscan 
Order  on  account  of  the  disputes  concerning  povertv. 
The  Apostolics  (Pseudo- Apostles  or  Apostolic  Bratn- 
ren)  are  excluded  from  the  categdfy,  because  admis- 
sion to  the  Order  of  St.  Francis  was  expressly  denied 
to  their  founder,  Segarelli  (see  Apobtolici).  They 
had  no  connexion  with  the  Minorites,  in  fact  desired 
raider  to  exterminate  them.  It  is  therefore  necessarv 
to  differentiate  the  various  groups  of  Fraticelli,  al- 
though the  one  term  ma^  be  applied  to  all. 

The  origin  of  the  Fraticelli  and  the  cause  of  their 
RTOwth  withm  and  without  the  Franciscan  Order  must 
be  soueht  in  the  history  of  the  Spirituals.  It  must 
suffice  here  to  note  that  m  consequence  of  St.  Francis's 
severe  requirements  concerning  the  practice  of  pov- 
erty, his  followers  divided  into  two  branches,  the 
Zdanii,  or  Spirituals,  and  the  Relaxatij  known  later  as 
the  Conventuals.  The  popes  of  the  thirteenth  century 
intervened  to  bring  about  harmony  between  the  two 
factions,  and  Gre^ry  IX,  Innocent  IV,  and  Nicholas 
III  gave  in  their  Bmls  authoritative  explanations  of 
the  points  at  issue.  But  the  differences  were  not  fully 
adjusted  nor  was  imity  ever  completely  restored  be- 
tween the  Spirituals  and  the  main  body  of  the  order, 
the  Community  (Fratres  de  Cammunitate). 

I.  The  group  founded  by  Brother  Angelo  da  dareno 
(or  da  Cingoli)  comes  first  in  order  of  time.  Angelo 
and  several  brethren  from  the  March  of  Ancona  hsui 
been  condemned  (c.  1278)  to  imprisonment  for  life, 
but  were  liberated  by  the  general  of  the  order,  Rai- 
mondo  Gaufredi  (1289-95)  and  sent  to  Armenia 
(1290),  where  they  did  good  work  as  missionaries. 
Eixiled  from  Armenia  towards  the  end  of  1293,  they 
returned  to  Italy,  where  in  1294  Celestine  V,  who  was 
noted. for  his  asceticism,  but  whose  pontificate  lasted 
scarcely  six  months,  willingly  permitted  them  to  live 
as  hermits  in  the  strict  observance  of  the  Rule  of  St. 
Francis.  After  the  abdication  of  (Delestine  V,  his  suc- 
cessor, Boniface  VIII,  revoked  all  Celestine 's  conces- 
sions, and  they  emigrated  to  Greece,  where  some  of 
them  attacked  the  legality  of  the  papal  action.  As  the 
pope,  throu^  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  caused 
active  measures  to  be  taken  against  them,  they  fled  to 
Italy,  where  their  leader,  Fra  liberatus,  attempted  a 
vindication  of  their  rights,  first  with  Boniface  VIII 
(d.  11  October,  1303),  and  then  with  Benedict  XI,  who 
also  died  prematurely  (7  July,  1304).  On  his  journey 
to  Clement  V  (1305-14)  at  Lyons,  liberatus  died 
(1307),  and  Angelo  da  C^lareno  succeeded  to  the  lesuier- 
ship  of  the  community.  He  remained  in  Central  Italy 
until  1311,  when  he  went  to  Avignon,  where  he  was 
protected  by  his  patrons  Cardinau  Giacomo  Colonna 
and  Napoleone  (Jrsini.  Early  in  1317  John  XXII, 
pursuant  to  a  decree  of  Boniface  VIII,  declared  Angelo 
excommunicated  and  placed  him  in  custody.  He  de- 
fended himself  ably  in  his  ''Epistola  Excusatoria", 
remiesenting  himself  as  a  zealous  Franciscan,  but  John 
XXII  refused  to  admit  his  plea,  Angelo  being  a  Celes- 
tine hermit,  and  in  the  decree  ''Sancta  Romana  et 
universalis  ecclesia"  (30  December,  1317)  refused  to 
authorize  the  congregation  of  which  Angelo  was  head. 
Angelo  submitted  temporarily,  but  in  1318  fled  to 
Central  Italy,  where,  acting  as  general,  he  assumed 
charge  of  the  congregation  dissolved  by  the  pope,  ap 
pointed  provincials,  ministers,  and  custodians^  estab- 


lished new  monasteries,  arroeated  all  authority,  issued 
pastoral  letters,  and  receiv^  novices;  in  a  word,  he 
founded  an  independent  Franciscan  Order,  the  Frati- 
celli. His  adherents  professed  themselves  the  original 
Friars  Minor.  They  denied  that  John  XXII  was  really 
pope,  as  he  had  abrogated  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis, 
whicn,  according  to  their  doctrine,  represented  the 
Gospel  pure  ana  simple.  They  asserted  that  his  de- 
crees were  invalid,  all  other  religious  and  prelates  were 
damned,  and  that  the  commission  of  mortal  sin  de- 
prived priests  of  the  sacerdotal  dienity  and  powers. 
These  views  were  brought  out  in  the  trials  to  which 
the  imprisoned  adherents  of  Fra  Angelo  were  sub- 
jected oy  the  inquisitors,  especially  in  1334.  In  the 
processes  of  these  trials  and  m  numerous  papal  BuUs 
they  are  called,  as  a  rule,  FraticeUi  sen  fratres  de  paur 
pere  vUd,  As  appears  from  the  papal  Bulls,  the  fol- 
lowers of  Angelo  established  themselves  in  Central 
Italy,  i.  e.,  in  the  province  of  Rome,  Umbria,  and  the 
March  of  Ancona,  and  also  in  Southern  Italy  (Cam- 
pagna,  Basilicata,  and  Naples).  Fra  Angelo  enjoyed 
the  protection  of  the  Abbot  of  Subiaco,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  John  XXII  (21  Feb^  1334)  commanded  the 
euardian  of  the  cloister  at  Ara  (Jceli  to  imprison  Angelo, 
^the  demented  heretic  who  stales  himself  general  of 
the  condemned  sect  of  the  Fraticelli ".  Equally  unsuc- 
cessful had  been  a  papal  warrant  issued  tor  his  arrest 
(22  November,  1331),  when  he  fled  to  Southern  Italy. 
He  died  15  July.  1337,  and  the  congregation^  deprived 
of  its  leader  ana  hard  pressed  by  the  Inquisition,  spUt 
into  a  number  of  groups  each  holding  its  own  doc- 
trines, though  it  is  impossible  to  determine  exactly 
their  origin.  It  should  lurther  be  noted  that  after  the 
controversy  reguding  poverty  broke  out  (1321-28), 
all  the  Fraticelli  showed  a  stronger  opposition  to  the 
papacy.  It  was  only  natural  that  men  of  their  calibre 
and  extreme  tendencies  should  fall  into  excesses;  but, 
schismatics  and  heretics  as  they  were,  the  moral  lapses 
of  individuals  are  not  to  be  imputed  to  the  whole  body, 
which  after  all  was  but  loosely  organized.  Angelo  da 
Clareno,  despite  the  circumstances  of  his  death,  was 
venerated  as  a  worker  of  miracles. 

Keeping  in  view  the  earlier  history  of  the  sect,  we 
shall  have  to  seek  traces  of  it  in  Central  Italy,  Umoria 
and  the  March  of  Ancona.  Angelo  was  highly  esteemed 
by  the  Augustinian  Hermits,  with  whom  he  was  on 
friendly  terms,  especially  with  Gentile  da  Foligno 
and  Simone  da  Cassia,  an  ascetic  writer  of  great  re- 
pute. He  corresponded  with  both,  and  Simone  bit- 
terly laments  in  the  death  of  Angelo  the  loss  of  a 
friend  and  spiritual  adviser.  We  niay,  therefore, 
safely  assume  that  the  FraticeUi  whom  simone  after- 
wards successfully  defended  against  the  Dominicans 
in  the  civil  courts  at  Florence  (c.  1355),  where  he  was 
then  preaching,  were  adherents  of  Clareno.  The  same 
is  prooably  true,  also,  of  the  FraticeUi  in  Tuscany  who 
about  the  same  time  were  attacked  in  the  sensational, 
thoukh  neither  learned  nor  skilful,  letters  of  the  hermit. 
Fra  Giovanni  dalle  CeUe.  The  letters  were  answered 
by  the  FraticeUi.  Giovanni  went  even  so  far  as  to  use 
]Fra  Angelo  as  a  pawn  against  his  adversaries.  These, 
indeed,  had  separated  themselves  entirely  from  the 
Roman  Church.  They  had  attained  such  power  in 
Florence  that  they  invited  the  "  theoloraans  "  to  pubUc 
debate.  The  "  Uieol(^ans  ",  i.  e.  the  official  clersy,  did 
not  respond.  On  13  October,  1378,  the  priors  otFlor- 
enoe  enacted  a  statute  against  the  Fraticelli;  on  8 
July,  1381,  the  city  councU  of  Florence  commanded 
them  to  leave  the  city  in  two  days  or  face  the  tribunal 
of  the  Inauisition.  They  were  respected  so  highly, 
however,  that,  when  their  expatriation  was  demanded 
by  the  city  magistrates  in  the  same  year  (14  Decem- 
ber, 1381),  one  of  the  counciUora  took  a  bold  stand 
against  the  proposal. 

Nevertheless,  Fra  Michele  Berti,  irom  Caici  near 
Pisa,  a  member  of  the  Ancona  branch  of  FraticeUi, 
after  preaching  the  Lenten  Qourse  to  his  ftssociatee  ip 


FBATIOELLI 


246 


FKATIOBLLI 


Flarenoe,  was  arrested  20  April,  1389,  as  he  was  about 
to  leave  the  city,  and  was  condemned  by  the  Francis- 
can Archbishop  of  Florence,  Bartolomeo  Oleari,  to  be 
burned  at  the  stake.  He  died  chanting  the  Te  Deum, 
while  his  followers,  unmolested  by  the  authorities, 
exhorted  him  to  remain  steadfast  (30  April,  1389). 
To  the  end  he  maintained  that  John  XXII  had  be- 
come a  heretic  by  his  four  decretals;  that  he  and  his 
successors  bad  forfeited  the  papacy,  and  that  no  priest 
supporting  them  could  absolve  validly. 

We  have  immistakable  evidence  that  several  hereti- 
cal followers  of  Clareno  were  in  the  territory  of  Naples 
in  1362.  Louis  of  Durazzo,  a  nephew  of  Robert,  Kin^  of 
Naples,  maintained  a  number  of  Fraticelli  in  a  hospital 
adjoining  hi^  ^^^^^jl*^  Monte  Sant'  Angelo,  and  attended 
their  services.  These  Fraticelli  were  divided  into 
three  sects:  those  acknowledging  Tommasoda  Bojano, 
former  Bishop  of  Aquino;  tne  followers  of  the  pre- 
tended minister  general,  Bernard  of  Sicily;  and  those 
who  claimed  Angelo  da  Clareno  as  their  founder  and 
acknowledged  om^  his  successor  as  their  general.  All 
three  sects  agreed  in  holding  that  the  truepapacy  had 
ceased  since  the  alleged  heresy  of  John  XXII,  but  the 
party  of  the  minister  eeneral  held  it  lawful  to  accept, 
m  case  of  necessity,  the  ministrations  of  priests  wno 
adhered  to  the  papacy. 

The  "Poor  Hermits"  of  Monte  della  Majella,  near 
Sulmona,  were  also  Fraticelli  and  adherents  of  Angelo 
da  Clareno.  and  at  one  time  afforded  protection  to  the 
famous  tribune  of  the  people,  Cola  oi  Rienzi  (1349). 
Fanatical  as  they  were  on  tne  subject  of  poverty,  they 
were,  in  accordance  with  ancient  custom,  sheltered  by 
the  Celestine  monks  in  the  near-by  aboey  of  Santo 
Spirito.  The  origin  of  the  orthodox  Clareni,  approved 
as  true  Franciscans  by  Sixtus  IV  in  1474,  is  unknown; 
nor  is  it  clear  whether  they  were  followers  of  Angelo 
who  kept  aloof  from  heresy  or,  after  falling  into  his 
error,  retracted. 

II.  The  second  main  group  of  Fraticelli,  chronologi- 
cally considered,  were  the  Spirituals  who  fled  from 
Tuscany  to  Sicily,  and  were  sumamed  at  first  the  Re- 
bellious Brothers  and  Apostates,  but  later  the  FraticeUi 
de  paupere  vUa.  It  is  an  error  to  apply  the  name  Beg- 
hards  to  them.  When,  in  1309,  tne  differences  be- 
tween the  Relaxati  and  the  Spiritxials  had  reached  a 
critical  point,  Clement  V  cited  representatives  of  both 
parties  to  appear  before  the  Curia  with  a  view  to 
adj  usting  their  disputes.  The  result  of  this  conference 
was  the  Constitution  "  Exivi  de  Paradiso",  enacted  at 
the  final  session  of  the  Council  of  Vienne  (6  May, 
1312).  This  Constitution  contained  an  explanation  of 
the  Rule  of  St.  Francis  along  stricter  lines  than  those 
of  the  BuU  ''Exiit  cpn  seminat"  of  Nicholas  III  (14 
August,  1279),  and  justified  the  Spirituals  in  various 
matters.  This  proceeding,  however,  only  provoked 
the  Relaxati  superiors  to  take  energetic  measures 
against  the  iSelanti.  Towards  the  end  of  1312  a  num- 
ber of  Tuscan  Spirituals  deserted  their  monasteries 
and  took  foreible  possession  of  the  monasteries  of 
Carmignano  (near  Florence),  Arezzo,  and  Asciano, 
putting  the  Relaxati  to  flight.  About  fifty,  fearing 
punishment,  fled  to  Sicily.  Clement  V,  heanng  of  the 
insurrection,  commanded  the  Arehbishop  of  Genoa 
and  two  other  bishops  to  force  them  to  return  to 
obedience  imder  penalty  of  excommunication.  As 
nearly  all  disregarded  this  mandate,  the  prior  of  San 
Fidele  at  Siena,  who  had  been  commissioned  to  exe- 
cute it,  declared  them  excommunicated  and  placed 
their  monasteries  imder  interdict  (14  May,  1314). 
Being  also  prosecuted  by  the  Arehbishop  of  Florence, 
the  rebels  made  a  solemn  protest  against  the  violation 
of  the  rule  on  the  part  of  the  Community  or  Conven- 
tuals (7  July,  1313).  As  it  soon  became  impossible  for 
them  to  remain  in  Tuscany,  they  all  fled  to  Sicily, 
where  thev  were  joined  by  numerous  Zelanti  from 
Northern  Italy  anci  Southern  France.  King  Frederick 
iA  Sicily,  brother  of  King  James  II  of  Aragon,  admit- 


ted them  after  th^  had  submitted  their  statutes  to  his 
inspection.  Fra  Enrico  da  Ceva  was  now  their  l^uler. 
On  23  January,  1318.  Pope  John  XXII  excommuni- 
cated them  in  the  BuU  "  Gloriosam  ecclesiam",  nieci- 
fying  five  errors,  to  wit:  (1)  they  designated  the 
Roman  Chureh  as  carnal  and  corrupt,  and  themselves 
as  spiritual;  (2)  they  denied  to  the  Roman  priesthood 
all  power  and  jurisdiction;  (3)  they  forbade  taking  an 
oath;  (4)  they  taught  that  priests  in  the  state  of  an 
could  not  confer  the  sacraments;  and  (5)  they  asserted 
that  the;^  alone  were  the  true  observers  of  the  Goq>el. 
At  this  time  they  had  adopted  a  close  fitting,  short, 
and  filthy  dress  as  their  religdous  habit.  Jolm  XXII 
(15  Maroh,  1317)  admonished  King  Frederick  to  take 
severe  measures  against  them.  In  a  letter  of  the  same 
date  addressed  by  the  cardinals  at  Avignon  to  the 
entire  hierarehy  of  Sicily,  special  stress  was  laid  on  the 
fact  that  the  rebellious  fugitives  had  elected  a  superior 

general,  provincials,  and  guardians.  Banished  from 
icily,  where,  however,  some  remained  tiU  at  least 
1328,  they  established  themselves  securely  in  Naples. 
On  1  August,'  1322,  John  XXII  issued  a  general  decree 
against  them,  and  after  sending  King  Robert  (4  Feb., 
1325)  the  Bulls  specially  directed  against  Ceva,  on  10 
M^2 1325,  demanded  their  imprisonment  at  the  hands 
of  Kme  Robert  and  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Calabria.  The 
pope  had  to  repeat  this  admonition  several  times 
(1330,  1331) ;  meanwhile  he  had  ordered  the  Francis- 
can Provincial  of  Calabria  (7  Maroh,  1327)  and  the 
inquisitors  there  (1327, 1330, 1331)  to  proceed  against 
the  Fraticelli  and  had  renewed  (5  Dec.,  1329)  the  in- 
junctions laid  down  in  the  Bull  "Gloriosam  Eccle- 
siam  ".  From  this  time  onward  the  adherents  of  Ceva 
are  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the  follow- 
ing group;  they  joined  the  Michaelites  and  used  the 
same  methods  of  attack  against  the  papacy.  The 
statement  that  some  professed  Mohammeaanism  may 
be  based  on  fact,  considering  their  situation  and  the 
local  cireumstances. 

III.  The  third  group  of  the  Fraticelli  are  called  the 
Michaelites,  deriving  their  name  from  Michael  of 
Cesena,  their  chief  representative  and  natural  leader. 
It  must  be  premised  tnat  this  name  was  in  vo^e  dur- 
ing the  fifteenth  century  and  that  the  party  it  design 
nated  exerted  great  influence  in  doctrinal  matters  on 
the  other  groups  as  early  as  1329.  It  is  to  be  noted 
also  that  snortly  after  this  period  it  becomes  difilcult 
to  differentiate  these  ^ups  with  anything  like  pre- 
cision. The  "theoretical'^  controversy  about  pov- 
erty carried  on  in  the  Franciscan  Oraer,  or  rather, 
earned  on  against  John  XXII,  gave  occasion  to  the 
formation  of  this  group.  It  is  called  "  theoretical "  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  "  practical "  controversy  waged 
by  the  Spirituals  relative  to  the  practice  of  Franciscan 
poverty  which  they  wished  to  observe,  whereas  the 
leaders  in  the  present  conflict  were  former  members  of 
the  Relaxati  party  and  sworn  enemies  of  the  Spirituals 
(1309-22). 

In  1321  the  Dominican  Inquisitor  atNarbonne,  John 
of  Belna,  declared  heretical  the  teaching  of  an  impris- 
oned Beghard  of  that  region,  who  asserted  that  Christ 
and  the  Apostles  owned  nothing  either  individually  or 
in  common.  The  Franciscan  lector,  B4renger  Talon, 
defended  the  Beghard.  As  he  refused  to  retract  ana 
was  threatened  with  punishment  by  the  inquisitor, 
B^renger  appealed  to  the  pope.  The  matter  soon  de- 
veloped inu>  a  general  controversy  between  the  Do- 
mimcans  and  Franciscans ;  among  the  latter,  Relaxati 
and  Zelanti  alike  supported  B^renger  on  the  basis  of 
the  Bull  of  Nicholas  III,  ''Exiit  qui  seminat".  In 
that  Bull  Nicholas  III  had  defined  the  poverty  of  the 
Franciscans,  both  individually  and  collectively,  as 
equivalent  to  that  of  the  Apostles,  and  had  therefore 
tnmsferred  to  the  Roman  Ciiureh  all  their  holdings  in 
land  and  houses,  as  hsui  already  been  enacted  by  Inno- 
cent IV  (14  Nov.,  1245).  The  prohibition  of  Nicholas 
III  to  discuss  this  point  was  revoked  by  John  XXII  in 


FRATIOBLLI 


247 


FBATICZLLI 


a  new  Bull,  ''Quia  nonnunquam'^  (26  March,  1322). 
On  6  Biarch  of  the  same  year  John  XXII  had  submit- 
ted the  matter  to  a  consistory.  The  order  was  vigor- 
ously defended  by  the  Cardinals  Vitalis  du  Four  and 
Bertrand  de  Turre  (de  la  Tour),  Archbishop  Amaldo 
Rojrardi  of  Salerno,  and  various  other  bishops,  aU 
Fnmciscans;  other  cardinals  opposed  their  views,  and 
ihe  pope  leaned  towards  the  opposition.  He  also  re- 
ouested  the  opinion  of  Ubertino  of  Casale,  a  renowned 
Spiritual  leader  (1328),  who,  with  a  fine-spim  distinc- 
tion, declared  (28  March,  1322)  that  Clirist  and  the 
Apostles  did  possess  property,  inasmuch  as  they  gov- 
erned the  Church,  but  not  as  individuals  or  as  exem- 
plars of  Christian  perfection.  This  distinction,  more 
subtle  than  real,  seemed  satisfactory  to  both  sides, 
when  the  provocative  measures  taken  oy  the  chapter  of 
the  order  destroyed  all  prospects  of  peace.  Fra  Michael 
of  Cesena,  (jeneral  of  the  Franciscan  Order  (elected 
1316),  a  Conventual,  as  attested  by  various  measures 
enacted  by  him  with  the  approval  of  John  XXII,  con- 
vened a  general  chapter  for  1  June,  1322,  at  Perugia. 
Anticipating,  on  the  advice  of  the  Franciscan  Cardi- 
nals Vitalis  and  Bertrand,  the  definitive  decision  of  the 
pope,  the  chapter  solemnly  declared  in  favour  of  the 
^absolute  poverty"  of  Christ  (4  June,  1322).  This 
pranunciamerUo  was  signed  by  the  general,  Michael  of 
Cesena,  the  provincial  ministers  of  ^uthem  German^r, 
En^and  (William  of  Nottingham,  not  Occam).  Aqui- 
tania,  Northern  France,  and  others,  as  well  as  oy  sev- 
eral renowned  scholars.  On  11  June  the  chapter 
solemnly  published  its  decrees  to  all  Christendom. 
Indignant  at  these  proceedings,  John  XXII,  in  the 
Bull  "Ad  conditorem  canonum"  (8  December,  1322), 
declared  that  the  Roman  Church  renounced  all  its 
claims  to  the  movable  and  immovable  properties  of  the 
Franciscan  Order  and  therewith  returned  them.  Thus 
the  pope  revoked  the  Bull "  Exiit"  of  Nicholas  III  and 
did  away  with  the  poverty  which  formed  the  basis  of 
the  Franciscan  Oraer.  It  is  easy  to  understand  the 
effect  of  this  upon  the  Franciscans,  particularly  the 
Zelanti.  In  the  name  of  the  order  Fra  Boncortese 
(Bonapiizia)  of  Bergamo,  a  capable  lawyer  and  up  to 
that  time  a  bitter  enem^  of  the  Zelanti,  presented  a 
daring  protest  against  this  Bull  to  the  Consistory  (14 
January,  1323).  Although  the  pope  thereupon  revised 
the  text  of  the  Bull  and  reissued  it  imder  the  original 
date,  he  incarcerated  Bonagrazia  and  in  the  Bull 
''Cum  inter  nonnullos"  (12  November,  1323)  declared 
heretical  the  assertion  that  Christ  and  the  Apostles 
possessed  no  property  either  separately  or  collectively. 
The  controversv  between  the  pope  and  the  order 
soon  took  on  a  political  character,  the  Minorites  hav- 
ing been  appointed  counsellors  to  Louis  IV  the  Bava- 
rian, King  ol  (jermany,  who  also  was  engaged  in  a  con- 
flict with  the  pope.  After  Louis  IV  (1314-47)  had 
defeated  his  rival  Frederick,  Duke  of  Austria,  at  the 
battle  of  MQhldorf  (18  Sept.,  1322),  and  had  mvaded 
Lombardy  to  further  the  cause  of  the  Ghibelline  yi»- 
conti,  John  XXII  ordered  the  whole  question  of  right 
to  the  (jerman  throne  to  be  brought  before  the  papal 
tribunal  and^  on  8  October,  1323,  began  canonical  pro- 
ceedings against  Louis.  In  the  Nuremberg  Appeal  (18 
Dec,  1323)  Louis,  curiously  enough,  had  accused  the 
pope  of  unduly  favouring  the  Minorites,  though  this 
document  was  never  published.  But  the  Sachsen- 
hausen  Appeal  of  the  same  King  Louis  (22  May,  1324) 
was  full  pf  invectives  against  the  "heretic  who  falsely 
designates  himself  Pope  John  XXII"  for  doin^  away 
with  the  poverty  of  Christ.  This  famous  "  Spintualist 
excursus  is  closely  connected  with  the  Appeal  of 
Bonagrazia,  and  with  writing  of  Ubertino  of  Casale 
and  of  Pietro  di  Giovanni  Olivi.  It  is  certain  that  it 
originated  amon^  the  Franciscans  who,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  king,  aimed  it  at  John  XXII  and  his 
teaching,  although  Louis  IV  later  denied  all  responsi- 
bility in  the  matter.  The  rejsult  was  that  Louis  iV  was 
excommunicated  (11  July,  1324)  and.  in  the  decree 


"Quia  quorundam"  (10  Nov.,  1324),  John  XXII  for- 
bade  all  contradiction  and  questioning  of  his  constitu- 
tions "Cum  inter  nonnullos''  and  "Ad  conditorem". 
The  general  chapter  of  the  order^  assembled  at  Lyons 
(20  May,  1325)  under  the  presidency  of  Michael  of 
Cesena,  forbsule  any  disrespectful  reference  to  the 
pope.  On  8  June,  1327,  Michael  received  instructions 
to  present  himself  at  Avignon,  a  command  which  he 
obeyed  (2  Dec.,  1327).  The  pope* having  sharplv 
reproved  him  in  public  (9  April,  1328)  for  the  chapter's 
action  at  Perugia  (1322),  he  drew  up  a  secret  protest 
(13  April)  and,  fearing  punishment,  fled,  despite  the 
orders  of  the  pope,  to  Ai^ee>Mortes  (28  May)  and 
thence  to  Pisa,  together  with  Bonagrazia  of  Bergamo 
and  William  of  Occam.  In  the  meanwhile  other 
evente  of  unportanoe  had  occurred.  Louis  the  Ba- 
varian had  entered  Rome  with  a  (jerman  army,  to 
the  great  joy  of  the  Ghibellines.  Accompanving  him 
were  Ubertino  of  Casale,  John  of  Jandun  and  MarsUius 
of  Padua,  the  authors  of  the  "  Defensor  pacis",  which 
declared  that  the  emperor  and  the  Church  at  large  were 
above  the  pope.  Louis  had  himself  solemnly  crowned 
Emperor  of  Rome  by  Sciarra  Colonna  (17  Jan.,  1328), 
and  on  12  May  he  nominated  and  had  consecrated  as 
antipope  Pietro  Rainalducci  of  Cbrvara,  a  Franciscan, 
under  the  name  of  Nicholas  V.  The  three  fugitives 
from  Avignon  presented  themselves  to  Louis  and  ac- 
companied him  to  Bavaria,  where  thev  remained  till 
their  death.  John  XXII  deposed  Michael  as  general 
of  the  order  (6  June.  1328)  and  (13  June)  appointed 
the  Minorite  Cardinal  Bertrand  de  Turre  vicar-generai 
of  the  order  to  preside  at  the  chapter  to  be  held  in 
Paris  (2  Jime,  1329),  which  Michael  of  Cesena  vainly 
attempted  to  prevent,  and  brought  about  the  elec- 
tion of  Fra  (jerardus  Odonis  of  ChAteauroux,  of  the 
Province  of  Aquitaine.  Obedient  to  John  XXII, 
e  induced  the  majority  of  the  order  to  submit 
to  Uxe  Apostolic  See.  Michael  of  Cesena  and  all  his 
adherente,  the  Michaelites,  were  repudiated  by  the 
order.  At  the  same  time,  by  command  of  John  XXII, 
papal  proceeding  were  instituted  against  them  every- 
where. The  Michaelites  denied  John's  right  to  tne 
Eapacy  and  denounced  both  him  and  his  successors  as 
eretics.  This  shows  the  dangerous  character  of  the 
sect.  In  their  numerous  and  passionate  denunciations 
of  the  popes,  especially  of  John  XXII,  they  always 
single  out  for  refutation  isolated  statemente  of  John  m 
his  Bulls.  To  the  contention  regarding;  poverty  was 
added  (1333)  the  question  of  the  oeatinc  vision  of  the 
sainte,  concerning  which  John  XXII,  contrary  to  gen- 
eral opinion,  yet  without  intending  to  define  the  mat- 
ter, had  declared  that  it  would  begin  only  at  the  last 
judgment. 

During  this  period  the  antipope,  Nicholas  V,  had 
nominated  six  cardinals  (15  May,  1328),  among  them 
an  Augustinian  and  a  Dominican,  and  between  Septem- 
ber, 1328,  and  December,  1329,  three  other  cardinals; 
also  among  the  bishops  whom  he  consecrated  were 
members  of  the  two  orders  mentioned  above.  After 
Louis  IV  had  returned  to  Bavaria,  Nicholas  V,  de- 
prived of  all  support,  took  refu^  with  the  Count  of 
Donoratico.  Finally,  in  his  distress,  Nicholas  ap- 
pealed to  John  XXII,  cast  himself  at  his  feet  (Avignon. 
4  Aug.),  and  submitted  to  honourable  confinement  at 
Avignon,  where  he  Remained  till  his  death  (16  October, 
1333). 

John,  meanwhile,  had  taken  steps  ag^ainst  Michael 
and  his  followers.  In  accordance  with  his  instructions 
(20  June,  1328)  to  Aycardo,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  the 

Eroceedings  against  Michael  were  published  in  various 
>calities.  On  5  September,  1328,  John  XXII  com- 
manded the  imprisonment  of  Fra  Azzolino,  who  was 
acting  as  Michael's  vicar,  and  on  18  August,  1331,  the 
arrest  of  another  vicar,  Fra  Thedino,  who  represented 
Michael  in  the  March  of  Ancona.  Prominent  among 
the  followers  of  Michael  were  the  more  or  less  numer- 
ous Minorites  in  the  monasteries  of  Todi  and  Amelia 


FBATIOKLLI 


248 


FRATIOELU 


(against  whom  prooeedinpps  were  instituted  in  1329-30)| 
of  Cortona  (1329),  and  of  Pisa  (1330),  where,  however, 
they  appeared  openly  as  late  as  1354,  and  at  Albigano, 
and  Savdna  (1329-32). 

On  21  Dec.,  1328,  John  XXII  graciously  pardoned 
Fra  Minus,  the  Provincial  of  Tuscany,  while  on  2 
Dec.,  he  had  ordered  the  trial  of  Fra  Humilis,  Custo- 
dian of  Uinbria.  Papal  decrees  reveal  the  presence  of 
Michaelites  in  England  (1329),  Germany  (1322),  Car- 
cassone,  Portugal  (1330),  Spain  (1329),  Sicily  and 
Lombardy  (1329^  1334),  Sardinia,  Armenia,  and  other 
places.  John  XXII  and  his  immediate  successors 
also  issued  numerous  decrees  against  the  Fraticelli  in 
the  March  of  Ancona,  where  the  bishops  and  minor 
feudal  barons  defended  them  stubbornly  and  success- 
fully in  spite  of  papal  threats;  also  in  Naples  and 
Calabria,  where  King  Robert  and  Queen  Sanzia  ex- 
hibited special  veneration  for  St.  Francis  and  his 
humble  followers.  In  the  royal  castle,  where  the 
chaplaincies  were  held  by  Franciscans,  there  resided 
Fra  Philip  of  Maiorca,  a  brother  of  the  queen.  This 
Philip  had  (1328)  petitioned  John  XXII  for  permis- 
sion for  himself  and  other  Franciscans  to  observe 
literally  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis,  independently  of  the 
superiors  of  the  order;  the  pope  of  course  refused.  In 
a  letter  dated  10  August,  1331,  the  pope  was  obliged  to 
settle  some  doubts  of  tlie  aueen  relating  to  the  ob- 
servance of  ''holy  poverty' ,  and  the  king  had  even 
composed  a  treatise  favouring  the  views  of  tne  Chapter 
of  Perufi^  (1322).  The  papal  condemnations  of  the 
Fratioem,  therefore,  had  produced  but  slight  results  in 
the  Kinedom  of  Naples.  On  8  July.  1331.  the  pope 
admonisned  King  Robert  to  withhold  no  longer  tne 
papal  decrees  against  Michael  of  Cesena  nor  prevent 
their  publication  in  his  kingdom.  Philip  of  Majorca, 
however,  preached  openly  against  the  pope.  It  was 
due  to  the  influence  of  the  rpyal  family  that  Fra 
Andrea  of  Galiano,  a  court  chaplain  at  Naples,  was 
acquitted  in  the  process  instituted  against  him  at 
Avignon  in  1338,  as  he  still  continued  his  intercourse 
with  Michael  of  Cesena  and  with  the  fifty  Michaelites 
who  resided  for  some  time  under  the  king's  protection 
in  the  castle  of  Lettere  near  Castellamare,  but  who 
later  (1235)  humbly  submitted  to  their  lawful  supe- 
riors. In  1336  "  short-robed  "  Fraticelli  still  occupied 
the  monastery  of  Santa  Chiara  at  Naples,  founded  by 
Queen  Saiuia,  and  were  established  m  other  parts  of 
,  the  kingdom;  their  expulsion  was  demanded  (24  Jime, 
1336)  by  Benedict  Xfl  (1334r42).  In  1344  Clement 
VI  (1342-52)  foimd  it  necessary  to  reiterate  the  ear- 
lier decrees.  Between  1363-1370  it  at  last  became 
possible  for  Franciscans  to  take  possession  of  several 
monasteries  in  Calabria  and  Sicily  from  which  the 
Fraticelli  had  been  expelled;  but  Gregory  XI  com- 
plains (12  Sept.,  1372)  that  the  '' ashes  and  bones  of 
Fraticelli  were  venerated  as  relics  of  saints  in  Sicily, 
and  churches  were  even  erected  in  their  honour". 

From  the  records  of  a  process  (1334)  conducted  in 
irregular  form  i^gainst  the  Fraticelli  of  the  Franciscan 
monastery  at  Tauris,  who  had  been  reported  by 
Dominicans,  we  learn  that  they  inveighed  openly 
against  John  XXII  and  upheld  the  views  of  Michael  of 
Cesena,  although  in  their  apocal^tio  manner  they 
declared  that  the  order  of  tne  Friars  Minor  was  di- 
vided in  three  parts,  and  that  only  those  would  be 
saved  who  would  journey  to  the  East,  i.  e.  themselves. 
It  is  uncertain  whether  these  were  identical  with  the 
Fraticelli  in  Armenia,  Persia,  and  other  oriental  local- 
ities, where  all  bishops  were  commanded  by  Clement 
VI  to  prosecute  them  (29  May,  1344). 

For  a  long  time  the  sect  prospered  exceedingly  in 
the  Duchy  of  Spoleto  on  account  of  the  continual 
political  turmoil.  In  a  process  instituted  against  a 
particular  Umbrian  group  of  Fraticelli  in  1360,  we  are 
informed  that  Fra  Francesco  Niccol6  of  Perugia  was 
their  founder.  They  pretended  to  observe  the  Rule  of 
St*  Augustine,  but  were  fanatical  on  the  question  of 


poverty  and  regarded  all  prelates  as  guilty  of  simony. 
Salvation  was  to  be  found  only  in  tneir,  suppooedly 
perfect,  order.  They  imitated  the  Sicilian  Fraticelli 
in  their  doctrines  and  methods  of  instruction.  An 
interesting  letter  is  still  extant  which  the  Fraticelli  of 
the  Campagna  (135^55)  wrote  to  the  magistrates  of 
Nami  when  they  heard  that  one  of  their  number  (Fra 
Stefano)  had  been  cruelly  imprisoned  by  the  Inquisi- 
tion of  that  city  twelve  or  nfteen  years  before.  In 
this  letter  they  petitioned  the  magistrates  to  liberate 
him  according  to  the  example  of  the  cities  of  "Todi, 
Perugia,  Assisi,  and  Pisa". 

The  Fraticelli  enjoyed  complete  liberty  in  Perugia. 
They  lived  where  it  oest  suited  them,  principally  in 
the  country-houses  of  the  rich.  They  became  so  bold 
as  to  publicly  insult  the  Minorites  (Conventuals)  in4.he 
monastery  of  San  Francesco  al  Prato.  It  appears 
that  these  Fraticelli  had  elected  their  own  popes, 
bishops  and  generals,  and  that  they  were  split  mto 
various  factions.  Tne  Conventuals,  as  their  one 
means  of  defence,  called  in  Fra  Paoluccio  of  Trinci,  the 
founder  of  the  Observants,  and  ceded  to  him  the  small 
monastery  on  Monte  Ripido  near  the  city  (1374). 
Fra  Paoluccio  was  successful  in  his  disputations  with 
the  Fraticelli,  and  when  they  had  been  clearly  ex- 
posed as  heretics,  the  people  drove  them  from  the  city. 
It  should  be  noted  that  these  Fraticelli,  and  probably 
all  the  others  of  that  period,  were  designated  FraUceui 
della  opinione,  perhaps  on  account  of  their  opinion 
that  the  Roman  papacy  had  ceased  to  exist  with  John 
XXn  (1323)  or  Celestm  V,  and  that  they  alone  con- 
stituted the  true  Church.  About  this  time  Fra  Vitale 
di  Francia  and  Fra  Pietro  da  Firenze  exercised  a  sort 
of  generalship  over  the  Fraticelli.  They  received 
protection  and  hospitality  from  rich  and  influential 
families  in  Apulia,  aroimd  Rome,  and  in  the  March. 
One  of  their  protectors  was  the  knight  Andreuccio  de 
Palumbario.  who  sheltered  them  m  his  castle  near 
Rieti,  for  wnich  he  was  sharply  called  to  account  by 
Urban  VI  (4  Mav,  1388) .  On  the  same  day  the  Bene- 
dictine Abbot  of  Farf a  was  reprimanded  for  a  similar 
fault.  On  14  November,  1394,  Boniface  IX  em- 
powered the  Minorites  of  Terra  di  Lavoro  to  take 
possession  of  the  monasteries  deserted  by  the  Frati- 
celli. Martin  V  conceded  the  same  rights  to  the 
Franciscans  of  the  Roman  Province  (14  November, 
1418)  and,  on  7  April,  1426,  transferred  to  them  as  a 
special  grant  the  monastery  of  Palestrina,  which  had 
been  a  stronghold  of  the  Fraticelli.  In  the  same  year 
Martin  V  nominated  St.  John  Capistran  (27  May)  and 
St.  James  of  the  March  (11  October)  as  inquisitors 
general  to  take  action  against  the  Fraticelli.  These 
promoters  of  order  among  the  Franciscans  fulfilled  the 
duties  of  their  oflice  strictly  and  energetically  and 
succeeded  in  striking  at  the  very  vitals  of  the  sect. 
In  1415  the  city  of  Florence  had  formally  banished  the 
"  Fraticelli  of  the  poor  life,  the  followers  of  Michelino 
of  Cesena  of  infamous  memory",  and  in  Lucca  five 
Fraticelli,  on  trial,  had  solemnly  abjured  their  error 
(1411).  Martin  V  also  ordered  the  Bishops  of  Porto 
and  Alba  to  take  steps  against  all  Fraticelli  "  in  the 
Roman  province,  the  March  of  Ancona,  the  Duchy  of 
Spoleto  and  other  localities"  (7  June,  1427).  On  27 
January  of  the  same  year,  Martin  V  had  permitted  the 
Observants  of  Ancona  to  occupy  the  monastery  of  the 
Fraticelli  at  Castro  TEremita  as  a  first  step  in  the 
campaign  against  the  Fraticelli  of  that  neighbourhood. 
On  1  June,  1428,  he  commanded  the  Bishop  of  Ancona 
to  enforce  his  rulings  strictly  in  Maiolati,  to  put  all 
suspects  to  the  rack,  destroy  their  village,  separate  the 
children  from  heretical  parents,  and  disperse  the  elder 
population.  A  cu*cular  letter,  which  the  Fraticelli 
addressed  to  all  Christendom,  proved  ineffectual  and 
their  doom  was  sealed.  John  of  Capistran  and  James 
of  the  March  burned  thirty-six  of  their  establishments. 
or  dispersed  the  members,  and  a  number  were  burned 
l^t  the  stake  at  Florence  and  Fabriano,  at  the  latter 


FRATBES 


249 


FRAUD 


place  in  the  presence  of  the  pope.  St.  James  of 
March,  commissioned  by  Nicholas  V  to  proceed 
against  them  (1449),  wrote  the  famous  "Dialogus 
contra  Fraticellos'',  which  he  first  published  in  1452, 
making  some  additions  to  it  later  on.  According  to 
this  the  main  establishments  of  the  Fraticelli  were 
situated  in  the  valley  of  Jesi,  at  Maiolati,  Poggio  Cupo. 
Massaccia,  and  Mer^.  They  had  also  constituted 
bishops  in  other  districts  where  there  were  a  sufficient 
number  of  adherents.  They  made  frequent  Journeys 
for  propaganda  purposes^  especially  in  Tuscany. 
Some  dressed  partly  as  Mmorites,  some  as  hermits, 
often  disguising  themselves  for  the  sake  of  protection. 
Their  doctrine  was  a  r6sum6  of  their  former  sectarian 
errors:  the  whole  Roman  Church  had  deserted  the  true 
Faith  since  the  time  of  John  XXII  (1323) ;  they  alone 
constituted  the  true  Church  and  retained  the  sacra- 
ments and  the  priesthood. 

A  form  of  Fraticelli  was  also  represented  by  Philip 
of  Berbegal,  a  fanatical  and  eccentric  Observant  of 
Spain  (1433),  who  attempted  to  establi^  a  strict 
society  de  la  Capuciola,  but  met  vigorous  opposition 
from  John  Capistran,  who  issued  a  dissertation  against 
him. 

Only  once  again  are  measures  known  to  have  been 
taken  against  the  Fraticelli,  viz.  in  1466,  when  a 
number  of  Fraticelli  from  Poli,  near  Palestrina,  and 
Maiolati  were  captured  at  Assisi  during  the  Portiun- 
cula  celebration.  They  were  imprison^  in  the  castle 
of  Sant'  Angelo  and  proceedings  instituted  against 
them.  Their  pirotector  at  Poll,  Count  Stefano  de' 
Conti,  was  imprisoned,  but  they  also  received  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Colonna  family  of  Palestrina.  Tradi- 
tion also  mentions  that  the  Fraticelli  established  many 
other  colonies  and  that  they  had  an  important  centre 
in  Greece,  whence  they  sent  oUt  emissaries  and  where 
they  sought  refuge  from  the  aggressive  measures  of  St. 
James  of  the  March.  Thev  generally  held  their  re- 
imions  at  night  in  private  houses  ana  half  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Poli  are  said  to  have  been  among  their 
adherents.  The  allegation  that  their  religious  serv-  . 
ices  were  defiled  by  immoral  practices  cannot  be 
proved.  According  to  their  doctrine,  as  contained  in 
the  "Dialogus",  immoral  priests  incurred  the  loss  of 
the  powers  of  order  and  jurisdiction.  They  had  also 
their  own  bishop,  Nicholas  by  name. 

During  this  period  numerous  pamphlets  were  pub- 
lished controverting  the  errors  ot  the  Fraticelli. 
While  the  campaign  was  going  on  at  Rome,  informa- 
tion was  brought  concerning  another  sect  similar  to 
the  Fraticelli,  which  had  been  discovered  in  Germany; . 
but  though  these  visionaries,  led  by  Brothere  Johann 
and  Livin  of .  Wirsbei^,  found  adherents  among  the 
Mendicants  in  Bohemia  and  Franconia,  they  cannot 
be  considered  as  Fraticelli.  In  spite  of  all  persecu- 
tions, remnants  of  the  ori^nal  Fraticelli  still  survived, 
but  their  strength  was  cnppled  and  they  thenceforth 
constituted  no  serious  danger  to  the  Roman  Church. 
The  foregoing  sketch  sufficiently  proves  that  these 
heretics  were  not  members  of  the  Oraer  of  St.  Francis, 
but  rather  that  they  had  been  expelled  from  the  order 
and  from  the  Church.  The  order  as  such  and  in  the 
great  majority  of  its  members  remained  faithful  to  the 
Church  m  spite  of  the  fact  that  many  prominent 
monks  and  even  whole  sections  fell  away. 

The  best  source  for  the  general  history  of  the  Fraticelli  is 
Ehrub  in  ArtJiiv  fikr  LUeralur-  und  Kirchengeackichte desMiUdal- 
«en».  Ill  (Berlin,  1887),  553-614;  IV  (Freiburg.  1888).  1-201; 
I  (Berlin.  1885).  509-70.  154-165;  II  (Berlin.  1886).  108-64, 
24^-336,  353-416.  653-69;  III  (Berlin.  1887).  1-195.  540-52. 
EuBBL,  BuUarium  Franciacanum  (Rome).  V  (1898).  VI  (1902), 
VII  (1904);  Wadding,  Annates  Minorum,  ad  ann.  1320-34 
(2nd  ed..  Rome,  1733);  Baluzb.  Miscdlanea  (2nd  ed.,  7  vols.. 
Paris.  1678-1715;  4  vols.,  Lucca,  1761-64);  Amdecta  Francia- 
eana  (QCiaraochi).  II  (1887).  120  sqa.;  Ill  (1897).  474  saq.; 
MGllbr,  Der  Kampf  Ludwiga  dea  aayem  mit  der  r&miacken 
Kurie  (2  vols..  TQbingen.  1879-80);  Ribzlbr,  Die  lUerariachen 


unter  Ludvrig  dem  Bayem  (Munich,  1877):    Schbbibbil  Die 
palitiachen  und  rdigidaen  Doktrinen  unter  Ludvrig  dem  Bayer 

iLandshut,  1858):  Fblten,  Die  BvUe:  Ne  praOereat,  und  die 
lekomUiationaverhandlungen  Ludvriga  dea  Bayem  (2  vols., 
Trier.  1885-87);  Idbm,  Foraehungen  tur  GeachienU  Luduriga  dea 
Bayem  (Neuss,  1900);  Ribslbr.  Vatikaniache  Akten  zur 
deiUachen  Geachichle  in  der  Zcit  Ludwiga  dea  Bayem  (Innsbruck, 
1891);  Schwa LM,  Die  AppdkUion  Kiinig  Ludwiga  dea  Baiem 
von  1S£4  (Weimar.  1906);  for  further  German  bibliography  see 
Dahluann-Waitz,  Qudlenkunde  der  deutachen  Geach.  (7th  ed., 
Leipaiff.  1906),  n.  4421  sqq.,  4499-4529.  Tooco.  Un  codice 
ddla  Mareiana  di  Veneeia  auUa  oueatiane  delta  poverth  (Venice, 
1886-87);  Idbm,  L'ereaia  nd  medio  evo  (Florence.  1884);  Id^m, 
Un  proceaao  eontro  Luigi  di  Durauo  in  Archivio  atorico  per  le 
pravincie  Nappletane,  XII  (Naples.  1887);  Idbm.  /  Fraticelli  o 
poveri  Eremtti  di  Cdeatino^  aecondo  i  nuovi  documenti  in  BoUe- 
tino  ddla  aocieti  di  atoria  patria  .  .  .  negli  Abruzti,  XIV 
(AquUa.  1895).  117-60,  XIII,  95-105;  Idbm,  Nu<rn  documenti 
aui  diaaidii  franceaeani  in  Accadbmia  dbi  Lincbi,  Scienze  mor. 
ator.  e  fild.,  ser.  V,  vol.  X  (Rome,  1901),  3-20;  Idbm,  Uereaia 
dei  Fraticelli  e  una  lettera  inedita  dd  b.  Giovanni  dalle  CeUe,  ibid., 
XV  (Rome,  1906).  1-18,  109-80;  Idbm,  Fraticdli  in  Archivio 
atorico  italiano,  ser.  V,  vol.  XXXV  (Florence,  1905),  332-68; 
Davidsohn,  Un  libra  di  entrate  e  apeae  delC  intuiaitore  fiorentino 
(1322-29),  ibid.,  ser.  V,  vol.  XXVII  (Florence.  1901)'  346-55; 
Savinx,  Sui  FtageUanti,  aui  Fraticdli  e  aui  bizocchi  nd  Teramano, 
ibid.,  ser.  V.  vol.  XXXV  (Florence,  1905).  82-91  (without 
value);  Zambrixx.  Storia  di  Fra  Michde  Mincrita  comefu  arao 
in  Firenze  net  1389  eon  documenti  riaouardanti  i  Fraticdli  ddla 
povera  vita  (Bologna,  1864);  Fumi,  Erdici  e  ribdli  ndl*  Umbria 
dal  1££0  al  1830  ahtdiati  au  documenti  inediti  ddT  archivio  ae- 
grdo  vaticano  in  BoUeUino  ddla  reale  depvlazione  di  atoria 
patria  per  C  Umbria,  III  (Perugia,  1897),  257-^2,429-89;  IV 
(1898),  221-301,  437-86;  V  (1899),  1-46.  205-425;  Idbm.  C7na 
eoiatcia  dei  **PovereUi  di  Crxato'*  at  commune  di  Nami,  ibid., 
Vll  (Perugia.  1901).  353-69;  Lba.  A  Hiatory  of  the  Inquiaition 
of  the  MuQU  Agea  (New  York,  1888).  Ill;  Pastor,  Geach.  der 
Pdpaie  im  ZeUaiter  der  Renaiaaance,  II  (2nd  ed..  Freiburg,  1894). 
360  sqq.;  Fxnkb,  Ada  Praoonenaia  (2  vols.,  Berlin.  1908); 
Tocco,  SludU  Franceaeani,  I  (Naples,  1909);  Hot^zAprmij,  Hand- 
hudi  der  Oeadiichte  dee  Franeiahanerordena  (Freiburg  im  Br. 
1909),  56  raq.,  tr.  Lat.,  ibid.  (1909),  50  sqq.;  Lrv.  Ouobb  in 
Ardiivum  Franciacanum  Hiatorieum,  1  (Puaracchi,  1908).  617 
sqq.;  Bihl,  ibid.,  II  (1909),  137  sqq..  158  saq. 

Michael  BraL. 
Fratres  Uniti.   See  Holzhauser,  Barthglgmatts. 

Fraud,  in  the  common  acceptation  of  the  word,  an 
act  or  course  of  deception  delioerately  practised  with 
the  view  of  gaining  a  wrong  and  unfair  sudvantage.  Its 
connotation  is  less  wide  than  that  of  deceit,  which  is 
used  of  concealment  or  perversion  of  the  truth  for  the 
purpose  of  mislesuling.  Stratagems  employed  in  war 
to  deceive  the  enemy  are  not  morally  wrong;  yet  even 
in  war  it  would  not  be  rieht  to  practise  fraud  on  him. 
Fraud  is  something  whidi  militates  not  only  against 
sincerity  and  straightforward  conduct,  but  against 
justice,  and  justice  is  due  even  to  enemies. 

The  question  of  fraud  is  of  special  importance  in  the 
matter  of  contracts.  It  is  of  the  essence  of  a  contract 
that  there  should  be  an  agreement  of  wOls  between  the 
parties  as  to  its  subject-matter.  Without  such  an 
agreement  in  all  that  is  essential  there  can  be  no  con- 
tract. Hence,  if  b^r  fraud  one  of  the  parties  to  a  con- 
tract has  been  led  into  a  mistake  about  what  belongs 
to  its  substance,  the  contract  will  be  null  and  void.  If 
a  dealer  in  jewellery  offers  a  piece  of  coloured  glass  to 
a  customer  as  a  valuable  ruby,  and  induces  him  to  pay 
a  large  sum  of  money  for  it,  the  contract  is  invalid  for 
want  of  consent.  The  customer  wished  to  buy  a 
precious  stone,  and  he  was  offered  glass.  If  one  of  the 
parties  to  a  contract  is  fraudulently  led  into  a  mistake 
about  something  which  is  merely  accidental  to  the 
contract  and  which  did  not  induce  him  to  enter  into  it, 
the  contract  will  be  valid  and  there  is  no  reason  for 
setting  it  aside.  If  a  higher  price  or  more  favourable 
terms  were  obtained  by  means  of  the  fraud,  there  was, 
of  course,  wrong  done  thereby,  and  if,  in  consequence, 
more  than  the  just  value  was  given,  there  will  be  an 
obligation  to  make  restitution  for  the  injustice.  But 
there  was  no  mistake  about  the  substance  of  the  con- 
tract, there  was  union  of  wills  therein,  and  so,  there  is 
no  reason  why  it  should  not  stand.  If,  however,  such 
a  mistake,  not  indeed  regarding  the  substance  of  the 
contract,  but  caused  by  the  fraud  of  the  other  party, 
was  the  reason  why  the  contract  was  entered  into, 
there  are  special  reasons  why  such  a  contract  ahoida 
not  be  upheld. 


fft^vmuftQ 


1250 


fft^tniHOFEft 


As  there  was  agreement  about  the  substance  of  the 
contract,  this  wiU,  indeed,  be  valid,  but  inasmuch  as 
the  consent  of  the  party  who  was  deceived  was  ob- 
tained by  fraud  ana  would  not  otherwise  have  been 
given,  the  contract  should  be  voidable  at  the  option 
of  the  party  deceived.  It  is  a  matter  of  importance 
for  the  public  weal  that  no  one  should  be  able  to  reap 
benefit  from  fraud  {Nemini  fraus  sua  'paJbrocinari 
debet)  f  as  canonists  and  moralists  never  tire  of  repeat- 
ing. Moreover,  the  fraudulent  party  inflicted  an  injury 
on  the  other  by  inducing  him  by  fraud  to  do  what  he 
would  not  have  done  otherwise.  It  is  onlv  equitable 
and  right  that  one  who  has  thus  suffer^  should  be 
able  to  rescind  the  contract  and  put  himself  again  in 
the  same  position  as  he  was  in  before — if  that  be  pos- 
sible. Contracts,  therefore,  induced  by  the  fraud  of 
one  of  the  parties,  even  though  there  was  no  substan- 
tial mistake,  are  voidable  at  the  option  of  him  who 
was  deceived,  if  the  contract  can  be  annulled.  If  the 
fraud  was  committed  by  a  third  person  without  the 
connivance  of  the  other  party  to  the  contract,  there 
will  be  no  reason  for  annulling  it. 

Besides  fraud  committed  against  a  person  and 
against  justice,  canonists  and  moral  theologians  fre- 
c]uently  mention  fraud  against  law.  One  is  said  to  act 
in  fraud  of  the  law  when  he  is  careful  to  observe  the 
letter,  but  violates  the  spirit  of  it  and  the  intention  of 
the  lawgiver.  Thus  one  who  is  bound  to  fast  would 
act  in  fraud  of  the  Church's  law  if  on  a  fasting  dav  he 
undertook  some  hard  and  imnecessary  work,  such  as 
digginSy  in  order  to  be  excused  from  fasting.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  no  fraud  against  t^e  law  com- 
mitted hy  one  who  leaves  the  territory  within  which 
the  law  binds,  even  if  he  do  this  wit^  the  intention  of 
fleeing  himself  from  the  law.  He  is  at  liberty  to  go 
and  live  where  he  pleases,  and  he  cannot  act  fraudu- 
lently in  doing  what  he  has  a  right  to  do.  And  so,  on  a 
fast  day  which  is  only  kept  in  some  particular  diocese, 
one  who  lives  in  the  diocese  may  without  sin  leave  it 
even  with  the  intention  of  escaping  from  the  obligation 
of  fasting,  and  when  he  is  once  outside  the  limits  of 
the  diocese  he  is  no  longer  bound  by  a  purely  diocesan 
law.  There  are  two  celebrated  declarations  of  the 
Holy  See  which  seem  at  first  sight  to  contradict  this 
doctrine.  The  first  occurs  in  the  Bull  "Supema"  of 
Clement  X  (21  June,  1670),  where  the  pope  says  that 
a  re^ar  confessor  may  absolve  strangers  who  come 
to  him  from  another  diocese  from  sins  reserved  therein 
unless  he  knows  that  they  have  come  to  him  in  fraud 
of  the  reservation.  These  words  have  caused  ereat 
difficulty  and  have  been  variously  interpreted  by 
canonists  and  divines. 

According  to  the  common  opinion  they  limit  the 
power  of  the  confessor  only  when  the  principal  motive 
which  induced  the  penitent  to  leave  his  diocese  was  to 
avoid  the  |urisdiction  of  his  own  pastor  and  to  make 
his  confession  in  a  place  where  the  sin  was  not  reserved. 
By  reserving  the  sin  in  question  the  ecclesiastical 
authority  desired  to  compel  a  delinquent  to  appear 
before  it  and  to  receive  the  necessary  correction ;  by 
leaving  the  diocese  with  a  view  to  making  his  confes- 
sion elsewhere  the  penitent  would  circumvent  ^e  law 
and  make  it  nugatory.  If  he  left  the  diocese  from 
some  other  motive^  and  while  outside  took  the  oppor- 
timitv  to  make  his  confession,  he  would  not  act  in 
fraud  of  the  law  of  reservation.  Urban  VIII  (14  Aug., 
1627)  approved  of  a  declaration  of  the  Sacred  Con- 
gre^tion  of  the  0>uncil  according  to  which  parties 
subject  to  the  Tridentine  law  of  cmndestinity  would 
not  contract  a  valid  marriage  in  a  place  where  that 
law  was  not  in  force  if  they  Mtook  themselves  thither 
with  fraud.  There  was  a  similar  difficulty  as  to  the 
meaning  of  fraud  in  this  decree.  According  to  the 
more  common  view,  the  parties  were  ^ilty  of  fraud  by 
the  very  fact  of  leaving  the  parish  with  the  intention 
of  contracting  marria^  without  the  assistance  of  the 
parish  priest,  whose  right  and  duty  it  was  to  testify 


to  the  valid  celebration  of  the  marriage  of  his  parish- 
ioners. This  question,  however,  is  now  only  of  his- 
torioal  interest,  as  the  law  has  been  radicadly  changed 
by  the  papal  decree  "  Ne  temere"  (2  Aug.,  1907)  q.  v. 

&r.  Alphonsub.  Theologia  MonMHa  (Turin.  1826),  III.  104S; 
VI,  689. 1080;  Lehmkuhl,  Theotogia  Moralia  (Frabuis,  1808). 
I,  156;  11.  780;  Rehtenbtuel.  Jiu  oanonieum  (Rome,  1834): 
LsMiUB,  De  JuMUtid  et  Jure  (Venioe,  1626). 

T.  Slater. 
fhraonburg.    See  Ermland. 

ftanenlob.    See  Heinrich  of  Meissen. 

fhranhofer,  Joseph  von,  optician,  b.  at  Straub- 
ing,  Bavaria,  6  March,  1787;  d.  at  Munich,  7  June, 
1826.  He  was  the  tenth  and  last  son  oi  a  poor  ^ass- 
grinder  who  was  unable  to  give  his  boy  even  the  rudi- 
ments of  knowledge.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  lost 
both  parents  and  was  apprentice  to  a  mirror-maker 
and  lens-grinder  for  six  years  without  pay.  There  he 
was  not  permitted  to  study  or  even  to  attend  holiday 
school.  The  house  where  he  worked  collapsed  in  1801, 
burying  the  bov  under  the  ruins,  but  not  mjuring  him 
fatally.  This  fortunate  accident  brou^t  him  to  the 
notice  of  court-councillor  von  Utzschneider,  who  gave 
him  books  on  mathematics  and  optics,  and  also  inter- 
ested King  Max  Joseph  in  him,  wno  made  him  a  pres- 
ent of  eighteen  ducats.  With  this  money  Josepn  ao- 
auired  a  grinding-machine  and  bought  his  release  from 
le  obnoxious  apprenticeship.  He  tried  to  earn  a  liv- 
ing at  his  trade  and  also  as  an  engraver  on  metal. 
Finally,  in  1806,  he  was  called  to  the  mathematico- 
technical  institute  of  Reichenbach,  Utzschneider,  and 
liebherr  as  an  assistant.  There  he  did  such  excellent 
work  that  he  became  a  partner  and  manager  of  the 
optical  institute  of  the  firm  at  Benediktbeuem.  In 
1814  Utzschneider  gave  him  10,000  florins  and  formed 
with  him  the  new  firm  of  Utzschneider  and  Fraunhof er. 
The  optical  institute  was  moved  to  Mimich  in  1810  and 
Frauxmofer  was  appointed  professor  royal.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Erlangen  gave  nim  the  degree  of  Ph.D., 
honoris  causA^  in  18^3.  The  following  year  he  was 
appointed  conservator  of  the  physical  cabinet  of  the 
academy  at  Munich.  Nobility,  the  order  of  merit, 
and  the  honorary  citizenship  of  Munich  were  con- 
ferred upon  him  m  1824.  The  Imperial  Leopoldina 
Academy,  the  Astronomical  Society  of  London,  and 
the  Society  for  Natural  Science  and  Medicine  of 
Heidelberg  elected  him  to  membership.  Shortly  be* 
fore  his  death  he  was  made  a  Knight  of  the  Danish  or- 
der of  Danebrog. 

The  work  of  this  self-taup^t  mathematical  and 
practical  optician  was  chiefly  m  developing  improved 
methods  of  preparing  optical  glass,  of  ^nding  and 
polishing  lenses,  and  of  testing  them.  His  success  de- 
prived England  of  its  supremacy  in  the  optical  field. 
He  invented  the. necessary  madiines,  constructed  a 
spherometer,  and  developed  the  moving  and  measur- 
ing devices  used  in  astronomical  telescopes,  such  as 
the  screw  micrometer  and  the  heliometer.  His  fame, 
however,  rests  above  all  on  his  initiation  of  spectrum 
analysis.  While  stud3ring  the  chromatic  refraction  of 
different  dasses  he  discovered  the  banded  spectra  of 
artificial  lights  and  also  the  dark  lines  in  the  solar 
spectrum,  called  now  the  Fraunhofer  lines.  He  also 
accomplished  an  important  theoretical  work  on  diffrac- 
tion and  established  its  laws ;  he  placed  the  diffraction 
slit  in  front  of  the  objective  of  a  measuring  telescope 
and  later  made  and  iiised  diffraction  gratings  with  up 
to  10,000  parallel  lines  to  the  inch,  ruled  by  a  specially 
constructed  dividing  engine.  By  means  of  these  grat- 
ings he  was  able  to  measure  the  minute  wav»-len^ths 
of  the  different  colours  of  light.  As  a  Christian, 
Fraunhofer  was  faithful  and  observant  even  in  details. 
The  simple  inscription  on  his  tomb  reads:  Approxi" 
maverit  sidera,  llis  important  memoirs  were  first 
published  in  ''Denkschriften"  of  the  Royal  Bavarian 
Academy  of  Sciences,  the  one  on  refraction,  spectra, 
and  lines  in  1817,  and  that  on  diffraction  and  its  laws 


fRATSSXNOtrS 


251 


ntSDEaAETOS 


in  1821.  They  were  soon  translated  into  English  and 
French.  His  collected  works  have  been  published  by 
Lommd  (Munich,  1888),  and  translated  in  part  and 
edited  by  Ames  (New  York  and  London,  1898) . 

Sketch  of  Dr.  Joa,  Frawnhafer  in  Pop.  Science  Monthly,  VI. 
739;  Memoir  in  Jr.  Fr.  InetUuie,  VIII,  90;  Mbrz.  Dae  Leben  und 
Wirken  (Landahut,  1865);  Bausbnfbnd,  OedOchtnuerede  auf 
F.  (Munioh,  1887). 

William  Fox. 

TtaysBinoiiB,  Dbnib  db,  1765-1841,  Bishop  of 
Hermopolis  in  partibua  infiMium,  is  celebrated 
chiefly  for  his  conferences  at  Notre-Dame  de  Paris. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  orators  and  apostles  who  ac- 
complished so  miich  towards  the  restoration  of  the 
Faith  in  France  after  the  Revolution.  He  was  bom  at 
Curi^res  in  Rouergue,  France,  and  died  at  St-Genies 
in  the  department  of  Aveyron.  His  earliest  sermons 
were  delivered  at  Paris^  firat  in  the  church  of  the  Car- 
melites, and  later  at  Samt-Sulpice,  where  he  continued 
them  for  seven  years.  He  was  compelled  to  interrupt 
his  preaching  at  the  order  of  Napoleon  in  1809,  but 
resumed  in  1814,  and  continued,  with  the  brief  inter- 
ruption ,of  the  Htmdred  Days,  until  1822.  Despite 
his  severity  towards  the  preacher,  Napoleon  esteemed 
the  Abb^  Frayssinous  and  had  made  nim  a  councillor 
of  the  university,  of  which  he  later  became  grand 
master.  He  was  elected  to  membership  in  the 
French  Academy,  and  in  1817  pronounced  there  a 
panegjnric  of  St.  Xovda  which  ia  still  famous.  ^  In  1817 
ne  was  named  almoner  to  the  court  of  Louis  XVIII. 
and  later  consecrated  Bishop  of  Hermopolis.  He  had 
been  raised  to  the  French  peerage  when,  in  1824,  he 
pronounced  the  funeral  oration  of  Louis  XVIII.  It 
was  at  this  time  that  the  Societv  of  Jesus,  which  had 
been  re-established  by  Pius  VTI,  wished  to  return  to 
France.  A  number  of  former  Jesuits,  reunited  under 
the  name  of  Fathers  of  the  Faith,  addressed  them- 
selves, in  1824,  to  Mgr  de  Frayssinous,  the  minister 
of  public  worship,  and  obtained  his  protection  of  their 
project. 

His  political  career  came  to  an  end  with  the  revolu- 
tion ot  1830.  After  acting  as  tutor  to  the  Due  de 
Bordeaux  until  1838,  he  went  to  live  at  St-Genies  in 
Provence,  where  he  died  three  years  later.  His  con- 
ferences had  been  published  some  years  before,  and 
form,  under  the  title  "Defense  du  Christianisme"  (4 
vol&) ,  the  chief  work  by  which  he  is  known.  He  pub- 
Iished  also,  in  1818.  his  slightly  Gallican  work  "  Les 
vrais  prinpipes  sxu*  les  libert^s  de  TEglise  gallicane". 
His  conferences  lack  the  vibratine  warmth  and  the 
brilliancy  of  style  which  marked  those  of  Lacordaire 
and  his  successors  in  the  pulpit  of  Notre-Dame.  But 
Mgr  de  Frayssinous  possesses  the  distinction  of  hav- 
ing inaugurated  a  great  movement  of  restoration  and 
of  having  made  the  word  of  God  acceptable  to  both 
the  indif^rent  and  the  incredulous,  owin^  to  the  clear- 
ness with  which  he  explained  dogmatic  truths,  his 
judgment  in  the, choice  of  his  proofs  and  his  loyalty  in 
discussion.  He  was  the  first  m  the  nineteenth  century 
to  sow,  in  this  manner,  the  apostolic  seed,  and  he  as- 
sured an  abundant  harvest  to  those  who  followed  him. 

Hbnrion,  Vie  de  M.  Frayeainoue  (Paris,  1843);  Sept  confi- 
rencea  et  dieeoure  de  M.  D.  Frayaeinoua  (Paris*  1843),  preface; 
RicABD,  UAbbi  Cambalot. 

Louis  Lalandb. 

Tr6chette,  Louis-Honor^,  b.  at  Notre-Dame  de 
L^vis,  P.  Q.,  Canada,  16  November,  1839;  d.  30  May. 
1908.  He  attended  the  schools  of  his  native  town,  and 
completed  his  studies  at  the  Seminary  of  Nioolet,  i^ter 
which  he  chose  the  profession  of  law,  and  in  1864 
was  admitted  to  the  Bar  at  Quebec.  As  clients  did 
not  come  as  quickly  as  he  desired  he  decided  to  ^  to 
Chicago,  where  for  seven  years  he  worked  as  a  jour- 
nalist, and  became  corresponding  secretary  of  the  land 
department  of  the  Illinois  Central  Raflroad.  In  1871 
Fi^ette  returned  to  Canada,  and  in  1874  was  elected 
a  deputy  in  the  House  of  Commons  by  the  Liberal 


party.  Defeated  in  the  ^neral  elections  of  1878  and 
1882,  he  abandoned  public  life  and  returned  to  jour- 
nalism, the  products  of  his  pen  appearing  in  the 
''Journal  de  Quebec",  ^the  ''Journal  de  L^vis",  the 
"Patrie"  of  Montreal,  the  "Opinion  Publique",  "The 
Forum",  "Harper's  Monthly",  and  "The  Arena". 
Meanwhile  his  poetry  won  him  fame  abroad  and  admira- 
tion at  home. .  The  list  of  his  poetical  works  is  some- 
what lengthy.  The  following  are  given  in  their  chrono- 
logical order:  "Mes  Loiairs^',  1863;  "La  Voix  d'un 
Exild",  1866— first  part  published  at  Chicago.  An- 
other complete  edition  appeared  at  Montreal  in  1874. 
"P^le-Mdle;  Fantaisies  et  souvenirs  po^tiques",  1877; 
"Les  Fleurs  Bor^ales,  and  Les  Oiseaux  de  Neige, 
Ponies  Canadiennes",  a  work  crowned  by  the  French 
Academy,  1879;  "LaL^g^nde  d'un  Peuple — Ponies 
Canadiennes",  1887-1890;  "Les  Feuilles  Volantes", 
1891.  Frechette  wrote  also  much  in  prose,  notably: 
"  F^lix  Poutr6"  (an  historical  drama),  1871 ; "  Lettres  k 
Basile  k  propos  des  Causeries  du  Dimanche",  1872; 
"  Le  r^tour  de  r£xiI6"  (a  drama  in  five  acts  and  ei^t 
tableaux),  1880;  "Le  drapeau  fantdme"  (histoncal 
episode),  1884; "  Episode  de  1'  insurrection  Canadienne 
de  1837",  1885:  "Originaux  et  D^traqufe",  1892; 
"Lettres  k  I'abb^  Baillarg^  sur  T^ucation",  1893; 
"Christmas  in  French  Canada"  (in  English),  1900. 
He  translated  into  French,  Howell's  "  Chance  Acquaint- 
ance" and  George  W.  Cable's  "Old  Creole  Days". 
Fr^hette  became  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Canada  at  its  foundation  in  1882 ;  he  was  named  Com- 
panion of  the  Order  of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George  in 
1897,  on  the  occasion  of  the  Jubilee  of  Queen  Victoria. 
The  University  of  Laval,  McGill  University,  and 
Queen's  University  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Letters.  From  1889  Fr^hette  occupied 
the  position  of  clerk  of  the  Council  in  the  l^islature 
of  Quebec.  In  1876  he  married  Emma  Beaudry, 
second  daughter  pf  J.-B.  Beaudrv,  a  banker  of  Mont- 
real, bv  whom  he  had  two  children.  He  has  been 
called  the  "  Lamartine  of  Canada".  He  certainly  ele- 
vated the  poetry  of  Canada,  and  his  work^will  rank 
with  that  of  CrSx 


Mnazie. 


N.  E.   DiONNE. 


FredegariuB,  the  name  used  since  the  sixteenth 
century  (for  what  reason  is  not  known)  to  designate 
the  supposed  author  of  an  anonymous  historical  com- 
pilation (Chronicon  Fredegarii)  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, in  which  is  related  the  history  of  the  Franks 
from  the  earliest  times  until  658.  The  name  appeared 
for  the  firat  time  in  the  "Antiquit^s  gauloises" 
(Paris.  1599)  of  Claude  Fauchet,  who  states  that  it  is 
used  ''through  ignorance  of  the  real  author".  Mod- 
em researoh  has  resulted  in  the  discoverv  that  the 
work  is  really  made  up  of  three  texts  each  of  which 
belongs  to  a  different  author.  The  first  author  is  a 
Bureimdian  whose  work  is  an  epitome  of  six  books 
of  the  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Franks",  bv 
Gregory  of  Toura,  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  death 
of  Chllperic  I  in   584.    He  also  wrote  the  "Liber 

Senerationis"  and  made  extracts  from  Idatius  and  St. 
erome  which  form,  in  the  critical  edition  of  KrusclL 
the  first  and  second  books  of  the  "Chronicon".  In- 
cluding the  epitome,  or  the  third  book,  he  has  there- 
fore written  the  largest  portion  of  the  work.  This 
portion,  it  must  be  said,  is  also  the  least  important, 
for  it  contains  no  original  matter,  and  confines  itself  to 
the  use  of  previous  sources,  and  not  without  blunders 
and  inaccuracies.  It  is  true  that  the  part  of  the 
fourth  book  which  goes  to  613  (Krusch),  or  even  to 
616  (SchnQrer),  has  been  attributed  to  the  same 
author.  The  latter  remarks  that  the  writer  was  in 
touch  with  Wamacharius  the  "mayor  of  the  palace" 
and  believes  that  he  may  be  identified  with  Agrestius, 
a  monk  of  Luxeuil.  The  second  author,  also  a  Bur- 
gundian,  belonged  to  the  south  of  France  and  had 
apparently  spent  some  time  at  Paris.  He  wrote  an 
original  work  extending  to  the  year  642  and  containing 


TBIDiaiS  252  rBXDUUOK 

inf ormatjon  which  is  valuable  because  not  to  be  found  method  which  was  afterwards  developed  into  tlie 
elsewhere.  He  is  an  impartial  and  veracious  author  echolastie  method  by  Abelard,  Alexander  of  HalM, 
whose  testimony  deserves  to  be  received  in  general    and  St.  Thomas. 

with  great  confidence.  The  third  author,  who  brings  De  nrtiio  et  untbrii  ia  P.  L.,  CV,  T6i  wi  in  Afm.  Oerm. 
the  "Chronicon"  to  a  conclusion,  is  a  partisan  of  S"'>^ri;i(^'B?c°'rf'AHNi;^'^^™  N^i^'i^^l^fi^i: 
Grimoald,  the  "mayor  of  the  palace"  and  a  great  iciia  Jah^.  (1906).  XIX.' 4:  MDLUNoEH.Se*Mi«  o/CiariM  i*» 
admirer  of  the  Carlovingian  family.  Chapters  Ixxxiv  Oi™*  itandon,  1877),  72;  Tokneh,  HM.  nf  PMatiphy  (Bnton, 
to  Imviii  and  several  interpolations  are  his.     These     '*»''  ^*-  .-, 

rather  important  concluaiona  have  been  reached  in  '  yviluam   nmuBR. 

recent  times  by  the  critical  acumen  of  B.  Knisch.  Froderick  I,  auraamed  Barbahosba,  German 
Several  points  have_  been  more  nrecisely  defined  by  Ring  and  Roman  Emperor,  son  ot  Frederick  of  Swabia 
G.Schndrer  and  their  opmions  taken  together  may  be  (d.  1147)  and  Judith,  daughter  of  Henry  the  Black; 
considered  defimtive,  although  the  last  word  on  the  bom  c.  1123;died  10  June,  1190.  Connected  mater^ 
subject  haanot  beep  Mid.  ^        „     ,  ^     ^         .  naUy  with  the  Guelpha,  he  seemed  cfeatined  to  effect  a 

Inlereat  in  the     Chronicon   _  of  Fredegfuius  con-     reconciliation  between  them  and  the  Ghibellinea.     In 

nsts  for  us  m  the  fact  that  it  is  the  sole  document    -  -  ■  - 

ivhicb  informs  ua  in  a  continuoiia  way  concerning  that 
period  in  the  history  of  the  Franks  which  ^oes  from 
681  {the  year  in  which  the  "  Eccleaiaatical  History"  of 
Gregory  of  Toura  comefl  to  a  cloae)  to  6A8.  Apart 
from  this  work  we  have  almost  no  knowledge  of^tiie 
period  of  Frankish  history  covered  by  it.  All  three 
writers  exiiibit,  it  is  true,  much  barbarism  in  diction 
and  in  tbouchti  we  are  all  the  more  indebted  to  them 
for  the  8 "" — '  '' — '"  *~ 


1   New 

ScknObbs.   the    1... _. 

SFribours,  SwitierlKiici,  1900J  in  CailrtMma  FriburgrTuia,  IX; 
luBiH.  I'Aiitoire  de  Clovit  <taprli  FriiUaaire  in  Revut  dtt 
mitlionihuUmgut»(lSaO),XlMil:  1d£u.  La  nini  Bmmhaul, 
ifcid.  (18B1),  L;  Watikhbach.  DruUdiland*  OemchicliUquiHtn 
Gih  ed.,  8tuttc«t,  Bsrlin,  18M),  I,  114-118;  141-142. 

GODEFROID    KURTH. 

Fredflgia  of  Toora  (Fridooisus  or  FREDEoisua),  a 

ninth-century  monk,  teacher,  and  writer.     Fredegis 

was  an  Anglo-Saxon,  b.  in  England  towards  the  end 

of  the  eighOi  century;  d.  at  Tours  in  834.    He  was  a 

pupil  ot  Alcuin,  first  at  York  and  afterwards  at  the 

court  of  Charles  the  Great.     The  proximate  date  of 

his  birth  is  determined  by  a  reference  to  him  aa  "a 

boy  "  (pwr)  in  a  letter  of  Alcuin  dated  798.     He  was  a 

favourite  pupil  of  Alcuin  and  was  one  of  the  group  of  Fhedibici  BtHBARosat 

distinguisnea  scholars  who  formed  the  SckSa  paia-  Tigvn  oa  the  ManumPnt  oF  EmpcroT  William  I  on  the 

ttna,  in  which  be  was  known  by  the  name  Nathaniel.  Kyflb&uMr. 

At  Uiat  time  he  was  a  deacon.     When,  in  796,  Alcuin 

became  Abbot  of  Tours  Fredegia  seems  to  have  re-  determined  and  victorious  war  against  Duke  Conrad 

mained  at  the  court.    According  to  some  authorities  of  Z&hringen.    On  4  March,  1152,  after  having  been 

he  was  Alcuin's  successor  as  Master  of  the  Palace  designated  by  Conrad  III  as  his  successor,  he  was 

School.    This  is,  however,  improbable.     In  804  he  elected    German  king,  unopposed,  and    crowned   at 

succeeded  his  teacher  as  Aobot  of  Tours,  retaining  at  Aachen  on  9  Mareh.     Taking  Charles  the  Great  as  his 

the  same  time  his  relations  with  the  emperor.  Among  ideal  of  a  German  emperor,  Frederick  determined  to 

bis  contemporaries  he  enjoyed  a  reputation  for  great  expand   his  supremacy  to  its  utmost   limits.     This 

learning.     He  composed  several  poems  and  a  short  explains  Ills  ecclesiastical  policy.     With  astonishing 

treatise  in  epistolary  form,  which  deals  with  the  nature  firmnesa  his  bold  spirit  pursued  the  aims  it  bad  once 

of  nothing  and  darkness,  "De  nihilo  et  tenebris".  marked  out  for  itself.     Though  no  scholar,  Frederick 

liie  epistle  was  written  probably  during  the  author's  surprises  us  by  the  clearness  and  cleverness  of  his 

residence  at  Tours.     It  is  addressed  "  to  all  the  faith-  speech,  by  his  rapid  comprehension  and  decision,  and 

ful  and  to  those  who  dwell  in  the  sacred  Palace  of  the  by  his  well-reasoned  and  logical  policy.    A  bom  ruler, 

most  serene  prince  Charles".  he  considered  it  his  duty  to  secure  for  his  subjects  the 

The  occasion  of  the  discussion  of  a  problem  which  blessings  of  peace.    The  majesty  of  his  personal  ap- 

'o  the  modem  mind  seems  childish,  namely,  Are  noth-  pearance  was  combined  with   attractive  kindliness, 

ig  and  darkness  real  thinei?  was  doubtless  the  Bibli-  Though  shrewd  and  calculating,  he  had  at  times  fits  of 

iluseof  the  wopdsin  the  first  cbapterof  Genesis.    If  uncontrolled  passion.    However,  he  was  sufficiently 

the  Bible  uses  the  words  nol}iir\g  and  darkness,  it  master  of  himself  to  restrain  his  anger  if  the  object  to 

seemed  in  that  naively  realistic  age  that  there  must  be  attained  was  endangered  by  an  outburst.    Such  a 

be  things  corresponding  to  those  words.    Fredegis  ac-  roan  naturally  excited  the  admiration  and  invited  the 

cepts  the  realistic  answer  and  detenda  it  both  by  ai^-  confidence  of  his  fellow-men. 

menls  from  authority  and  by  arguments  from  reason.         The  sense  of  national  unity  that  grew  out  of  the 

That  his  solution,  nowever,  was  not  generally  ac-  rivalries  existing  in  the  crusadmg  armies  found  in  him 

cepted  is  clear  from  the  opening  words  of  the  treatise,  an  ideal  for  its  enthusiasm.     In  public  opinion  Fred- 

in  which  he  refers  to  the  long  prevailing  diyetvence  of  erick  found  the  support  which  was  lackii^  to  his  pred- 

opinion  in  the  matter.    The  importance  of  t£e  trea-  ecessors,  Lothair  and  Conrad.    The  German  people 

Dae  lies  in  the  use  which  it  nukes  of  the  dialectical  loved  their  king,  who  soon  after  his  coronation  visited 


rRSDEUOK 


253 


rBEDEBIOK 


tiie  various  [larta  of  his  realm  and  manfully  exerted  utilize  them  in  ^lursuiiiK  his  imperial  policy.    He 

himBelf  to  establish  internal  peace.     There  was  no  rea-  conduct  of  Frederick  in  Northern  Italy  and  the  mia- 

aon  why  the  secular  princes  of  hia  empire  should  op-  taken  concept  of  the  relations  between  Church  and 

poee  the  newly  chosen  king;  hia  naturally  conservative  State  could  not  fail  to  briiw  about  a  conflict  with  the 

mind  knew  how  to  deal  with  existing  forces.     Of  the  papacy.     In  this  conflict  tor  supremacy  in  Northern 

princes,  whose  power  was  already  approaching  sover-  Italy,  the  pope  was  forced  to  prove  that  be  was  able  to 

eignty,  he  demanded  only  respect  for  the  existing  defend thepositionof  equality withtheking,whichthe 

order.  He  sought  also  to  unite  the  interests  of  the  Ger-  papal  see  had  acquired,  and  m  this  way  to  gain  a  oom- 

man  princes,  especially  those  of  the  House  of  Guelph  plete  victory  over  the  emperor.     The  king,  a  deeply 

with  the  interests  of  the   empire.     The   Greeorian,  religiouB  man,  was,  indeed,  convinced  that  the  seciuat 

hierarchical  party  in  Germany  was  in  a  state  ol  com-  and  ecclesiastical  powers  should  co-operate  witheach 

plete  dissolution.    From  the  bishops  Frederick  had  no  other,  but  he  made  it  clear  that  even  the  pope  should 

reason  to  fear  radical  opposition  to  his  policy  towards  respect  in  him  the  imperial  lord.     If  Frederick  be- 

the  Church,  dissatisfaction  with  the  papal  administrar  came  master  of  Italy,  the  pope  would  have  to  acknowl- 

tion  in  Germany  being  then  widespread.     He  sue-  edge  this  supremacy.    In  the  banning,  it  seemed 

-  ce«ded  in  recovering  the  influence  formerly  exercised  probable  that  Frederick  would  triumph.    The  pope 


by  the  German  king  i 
selection  of  bishops.  Many 
iwwerful  men  were  at  that 
time  to  be  found  among  the 
German  clergy,  promment 
among  them  being  the  pro- 
vost of  Hildesheim,  Rainald 
von  Dassel,  consecrated  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne  in  May, 
1156,  and  mode  chancellor  of 
the  empire.  For  eleven  years 
he  was  the  most  faithful  couii 
Bellor  of  Frederick.  Rainald 
was  a  formidable  opponent  of 
the  papacy;  in  him  the  bishop 
almpst  wholly  disappears  in 
the  statesman.  Similar  to 
Frederick  in  character,  he  vir- 
orously  supported  the  anti- 
hierarchical  policy  of  the 
emperor.  Another  prelate, 
also  a  stanch  supporter  of  the 
king,  was  Wichmann,  Arch- 
bishop of  Magdeburg,  more  of 
a  soloier  than  a  bishop,  and 
uncanouically  promoted  from 
the  See  of  Zeitz  to  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  Magdeburg.  Thus 
asaistcd  by  the  various  estates 
of  the  empire,  Frederick  sought 
to  make  the  power  of  the  crown 
as  independent  as  possible. 
This   he   did   by  vigorously 


needed  German  help.  Threat- 
ened by  the  Normans  from 
without,  he  was  not  even  se- 
cure in  his  own  city,  which 
governed  itself  through  a  sen- 

.  ateelectedbypopularvoteand 
tolerated  the  revolutionary 
Arnold  of  Brescia  within  its 
walls.  It  was  in  these  cir- 
cumstances that  the  Treaty 
of  Constance  was  signed  be- 
tween the  pope  and  the  king 
(March,  1153).  This  treaty 
was  aimed  against  the  enemies 
of  the  pope  both  in  Rome  and 
Southern  Italy.  In  return  the 
pope  promised  to  crown  Fred- 
erick emperor  and  to  help  h''" 
against  his  enemies. 

In  October,  UM,  Frederick 
began  his  march  Homewards. 
Owing  to  the  weakness  of  his 
army,4he  king  did  not  succeed 
at  ttus  time  m  subjecting  to 

.  bis  power  Northern  Italy  and 
the  rebellious  city  (rf  Milan. 
In  1155  he  went  on  with  his 
army  to  Rome,  where  he  met 
the  newly  elected  Pope  Adrian 
IV,  who  maintained  himself  in 
Rome  with  difficulty  and  was 
anxiously  awaiting  the  arrival 
of  the  German  king.  Frederick 


furthering  the  interests  of  his  ancestral  house.  The  could  not  establish  permanent  order  in  Home.  The 
administrators  of  his  family  property,  the  minutenolet,  Treaty  of  Constance,  promising  the  pope  help  against 
were  not  only  managers  of  great  estates,  but  at  the  the  Romans  and  Nonnane,  was  therefore  not  carried 
same  time  an  ever-ready  body  of  warriors.  Thonego-  out.  On  18  June,  1155,  after  having  deUvered  Arnold 
tiations  between  the  king  and  the  pope  concerning  the  of  Brescia  into  the  pope's  han»fi,  Frederick  was 
appointment  to  the  See  of  Magdeburg  revealed  for  the  crowned  as  Roman  emperor  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
first  time  a  radical  difference  between  the  policies  of  ol  the  rebellious  Romans.  In  Southern,  as  m  Nortb- 
the  Church  and  the  State.  During  tliese  stormy  con-  em,  Italy  Frederick  made  little  progress  during  this 
troversies,  forerunners  of  the  approaching  tempest,  Italian  expedition.  During  the  years  I155-115S, 
Frederick  was  strengthened  in  his  views  regarding  the  Frederick  reached  the  height  of  his  power,  and  ener- 
superiority  of  the  royal  over  the  papal  power,  cmefly  getically  safeguarded  the  tranquillity  of  his  realm. 
throughintercourse  with  the  leading  junsta  of  the  Uni-  Thedifficult  Ovarian  question,  replete  with  imminent 
versity  of  Bologna.  The  conception  of  the  dignity  of  danger  of  war,  was  successfully  settled;  Henry  Jaso- 
the  Roman  emperor  placed  before  him  by  these  men  mirgott  surrendered  Bavaria  to  Henry  the  Lion  and  in 
confirmed  him  in  his  claims  to  the  supremacy  of  the  return  received  Austria  as  an  independent  duchy,  a 
German  kings  over  the  Church,  which  he  baaed  upon  step  that  was  pregnant  with  conse<3uence«  for  the 
the_ rights  exereised  by  them  during  the  Carlovingian  future  of  Germany,  Frederick's  policy  was  also  suc- 
period.  The  whole  internal  and  external  policy  of  cessful  along  the  eastern  and  western  boundaries  of 
Frederick  was  controlled  by  the  idea  of  restoring  the  bis  empire.  His  suzerainty  in  Burgundy  was,  in  the 
ancient  imperijim  mundi.  In  Northern  Italy,  where  main,  re-established,  after  Frederick,  with  the  con- 
many  prosperous  communes  had  acquired  independ-  sent  of  the  Curia,  had  separated  from  Adela  von 
enc^  the  former  imperial  suzerainty  had  passed  away,  Vohburg,  and  married  Beatrice,  the  heiress  of  Bur- 
Frederick  failed  to  see  that  in  these  cities  a  new  polit-  gundy.  On  his  eastern  frontier,  he  succeeded  more 
ical  factor  was  developing,  and  underrated  the  powers  and  more  in  Germanizing  and  Christianizing  the  local 
(rf  resistance  of  these  free  municipal  republics.  Con-  tribes.  In  this  respect,  Henry  the  Lion  was  the  chief 
coned  only  with  immediate  advantages,  he  soueht  to  pioneer  of  the  future  imperial  policy.  Frederick 
recoverthe  rtyolia  (income  from  vacant  sees  and  oene-  maintained  amicable  relations  with  Denmark,  Poland, 
Sees),  which  the  cities  had  gradually  usurped,  and  to  and  Hungaiy.     Impelled  by  hia  proud  consciousness    . 


of  authoritT,  which  foiuid  expreaaion  at  the  Diet  of 
Wllnburg(lt57},  Frederick  undertook  a aecond  Ital- 
'~~  impaika  in  1158.    In  the  meantime,  conditions 

.langed  in  Italy;  thei 

ent  ot  the  Normans,  hac 


had  changed  in  Italy;  the  pope,  from  being  an  oppon- 
— '  -'  "--  " had  become  their  ally.     The 


that  occasion  the  papal  legate  had  called  the  imperial 
dignity  a  benefice  (benefidum)  of  the  popes.  The  ex- 
"— ""'on  was  ambi^oua,  since  the  Latm  word  dene- 
might  mean  either  a  personal  benefit  or  a  feudal 
_  _  _  _  fsion.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  in- 
dignant German  princes  were  right  in  vinderatanding 
it  to  be  an  aaaertion  of  the  superiority  of  the  popes  over 
the  rimperoTB.    la  sharp  denial  of  thia  claim,  Frederick 


E 


mated  with  the  spirit  of  Qr^oi;  VII,  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  miperial  supremaov.  Around  the 
pope  gathered  all  the  enemies  of  Frederick.  The  uni- 
versal papal  power  was  destined  to  triumph  over  tba 
idea  of  a  univeraal  imperial  power.  The  Western 
rulers  were  determined  to  resist  eveiy  attempt  to  re- 
establish the  imperial  hegemony  in  the  West.  Fred- 
erick  was  again  left  to  his  own  resources  and,  after  a 
short  sojourn  in  Germany,  undertook  a  new  expedi- 
tion to  Italy  (1163).  For  a  time  the  death  of  the  anli- 
npe,  Victor  IV,  gave  rise  to  hopes  of  a  reconciliation 
tween  Frederick  and  Alexander  III,  but  soon  the 
emperor  reco^niied  another  antipope.  Paschal  III. 
At  the  same  tune  an  anti-imperial  alliance,  the  Lom- 
bard League,  was  formed  by  the  cities  of  Verona,  Vi- 
cenia,  and  Padua;  it  was  joined  bv  Venice,  Conston-  ' 
tinople,  and  Sicily.  Internal  troubles  caused  by  the 
eehism  prevented  the  emperor  from  coping  success- 
fully with  the  famous  League.  Some  of  the  German 
clergy,  moreover,  had  espoused  the  cause  of  Alexander 
III,  and  Frederick  was  unable  to  overcome  their  oppo- 
sition. Nevertheless,  he  amin  left  Germany  (1166), ' 
marched  through  the  disaffected  cities  of  Northern 
Italy,  and,  accompanied  by  the  antipope,  entered 
"  "■  a  deadly  fever  destroyed  his  army. 


:;.-¥(,„ 


From  $•  dooumeot  io  the  State  arohivea  M  Beriio 

defended  his  imperial  sovereignty.  The  relations  be- 
tween pope  and  emperor  became  more  strained.  Pope 
Adrian  was  considerinK  the  excommunieation  of  the 
emperor,  when  his  deatli  relieved  the  existing  tension. 
Relying  on  his  own  resomrea,  Frederick  now  began 
another  campaign  against  the  cities  of  Northern  Italy. 
Milansuccurabed  after  a  short  siege  (7  Sept.,  1158).  At 
the  Diet  of  Roncaglia  the  emperor  undertook  to  define 
with  precision  the  rights  of  the  empire  as  against  its 
subject  rulers  and  cities,  also  to  restore  the  earlier 
strong  Buserainty  by  the  appointment  of  imperial  offi- 
cials (podtilA)  in  the  North  Italian  cities.  His  inten- 
tion was  to  establish  peace,  but  the  Lombards  failed 
to  understand  this  and  openly  rebelled.  During  bis 
war  with  the  city  of  Cremona  occurred  the  disputed 

Eapal  election  of  1159.  Aa  supreme  protector  ot 
hristendom,  Frederick  claimed  the  right  to  decide 
this  quarrel.  Of  course,  had  he  been  able  to  enforce 
his  claims  it  would  have  teen  aproof  of  the  supremacy 
of  the  empire.  The  9ynod  of  Pavia,  assembled  by 
Frederick  in  Feb.,  1160,  decided  in  favour  of  Victor 
IV.  Thereupon,  as  Victor's  protector,  Frederick  un- 
dertook to  win  over  to  the  cause  of  this  antipope  the 
Other  rulers  of  Europe.  Milan,  in  the  meantime,  had 
Burrendered  (March,  1162)  and  met  with  a  fearful 
outigation. 

The  successes  of  the  emperor  excited  the  envy  of  the 
other  European  rulers.    Pope  Alexander  III,  ani- 


while  behind  him  the  Lombard  insurrection  assumed 
more  dangerous  proportions.  Lengthy' negotiations 
followed,  and  the  emperor  again  attempt«a  to  over- 
throw the  coalition  of  the  League  and  Pope  Alexander 
(1174).  Thegreatbattleof  Legnauo(29May,  1176) 
destroyed  the  imperial  hopes,  and  left  Fredenck  will- 
ing to  enter  on  negotiations  for  peace.  The  most  im- 
portaqt  result  of  the  ensuing  treaty  of  Venice  (1177) 
was  the  failure  of  the  emperor  to  establish  his  suprem- 
acy over  the  pope;  and  in  acknowledging  the  com- 
plete equaUty  of  Alexander,  whom  he  now  recogniied 
as  pope,  Frederick  confessed  the  defeat  of  the  im- 
perial pretensions. 

While  Frederick  was  fighting  in  Northern  Italy,  the 
head  of  the  Guelpha,  Henry  the  Lion,  had  refused  to 
give  him  armed  assistance.  Now  he  openly  rebeUed 
against  Frederick.  The  emperor  overthrew  Henry, 
and  henceforth  aimed  at  impeding  the  growth  of  his 
powerful  vassals  by  dividing  the  dij^edoms  as  much  as 
possible.  Bavaria,  without  Styria  however,  was  at 
this  time  granted  to  the  Guelph  house  of  Wittelsbach, 
which  act  naturally  revived  the  feud  between  the 
Houses  of  Guelph  and  Uohenstaufen. 

The  Treaty  of  Constance  (26  June,  1183)  betwera 
Frederick  and  the  Lombards  deprived  the  pope  i^  bis 
important  ally,  the  combined  cities  of  Northern  Italy. 
Shortly  afterwards,  Frederick's  son  Henry  married 
Constance,  the  Norman  princess  of  Sicily.  The  papacy 
was  now  threatened  both  from  the  north  and  the  south. 
Friendly  relations  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor 
were  also  endangered  by  complaints  about  the  exer- 
cise of  the  Jut  epolii  and  the  collection  of  the  titties  by 
laymen.  The  coronation  of  Frederick's  son  Henry  as 
King  of  Italy  (27  Jan.,  1186)  led  to  an  open  rupture. 
The  political  weakness  of  the  papacy  was  offset  to  some 
extent  by  the  fact  that  Phihpp  von  Heinsberg,  Arch- 
bishop of  Colcmne  and  a  powerful  prince,  became  the 
champion  of  the  pope.  By  skilful  management  and 
with  the  aid  of  a  majority  of  the  German  bishops 
Frederick  evaded  the  threatening  peril. 

The  death  of  Urban  III  and  the  election  of  Gr«{ory 
VIII  brought  about  a  change  in  the  dealings  of  the 
Curia  with  the  empire,  owing  chieSy  to  the  gloomy 
reports  from  the  Holy  Land. 

At  the  Diet  of  Mains  in  1LS8,  Frederick  took  tha 
cross,  and  on  11  May,  1189,  started  for  Palestine.  On 
10  June,  1190,  he  met  with  a  sudden  death  while  cross- 
ing the  River  Saleph  in  Asia  Minor. 

SiuoHanLD.  Ja/iTiadirr  da  dtvttdien  SriiAa  unin-  Fritd- 
rieh  I.  (Leip.ig;,  10081,  Vol.  1,  1132-1158:  PauTt.  Kaiitr  Friad- 
ndi  I.  (DanHg,  1S7I-T3I;  HAncE.  FrudruA  Barbarntta  olf 
Kirchmptlitilitr  (Laipiis,  ISBSI;  Woltram,  FritdHcli  I.  unddot 
Wormi4r  Konkortlai  [Htrbutg,  1S83):  ScBAiriB,  DU  CwwM^ 


FBKDERIOK                              255  r&KDEBiaK 

bmg  Hmndu  it  Liutn  in  Hiit.  ZtitMcJiriH,  LXXVT;  Scnar*  only  by  skilful  diplom&cv,  aod  that  it  was  confltttntlT 

«8w""°""'  "'""  "^^"''^  '"^  ^'^  "**  ^  *™  temeriUed  by  their  conflicting  interesU. 

F.  Kampkss.  Frederick  at  this  time  was  chiefly  aolicitoua  about 
Sicily,  towards  which  he  was  drawn  by  his  Norman 

nAdwlek  n,  Qerman  King  and  Roman  Emperor,  parentage  on  the  mother's  eide,  while  the  characttf 
eon  o(  Henry  VI  and  Constance  of  Sicily;  b.  2S  Dec.,  of  bis  own  German  people  did  not  attract  hissympa- 
1194;  d.  at  Fiorentlna,  in  Apulia,  13  Dec.,  1250.    He  thies.    He  had  grown  up  in  Sicily  where  Norman, 
adopted  his  father's  policy  of  making  Italy  the  centre  Greek  and  Mohammedan '  civilisation  had  intermin- 
of  his  power,  and  was  interested  in  Germany  only^  ded,  at  once  strengthening  and  repelling  one  another, 
cause  it  guaranteed  to  him  his  title  to  Upper  and  The  king,  endowed  with  great  natural  ability,  had 
Centnlltalf.     On  the  other  hand,  he  could  not  arrest  acquired  a  wonderful  fund  of  learning  which  made 
the  dissolution  of  the  empire  hastened  by  the  failure  him  appear  a  prodigy  to  bis  contemporaries,  but, 
of  his  predecessor  Otto  IV.    The  poeaeasions  of  the  althougn  he  was  intimately  acquainted  with  the  great- 
empire  and  those  of  hiaown  Hobenstaufen  family,  b^  est  productioos  of  eastern  and  western  genius,  his 
means  of  which  Frederick  I  had  sought  to  build  up  his  soanng  spirit  never  lost  itself  in  romantic  dreams, 
power,  were  plundered.    Frederick's  sole  desire  was  He  eagerly  studied  both  the  more  and  the  less  impor- 
lor  peace  in  Germany,  even  if  to  secure  this  be  had  to 
make  the  greatest  sacrifices;  and  for  this  reason,  he 
granted  to  the  ecclesiastical  and  temporal  lords  a 
series  of  privileges,  which  subsequently  developed  into 
the  independent  soverei^tT  oi  these  princes.     This 
emperor'a  policy  was  entirely  dominated  by  the  idea 
that  without  Sicily  the  poaaeaaion  of  Italy  would 
always  be  insecure,  and  that  a  king  of  Italy  could  not 
maintaih  himself  without  being  at  the  same  time  em- 
peror.    This  policy  was  naturally  aotogonistic  to  the 
Kpocy.     The  popes,  isolated  as  they  were  in  Central 
ily,  felt  themselves  compelled  to  prevent  the  union 
of  Southern  Italy  with  the  empire.    Frederick  recog- 
nised this  fact,  and  for  aeveral  years  strove  to  main- 
tain peace  by  extreme  concessions.    Innocent  III  had 
chosen  Frederick  to  be  his  instrument  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Guelph,  Otto  IV.     In  return  for  Innocent's 
support,  Fredenck  had  been  obliged  to  make  promisee 
to  the  pope  at  Eger  (12  July,  1215),  which  would  put 
an  end  to  the  undue  influence  of  the  civil  power  over 
the    German    bishops.      The   emancipation    of    the 
Church  from  the  royal  power  dates  irom  this  time. 
The  cause  of  Frederick's  concessions  to  the  Church 
lay  not  in  his  religious  convictions  but  in  his  pdit- 
tcal  aims. 

Frederick  had  also  been  obliged  to  acknowledge  the  Sua,  or  Fuduucx  n 

pope  as  his  overlord  in  Sicily,  thus  abandoning  his  "  Frideriiius  Dteli  G™[iiaJ  Romanorfuim]  Rex  M  m[iii][i(«) 

fatW's  cherished  hopes  of  uniting  Sicily  with  the  im-  ^^  ^  d„cumeaTu'ffi!ilripS^E^«.  «  R«Jrfort 
penal  crown  of  Germany,  though  the  attempts  of  the 

pope  to  entirely  nullify  this  "personal  union"  were  tant  interests  of  the  political  and  economical  life  of 

far  from  succe^ul.     Italian  afiaira  continued  to  be  Southern  Italy.     The  founding  of  the  Univermty  of 

the  hii^  on  which  turned  the  papalpolicy  towards  Naples  sufficiently  attests  his  interest  in  educaUon. 

the  emperor,  for  the  popes  in  their  eSorts  to  sustain  He  was  an  intelligent  admirer  of  the  beauties  of  na- 

tbeir  traditional  sufHcmacy  could  not  allow  tiie  em-  ture,  his  love  for  which  was  intenaified  by  his  natural 

eror  a  controlling  influence  in  Italy.  The  conflict  powers  of  observation.  The  unlimited  resourcee  of 
tween  the  two  powers  strangely  influenced  the  Cru-  the  physical  world  and  its  constantly  multiplying 
sades.  Frederick  had  been  forMd  to  pledge  himself  problems  increased  the  inclination  of  this  sceptical 
to  take  part  in  a  new  crusade,  for  which  inadequate  spirit  towards  a  thorou^  empiricism.  In  none  of  his 
preparations  had  been  made  by  the  pope,  ana  the  contemporaries  does  intellectual  subjectivism  show 
Council  of  Lateran  (1215)  fixed  1  June,  1216,  as  the  itself  so  strongly  and  at  the  same  time  so  one-sidedl]^. 
time  for  beginninK  the  crusade.  This  desire  to  penetrate  into  the  secrets  of  the  uni- 
The  condition  of  Germany,  however,  did  not  permit  verse,  as  well  as  his  scandalous  sensual  indulgence, 
the  absence  of  the  emperor.  At  Frankfort  in  April,  brou^t  on  Frederick  the  reputation  of  an  atheist. 
1220,  the  German  diet  passed  regulations  concern-  In  apite,  however,  of  his  sceptical  tendencies,  he  was 
ing  the  Roman  expedition  and  the  crusade.  After  notanatheist.  An  epigrammatic  utterance  about  "the 
Frederick's  yoime  son  Henry  had  been  chosen  king,  three  imptoetors,  Moses,  Christ  and  Mohammed"  has 
and  £n§^lbert,  the  powerful  Arohbishop  of  Cologne,  been  unjustly  ascribed  to  him  in  later  times,  and  he 
named  vice-regent,  Frederick  set  out  for  Italy.  He  remained  true  to  the  Church.  Perhaps  his  rational- 
was  crowned  emperor  at  Rome  (22  Nov.,  1220),  and  istic  mind  took  pleasure  in  the  strictly  logical  charac- 
renewed  his  vow  to  take  the  cross,  promising  to  begin  ter  of  Catholic  di^ma.  He  was  not,  however,  a 
the  campaign  in  the  following  year.  By  a  severe  edict  champion  of  rationalism,  nor  had  he  any  sympathy 
against  heretic,  he  placed  the  secular  power  at  the  with  the  mystico-heretical  movements  of  the  time;  in 
service  of  the  Cnureh,  and  thus  appeared  to  have  ar-  fact  he  joined  in  suppressing  tbem.  It  was  not  the 
rived  at  a  complete  underatanding  with  the  pope.  Churehof  the  Middle  Ages  that  he  antagonised,  but  its 
Even  when  he  failed  to  keep  his  promise  to  start  the  representatives.  It  is  in  his  conflict  with  the  pope 
Orusade  in  the  following  year,  the  friendly  relatione  of  that  his  colossal  character  becomes  manifest.  At  tne 
pope  and  emperor  remained  unaltered.  For  this  the  same  time,  it  becomes  apparent  how  he  combined 
peace-loviae  pope  deserved  the  chief  credit,  thou^  force  and  ability  with  cunning  and  the  spirit  of  re- 
Frederick  abo  strove  to  avoid  a  breach  by  his  loyal  venge.  His  most  prominent  characteristic  was  bis 
policy  towards  the  Holy  See.  Both  pc^  and  em-  self-conceit.  In  Germany  this  megalomania  was  kept 
peror,  however,  saw  that  this  peace  was  maintained  in  check,  but  not  so  in  Sicily,    Here  hQ  could  build  up 


rSEDEBIOK  256  FBEDEBIOK 

a  modern  state,  the  foundations  of  vhich  it  ia  true  had  crowned  himself  King  of  Jerusalem.  On  10  June, 
already  been  laid  by  the  ^reat  Norman  kings.  1229,  he  landed  at  Brindisi  od  bis  return.    During  the 

The  ot^Diaation  of  his  Sicilian  hereditary  stales    emperor's  absence  the  curia  bad  taken  vigorous  meaa- 
nas  completed  by  the  "Canstitutiones  imperiales",     ures  against  bim.    Frederick's  energetic  action  after 
published  at  Amalfi,  1231.     In  theae  laws,  Frederick     his  return  forced  the  pope  to  recognue  the  emperor's 
appears  as  sole  poeseaaor  of  every  right  and  privilege,     success  in  the  East  and  to  release  him  from  excom- 
an  absolute  monarch,  or  rather  an  enU^tened  despot    munication.    The  treaty  of  San  Germano  (20  July, 
standingat  the  head  of  a  well-ordered  civil  hiemrohy.     1230),  in  spit«  of  many  concessions  made  by  the  Em- 
Hia  subjects  in  this  system  bad  duties  only,  but  they     peror,  was  m  reality  an  evidence  of  papal  defeat.   The 
were  well  defined.     After  practically  completing  the     pope  bad  been  unable  to  break  the  power  of  his  dan- 
reorganiBattonofSicily(1235),theemperorattempted,     eprjus  adversary.     Frederick  forthwith  resumed  his 
hke  Ms  powerful  CTandtather,  to  re-eetabUsh  the  ira-     North  Italian  policy.     Again  his  att«mpte  were  fnis- 
perial  power  in  Upper  Italy,  but  with  insufficient     trated,  on  this  occasion  by  the  threal«ning  attitude  of 
resources.     The  result  was  a  new  boslile  league  of  the     hissonHenry,whonow  appeared  as  independent  ruler 
Italian  cities.     Through  the  mediation  of  the  pope,     of  Germany,  thereby  becoming  his  father's  enemy  and 
however,  peace  was  maintained.     During  this  time     unfurlinethebanner  of  rebellion  (1234).     Afl«ralong 
Archbishop  Engelbert  of  Cologne,  supported  by  sev-     abBence,Trederick  now  returned  to  German)',  where  hd 
eral  princes  of  the  empire  who  had  been  efficiently    tookprisonerhisrebe!son(1235).    Henrydiedinl242. 
About  this  time  Frederick  married  Elisabeth  of 
Endand  (at  Worms),  and  in  1235  held  a  brilliant  diet 
at  Mainz,  where  he  promulgated  the  famous  Laws  of 
the  Empire,  a  landmark  in  the  development  of  the 
empire  and  its  constitution.     New  measures  for  the 
mamtenance  of  peace  were  enacted,  the  right  of  pri- 
vate feuds  was  gi«atly  restricted,  and  an  imperial  court 
with  it^  own  seal  was  constituted,  thereby  establish- 
ing a  basis  for  the  futurenational  law.     As  soon  as  the 
emperor  had  established  order  in  Germany,  he  again 
marched  against  the  Lombards,  which  conflict  soon 
brougjit  on  another  with  the  pope.    The  latter  had 
several  times  mediated  between  the  Lombards  and  the 
emperor,  and  now  reasserted  bis  right  to  arbitrate  be- 
tween the  contendingparties.     In  the  numerous  mani- 
festos of  the  pope  ana  the  emperor  the  antagonism  of 
Church  and  State  becomes  daJy  more  evulent. 
pope  claimed  for  himself  the  "imperium  animar 
and  the  "principatus  renim  et  corporum  in  universo 
mundo".     The  emperor  on  the  other  hand  wished  to 
restore  the  "imperium  mundi";  Rome  was  again  to  be 
the  capital  of  the  world  and  Frederick  was  to  become 
the  real  emperor  of  the  Romans,     He  published  an 
energetic   manifesto    protesting   against   the   world- 
empire  of  the  pope.     The  emperor's  successes,  espe- 
cially his  victory  over  the  Lombards  at  the  battle  of 
Cortenuova  (1237),  only  embittered  the  opposition 
between  Church  and  State.    The  pope,  who  had  allied 
himself  with  Venice,  B«ain  excommunicated  the  "  self- 
confessed  heretic",  the  "blasphemous  beast  of  the 
Apocalypse"  (20  March,  1239).     Frederick  now  at- 
To¥B  or  EiMBoa  Fudirici  U  tempted  to  conquer  the  rest  of  Italy,  i.  e.  the  papal 

PaUiiDs  Chopct.  Cathedral  oi  Paisrmo.  XIII  Century  States.    His  SOU  Enrico  captured  in  a  sea-6ght  all  the 

K relates  who  by  the  command  of  Gregory  were  coming 
__  tim  Genoa  to  Rome  to  assist  at  a  general  couneih 

the  cities,  preserved  the  peace  in  Germany.  After  Gregory's  position  was  now  desperate,  and,  after  his 
the  archbishop's  death,  however,  a  new  order  set  in —  death  (22  Aug.,  1241),  the  Holy  See  remained  vacant 
a  time  of  savage  feuds  and  widespread  disorder  fol-  for  almost  two  years  save  for  the  short  reign  of 
lowed  by  the  first  open  quarrel  between  the  papacy    Celestine  IV. 

and  the  emperor,  Frederick  had  completed  exten-  During  this  interval  the  bitterness  existing  between 
sive  jireparations  for  a  crusade  in  1227.     Four  years     the  rivaf  parties  seemed  to  moderate  somewhat,  and 

ereviously,  he  had  espoused  Isabella  (or  lolanthe),  about  this  time  the  emperor  was  threatened  by  anew 
siresa  of  Jerusaleni,  and  now  styled  himself  "  Roma-  and  dangerous  movement  in  Germany.  The  German 
norum  imperator  semper  Augustus;  Jerusalem  et  Si-  episcopate  could  ill  bear  the  prospect  of  being  hence- 
ciliterex".  Itwasbisseriousmtentiontocarry  out  his  forth  at  the  mercy  of  the  reckless  tj^rant  of  Italy. 
promise  to  begin  his  crusade  in  August,  1227  (under  Frederick  sou^t  to  weaken  the  hostile  bishops  by 
pain  of  excommunication) ,  but  a  malignant  fever  favouring  the  secular  princes  and  granting  privileges 
destro^d  a  great  part  of  his  army  andprostrated  to  the  cities.  llieeneigeticlDnocentlVascendedOie 
the  king  himself.  Nevertheless  Gregory  IX  declared  papal  throne  on  25  June,  1243.  To  secure  peace  viiik 
Frederick  excommunicated  (29  Sept.,  1227),  showing  the  newly  elected  pontiff,  the  emperor  was  inclined  to 
by  this  step  that  be  considered  the  time  had  come  to  make  concessions.  The  main  issue  at  stake  however 
break  the  iUusive  peace  and  to  clear  up  the  situation.  was  not  settled,  i.  e.,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  emperor  in 
Although  the  radical  antagonism  between  empire  North  Italy.  In  order  to  nullify  Frederick's  military 
and  papacy  did  not  appear  on  the  surface,  it  was  at  superiority  in  the  future  phases  of  the  struggle,  Inno- 
the  root  of  the  ensuing  conflict  between  Church  and  cent  left  Rome  secretly  and  went  by  way  oiGenoB  to 
Slate.  At  the  beginning  of  this  struggle  the  excom-  Lyons.  Here  he  summoned  a  general  council  (21 
municated  emperor  started  on  his  crusade  against  the  June,  1245)  by  which  Frederick  was  aeain  excommuni- 
express  wish  a!  the  pope,  wishing  no  doubt  to  justify  cated.  Immediately  there  appeared  several  preten- 
his  attitude  by  success.    On  17  March,  1229,  hs    ders  in  Germany,  i.  e.,  Henry  Raspe  of  Thuringia  and 


nUBDOU  257 

William  of  Holland.    It  was  only  with  the  greatest  existence  of  the  Free  Church  as  a  separate  eodesiae- 

difficulty  that  Frederick's  son  Conrad  could  hold  his  tical  body  dates  from  1843,  when  a  large  number  of 

own  in  Qermany,  since  the  greater  part  of  the  clergy  members,  both  lav  and  clerical,  of  the  Established 

supported  the  pope.    Most  of  the  lay  lords,  however,  Church  of  Scotland,  severed  their  oomiezion  with  that 

remained  faithlul  to  the  emperor  uid  exhibited  an  bodv  as  a  protest  against  the  encroachment  of  the 

attitude  of  hostility  to  the  cler^.    A  contemporary  civil  i>ower  on  the  independence  of  the  Church,  espe- 

writer  describes  as  follows  the  situation  in  1246 :  "  li-  dally  in  the  matter  of  presentation  to  vacant  benefices, 
lustioe  reisned  supreme.    The  people  were  without        According  to  the  Free-Church  view,  the  Church  of 

leaders  ana  Rome  was  troubled.    Gerical  dignity  was  Scotland,  from  the  date  of  its  inception  in  1560,  upon 

lost  sight  of  and  the  laity  were  split  into  various  the  overthrow  of  the  old  religion,  had  posscjssed  the 

factions.    Some  were  loyal  to  the  Churdi  and  took  the  inherent  right  of  exercising  her  spiritual  jurisdiction 

cross,  others  adhered  to  Frederick  and  became  the  through  her  elected  assembly,  absolutely  free  of  any 

enemies  of  God's  religion. "  interference  by  the  civil  power.  Such  an  mdependence 

For  some  time  &rtune  alternately  smiled  and  had  been  asserted  by  her  first  leaders,  Knox  and  Md- 

f rowned  on  Frederick  in  Italy,  but.  after  completing  ville.  and  especiallv  laid  down  and  claimed  in  both 

all  his  preparations  for  a  decisive  oattle,  he  aied  at  her  nrst  and  secona  books  of  discipline,  issued  in  1660 

Fiorentma  in  Apulia,  and  was  buried  at  Palermo.    In  and  1581.  The  restoration  of  "  prelacy"  (the  episcopal 

German  legend  he  continued  to  live  as  the  emperor  form  of  churdi  government)  in  1606  by  James  I,  the 

fated  to  return  and  reform  both  Church  and  State.    In  revival  of  the  self-governing  powera  of  the  Assembly 

more  recent  times,  however,  he  has  had  to  yield  his  in  1649,  its  subsequent  suspension  under  Cromwdi  ^ 

place  in  popular  legend  to  Frederick  Barbarossa,  a  in  1653  and  again  after  the  Restoration,  the  Revolu- 

ngure  more  in  harmony  with  German  sentiment.  tion  settlement  in  1690,  and  the  Act  of  Queen  Anne 

/BcHiRBifACHBR.  KatBv  FHedruJi  II,  (Qottingen,  186(M»)*(  in  1712  re-establishing  the  sirstem  of  private  patron- 

§5S^^'£■2^!teSiSS;SafiS^^  a^^  m  the  IVerf,yteAn  Church,  we»>  the  prindpia 

KBLif ANN.  ReiekaannaUn,  Kaiaer  Friednch  II.,  1218-1225. 122&-  cnses,  now  favourable,  now  the  reverse,  to  the  chcT- 

i239{lMiptig,  1^19);  ZmhiMH,L*tmpereur  Fred.  II.  el  la  chuude  ished  principles  of  i^iritual  independence,  through 

^^^^^  ^^  ur,^    «^  which  the  Church  passed  during  the  first  century  and 

III.    AmonT^e'6tth<Sio  writm's^^  a  half  of  its  existence.    Throu0iout  the  eighteenth 


^^ 


OregorioIX  e  suoi  tempi  (Modena.  1872-73):  Fw;itbn..  Papti  ocntury  a  party  within  the  Church  continued  .to  pro- 

2S2S*i£^"(ftri^'  awoBNHOTHM-faiuKai.  ktrchen.  ^st  a^in^  civU  interference  with  her  rights,  ^ 

p,  Kamperb.  cially  as  regarded  patronagje;  but  at  the  same  time 

there  grew  up  the  ecclesiastical  party  known  as  Mod- 

FredoU,  Berbngbb,  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Frascati;  ?^*?'  ^^®  V^  ^^5  and  other  questions  displaved  an 

b.  at  V^rune,  France,  c.  1250;  d.  at  Avignon,  11  June,  mdiflFerenoe  towards  state  encroachments  which  more 

1323.    He  was  canoA  and  precentor  of^^zieis,  secu'  *^/?  "'^'^Vj^if^if?  "^.^^^^^^I*  ^^.  *^«  °^SJ«  ^«7«°* 

lar  Abbot  of  Saint-Aphrodwe  in  the  same  city,  canon  f^**^^'  ^*  the  begmning  of  ije  mneteentti  century, 

and  archdeacon  of  Corbidree,  and  canon  of  Aix.    He  however,  the  latter  was  strengthened  by  the  growmg 

hiter  held  the  chair  of  canon  law  at  Bologna,  and  was  ^«*  °^  ^!  H  Eva wWion ''  which  was  sweeps 

appointed  chaplain  to  Celestine  V^wholn  1294  con-  jng  over  Scotland  m  weU  m  E^ngland.  The  wws  of  g^^ 

s^Vated  him  feshop  of  B^siers.    tredoli  was  one  of  *^°  P»^»~'  ^^  Evangelic^and  the  Moderate,  l»- 

those  entrusted  by  Boniface  VIII  with  the  comoila-  <5*™®  more  and  more  opposed,  tne  nnal  result  bemg 

tionof  the  text  of  the  Decretals,  and  afterwards  known  ^•/"^"»?  Years' Oonflfct'^betwwn  them,  which  e^ 

as  the"  Liber  Sextus".    He  took  a  prominent  part  in  mthetnumphof  thefoimer,Midmthepa«ngbv^ 

the  nwtiations  then  in  progi«88  between  th^pope  General  AssemWv.mlSH  of  the  famous  "Veto  Act", 

and  PfiUp  the  Fair,  and  attended  the  council  held  m  This  act  aaerted  (or  rathw  reasserted,  for  the  pruH 

Rome  in  1302.   In  1305  Oement  V  created  him  car-  SP'?  }^  "**«?  *>?n  dedared  m  Dievious  AsKonUies) 

dinal,  with  the  tiUe  of  Sts.  Nereus  and  AchiUeus,  **»»*  '*  T"  fj*!^'^?*^^  '*''  **^  ^  Church  that  no 

appointed  him  major  penitentiarsr,  and  in  1309  r^sed  f^^'  *2'"°  •*  mtruded  upon  a  oongr«^tion  oon- 

him  to  the  Cardini-BSiopric  of  ftascati.    The  same  J?*'y  *"u*''?i?P'''*iL?3  '^^^  a^T  P^*^'*?  *?  » 

pontiff  employed  him  in  investigating  the  charges  ^7^^ ^""^^ ^t '^^^rSj^-^JH!^?^ '^^ ^JP^'?*^/ 

made  agai^t  the  Knights  Templia,  iSd  also  in  flie  °i  **  ^^  "l  famihes.  -nus  direct  blow  at  the  n^te 

enquiry  into  the  pecuHar  tenets  entertained  at  that  "  ^vate  patrons  was  soon  chaUeiMed  m  the  eml 

time  by  a  section^  the  Franciscan  Orde?.    On  the  ?»^'  '^Z'^  ultnnately  decided  On  W38).m;the 

death  (A  aement  V,  FiedoU  was  proposed  by  the  S^<»J»  Auditemrder  case,  aoamst  the  Churdi.   The 

French  cardinals  for  the  vacant  ch^r.^but  without  ^!^^  nam«liately  elicited-  from  the  AssMjbly  a 

success.     He  continued  in  favour  with  the  new  pope.  ?'iV' j     •"  ««1  "»o»o«<*poken  dedaratwn  of  ttie  fa»- 

John  XXII,  by  whose  order  he  deposed  the  Abbotof  °*P!"**^*?  of  the  C!huwA:  and  when  it  was  finaUy 

G«rald  and  Hugo.  Bishop  of  CahlorsTfor  conspiring  ??°*™f'^*^f  House  of  l^rds,  m  1839,  tiie  Aasem- 

against  the  po^'s  life.    The  works  of  FredoB  ui  bly  revived  to  transmit  to  the  sovweim,  throwji  the 

^iefly   cono^^   with    canon   law,   and    include  I^.  Hi«^  Q)mmissioner  who  preside  ovwito  pro^ 

"Oculus",  a  commentary  on  the  "Summa"  of  the  <»«lingB,  a     claun,  declaration,  and  protest     oom- 

Cardinal  of  Ostia  (Basle,  1673),  "Inventarium  juris  P^wppgo*  ^«  enwMchment  of  tiie  civU  power,  and 

canonici",    and    "Inventarium   specuU   judidilis",  I»*y«>g  for  the  abolition  of  patronage.  Aaunfavour. 

abridge  from  a  work  of  Durand,  Srfiop  of  Mendes  •*)"  '??^*','^'*S*''**'  "?^"  response  to  a  prtition 

A  iamesake  and  nephew  of  the  p^ceding  was  "«^tt«i  to  the  House  of  Commons,  that  body  r^ 

Bishop  of  B4aeni  in  lSo9,  and  Cardlnal-Bisfop  of  fl'^'lj^y, '^^  *' *•  Brovaiioes  oomplamed  of. 

Porto  in  1317.    He  died  in  1323.  Accordmgly.atthenextmMtingoftheGeneralAasem- 

OaUia  CItritiana,  VI;   Uohblu,  Italia  Saen;   Turnaat.  'iV'  3?0  members,  afterwards  increased  to  474,  Wlth- 

D*  SeripL  Bceltt.;  Bamtct,  Vita  favanan  Avmianmtuim  drew  m  a  body,  and  constituted  the  first  Assembly  of 

(Fwii,  1008);  KsTOwwALD  u  K<rr*«il«.,  fc  r.  the  new  Free  CSiurch,  under  Dr.  IliomaB  Ohalmers  as 

a.  u.  wiMTERsaiiiii.  moderator.  The  ministers  and  professors  adhering  to 

_^      _..,_..     .„  the  ne^riy  constituted  body  publidy  renouncea  all 

Free  Ohiireh  of  Scotland  (known  smce  1900  as  claim  to  the  benefices  which  they  had  held  m  the  E^ 

the  UNiriiD  Frbb  Church),  an  ecdesiastical  organ-  tablished  Church,  thus  surrendmng  an  annual  income 

isation  in  Scotland  which  includes  (1908)  more  than  of  upwards  of  £100,000. 

£00,000  of  the  1,200.000  inhabitants  of  that  country        A  sustentation  fund  was  at  once  inaugurated  for  the 

professing  adherence  to  Presbyterian  principles.  The  new  orKaniwtmn,  and  neoriy  £400.000  waa  subscribed 
VI.— 17       •  ' 


258 


for  the  erection  of  churchee  in  the  first  year  after  the 
''Disruption",  as  it  came  to  be  called.  Colleges  for 
the  training  of  the  clergy  were  subsequently  built  at 
large  cost  in  Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen;  manses  (resi- 
dences for  the  ministers)  were  erected  at  a  cost  of  a 
quarter  of  a  million;  and  an  ec[ual  or  larger  amount 
was  expended  on  the  building  of  con^gational 
schools.  After  the  passine  of  the  Education  Act  of 
1872  most  of  these  schools  were  voluntarily  trans- 
ferred by  the  Free  Church  to  the  newly  established 
school-boards. 

The  Free  Church  never  professed  to  adopt  any  new 
article  of  faith,  to  inaugurate  any  new  ritual,  or  origin- 
ate any  new  principle  of  doctnne  or  discipline,  she 
elaimed  to  represent  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the 
country  enjoying  its  full  spiritual  independence,  and 
freed  from  the  undue  encroachment  of  the  State;  but 
it  did  not  abandon  the  principle  of  establishment, 
or  ^ve  up  the  view  that  Church  and  State  ought  to  be 
in  intimate  alliance.  This  raised  the  difficulty  in  the 
way  of  its  union  with  the  United  Presbyterians,  the 
next  most  numerous  and  important  body  of  seceders 
from  the  Establishment,  and  for  many  ^ears  rendered 
all  negotiations  for  such  imion  abortive.  In  1876, 
however,  another  dissenting  body,  known  as  the 
Cameronians,  or  Reformed  Fresbyterians,  joined  the 
Free  Church,  and,  (rassibly  under  the  stimulus  of  this 
achievement,  negotiations  were  renewed  for  union 
with  the  U.  P.'s,  as  they  were  familiarly  called.  These 
proved  finallv  successful,  and  the  union  between  the 
U.  P.'s  and  the  Free  Church  became  an  accomplished 
fact  on  31  October,  1900.  A  small  minority  of  Free 
Churchmen  resisted  the  fusion  of  the  two  bodies,  and 
these  (the  ''Wee  Frees",  as  they  were  nicknamed) 
were  successful  in  the  Scottish  Courts  in  claiming,  as 
the  original  Free  Church,  nearly  all  the  buildings 
erected  b^  the  body  during  the  previous  fifty-seven 
years.  This  anomaly,  however,  was  rectified  by  a  sub- 
sequent Act  of  Parliament  (following  on  a  Royal  Com- 
mission) which  permitted  the  "Wee  Frees"  to  retain 
only  such  churcnes  and  other  edifices  as  were  propoi^ 
tionate  to  the  small  number  of  their  adherents. 

The  well-wipers  of  the  new  United  Free  Church  are 
naturallv  looking  forward  to  an  enlarged  field  of  influ- 
ence and  a  wider  sc(^)e  of  activity,  both  at  home  and 
in  the  mission-field.  What  must,  however,  fill  with 
anxiety  every  friend  of  Scottish  Christianity  who 
studies  the  teaching  of  this  body,  both  in  its  training 
colleges  and  in  its  pulpits,  is  the  spirit  of  rationalism 
by  which  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  pervaded.  A 
generation  hae  passed  away  since  its  most  brilliant 
member.  William  Robertson  Smith,  was  summarily 
removea  from  his  professorial  chair  at  Aberdeen  on 
account  of  his  latitudinarian  views  as  expressed  in  his 
published  articles.  The  "higher  criticism"  in  the 
Free  Church  of  to-day,  largely  based  as  it  is  on  the 
rationalising  influence  of  German  Protestant  theolo^, 
goes  far  beyond  the  "heresies  and  errors"  for  which 
Smith  was  indicted  thirtv  years  ago.  It  is  hardly  too 
much  to  say  that  the  modem  Free  Churchman  is  really 
not  a  Christian  at  all,  in  the  Catholic  sense  of  that 
word.  The  United  Free  Church,  by  the  re-arrange- 
ment of  its  two  constituent  bodies,  has  now  (1908) 
twelve  synods  and  twenty-four  presbjrteries.  Its  su- 
preme court  is  the  General  Assembly,  which  meets 
every  May  in  Edinburgh.  According  to  the  latest 
statistics,  the  total 'membership  of  the  body  is  about 
504,000,  divided  into  1623  congregations.  244,000 
scholars,  taught  by  26,000  teachers,  frequent  the  Sun- 
day Schools,  which  number  2400.  Some  300  agents 
from  Scotland,  and  nearly  4000  native  pastors  and 
teachers,  are  employed  in  foreign  mission  work,  and 
the  whole  income  of  the  Church,  at  the  close  of  the  last 
financial  year,  was  estimated  at  £1,029,000. 

TuRNKR,  The  SeoUish  Secesnon  of  181^  (Edinburgh.  1854); 
Wilson,  Free  Church  Prineiples  (Edinburgh,  1887);  Brown, 
AnnaU  of  th«  DiarupHon  (Edinburgh,  1885);    Buchanan,  Ten 


Yean'   Confiiet    (G1m|eow,   1840);     Stdow.    Dm   adkottudbm 
Kirchtn  (PoUdam,  1846);  Hanna,  Life  of  Chalmen  (1852). 

D.  O.  Hunter-Blair. 

Freeman,  William,  Vbnbbablb,  priest  and  martyr, 
b.  at  Manthorp  near  York,  c.  1558;  d.  at  Warwick,  13 
August,  1595.  His  parents  were  recusants,  thoi^  he 
conformed  outwardly  for  some  time  to  the  relieion  of 
the  country.  Educated  at  Magdalen  College,  (zcf ord, 
he  took  his  degree  as  B.A.  in  1581,  then  liv^  for  some 
years  in  London,  where  he  witnessed  the  martyrdom 
of  Edward  Stransham  in  1586.  Strongly  impressed 
with  this  example,  hejeft  England  and  was  ordained 

Driest  in  1587  at  Reims.  Returning  to  England  in 
589,  he  worked  for  six  years  on  the  oorders  of  War- 
wickshire, and  in  his  interesting  life  many  persons  are 
mentioned  who  were  contemporaries  or  friends  of 
Shakespeare.  In  January,  1595,  a  special  commission 
was  sent  down  to  Stratford-on-Avon  to  search  the 
house  of  Mrs.  Heath,  who  had  engaged  his  services  as 
tutor  to  her  son.  .  William  Freeman  was  arrested, 
and  spent  seven  months  in  prison.  He  denied  his 
priesthood,  but  also  refused  all  friendly  offers  to  escape, 
not  wishine  to  lose  his  opportunity  of  martyrdom. 
Owing  to  Uie  treachery  of  a  fellow-prisoner,  William 
Gre^ry,  he  was  at  last  sentenced  as  a  seminary  priest, 
and  in  spite  of  a  touchingprotest  of  loyalty,  suffered 
the  deatn  of  a  traitor  at  Warwick. 

PoLLSN,  Ca^.  Record  Soe.,  V,  345;  Gxllow,  Bibl.  Diet  Bng, 
Cath.,  II,  332;  Boasb.  Oxford  Register,  II,  iii,  02. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 
Freemasonry.    See  Mabonrt. 

Free-ThinkerSi  those  who,  abandoning  the  reli- 
gious truths  and  moral  dictates  of  the  Christian  Reve- 
lation, and  accepting  no  dogpatic  teaching  on  the 
ground  of  authority,  base  their  beliefs  on  the  unfet- 
tered findings  of  reason  alone.  Free-thoi^t,  of  which 
they  make  profession,  is  an  exaggerated  form,  though 
a  Quite  lo^cal  development,  of  the  doctrine  of  private 
juagment  m  religious  matters.  The  free-thinker  holds 
such  principles,  whether  of  truth  or  of  action,  as  he  is 
persuaded  that  he  can  prove;  and  he  gives  assent  to 
no  others.  He  is  a  rationalist.  But  since  the  persua- 
sion of  having  proved  (or  of  being  able  to  prove)  even 
the  doctrines  of  natural  relifldon  by  reason  alone  varies 
indefinitely  with  the  individual,  it  is  difficult,  save  on 
the  most  general  lines,  to  class  free-thinkers  together. 
This  difficulty  is  apparent  in  the  case  of  the  Deists  (see 
Deism),  to  whom  the  appellation  was  characteristio- 
ally  applied  in  the  latter  end  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. They  all  agree,  however,  in  refusing  to  accept 
the  doctrines  of  an  authoritative  Christianity;  and  it  is 
on  this  negative  ground  that  their  position  is  most 
clearly  defined. 

Although  the  words  "Free-thinker"  and  "Free- 
thought"  first  appeared  in  connexion  with  the  English 
Deists  [Collins,  ^'  Discourse  of  Freethinking  occasioned 
by  the  Rise  and  Growth  of  a  Sect  called  Freethinkers" 
(1713),  gives  the  deistical  tendency  this  name],  "the 
phenomenon  of  free-thought  has  existed,  in  specific 
form,  long  before  it  could  express  itself  in  propagan- 
dist writings,  or  find  any  generic  name  save  those  of 
Atheism  or  Infidelity"  (Robertson).  Taken  in  the 
broad  sense  in  which  Robertson  here  uses  it,  the  term 
would  seem  to  include  the  reactionary  movement 
against  any  traditional  form  of  doctrine  to  which  men 
were  expect^  to  assent.  In  this  sense  it  is  possible  to 
speak  of  free-thinkers  of  Greece  or  Rome,  or,  indeed^  of 
any  considerable  body  that  can  impress  its  teachmg 
upon  the  multitudes.  There  were  undoubtedly,  to  a 
certain  extent  at  any  rate,  in  classical  times  those  who 
either  publicly  scoffed  at  the  authoritative  myths  of 
their  country's  religion  or  philosophically  explained 
their  meaning  away.  So — but  this  m  a  truer  sense — ^in 
the  Middle  Ages  there  were  to  be  foimd  rationalists,  or 
free-thinkers,  among  the  philosophers  of  the  schools. 
The  Fathers  of  the  Church  had  met  p^^anism  with  its 
own  Weapons  and  argued  against  its  falsehoods  with 


259 


the  help  of  the  oatural  reason.  The  early  heretics  were 
free-thinkers  in  their  rejection  of  the  regulating  author- 
ity of  the  Church  upon  points  connected  with  their 
heresies,  which  they  elaborated  frequently  upon 
ratioiudistic  lines;  and  the  pantheists  and  others  of 
the  schools  criticized  and  syllogized  revelation  away  in 
true  free-thought  style.  Both  were  in  consequence  con- 
demned ;  but  the  spirit  of  excess  in  criticism  and  the 
reliance  on  the  sufficiency  of  human  reason  are  as 
typical  of  the  free-thought  of  medieval  times  as  of  that 
of  the  twentieth  century. 

From  the  Deists  onwards,  free-thought  has  un- 
doubtedly gained  ground  among  the  masses.  Origi- 
nallv  the  intellectual  excess  of  the  learned  and  the 
student,  and  rarely  leaving  the  study  in  a  form  in 
which  it  could  be  expected  to  be  at  all  popular,  it 
began  with  Annet  ana  Chubb  (see  Deism)  to  becoxAe 
vulgarized  and  to  penetrate  the  lower  strata  of  society. 
Its  open  professors  have  apparently  always  been  less 
numerous  than  its  adherents.  Some  stop  short  in  a 
negative  position,  claiming  no  more  than  an  autonomy 
for  the  science  or  philosophy  thev  represent.  Others 
carr^  on  a  bitter  and  unscrupulous  warfare  against 
religion.  It  is  ai>parent  in  the  various  branches  of 
Bcienoe  and  criticism,  as  well  as  in  philosophy*  and 
though  it  generally  pretends  to  a  scientino  plan  it 
makes  use  of  a  priori  methods  more  than  a  posteriori 
ones.  One  of  its  most  dangerous  forms,  which  genei^ 
ally  ends  in  pure  religjous  scepticism,  can  be  traioed  to 
the  Kantian  distinction  between  the  noumenal  and 
the  phenomenal.  But  its  main  positive  positions  are 
the  denial  of  prophecy,  miracle  and  inspiration,  its 
rejection  of  all  external  revelation  (including  obviously 
ecclesiastical  authority),  and  its  assertion  of  the  right 
of  free  speculation  in  ail  rational  matters.  On  this 
latter  frequently  follows  the  negation  of,  or  suspension 
of  judgment  witn  regard  to,  the  existence  of  God  (athe- 
ism and  agnosticism),  the  denial  of  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  or  of  its  truth  being  susceptible  of  proof,  and 
the  rejection  of  the  freedom  of  the  will.  Among  the 
principal  free-thinkers  may  be  mentioned  Voltaire, 
Thomas  Paine  (The  Rights  of  Man),  Renan,  IngersoU, 
Strauss  (Leben  Jesu).  Haeckel,  Clough,  and  Holvoake. 

RoBBBTBON.  A  Short  aUiory  of  Fredhought^  2d  ed.  (London, 
1890);  Whbblbr,  BiM.  Diet.  ofFreethinkera  (London,  1889); 
Gbrard,  If odem  Fredhcught  in  IVeatminster  Lectures  (London, 
1905);  HacCann,  Secvlarism:  tmphUoeophical.  immoral  and 
anH^oeud  (London.  1887):  Flint,  AtUi-Theietic  Theories  (Edin- 
burgh, 1885);  Pbabson.  Poeitive  Creed  of  Freelhoughl  (London, 
1888);  Cairns,  Unbdia  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (Edinburgh, 
1882);  ^TATOAU,  FredK(nMhlttndTrueThought(Londoa,l8»4); 
Sandat,  Freelhinking  in  Oxford  Houae  Papers,  No.  IX  (1886); 
The  Fauaeiea  of  Atheism  explored  by  a  Working  Man  (London, 
1882);  alBO  bibliography  under  Dbibm. 

Francis  Aveling. 


Free  Will. — ^The  question  of  free  will,  moral  libertv, 
or  the  liberum  arbttrium  of  the  Schoolmen,  ranks 
amongst  the  three  or  four  most  important  philosophi- 
cal problems  of  all  time.  It  ramifies  into  etnics,  theol- 
ogy, metaphysics,  and  psychology.  The  view  aaopted 
in  response  to  it  will  determine  a  man's  position  in 
r^;ara  to  the  most  momentous  issues  that  present 
themselves  to  the  human  mind.  On  the  one  hand, 
does  man  possess  genuine  moral  freedom,  power  of  real 
choice,  true  ability  to  determine  the  course  of  his 
thou^ts  and  volitions,  to  decide  which  motives  shall 
prevul  within  his  mind,  to  modify  and  mould  his  own 
character?  ^  Or,  on  the  other,  are  man's  thoughts  and 
volitions,  his  character  and  external  actions,  aU  merely 
the  inevitable  outcome  of  his  circumstances?  Are 
the;^  all  inexorably  predetermined  in  every  detail  along 
risad  lines  by  events  of  the  past,  over  which  he  him- 
eeU  has  had  no  sort  of  control?  This  is  the  real  im- 
port of  the  free-will  problem. 

RSLATEON     OF     THE     QUESTION      TO      DIFFERENT 

Branches  of  Philobofht. — (1)  Ethically,  the  issue 
vitallv  affects  the  meaningof  most  of  our  fundamental 
moral  terms  and  ideas.  Kesponsibility,  merit,  duty, 
remorsei  justicei  and  the  like,  will  have  a  totally  differ- 


ent Bignificanoe  for  one  who  believes  that  all  man's  aeta 
are  in  the  last  resort  completely  determined  by  agendee 
beyond  his  power,  from  that  which  these  tenns  bear 
for  the  man  who  believes  that  each  human  being  pos- 
sessed of  reason  can  by  his  own  free  will  determine  his 
deliberate  volitions  and  so  exercise  a  real  command 
over  his  thoughts,  his  deeds,  and  the  forpoation  of  his 
character.  (2)  Theology  studies  the  questions  of  the 
existence,  nature,  and  attributes  of  God,  and  His  re- 
lations with  man.  ^  The  reconciliation  of  God's  fore- 
knowledge and  universal  providential  government  of 
the  world  with  the  contingency  of  human  action,  as 
well  as  the  harmonizing  of  the  efficacy  of  supernatural 
grace  with  the  free  natural  power  of  the  creature,  has 
been  amongst  the  most  arduous  labours  of  the  theo' 
logical  student  from  the  days  of  St.  Augustine  down 
to  the  present  time.  (3}  Causality,  c&nge,  move- 
ment, the  beginning  of  existence,  are  notions  which  lie 
at  the  very  heart  of  metaphysics.  The  conception  of 
the  human  will  as  a  free  cause  involves  them  alL 
(4)  A^dn,  the  analysis  of  volimtary  action  and  the 
investigation  of  its  peculiar  features  are  the  special 
functions  of  p^chology.  Indeed,  the  nature  of  the 
process  of  volition  and  of  all  forms  of  appetitive  or  cona- 
tive  activity  is  a  topic  that  has  absorbed  a  constantly 
increasing  space  in  pfiychological  literature  during  the 
past  fifty  years.  (5)  Finally,  the  rapid  growth  of  sun- 
dry branches  of  modem  science,  such  as  physics,  biol- 
qgy^  sociology,  and  the  systematization  of  moral  sta- 
tistics, has  made  the  doctrine  of  free  will  a  topic  of  the 
most  keen  interest  in  many  departments  of  more 
positive  knowledge. 

HiSTORT. — Free  WiU  in  Ancient  PkUoeopky. — ^The 
question  of  free  will  does  not  seem  to  have  presented 
itself  very  clearly  to  the  earlv  Greek  philosophers. 
Some  historians  have  held  tnat  the  rythagoreans 
must  have  allotted  a  certain  degree  of  moral  freedom 
to  man,  from  their  recognition  of  man's  responsibility 
for  sin  with  consequent  retribution  experienced  in  the  * 
course  of  the  transmigration  of  souls.  The  Eleatics 
adhered  to  a  pantheistic  monism,  in  which  they  em- 
phasized the  immutability  of  one  eternal  unchange- 
able principle  so  as  to  leave  no  room  for  freedom. 
Democritus  also  taught  that  all  events  occur  bjr  neces- 
sity, and  the  Greek  atomists  generally,  like  their  mod- 
em representatives,  advocated  a  mechanical  theory  of 
the  universe,  which  excluded  all  contin^ncy.  With 
Socrates,  the  moral  aspect  of  all  philosophical  problems 
became  prominent,  yet  his  identification  of  all  virtue 
with  knowledge  and  his  intense  personal  conviction 
that  it  is  impossible  deliberately  to  do  what  one  clearly 
perceives  to  be  wrone,  led  him  to  hold  that  the  good, 
oeing  identical  with  the  true,  imposes  itself  irresistibly 
on  the  will  as  on  the  intellect,  when  distinctly  appre- 
hended. Every  man  necessarily  wills  his  g^reatest 
good,  and  his  actions  are  merely  means  to  tms  end. 
He  who  commits  evil  does  so  out  of  ignorance  as  to  the 
right  means  to  the  true  good.  Plato  held  in  the  main 
the  same  view.  Virtue  is  the  determination  of  the 
^dll  by  the  knowledge  of  the  good;  it  is  true  freedom. 
The  wicked  man  is  ignorant  and  a  slave.  Sometimes, 
however,  Plato  seems  to  suppose  that  the  soul  possessed 
genuine  free  choice  in  a  previous  life,  which  there  de- 
cided its  future  destiny.  Aristotle  disagrees  with 
both  Plato  and  Socrates,  at  least  in  part.  He  appeals 
to  experience.  Men  can  act  against  the  knowledge  of 
the  tme  good;  vice  is  volimtary.  Man  is  responsible 
for  his  actions  as  the  parent  of  them.  Moreover  tiis 
particular  actions,  as  means  to  his  end,  are  contingent, 
a  matter  of  deliberation  and  subject  to  choice.  The 
future  is  not  all  predictable.  Some  events  depend  on 
chuice.  Aristotle  was  not  troubled  by  the  difficulty 
of  prevision  on  the  part  of  his  God.  Still  his  ph3r8ical 
theory  of  the  universe,  the  action  he  allots  to  the  ivOf 
voiiiTKAsy  and  the  irresistible  influence  exerted  by  the 
Prime  Mover  make  the  conception  of  genuine  moral 
freedom  in  his  i^ystem  very  obscure  and  difficult.    The 


260 

Stoics  adopted  a  form  of  materialistio  Pantheism.  Here  is  the  problem  which  two  Hifli^lT>g^i|ftli<yl  sdiools 

God  and  the  world  are  one.    All  the  world's  move-  in  the  Churcn— bol^  ftli^lrning  to  represent  the  teach- 

ments  are  governed  by  ri^  law.    Unvaried  causality .  ing,  or  at  any  rate  the  logical  devdopment  of  the 

unity  of  design,  fatalistic  government,  prophecy  and  teaching  of  St.  Thomas — attempt  to  solve  in  difiFerent 

foreknowledge---all  these  factors  exclude  cnance  and  ways.   The  heresies  of  Luther  and  Calvin  brought  the 

the  possibility  of  free  will.    Epicurus,  oddly  in  con-  issiie  to  a  finer  point  than  it  had  reached  in  the  time  of 

trast  here  mtii  his  modem  hedonistic  followers,  ad-  Ac][uinas,  consequently  he  had  not  formally  dealt  with 

vocates  free  wiU  and  modifies  the  strict  determinism  of  it  m  its  ultimate  shape,  and  each  of  the  two  schools 

the  atomists,  whose  physics  he  accepts,  by  ascribing  to  can  cite  texts  from  the  works  of  the  Ans^ic  Doctor  in 

the  atoms  a  clinainen,&  faculty  of  random  deviation  in  which  he  appears  to  incline  towards  toeir  particular 

their  movements.    His  openly  professed  object,  how-  view. 

ever,  in  this  point  as  in  the  rest  of  his  philosophy,  is  to        Thomut  and  MoUnist  Theories, — ^The  Dominican 

release  men  from  the  fears  caused  by  belief  in  irre-  or  Thomist  solution,  as  it  is  called,  teaches  in  brief  that 

sistible  fate.  God  premoves  each  man  in  all  his  acts  to  the  line  of 

Free  WiU  and  ike  Christian  Rdigum. — The  problem  conduct  which  he  subsequently  adopts.   It  holds  that 

of  free  will  assumed  quite  a  new  character  with  the  ad-  this  premotive  decree  indines  man's  will  with  absolute 

vent  of  the  Christian  religion.    The  doctrine  that  God  certainty  to  the  side  decreed,  but  that  God  adapts  this 

has  created  man,  has  commanded  him  to  obey  the  premotion  to  the  nature  of  the  bein^  thus  premoved. 

moral  law,  and  has  promised  to  reward  or  punish  him  It  amies  that  as  God  possesses  infimte  power  He  can 

for  observance  or  violation  of  this  law,  made  the  real-  infallibly  premove  man — ^who  is  by  nature  a  free 

ity  of  moral  liberty  an  issue  of  transcendent  impor-  cause — ^to  choose  a  particular  course  freely,  whilst  He 

tance.    Unless  man  is  really  free,  he  cannot  be  justly  premoves  the  lower  animals  in  harmony  with  their 

held  respNOnsible  for  his  actions,  any  more  than  for  the  natures  to  adopt  particular  courses  by  necessity.   Fui^ 

date  of  his  birth  or  the  colour  oi  his  eyes.    All  alike  are  ther,  this  premotive  decree  being  inevitable,  though 

inexorably  predetermined  for  him.    Again,  the  difii-  adapted  to  suit  the  free  nature  of  man,  proviaes  a  me- 

culty  of  the  question  was  augmented  still  further  by  dium  in  which  God  foresees  with  certamty  the  future 

the  Christian  dogma  of  the  fall  of  man  and  his  redemp-  free  choice  of  the  human  being.   The  premotive  decree 

tion  by  grace.    St.  Paul,  especially  in  his  Epistle  to  is  thus  prior  in  order  of  thought  to  tne  Divine  co^- 

the  Romans,  is  the  great  source  of  the  Cathohc  theol-  tion  of  man's  future  actions.    Theologians  and  philo- 

ogy  of  grace.  sophers  of  the  Jesuit  School,  frequently  styled  Molin- 

CaJtholic  Doctrine. — ^Among  the  early  Fathers  of  the  ists,  though  they  do  not  accept  tne  whole  of  Molina's 

Church,  St.  Augustine  stands  pre-eminent  in  his  hand-  teaching  and  generally  prefer  Suarez's  exposition  of 

ling  of  this  subject.   He  clearly  teaches  the  freedom  of  the  theory,  deem  the  above  solution  unsatisfactory, 

the  will  against  the  Manichfleans,  but  insists  against  It  would,  they  readily  admit,  provide  sufficiently  for 

the  Semipela^ans  on  the  necessity  of  grace,  as  a  foun-  the  infallibility  of  the  Divine  foreknowledge  and  also 

dation  of  ment.   He  also  emphasizes  very  strongly  the  for  God's  providential  control  of  the  world's  history; 

absolute  rule  of  God  over  men's  wills  by  His  omnipo-  but,  in  their  view,  it  fails  to  give  at  the  same  time  an 

tence  and  omniscience^through  the  infinite  store,  as  adequately  intelligible  accoimt  of  the  freedom  of  the 

it  were,  of  motives  which  He  has  had  at  His  disposal  human  will.    According  to  them,  the  relation  of  the 

from  aU  etermty.  and  by  the  foreknowledge  of  those  Divine  action  to  man's  will  shoula  be  conceived  rather 

to  which  the  will  of  each  human  being  would  freely  as  of  a  concurrent  than  of  a  premotive  character;  and 

consent.   St.  Augustine's  teaching  formed  the  basis  of  they  maintain  that  God's  knowledge  of  what  a  free 

much  of  the  later  theology  of  the  Cnurch  on  these  ques-  being  would  dioose,  if  the  necessary  conditions  were 

tions,  though  other  writers  have  sou^t  to  soften  the  supplied,  must  be  deemed  logically  prior  to  any  decree 

more  rijzorous  portions  of  his  doctrine.    This  they  did  of  concurrence  or  premotion  in  respect  to  that  act  of 

especially  in  opposition  to  heretical  authors,  who  ex-  choice.    Briefly,  they  make  a  threefold  distinction  in 

aerated  these  features  in  the  works  of  the  great  Afri-  God's  knowledge  of  the  universe  based  on  the  nature 

can  Doctor  and  attempted  to  deduce  from  his  princi-  of  the  objects  uiown — ^the  Divine  knowledge  being  in 

pies  a  form  of  rigid  preaeterminism  little  differing  from  itself  of  course  absolutely  simple.    Objects  or  events 

fatalism.    The  teaching  of  St.  Augustine  is  developed  viewed  merely  as  possible,  God  is  said  to  apprehend  by 

sires 

ferent  forms  of  it.  Free  will  is  simply  this  elective  future  events — ^things  which  would  occur  were  certain 
power.  Infinite  Good  is  not  visible  to  the  intellect  in  conditions  fulfilled.  God's  knowledge  of  this  dass  of 
this  life.  There  are  always  some  drawbacks  and  de-  contingencies  they  term  edentia  media.  For  instance 
ficiencies  in  every  eood  presented  to  us.  None  of  them  C^irist  afiGLrmed  uiat,  if  certain  miracles  had  been 
exhausts  our  inteUectual  capacity  of  conceiving  the  wrought  in  Tyre  and  Sidon,  the  inhabitants  would 
good.  Consequently,  in  deliberate  volition,  not  one  of  have  oeen  converted.  The  condition  was  not  realized, 
tnem  completely  satiates  or  irresistiblv  entices  the  yet  the  statement  of  Christ  must  have  been  true, 
will.  In  this  capability  of  the  intellect  for  conoeivine  About  all  such  conditional  contingencies  propositions 
the  universal  lies  the  root  of  our  freedom.  But  Goa  ma^  be  framed  which  are  either  true  or  fslse — and 
possesses  an  infallible  knowledge  of  man's  future  ac-  Infinite  Intelligence  must  know  all  truth.  The  condi- 
tions. How  is  this  prevision  possible,  if  man's  future  tions  in  many  cases  will  not  be  realized,  so  God  must 
acts  are  not  necessary?  God  does  not  exist  in  time,  know  them  apart  from  any  decrees  determimng  their 
The  future  and  the  past  are  alike  ever  present  to  the  realization.  He  knows  them  therefore,  this  school 
eternal  mind.  As  a  man  gazing  down  from  a  lofty  holds,  in  aeipeis,  in  themselves  as  conditionally  future 
mountain  takes  in  at  one  momentary  glance  all  the  events.  Thisknowled^isthe  edentia  mediaj  "middle 
objects  which  can  be  apprehended  only  through  a  knowledge",  intermediate  between  vision  of  the  actual 
lengthy  series  of  successive  experiences  by  travellers  future  and  simple  understanding  of  the  merely  possir 
idon^  the  winding  road  beneath,  in  somewhat  similar  ble.  Acting  now  in  the  light  of  this  edentia  mediamih. 
fashion  the  intuitive  vision  of  God  apprehends  simul-  respect  to  human  volitions,  God  freely  decides  accord* 
taneously  what  is  future  to  us  with  all  it  contains,  ing  to  His  own  wisdom  whether  He  shall  supply  the 
Further,  God's  omnipotent  providence  exercises  a  requisite  conditions,  including  His  co-operation  in  the 
complete  and  perfect  control  over  all  events  that  hap-  action,  or  abstain  from  so  doing,  and  thus  render  pos- 
pen,  or  will  happen,  in  the  universe.  How  is  this  sible  or  prevent  the  realization  of  the  event.  In  other 
eecured   without  infringement  of  man's  freedom?  words,  the  ii^nite  intelligence  of  God  sees  deariy  what 


261 

vvould  happen  in 'any  6onoeivable  drcumstanoes.  He  uates  this  view  and  leans  towards  a  species  of  provi- 
thuB  knows  what  the  free  will  of  any  creature  would  dential  determinism,  which  is.  indeed,  the  logicsu  con- 
choose,  if  supplied  with  the  power  of  volition  or  choice  sequence  of  the  doctrines  oi  occasionalism  and  the 
and  placed  m  any  give;^  circumstances.  He  now  de-  inefficacy  of  secondary  causes  latent  in  his  system; 
crees  to  supply  tne  needed  conditions,  including  His  Maiebranche  developed  this  feature  of  Descartes's 
concurtuBf  or  to  abstain  from  so  doing.  He  thus  holds  teaching.  Soul  and  body  cannot  reaJly  act  on  each 
complete  dominion  and  control  over  our  future  free  other.  The  chang^  in  the  one  are  directly  caused  by 
actions,  as  well  as  over  those  of  a  necessary  character.  God  on  the  occasion  of  the  corresponding  change  in 
The  Molinist  then  claims  to  safeguard  better  man's  the  other.  So-called  secondary  causes  are  not  really 
freedom  by  substituting  for  the  decree  of  an  inflexible  efficacious.  Only  the  First  Cause  truly  acts.  If  this 
piemotion  one  of  concurrence  dependent  on  God's  view  be  consistently  thought  out,  the  soul,  since  it  pos- 
prior  knowledge  of  what  the  free  being  would  choose,  sesses  no  genuine^causality,  cannot  be  justly  said  to  be 
if  given  the  power  to  exert  the  choice.  He  argues  that  free  in  its  volitions.  Still,  as  a  Catholic  theologian, 
he  exempts  God  more  clearly  from  all  responsibility  Maiebranche  could  not  accept  this  fatalistic  determin- 
for  man's  sins.  The  claim  seems  to  the  present  writer  ism.  Accordingly  he  defended  freedom  as  essential  to 
well  founded;  at  the  same  time  it  is  only  fair  to  record  religion  and  morality.  Human  liberty  being  denied, 
on  the  other  side  that  the  Hiomist  urges  with  con-  Goa  should  be  deemed  cruel  and  unjust,  whilst  duty  ana 
siderable  force  that  God's  prescience  is  not  so  under-  responsibility  for  man  cease  to  exist.  We  must  tnere- 
standable  in  this,  as  in  his  tneory.  He  maintains,  too.  fore  be  free.  Spinoza  was  more  logical.  Starting  from 
that  God's  exercise  of  ^s  absolute  dominion  over  all  certain  principles  of  Descartes,  he  deduced  in  mathe- 
man's  acts  and  man's  entire  dependence  on  God's  matical  fashion  an  iron-bound  pantheistic  fatalism, 
goodwill  are  more  impressively  and  more  worthily  ex-  which  left  no  room  for  contingency  in  the  universe  ana 
nibited  in  the  promotion  hypothesis.  The  reader  will  still  less  for  free  will.  In  Leibniz,  the  prominence 
find  an  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  question  in  any  of  given  to  the  principle  of  sufficient  reason,  tne  doctrine 
the  Scholastic  textbooks  on  the  subject.  that  man  must  choose  that  which  the  intellect  judges 

Free  WiU  and  the  ProteetarU  Reformers, — ^A  leading  as  the  better,  and  the  optimistic  theory  that  God  Him- 

feature  in  the  teaching  of  the  Reformers  of  the  six-  self  has  inevitably  chosen  the  present  as  being  the  best 

teenth  century,  especially  in  the  ease  of  Luther  and  of  all  possible  worlds,  these  views,  when  logically 

Calvin,  was  the  denial  of  free  will.    Picking  out  from  reasoned  out,  leave  very  little  reality  to  free  will, 

the  Scriptures,  and  particuLariy  from  St.  Paul,  the  though  Leibniz  set  himself  in  marked  opposition  to 

texts  which  emphasized  the  importance  and  efficacy  the  monistic  geometrical  necessarianism  of  Spinoza, 

of  grace,  th6  all-ruling  providence  of  God.  His  decrees  In  England^  the  mechanical  materialism  (h  Hobbes 

of  election  or  predestination,  and  the  teebleness  of  was  incompatible  with  moral  liberty,  and  he  accepted 

man,  they  drew  the  conclusion  that  the  human  will,  with  cynical  frankness  all  the  logical  consequences  of 

instead  of  being  master  of  its  own  acts,  is  rigidly  pre-  his  theory.   Our  actions  either  follow  the  first  appetite 

determined  in  all  its  choices  throughout  life.    As  a  that  arises  in  the  mind,  or  there  is  a  series  of  alternate 

conseauence,  man  is  predestined  before  his  birth  to  appetites  and  fears,  wnich  we  call  deliberation.    The 

eternal  punishment  or  reward  in  such  fashion  that  he  last  appetite  or  fear,  that  which  triumphs,  we  call  will, 

never  can  have  had  any  real  free-power  over  his  own  The  only  intelligible  freedom  is  the  power  to  do  what 

fate.    In  his  controversy  with  Erasmus,  who  defended  one  desires.    Here  Hobbes  is  practically  at  one  with 

free  will,  Luther  frankly  stated  that  free  will  is  a  fiction,  Locke.   God  is  the  author  of  all  causes  and  effects,  but 

a  name  which  covers  no  reality,  for  it  is  not  in  man's  is  not  the  author  of  sin,  because  an  action  ceases  to  be 

power  to  think  well  or  ill,  since  all  events  occur  by  sin  if  Gpd  wills  it  to  happen.   Still  God  is  the  cause  of 

necessity.    In  reply  to  Erasmus's  "  De  Libero  Arbi-  sin.   Praise  and  blame,  rewards  and  punishments  can- 

^  trio",  he  published  his  own  work,  **  De  Servo  Arbi-  not  be  called  useless,  because  they  strenRthen  motives, 

trio",  glorring  in  emphasizing  man's  helplessness  and  which  are  the  causes  of  action.    This,  nowever,  does 

slavery.   The  predestination  of  all  future  human  acts  not  meet  the  objection  to  the  justice  of  such  blame  or 

by  God  is  so  interpreted  as  to  shut  out  any  possibility  praise,  if  the  person  has  not  the  power  to  abstain  from 

of  freedom.    An  inflexible  internal  necessity  turns  or  perform  tne  actions  thus  punished  or  rewarded, 

man's  will  whithersoever  God  preordains,    mth  Cal-  Hume  reinforced  the  determinist  attack  on  free  will  by 

vin,  God's  preordination  is,  if  possible,  even  more  fatal  his  suggested  psychological  analysis  of  the  notion  or 

to  free  will.    Man  can  perform  no  sort  of  gpod  act  feeling  of ''necessity".   The  controversy,  according  to 

unless  necessitated  to  it  by  God's  grace,  wmch  it  is  him,  has  been  due  to  misconception  of  the  meaning  of 

impossible  for  him  to  resist.    It  is  absurd  to  speak  of  words  and  the  error  that  the  alternative  to  free  wul  is 

the  human  will ''co-operating"  with  God's  grace,  for  necessity.     This  necessity^   he  says,  is  erroneously 

this  would  imply  that  man  could  resist  the  grace  of  ascribed  to  some  kind  of  mtemal  nexus  supposed  to 

God.    The  will  of  God  is  the  very  necessity  of  things,  bind  all  causes  to  their  effects,  whereas  there  is  really 

It  is  objected  that  in  this  case  God  sometimes  imposes  nothing  more  in  causality  than  constant  succession, 

impossible  commands.   Both  Calvin  and  Luther  reply  The  imaged  necessity  is  merely  a  product  of  custom 

that  the  commands  of  God  show  us  not  what  we  can  or  association  of  ideas.     Not  feeling  in  our  acts  of 

do  but  what  we  ought  to  do.    In  condemnation  of  choice  this  necessity,  which  we  attribute  to  the  causa- 

these  views,  the  Council  of  Trent  declared  that  the  tion  of  material  agents,  we  mistakenly  imagine  that 

free  will  of  man,  moved  and  excited  by  God,  can  by  its  our  volitions  have  no  causes  and  so  are  free,  whereas 

consent  co-operate  with  God,  Who  excites  and  invites  they  are  as  strictly  determined  by  the  feelings  or 

its  action:  and  that  it  can  thereby  dispose  and  prepare  motives  which  have  gone  before,  as  any  material  ef- 

Itself  to  obtain  the  grace  of  justification.   The  will  can  fects  are  determined  by  their  material  antecedents, 

resist  grace  if  it  chooses.    It  is  not  like  a  lifeless  thing.  In  all  our  reasonings  respecting  other  persons,  we  infer 

which  remains  purely  passive.    Weakened  and  dimin-  their  future  conduct  from  their  wonted  action  under 

ished  by  Adam^s  fall,  free  will  is  yet  not  destroyed  in  particular  motives  with  the  same  sort  of  certainty  as 

the  race  (Sess.  VI,  cap.  i  and  v).  m  the  case  of  physical  causation. 

Free  WiU  in  Modem  Philosophy. — Although  from  The  same  hne  of  argument  was  adopted  by  the 

Descartes  onward,  philosophy  became  more  and  more  Associationist  School  down  to  Bain  and  J.  S.  Mill, 

separated  from  theology,  still  the  theological  signifi-  For  the  necessity  of  Hobbes  or  Spinoza  is  substituted 

eance  of  this  particular  question  has  always  been  felt  by  their  descendants  what  Professor  James  caUs  a 

to  be  of  the  highest  moment.    Descartes  himself  at  "soft  determinism",  affirming  solely  the  invariable 

times  clearly  maintains  the  freedom  of  the  will  (Medi-  succession  of  volition  upon  motive.    J.  S.  Mill  merely 

tati<ni8|  III  and  IV).    At  times,  however,  he  atten-  developed  with  greater  clearness  and  fuller  detail  the 


262 

prindpleB  of  Hume.  In  particular,  he  attacked  the  states.  We  should  diHtinguish  between  (1)  flpontan^ 
notion  of  "  constraint "  suggested  in  the  words  necessity  ous  acts,  those  proceeding  from  an  internal  prineiplo 
and  necessarianismf  whereas  onlv  sequence  is  affirmed.,  (e.  g.  the  growth  of  plants  and  impulsive  movements 
Given  a  perfect  knowledge  of  cnaracter  and  motives,  of  animals) ;  (2)  voluntary  acts  in  a  wide  sense,  thoae 
we  could  infallibly  predict  action.  The  alleged  con-  proceeding  from  an  internal  principle  with  apprehen- 
sciousness  of  freedom  is  disputed.  We  merely  feel  sion  of  an  end  (e.  g.  all  conscious  desires) ;  ana,  finally, 
that  we  choose,  not  that  we  could  choose  the  opposite.  (3)  those  voluntaiy  in  the  strict  sense,  that  is,  deUb^ 
Moreover  the  notion  of  free  will  b  unintelli^ble.  The  ate  or  free  acts.  In  such,  there  is  a  self-conscious 
truth  is  that  for  the  Sensationalist  School,  who  believe  advertence  to  our  own  causality^  or  an  awareness  that 
the  mind  to  be  merely  a  series  of  mental  states,  free  we  are  choosing  the  act,  or  acqmescing  in  the  desire  oC 
will  is  an  absurdity.  On  the  other  side.  Reid,  and  it.  ^  Spontaneous  acts  and  desires  are  opposed  to  co- 
Stewart,  and  ELamilton.  of  the  Scotch  School,  with  action  or  external  compulsion,  but  they  are  not  there- 
Mansel,  Martineau,  W.  J.  Ward,  ana  other  Spiritualist  by  morally  free  acts.  They  may  still  he  the  necessary 
thinkers  of  Great  Britain,  enei^ticallv  defended  free  outcome  of  the  nature  of  the  agent  as,  e.  g.  the  actions 
will  against  the  disciples  of  Hume.  .They^  maintained  of  lower  animals,  of  the  insane,  of  yomig  children,  and 
that  a  more  careful  analysis  of  volition  justified  the  many  impulsive  acts  of  mature  life.  The  essential 
argument  from  consciousness,  that  the  universal  con-  feature  in  free  volition  is  the  element  of  choice — the 
viction  of  mankind  on  such  a  fact  maj  not  be  set  aside  vis  electiva,  as  St.  Thomas  calls  it.  There  is  a  concom- 
as  an  illusion,  that  morality  cannot  be  founded  on  an  itant  interrogative  awareness  in  the  form  of  tiie  queiy, 
act  of  self-deception,  that  all  languages  contain  terms  "shall  I  acquiesce  or  shall  I  resist?  Shall  I  do  it  or 
involving  the  notion  of  free  will  and  all  laws  assume  its  something  else?'',  and  the  consequent  acceptance  or 
existence,  and  that  the  attempt  to  render  necessarian-  refusal,  ratification  or  rejection,  thou^  eiUier  may  be 
ism  less  objectionable  by  calling  it  determinism  does  of  varying  d^rees  of  completeness.  It  is  this  act  of 
not  Himini'ah  the  fatalism  involved  in  it.  ^  consent  or  approval,  which  converts  a  mere  involun- 
The  traih  that  phenomenalism  lopjcally  involves  tary  impulse  or  desire  into  a  free  volition  and  makes 
determinism  is  strikingly  illustrated  m  Kant's  treat-  me  accountable  for  it.  A  train  of  thought  or  volition 
ment  of  the  question.  His  well-knowii  division  of  all  deliberately  initiated  or  acquiesced  in,  but  afterward 
reality  into  phenomena  and  noumena  is  his  key  to  this  continued  merely  spontaneously  without  reflective 
problem  also.  The  world  as  it  appears  to  us,  the  world  advertence  to  our  elective  adoption  of  it,  remains  free 
of  phenomena,  including  our  own  actions  and  mental  in  causa,  and  I  am  therefore  responsible  for  it,  thougti 
states,  can  only  be  conceived  under  the  form  of  time  actually  the  process  has  passed  mto  the  department  of 
and  subject  to  the  category  of  causality,  and  therefore  merely  spontaneous  or  automatic  activity.  A  large 
everythmg  in  the  world  of  experience  happens  alto-  part  of  the  operation  of  canying  out  a  resolution,  once 
gether  aocorcUn^  to  the  laws  of  nature;  that  is,  all  our  the  decision  is  made,  is  commonly  of  this  kind.  The 
actions  are  rigidly  determined.  But,  on  the  other  question  of  free  will  may  now  be  stated  thus:/' Given 
hand,  freedom  is  a  necessary  postulate  of  morality:  all  the  conditions  requisite  for  eliciting  an  act  of  wilL 
"  Thou  canst,  because  thou  oughtest. "  The  solution  except  the  act  itself,  does  the  act  necessarily  follow?'* 
of  the  antinomy  is  that  the  determinism  concerns  only  Or,  ''Are  all  my  volitions  the  inevitable  outcome  of 
the  empirical  or  phenomenal  world.  There  is  no  my  character  and  the  motives  acting  on  me  at  the 
ground  lor  denying  liberty  to  the  Ding  an  sick.  We  time?"  Fatalists,  necessarians,  determinists  say 
may  believe  in  transcendental  freedom,  that  we  are  ''Yes".  Libertarians,  indeterminists  or  anti-deter- 
noumenally  free.  Since,  moreover,  the  belief  that  I  minists  say  ''No.  The  mind  or  soul  in  deliberate  ao- 
am  free  and  that  I  am  a  free  cause,  is  the  foundation  tions  is  a  free  cause.  Given  all  the  conditions  requisite 
stone  of  reli«don  and  morality,  I  must  believe  in  this  for  action,  it  can  either  act  or  abstain  from  action.  ^  It 
postulate.  Kant  thus  gets  over  the  antinomy  by  con-  can,  and  sometimes  does,  exercise  its  own  causality 
fining  freedom  to  the  world  of  noumena,  which  he  out-  against  the  weight  of  character  and  present  motives.^' 
side  the  form  of  time  and  the  cate^ry  of  causality.  Proof, — ^The  evidence  usually  adduced  at  the  pres- 
whUst  he  affirms  necessity  of  the  sensible  world,  bound  ent  day  is  of  two  kinds,  ethiciBd  and  peycholos;i< 


as  it  is  revealed  in  actual  experience  either  to  others  or  with  the  chief  moral  notions  and  convictions  of  man- 

himself — pertains  in  this  view  to  the  phenomenal  kind  at  Lu^.    The  actual  umversality  of  such  moral 

world  ana  so  is  rigidly  determined.  ^  ideas  is  indisputable.   Duty,  moral  obli^tion,  respon- 

Thou^  much  acute  philosophical  and  psychological  sibility,  merit,  justice  signify  notions  universally  pres- 

analysis  has  been  brought  to  bear  on  the  problem  dur-  ent  in  the  consciousness  of  normally  developed  men. 


world  and  adopted  a  pessimistic  theory  of  the  universe,    tion,  that  all  his  volitions  are  not  the  inevitable  out- 
denjring  free  will  to  be  justified  by  either  ethics  or    come  of  his  circumstances.    When  I  say  that  laughi 


psychok)gy.  On  the  other  hand,  Lbtse,  in  many  re-  not  to  have  performed  some  forbidden  act,  that  it  was 
spects  p^naps  the  acutest  thinker  in  Germany  since  my  duty  to  obey  the  law,  I  imply  that  I  could  have 
Kant,  was  an  energetic  defender  of  moral  fiberty.  done  so.  The  judgment  of  all  men  is  the  same  on  this 
Among  recent  psychologists  in  America  Professors  point.  When  we  say  that  a  person  is  justly  hdd  re- 
James  and  lAod  are  lx>th  advocates  of  freedom,  sponsible  for  a  crime,  or  that  he  deserves  praise  or 
though  laying  more  stress  for  positive  proof  on  the  reward  for  an  heroic  act  of  self-sacrifice,  we  mean  that 
ethical  than  on  tlie  pi^chological  evidence.  he  was  author  and  cause  of  that  act  in  such  fashion 
Thb  Argument. — ^As  the  main  features  of  the  doc-  that  he  had  it  in  his  power  not  to  perform  the  act.  We 
trine  of  free  will  have  been  sketched  in  the  history  of  exempt  the  insane  or  the  child,  because  we  belieye 
the  problem,  a  very  brief  account  of  the  argument  for  them  devoid  of  moral  freedom  and  determined  inevit- 
moral  freedom  will  now  suffice.  Will  view^  as  a  free  ably  by  the  motives  which  happened  to  act  on  them, 
power  is  defined  by  defenders  of  free  will  as  the  capao-  So  true  is  this,  that  determinists  have  had  to  admit 
liy  of  self-determination.  By  sdf  is  here  understood  that  the  meaning  of  these  terms  will,  aocordins  to 
not  a  sin^e  present  mental  state  (James),  nor  a  series  their  view,  have  to  be  changed.  But  this  is  to  adimt 
of  mentid  states  (Hume  and  MUl),  but  an  abiding  that  their  theory  is  in  direct  conffict  with  universal 
•^tional  being  which  is  the  subject  fluod  cause  of  these  psychological  facts.     It  thereby  stands  disproved. 


rising,  meals,  study,  work,  etc.,  probably  the  large  ni 

,    >_,  -_j ^ „ jority  are  merely  ''spontaiieous     and  are  proximately 

t«etifieB  to  our  moral  freedom.    We  feel  our-  determined  by  taeir  antecedents,  according  to  the  com* 

Boivn  w  be  free  when  exercieing  certain  aoia.    We  bined  force  of  character  and  motive.    There  is  ucithine 

judge  afterwards  that  we  acted  freely  in  those  acts,  to  arouse  special  volition,  or  call  for  interference  witS 

We  distinguish  tham  quite  clearly  from  ezperienccfi,  in  t^e  natural  current,  so  the  stream  of  consciousness 

iriiich  weoelieve  wewerenotfreeorre^xmsible.   The  flows  smoothly  along  the  channel  of  leafit  resistance. 

eonvictionis  not  confined  to  the  ignorant;  even  the  dft-  Forsuchseriesof  acts  we  are  responsible,  as  was  before 

terminist  peychologiat  is  governed  in  practical  life  by  indicated,  not  because  we  exert  deliberate  vohtion  at 

this  beliet.    Henry  Sidewick  states  the  fact  in  the  each  step,  but  because  they  are  free  in  causa,  because 

most  moderate  terms,  when  he  says:  "Certainly  in  the  we  have  either  freely  initiated  them,  or  approved  them 

case  of  aoUouB  in  which  I  have  a  (ustinct  consciousness  from  time  to  time  when  we  adverted  to  their  eUiica) 

of  choosing  between  alt«mativee  of  conduct,  one  of  quality,  or  because  we  freely  accjuired  the  habita  which 

which  I  oonceive  as  right  or  reasonable,  I  find  tt  impos-  now  accomplish  these  acts.    It  is  especially  when  some 

Bible  not  to  think  that  I  can  now  choose  to  do  what  J  act  of  a  specially  moral  complexion  is  recognized  as 

so  conceive,  however  strong  may  be  my  inclination  to  goodorevil  that  the  exertion  of  our  freedom  is  brouf^t 

act  unreasormbly,  and  however  uniformlv  I  may  have  into  play.     With  reflective  advertence  to  the  moral 

vielded/to  such  mclinations  in  the  jibbI''  (Methods  of  qualitj^  comes  the  ap_prehensioa  that  we  are  called  on 

Ethics),    llie  force  of  the  evidence  is  best  realised  by  to  decide  between  nght  and  wrong:   then  tbe  con- 

C&refuUy  studying  the  various  mental  activities  in  sciousness  that  we  are  choosing  freely,  which  carries 

which  freedom  is  exercised.    Amongst  tJie  chief  of  with  it  the  subsequent  conviction  that  the  act  was  in 

these  are:  voluntary  att«ntion,  deliberation,  choice,  tbe  strictest  sense  our  own,  and  that  we  are  responsi- 

BUBtained  resistance  to  temptation.     The  reader  will  ble  for  it. 

find  them  analysed  at  lengtn  by  the  authors  referred  CoNBEquENCBS. — Our  moral  freedom,  like  othv 


control.    The  &culty  of  inhibiting  pressing  desires,  of 
1  objection  to  this  argument    concentrating  attenuon  on  more  remote  goods,  of  rein- 

n  that  We  can  be  conscious  only     foreing  the  higher  but  less  urgent  motives,  undergoes  a 

of  what  we  actually  do,  not  of  our  ability  to  do  some-    kind  of  atropnv  by  disuse.    In  proportion  as  a  man 
thing  else.    The  reply  is  that  we  can  be  conscious  not     habitually  yields  to  intemperance  or  some  other  vice, 
only  of  what  we  do,  but  of  how  we  do  it ;  not  only  of     his  freedom  diminishes  and  he  does  in  a  true  sense  sink 
the  act  but  of  the  mode  of  the  act.    Observation  re-    into  slavery.    He  continues  responsible  in  cauta  for 
veala  to  us  that  we  are  subjects  of  different  kinds  of     his  subsequent  conduct,  though  his  ability  to  resist 
processes  of  tliou^t  and  vohtion.    Sometimes  the  line     temptation  at  the  time  is  lessened.   On  the  other  hand, 
of  conscious  activity  follows  the  direction  of  epontane-    the  more  frequently  a  man  restrains  mere  impulse, 
ous  impulse,  the  preponderating  force  of  present  mo-     checks  inclination  towards  the  pleasant,  puts  forth 
tive  and  desire ;  at  other  times  we  intervene  and  exert     self-denial  in  the  face  of  temptation,  and  steadily  aims 
personal  eausslity.     Consciousness  testifies  that  we     at  a  virtuous  life,  tbe  more  does  he  increase  in  self- 
ireely  and  actively  strengthen  one  set  of  motives,  re-     command  and  therefore  in  freedom.    The  whole  doo- 
Dst  the  stronger  inclination,  and  not  only  drift  to  one     trine  of  Christian  asceticism  thus  makes  for  developing 
side  but  actively  choose  it.    In  fact,  we  are  sure  that    and  fostering  moral  liberty,  the  noblest  attribute  m 
we  sometimes  exert  free  volition,  because  at  other     man.    William  James'ssound  maxim:  "Keep  the  tac- 
timea  we  are  the  subject  of  oooscious  activities  that    ultyofeSort  alive  in  you  by  a  little  gratuitous  exercise 
are  not  free,  and  we  know  the  difference.    Again,  it  is    every  day",  so  that  your  will  may  be  strong  to  stand 
ui^ged  that  experience  shows  that  men  are  determined     the  pressure  of  violent  temptation  when  it  comes,  is 
b^  motives,  and  that  we  always  act  on  this  assump-    the  verdict  of  the  most  modem  psychology  in  favour 
taon.    The  reply  is  that  expenence  proves  that  men    of  the  discipline  of  '.he  Catholic  Chureh. 
are  influenced  by  motives,  but  not  that  they  are  al- 
ways inexorably  determined  by  the  strongest  motive. 
It  IS  alleged  that  we  always  aecide  in  favour  of  the 
strongest  motive.    This  is  either  untrue,  or  the  barren 
statement  that  we  always  choose  what  we  choose.    A 
free  volition  is  "a  causeless  volition".    The  mind  it- 
self is  the  cause.  (For  other  objections  see  Fatausm; 
Enbkot,  Thb  Law  of  the  Consehvation  or;  and  the 
works  referred  to  at  the  end  of  this  article.) 

Nature  ahd  Ranoe  of  Moral  Liberty. — Free  will 
does  not  mean  capability  of  willing  in  the  absence  of 
all  motive,  or  of  arbitrarily  choosing  anything  what- 
ever. Tbe  rational  being  is  always  attracted  by  what 
fa  apprehended  as  good.  Pure  evil,  misery  as  such, 
man  pould  not  desire.  However,  tbe  good  presents  it- 
self in  many  forms  and  under  many  aspects — the 
pleasant,  the  prudent,  the  right,  the  noble,  the  beauU- 
rul — and  in  reflective  or  deliberate  action  we  can  choose 
among  these.  The  clear  vision  of  God  would  neces- 
sarily preclude  all  volition  at  variance  with  this  ob- 
ject, but  in  this  world  we  never  apprehend  Infinite 
Good.    Nor  does  the  doctrine  of  free  will  imply  that 

man  is  oonstantly  exerting  this  power  at  every  waking  Hichakl  Mahbr. 

moment,  any  more  tJian  the  stat«ment  that  he  is  a 

*'ratioi>al"animalimpliesthatheisalway8reasoning,  Fregoio,  Fkdbbioo,  cardinal;  b.  at  Genoa,  about 
Uueh  the  larger  part  of  man's  ordinary  life  is  admini»-  1480;  d.  22  July,  1641 :  belonged  to  the  Fregod,  one  of 
tmed  by  the  machinery  of  reflex  action,  the  automatic    the  four  great  burgess  families  who  from  the  end  of  the 


FBEEBUBa 


264 


FREIBUBO 


fourteenth  century  gave  many  doKes  to  the  republic. 
Federigo  was  the  son  oS  A^ostino  Fregoso.  governor  of 
Genoa  m  1488  for  Ludovic  Moro,  and  of  Gentilla  de 
Montefeltre,  niece  of  Guidobaldo,  Duke  of  UrWno. 
His  brotiier,  Ottaviano,  was  Doge  of  Genoa.  Having 
spent  his  youth  at  the  court  of  his  uncle,  the  Duke  of 
Urbino,  he  took  Holy  orders,  and  in  1507  received 
from  Julius  II  the  Archbishopric  of  Salerno.  But  the 
Kine  of  Spain  having  refused  to  recognise  him  because 
of  his  sjrmpathies  with  France,  the  Pope  promised  him 
the  See  of  Gubbio.  At  the  court  of  Urbmo,  Federigo 
had  received  a  good  classical  education,  and  had  allied 
himself  with  such  humanists  as  Bembo  and  Baldas- 
sare  Castiglione.  Every  day  he  withdrew  himself 
from  his  occupations  in  order  to  devote  several  hours 
to  the  study  of  the  ancients.  Nevertheless,  circum- 
stances were  to  make  him  a  man  of  action. 

In  1510,  after  the  troubles  in  Genoa  and  the  victory 
of  tibe  Adomi,  Federigo  was  exiled  and  compelled  to 
seek  refuge  at  Rome.  Three  years  later,  the  Fregosi 
returned  to  Genoa,  Ottaviano  was  elected  Doge,  and 
Federigo,  having  become  his  chief  counsellor,  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  army,  and  defended  the  re- 
public aflodnst  internal  dangers  (revolts  of  the  Adomi 
and  the  Fieschi)  and  external  danj^rs  (suppression  of 
the  Barbary  piracy).  Gortogoli,  a  corsair  from 
Tunis,  blockaded  the  coast  with  a  squadron,  and  within 
a  few  days  had  captured  ek;hteen  merchantmen. 
Bemg  given  the  command  of  the  Genoese  fleet^  in 
which  Andrea  Doria  was  serving,  Federigo  surprised 
CortogoU  before  Biserta,  effected  a  descent  on  the 
islana  of  Djerba  and  returned  to  Genoa  with  great 
booty.  The  Fregosi  had  rec(^nised  Francis  I,  King 
of  France,  as  Lora  of  Genoa.  In  1522,  ChiCrles  V  be- 
sieged the  city.  Federigo  directed  the  defence  and 
was  wounded.  The  Spaniards  having  taken  the  city 
by  assault,  he  was  compelled  to  seek  safety  on  a 
french  vessel.  Francis  I  accorded  him  a  warm  recep- 
tion and  mve  him  the  Abbey  of  St.  Benignus  at  Dijon. 
Here  he  devoted  himself  to  the  studv  of  Greek  and 
Hebrew,  but  he  had  quarrels  with  the  monks,  who 
could  not  endure  his  severity,  and  he  returned  to  Italy. 
In  1529  he  resigned  the  See  of  Salerno  and  was  named 
titular  Bishop  of  Gubbio.  In  1539  Paul  III  made  him 
a  cardinal-priest,  with  the  title  of  St.  John  and  St. 
Paul.  He  died  at  Gubbio^  in  1541,  mourned  by  the 
people  of  his  diocese,  who  had  named  him,  "  the  father 
of  the  poor".  He  wrote  several  edifyine  works,  and 
some  of  his  letters  are  in  the  collections  of  Bembo  and 
Baldassare  Castiglione. 

CiACONiuB,  ViU  a^  ponUfiici,  HI,  600;  DrrnucH,  Contarim 
{1886),  362-^64;  Paotob,  Hutory  ot  the  Popm,  ad  €mn,\  BbCcx, 
m  KirchmUz.  i.  v.  . 

Louis  BRisiBB. 

Freiburg,  dty,  archdiocese,  and  university  in  the 
Archduchy  of  Balden,  Germany. 

The  Grrr. — ^Freiburp  im  Breisgau,  the  third  largest 
city  in  Baden,  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
Schwarzwald  mountains  on  both  banks  of  the  Drei- 
sam.  The  census  of  1  December,  1905,  gave  the  num- 
ber of  its  inhabitants  as  76,286,  of  whom  53,133  were 
Catholics.  The  city  was  founded  in  1120  by  Gonrad, 
a  member  of  the  Swabian  House  of  Zfihrin^n,  which 
rules  in  Baden  even  to  this  day.  According  to  the 
original  city  charter,  which  is  still  in  existence,  the 
city  was  from  the  beginning  a  market  or  commercial 
centre,  and  idl  the  privileges  then  enjoyed  by  the  dti- 
lens  of  Cologne  were  granted  to  the  merchants  and 
other  citizens  who  settied  in  Freiburg.  It  became  a 
flourishing  town  even  during  the  lifetime  of  its 
founder.  In  11^  Bernard  of  Qairvaux  preached  the 
crusades  there.  It  appears  that  under  Berthold  IV 
(1112-1186),  Conntd's  successor,  the  erection  of  a 
ttomanesque  cathedral  was  begun.  After  the  death  of 
Berthold  V  (son  of  preceding),  Freiburg  was  inherited 
by  his  brother-in-law.  Count  Egon  I  of  Urach.  The 
oonsori  of  Egon  11  (1218-36)  induced  the  Dominican 


Fathers  to  settle  in  Freibuig,  and  founded  at  Add- 
hausen  the  Dominican  nunnery,  renowned  in  the  his- 
tory of  German  mysticism.  Among  the  famous 
Dominicans  connected  in  some  degree  with  Freibuig 
were  Albert  the  Great  and  John  of  Freiburg,  while 
Berthold  the  Black  (der  schwarze  Berthold),  the  sup- 
posed inventor  of  gunpowder,  was  a  member  of  the 
local  Franciscan  convent.  The  city  took  advantage  of 
the  pecuniary  embarrassment  of  its  lords  to  puitmase 
important  rights  and  liberties.  Ludwig  of  Bavaria, 
whom  the  city  assisted  in  his  war  against  Frederic  the 
Fair,  confirmed  (1339)  by  a  BMa  Aurea  (golden  diar- 
ter)  all  the  concessions  and  privileges  of  Freiburg  and 
granted  it  an  independent  municipal  court.  A  serious 
quarrel  arose  between  the  city  and  Count  Egon  IV 
(1358-68),  but  in  1368  the  count  ^ve  up  all  his  rights 
to  Freiburg,  and  the  city  placed  itself  voluntarily  un- 
der the  suzerainty  of  Austria,  and  for  more  than  five 
centuries  it  shared  the  fortunes  of  the  House  of  Haps- 
buig. 

As  earl^r  as  1247,  the  municipal  council  calculated 
the  inhabitants  to  number  4000,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century  the  town  contained  1778  build- 
ingB,  twenty  of  which  were  monasteries.  In  1393  the 
council  was  composed  of  12  nobles,  12  merchants,  18 
guild-masters,  and  6  specially  elected  members  of 
guilds.  In  1415,  Freiburg,  which  had  given  refuge  to 
Pope  John  XXIII  (April  10-16)  after  his  flight  from 
Constance,  was  made  a  free  imperial  city  {jreU  Reich^' 
9kuU),  but  was  reconauered  by  the  Austnans  in  1425. 
In  1456,  Archduke  Albert  founded  its  university  (see 
below).    The  city  was  siterwards  made  the  seat  of 

government  for  Hither  Austria  and  attained  to  a 
igh  decree  of  prosperity,  especially  during  the  reign 
of  Maximilian  1.  Manv  Renaissance  edifices  were 
built,  some  of  which  still  adorn  the  city:  the  famous 
minster  (cathedral)  was  decorated  with  nne  paintings 
by  Hans  Baldung,  its  choir  being  consecrated  in  1513. 
Tne  diet  of  the  empire  met  here  in  1498. 

The  great  social  and  religious  disturbances  of  the 
sixteenth  century  exerted  a  most  detrimental  influ- 
ence on  the  prosperity  of  the  city.  In  1524,  the  rebelli- 
ous peasants  surprised  the  castle  on  the  Schlossberg, 
captured  the  dty,  and  forced  the  inhabitants  to  pay 
tribute.  The  city  council  and  citizens  in  general  had 
little  sympathy  with  the  Reformation,  and,  althou^ 
the  new  doctrine  found  some  adherents  in  the  begin- 
ning, its  propagation  was  effectually  hindered  by  the 
Austrian  Government,  the  city  council,  and  the  uni- 
versity (see  Zasius,  Ulrich).  In  1529,  Freiburg  be- 
came the  residence  of  the  cathedral  chapter  of  Basle, 
driven  from  that  city  by  the  Reformation  (see  Baslb- 
LuGANo).  In  spite  of  repeated  epidemics,  the  six- 
teenth century  was  considered  on  the  whole  a  prosper- 
ous period  for  the  city.  The  Thirty  Years  War 
brousht  with  it  much  suffering.  Freiburg  was  be- 
sieged five  times,  captured  four  times  and  lost  about 
two-thirds  of  its  population  by  contagious  diseases. 
Hardly  had  the  city  recovered  from  tiaese  disasters, 
when  Xouis  XIV  be^an  his  predatory  wars  on  Ger- 
many. In  1677,  Freiburg  was  taken  by  the  French 
and  converted  into  a  formidable  fortress  by  Vauban. 
In  the  course  of  this  transformation,  14  churches  and  4 
monasteries  were  demolished.  The  F^nch  supremacy 
lasted  only  a  short  time,  and  Freiburg  was  restored  to 
Austria  by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697.  On  two 
later  occasions  it  was  held  bv  the  French  for  a  short 
time,  in  1713-14  during  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession, and  during  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession 
(1744-48).  These  two  wars  destroyed  the  prosperity 
of  the  city  so  completely  that  in  1754  the  number  of  its 
inhabitants  sank  to  3655,  of  whom  at  least  one  third 
were  in  a  state  of  beggary. 

Hardlv  had  Freiburg  begun  to  flourish  again  under 
Maria  Theresa  and  Joseph  II,  whose  reform  measures 
were  executed  partly  in  the  Breisgau,  when  the  French 
Revolution  broke  out.    By  the  treaty  of  Campo 


FRimnao                    265  raziBUBa 

Fonnio  (17S7),  Fredburg  and  all  Bieiagau  wfu  ceded  to  was  completed  in  the  fourteenth  oeutuiy.    In  1354, 

the  Duke  of  Modena,  but  a  little  Ut«r,  by  the  Treaty  the  choir  (I^te  Gothic)  was  begun,  but  operations 

of  Presburg  (1805),  it  reverted  to  the  house  of  Z&hrin-  were  suspended  in  1370,  and  resuined  only  after  a 

gin.   Thecitysworeallegianoetothenew Arohdukeof  lapee  of  one  hundred  years.    In  1513,  the  cathedral 

aden  on  30  Jbd.,  1806.    The  new  govemnwnt  imme-  was  piaetically  finished.    The  minster  is  ricJi  in  art 

diately  abolished  most  of  the  monasteries  and  con-  treasures,  of  which  the  most  notable  are :  the  p"i"ting 

vents,  or  converted  them  into  educational  institutions,  over  the  main  altar  by  Hans  Baldunc  (1611-17) ;  the 

It  abolished  also  the  ancient  repreaentative  s^tem  of  choir-chapel  with  paintiaaa  by  the  efder  Lucas  Cran- 

the  "estates",  or  the  three  ranks  of  the  social  order  ach  and  Hans  Halc>ein  (the  ^der  and  the  Younger); 

(clergy,  nobles,  bourgeois).   In  1831,  Freiburg  became  the  artistic  windows  in  the  side-aisles,  dating  in  part 

the  metropolitan  see  of  the  newly-foundedprovince  of  from  the  fourteenth  oentuiy ;  lastly  the  decorations  in 

the  Upper  Rhine  (see  Badbn),  and  in  1827  the  first  the  vestibule  with  an  aggregate  of  over  200  figures, 

archbisbop  took  possession  one  of  the  most  el^iorate 

of  the  see.    In  the  revolu-  examplec 

tion  of  1848-49,  Freiburg  loaadey __r- 

played  an  important  part,  laily  attributed    to  Albert 

becoming  at  its  dose  the  seat  tiie  Great.  Among  the  other 

of  the  provisional   revolu-  diurches  are:   St.  Martin's 

tionarv  government.    Since  (Gothic),    erected    for    the 

then  the  city  has  flourished  Franciscans  during  the 

wonderfuUy;    the    number  thirteenth    and    fourteenth 

of  its  inhabitants  has  in-  centuries,     renovated    and 

creased  from  25,000  in  1872  ornamented  with  a  tower, 

to  nearly  80,000  at  the  pre»-  1876-03     (Hansjakob,    St. 

ent  time (1909), and  its  uni-  Martin   lu   Freiburg  im 

versity  is  attended  by  2900  Breisgau    als    Kloster  und 

students.  Pfarrei,  Freiburg,  1890) ;  the 

Freiburg  is  the  residence  University    chtSieh    (1630- 

o(    an    archbishop,   metro-  40),  erected  by  the  JeBuits 

politan  of  the  ecclesiastical  (Baroque)  and  used  by  the 

province   of  the  Upper  Old  Catholice  1875-94;  the 

Rhine,  and  is  the  seat  of  hie  church  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 

ecclesiastical    adminiatrfr-  erected  1892-07  (Later  Ro- 

tion,   and   of   one    of   the  roanesque   and    Rhenish 

deaneries    of    the    dioceae.  Transition  style) ;  St.  John's 

Including  the  recently  in-  (1894-99);  St.  Michael's 

oorporated  suburbs,  the  city  Chapel  in  the  old  cemetery 

has    now  7   Catholic  pan-  (1744),  the  vestibule  of 

ishea,  one  parochial  curacy  which  is  decorated  with  a 

(P/oTTituratie),  22  churches  remarkable    "Dance    of 

and    chapels;    68   priests;  Death". 

17  institutions  of   the  Vin-  For  m  cximplete   bibliMimhy 

oentian   Sisters   of  .Charity  dtfaeaity  at  E^buriaeBKiBKiTi 

^919     mDmheral'      i    hniiaoa  WO  Vf  AoniO.  IttttraluT  dtr  Laif 

^i\i    "H?"*™"''    Z^°^  dm-,mdVBlkdeunJed4,an»tktr- 

of  the  Franciscan  Sisters  of  i^tumt  Badat  (Eukruba.  1901) 

Charity    (39    members);    5  n.U8-34B'.4od.(orthaUftoric»" 

convents  of  the  Sisters  of  £2feiSL'SS*?'''-/'5Srb£? 

Charity  of  the  Holy  Cross  wK^Sif^Sr^^ 

(61  members);  atheologjcai  Zn(  (FrdburitlB02).  Important 

faculty   at   the    university,                          tub  OTaBua^L,  Fuihubo  T".""  ."?■   °™V 

an  arcniepiscopol  theological  ^ ^ ^^  .„._  u,»uk 

seminary;  an  arehiepiscopal  residential  gymnasium;  a  d(rAadiufidlAiiHrnuiFrnburp(i8S7-eo):  iDml.FrmiuTam,n 

Ctholio  high  ,oho„r  for  girl.,  ,1.     m.  „«t  p„™-  ™.-,^4j^.rd^ . ^«J);  B....^0j^t3^ ^* 

nent  among  the  numerous  charitable  mstitutions  con-  PoiHsiaHOH  ahd  Flauh.  ffoiJiiadlidl*  ObbacWknw  d^ 

ducted  by  Catholic  sisterhoods  are:    St.  Joseph's  Stadt  FnHmTn  i\S9\  aai  \Miy.  Scuirmx.  Dm  aUt  Fniburt 

Hospital;   St,  Charles'  Home  (for  pensioners);  St.  ^ill^'i  ^Kffc?±L*'^'^j!il£'^ 

Ann  B   Home,  for  women  enga«Bd   in  busmeas;    St.  (isM);  BicuaisriH,  ymJum  im  Br.  imd  UrngtbunB  (Siuti- 

Mary's   Home,  for  servant  gins,  with  employment  p»rt,  1908).   Vftlu«bleoontribuiion»«romBt  within  the  ioliow- 

bureau;  St.  Francis' Home  for  the  aged;  St.  Eliza-  '''',-'*'^?t'^i,l^ri['^,'^°'^fS^'-*^J°'.'?^J^^ 

L    .1,     TT            /L            1         .              J    L        J-            1.      1^  ■LntiquitiH,  and  populur  euBtoma  of  f  rtibur*  attd  vidaity  (ilucs 

beth's  Home  (house-keeping  and  boardmg  school);  ibbt);  sMuuuImuI  (nnw  1873):  ZnUchrifi  f,  d.  Qack.  da 

Home  for  apprentices  and  journeymen,  etc.    Catholic  Obtrrham  (dnoe  ISSO):     f  rntairpar  Aditrm*-kaUndtr  Mnoa 

nsters  are  also  in  charge  of  a  number  of  institutions  Jf^^j;,  ^^^^mSi^'p^Si^i'^'yl^lTD^^ 

belon^ng  to  the  municipality,  for  example  the  Hob-  Fautenehmiult  dm  Fnilmtptr  MtOtutin  (IBM):   siurr  mn 

l^tal  of   the    Holy  Ghost,  the    Home   for  Beneficed  SaraanR,  Dot  Frribuyr  MOiuttr  (iWMhB/inMoiLWTKii,  Dot 

&|™™»  to  ^«tt™.  (poor.ho«.)Jh.  P,»pl.'.  £ss«bSs:«'SKi.Si.  ^""^  """^ 

Kitchen,  the  orphan  asylum  m  GOnteretal,  and  the  ^           ^               .       i      r, 

large  oliiucat  hospital  connected  with  the  university.  Tbb    Archdiocese. — Staiiitict. — It    includes    thn 

They  also  conduct  two  kindergartens,  four  industrial  Grand  Duchv  of  Baden  (q,  v.),  the  HohenxoUem  pos- 

adiools,  two  house-keeping  schools,  and  five  schools  sessions  of  the  Prussian  Crown,  bounded  by  Baden 

for  small  children.  and  WUrtembOTir,  together  with  some  few  places  in 

The  minster,  one  of  the  few  existing  Gothic  eathe-  Wflrtemberg.    The  (Sktholic  population  is  1,263,280, 

dials,  completed  in  the  Middle  Ages,  renks  first  among  according  to  the  census  of  1905.    The  suffra^ns  of 

the  city  churches.    Its  oldest  parts,  the  transept  and  Freiburg  are  the  Bishops  of  Fulda,  Limb ui«,  Mainz, 

the  intersection  of  nave  and  transept,  were  constructed  and  Rottenburg.     The  archbishop  is  dected  by  the 

during  the  thirteenth  century  in  Romanesque  style,  cathedral  chapter,  but  the  names  of  the  candidates 

Hie  new  part  (E^rly  Gothic)  was  begun  in  12S0,  when  must  be  submitted  to  the  sovereign,  who  has  the  ri^t 

the  oorner-stona  of  the  tower  (380  feet)  was  laid,  and  to  cancel  the  names  of  candidates  not  acceptable  to 


rsziBUBo  2d6  rsxiBbBo 

him,  provided  that  s  Bufficlent  number  remiun  on  the  houses  with  60  BiBterB  in  Hohemollem) ;  the  Sisten  of 
list  to  allow  a  choice.  The  cathedral  chapter  oDnaiatd  CharityofOurBleesed  Saviour  from  the  mothei-houae 
of  the  dean  [at  preaeat  (1909)  the  aujdlianr  biahop  Dr.  in  Oberbrann  (Alsace),  57  convente  (all  in  Baden)  and 
Ft.  Justus  Knecht,  titular  Bishop  of  NetioJ^  6  canons  410  sisters;  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Franda  from 
and  6  prebendaries.  The  ordinariate  consiata  of  the  tbemother-houseinMaUersdorf  (Bavaria),  2  houses  ia 
archluahop,  the  members  of  the  chapter,  of  2  other  Baden,  18siat«rs;  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Joseph 
priests  and  2  laymen.  Theordinariateisthearcbiepis-  from  St.  Marx  (Alsace),  13  convents  in  Baden  and  62 
oopal  metropolitan  court;  the  archiepiscopal  diocesan  sisters;  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Francis  from  the 
court  is  termed  the  officialat«  (6  members),  like  mother-house  in  Limperteberg  (Luxemburg),  16  oon- 
ehurch  property  is  administered,  partiv  by  the  ordi-  vents  in  Baden  and  64  Bisters;  the  Sisters  of  Charitjr 
luriate  and  partly  by  the  civil  lx>dy  Known  as  the  of  St.  Francis  (mother-house  in  Obenell  near  Wats~ 
Catholic  "Oberstiftungarat  "at  Karlsruhe  (seeBADEN).  burg),  1  convent  inBaden  and  2  sisters;  the  Sisters  of 
The  pastoral  work  of  the  archdiocese  is  carried  on  by  Christian  Love  (mother-house  in  Paderbom),  1  con- 
two  mcorporoted  parishes  (the  cathedral  parish  of  vent  in  HohenzoUem  and  7  sisters.  These  sisten 
Freiburg  and  the  parish  of  Sankt  Peter),  and  by  43  conduct  numerous  charitable  works;  428  institutions 
deaneries  (4  in  Hoheniollem-Sigmariiuen)  with  911  for  outdoor  nursing,  98  hospitals,  17  endowed  homes 
parishes  and  parochial  curacies  (Pfarrkuiatien),  110  (PfrOndenhftuser),  13  poor-houses,  7  creches  or  infant 
chaplaincies  and  265  other  pastoral  charges.  af^luma,  236  kindergarten  schools,  56  orphanages,  4 

In  January,  1909,  the  secular  clergy  of  the  arch-  business-girls'  homes,  12  aervant-gjrla'  homes,  13 
diocese  oonaisted  of  904  rectors  and  curates,  281  chap-  homes  for  working-women,  10  high-schools  for  ^ris, 
lainsand  vicars,  100  other  active  priests  (professors,  12achoalBofdam»tic economy,  121  industrial bcI^oIb, 
teachers,  editors,  etc.),  107  priests  retired  or  on  leave  0  evening  achoola,  1  institution  for  the  manufacture  of 
of  absence;  a  total  ^ of  1398,  besides  80  regular  church  vestments,  7  peoples' kitchens,  4  apprentices' 
priests.  The  diocesan  institutions  for  the  education  of  and  journeymen's  homes,  6  homes  for  gills,  19  homes 
the  clergy  are:  the  seminary  in  the  former  Benedictine    for  the  care  of  the  nek  and  aged. 

General  statistics  relative  to  the  Catholic  aeeoda- 
tions  of  the  archdiocese  are  lacking.  The  most  notable 
among  these  societies  are:  St.  Boniface  Society  (Boni- 
fatiuavereio),  which  had  an  income  of  over  1130,000  in 
1907,  and  ranks  first  (financially)  amon^  all  diocesan 
societies;  the  Votksverein  for  Catholic  Germany; 
Catholic  "Geaellenvereine"  or  joumeymea's  unions 
with  branches  in  56  dilTerent  localities;  the  Catbolio 
Workmen's  Society  with  154  branches;  the  Catholic 
Workwomen's  Society,  8  branches;  the  Catholic  Ap- 
prentices' and  Young  Men's  Society,  38  branches;  the 
Vincentian  Society;  Society  of  St,  Charles  Borromeo; 
Congregation  of  Mary,  for  boys  and  girls;  the  Infant 
JeauB  Society;  Society  of  the  Holy  Family,  etc.  The 
archdiocese  naa  30  Catholic  newspapers  and  periodi- 
cals. The  most  important  churches  of  the  Grand 
Duchy  have  been  mentioned  in  the  article  Baoen  ;  the 
Town  P"',  FutBiiKo  most  important  churches  in  HohenzoUem  are  those  of 

Hawerioch,  Hechingen  and  Sigmaringen. 
monastery  of  Sankt  Peter;  the  theoloacal  seminaiy  Htiiory. — The  foundation  and  history  of  the  ardi- 
in  Freiburg,  whose  students  frequent  flie  university;  diocese  have  been  treated  exhaustively  under  Badenj 
and  the  5  archiepiscopal  gymnasia  of  Freiburg^  Con-  also,  the  relations  between  the  Church  and  the  State 
stance,  RBstatt.Tauberbi^ofsheim  and  Sigmarmgen.  (II,  195-200).  It  only  remains  to  add  a  few  remarks 
In  the  university,  eleven  priests  are  professors  of  Cath-  oooceming  the  HohenzoUem  section  of  the  archdiocese. 
olic  theology  and  their  lectures  were  attended  in  the  The  two  principalities^  HohenEollem-Hechingen 
summer-semester  of  1909  by  224  students.  Male  and  Hohenzollcm-Sigmarmgen,  which  formeriy  be- 
rel^ouB  orders  are  excluded  from  Baden  proper  by  longed  to  the  Diocese  of  Constance,  were  joined  to  the 
dvulaw.  In  the  HohenzoUem  section  of  the  archdio-  Arehdioceee  of  Freiburg,  when  the  province  of  the 
oese,  there  are  three  monasteries  for  men:  the  Bene-  Upper  Rhine  was  created  by  the  concordats  of  IS- 
dictmes  at  Beuron  (61  priests,  9  clerics,  and  89  27  Oct.,  and  14-21  Nov.,  1821,  Both  princes  had 
Uy  brothers),  the  Franciscans  at  Gorheim  (12  priests,  pledged  themselves  to  carry  out  the  Josephist  prinei- 
12  clerics,  and  10  lay  brothers)^  and  the  mission  pies  which  then  prevailed  in  the  other  states  of  the 
house  of  the  Wliite  Fathers  at  Haigerloch  (47  fathers  Upper  Rhine  ijrovince,  though  they  were  the  only 
and  6  lay  brothers).  The  religious  institutions  for  Catholic  aoverei^  of  the  province  and  reigned  over 
women  are;  the  Ladies  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  with  an  an  almost  exclusively  Catholic  population.  Both  gov- 
ftcademy  in  Baden-Baden  (40  sisters);  the  Benedictine  emments  consequently  exercised  all  the  rights  wniA 
Sisters  m  Habsthal,  HohenzoUem  (20  sisters);  the  Febronianism  and  Josephinism  claimed  for  the  secular 
Dominican  Sisters  with  an  academy  in  Constance  (53  government  as  its  inahenable  ;u*  circa  lacra,  and  i^ 
•Jsters) ;  the  Cistericians  with  an  academy  in  Lichten-  stricted  ecclesiastical  authority  as  much  as  possible, 
thai  (54  sisters);  the  Choir  Sisters  of  St.  Augustine  He  "Regium  Placet",  or  civil  control  of  papid  and 
with  an  academy  in  Offenburg  and  one  branch  (43  episcopal  decrees,  was  rigorously  enforced.  Taxes  and 
(isters);  the  Uraulines  with  an  academy  in  Villingen  contributions  for  the  pope  anti  "foreign"  ecclesiasti- 
and  in  Breisach  (40  sisters) ;  the  Vincentian  Sisters  of  cal  superiors  were  prohibited ;  the  archbishop's  juris- 
Charity,  including  the  mother-house  in  Freibui^  151  diction  was  held  subordinate  even  in  spiritual  matters 
convents  (all  in  Baden),  with  900  aistera;  tjie  Fran-  to  the  civil  authority;  the  cathedral  chanter  was 
ciscan  Sisters  of  Charity  with  mother-house  at  Geng-  placed  in  a  position  of  administrative  equality  with 
enbach,  164  houses  (all  in  Baden)  and  727  sisters;  the  the  bishop,  and  even  episcopal  acta  were  subjected  to 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Holy  ('ross  from  Ingenbohl  the  most  scrutinizing  auperviaion  and  arbitiM?  con- 
(Switzerland),  mother-house  in  Hegne  near  Constanz,  trol  of  the  civil  power  (jus  suprema;  inspectbnis).  Ibe 
134  houses  and  728  aisters  <3  convents,  20  slaters  in  government,  especially  in  Hohenzollem-Si^naringen, 
HohensoUem) ;  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  sought  to  secure  a  predominating  inSuence  m  matlm 
de  Paul  (from  Strasburg),  II  convents,  72  aisten  (7    conceminf;  divine  worship,  marriages  (by  introducing 


FBEEBUBa                              267  FBEXBUBG 

the  Josephist  matrimonial  legislation),  the  education  were  developed  between  Church  and  State,  and  eoi^ 

and  pastoral  duties  of  the  clergy,  appointments  to  tinue  in  eeneral  to  the  present  day. 

ecclesiastical  benefices,  and  the  adnomistration  and  .  For  bibuographv  see  kibnzts  and  Wagnxb,  lAattntm- 

employment  of  church  property.     Furthermore,  it  zJUss'^^^TOrtiSnfSrw^ 

compelled  the  clergy,  monasteries,  and  confraternities  o6«rrA«inMcA«i  iCifdkmpra^fu  (Tobmge^!i8te)rBB©cK.'  I>i% 

to  contribute  to  the  support  of  higher  and  elementary  o6errAe»nucA«  KinhenrnviM  (Mains.  1868);   FBaDBSBG,  Der 

education  and  charitable  institutions.    The  Hohen-  ^^y'^J^.f^-  Kirekeim  Groukef^^              ^S*  ?d.. 

In^:  -T*           Xr^              ««>w*i«*wA/iJo.      ^xxj  A^vu^  Leipzig,  1874):  Hxinbr,  OetelM  die  haihoL  Kirehe  (in  Baden) 

lOllem  prmces,  however,  were  well  disposed  towards  betreffend  (Freiburg.  1890);  Id«m,  DiekirefUieken  ErioMe,  Verord- 

the  Church,  hence  these  pretensions  of  the  civil  power  ntmgm  u.  Bekanntmachunam  der  Endmceat  FteSburg  (2d  ed., 

r"*?^°^,,"'S*H''*'J^~'^TK^  their  principali-  m]}'^^^J%JS^:  ^^i^^^'^^ 

tieB  than  m  the  Baden  section  of  the  archdiocese  and  Vincenz  r.  Pa%d  m  der  Endidcene  FreUmrg  (1896);  MannB,  Dot 

other  parts  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  the  Upper  BeanUmredU  der  Bndidcese  FreOmrg  (Stuttgart,  1904);  R6BCH, 

pKjj_                                                                                      '^'^  Dte  Benehungm  der  StaaUgewaU  zur  kaihoL  KireKe  tn  dm 

fHL  *  •             j.»            t  xsT          u         fXT"        rt           1     r  beidm  hohentoUemschen  FUrstent-amem  1800-1850  (Sigmarin- 

The  mnovations  of  Wessenberg  (Vicap-General  of  gen,  1906):  Idbm.  Daa  rdioi^e  Ld>en  in  HohauoUertCulS^  dmn 

the  Diocese  of  Constance,  and,  imtil  1827,  acknowl-  Einfiuaaedea  Weaaenbergianiamua,  1800-1860  (Cologne.  1908); 

edged  as  such  by  both  HohemsoUem  and  Baden  cov-  fe^^^i  ^"Sf^-  j^fo^-  ^"?*« »»  ?f?*^if 'S'^^'f •  1S^2  •  ^°!1 

r^*Zr    X     J       •*    !r"'"  xxv/iAcuwij^***  c»uu  .a^ovAcu  Ki/T  Funk  in  Ktrchenlexxkon^  IX.  693-612;  D%€  kathol.  Ktrcha  und 

^lunents,  despite  the  protests  of  the  pope)  affected  the  ihre  Diener,  II;   PeraonaiachSnaiiamua  (yearly^,  Raalaehenui^ 

lituray,  processions,  pilgrimages,  confraternities,  the  <i^t<«(ierjE^r«didc€8«Fr«£&uri(r  (1863),  newedition  in  preparation. 

number  of  holidays  of  obligation,  and  included  the  f<>rt»»echurdieflof  thearchd2oeee8eeKKAu»./Cu^^ 

uMxuijrM  v»  uv>xu«j»  <i^.  vrvu^«»t;«vru,  «uv»^  ^^auv»«^  wuv  d.  Oroaaherzoffluma  Bodtn  (Freiburg,  nnoe  1887,  8  vols.)  :Zinq- 

mtroduction  of  the  German  language  mto  the  Mass  blbr  and  Laur.  JHe  Bau^und  Kunat-DenkmAUr  in' den  iioken- 

and  also  the  so-called  liturgical  confession  and  com-  toUemachen  Landen  (Stuttgart,  1896).    Periodicals:  FreSburger 

munion.    To  the  credit  of  the  Hohenzollem  princes,  it  ^>*«*"«'>«rc*w  (Freibunf ,  ainoe  1866.  annual;  vol.  XXIX  has  a 

~Tir      *"  «"'^/'*^«^"\  .   j^^^  J      r/^  complete  ecclesiaatioo-hiatoncal  bibliography  of  the  archdio- 

must  be  said  that  thev  hmdered  rather  than  promoted  oese);  ZeiUchnft  fUr  OeacK,  dea  Oberrheina  (1860-1908);  Fr«»- 

these  innovations,  which  are  so  alien  from  the  true  burger  KathalxatKea   KirchenbkUt    (1867-89);     Obvrheiniachea 

spirit  of  the  Church.  In  various  other  ways,  also,  these  -P^*^''^*^  (Fiwiburg,  sinoe  1890). 

pnnces  were  helpful  to  the  interests  of  the  Church.  The    Universitt. — ^For    the    foundation   of   its 

They  assisted  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  to  bring  up  university  Freiburp   is  indebted  to  Arehduke  Al- 

a  moral  and  zealous  clergy,  regulated  by  decrees  the  brecht  Vi  of  Austria,  wh'o  was  entrusted  by  his  bro- 

observance  of  Sunday,  strove  in  union  with  the  ther.  Emperor  Frederick  III,  with  the  government  of 

Church  to  suppress  immorality,  made  a  strone  stand  the  Further  Austrian  territories.    The  idea  was  first 

agaiiifitthe  pietistic  movement  which  originated  in  the  conceived  by  Mechtild,  the  accomplished  wife  of  Al- 

Haigerloch  deanery,  and  opposed  the  spread  of  the  brecht,  and  it  was  at  her  suggestion  that  he  resolved 

rationalistic  book  entitled     Stunden  der  Andacht"  to  found  the  university,  having  obtained  the  sanction 

(Hours  of  Devotion).    They  also  bound  the  clergy  to  of  CaUistus  III  in  the  Bull  of  20  April,  1455.    The 

5^ve  catechetical  instruction  regularly  in  the  schools,  revenue  of  the  university  was  ensured  by  the  founda- 

n  general,  however,  though  no  violence  was  used  to  tion  of  several  benefices,  and  the  incorporation  of  liie 

enforce  the  principles  of  Josephinism,  the  activity  of  cathedral  parish  of  Freiburg,  together  with  the  par- 

the  Church  was  in  manv  ways  restricted  and  p>aralyzed  -  Ishes  of  Breisach,  Ensisheim.  and  other  places,  in  the 

her  property  rights,  above  all,  were  greatly  intenerea  new  institution  (Deed  of  28  August,  1456),  this  endow- 

with.    The  wrongs  committed  in  this  respect  were  so  ment  being  approved  by  Frederick  III.    The  town 

great  that  the  clergy,  most  of  whom  had  been  brought  also  made  considerable  contributions,  although  the 

up  in  the  principles  of  Febronianism  and  Josephinism,  foundation-brief  of  21  September,  1457,  granted  the 

and  many  of  whom  favoured  the  abolition  of  the  new  university  its  own  jurisdiction  ana  immunity 

breyiaiy  and  of  celibacy,  presented  an  unavailing  from  taxation  for  its  members.    The  real  work  of 

petition  to  the  government  m  1831  for  gentler  treat-  organization  and  the  preparation  of  the  constitution 

ment.     ^       ^  feu  on  the  erudite  Matthaeus  Hummel  of  Villingen, 

The  situation  became  more  favourable,  when  in  and  it  was  entirely  due  to  his  untiring  zeal  that  the 

1849  these  two  principalities  were  by  treaty  annexed  to  university  could  be  opened  with  seven  lecturers  (four 

Prussia  under  King  Frederick  William  IV.    Thanks  to  being  theologians)  on  26  April,  1460.    Matthaeus  was 

the  king's  frien(%  disposition  towards  the  Chureh  and  solemnly  elected  in  the  cathedral  as  first  rector,  and, 

the  untiring  efiiorts  of  Arehbishop  Hermann  von  despite  the  initial  modesty  of  the  institution  and  the 

Vicari.  the  Catholics  of  Hohenzollem  soon  secured  the  fewness  of  its  lecturers,  the  university  was  attended 

same  liberties  as  those  then  allowed  to  the  Prussian  during  the  first  year  of  its  academic  existence  by  two 

Catholics.    The  Church  was  permitted  to  erect  mon-  hundred  and  fourteen  students  (including  one  hun- 

asteries,  and  to  re-establish  fraternities.     Missions  dred  and  eight  theologians),  the  majority  of  whom 

were  again  held,  pilerima^  became  more  popular  and  were  from  tne  Diocese  of  Constance,  from  Bavaria, 

a  general  revival  of  religious  life  took  place.    Unfor-  Burgundy,  and  Lorraine. 

innately  the  Kulturkampf  (q.  v.),  though  originating  The  supreme  authority  over  the  university  was 

in  Pruada,  was  also  felt  in  Hohenzollem,  now  part  vested  in  the  rector,  who  was  elected  by  the  professor- 

of  the  Prussian  Kingdom,  although  the  so-called  ate  for  a  single  term.    In  the  preservation  of  academi- 

May  LawB  and  other  persecuting  enactmente  were  not  cal  discipline,  the  rector  was  assisted  by  the  senate 

enforced  there  so  stnctly  as  in  Prussia  proper.    The  (also  called  the  consistory  or  regency),  which  usually 

Benedictine  monastery  at  Beuron,  the  Jesuit  novitiate  comprised  the  preceding  rector  and  three  counsellors, 

at  Gorheim  near  Sigmaringen,  and  the  Franciscan  Of  the  four  faculties  at  tne'' Albertina'',  the  faculty  of 

convent  at  Stetten  near  Hechingen  were  suppressed;  arts  was  the  most  important.    The  course  usually 

the  teaching  sisters,  the  Sisters  of  Christian  Charity,  lasted  three  years,   and  included  logic,  dialectics, 

and  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  ^Ingenbohl)  were  physics,  mathematics,  Aristotle  and  the  peripatetics, 

expelled.    It  was  forbidden  to  appomt  or  install  any  poetry  and  oratory  being  added  in  1471  and  Greek  in 


was  heavily  fined  for  appointing  prieste  to  vacant  phica",  which  treated  of  the  totality  of  knowledge  at 
pjarishes.  Most  of  the  clergy  were  deprived  of  the  thetime;  Jacob  Locher,  called  Philomusus,  who  trans- 
right  of  local  school-inspection,  but,  in  virtue  of  an  old  lated  Brant's  ''NarrenschifT"  (Ship  of  Fools)  into 
law  (1809),  were  permitted  to  give  religious  instruc-  Latin;  Philip  Engelbrecht  of  Engen  (Engentinus),  a 
tioQ.  At  the  dose  of  the  Kulturkampf,  better  relations  poet  and  a  secret  follower  of  Luther;  Henrieus  Loriti« 


TBKiBUBa  268  FBxmma 

called  Glareanus,  the  renowned  Latduiat,  mtiddaii,  and    true  to  the  anoiBnt  Faitii,  and  throu^  its  influence  tiie 
geographer;  Jotm  Hartung,  professor  of  Greek  and    town  became  a  bulwark  of  Cathidicism.    The  univer- 
Hebrew.    In  the  theological  faculty,  which  usually    nty  refused  henceforth  to  enrol  any  students  who  bad 
employed  three  lecturers  in  the  sixteenth  century,    studied  in  Wittenbei^  or  Leipzig,  and  after  1567  only 
'    taught  (at  least  for  a  short  period)  the  following    thorn  who  declared  on  oath  tlwir  acceptance  of  the 
eraioent  scholars:  Geiler  of  Kaisersbere,  one  of  the    Tridentine  CkinfessioQ  of  Faith  were  admitted.    To 
university's  earliest  students;  Johann  Eck;  Thomas     secure  a.  still  more  Catholic  atmosphere,  Archduke 
Mumer;  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  who  had  however     Ferdinand  invited  the  Jesuits  in  1577  to  found  a 
never  studied  there,  eto.    The  faculty  of  law,  to  which    college  in  Frdbuig,  and  to  incorporate  it  in  the  uni- 
siz  regular  professors  were  assigned  in  the  sixteenth     veraity.    This  scheme,  however,  aroused  such  enep- 
oentur^,  was  long  famous  throughout  Europe,  thanks     getic  opposition,  especially  from  Jodocus  Lraichius, 
to  Ulrich  Zasius,  the  founder  of  modem  pohtical    professor  of  theol^^  and  founder  of  the  Collegiun) 
science.    At  this  period  three  professors  constituted     Facis  (_Burse  gum  Fneden)  that  it  had  to  be  laid  aside, 
the  medical  faculty,  whose  statutes  had  been  sketched     On  5  November,  1520,  shortly  after  the  outbreak  of 
b^  Hummel  himself.    As  a  rule  the  students  lived    the  Thirty  Years  War,  the  Jesuits  were  introduced 
with  their  professora  in  residences  or  boarding-houses    into  the  university  on  the  strength  of  a  fiat  of  Arch- 
duke Leopold  in  spito  of  the  opposition  of  the  senate, 
and  entrusted  with  the  whole  faculty  of  arts  and  tem- 
porarilv  with  two  of  the  theolo^cal  chairs.    From  the 
rectorahip  and  quffistonhip,  however,  they  were  ex- 
cluded, although  the  cathedral  pulpit  was  soon  re- 
signed into  their  hands.    The  most  renowned  of  the 
Jesuit   professors  at   Freiburg  was   the  ostromMner, 
Christopher8cheiner(q.  v.),  who  left  Freiburg  finally  in 
1630.    The  frequent  change  of  the  fathers  was  indeed 
injurious  to  the  university,  at  which  too  many  re- 
mained but  a  very  short  tune;  thus,  in  the  faculty  of 
arts  alone,  no  fewer  than  123  different  Jesuits  were 
employed  as  lecturers  during  the  153  yean  preceding  ' 
the  suppression  of  the  order. 

The  seventeenth  century,  especially  the  Thirtv 
Years  War  and  the  predatorv  wars  of  Louis  XIV, 
brou^  the  university  to  the  brink  of  ruin.  Almost 
all  its  funded  property  was  lost,  as  well  as  a  great  por- 
tion of  its  incMne  from  the  parishes,  now  sadly  im- 
Kverished  by  pillage  and  fire.  The  professors  were 
quentJy  compelled  to  wait  years  for  their  stipend, 
aoa  in  IMS  the  number  of  studento  had  faDen  to  46. 
Emperor  Leopdd  was  the  first  to  take  steps  to  remove 
the  financial  difficulties,  but,  when  the  town  was  ceded 
to  thq  French  by  the  Peace  of  Nimwegen  (167B),  the 
majority  of  the  professors  and  students  migrated  to 
Constance.  The  Jesuit  fathers  remained  and  opened 
in  1684  a  sfudium  gailieanum  under  the  patronage  oi 
Louis  XIV,  but  it  was  not  untjl  some  years  lator  that 
the  old  personnel  of  the  imiversity  could  initiato 
academic  coursea  in  Constance.  After  the  Peace  of 
Ryiwik  (1697),  the  professorate  returned  from  Con- 
stance to  Freiburg,  when  the  old  contentions,  whidi 
had  so  often  broken  out  between  the  university  and 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  were  settled  bv  the  so-called 
"Viennese  Transaction"  of  forty  articles.  According 
to  Uiis  agreement,  the  Jcsuite  were  sUll  excluded  from 


(the  so-called  Bursen),  of  which  there  were  seven  at  building  of  the  "Alto  Burse",  whieh  they  had  previ- 

Freibur^,  including  the  "Alte  Burse",  the  "Domus  ously  occupied, as  thdrprivateproperty,andinaddi- 

Carthuaiana",  and  the  "Coll^um  Sapientin".    The  tion  an  increased  annual  stipend,  as  w^  as  oU  arrears 

univerdty  having  attained  so  rapidly  to  renown,  it  of  salary. 

was  but  natural  that  many  of  its  professors  should        At  the  befponing  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  out- 

have  been  appointed  to  offices  of  high  intellectual  look  of  the  university  was  far  from  hopeful,  and  in 

importance.     From  Fr»burg  the  Chapter  of  Augs-  1713 thememberswerecompelled tosecedeonceroore 

burgchoaetwo,  and  Vienna  three  of  its  prince-bishops;  to  Constance,  returning  in  1715.     Emperor  Chariee 

the  Chapters  of  Constance,  Augsburg.  Basle,  and  Vllaterinereaaedtherevenueof  the  univeisity,  whom 

Speyer  many  of  their  suffragans,  and  the  University  of  staff  again  included  many  illustrious  professors — Uie 

^^enna  one  of  its  chancellors.  jurists  Stapf,   E^errnayer,   Waizenegger,   and   Rein- 

During  the  widespread  confusion  of  the  Reforma-  hart;  the  physicians  Blau,  8tn^>el,  and  Baader;  the 

tion  period  which  exercised  so  deleterious  an  effect  on  Jesuits  NicasiusGrammatici  and  Stcinmayer — but  the 

many  of  the  German  universities,  Freiburg  succeeded  university  never  reached  the  educational  level  of  the 

by  its  judicious  and  cautious  attitude  in  maintaining  halcyon  days  of  the  sixteenth  centuiy.     After    the 

its  ground.     It  is  indeed  a  fact  that  several  of  its  prp-  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in  1773,  their  college  build- 

feasors  were  in  correspondence  with  Luther,  Zwin^,  ings  together  with  their  church  (built  1630-40}  and 

and   Calvin;   that   many   others   were  suspected   of  Gymnasium   Academicum  were  annexed  in  1777  by 

favouring  their  innovations;  that  the  senate  itself  Empress  Maria  Theresa  to  the  university.     The  in>- 

censured  Glareanus  for  inveighing  so  fiercely  against  portance  of  the  Albertina  waxed  greater  with  Uie 

Luther,  Oecolampadius,  and  the  other  reformers  in  mcreasing  prosperity  of  the  country.     The  new  pur- 

his  lectures;  still  the  university  in  general  temaiued  ticulum  St  studiee,  which  Maria  Theresa  caused  to  \o 


FBSmUBa                           269  FBiJUS 

drawn  up  for  the  higher  educational  institutions  of  ophers,  Johann  Geor^  Jacobi  and  Anton  Baumstark; 

her  dominions,  was  introduced  intj^  Freibui^,  in  1767,  the  physicians  and  scientists,  Alexander  Ecker,  Adolf 

and  at  first  met  with  much  opposition.    Although  this  Kussmaul,  Alfred  H^ar,  Anton  de  Bary. 

action  of  the  university  led  to  the  withdrawal  oimany  The  University  of  Fteibuis  at  present  contains  four 

of  its  ancient  privil^es  (e.g.  its  governmental  inde-  faculties:  that  of  Catholic  theology,  that  of  law  and 

pendence),  it  paved  the  way  for  a  more  intimate  con-  political  science,  that  of  medicine,  and  that  of  philoso- 

nezion  between  the  university  and  the  government,  phy,  the  last-mentioned  being  subdivided  intophilo- 

and  from  this  period  dates  the  adoption  of  a  more  l<^cal — ^historical    and    mathematioo-physicar.    At 

reasonable  attitude  by  both  parties.  the  beginning  of  1909,  the  teaching  staff  consisted  of 

The  transference  of  Further  Austrian  Breisgau  to  the  140  lecturers:  11  theologians,  16  jurists  and  [)olitical 

House  of  Z&hringen  by  the  Peace  of  Pressbuig  (1805)  economists,  50  physicians,  43  in  the  first  division  of 

seemed  to  menace  greatly  the  position  of  Freibuig,  the  philosophical  faculty  and  30  in  the  second.    In 

since  the  new  inconsiderable  State  of  Baden  possessed  the  summer  term  of  1908  Freiburg  was  attended  by 

already  in  Heidelberg  an  older  and  more  famous  uni-  over  2600  students,  and  in  the  winter  term  (1908-09) 

versity.    Thanks  to  the  zealous  efforts  of  the  pro-  by  1966  matriculated  Tincludin^  67  women)  and  153 

fessors  and  town  of  Freiburg,  however,  their  univei^  private  students.    Of  uie  sixty  institutions  connected 

sity  was  retained,  and  in  1807  the  elector  himself  ao-  with  the  university  the  most  important  are  the  large 

oepted  the  office  of  rector.    Since  then,  the  sovereign  medical  infirmaries  (surgical,  ^nsecological,  psychiat- 

has  always  been  the  '' rector  magnificentissimus"  of  rical,  optical)  and  general  climcal  hospitals;  tnephysi- 

the  university,  and  confirms  the  annual  election  by  the  cal,  geological,  botanical,  and  zoological  institutes; 

ozdinaiy  professors  of  the  pro-rector  to  exercise  the  the  academical  reading-rooms.   The  university  librarv 

office  of  rectorship  in  his  name.    In  1816  the  univer-  contains  300,000  volumes,  a  large  number  of  which 

sity  was  again  threatened  with  dissolution,  but  the  belonged  to  the  old  cloister-libraries,  and  700  manu- 

danser  was  obviated  principally  through  the  influence  scripts.    The  majority  of  the  institutes  possess  excel- 

of  KeutI  von  Rotteck.    The  independence  of  the  uni-  lent  speqial  libraries.    The  property  of  tne  university 

versity  was,  however,  seriously  curtailed,  and  the  consistspartlvof  invested  capital  to  the  value  of  1,300,- 

ourriculum  reformed  after  the  model  of  Heidelberg,  000  marlks  (about  300,000  dollars),  and  partlv  of  unre- 

for  which  purpose  the  revenue,  which  had  fallen  veiy  munerative  capital  (e.  g.  the  university  building, 

low,  was  increased  by  an  annual  State  grant  amount-  etc.)  to  the  value  of  2,800,000  or,  allowing  for  certain 

ing  at  first  to  15.000  gulden.    The  attendance  varied  outstandii^  liabilities,  2,380,000  marks.    According 

between  270  and  320  students.    In  1818  the  univeN  to  the  budget  of  1908--09,  its  income  was  1,075,300 

sity  sent  one  representative  to  the  newly-created  diet,  marks,  of  which  958,500  was  paid  b^  the  state.    The 

at  which  von  Rotteck,  the  historian,  was  its  deputy  for  expenditure,   which   equalled  the  income,   was  as 

many  years.    In  consequence  of  the  opposition  be-  follows:  475,600  marks  for  salaries  of  regular  pro- 

tween  the  professors  ana  the  town,  the  umversity  was  fessors  and  officials;  132.200  for  the  extraordinary 

closed  in  1832  for  a  short  period,  of  which  the  govern-  staff;  335,900  for  the  different  institutions,  and  the 

ment  took  advantage  to  recognise  the  previous  repub-  remainder  for  sundry  expenses. 

lican  constitutions  on  a  more  oligarchical  basis.     The  .   A  complete  liat  of  the  literature  d^Uing  with  the  univeiwty 

retention  or  .dinqukhment  £  the  university  waa  abo  ^?.SSSS5S.'"lte?.iri54Ti9l^ir ^h1  S'o.tltt 
the  subject  of  debate;  inaeed,  for  thirty  years  the  tantWorksazeiRmooER.  ifna/er^acadtfmuBFrilmiveiMwCfYei- 
danger  of  dissolution  lay  ever  threatening.    The  Revo-  burg,  1774  and  1779);   Idem,  Imaginea,  Siom  atot4«  nonnuUa 

lution  occatfon^a  bn^f  clodng  of  the  univerrityin  S^,^r'^«Sf^'JttS:S:2K^t^SS:^-(3'^: 

Ma3r,  1849.  In  1857  the  solemn  celebration  of  its  400th  Freiburg.  1857-^);   Die  Univenim  Freiburg  seU  dem  Regier- 

anniversary  was  held  in  the  presence  of  the  sovereign.  wuantrUt  Groeaherzog  FriedncKe  (Freiburg,  1881);    VmeuR, 

The  effort,  of  the  CathoUc  par^  to  restore  to  tTe  ggilTffrSS.^^rA^^^Sfi.J'g^'^l^l^tS: 

umversity   its   imtial   purely   Cathohc   character   by  H&l}le  dee  19  JahrhunderU  (ZpfirtB,  Bonn,  lS92nQ4):  KOnio  in 

securing  lor  the  archbisnop,  not  alone  a  deciding  voice  £cSfeV5^*C,^^**'*^'*"^i?**?-.»  .^°4*  ^^'  P^h.^^P^*  *°d 

in  the  appointment  of  theological  profewon.  but  also  M^^^'SSSHi^-^'^  'SJ^^  gjSSSSf^^JSJ 

a  oertam  nght  of  supervision  over  the  other  faculties,  hurg  tm  Br.  von  tifio-iese,  I  (Freiburg,  1907):  Baumoartbn, 

were  rendered  ineffectual  through  the  rejection  of  the  ^X^^  **"  BreiBgou  in  Die  deuUehen  Hoehachulen,  I  (Berlin, 

ooncordat  between  Rome  and  the  government  by  the  *®"' ^'                                                    T/^ow«tt  t  nro 

Diet  of  Baden  in  1859.    Since  then  the  CathoUc  Joseph  l.in8. 

characteristics  of  the  university  both  in  its  professors  Fteibnrg   (Swuzerland),    Univebsitt  of.    See 

and  in  its  students,  who  are  recruited  mainly  from  Fribottrq,  University  or. 

North  Germany,  have  become  grsdually  impaired.  wrfiAairur     Sw»  Mttoipw 

When,  after  the  establishment  of  the  German  Empire,  "««»«•    &ee  Munich. 

a  new  universitv  was  founded  in  Strasbun;,  a  serious  Fr^JuB  (Forum  Juui),  Diocese  or^  suffragan  ot 

decay   of   Frdburg   was   anticipated.    Fortunately  Aiz,  comprises  the  whole  department  of  Var  (France), 

these  forebodings  proved  to  be  groundless,  since,  while.  It  was  suppressed  by  the  Concordat  of  1801,  re- 

the  number  of  students  in  1872  was  only  272— a  establishea  oy  that  of  1817,  and  definitively  estab- 

figure  which  does  not  exceed  the  attendance  during  lished  in  1823.    The  arrondiaaement  of  Grasse,  which 

the  first  century  of  the   university's  existence — ^it  tmtil  1860  belonged  to  the  department  of  Var,  when 

exceeded  1000  in  1885,  1500  in  1898,  2000  in  1904,  it  was  annexed  to  that  of  the  Alpes-Maritimes,  was. 

and  2600  in  1908,  thus  placing  Freiburg  fifth  in  the  in  1886,  separated  from  the  Diocese  of  Fr^jus  ana 

list  of  German  universities  as  regards  attendance.  attached  to  that  of  Nice.  A  Brief  of  1852  authorized 

Of  the  many  scholars,  who  shed  a  lustre  on  the  name  the  bishopto  assume  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Fr^jus  and 

of  Freiburg  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  and  during  Toulon.   The  present  diocese  comprises  the  territory 

the  nineteenth  centuries,  the  following  (excluding  of  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Fr^j  us  as  well  as  that  of  the 

those  still  living)  may  be  mentioned;  the  theologians  ancient  Diocese  of  Toulon. 

Engelbert  KlOpfel,  Johann  Leonhard  Hug,  Heinrich  I.  FrIjus. — Christianity  would  seem  to  have  been 
Schreiber, -historian  of  the  town  and  University  of  introduced  into  Fr6jus  in  the  time  of  Emperor  Con- 
Freiburg,  Alban  Stolz,  the  renowned  popular  autnor,  stantine.  History  relates  that  in  374  a  certain  Accep- 
and  Frans  Xaver  Kraus,  who  wrote  on  the  history  of  tus  falsely  declared  himself  ^ilty  of  some  crimes  m 
the  Church  and  of  fine  arts ;  the  jurists  Jodocus  Rigzger,  order  to  rid  himself  of  the  episcopal  dignity,  and  that 
Johann  Caspar  Ruef ;  the  statesman  Joseph  Buss,  the  CouncU  of  Valencia  besou^t  the  (Jnurcn  to  name 
Gustav  Rdmelin,  who  for  many  years  represented  the  another  in  his  stead.  The  following  are  named  among 
umversity  in  the  first  diet;  the  philologists  and  philos-  the  bishops  of  this  see:  St.  Leontius   (419-433), 


tBAlUS 


270 


WKtns 


brother  of  St.  Caator  and  frieod  of  John  C ,    __ , 

dedicated  to  him  hie  first  ten  "CollatioDes",  and  of  Toulouse;  and  Uie  vir^  SL  Roeeline,  prkirwa  01 

St.  Honoratus,  founder  of  the  mooaBtery  *"  L^nns;  monastery  of  La  Celle-Boubaud^  who  died  in  1329, 

Tleodore  (433^55),  Abbot  of  the  lies  dliyires,  to  and  whose  shrine,  situated  at  Lee  Arcs  near  Dragui- 

wbom  CHssian  dedicated  the  last  seven  "Collationes";  gnan,  has  been  for  sU  centuries  a  place  of  pilgrimage, 


St.  AuxUius  (c.  475),  formerly  j 
monk  of  L^rins,  and  later  a  mai^T 
under  Euric,  Arian  King  of  the 
Visigoths;  Riculfus  (973-1000),  who 
restored  the  ruins  made  by  the 
and  built  the  cathedral 


coUegtate  church  of  Barjols;  Ray- 
mond Berengarius  (1235-1248),  who 
arranged  the  mamage  of  Beatrice, 
dau^ter  of  the  Count  of  Provence, 
with  Charles  of  Anjou;  Jacques 
d'Euse  (1300-1310),  preceptor  of  St. 
Louis  of  Toulouse,  and  later  pope 
under  the  name  of  John  XXII; 
Cardinal  NicolA  Fieschi  (UO^- 
1524),  who  at  the  time  of  his  death 
was  dean  of  the  Sacred  Coll^; 
Andr6-Hercule  de  Floury  (leoS- 
1715). 

11.  ToniiON. — The  legend  which 
states  that  a  certain  Cleon,  who  ac- 
companied St.  I&iaruB  to  Gaul  wi 
the  Oiurch  of  Toulon,  Is  based  o 
document  composed  in  the  fourteenth  centmy 
ascribed  to  a  sixth-century  bishop  named  Didier. 


are  likewise  enmcialljr  honoured  in 
the  diocese.  The  aojoum  in  1482 
of  St.  Francis  of  Paula  at  Bonnes 
and  at  Frrijus,  where  he  caused  the 
cessation  of  the  ^ague,  made  a  last- 
ing impression,  lite  diief  places  of 
pilgriinagB  in  the  Diocese  of  Fr^jus 
and  Toulon  are  those  of  Notr&- 
Dame  des  Anges  at  Pignans,  the 
chapel  which  King  Thierry  estat>- 
lished  in  508,  for  the  veneration  of 
a  statue  of  the  Blessed  Vir^  recov- 
ered by  a  shepherd  and  which.it  was 
said,  Iwd  been  brought  to  Pignans 
by  St.  Nympha,  nieoe  of  St.  Max^ 
minus  and  companion  of  St.  Mary 
Magdalen;  Notre-Dame  de  Btaat, 
a  shrine  dating  from  the  sixteenth 
century;  Notre-Dame  de  QrAoesat 
Cotignac,  which  dates  from  1519, 


FotTU,  or  ma  Efisoofu.  Puaca, 


f'a'J'w  ligious  community  under  the  rule 

the  founder  of    of  Bt.  Philip  Neri,  and  were  the  first  Oratorians  in 

apocryphal    France.   In  1637,  as  the  result  of  an  apparition  of  the 

Blessed  Virgin  to  Fr^re  Fiacre,  Louis  XIII  and  Anne 

of  Austria  sent  him  to  Cotignac  to  oSerup  p 


...  .  .  „ p  praysw. 

Honoratua  and  Gratianus,  according  to  the  "  Gallia  Anne  of  Austria  became  the  mother  of  Louis  XIV, 

Christiana",  were  the  first  bishops  of  Toulon  wbose  and  in  1660  he  went  in  solemn  state  to  Cotignac  to  r»- 

'3  history,  but   Ducheane  givea  turn  thanks  to  Notre-Dame  deGr&ces. 


Augustalis  as  the  Grat 
historical  bishop.  He  a»- 
aisted  at  councils  in  441 
and  442  and  signed  in  449 
and  450  the  fetters  ad- 
dressed to  Pope  Leo  I  from 
(he  province  of  Aries.  St. 
Cyprian,  disciple  and  biog- 
rapher of  St.  Cssarius  of 
Aries,  is  also  mentioned 
as  a  Bishop  of  Toulon. 
His  episcopate,  begun  in 
£24,  had  not  come  to  an 
end  in  541  j  he  converted 
to  Catholicism  the  Visi- 
soth  chiefa,  Handrier  and 
Flavian,  who  became  an- 
chorites and  martyrs  on 
thepeninsulaof  Mandrier. 
The  Island  of  L^rins, 
well  known  as  the  site  of 
the  celebrated  monastery 
founded  there  in  410  (see 
LteiNB)  was  sold  in  1859 
by  the  Bishop  of  Fr^jua 
to  an  English  purchaser. 
A  number  of  the  saints  of 
Urins  are  especialljr  hon- 
oured in  the  diocese. 
Among  them  are  Sts. 
Honoratua,  CKsarius, 
Hilary,  and  Virgiliua, 
all  oi  whom  became 
archbishops  of  Aries: 

QuinidiuB,  Bishop  of  ., _,__, 

Vaison;  Valerius,  Bishop  of  Nice;  Haximus,  Bishop  Marists,aalesians,andSulpicians.  An  important  dio- 
of  Ries;  Veianus  and  ikmbertus.  Bishops  of  Vence;  ceean  congregation  founded  in  1838,  for  teaching  and 
Vincent  of  Urins,  author  of  the  "Commonitoriiun'*,  hospital  work,  was  that  of  Notre-Dame  do  la  MisAri- 
and  his  brother  Lupus,  Bishop  of  Troyes;  Agricola,  corde,  the  mother-house  of  which  was  at  Dra^uignan. 
Bishop  of  Avignon;  Aigulphus  and  Porcarius,  mar-  Before  the  law  of  1901  Uie  reliraousoonvegationspos- 
^na.  St.  Tropesius,  martyr  during  the  persecution  of  seeeed  in  the  diocese  2  foundling  assume,  36  day 
HMOi  St  Louis  (1274-1297),  a  native  of  Brignoles,    nureeries,  a  seaside  hospital   for  sick  children.  2 


"xTSBDBAi.  or  SuHT^EnsHHi,  Faiuaa 


The  church  of  St.  Hazi- 
minus,  begun  towards  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tuty  by  CSiariee  II  of  Sic- 
ily and  completed  by  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, is  the  most  beautiful 
eiample  of  pointed  archi- 
tecture in  the  south  of 
France.  The-head  of  St. 
Hary  Magdalen  is  hon- 
oured here,  and  the  crypt 
contains  tombs  whidi 
date  from  the  first  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian 
Era.  (For  an  account  of 
the  tniditions  on  this  sub- 

ect,  see  Laearcb  and 
ART  HAaDALXH.)  The 
celebrated  preacher  Mas- 
siUon  (1663-1742)  was 
bom  at  Hyires  m  this 
diocese.  In  1905  (last 
year  of  the  Concotdat) 
the  diocese  numbered 
326,384  inhabitants,  28 
parishes,  142  succuisal 
parishes,  and  67  vicariates 
paid  by  the  State.  Before 
the  enforcement  of  the 
law  against  the  congie- 
^tions  in  1901  there  were 
in  thediocese  communities 


271  FBENOH 

orphanages  for  boys,  situated  in  the  country,  9  orphan-  was  at  this  particular  period  or  later  that  he  officiated 
ages  for  girls,  6  workhouses,  2  houses  of  rescue,  3  for  a  while  as  coadjutor  Bishop  of  Paris.  He  retired 
houses  of  chaxity  for  the  assistance  of  the  poor,  30  to  Santiago  in  Spain,  where  he  assisted  the  Arch- 
hospitals  or  hospices,  2  houses  of  retreat,  7  religious  bishop  of  Santiago,  and  where  he  wrote  his  book, 
houses  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  homes.  "  Lucubrations  of  the  Bishop  of  Ferns  in  Spain  ".  At 
GiMUia  ChriBtiana,  Nova  (1715),  I.  419-447,  739-762;  h^-  the  Restoration  period  he  was  about  to  return  to  Ire- 
•^Ttf**  ?£r*ll^%i2^^'•  Af?*^"**'  ^•^^  ^''P^y^  «<»^  land,  but  being  greatly  disliked  by  Ormond  on  ac- 
269-276;  E^pitalibb.  Les  iviquea  de  FrHua  (Dramiignan.  1891-  cp^nt  ot  his  attitude  at  the  Conference  at  Jamestown, 
1898)^  Lambebt,  Hiattrin  de  Toulon  (Toulon,  1892) :  Dibdzbb,  the  permission  that  had  been  given  was  withdrawn, 
Dempiion  htatoripu  du  dwOse  de  Fr^ue.favrkatee  mantw  ^nd  he  remained  in  different  parts  of  the  Continent. 
eriU  de  Gvrardin  et  (TAntelmy  (Dracmsnan.  1872):  Fouobibbt.  «7r«KK/rfr^l^J«^  niTl^r  ^,,2^«  *v.iL  ™^^r^i 
Sanetuairee  aneiena  ei  modemea  deZ  TrU^inU  i'ieroe  dane  lee  ??**Wy,  »*  ^^^  «^«  Ghent.     Durmg  this  portion  of 

dioeiaea  de  Friiua  et  de  Toulon  CToolon,  1891);  C)hevaubb,  his  life  he  published  many  pamphlets  on  Irish  affairs. 

Topo4nbl.,  I24d.  3125.  which  are  extremely  valuable  for  the  elucidation  oi 

GEORQK8  GOYAU.  ^he  history  from  the  outbreak  of  the  war  tiU  1676.    In 

....  T      •x     •    •  X    XI.    A  his  last  years  he  appears  to  have  officiated  as  asristant 

T  ?*°^il  •^^5®'-  ^^"^n  "^T^o^  ?®  ^??®1^  to  the  BUhop  of  dS^,  and  in  that  city  he  died,  aged 

^^i^\''^^'^.'^^h}^?^''A'''^^'^^}^^  seventy-thr^  years,    lliepe,  too,  a  magnificent  mSn- 

2Jul7,1691.    He  entered  the  Society  of  J^usm  1646  ument  was  rawed  to  his  melnorj^.    ^^ 
and  m  1665  set  out  for  the  Onondaga  mission  in  C^an-        He  was  a  man  of  great  Kterary  activity  as  is  evident 

ada  to  devote  the  rest  of  his  life  to  the  evangeliza^^^^^  from  his  numerous  works.    Bemdes  a  coiree  of  philoa- 

of  .the  savages.    At  die  mvitation  of  a  Cayuga  chief-  ^phy  still  in  manuscript  in  March's  Library,  Dublin, 

tarn  he  set  out,  m  1666,  for  Lake  Tiohero  near  the  ^e  published  "  Queered  propound  by  the  Kt>te8tant 

present  Cayu^,  but  bis  stay  there  was  of  short  dura-  p^    -^  IrelandTconcenfing^e  pea6e  now  treated  of 

tion.    The  wort  year  he  was  sent  to  re^ve  the  mission  j^  inland"  (Paris,  1644);   "A  iSrotive  of  Claren- 

founded  by  Father  Jopes  among  tiie  Mohawk  and  on  j^^i^  g^^  ^^  Settlement  of  Ireland,  ete. "  (Louvain, 

has  way,  instituted  the  first  Catholic  setlJement  m  jg^x     "The  Bleeding  Iphigenia"  (1674),  and  "The 

Vennont,  m  Isle  La  Motte.    Amymg  at  Tinnonto-  Unkmd  Deserter  of  L^yaf  min  and  true  fnends",  i.  e. 

guen,  the  Mohawk  capital,  he  rapidly  acquired  the  Ormond  (Paris,  1676).    An  edition  of  his  works  was' 

&ngu^  and  by  his  coiu^ge  and  kindness  won  the  prepared  by  Samuel  H.  Bindon  and  was  published  at 

respect  of  his  savage  charges.    Unfortunately  the  Dublin,  in  1846. 

Mohawk  did  not  re^Uy  respond  to  his  efforts,  and  his         Bradt,  Bpiaamal  Sueeeaalon  (Rome,  1867);  Wab»-Habbi». 

chief  care  seems  to  have  been  to  attend  to  the  Huron  AnliquUiea  of  Iraand  (Dublin,  1739-45):  RinucanCa  Emhaaay 

captives  who  were  already  Christianized.  'jiij^^iL  ^''JIu'<T^nn'^i7?^^'h9^^'MS^^ 

In  October,  1668,  Father  Fremin  proceeded  to  the  '^£$±SC  (!Ut^L?^^2^i&]^^'  ^'"""'  ^"^  ^  "^ 
Seneca  country,  but  the  war  then  bemg  waged  with  Jameb  MacCaffbet. 

the  Ottawa  and  the  Susquehanna  prevented  many 
conversions.    In  August,  1669^  he  left  for  Onondaga 


bringing 


he  had  gained  among  the  various  tribes 

ble  for  nis  recall,  in  1670,  to  take  charee 

the  Christian  settlement  near  Montreal  where  the  con-  ,  ^              ...      •  #  -    x-       xi.  x     v 

verted  Indians  had  been  gathered,  and  it  was  he  who  ^f^J^"^  P^^SS  ^^'^l^Jf^^Jlf^^^  y«  say 

pUiced  this  refuge  on  a  S)lid  footing  and  eliminated  $^^,  J^^^*  *'«,,  ^'^   French^imadians   m   the 

&e  liquor  traflfiT  From  that  timTon,  with  the  ex-  ^^  Stat^,  the  figur^  are  far  below  the  truth," 

oeption  of  several  voyages  to  France  in  the  interest  of  Th«  sources  from  which  the  late  prelate  drew  his  m- 

the  mission,  he  devotS^  himself  exclusively  to  the  formation  are  unknown  to  the  wntere  of  this  article, 

work  of  preirving  in  the  Faith  those  Indians  who  had  but  it  is  a  f ajjt  that  to^ay  the  DiogBse  of  Burlmeton 

been  baptized,  ISd,  despite  the  persistent  efforte  of  ^  *  ^f^°^^  population  of  76,000  soids   of  w>ich 

the  tribi from  which  the  convertecame,  he  was  able  S?^9^A^^^'S?.?lf ^5?^«9l?^^>^^ 

such 

**X1A#      VM*          ^UXAX^M*  -                                                        souls 

^CAwmuJ^P<flw««r"lVi«fcro/  ^orth  A»n«riM*7New*  York  ^  *^®  United  Stetes,  that  it  has  made  its  influence  felt 

1908);  Jeauit  Rdationa;  Houcbs  in  Handbook  of  Ameriean  In^  throu^OUt  the  Eastern  States,  in  all  walks  of  life,  and 

diana,  ■.  y.  Cout^mawaaa  (Waahinctop.  1907).  furthermore  that,  in  point  of  numbers,  it  is  the 

Stanley  J.  Quinn.  predominant  element  m  several  dioceses,  and  an 

important  part  of  the  population  in  many  others. 

Ftench,  Nicholas,  Bishop  of  Ferns,  Ireland,  b.  at'  However,  except  in  their  own  newspapers,  or  a  few 

Ballytory,  Co.  Wexford,  in  1604,  his  parente  being  little-known  books,  scarcely;  anything  had  been  said  of 

John  French  and  Christina  Rosseter ;  d.  at  Ghent,  23  the  part  taken  b^r  these  immigrante  in  the  civil  and  reli- 

Aug.,  1678.    He  studied  at  Louvain  and  appears  to  ^ous  life  of  their  new  coimtnr,  until,  verv  recently, 

have  been  president  of  one  of  the  colleges  there,  and  thejr  took  into  their  own  hands  the  task  of  reviewing 

on  his  return  to  Ireland  in  1640  he  was  am)ointed  their  history,  of  gathering  statistics  of  their  numbers, 

parish  priest  of  Wexford.    Durifig  the  Confederation  and  of  recording  their  acnievemente  and  the  progress 

War  in  Ireland  he  joined  the  Confederate  party  and  they  have  made  in  fifty  years.    The  task  is  stifl  far 

took  an  active  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  Kil-  from  complete,  but  enou^  has  been  done  to  demon- 

kenny  Assembly.    He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Ferns  strate  the  progress  of  the  French  Canadians  and  their 

and  was  consecrated  in  November,  1645.    Though  devotion  to  their  Chureh  and  to  their  adopted  couh- 

opposed  to  the  partv  of  Preston  he  favoured  the  peace  try. 

01 1648  against  the  Nuncio  Rinuccini,  but  in  the  synod  The   immigration   of   French   Canadji^is   to   the 

at  Jamestown  in  1650,  he  bitterly  opposed  the  Or-  United  States  began  before  the  War  of  American  In- 

mond  faction.    In  1651  he  went  on  a  deputation  to  dependence  (1775-83).    French  Canadians  had  then 

the  Duke  of  Lorraine  to  solicit  his  assistance  against  already  immigrated  to  New  En^and,  and  we  find 

Cromwell,  and  to  offer  him  the  protectorship  of  Ire-  them  m  large  numbers  in  the  armies  of  Washington, 

land,  but  tiiis  mission  having  proved  a  failure  he  re-  After  the  war  the  American  Congress,  in  recognition  of 

mained  on  the  Continent.    It  is  not  clear  whether  it  their  services  and  to  prevent  tneir  being  prosecuted 


272 


In  Gftnadft  on  the  ehaigB  of  hjdi  treaaooi  sgve  them 
land  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Champjain,  mere  their 
desoendants  are  still  to  be  found.  That  concession  of 
land,  situated  in  the  State  of  New  York,  has  long  been 
known  as  "the  Refu^^' Tract".  In  1837,  after  the 
rebellion  in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  a  new  immigra- 
tion to  the  Eastern  Stfktes  took  place,  to  the  State  of 
Vennont,  more  particularlv,  wnone  the  "Patriots", 
vanquished  in  battle,  soumt  refuge  with  their,  fami- 
lies. But  the  chief  influx  from  French  Canada  'to  the 
United  States  took  place  after  the  Civil  War.  Not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  th^  had  at  that  time  but 
few  organised  parities,  the  French  Canadians  were 


here  in  sufficient  numbers  during  the  war  to  furnish 
40,000  soldiers  to  the  Union.  The  immigration  at  the 
dose  of  the  war  has  been  ascribed  to  many  causes,  the 
most  considerable  of  which  are  tiie  unprecedented 
industrial  prosperitv  tliat  followed  the  Civil  War  and 
the  inborn  love  of  tne  French  Canadian  for  travelling, 
together  with  the  desire  to  earn  the  hikh  wages  and  to 
share  in  the  vast  opportunities  whida  the  Republic 
o£Ferod  to  its  citiaens. 

Some  writers — and  many  of  these  in  earnest — ^have 
^ven  as  the  principal  cause  of  this  Frendi  Canadian 
immigration,  three-fourths  of  which  took  place  be- 
tween 1865  and  1890,  the  necessity  in  which  the 
farmers  of  the  Province  of  Quebec  found  themselves  of 
seeking  a  new  home  after  leading  a  life  of  luxury  and 
dissipation.  Undoubtedly  this  was  true  of  some,  but 
the  general  moral  character  pf  the  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands who  crossed  the  border  is  the  best  proof  that  the 
true  cause  of  this  movement  must  be  sought  else- 
where. The  Jesuit,  Father  Hamon,  writing  on  this 
subject,  does  not  hesitate  to  say:  "  The  rapidity  with 
which  this  immigration  was  accomplished,  and  the 
ease  with  which  these  Canadians  transplanted  into  a 
foreign  land,  have  immediately  reconstructed  the 
Catholic  momd  of  the  parish  that  made  their  stren^h 
in  Canada;  the  energy  shown  b^  them  in  erecting 
churches  ajid  convents^  in  grouping  themselves  to- 
gether, and  in  organising  flourishing  oongreaations, 
supported  within  by  all  that  nouri^ies  Christian 
piety,  protected  without  against  pernicious  influences 
by  the  strength  of  association,  and  a  press  genendly 
well  inspired^  all  these  elements  of  Catholic  life,  or- 

Saniaed  withm  a  quarter  of  a  century  in  the  verv  cita- 
el  of  old  Puritanisin.  seem  to  indicate  a  Providential 
action  as  well  as  a  Providential  mission,  the  impor- 
tance of  which  the  future  alone  will  reveal." 

Those  who  do  not  look  higher  than  material  consid- 
erations in  studying  the  causes  of  national  movements 
will  not  give  much  credence  to  this  opinion  of  Father 
Hamon.  Nevertheless  it  is  to-day  a  fact  recognised 
by  noted  economists,  that  the  French  Canadians,  now 
better  Imown  in  tne  Republic  imder  the  name  of 
French  Americans^  are,  as  labourers  and  artisans,  the 
most  solid  and  reliable  pillar  of  industry  in  New  Ekig- 
land.  And  New  En^and  has  received  within  its 
borders,  more  than  two-thirds  of  their  total  immigra- 
tion. As  Catholics,  it  is  obvious  that  thev  have 
played  a  r61e  no  less  important,  as  may  easily  oe  seen 
by  the  perusal  of  Catholic  Directories.  Father  Ha^ 
mon  classifies  the  French  Canadian  immigration  as 
temporary,  fluctuating,  and  permanent.  Figures 
show  the  relative  imjwrtance  of  each  of  these  classes 
and  demonstrate  the  spirit  which  animated  the  whole 
movement.  The  temjwrary  imm^ntion  compris^ 
a  class  of  farmers  who  came  to  the  United  States  with 
the  avowed  intention  of  soing  back  to  their  old  homes 
as  soon  as  they  had  saved  enough  money  to  clear  their 
farms  from  morteages  and  all  other  financial  incum- 
brances. This  class  became  less  numerous  from  day 
to  day;  so  much  so,  that  it  was  practically  unqotice- 
able,  as  early  as  1880.  In  many  cases  the  mtention  of 
returning  to  the  old  home  was  never  carried  out. 
iSequently  this  class,  by  revealing  to  their  neighbours 
the  opportunities  offered  across  the  border,  mduced 


many  of  thenpt  to  foUow  in  their  footsteps.^  ^tothe 
fluctuating  immigration,  only  a  mere  mention  is  neces- 
sary. Always  on  the  move,  from  one  country  to  the 
otlier,  from  city  to  citv,  from  mill  to  mill,  those  who 
formed  this  class  led  tnat  kind  of  life  which  relies,  as 
Father  Hamon  says,  on  the  Providence  of  God  for  its 
support.  This  roving  dass  is  still  less  numerous  than 
the  temjwrary  group,  and  it  is  to  be  found  not  only  in 
all  classes  of  newcomers,  but  in  settled  populations  as 
well.  Tlie  permanent  immigration  has  oeen  the  most 
numerous,  and,  naturally,  tne  most  substantiaL  It 
is  these  pennanent  French  Canadian  immigrants  who 
have  orgfmiaed  parishes  and  parochial  schools,  erected 
churches  and  convents,  and  now  constitute  the  labour- 
ing power  par  exodlence  in  all  the  industrial  centres  of 
New  England.  Most  of  them,  if  not  all,  came  from 
the  rural  districts  of  Canada,  especially  from  the  East- 
em  townships,  from  the  Dioceses  of  Trois  Rivieres  and 
Rimouski,  and  from  the  Counties  of  Beauoe,  Belle- 
chasse,  and  others  on  the  borders.  Their  farms  had 
become  insufficient  to  support  large  families;  in  the 
Eastern  townships  their  titles  to  tne  land  they^  occu- 
pied were  disputed,  and  they  were  forced  to  give  up 
the  fruit  of  many  years  of  labour;  they  were  the  vic- 
tims of  the  indifference  e^own  by  their  Governments 
both  Provincial  and  Federal,  tonwds  colonization  and 
the  openingup  of  new  farming  districts.  ^  The  increas- 
ing population  was  thus  compelled  by  cireumstances, 
to  look  elsewhere,  for  more  land  and  greater  oppor- 
tunities. At  the  same  time,  the  reports  sent  home  by 
those  who  had  taken  psri  m  the  earlier  immigration 
had  widdy  advertised  throudiout  the  whole  Province 
of  Quebec,  the  material  advantages  of  the  United 
States.  Tins  migration  was  called  at  the  time  "the 
desertion  of  the  Fatherland".  But  those  who  spoke 
thus  were  forgetful  of  the  historical  fact^  that  the 
French  of  America  have  from  the  very  beginning  felt 
perfectly  at  home  m  the  whole  northern  part  of  the 
continent,  on  the  soil  of  which  their  missionaries,  their 
coureun  dea  hois,  explorers,  and  warriors  have  left 
their  footprints  broadcast.  In  spite  of  all  opposing 
efforts,  himdreds  of  thousands  of  French  Canadians, 
most  of  them  farmers,  between  1870  and  1890,  left 
their  rural  occupation  to  adopt  the  more  arduous  life 
of  the  New  ^igland  factories  and  the  various  indus- 
tries of  the  Western  States.  This  movement  took 
place  quietly,  slowly,  without  creating  any  disturb- 
ance, and  almost  unnoticed.  It  was,  in  a  certain 
sense,  a  repetition  of  that  other  movement  which, 
advocated  by  Horace  Greeley,  sent  toward  the  Golden 
Gate  BO  many  yoimg  men  of  the  East. 

Doubtless,  this  depopulation  on  a  large  scale  was  a 
ereat  loss  to  Canada,  wnere  the  emigrants  might  have^ 
founded  families  of  colonists.  But  the  nature  of  this 
emigration  was  such  that  it  could  not  be  checked  by 
any  special  legislation.  The  movement  had  set  in, 
and  it  was  too  late  to  forestall  an  event  prepared  by 
many  yeare  of  economic  conditions  misunderstood  or 
wilfully  ignored.  The  stream  had  foimd  its  way 
across  the  oorders,  where  new  industries,  phenomenal 
opportunities,  and  advantages  unheard  of  oefore,  were 
ready  to  absorb  and  utilize  this  new  and  valuable 
power  of  production. 

In  order  to  present  a  strictly  accurate  idea  of  the 
importance  of  the  "French  American  element,  both 
numerically  and  from  a  Catholic  standpoint,  the 
following  sources  of  information  have  been  used  for 
this  article:  (1)  the  Twelfth  Census  of  the  United 
States  (1900);  (2)  local  enumerations  made  in  New 
England  since  1900,  and  as  late  as  the  present  year 
(1908);  and  (3)  the  Catholic  Directory  of  the  United 
States. 

The  accompanying  table,  compOed  from  the  first 
of  these  three  sources,  shows,  nrst,  the  number  of 
French  Americans  born  in  Canada  and,  secondly,  this 
first  class  combined  with  those  of  whom  at  least  one 
parent  was  bom  in  Canada, 


FBENOH 


273 


FBENOH 


Distribution  of  Fbench  Amxbicans 


Maine ^ 

New  Hampshire 

Vennont 

MasBachusetts 

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey. 

Pennsylvania 

Totals  for  North  At- 
lantic Division 

Delaware 

liarvland 

District  of  Columbia. . . . 

T^rginia 

West  Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georsda 

Florida 

Totals  for  South  At- 
lantic Division.... 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

Iowa 

North  Dakota 

South  Dakota 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

Totals  for  North  Cen- 
tral Division 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabaina. 

Mississippi 

Texas 

Ix>u]siana 

Indian  Territory 

Oklahoma 

/^rVsLTMUM 

Totals  for  South  Cen- 
tral Division 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New  Mexico 

Arixona 

Utah.,.. 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington 


Foreign*  Of  IVveisii 

boBD.  Parentace. 

30,908 67,682 

44,420 73,350 

14,924 40,097 

134,416 244,586 

31,533 55,771 

19,174 36,867 

27,199 69,236 

1,118 2,140 

1,468 3,603 

305,160 583,341 


41. 
87. 
97, 
104. 
72. 
36. 
31. 
80. 
88. 


77 
178 
236 
194 
165 
69 
56 
203 
200 


636 1,378 

2,903 7,034 

948 3,242 

9,129 24,477 

32,483 75,584 

10,091 27,981 

12,063 32,406 


1,059. 
1,519. 
3,162. 
1,138. 
1,039. 
1,485. 


3,536 
5,613 
6.512 
3)516 
3,003 
5,547 


77,019 198,451 


136. 
119. 

89. 

75. 
400. 
253. 

48. 
179. 
161. 


397 
312 
211 
141 
1,004 
759 
173 
702 
411 


1,460 4,110 

3,516 5,725 


n. 


omia 

Totals   for    Western 
Division 


385 
2,300 
270 
264 
505 
486 
846 
3,862 

874 2,169 

2,410 5,392 


150. 
960. 
84, 
153. 
128. 
222. 
395. 
1,899. 


10,791 22,204 


The^  figures  given  for  Louisiana  are,  of  course, 
exclusive  of  all  other  inhabitants  of  French  extraction; 
those  relating  to  California  are  exclusive  of  the  lar^e 
population  of  immigrants  from  France  established  m 
that  State,  more  especially  in  the  city  of  San  Francisco. 
There  were  also,  115  peraons  of  French  Canadian 
parentage  in  Alaska,  and  4  in  Hawaii,  besides  502 
persons  of  the  same  parentage  in  the  military  and 
naval  service  of  the  United  States,  stationed  abroad 
and  not  credited  to  any  State  or  Territory.  Com- 
bining  with  these  smaU  figures  the  totals  for  the  five 
VL— 18 


divisions  given  in  the  last  column  of  the  table,  we  ^t 
itie  grand  total  of  810,105  persons  of  French  Canadian 
parentage  living  under  the  United  States  Flag.  But 
these  ^gures  only  represent  the  first  and  second  eenera* 
tions,  i.  e.  original  unmigrants  still  living,  azid  their 
immediate  cfesoendants.  In  this  connexion  the 
director  of  the  census  says:  "A  smaU  number  of  the 
persons  reported  as  of  foreign  birth,  are  themselves 
of  native  parentage,  so  that;  to  a  very  smaU  extent, 
'the  ntmiber  of  persons  of  foreign  birth  reported  at 
each  census  is  not  included  in  its  entirety  in  the  num- 
ber of  persons  reported  as  of  foreign  parentage.  The 
'  figures  are  sufficiently  comparable,  however,  to  show 
the  laige  body  of  population  which  must  be  added  to 
the  foreign  bom  element  itself  in  order  to  ascertain, 
even  approximately,  the  number  of  persons  of  foreign 
extraction  at  any  of  the  census  periods  confidderra. 
Moreover,  this  is  the  best  figure  that  can  be  ^ven  as 
expressing  the  element  of  our  population  which  is  of 
foreign  extraction,  as  the  census  inquiry  does  not  go 
beyond  the  immediate  parents  of  each  person  enu- 
merated, and  it  is  impracticable,  at  least  under  present 
conditions,  to  endeavor  to  determine  the  origin  of  the 
people  beyond  a  single  generation.'' 

It  is  obvious,  that  an  inquiry  which  does  not  go 
beyond  the  immediate  ancestors  of  each  person  enum- 
erated cannot  convev  an  exact  idea  of  the  real  number 
of  those  who  may  still  be  distinctly  classified  as  French 
AnouBricans.  even  thoucii  both  oi  their  parents  may 
have  been  bom  in  the  United  States.  And  when  it  is 
lemembered  that  the  French  Canadians  were  eariy 
settlers  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
that  they  were,  practically,  the  first  settlers  of  the 
State  of  Maine,  and  had  found  their  way  into  Vemont 
as  early  as  1830:  that  French  Canaaians  were  the 
pioneers  of  the  Western  States,  where  they  founded, 
or  assisted  in  foimding,  great  cities  like  Cnicago,  St. 
Louis,  St.  Paul,  Dubuque,  Milwaukee,  and  Detroit,  it 
is  not  difficult  to  understand  that  in  certain  parts  of 
the  countrv  at  least  three  generations  of  French 
Americans  nave  been  recorded  by  the  census  of  1900 
as  native  whites  of  native  parents.  How  far  short  of 
the  actual  number  of  Frencn  Americans  are  the  figures 
of  the  National  Census,  may  be  estimated  by  con- 
sidering the  local  enumerations  taken  in  the  New 
England  States  since  1900,  with  the  following  results: 

Maine 91,567 

New  Hampshire 84,011 

Vermont 58,217 

Massachusetts 366,879 

Bhode  Island 76,775 

Connecticut 46,083 

Total 723,532 

These  figures,  compared  with  the  toti»l  (508,362)  of 
those  given  in^the  Census  of  1900  for  the  same  six 
States,  show  an  excess  of  the  local  over  the  national 
enumeration  of  215,170  persons,  or  more  than  42.3 
per  cent^  for  New  £n^and  alone.    This  excess,  ex- 

flained  m  part  by  the  fact  that  the  census  inquiiy  of 
900  was  limited  to  only  two  generations,  is  also  at- 
tributable to  the  continuous  fiow  of  immi^o^tion  and 
in  greater  measure  to  the  large  birth-rate  which  is  still 
maintained  among  the  French  Americans,  it  having 
been  scientifically  established  that  the  French  Cana- 
dians— at  least  in  Canada — double  their  numbers  by 
natural  increase  every  twenty-six  years.  Taking 
into  consideration  the  mcrease  (42.3  per  cent)  shown 
by  the  enumerations  in  New  England  over  the  figures 
given  by  the  National  Census,  and  also  bearing  in 
mind  the  fact  that  the  figures  quoted  above  do  not 
include  the  French  from  Trance  (reported  as  being 
265,441  by  the  census  of  1900)  and  the  French-speak- 
ing Belgians,  scattered  throughout  other  States  than 
those  ot  New  England,  we  may  conclude  that  the 
French  Americans  m  the  United  States  to-day  number 


FBSNOH 


274 


FBENOH 


more  than  1,500,000,  of  whom  nearly  1,200,000  can  be 
classified  as  of  French  Canadian  extraction.  As  this 
immigration  of  French  Canadians  was  almost  exclu- 
sively an  immigration  of  Catholics,  we  are  led  to  in- 
Quire  what  provisions  were  made  for  Uiem  in  tiie 
aifferent  dioceses. 

The  French  Canadians  had  left  behind  them  in 
Canada  a  perfect  Catholic  organisation,  with  parishes 
flourishing  in  all  parts  of  the  province,  with  episcopal 
sees  in  Quebec,  Ontario,  and  the  West — an  organiza-* 
tion  comprising  to-dav  many  ecclesiastical  provinces 
with  archbishops,  bishops,  a  numerous  dei^,  both 
secular  and  regular,  as  well  as  educational  and  chari- 
table institutions  of  the  highest  order.  It  was  not  to 
be  expected  that  the  immigrants  should  find  in  their 
new  country  the  reHfldous  organization  they  had 
possessed  in  Canada.  Nevertheless,  thev  had  to  be 
provided  for,  and  it  became  a  serious  problem  for  the 
nierarchy,  of  New  Ensland  especially,  to  determine 
how  these  newcomers  snould  be  cared  for  s^nritually. 
The  question  of  language  stood  in  the  wav  from  the 
very  beginning.  The  French  Canadians,  though  will- 
ing to  TOCome  staunch  Americans,  did  not  know  the 
Enfdish  language,  and  even  when  they  had  learned 
it,  tney  still  preserved  a  strong  attachment  for  their 
mother  tongue.  That  this  problem  puzzled  the 
bishops  of  ^w  England,  is  shown  b^  the  time  taken 
for  its  solution,  and  by  the  fact  that  m  some  instances 
they  were  reluctant,  or  often  unable,  to  deal  with  the 
situation  in  the  only  proper  way,  which  was,  to  ^ve 
to  these  people  priests  of  their  own  tongue  and  nation- 
ality. £!ven  to-day  this  problem  is  not  adequately 
solved.  It  was  feared  at  tne  beginning,  as  it  is  feared 
now  in  some  quarters,  that  to  grant  to  the  French 
Canadian  immigrants  priests  of  their  own  tongue  and 
nationalit>r  womd  encourage  them  to  form  a  sort  of 
state  within  the  state,  thereby  causing  great  harm 
to  the  nation  as  a  whole.  Time  has  shown  the  fallacy 
of  that  argument.  The  patriotism  of  the  French 
American  element  is  undi8{)uted.  They  possess  the 
sterling  civic  qualities  desirable  and  necessary  to 
promote  the  best  interests  of  the  republic.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  French  Canadian  immigration  has 
created  no  new  state  in  the  state;  and  the  French 
Americans  have  willingly  learned  the  English  language 
while  remaining  as  closely  attached  as  ever  to  their 
mother  tongue,  in  which  they  see  the  best  safeguard  of 
their  faith. 

The  progress  accomplished  for  God  and  country 
through  the  oraanization  of  French  American  parishes 
all  over  New  England  is  the  conclusive  proof  of  their 
excellency  from  evenr  standpoint.  It  proves,  at 
the  same  time,  that  further  progress,  rehgious  and 
patriotic,  can  be  accomplished  by  pursuing  the  same 
policy.  At  first,  it  was  necessary  to  call  priests 
from  the  Province  of  Quebec.  That  policy,  inau- 
gurated in  the  Diocese  of  Burlington  in  1850,  by  the 
lamented  Bishop  de  Goesbriand,  has  proved  to  be  a 
blessing  wherever  it  has  been  carried  out.  These 
early  French  Canadian  missionaries,  of  whom  many 
are  still  living,  knew  their  people,  understood  their 
character  and  customs,  had  the  same  mentality  as 
their  flock,  and  easily  succeeded  in  organizing  flourish- 
ing parishes  entirely  devoted  to  the  Church.  As  early 
as  1890  Father  Hamon  notes  that  these  newcomers 
already  possessed  120  churches  and  chapels,  minis- 
tered to  by  Canadian  priests,  and  50  large  schools, 
affording  education  to  more  than  30,000  children. 
liCt  us  recall  a  few  dates  which  mark  the  beginning  of 
this  new  impulse  given  to  the  Catholic  Church  in  the 
United  States. 

The  first  French  American  parish  in  the  United 
States,  after  the  foundation  of  Detroit,  Michiram,  was 
that  of  St.  Joseph,  at  BurUn^n,  Vermont,  founded 
28  April,  1850,  with  the  Rev.  Joseph  Qu^villon  as  first 
pastor.  In  the  same  state,  the  parish  of  the  Nativity 
de  la  Sainte-Viei^,  at  Swanton,  was  organized  in 


1856,  and  that  of  St-Franpois-Xavier  at  Winooski,  in 
1868.  In  the  Diocese  of  Springfield,  Massachusetts, 
the  parish  of  Notre-Dame  du  Bon  Conseil,  at  Pitts- 
field,  was  organized  in  1867.  In  all,  22  parishes  were 
organized  by  French  Americans  from  that  date  to 
1890,  besides  15  parishes  of  mixed  population,  wherein 
the  French  Catholics  were  associated  with  their  En|^ 
lish-speaking  brethren.  In  the  Diocese  of  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  the  parish  of  StJacoues,  at  Manville, 
was  organized  in  1872,  that  of  the  Prteieux  Sang,  at 
Woonsocket,  in  1873,,  and  that  of  St-Charles,  at  Provi- 
dence, in  1878.  In  the  Diocese  of  Hartford,  Conn., 
the  parish  of  St-Laurent,  at  Meriden,  was  organized  in 
1880,  and  five  other  parishes  between  1880  and  1889. 
In  the  Diocese  of  Boston,  the  parish  of  St-Joseph,  at 
Lowell,  was  organized  in  1869,  and  that  of  Ste-Axme, 
at  Lawrence,  m  1873.  In  the  Diocese  of  Portland, 
Maine,  the  parish  of  St-Fran^ois  de  Sales,  at  Water- 
ville,  was  organized  in  1869,  that  of  St-Pierre,  at 
Lewiston,  in  1871,  that  of  St-Joseph,  at  Biddeford,  in 
1872,  and  that  of  St-Augustin,  at  Aucusta,  in  1888. 
In  the  Diocese  of  Manchester,  New  tiampshire,  the 
parishes  of  St-Augustin,  at  Manchester,  and  St-Louis, 
at  Nashua,  were  organized  in  1872.  Similar  results 
were  accomplished  in  the  Dioceses  of  Ogdensburg, 
Albany,  ana  Sjrracuse,  and  in  the  Western  States. 
The  accompanying  table  shows  the  actual  reUflious 
organization  of  the  French- American  Catiiolics  InNew 
England — ^their  clergy,  parishes,  etc. 

Religious  Organization  in  New  England 


Diocese 

Parishes 

Missions 

Secular 
Priests 

?ssr 

Bostbn 

20 
13 
38 
39 
30 
25 
21 
16 

2 

7 

5 

31 

40 

15 

1 

33 
14 
59 
48 
40 
38 
.42 
28 

31 

Hartford 

16 

Springfield 

Burlington 

Portland 

Manchester 

Providence 

Fall  River 

14 
11 
16 
17 
8 
17 

Totals 

202 

101 

302 

130 

To  complete  these  figures  for  the  United  States 
would  necessitate  a  study  of  all  the  dioceses,  as  there 
are  French  Americans  in  every  state  and  territory  ci 
the  Union;  a  few  statistics,  however,  of  Uie  priests  of 
French  extraction  in  the  principal  dioceses  will  help 
to  give  a  more  definite  idea  of  the  organization  as  a 
whole:  Baltimore  has  21;  Chicago,  62;  Albany,  19; 
St.  Paul,  14;  San  Francisco,  3;  New  York,  25;  Oregon, 
5;  Philadelphia,  3;  Dubuque,  7;  Milwaukee,  9;  New 
Orleans,  96;  Sprracuse,  5;  and  Ogdensburg,  63. 

Of  the  distinguished  clerg3rmen  whose  names  are 
associated  with  the  work  already  described,  the 
following  have  already  been  called  to  thdr  reward: 
Norbert  Blanchette,  first  Bishop  and  first  Archbishop 
pf  Oregon  City;  J.  B.  Lamy,  Archbishop  of  Santa  Fe, 
New  Mexico;  Monsignof  Maeloire  Blanchette,  Pro- 
thonotary  Apostolic,  of  Walla  Walla,  Washington; 
the  Rev.  P.  M.  Mignault,  of  Chambly,  Quebec,  who  in 
the  fifties  was  vicar-general  of  the  Diocese  of  Boston, 
with  the  special  mission  of  caring  for  the  spiritual 
needs  of  his  compatriots  in  the  United  States;  the 
Rev.  Joseph  Qu^villon,  of  Burlington,  Vermont; 
Monsignor  Brochu,  of  SouUibridge,  the  Rev.  J.  B. 
Primeau,  of  Worcester,  the  Rev.  L.  G.  Gaenier,  of 
Springfield,  and  the  Rev.  J.  B.  B^ard,  of  Fiul  River, 
Massachusetts;  the  Rev.  J.  Roch  Magnan,  of  Muske- 
gon. Michigan.  Mention  should  e^o  be  made  of  the 
Right  Rev.  Bishop  Michaud,  lately  deceased,  whose 
father  was  a  French  Acadian,  and  who  had  been  for 
many  years  at  the  head  of  the  Diocese  of  Burlington, 


ntSKOB 


276 


FBSNOH 


povlng  himself  a  worthy  sucoeBsor  to  Bishop  de  Goes- 
briand.  Among  the  living  there  are  scores  of  others 
who  have  been  true  pioneers  of  the  Faith,  and  to 
whom  is  due  great  creoit  for  having  so  well  organized 
a  new  and  loyal  membership  of  the  Church  in  the 
United  States.  Recently  one  of  their  number  has 
been  elevated  to  the  See  of  Manchester,  New  Hamp- 
shire, in  the  person  of  the  Right  Rev.  George  Albert 
Guertin,  consecrated  19  March,  1907. 

The  religious  orders  of  men  and  women  have  been 
worthjr  co-mbourers  with  the  priests  in  the  building-up 
of  parishes.  To  them  have  b«en  entnisted  the  educa- 
tion of  children  and  the  care  of  the  sick  and  orphans. 
This  mission  has  been  especially  well  fulfilled  in  the 
French  American  parishes,  where  the  convent  of  the 
sisters  and  the  school  of  the  brothers  are  the  necessary 
complements  of  the  church  itsdf .  One  does  not  go 
without  the  other,  and  as  a  rule  the  school  is  buSt 
before  the  church  and  is  us^  for  a  church  sJso.  The 
number  of  members  in  the  different  religious  commu- 
nities of  women  is  given  in  the  accompanying  table. 


Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts;  the  Pdies  Maristes 
in  Massachusetts. 

The  French  Americans  have  133  parochial  schools, 
in  which  54,983  children  receive  Christian  education. 

Cathouc  Parochial  Schooia  in  New  England 


Diooeae 

Total 
Schoola 

French 
Schools 

Total 
PupllB 

Pupils  in 
French 
Schools 

Boston 

76 
21 
21 
69 
36 
23 
26 
55 

15 
17 
14 
10 
19 
13 
14 
31 

48,192 

5,951 

9,300 

30,275 

12,800 

9,138 

16,000 

22,780 

7,263 
4,009 
6,171 
3,508 
8,833 
6,073 
7,414 
11,712 

Burlington 

Fall  River 

Hartford 

Manchester 

Portland 

Providence 

Springfield 

Totals 

327 

133 

154,436 

54,983 

Female  Reugious  in  New  England 

Total  in  All  In  Fir«nch 

Diocese  Communities  Communities 

Boston 1567 200 

Burlington 268 115 

FallRiver 322 254 

Hartford 1115 219 

Manchester 435 300 

Portland 482 355 

Providence 551 222 

Springfield 792 320 

Totals 5532 1985 

These  1985  women  are  distributed  in  30  different  or- 
ders, bearing  the  following  names:  Con^eation  de 
Notre-Dame  de  Montreal,  Filles  de  Mane  iFrance]), 
SoBurs  de  Ste-Croix  de  Montreal,  Soeurs  de  la  Provi- 
dence de  Montr^,  Soeurs  de  la  Presentation  de  Marie 
de  St-Hyacinthe,  Soeurs  de  Ste-Anne  de  Lachine, 
Scaurs  Crises  de  Montreal,  Soeurs  de  la  Merci,  Soeurs 
Crises  d'Ottawa,  Soeurs  de  TAssomption,  Soeurs  du 
Bon  Pasteur  de  Quebec,  Soeurs  Dominicaines,  Soeurs 
Franciscaines  Missionaires  de  Marie,  Soeurs  Crises  de 
St-Hyacinthe,  Soeurs  de  J^sus-Marie  de  Sillery,  Ur- 
sulines  des  Trois  Rividres,  Congregation  Notre-Dame 
(Villa  Maria),  Soeurs  de  la  Sainte  Union  des  Sacr^s- 
Coeurs,  Soeurs  du  Saint-Esprit,  Soeurs  du  Saintr- 
Roeaire,  Filles  de  la  Sagesse,  Petites  Soeurs  des 
Pauvres,  Soeurs  de  St-Joseph  (Le  Puy),  Soeurs  du 
Sacr6-Coeur.  Soeurs  de  St-Joeeph  (Chammry),  Soeurs 
Servantes  au  Coeur  Immacul^  de  Marie,  les  Fiddles 
Compagnes  de  J^sus,  Soeurs  du  Bon  Pasteur  (Ancers), 
Petites  Soeurs  Franciscaines  de  Marie  (Malbaie), 
Dames  de  Sion.  The  most  important  of  these  are: 
the  Soeurs  de  Ste-Croix,  with  18  convents  and  149 
members;  Soeurs  Crises,  with  17  convents  and  268 
members;  Soeurs  de  la  Presentation  de  Marie,  with  16 
convents  and  193  members;  Soeurs  ^e  J^sus-Marie, 
with  19  convents  and  171  members. 

There  are  a  few  communities  of  brothers:  Frdres  de 
la  Charite  de  St- Vincent  de  Paul,  27  members;  Frdres 
Maristes  d'Iberville.  47*  Frdres  de  St-Cabriel,  7; 
Frdres  des  Ecoles  Chrdtiennes,  7;  Frdres  du  SacrS- 
CoBur,  31 — making  a  total  of  119  members.  Be- 
sides these  orders  entirel3r  devoted  to  education,  the 
regular  cler^  has  been  raven  charge  of  a  number  of 
parishes  which  stand  to-day  among  the  most  numer- 
ous and  flourishing.  For  instance,  the  Dominican 
Order  has  two  parishes.  Ste-Anne,  at  Fall  River, 
Massachusetts,  and  St-Pierre,  at  Lewiston,  Maine. 
Tlie  Oblates  are  established  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  and 
PlattriHnKf  N.  Y.;  the  Pdres  de  la  Salette,  in  Connec- 
ticut and  llassachusetts;  the  P^retdu  SacrM)Geury  in 


To  these  must  be  added  the  secondary  (high-school 
and  imiversitv  academic  courses)  college  established 
by  the  Pdres  de  TAssomption  from  France,  at  Worces- 
ter, Massachusetts,  in  1904,  and  14  small  academies, 
commercial  colleges,  and  boarding  schools  in  which 
there  are  about  1000  pupils  of  both  sexes.  In  con- 
nexion with  the  subject  or  higher  education,  it  may  be 
well  to  remark  that  about  3500  French  Amencan 
children  attend  annually  the  commercial  and  second- 
ary colleges  in  different  cities  of  Canada.  French 
reugious  orders,  both  of  women  and  men,  also  have 
chskirge  of  2618  cnphans  in  New  England.  French  nuns 
have  charge  of  1865  sick  and  aged  adults,  wayward 
women,  and  working  girls. 

Besides  their  religious  work,  vast  and  praiseworthy 
as  it  is,  the  French  Canadian  immigrants  have  also 
displayed  industry  and  activity  in  ouer  walla  of  life, 
ana  in  their  closer  relations  with  their  fellow-citisens 
they  have  shown  Qualities  and  traits  found  only  in  the 
best  of  citizens,  in  other  words  they  have  stood  well 
up  to  the  standard  in  the  body  politic  and  in  many 
ways  have  exercised  over  their  surroundings  an  in- 
fluence for  the  general  good  of  the  community  such  as 
to  fully  justify,  at  least  so  far  as  it  refers  to  tnem,  the 
statement  made  by  Vice-President  Fairbanks,  that  in 
the  American  Nation  ''flows  the  richest  bloiod  that 
courses  in  the  veins  of  all  the  peoples  in  all  quarters  of 
the  globe. ' '  In  fifty  years,  they  nave  built  up  a  press 
that  is  not  surpassea,  from  the  Catholic  point  of  view, 
by  that  of  any  other  ^up  of  immigrants  in  the  Unitea 
States.  That  press  is  composed  to-day  of  seven 
daQies— "LTnd!6pendant".  of  Fall  River,  Mass.; 
"L'Opinion  Publique",  of  Worcester,  Mass.;  "L'E- 
toile'^  of  Lowell,  Mass. :  "  La  Tribune",  of  Woon- 
socket,  R.  I. ; "  L'Avenir  National",  and  "  Le  Reveil", 
of  Manchester,  N.  H. ;  '^  L'Echo  de  la  Presse",  of  New 
Bedford,  Mass.;  two  papers  issued  every  other  day 
— "  Le  Messaeer",  of  Lewiston,  Maine ;  "  L'impartial  , 
of  Nashua,  N.  H.;  one  semi-weekly  "Le  Jean-Bap- 
tiste",  of  Pawtucket,  R.  I.;  and  the  fifteen  weeklies 
— "LlJnion",  of  Woonsocket,  R.  I.,  ofiScial  organ  of 
LlJnion  St-Jean-Baptiste  d'Am^rioue;  "Le  Canado- 
Am^ricain",  of  Manchester,  N.  H.,  oflScial  organ 
of  L'Association  Canado-Am^ricaine;  "La  Justice", 
of  Biddeford,  Maine ;  "  La  Justice",  of  Central  Falls, 
R.  I.:  "La  Justice",  of  Holyoke,  Mass.;  "L'Esta- 
fette'%  of  Marlboro,  Mass.;  "Le  Progrts",  of 
Lawrence,  Mass.;  "Le  Courrier",  of  Lawrence, 
Mass.;  "Le  Courrier  de  Salem",  of  Salem,  Mass.; 
"L'Echo  de  I'Ouest"^  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.;  "Le 
Courrier  Franco- Am^ncain",  of  Chicago,  111.;  "L'ln- 
d^pendant"  (weekly  edition)^  of  Fall  River,  Mass.; 
''Llnd^pendant",  of  fltchburg.  Mass.;  ^LePro- 
fprds",  of  Woonsocket^  R.  I^  and  ''Le  Citoyen".  of 


276  FRENCH 

• 

Elaverhill,  Man.  These  newBpai>en  are  thorou^y  ance,  and,  without  exception,  they  provide  for  nek 
Catholic  in  spirit,  as  well  as  sincerely  American,  benefits.  Millions  of  doliars  have  beeoi  distributed  by 
Their  editors  and  publishers  met  in  convention,  at  them  to  the  widows  and  orphans  of  their  members 
Woonsocket,  R.  I.,  on  25  September,  1906,  and  and  to  their  sick  fellow-members.  The  Soci^t^  des 
organized  the  Association  des  Joumalistes  Franco-  Artisans  Canadiens-Fran^ais,  though  a  Canadian 
Amdricains  de  la  Nouvelle  Angleterre.  At  that  meet-  Society,  and  the  Soci^t^  L'Assomption,  a  society  of 
ing  they  adopted  resolutions  asserting  their  loyalty  French  Acadians  drawing  the  greater  part  of  its 
to  the  republic,  and  advising  the  French  Americans  membership  from  the  maritime  provinces,  also  have 
to  show  Uiemselves  true  and  smcere  American  citizens,  members  in  the  United  States  and  are  therefore  in- 
to promote  naturalization,  to  preserve  their  mother  diided  in  the  accompanying  table,  which  shows  the 
tongue^  to  learn  the  En^ish  language,  to  maintain  number  of  councils  or  courts  and  the  membership  of 
parochial  schools,  wherem  both  languages  should  be  the  four  national  societies  in  New  England, 
tau^t  on  an  equal  footing,  and  to  ask  forpriests  of  ....— .i...^—^— ^_^._^...,^-^.-....-...^.^ 
their  own  nationalitv  to  be  their  pastors.  The  resolu-  Membership  of  National  Societies 
tions  also  requested  the  Holy  See  to  appoint,  when  Councils  Mem* 
feasible  and  proper,  bishops  of  their  nationality,  ^^  .  q^  ,  «  x-  x  j»a  ^  •  ^^S^^tnViii 
familiar  with  both  the  Engliih  and  French  languagi  L'Umpn  St-Jean-Baptiste  d'Am^nque  255  19,576 
in  all  dioceses  in  which  the  French  AmericaS  ron^  Association  Canjido-Am^ncame  . .  159  11,168 
stitute  the  majority  of  the  Catholic  population.  The  Ordre  des  Chevaliers  de  Jacques  Cartier  4  897 
first  French  newspaper  to  appear  in  Sie  United  States  Ordre  des  ForwtiersFranco-Am^ncains      40      8,600 

was  "Le  Courier  de  Boston**,  which  was  published    Artisans  Canadiens-Fran9ais 100    16,000 

weekly  during  a  period  of  six  months  in  1789,  the  firat    L  Assomption 17      1,500 

number  appearing  on  23  Aprfl.  and  the  last  on  16 

October.  The  editor  and  puolisner  was  Paul  Joseph  These  societies  are  all  Catholic,  and  in  1905  the 
Gu^rard  de  NancrMe,  later  a  bookseller  and  stationer  Union  St-Jean-Baptiste  d'Am^rique  and  L'Association 
at  Boston,  and  instructor  in  Frendi  at  Harvard  Uni-  Canado-Amdricaine  were  instrumental  in  organizing 
versity  from  1787  to  1800.  The  next  French  Ameri-  the  Soci^t^  Franco- Am^ricaine  du  Denier  de  St- 
can  newspaper  was  published  in  1825,  at  Detroit,  imder  Pierre,  whose  sole  object  is  to  collect  funds  for  the 
thetitleof  "La  Gazette  Franyaise",  which  issued  only  Holy  See.  The  Sociit^  Historique  Franco- Am^rir 
four  numbers.  In  1817.  the  Detroit  Gazette  pub-  caine,  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of 
lished  a  French  column  auring  four  months  and  then  Massachusetts,  was  organized  at  Boston  in  1899,  "for 
abandoned  the  venture.  The  second  French  Ameri-  the  purpose  of  encouraging  the  careful  and  systema- 
can  newspaper  in  New  En^and  was  "  Le  Patriote",  ticaf  study  of  the  history  of  the  United  States,  and 
publu^ed  at  St.  Albans,  Vermont,  in  1839.  Since  especially  to  bring  forth  in  its  true  lieht  the  exact  part 
that  time  neariy  200  newspapers  published  in  the  taken  by  the  French  race  in  the  evolution  and  forma- 
French  language  have  app^ired  and  disappeared,  tion  of  the  American  people".  With  this  end  in  view 
leaving  only  those  mentioned  above.  this  society  has  met  regulariy  twice  a  year  since  its 
French  American  activity,  whfle  effectively  applied  organization.  Noted  American  historians  and  writers, 
to  the  enterprises  of  religion,  education,  and  the  press,  as  well  as  several  from  France  and  Canada,  have  de- 
has  not  neglected  provident  or«Lnizatioiis.  The  first  livered  before  it  addresses  which  have  contributed  in 
French  institution  of  this  kind  was  the  Soci^t^  de  no  slight  measure  to  enrich  the  store  of  French  Ameri- 
Jaoaues  Cartier,  founded  in  St.  Albans,  Vermont,  in  can  historical  literature.  Another  organization  which 
1848,  while  the  Soci^t^St-Jean-Baptiste  of  New  York,  seems  destined  to  play  an  important  r61e,  at  least 
organized  in  1850,  is  still  in  existence.  In  1868  they  among  the  French  Americans  of  to-morrow,  is  the 
had  17  benevolent  societies,  and  since  then  they  have  Association  Catholique  de  la  Jeunesse  Franoo-Am^ri- 
organized  more  than  400  others,  of  which  about  142  caine,  which  was  formed  at  Baltimore,  Maryland,  4 
are  still  in  existence.  Moreover  they  have  established  January,  1908,  by' twenty- two  youn^  French  Ameri- 
federations,  which  have  more  than  four  hundred  and  cans  who  were  students  in  various  universities  of  that 
fifty  councils  or  branches,  wiUi  thousands  of  members,  city.  This  organization  aims  first  of  all  to  form  true 
To  these  organizations  are  due,  in  a  great  measure,  sons  of  the  Catholic  Churoh  and  useful  citizens  of  the 
the  existence  and  prosperity  of  the  most  of  the  par-  American  Republic.  Piety,  study,  and  action  consti- 
ishes.  Many  of  them  nave  inserted  in  their  by-laws  tute  its  threefold  motto.  Its  first  consress,  held  at 
articles  recoinmending  naturalization.  To  obtain  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  23  and  24  August,  1908, 
membership  in  any  one  of  them  the  applicant  must,  was  attended  by  delegates  from  circles  formed  in 
in  all  cases,  be  of  French  origin  and  a  practising  different  New  En^and  localities. 
Catholic.  The  local  societies  which  still  survive  are  Besides  the  admirable  work  they  have  accomplished 
distributed  among  the  different  states  as  follows:  by  means  of  their  parishes,  press,  and  societies,  and  in 
Massachusetts,  62 ;  Vermont,  18 ;  New  Hampshire,  25;  order  to  render  their  efforts  more  effective,  the  French 
Maine,  12;  Rhode  Island,  11;  Connecticut  14 — mak-  Americans  have  held  at  different  times  conventions' 
ing  a  total  of  142.  It  was  in  1900  that,  in  response  to  called  for  various  purposes.  The  first  of  these  gather- 
the  acknowledged  need  of  a  central  organization  ings,  destined  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  mutual 
embracing  all  the  groups  of  the  French  race  in  the  benefit  societies  then  existing,  and  held  under  their 
United  States,  the  Union  St-Jean-Baptiste  d'Am^r-  auspices,  took  place  at  New  York  City,  ia  1865. 
ique  was  organized,  with  headquarters  m  Woonsocket,  Thereafter  similar  conventions  were  held  annually, 
R.  I.,  through  the  federation  of  a  considerable  number  the  year  1877  excepted,  until  1881,  as  follows:  1865, 
of  the  local  societies.  This  move  has  proved  to  be  a  New  York;  1869,  Detroit;  1873,  Biddeford,  Maine; 
veiy  wise  one,  as  is  shown  by  the  rapid  growth  of  the  1866,  New  York;  1870,  St.  Albans,  Vermont;  1874, 
new  society,  which  has  enrolled  over  19.500  members  New  York;  1867,  Troy;  1871,  Worcester,  Mass.;  1875, 
in  eight  years.  The  Association  Canado-Am^ricaine  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y.;  1868,  Springfield,  Mass.;  1872, 
of  Manchester,  New  Hampshire,  established  in  1896,  Chicago,  111.;  1876,  Holyoke,  Mass.;  1878,  Troy, 
has  a  membership  of  over  11,000  and  is  working  along  N.  Y.;  1879,  Boston,  Mass.;  1880,  Northampton, 
the  same  reliffious  and  patriotic  lines.  In  1906,  anew  Mass.;  1881,  Lawrence,  Mass.  Since  1880  there  have 
society,  the  Ordre  des  Forestiers  Franco-Am^ricains,  been  six  general  conventions  of  French  Americans,  to 
was  formed  by  the  secession  of  a  few  thousand  mem-  which  all  the  groups  of  this  element,  as  well  as  all  their 
hers  from  the  Foresters  of  America,  and  it  now  com-  societies,  were  invited  to  send  delegates.  These  na- 
prises  40  courts.  All  the  French  American  societies,  tional  gatherinizs  took  place  as  follows:  1880,  Spring- 
with  the  exception  of  the  Forestiers,  give  life  insur-  field,  Mass.;  1882,  Cohoes,  N.  Y.;  1884,  Troy;  1886, 


FBENOH 


277 


FBXPPB. 


Rutland,  Vennont;  1888,  Nashua,  N.  H.;  1893,  Chi- 
eago,  m.  In  October,  1901',  delegates  (to  the  number 
of  742)  of  the  various  groups  and  societies  of  French 
Americans  in  New  England  and  the  State  of  New 
York  met  in  a  "Confess"  at  Springfield,  Mass.  The 
four  great  subjects  ofdeliberation  were  naturalization, 
benevolent  societies,  education,  and  the  religious 
situation,  and  the  spirit  of  the  numerous  and  forcible 
addresses  made  on  these  heads  is  fittingly  and  admir- 
ably reflected  in  the  resolutions.  This  congress,  un- 
doubtedly the  most  successful  gathering  of  French 
Americans  held  Up  to  that  time,  appointed  a  perma- 
nent commission  consisting  of  the  president  of  the 
congress  and  two  delegates  from  each  state  repre- 
sented, authorizing  it  to  take  all  necessary  measures 
for  putting  the  resolutions  of  the  congress  into  effect, 
and  giving  it  the  power  to  call  another  congress,  local 
or  general,  according  to  its  discretion. 

Besides  these  general  conventions,  others  have  been 
held  at  different  times  and  places  for  the  purpose  of 
considering  a  particular  question  or  the  interests  of  the 
French  Amencans  of  a  particular  state  or  diocese. 
For  instance,  the  French  Americans  of  Connecticut 
have  held' eighteen  conventions  in  the  last  twenty- 
three  years.  Political  organizations  have  also  flour- 
ished among  dtisens  of  l^nch  Canadian  origin,  and 
naturalization  clubs  can  be  found  in  every  city,  town, 
or  village  where  they  are  siifl^cient  in  number  to  main- 
tain such  institutions.  In  June,  1906,  there  was  or- 
«uiized  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts  the  Club 
K6pubUcain  Franco-Am^ricain,  with  headquarters  at 
Boston,  at  the  first  banquet  of  which,  in  April,  1907, 
Hon.  Charles  J.  Bonaparte,  a  member  of  the  lloosevelt 
Cabinet,  was  the  guest  of  honour.  The  French  Ameri- 
cans, in  1890,  hM  13  representatives  in  the  Legisla- 
tures of  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Con- 
necticut, and  New  Hampshire,  besides  niunerous 
public  servants  in  the  city  councils  and  the  municipal 
administrations;  in  1907  they  elected  senators  in 
Maine,  Massachusetts,  and  Rhode  Island;  their  repre- 
sentatives in  New  England  niunbered,  in  1907,  as 
follows: — 

Maine 5  Representatives  2  Senators 

Massachusetts...  6  a  ^  « 

New  Hampshire..  18  "  " 

Connecticut 2  *'  " 

Rhode  Island....  4  "  2  " 

— ^a  total  of  5  Senators  and  35  Representatives.  In 
many  instances  their  candidates  for  high  political 
honours  have  been  successful  at  the  polls,  ^ch  has 
been  the  case  with  the  Hon.  Pierre  Broussard,  Con- 
gressman from  Louisiana;  the  Hon.  Aram  J.  Pothier, 
of  Woonsocket,  R.  I.,  elected  governor  of  his  state  in 
November,  1908,  after  having  been  its  lieutenant- 
eovemor  and  mayor  of  his  city;  the  Hon.  Ad^lard 
Archambault,  also  of  Woonsocket,  and  who  has  like- 
wise filled  the  offices  of  lieutenant-governor  and 
mayor;  Judge  Joseph  A.  Breaux,  of  Louisiana; 
Pierre  Bonvouloir,  of  Holyoke,  Mass.,  T^hose  service  as 
city  treasurer  covers  a  period  of  fifteen  consecutive 
years;  Hiu;d  A.  Dubuoue,  of  Fall  River,  Mass.,  ex- 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature,  and  city 
solicitor;  Alex.  L.  Granger,  of  KazDcakee,  111.,  district 
attorney;  Aim^  E.  Boisvert,  of  Manchester,  N.  H., 
district  attorney;  and  Arthur  S.  Hogue,  of  Plattsburg, 
N.  Y.,  also  district  attorney.    Studying  an  earlier 

Esriod,  we  find  the  names  of  Pierre  M6nard,  first 
ieutenant-Govemor  of  Illinois;  the  Rev.  Gabriel 
Richard,  second  Congressman  from  Michigan  (the 
only  Catholic  priest  who  ever  sat  in  Congress),  and 
Louis  Vital  Bougy,  United  States  Senator  from  Wis- 
consin. At  the  present  time,  prominent  among  those 
who  serve  the  country  abroad  are  the  following  French 
Americans:  Arthur  M.  BeauprS  (Illinois),  Envoy  Ex- 
traordinary and  Minister  Pleiupotentiary  to  the  Neth- 
eilands;   Alphonse  Oaulin  (luiode  Island),  Consul- 


General  at  Marseilles,  France;  Eug&ne  L.  Belisle 
(Massachusetts),  Consul  at  Limoges,  France;  Pierre 
P.  Demers  TNew  Hampshire),  Consul  at  Bahia,  Brazil; 
Jos^h  M.  Authier  (Rhode  Island),  Consul  at  Guade- 
loupe, West  Indies. 

In  civil  life,  belonging  to  the  generation  departed 
for  a  better  worid,  though  their  names  are  still  present 
to  the  memory  of  their  fellow-citizens  and  compatri- 
ots, were  FercUnand  Gagnon,  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  the 
father  of  French  American  journalism;  Dr.  L.  J.  Mar- 
tel,  of  Lewiston,  Maine,  his  worthy  associate  in  the 
advancement  of  the  French  American  elementin  the 
New  En^and  States;  Major  Edmond  Mallet,  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  recomized  as  an  authoritv  upon  the 
historv  of  the  North-West,  and  whose  library  (pre- 
served intact  by  L'Union  St-Jean-Baptiste  d'Am^r- 
ique)  is  the  largest  and  most  complete  collection  of 
documents  relating  to  the  French  Americans  ever 
gathered;  Fr^^ric  Houde  and  Antoine  MouBette, 
pioneer  journalists;  Judge  Joseph  LeBoeuf,  of  Co- 
noes,  N.  Y.;  Pierre  F.  Peloquin,  of  Fall  River,  Mass., 
and  a  score  of  others  who  for  years  had  been  foremost 
among^  their  compatriots  as  champions  of  their  rights, 
both  civil  and  reugious. 

To  sum  up,  the  record  of  the  French  Americans  i^ 
their  new  country  has  been  such  that  prominent  men 
of  native  origin,  writers  and  politicians  of  note,  have 
sung  their  praise  on  more  than  one  occasion.  In  this 
respect,  one  will  readily  remember  the  homsjre  paid 
them  upon  different  occasions  by  the  late  Senator 
Hoar,  of  Massachusetts,  as  well  as  the  marks  of  high 
esteem  shown  them  by  governors  and  members  of  Con- 
mss.  As  recently  as  20  Mareh,  1908,  Senator  Henrjr 
Cabot  Lodge,  of  Massachusetts,  speaking  on  ''Imim- 
gration"  before  the  Boston  City  Club,  made  the  fol- 
lowing statement:  ''Later  than  anjr  of  these  (move- 
ments of  immigration)  was  the  immigration  of  French 
Canadians,  but  which  has  assumed  large  proportions, 
and  has  become  a  strong  and  most  valuable  element 
of  our  population.  But  the  French  of  Canada  scarcely 
come  within  the  subject  we  are  considering,  because 
they  are  hardly  to  be  classed  as  immigrants  in  the 
accepted  sense.  They  represent  one  of  the  oldest 
settlements  on  this  continent.  They  have  been,  in 
the  broad  sense,  Americans  for  generations,  and  their 
coming  to  the  United  States,  is  merely  a  movement 
of  Americans  across  an  imaanary  line,  from  one  part 
of  America  to  another."  In  truth,  the  sentiment  of 
hostility  and  suspicion,  which  rebuked  the  French 
Americans  at  their  arrival  in  the  republic,  has  sub- 
sided before  their  splendid  conduct  and  magnificent 
spirit,  and  is  replaced  to-day  by  that  tribute  of  re- 
spHBct  which  mankind  acknowled^  as  due,  and  never 
fails  to  ^rant,  to  men  of  talent,  industry,  generosity, 
and  patriotism. 

J.  L.  K.  Lafiamme. 

David  E.  Lavignb. 

J.  Arthur  Favreau. 

French  Indo-Ohlna.    See  Indo-China,  French. 

Ftench  Bevolution.    See  France;  Revolution. 

Ftappel,  CHARLBB-EBaLB,  b.  at  Ober-Ehnheim, 
Alsace,  1  June,  1827;  d.  at  Paris,  22  Dec.,  1891.  He 
was  Bishop  of  Angers,  France;  and  deputy  from 
Finistdre.  He  began  his  studies  at  a  school  in  this 
little  town;  and  at  seventeen  he  had  received  his 
baccalaureate  degree,  and  entered  thp  seminary  of 
Strasbung,  where  ne  received  the  subdiaconate  at  the 
hands  ot  M^  Roess  in  1848,  and  wss  at  once  ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  history.  Subsequent  to  ms 
ordination  to  the  priesthood  in  1849,  he  took  a  note- 
worthy part  in  the  discussions  of  Boimetty  and  Maret 
on  the  subject  of  traditionalism.  He  paissed  a  bril- 
liant examination  which  secured  for  him  the  decree  of 
doctor  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  after  a  competitive  ex- 
amination he  was  named  chaplain  of  the  chureh  of 
Ste-Qenevidve  at  Paris.    Here  ne  delivered  a  course  of 


FBiqnDiT                      278  ntmumr 

nona  on  the  "Divioitr  of  JesUB  Christ  "wUchhAve  work  on  the  French  Rerdution  (Pub.  1^80)^  wnd 

je  been  published  in  tMM>k  form.    He  conducted  the  "Boesuet  et  I'floquenoe  sacrio  au  XVII*^  atele" 

Advent  and  Lenten  exercises  at  the  Madeleine  and  (Paris,  1894). 

afterwMds  at  the  churches  of  St-Roch,  Ste-ClotUde,  _^cxBa,Mer.  Fnvpii (P'i^S92y.Jo^.Lmi 

St^Louis  d'Antin,  at    Notre-Dsm^e-Lorette,  an<(  ^X.^^'/lV.Si^'S 'BSSS^M^'ifaM,.  «.-™ 

Louis  Lalandb. 

1  specifyinf  how 

umcate,    Christ 

rink  HiB  Blood, 

•uiDuu  XXX  uiviLcu  tutu  IV  ^li'^tvi'ii  ^nc  ajcuLcti  act-  vjiu  woiuo  vi,  that  if  ws  do  iiot  do  so,  we  shall  not 

IS  at  the  Tuileries,  and  these  diacouraes  have  been  have  life  in  ua  (John,  vi,  etc.).     The  fact,  however, 

published  in  a  volume  entitled  "  La  Vie  Chr^tienne  ".  that  His  Body  and  Blood  were  to  be  received  under 

It  was  about  this  time  that  Kenan's  "  Vie  de  J£su^"  the  appearanoes  of  bread  and  wine,  the  ordinary  daily 

provoked  such  a  storm  of  controversy.     Mgr.  Freppel  food  and  drink  of  His  hearers,  would  point  to  ths 

published  a  reply  to  the  work,  his  "Examen  criti()ue  frequent  and  even  daily  reception  of  Uie  Sacrament. 

de  la  Vie  de  Jfsus  de  M.  Benan"  (Paris,  1863),  which  The  manna,  too.  with  which  He  compared  "the  bread 

was  pei;hapB   the  which  He  woula  give",  was  daily  partaken  of  by  the 

best  refutation  of  Israelites.    Moreover,  though  the  petition  "^ve  us 

the    theories    ex-  this  day  our  daily  bread"  does  not  primarily  refer  to 

Kunded    by  the  the  Eucharist,  nevertheless  it  coula  not  fail  to  lead 

ench  free-think-  men  to  believe  that  their  eoula,  as  well  as  their  bodies, 

er.    Pius  IX,  who  stood  in  need  of  daily  nourishment.    In  this  article 

was  then  making  we  shall  deal  with  (1}  the  history  of  the  frequency  of 

preparations      for  Holy  Communion,   (II)  the  present  practice  as  en- 

the  Council  of  the  joined  by  Pius  X. 

Vatican,  sum-  I.  Hiotort. — In  the  early  Church  at  Jerusalem  the 

moaed  the  AbbS  faithful  received  every  day  {Acts,  ii,  46),    later  on, 

Freppel  to  Rome  however,  we  read  that  St.  Paul  remained  at  Troas  for 

to  assist  in  the  seven  days,  and  it  was  only  "on  the  first  day  of  the 

work   of   drawing  iveek"  that  the  faithful  "assembled  to  break  bread" 

up   the   tehmnala  (Acta,  xx,  6-11 ;  ef.  I  Cor.,  xvi,  2).    According  to  the 

(arafta  of  decrees).  "Didache"  the  breakii^  of  bread  tookplaoe  on  "the 

The     pope    thus  Lord's  day"  (ntrd  npiaiV,  c.  ziv).     Pliny  says  that 

showed  his  appre-  the  Christians  assembled  "on  a  fixed  day"  (£p.  x): 

elation   of    Frep-  and  St.  Justin,  "on  the  day  called  Sunday"  (rp  rav 

pel's  learning  and  i}J»»  f^tt/Urji  iiiUfif,   Apol.,   I.  Ixvii,  3,  7).     It  is  in 

accomplishments.  'Tertullian  that  we  first  read  of  the  lituiOT'  being 

Ckabuw-Ehils  FaarrsL             *"''    appointed  celebrated  on  any  other  day  besides  Sunday  (D«Orat., 

him  to  the  Bishop-  c.  xix;  De  Corona,  c.  iii).     Daily  reception  is  men- 

ric  of  Angers,  rendered  vacant  by  the  death  of  Mgr.  tioned  by  St.  Cyprian  (De  Orat.  Domin.,  c.  xviii  in 

AngelMurt.    He  received  the  episcopal  consecration  at  P.  L.,  IV,  531);  St.  Jerome  (Ep.  ad  Damasum);  St. 

Rome,  18  April,  1870.    Later  there  was  shown  a  dis-  John  Chirsostom  (Horn.,  iii  in  Eph.) ;  St.  Ambrose  (in 

position  to  elevate  him  to  the  metropolitan  See  of  Ps.  cxviii,  viii,  26,  28  in  P.  L.,  XV,  1461,  1462);  and 

Chamb£ry;  but  he  declined  with  the  same  modesty  the  author  of  the  "De  Saci^mentis     (V,  iv,  25;  P.  L., 

which,  in  1885,  caused  him  to  implore  thoee,  who,  witJb  XVI,  452). 

H.  Jules  Ferry,  desired  his  elevation  to  the  digmty  of  It  shoidd  be  not«d  that  in  the  eai4y  Church  and  in 

the  eardinalate,  to  discontinue  their  efforts  on  his  be-  the  patristic  agM,  the  faithful  communicated,  or  at 

half.    Upon  his  return  from  Rome  he  proved  himself,  any  rate  were  expected  to  communicate,  as  often  as 

by  his  defence  of  his  country,  as  good  a  patriot  as  at  the  Holy  Eucharist  was  celebrated  (St.  John  Chrysos- 

tne  council  he  had  shown  himself  an  able  theologian,  tom,  loc.  cit.j  Apostolic  Canons,  X;  St.  Gregory  the 

In  1871,  heaccepted  the  candidature  for  one  of  the  Great,  Dial. II,  23).  They  received  even  oftener,  since  it 

electoral  divisions  of  Paris.     He  was  defeated  becauee  was  the  custom  to  carry  away  the  Sacred  Elements  and 

a  the  ill  will  which  the  Uberals  had  borne  him  since  the  communicate  at  home  (St.  Justin,  loc.  cit. ;  Tertullian, 

council,  at  which,  according  to  them,  he  had  shown  "AdUxorem",  II,  v;  Euseb.,  "Hist.  EccL",  VI,  xliv). 

himself  too  ultramontane.     In  1880,  the  electors  of  This  was  done  especially  hy  hermits,  by  dwellers  in 

Finist^ie  asked  him  to  act  as  their  representative;  he  monasteries  without  priests,  and  by  those  who  lived  at 

was  elected  by  a  large  majority  to  this  position  of  a  distance  from  any  church.    On  tiie  other  hand,  we 

trust.     His  first  speecn  in  the  French  Chamber  was  a  find  that  practice  fell  far  short  of  precept,  and  that  the 

vigorous  protest  against  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  faithful  were  frequently  rebuked  for  so  seldom  leceiv- 

For  eleven  years  the  bishop-deputy  ^fvlque  dtpuU)  ing  the  Holy  Communion   (see  especi^y  St.  John 

was  the  meet  attentively-he^  orator  in  theChamber,  Q)rysostom,loc.  cit.,  and  St.  Ambrose,  loc.  cit.).    St, 

treating  with  equal  authority  the  most  diverse  sub-  Augustine  sums  up  the  matter  thus:  "Some  receive 

ieots,  and  such  as  would  seem  farthest  removed  from  the  Body  and  Blood  of  the  Lord  everyday;  others  on 

Iiii  <»diiiary  studies.     While  he  did  not  brin^  about  certain  aays;  in  some  places  there  is  no  day  on  which 

the  tiiumpli  of  justioe  to  the  extent  he  deeired,  he  the  Sacrifice  is  not  offered;  in  others  on  Saturday  and 

defended  It  nobly  though  running  violently  counter  to  Sunday  only;  in  others  on  Sunday  alone  (Ep.  liv  in 

the  prejudices  of  that  assembly.     He  won  even  the  P.  L.,  XX?aiI,  200  sgo.).     Whether  it  was  advisable 

Mteem  of  his  enemies,  and  M.  Floquet  was  one  day  for  the  faithful,  especially  those  living  in  matrimony, 

aUe  to  re-echo  the  pkudit«  not  only  of  the  Chamber  to  receive  daily,  was  a  question  od  which  the  Fathers 

butof  thewholeofFrance.   His"(Buvreapo]£mique8"  were  not  agreed.    St.  Jerome  is  aware  of  this  custom 

ftnd  his  "Oratoires"  have  been  collected  m  seventeen  at  Rome,  but  he  savs:  "Oi  this  I  neither  approve  nor 

volumes    (Paris,    1869-38).    Almost   all  -the   great  disapprove;  let  eacn  abound  in  his  own  sense"  (^. 

nligiouSj  political,  and  social  questions  which  engaged  xlviii  in  P.  L.,  XXII,  505-6;  Ep.  Ixxiin  P.  L.,  XXn, 

men's  minds  at  that  time  are  here  treated.     Amongst  672).     St.  Augustine  discusses  the  question  at  length, 

bit  ounierous  other  writing  shoul4  be  mentioned  his  and  conies  to  the  oonduaioD,  that  toera  is  muidi  to  be 


VRiQumr 


279 


FRiQumr 


said  on  both  sides  (Ep.  liv  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII,  200 
sqq.)*  Good  Christians  still  communicated  once  a 
week,  down  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  but  after  the 
brc»k-up  of  his  empire  this  custom  came  to  an  end. 
St.  Bede  bears  witness  to  the  Roman  practice  of  com- 
municating on  Sundays  and  on  the  feasts  of  the 
Apostles  and  Mar^rrs,  and  laments  the  rarity  of  recep- 
tion in  England  (£^.  ad  E^b.  m  P.  L..  XCI V,  665). 

Strange  to  say,  it  was  m  the  Middle  Ages,  ''the 
Ages  of  Faith",  that  Communion  was  less  frequent 
than  at  any  o^er  period  of  the  Church's  history. 
The  Fourth  Lateran  Coimcil  compelled  the  faithfm,' 
under  pain  of  excommunication,  to  receive  at  least 
once  a  vear  (c.  Omnis  utriusque  sexus).  The  Poor 
Clares,  by  rule,  communicated  six  times  a  vear;  the 
Dominicanesses,  fifteen  times;  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Dominic,  four  times.  Even  saints  received  rarely: 
St.  Louis  six  times  a  year,  St.  Elizabeth  only  three 
times.  The  teaching^  of  the  great  theologians,  how- 
ever, was  all  on  the  side  of  frequent,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent daily,  Commimion  [Peter  Lombard,  IV  Sent., 
dist.  xii,  n.  8;  St.  Thomas,  Summa  TheoL,  III,  (^, 
Ixxx,  a.  10;  St.  Bonaventure,  In  IV  Sent^  dist.  xii, 
punct.  ii.  a.  2,  q.  2;  see  Dalgaims,  "The  Holy  Com- 
munion" (Dublm)  part  III,  chap.  i].  Various  re- 
formers, Tauler,  St.  Catherine  oi  Siena,  St.  Vincent 
Ferrer,  and  Savonarola,  advocated,  and  in  many 
instances  brought  about,  a  return  to  frequent  re- 
ception. The  t)ouncil  of  Trent  expressed  a  wi^ 
''tnat  at  each  Mass  the  faithful  who  are  present, 
should  communicate"  (Sess.  XXII,  chap.  vi).  Ana 
the  Catechism  of  the  council  says:  "Let  not  the 
faithful  deem  it  enough  to  receive  the  Body  of  the 
Lord  once  a  year  only;  but  let  them  judge  that  Com- 
munion ou^t  to  be  more  frequent;  but  whether  it  be 
more  expement  that  it  should  be  monthly,  weekly,  or 
daily,  can  be  decided  by  no  fixed  universal  rule  (pt. 
II,  c.  iv,  n.  58).  As  mid^t  be  expected,  the  disciples 
of  St.  Ignatius  and  St.  Philip  carried  on  the  work  of 
advocatmg  frequent  Communion.  With  the  revival 
of  this  practice  came  the  renewal  of  the  discussion  as 
to  the  advisability  of  daily  Communion.  While  all  in 
theory  admitted  that  dauy  reception  was  good,  they 
differed  as  to  the  conditions  required. 

Hie  Congregation  of  the  Council  (1587)  forbade  any 
general  restriction,  and  ordered  that  no  one  should  he 
repelled  from  the  Sacred  Banquet,  even  if  he  ap- 
proached daily.  In  1643,  Amamd's  "  Frequent  Com- 
munion" appeared,  in  which  he  required,  for  worthy 
reception,  severe  penance  for  past  sins  and  most  pure 
love  of  Grod.  The  Congregation  of  the  Council  was 
once  more  appealed  to,  and  decided  (1679)  that  though 
universal  daily  Communion  was  not  advisable,  no  one 
should  be  repelled,  even  if  he  approachea  daily; 
parish  priests  and  confessors  should  decide  how  often, 
but  they  should  take  care  that  all  scandal  and  irrevei^ 
ence  should  be  avoided  (see  Denzinger, "  Enchiridion", 
10th  ed.,  n.  1148).  In  1690,  Amauld's  conditions 
were  condemned.  In  spite  of  these  decisions,  the  re- 
ception of  Holy  Communion  became  less  and  less 
fr&c^uent,  owing  to  the  spread  of  rigid  Jansenistic 
opinions,  and  this  rigour  lasted  almost  into  our  own- 
day.    Tne  older  and  better  tradition  was,  however, 

f  reserved  by  some  writers  and  preachers,  notably 
'^neton  anci  St.  Alphonsus,  and^  with  the  spread  of 
devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart,  it  gradually  became 
once  more  the  rule.  Difficulty,  however,  was  nused 
regarding  daily  Communion.  This  practice,  too,  was 
warmly  recommended  by  Pius  IX  and  Leo  XIII,  and 
finally  received  official  approval  from  Pius  X. 

II.  PRAcncB. — (a)  The  rules  for  frequent  and  daily 
Communion  are  laid  down  by  the  decree  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Councfl  ''Sacra  TridentinA  Synodus" 
(20  Dec.,  1905) .  (1 )  "  Freauent  and  daily  Communion 
.  .  .  should  be  open  to  all  the  faithful,  of  whatever 
rank  and  condition  of  life ;  so  that  no  one  who  is  in  the 
9tate  of  grace,  and  who  approaches  the  holy  table  witl) 


a  right  and  devout  intention^  can  be  lawfully  hindered 
therefrom."  (2)  "A  right  mtention  consists  in  this: 
that  he  who  approaches  the  Holy  Table  should  do  so, 
not  out  of  routine,  or  vainglory,  or  human  respect,  but 
for  the  purpose  oi  pleasing  God,  or  being  more  dosely 
united  with  Him  by  charity,  and  of  seeking  this 
Divine  remedy  for  his  weaknesses  and  delete". 
Rule  3  declares  that  ''it  is  sufficient  that  they  (the 
daily  communicants)  be  free  from  mortal  sin,  with  the 
purpose  of  never  sinning  in  future '\  and  Rule  4  en- 
joins that  "  care  is  to  be  taken  that  Holy  Communion 
be  preceded  by  serious  preparation  and  foUowed  bv 
a  suitable  thanksgiving,  according  to  each  one's 
strength,  circumstances,  and  duties".  "Parish 
priests,  confessors,  and  preachers  are  frequently  and 
with  ^eat  zeal  to  exhort  the  faithful  to  this  devout 
and  salutary  practice"  (Rule  6);  two  rules  (7  and  8) 
refer  to  the  daily  (Communion  in  religious  com- 
munities and  Catholic  institutions  of  all  Kinds;  and 
the  last  rule  (9)  forbids  any  further  controvert  on 
the  subject. 

(b)  Acts  and  Decrees  of  Piue  X  on  frequent  and  d£dly 
Communion. — For  two  years  these  decrees  or  pro- 
nouncements follow  one  another  in  theorder  indicated 
here. 

30  May,  1905. — On  the  eve  of  the  Eucharistic  Con- 
gress in  Rome,  Pius  X  indulgenced  the  "Prayer  for 
uie  diffusion  of  the  pious  custom  of  daily  Communion", 
which  was  published  and  distributed  on  the  last  day 
of  the  Congress. 

4  June,  1905.— The  Holy  Father,  presiding  at  the 
closing  of  the  Congress  in  Rome,  said:  "I  o^  and 
implore  of  you  aJl  to  urge  the  faithful  to  approach  that 
Divine  Sacrament,  ^d  I  speak  especially  to  you, 
my  dear  sons  in  the  priesthood,  in  order  that  Jesus, 
the  treasure  of  all  the  treasures  of  Paradise,  the  great- 
est and  most  precious  of  all  the  possessions  of  our  poor 
desolate  humanity,  may  not  be  abandoned  in  a  man- 
ner so  insulting  and  so  ungrateful. " 

The  decree  of  20  December,  1905,  has  already  been 
summarised. 

25  Feb.,  1906. — To  gain  the  plenary  indulgence, 
p;ranted  to  those  who  communicate  five  times  weeklv, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  go  to  confession  every  week, 
every  fortnight,  or  every  month;  even  less  ffequent 
recurrence  will  do.    No  definite  interval  is  given. 

11  August,  1906. — The  papal  Brief  "Romanorum 
Pontificum"  grants  indulgences  and  unusual  privileges 
to  the  Sacramental  League  of  the  Eucharist,  which  has 
for  its  object  the  inducement  of  the  faithful  to  adopt 
the  practice  of  daily  or  frequent  Communion.  By  a 
singular  favour,  all  confessors  inscribed  in  this  League 
are  urged  to  exhort  their  penitents  to  receive  daily,  or 
almost  daily,  to  obtain  a  plenary  indulgence  once  a 
week. 

15  Sept.,  1906. — It  was  explained,  on  this  date,  that 
the  decree  of  20  Dec.,  1905,  applies  not  merely  to 
adults  and  the  youth  of  both  sexes,  but  also  to  children 
so  soon  as  they  have  received  their  first  Communion  in 
accoixiance  with  the  rules  of  the  Roman  Catechism, 
that  is  to  say,  as  soon  as  they  manifest  sufficient  dis- 
cretion. 

7  Dec.,  1906. — Sick  persons  bed-ridden  for  one 
month,  without  some  hope  of  prompt  recovery,  may 
receive  Holy  Eucharist,  even  tnoueh  they  may  have 
broken  their  fast  after  midnight,  by  drinking  some- 
thing, as,  for  instance,  chocolate,  tapioca,  semoUna,  or 
bread  soup,  which  are  drink  in  the  sense  of  the  decree. 
This  may  be  repeated  once  or  twice  a  week,  if  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  kept  in  the  house;  otherwise, 
once  or  twice  a  month. 

25  March,  1907. — ^The  hierarchv  are  urged  to  secure 
that  there  be  held  each  year,  in  tne  cath^ral  church, 
a  special  Triduum  for  the  purpose  of  exhorting  the 
people  to  practise  frequent  Communion.  In  parish 
churches  one  day  will  suffice.  Indul^nces  are  ^pranted 
for  the^^  9x^rciw9. 


How,  except  Ets  to  Easter  CommunioQ  and  Viatdcum.  ulsted  the  lawB  of  the  interferenoe  of  polarised  li^t. 

14  Julv,  1907. — Brief  agEun  delisting  Cardinal  V.  He  showed  how  to  obtaio  and  detect  circularly  polar- 

Vannutelli  to  the  Eucharistic  Congress  at  Met«,  which  iied  li^t  hy  means  of  his  rhomb.    An  account  of  bis 

was  exduaively  devoted  to  the  coneideration  of  the  more  important  contributions  to  optics  may  be  found 

question  of  Holy  Communion.     The  following  is  an  in  Preston's  "Tbeoiy  of  Ught"  (New  York,  1901),  or 

extiaet  from  the  Brief:  "This  [frequent  Communion]  Wood's  "PhyaicaJ  Optics"  (New  York,  I90S).    Fres' 

in  trutii  is  the  shortest  way  to  secure  the  salvation  oi  nel  gave  a  course  of  physics  for  some  months  at  the 

•very  iodividual  man  as  well  as  Uiatttf  society."  Atbente  in  1819,  but  otherwise  had  no  academic  con- 

HiDLBti  lIuHctyEtiehariil.'rW  (LoodoB,  19D7);  Da  Zulu-  nexions  apart  from  his   position  as  examiner  at  the 

S5;S[l5.'oSl2'm''^flr&^™  ^»^^^'«]^iX^^  ^cole  Po^hnique.    fclost  of  hia  rwearohes  wer« 

1B08);  i>m8ta^K,LaTri^SainieCtmmuniaiiii(EajfalPia',  carried  on  in  the  leisure  he  could  obtain  from  his  pro- 

1872),  III.  *n  am.:  FuBunm,  Tnlmia  Morale  (Oeoom  feesional  duties.     In  applied  optics  mention  should  be 

CbiTBL,  A^/ax*  d*  la  Doctrint  Cailuivpui  nr  la  CmrtnuRun  nexion   With   the   lighthouse   commission   which  has 

Frtfpiaatt  (BniaaeU,  IB05):  PmTtvicB.  Dt  Thtologicu  Dogmaii-  revolutionized  lighthouse  illuniination  throughout  the 

IMS),  V,  PmxU  Confitani.  n,  M8  «oq,;  LBsmuBL,  Theoloaui  markable  tor  his  keen  sense  of  duty.     A  three-volume 

VsrBlu<FniburBimBr.,1902).  u.  lsSKiq.;BuDgnT.HuisTv  editionof  his  complete  works  was  published  ii  ""'"' 

3'  '**Sffl'i  *'^??{  "  ^™¥  ^"'-  "?L?-  T?''""^,''  fi*°-  ABiOO.  (B«™r  CtmpUta  (Pari..  ISsi).  1, 107-lSij 

j™.    ioob),  part  III,  0.  i:   Lintbllo,  Opwcula  nir  la  Com-  tv           ■'       .....        r: "...."  .i                i 

trt/punlt  tlQiMtiditttHt  (Puia,  l90B):  Saitbr,  Ft»-  ig 

mnunioii  in  The  MeHmger  (.ttewYmk.Deo.,  1900). 

Fiiar  [from  lAt.  fraier,  throu^  O.  Fr.  frabt,  fnre, 
M.  E.  frtre;  It,  fraie  (as  prefix  fro) ;  Sp.  frtak  (as  prefix 

fray) ;  Port,  fret;  unlike  the  otner  Romance  languages. 

,  .     „  French  has  but  the  one  word  frire  for   friar   and 

m  letters  was  slow  brother],  a  member  of  one  of  the  mendicant  orders. 

though  he  showed  Use  of  the  Word.— In  the  early  Church  it  was 

while  still  young  usual  for  all  Christians  to  address  eacn  other  as /rofrei, 

an    aptitude    for  or  brothers,  all  beings  children  of  the  one  Heavenly 

physical    science.  Father,  through  Chnst.    lAter,  with  the  rise  and 

Id  his  seventeenth  growth  of  the  monastic  orders,  the  appellation  began 

year    he    entered  gradually  to  have  a  more  restricted  meaning;  for  ob- 

the    Ecole    Poly-  yiously  the  bon»is  of  brotherhood  were  drawn  more 

technique  in  Paris  closely  between  those  who  lived  under  the  rule  and 

where  he  attracted  guidance  of  one  spiritual  father,  their  abbot.     Tlie 

the    attention    of  word  occurs  at  an  ^rly  date  in  English  literature  with 

Legendre.      Aftw  the  signification  of  brother,  and  from  the  end  of  the 

spending     some  thirteenth  century  it  is  in  frequent  use  referring  to  the 

time  at  the  Ecole  members  of  the  mendicant  oiders,  e.  a.  c.  1297,  "  frera 

des     Fonts     et  nrechoiv"  (R.  Glouc.  10105);  c.  1326,  "freres  of  the 

ChauBsfies  he  was  CwmeandofSeint  Austin" (Pol.8on^,331);c.  1400, 

assigned    to    the  "frere  meneours"  (Maunder,  xxxi,   139);  c.   1400, 

engineering  corps  "Sakked  freres"  (Rom.  Rose).    Shakespeare  speaks 

andservedsucoes-  of  the  "  Friars  of  orders  gray"  (Tam.  Shr.,  iv,  i,  148). 

sively  in  the  de-  The  word  was  also  loosely  applied  to  members  of 

partmentsofVen-  monastic  and  military  orders,  and  at  times  to  the 

AcauraiH-JBui  FHBiHst.             ^^t  DrAme,  and  convent  of  a  particular  order,  and  hence  to  the  part  of 

Ule-et-Vilaine.  He  a  town  in  which  such  a  convent  had  been  located. 

loet  his  amointment  throiwh  politics  on  the  return  of  The  word  friar  is  to  be  carefully  distinguished  in  its 

Napoleon  from  Elba.    In  lSl9  ne  was  made  a  member  application  from  the  word  jnonk.    For  the  monk  re- 

of  tne  Lighthouse  Commission,  becoming  its  secretary  tirement  and  solitude  are  undisturbed  by  the  public 

in  1824,  and  was  an  examiner  at  the  Eaile  Polytech-  ministry,    unless   under   exceptional    circumstances, 

nique    from    1821   to   1824.     Shortly  afterward  his  His  vow  of  poverty  binds  him  strictly  as  an  individual, 

healtti,  which  had  never  been  robust,  became  so  weak-  but  in  no  way  affects  the  right  of  tenure  of  bis  order. 

ened  that  he  was  obliged  to  eive  up  nearly  all  active  In  the  life  of  the  friar,  on  the  contrary,  the  exercise  of 

work.    He  was  unanimously  electecl  a  member  of  the  the  sacred  ministry  is  an  essential  feature,  for  which 

Acadimie  des  Sciences  in  1823,  and  in  1826  wfts  made  the  life  of  Uie  cloister  is  centered  as  but  an  imme- 

an  associate  of  the  London  Royal  Society,  receiving  diate  preparation.    His  vow  of  poverty,  too,  not  only 

Its  Rumford  Medal  on  hts  death-bed.  binds  him  as  an  individual  to  the  exercise  of  that 

Ficsnel  occupies  a  prominent  place  among  the  virtue,  but,  originally  at  least,  precluded  also  the  ri^t 

French  phvsicists   of   tne   nineteenth   century.     His  of  tenure  in  common  with  his  brethren.     Thusorigm- 

chosen  field,  of  researeh  was  optics,  and  in  a  series  of  ally  the  various  orders  of  friars  could  possess  no  fixed 

brilliant  memoirs  he  did  much  to  place  the  wave  theory  revenues  and  lived  upon  the  voluntary  offerings  of  the 


upon  a  firm  basis.  He  introduced  with  conspicuous  faithful.  Hence  their  name  of  mendicants.  This 
■uooess  the  conjecture  of  Hooke  (1672)  that  the  light  second  feature,  by  which  the  friar's  life  differs  bo 
vibrations  are  transverse.     His  first  paper  was  on     essentially  from  that  of  the  monk,  has  become  con> 


aberration,  but  it  was  never  published.     In  connexion  siderably  modified  since  the  Council  of  Trent, 

with  his  study  of  the  theory  and  phenomena  of  diffrac-  Session  XXV,  ch.  iii,  "  De  Regular.",  all  the  mendicant 

tion  and  interference  he  devised  his  double  mirrors  and  orders — the  Friars  Minor  and  Capuchins  alone  ex- 

biprism  in  order  to  obtain  two  sources  of  tiaht  inde-  oepted — were  granted  the  liberty  of  corporate  possoe 

pendent  of  apertures  or  the  edges  of  opaque  obstacles,  sion.     The  Discalcod  Carmelites  and  the  Jesuits  have 

His  article  on  diffraction  won  the  prize  of  the  Acad6-  availed  themselves  of  this  privilege  with  restriction! 

mie  des  Sciences  in  1819.    He  extended  the  work  of  (cf.  Wemz,  Jus  Decretal.,  HI,  pt.  II,  262,  note).    It 

Huygbens  and  others  on  double  refraction  and  devel-  may,  however,  be  pertmently  remarked  here  that  tbe 


FBIAB8  281  FBIAB8 

Jesuits,  thou^  mendicants  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  the  Franciscan  Order— (1525) ;  the  Discalced  Car- 

wordy  as  is  evident  from  the  very  explicit  declaration  melites — as   constituting  a  distinct  branch  of  the 

of  St.  Pius  V  (Const,  "Cum  indefessa",  1571),  are  Carmelites— (1568);  the  Discalced  Trinitarians  (1699): 

dassed  not  as  mendicants  or  friars,  but  as  clerics  the  Order  of  Penance,  known  in  Italy  as  the  Scaisetti 

regular,  being  founded  with  a  view  to  devoting  themr  (1781). 

selves,  even  more  especially  than  the  friars,  to  the  ^,  Bxvmmvrimu  QcBtuLjjsanvmimR,  and  other  writers  on  ti- 

exercise  of  the  <»c>ed  minirtry  (Venneersch,  De  RelJg.,  ^nSSm^^^SlS^'-^feii'  ^e^lMt?  ?Sf^)!*i: 

1,  Xll,  n.  8).  24;  SuABSZ.  De  VirtuU  et  Statu  Rdiffianie  (Mains,  1604),  pt.  II. 

Orders  of  Friars.— The  orders  of  friars  are  usually  *»«*.  »xL  Babboba.  Juris  Eod,  Univtni  (Lyons,  1699).  I,  o. 

divid«i  into  two  classes:  the  four  great  orders  men-  gi^J^TflferT-fSK^f^kS!  ^jt^b!^iJ! kS^^'r^t  f^f! 
tioned  by  the  Second  Council  of  Lyons  (can.  xxui)  and 


the  lesser  orders.    The  four  great  orders  in  their  legal    edMPad«srbom,1907)J,39;alTOpopiUarwprka,w 

nT«cfiHAn««  arft  •  rn  f.hft  DofnSn iVjtna  (9kt.  Piiia  V.  Const.     fe«  *^« different rdijpous habits,  such  as  Maixbson  and  TuDB. 


precedence  are  :  (1)  the  Dommicans  (St.  Pius  V,  Const. 


Friars^ieachei.,  formerly  knoW  ae  the  Black  Friw,  l*JSr^^\y*i%'^'f 
from  the  black  cajma  or  mantle  worn  over  their  white  Gregory  C^art. 

habit,  were  founded  by  St.  Dominic  in  1215  and 

solemnly  approved  bjr  Honorius  III,  22  Dec.,  1216.        Triars  Minor,  Order  of. — ^This  subject  may  be 

They  became  a  mendicant  order  in  1221.    The  Fran-  conveniently  considered  imder  the  following  heads: 

ciscans,  or  Friars  Mmor  (Grey  Friars),  were  founded  I.  General  History  of  the  Order;  A.  First  Period 

by  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  who  is  rightly  regarded  as  the  (1209-1517)  ;    B.   Second  Period  (1517-1909) ;   U. 

patriarch  of  the  mendicant  oraers.    His  rule  was  The  Reform  Parties;  A.  First  Period  (1226-1517); 

orally  approved  by  Innocent  III  in  1209  ^d  solemnly  B.  Second  Period  (1517-1897);  (1)  The  Discalced; 

confirmed  by  Honorius  III  in  1223  (Const.  "Solet").  (2)  The  Reformati;   (3)  The  Recollects,  indudmg  a 

It  is  professed  by  the  Friars  Minor,  the  Conventuals,  survey  of  the  history  of  the  Franciscans  in  the  North, 

and  tne  Canuchins.    The  Carmelites,  or  White  Friars,  especially  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (America  is 

from  the  white  cloak  which  covers  tneir  brown  habit,  h-eated  m  a  separate  article) ;  III.  Statistics  of  the 

7,  The  Various  Names  of  the 
Habit;  VI,  The  Constitution 

_ ,  General  Sphere  of  the  Order's 

Jan.,  1226)  and  later  of  Innocent  IV  (Const.  "Qu»  Activity;  VIII.  The  Preaching  Activity  of  the  Order; 

honorem",  1247).    The  order  is  divided  into  two  sec-  IX.  Influence  of  the  Order  on  the  Liturgy  and  Reli- 

tions,  the  Calced  and  Discalced  Carmelites.    TheAu-  dous    Devotions;     X.    Franciscan    Missions:     XI. 

gustinians,   or  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine   (Austin  Cultivation  of  the  Sciences;  XII.  Saints  and  Beati 

Friars),  trace  their  orisin  to  the  illustrious  Bishop  of  of  the  Order. 

Hippo.  The  various  oranches  which  subsequently  I.  Generai^  Histort  of  the  Order. — ^A.  Fxrft 
developed  were  united  and  constituted  from  various  Period  {1209-1517), — Having  gathered  about  twelve 
bodies  of  hermits  a  mendicant  order  by  Alexander  IV  disciples  aroimd  him  (1207-^8),  St.  Francis  of  Assisi 
(Const.  *'  lis,  quae  ",  31  July,  1255,  and  Const.  "  Licet",  apposed  before  Innocent  III,  who,  after  some  hesita- 
4  Mav,  1256).  These  four  orders  are  called  by  canon-  tion,  gave  verbal  sanction  to  the  Franciscan  Rule, 
iste  the  qaatuoT  ordinea  mendicanies  de  itare  communi.  Thus  was  legally  founded  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor 
The  Fourth  Lateran  Council  ("De  relig.  dom.".  Ill,  {Ordo  Fratrum  Minorum),  the  precise  date  being, 
tit.  zxxvi,  c.  ix)  had  forbidden  in  1215  tne  foundation  according  to  an  ancient  tradition  in  the  order,  16  Apm, 
of  any  new  religious  orders.  In  face  of  this  prohibi-  1209.  His  friars  having  rapidly  increased  in  number 
tion  a  sufficient  number  of  new  congregations,  espe-  and  spread  over  various  districts  of  Italy,  St.  Francis 
eially  of  mendicants,  had  sprung  up  to  attract  the  appointed,  in  1217,  provincial  ministers  {ministri  pnn 
attention  of  the  Second  Coimcil  of  Lyons.  In  canon  vincialea)^  and  sent  his  disciples  farther  afield.  At 
xziii,  the  council,  while  specially  exempting  the  four  the  general  chapter  of  1219  these  missions  were  re- 
mendicant  orders  above  mentioned,  conaemns  all  newra  and  other  friars  dispatohed  to  the  East,  to  Hun- 
other  mendicant  orders  then  existing  to  immediate  or  gary,  to  France,  and  to  Spain.  Francis  himself 
to  gradual  extinction.  All  orders  established  since  the  visited  Egypt  and  the  East,  but  the  innovations  in- 
Councilof  Lateran,  and  not  approved  by  the  Holy  See.  troduced  auring' his  absence  by  some  of  the  friars 
were  to  be  dissolved  at  once.  Those  since  established  caused  his  speeay  return  in  1220.  In  the  same  year 
with  such  approval  were  forbidden  to  receive  new  he  resigned  the  office  of  general  of  the  order,  which  he 
members.  The  illustrious  order  of  Servites,  founded  entrusted  first  to  Peter  of  Catteneo,  on  whose  early 
in  1233  and  approved  by  Alexander  IV  in  1256  (Const,  death  (10  March,  1221)  he  appointed  Ellas  of  Cortona. 
''Deo  grata 'Oy  happily  survived  this  condemnation.  Francis,  however,  retained  a  certain  supreme  direction 
Concerning  the  four  greater  orders,  the  council  con-  of  the  order  until  his  death  on  3  October^  1226. 
dudes:  "Be  it  understood,  however,  that  we  do  not  Elias  of  Cortona,  as  the  vicar  of  Francis,  summoned 
conceive  of  the  extension  of  this  constitution  to  the  the  regular  Pentecost  chapter  for  the  following  year, 
Orders  of  Friars  Preachers  and  of  Friars  Minor,  whose  and  on  29  May,  1227,  Giovanni  Parenti,  a  Jurist,  was 
evident  service  to  the  universal  Chureh  is  sufficient  chosen  as  first  successor  of  St.  Francis  and  first  minis- 
approval.  As  for  the  Hermite  of  St.  Augustine  and  ter-general.  He  has  often  been  regarded  as  a  native 
tne  Order  of  Carmelites,  whose  foundation  preceded  of  florence,  but  probably  came  from  the  neighbour- 
the  said  Council  (Fourth  Lateran),  we  wish  them  to  hood  of  Rome.  Gregory  IX  employed  the  new  gen- 
remain  as  solidly  established  as  heretofore"  (Lib.  Ill,  eral  on  political  missions  at  Florence  and  Rome, 
tit.  xvii,  c.  im.,  m  VI).  The  importance  of  the  orders  authorized  the  Minorites  to  lay  out  their  own  oeme- 
thus  siiigled  out  and  exemptea  was  afterwards  still  teries  (26  July,  1227),  and  charged  them  with  the 
further  emphasized  by  the  insertion  of  this  canon  into  direction  and  maintenance  of  the  Poor  Clares  (1  De- 
the  "  Corpus  Juris '  *  in  the ' '  Liber  Sextus  "  of  Boniface  cember,  1227).  In  1228  and  the  succeeding  years, 
Vlll.  Elias  of  Cortona  laboured  zealously  at  the  construc- 
The  so-styled  lesser  orders,  of  which  the  following  tion  of  a  church  to  be  dedicated  to  Francis  of  Assisi, 
are  to-day  the  most  flourishing,  were  founded  ana  who  was  canonized  by  Gregory  TX  on  16  July,  1228. 
approved  at  various  subsequent  periods:  the  Minims  On  the  day  following  the  pope  himself  laid  the  founda- 
(1474) ;  the  Third  Order  Regular  of  St.  Francis  (1521) ;  tion  stone  of  this  church  at  Assisi  destined  to  receive 
^  the  Capuchins — as  constituting  a  different  branch  of  the  body  of  St.  Francis,  and  he  shortly  afterwards 


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entruBted  to  Thomas  of  Celano  the  task  of  writingthe 
biography  of  the  saint,  which  he  confirmed  on  25  Feb- 
ruary.  1229.  The  translation  of  the  saint's  body  from 
the  cnurch  of  San  Giorgio  to  the  new  basilica  took 
place  on  22  May,  1230,  three  days  before  the  appointed 
time,  and  Elias  of  Cortona,  possibly  feaxing  some  dis- 
turbance, took  possession  of  the  body,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  civic  authorities,  and  buried  it  in  the 
church,  where  it  was  discovered  in  1818.  Elias  was 
censured  and  punished  for  this  action  in  the  Bull  of  16 
June,  1230.  The  usual  general  chapter  was  held  about 
the  same  date^  and  on  28  September,  1230,  the  Bull 
"Quo  elongati"  was  issued,  dealing  with  the  Testa- 
ment of  St.  Francis  and  certain  points  in  the  Rule  of 
1223.  Elias  meanwhile  devoted  all  his  energy  to  the 
completion  of  the  magnificent  church  (or  rather 
double  church)  of  S.  Francesco,  which  stands  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill  m  the  western  portion  of  Assisi,  and  of 
the  adjacent  monastery  with  its  massive  pillars  and 
arcades.  His  election  as  general  in  1232  gave  him 
freer  scope,  and  enabled  him  to  realize  the  successful 
issue  of  nis  plans.  As  a  politician,  Elias  certainly 
possessed  genius.  His  character,  however,  was  too 
ostentatious  and  worldly,  and,  thougj^  under  his  rule 
the  order  developed  externally  and  its  missions  and 
studies  were  promoted,  still  in  consequence  of  his  ab- 
solutism, exercised  now  with  haughty  bearing  and 
again  throu^  reckless  visitors,  there  arose  in  the  order 
an  antagonism  to  his  government,  in  which  the  Pi^ 
lisian  masters  of  theology  and  the  German  and  English 
provinces  played  the  most  prominent  part.  Unable 
to  stem  tnis  opposition,  Elias  was  deposed,  with 
Gregory  IX's  approval,  by  the  Chapter  of  Rome 
(1239),  and  the  nitherto  undefined  rights  and  almost 
absolute  autiiority  of  the  general  in  matters  of  income 
and  leflslation  for  the  order  were  considerably  re- 
stricted. Elias  threw  in  his  lot  with  fVederick  II 
(Hohenstaufen),  was  excommunicated  inconsequence, 
and  died  on  22  April,  1253.  Albert  of  Pisa,  who  had 
previously  been  provincial  of  Germany  and  Hungary, 
was  chosen  at  the  chapter  of  1239  to  succeed  Elias,  but 
died  shorUy  afterwaras  (23  Januaiy,  1240).  '  On  All 
Saints'  Day.  1240,  the  chapter  again  met  and  elected 
Haymo  of  Faversham,  a  learned  and  zealous  En^ish 
Franciscan,  who  had  been  sent  by  Gregory  IX  (1234) 
to  Constantinople  to  promote  the  reunion  of  the 
Schismatic  Greeks  with  the  Apostolic  See.  Haymo, 
who,  with  Alexander  of  Hales  had  taken  part  in  the 
movement  against  Elias,  was  zealous  in  his  visitation 
of  the  various  houses  of  the  order.  He  held  the  Pro- 
vincial (Ilhapter  of  Saxonia  at  Aldenbure  on  29  Sep- 
tember, 1242,  and,  at  the  request  of  pregory  lA, 
revised  the  rubrics  to  the  Roman  Breviary  and  the 
Missal. 

After  Haymo's  death  in  1244  the  Cxeneral  Chapter 
of  Genoa  elected  Crescenzio  Grizzi  of  Jesi  (1245-47)  to 
succeed  him.  Oescenzio  instituted  an  investi^tion 
of  the  life  and  miracles  of  St.  Francis  and  other  Minor- 
ites, and  authorized  Thomas  of  Celano  to  write  the 
"Le^nda  secunda  S.  Francisci",  based  on  the  infor- 
mation (Legenda  trium  Sociorum)  supplied  to  the 
^neral  bv  three  companions  of  the  saint  (Tree  Socii, 
1.  e .  Leo.  Angelus,  and  Rufinus) .  From  this  period  also 
dates  the  "Dialogus  de  Vitis  Sanctorum  Fratrum 
Minorum  ".  This  general  also  opposed  vi^rously  the 
separationist  and  particularistic  tendencies  of  some 
seventy-two  of  the  brothers.  The  town  of  Assisi 
asked  for  him  as  its  bishop,  but  the  request  was  not 
granted  by  Innocent  IV^  wno,  on  29  April,  1252,  ap- 
pointed him  Bishop  of  Jesi,  in  the  Mareh  of  Ancona, 
his  native  town.  John  of  Parma,  who  succeeded  to 
the  generalship  (1247-57),  belonged  to  the  more  ri^r- 
ous  party  in  the  order.  He  was  most  dilieent  in  visit- 
ing m  person  the  various  houses  of  the  oraer.  It  was 
during  this  period  that  Thomas  of  Celano  wrote  his 
"Tractatus  de  Miraculis''.  On  11  August,  1253, 
Glare  of  Assisi  died,  and  was  canonized  by  Alexander 


IV  on  26  September,  1255.  On  25  May,  1253^  a 
month  after  tne  death  of  the  excommunicated  Elias, 
Innocent  consecrated  the  upper  church  of  S.  Francesco. 
John  of  Parma  unfortunately  shared  the  apocalyptic 
views  and  fancies  of  the  Joachimites,  or  followers  of 
Joachim  of  Floris,  who  had  many  votaries  in  the 
order,  and  was  consequently  not  a  httie  compromised 
when  Alexander  IV  (4  November,  1255)  solemnly 
condemned  the  ''Liber  introductonus'\  a  collection 
of  the  writings  of  Joachim  of  Floris  with  an  extrava- 
gant introduction,  which  had  been  published  at  Paris. 
This  work  has  often  been  falsely  ascribed  to  the  gen- 
eral himself.  Its  real  author  was  Gerardo  di  Borgo 
S.-Donnino,  who  thus  furnished  a  very  dangerous 
weapon  against  the  order  to  the  professors  of  the  secu- 
lar cler^,  jealous  of  the  success  of  the  Minorites  at  the 
University  of  Paris.  The  chapter  convened  in  the 
Ara  ObU  monastery  at  Rome  forced  John  of  Parma  to 
abdicate  his  office  (1257),  and,  on  his  recommendation, 
chose  as  his  successor  St.  Bona  venture  from  Bagnorea. 
John  was  then  summoned  to  answer  for  his  Joachim- 
ism  before  a  court  presided  over  by  the  new  general 
and  the  cardinal-protector,  and  would  have  been  con- 
demned but  for  tne  letter  of  Cardinal  Ottoboni,  after- 
wards Adrian  V.  He  subsequentiy  withdrew  to  the 
hermitage  of  Greccio.  left  it  (1289)  at  the  command  of 
the  pope  to  proceea  to  Greece,  but  died  an  aged, 
broken  man  at  Camerino  on  20  March,  1289. 

St.  Bonaventure  (q.  v.),  a  learned  and  zealous  relig- 
ious, devoted  all  his  enexgy  to  the  Rovemment  of  the 
order.  He  strenuously  advocated  £e  manifold  duties 
thrust  upon  the  order  during  its  historical  develop- 
ment—tne  labour  in  the  care  of  souls,  learned  pur- 
suits, employment  of  friars  in  the  service  of  the  popes 
and  temporal  rulers,  the  institution  of  large  monas- 
teries, and  the  preservation  of  the  privile^  of  the 
ordei^-ybeing  convinced  that  such  a  direction  of  the 
activities  of  the  members  would  prove  most  beneficiid 
to  the  Church  and  the  cause  of  Christianity.  The 
Spirituals  accused  Bonaventure  of  laxity;  yet  he 
laboured  earnestly  to  secure  the  exact  observance  of 
the^  rule,  and  enei^tieally  denounced  the  abuses 
which  had  crept  into  the  order,  condemning  them 
repeatedly  in  his  encyclical  letters.  In  accordance 
with  the  rule,  he  held  a  general  chapter  every  three 
years:  at  Narbonne  in  1^0,  at  Pisa  m  1263,  at  Paris 
m  1266,  at  Assisi  in  1269,  and  at  Lyons  in  1274,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  general  coimcil.  He  made  most  of  the 
visitations  to  me  different  convents  in  person,  and 
was  a  zealous  preacher.  The  Chapter  of  Narbonne 
(1260)  oromulgated  the  statutes  of  tne  order  known  as 
the  "Constitutiones  Narbonenses",  the  letter  and 
spirit  of  which  exercised  a  deep  and  enduring  influence 
on  the  Franciscan  Order.  Aithou^  the  entire  code 
did  not  remain  long  in  force,  many  of  the  provisions 
were  retained  and  served  as  a  model  for  the  later 
constitutions. 

Even  before  the  death  of  Bonaventure,  during  one 
of  the  sessions  of  the  council  (15  July,  1274),  the 
(Chapter  of  Lyons  had  chosen  as  his  successor  Jerome 
of  Ascoli,  who  was  expected  by  the  council  with  the 
ambassadors  of  the  Greek  C!hurch.  He  arrived,  and 
the  reunion  of  the  churches  was  effected.  Jerome 
was  sent  back  by  Innocent  V  as  nuncio  to  Constan- 
tinople in  May,  1276,  but  had  only  reached  Ancona 
when  the  pope  died  (21  July,  1276).  John  XXI 
(1276-77)  emploved  Jerome  (October,  1276)  and 
John  of  Vercelli,  Gleneral  of  the  Dominicans,  as  media- 
tors in  the  war  between  Philip  III  of  Fiance  and 
Alfonso  X  of  Castile.  This  embassy  occupied  both 
senerals  till  March,  1279,  althou^  Jerome  waspre- 
ferred  to  the  cardinalate  on  12  Mareh,  1278.  Vfhen 
Jerome  departed  on  the  embassy  to  the  Greeks^  he  had 
appointed  Bonagratia  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Persioeto  to 
represent  him  at  the  General  Chapter  of  Padua  in 
1276.  On  20  May,  1279^  he  convened  the  General 
Chapter  of  Assisi,  at  which  Bonagratia  was  elected 


FBIAB8 


283 


FBIAB8 


general.  Jerome  later  occupied  the  Chair  of  Peter  as 
Nichohis  IV  (15  February,  1288-4  April,  1292). 
Bonagratia  conducted  a  deputation  from  the  chapter 
before  Nicholas  III^  who  was  then  stasring  at  Soriano, 
and  petitioned  for  a  cardinal-protector.  The  pope, 
who  had  himself  been  protector,  appointed  hi^nephew 
Matteo  Onini.  Thd  general  also  asked  for  a  defini- 
tion of  the  rule,  which  the  pope,  after  personal  con- 
sultation with  cardinals  and  the  theologians  of  the 
order,  issued  in  the  "  Exiit  qui  seminat"  of  14  August. 
1279.  In  this  the  order's  complete  renunciation  oi 
property  in  eommuni  was  again  confirmed,  and  all 
property  given  to  the  brothers  was  vested  in  the 
Hoiy  See,  unless  the  donor  wished  to  retain  his  title. 
All  moneys  were  to  be  held  in  trust  by  the  nunHi,  or 
spiritual  friends,  for  the  friars,  who  could  however 
raise  no  daim  to  them.  The  purchase  of  goods  could 
taJce  place  only  through  procurators  appointed  by  the 
pope,  or  by  the  cardinal-protector  in  his  name. 

l^e  Bull  of  Martin  IV  ''Ad  fructus  ubeies''  (13 
December,  1281)  defined  the  relations  of  the  mendi- 
cants to  the  secular  clergy.  The  mendicant  orders 
had  long  been  exenipt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishop,  and  enjoyed  (as  distinguished  from  the  secular 
deri^)  unrestricted  freedom  to  preach  and  hear  con- 
fessions in  the  churches  connected  with  their  monas- 
teries. This  had  led  to  endless  friction  and  open 
quarrels  between  the  two  divisions  of  the  clergy,  and, 
although  Martin  IV  granted  no  new  privile^  to  the 
mendicants,  the  strife  now  broke  out  with  mcreased 
violence,  duefly  in  France  and  in  a  particular  manner 
at  F^uis.  Boniface  VIII  adjusted  their  relations  in  the 
Bull  ''Super  cathedram"  of  18  February,  1300,  grant- 
ing the  mendicants  freedom  to  preach  in  their  own 
diurohes  and  in  public  places,  but  not  at  the  time 
when  the  prelate  of  the  district  was  preaching.  For 
the  hearing  of  confessions,  the  mendicants  were  to 
submit  suitoble  candidates  to  the  bishop  in  office,  and 
obtain  his  sanction.  The  faithful  were  left  free  in 
regard  to  funerals,  but,  should  they  take  place  in  the 
church  of  a  cloister,  uie  quarta  funerum  was  to  be 
gdven  to  the  parish  priest.  Benedict  XI  abrogated 
this  Bull,  but  Gement  V  reintroduced  it  (1312). 
Especially  conspicuous  among  the  later  contentions 
over  the  privileges  of  the  mendicants  were  those 
caused  by  John  of  Poliaco,  a  master  of  theology  of 
Paris  (1320),  and  by  Richard  FitzraJph,  Archbishop  of 
Armagh  (1349).  In  1516  the  Fifth  Council  of  the 
Lateran  dealt  with  this  question,  which  was  defini- 
tively settled  by  the  Council  of  Trent. 

In  the  Bull  "Exultantes"  of  18  Januaiy.  1283, 
Martin  IV  instituted  the  ayndid  ApoHolici,  Tnis  was 
the  name  given  to  the  men  appointed  by  the  ministers 
and  custodians  to  receive  in  tne  name  of  the  Holy  See 
the  alms  given  to  the  Franciscans,  and  to  pay  it  out 
again  at  their  request.  The  syndid  consequently 
replaced  the  nutUii  and  procurators.  All  these  regu- 
lations were  necessary  in  consequence  of  the  rule  of 
poverty,  the  literal  and  unconditional  observance  of 
which  was  rendered  impossible  by  the  great  expansion 
of  the  order,  by  its  pursuit  of  learning,  and  the  accu- 
midated  property  of  the  large  cloisters  in  the  towns. 
The  appointment  of  these  trustees,  however,  was 
neither  subversive  of  nor  an  evasion  of  the  rule,  but 
rather  the  pro^r  observance  of  its  precepts  under  the 
altered  conditions  of  the  time.  Under  Bonagratia 
(1279-83)  and  his  immediate  successors  Arlotto  da 
Prato  (1285-86),  and  Matthew  of  Aoquasparta  (1287- 
89),  a  learned  theologian  and  philosopher  who  became 
cardinal  in  1288  and  rendered  notable  service  to  the 
Church,  the  Spiritual  movement  broke  out  in  the 
Province  of  Ancona,  under  the  leadership  of  Pietro 
Giovanni  Olivi,  who,  after  the  General  Chapter  of 
Strasbuig  (1282),  caused  the  order  consiaerable 
trouble.  The  general,  Raimondo  Gaufredi  ^Geofifroy) 
of  Provence  (1289-95),  favoured  the  Spirituals  and 
denounced  the  lax  interpretations  of  the  Community, 


i.  e.  the  majority  of  the  order  who  opposed  the  minor- 
ity, termed  Spirituals  or  Zelanti.  Raimondo  even 
ventured  to  revise  the  general  constitutions  at  the 
General  Chapter  of  Paris  in  1292,  whereupon,  havin|s 
refused  the  Bishopric  of  P^ua  ofiferMl  him  by  Bom- 
face  VIII,  he  was  compelled  by  the  pope  to  resign  his 
office.  Giovanni  Minio  of  MuraviJle,  m  the  March  of 
Ancona,  a  master  of  theology,  was  elected  general  by 
the  Chapter  of  Ana«m  (1294),  and  idthou^  created 
Cardinal-Bishop  of  Porto  (Portuenns)  in  1302,  con- 
tinued to  govern  the  order  until  Gons^ves  of  Vaileboa 
(1304-13).  Provincial  of  Santiago,  Spain,  was  elected 
to  suceeea  him  by  the  Chapter  of  Araisi. 

In  his  encyclical  of  1302,  Giovanni  Minio  had  incul- 
cated the  rule  of  poverty,  and  forbidden  both  the 
accumulation  of  property  and  vested  incomes.  Gon- 
z^ves  followed  the  same  policy  (12  February,  1310), 
and  the  Chapter  of  Padua  (1310)  made  the  precept 
still  more  rigorous  by  enjoining  the  "simpfe  use'' 
(u8U8  pauper)  and  withdrawing  toe  rij^t  of  voting  at 
the  chapter  from  convents  which  dm  not  adopt  it. 
The  U8U8  pauper  had  indeed  been  a  source  of  con- 
tention from  1290,  espedally  in  Provence,  where  some 
denied  that  it  was  bmding  on  the  order.  These  dis- 
sensions led  to  the  Magna  Dieputaiio  at  Avignon 
(1310-12),  to  which  Clement  V  summoned  the  leaders 
of  the  Spirituals  and  of  the  Community  or  Relaxati. 
Clement  laid  the  strife  by  his  Bull  and  Decretal 
"Exivi  de  Paradiso^',  issued  at  the  third  and  last 
session  of  the  Council  of  Vienne,  5  May,  1312.    The 

Srescriptions  contained  in  the  Franciscan  Rule  were 
ivided  into  those  which  bound  under  pain  of  mortal, 
and  those  which  bound  under  pain  of  venial,  sin. 
Those  enjoining  the  renunciation  of  property  and  the 
adoption  of  poverty  were  retained:  the  Franciscans 
were  entitled  only  to  the  ueus  (use)  of  the  floods  siven 
to  them,  and  wherever  the  rule  prescribed  it,  omy  to 
the  U8U8  pauper  or  ardus  (simple  use).  All  matters 
concerning  the  Franciscan  habit,  and  the  store- 
houses and  cellaiB  allowed  in  cases  of  necessity,  were 
referred  to  the  discretion  of  the  superiors  of  tiie  ordcff . 
The  Spirituals  of  Provence  and  Tuscany,  however, 
were  not  yet  placated.  At  the  General  Chapter  of 
Barcelona  (1313),  a  Parisian  master  of  theology, 
Alexander  of  Alessandria  (Lombardy),  was  diosen  to 
succeed  Gons^vez.  but  died  in  October,  1314.  The 
General  Chapter  oi  Naples  (1316)  elected  Michael  of 
Cesena,  a  moderate  (>onventual.  Tlie  commission 
appointed  by  this  chapter  altered  the  general  statutes 
on  several  points  ((»lled  the  third  revision),  and 
Michael  in  an  encyclical  insisted  upon  the  observance 
of  the  rule  of  poverty.  The  Spintuals  immediately 
afterwards  rekmdled  the  property  strife,  but  John 
XXII  interdicted  and  suppressed  their  peculiar 
notions  by  the  Constitution  "Quorumdam  exigit" 
(7  October,  1317),  thus  completely  restoring  the 
official  unity  of  the  order.  In  1321,  however,  the 
so-called  theoretical  discussion  on  poverty  broke  out, 
the  inquisitor,  John  of  Belna,  a  Domimcan,  having 
taken  exception  to  the  statement  that  Christ  and  the 
Apostles  possessed  property  neither  in  eommuni  nor 


in  epeciah  (i.  e.  neither  in  common  nor  individually). 
The  ensuing  strife  degenerated  into  a  fierce  scholastic 
disputation  between  the  Franciscans  and  the  Domin- 
icans, and,  as  the  pope  favoured  the  views  of  the 
latter,  a  very  danflerous  crisis  seemed  to  threaten  the 
Minorites.  By  the  Constitution  "Ad  conditorem 
canonum"  (8  December,  1322)  John  XXII  renounced 
the  title  of  the  Church  to  all  the  possessions  of  the 
Friars  Minor,  and  restored  the  ownership  to  the  order. 
This  action,  contrarv  to  the  practice  and  expressed 
sentiments  of  his  predecessors,  placed  the  Minorites  on 
exactlv  the  same  footing  as  the  other  orders,  and  was 
a  harsh  provision  for  an  order  which  had  laboured  so 
untiringly  in  the  interests  of  the  Chureh.  In  many 
other  ways,  however,  John  fostered  the  oider.  It  wiU 
thus  be  readily  understood  why  the  members  inclined 


FBIAB8 


284 


FBIAB8 


to  laxity  Joined  the  disaffected  party,  leaving  but  few 
advocates  of  John's  regulations.  To  the  dissenting 
party  belonged  Geraraus  Odonis  (1329-42),  the 
general,  whose  election  at  Paris  in  1329  John  had 
secured  in  the  place  of  his  powerful  opponent  Michael 
of  Gesena.  Oaonis,  however,  was  supported  only  by 
the  minority  of  the  order  in  his  efforts  to  effect  the 
abolition  of  the  rule  of  poverty.  The  deposed  general 
and  his  •  followers,  the  Michaelites  (cf .  Traticblu), 
were  disavowed  by  the  General  Ghapter  of  Paris,  and 
the  order  remained  faithful  to  the  Holy  See.  The 
constitutions  prescribed  by  Benedict  XII,  John's 
successor,  in  his  Bull  of  28  November,  1336.  and 
imposed  on  the  order  by  the  Ghapter  of  Gabon  (nence 
the  name  ''Gonstitutiones  Gatarcenses"  or  ''Bene- 
dictin»"),  contained  not  a  single  reference  to  the  rule 
of  poverty.  Benedict  died  in  1342,  and  on  the  pre- 
ferment of  Genupdus  Odonis  to  the  Patriarchate  of 
Antioch,  Fortanerio  Vassalli  was  chosen  general 
(1343-47). 

Under  Guillaume  Farinier  (1348-57)  the  Ghapter  of 
Marseilles  resolved  to  revive  the  old  statutes,  a  purpose 
which  was  realized  in  the  general  constitutions  pro- 
mulgated by  the  General  Ghapter  of  Assisi  in  1354 
("Gonstitutiones  Farineria"  or  "Guilelmi").  This 
code  was  based  on  the  ''Gonstitutiones  Narbonenses" 
(1260),  and  the  Bulls  "Exiit"  and  "Exivi",  but  the 
edicts  of  John  XXII,  being  promulgated  by  the  pope 
over  and  above  the  chapter,  still  continued  in  force. 
The  great  majority  of  the  friars  accommodated 
themselves  to  these  regulations  and  undertook  the 
care  and  proprietorship  of  their  goods,  which  they 
entrusted  to  fratrea  procuraUirea  electea  from  amonc 
themselves.  The  protracted  strife  of  the  deposed 
general  (Michael  ot  Gesena)  with  the  pope,  in  which 
'  the  general  was  supported  with  conspicuous  learning 
by  some  of  the  leading  members  ot  the  order  and 
encouraged  by  the  German  Emperor  Loub  IV  (the 
Bavarian),  for  reasons  of  secular  and  ecclesiastical 
polity,  gave  ereat  and  irresistible  impulse  to  laxity  in 
the  order,  ana  prejudiced  the  founder's  ideal.  It  was 
John  XXII  who  had  introduced  Gonventualism  in  the 
later  sense  of  the  word,  that  is,  community  of  goods, 
income  and  property  as  in  other  religious  orders,  in 
contradiction  to  Observantism  or  the  strict  obser- 
vance of  the  rule,  a  movement  now  strong  within  the 
order,  according  to  which  the  members  were  to  hold 
no  propertv  in  communi  and  renounce  all  vested  in- 
comes ana  accumulation  of  goods.  The  Bull  "Ad 
conditorem",  so  significant  in  the  histonr  of  the  order, 
was  only  withdrawn  1  November,  1428,  by  Martin  V. 

Meanwhile  the  development  c^  Gonventualism  had 
been  fostered  in  many  ways.  In  1348  the  Black 
Death  swept  devastatmgly  over  Europe,  emptying 
town  and  cloister.  The  weedth  of  the  order  increased 
rapidly,  and  thousands  of  new  brothers  were  admitted 
without  sufficientlv  close  examination  into  their  eligi- 
bility. The  Uberality  of  the  faithful  was  also,  if  not  a 
source  of  danger  for  the  Minorites,  at  least  a  constant 
incitement  to  depart  to  some  extent  from  the  rule  of 
povertv.  This  liberality  showed  itself  mainly  in  gifts 
of  real  propertv,  for  example  in  endowments  for 
pravers  for  tne  deady  which  were  then  usually  founded 
witn  real  estate.  In  the  fourteenth  century  also  be- 
mn  the  land  wars  and  feuds  (e.  g.  the  Hundred  Years 
War  in  France),  which  relaxed  every  bond  of  disci- 
pline and  good  order.  The  current  feelings  of  an- 
archic irresponsibility  were  also  encouraged  by  the 
Great  Western  Schism,  during  which  men  quarrelled 
not  only  concerning  obedience  to  the  papacy,  to 
which  there  were  three  claimants  since  the  Goimcil  of 
Pisa,  but  also  concerning  obedience  to  the  generals  of 
the  order,  whose  number  tallied  with  the  number  of 
the  popes. 

Guillaume  Farinier  was  named  cardinal  in  1356,  but 
continued  to  govern  the  order  until  the  election  of 
Jean  Bouchier  (de  Buco)  in  1357.    John  having  died 


in  1358,  Mark  of  Viterbo  was  chosen  to  succeed  him 
(1359-66),  it  being  deemed  desirable  to  elect  an  Ital- 
ian, the  preceding  four  generals  having  been  French. 
Mark  was  raised  to  the  cardinalate  in  1366,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Thomas  of  Farignano  (1367-72),  who 
became  Patriarch  of  Gnido  in  1372,  and  cardinal  in 
1378.  Leonardo  Rossi  of  Giffone  (137^-78)  succeeded 
Thomas  as  general,  and  supported  Glement  VII  dur- 
ing the  schism.  This  action  gave  umbrage  to  Urban 
VI,  who  deposed  him  and  named  Ludovico  Donate  his 
successor.  Ludovico  was  also  chosen  in  1379  by  the 
General  Ghapter  of  Gran  in  Hungary,  at  which,  how- 
ever, only  twelve  provinces  were  represented,  was 
named  cardinal  in  1381,  but  was  executed  in  1385  with 
some  other  cardinals  for  participating  in  a  conspiracv 
against  Urban  VI.  His  third  successor,  Enrico  Al- 
fieri  (1387-1405),  could  only  bewail  the  privileges 
subversive  of  discipline,  by  means  of  which  tne  claim- 
ants to  the  papacy  sought  to  bind  their  supporters 
more  closely  to  themselves.  Alfieri's  successor,  An- 
tonio de  Pireto  (1405-21),  gave  his  allegiance  to  the 
Goundl  of  Pisa  and  Alexander  V  (1409-10).  Alex- 
ander (Pietro  Philargi  of  Grete)  had  been  Archbishop 
of  Milan  and  a  member  of  the  Franciscan  Order,  and 
was  therefore  supported  by  the  majority  of  the  order. 
Indignant  at  this  conduct,  Gregory  Xll  named  An- 
tonio da  Gascia  ^neral  (1410-15),  a  man  of  no  great 
importance.  With  the  election  of  Martin  V  (1417- 
31)  by  the  Gouncil  of  Gonstance,  unity  was  restored 
in  the  order,  which  was  then  in  a  state  of  the  great- 
est collusion.   ' 

The  Observance  (fieffularia  ObaervanUa)  had  mean- 
while prepared  the  ground  for  a  regeneration  of  the 
order.  At  first  no  uniform  ihovement,  but  varying  in 
different  lands,  it  was  given  a  definite  character  by  St. 
Bemardine  of  Siena  (q.  v.)  and  St.  John  Gapistran 
(q.  v.).  In  Italy  as  early  as  1334,  Giovanni  de  Valle 
had  begun  at  San  Bartolomeo  de  Brugliano,  near  Po- 
lice, to  live  in  exact  accordance  with  the  rule  but 
without  that  exemption  from  the  order,  which  was 
later  forbidden  by  Glement  VI  in  1343.  It  is  worthy 
of  notice  that  Glement,  in  1350.  granted  this  exemp- 
tion to  the  lay  brother  Gentile  aa  Spoleto,  a  compan- 
ion of  Giovanni,  but  Gentile  gathered  together  such  a 
disorderly  rabble,  including  some  of  the  heretical 
Fiaticelh,  that  the  privilege  was  withdrawn  (1354),  he 
was  expelled  from  the  order  (1355),  and  cast  into 
prison.  Amongst  his  faithful  adherents  was  Paoluo- 
cio  Vagnozzi  of  Trinci,  who  was  allowed  by  the  general 
to  return  to  Brugliano  in  1368.  As  a  protection 
against  the  snakes  so  numerous  in  the  districts, 
wooden  slippers  {calepadia,  eoccoli)  were  worn  by  the 
brothers,  and,  as  their  use  continued  in  the  order,  the 
Observants  were  long  known  as  the  Zoccolanti  or  Itgni" 
pedea.  In  1373  Paoluccio's  followers  occupied  ten 
small  houses  in  Umbria,  to  which  was  soon  added  San 
Damiano  at  Assisi.  They  were  supported  by  Gregory 
XI,  and  also,  after  some  hesitation,  by  the  superiors  of 
the  order.  In  1388,  Enrico  Alfieri,  the  ^neral,  ap- 
pointed Paoluccio  commissary  general  of  his  followers, 
whom  he  allowed  to  be  sent  into  all  the  districts  ot 
Italy  as  an  incentive  to  the  rest  of  the  order.  Paoluc- 
cio died  on  17  September,  1390,  and  was  succeeded 
by  John  of  Stroncone  (d.  1418).  In  1414,  this  reform 
possessed  thirty-four  houses,  to  which  the  Porziuncola 
was  added  in  1514. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  there  were  three  Spanish 
provinces:  that  of  Portugal  (also called  Santiago),  that 
of  Gastile,  and  that  of  Aragon.  Although  houses  d 
the  reformers  in  which  the  rule  was  rigidly  observed 
existed  in  each  of  these  provinces  about  1400,  there 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  any  connexion  between 
the  reforms  of  each  province — ^much  less  between  these 
reforms  and  the  Italian  Observance — ^and  consequently 
the  part  played  by  Peter  of  Villacreces  in  Silos  and 
A^nera  has  been  greatly  exaggerated. 

independent  also  was  the  Reform  or  Observance  in 


niABS  285  FBIABS 

France,  which  hadats  inoeption  in  1358  (or  more  of  the  Observants  was  declared  permanent,  and  made 

accurately  in  1388)  in  the  cloister  at  Mirabeau  in  the  practically  independent  of  the  minister  general  of  the 

Srovince  of  Touraine,  and  thence  spread  through  order,  but  the  Observants  might  not  hold  a  genenj 

urgjundy,  Toiuaine,  and  Franconia.    In  1407  Bene-  chapter  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  order.    Aft^ 

diet  XIII  exempted  them  from  all  jurisdiction  of  the  the  canonization  in  1450  of  Bemardine  of  Siena  (d. 

provincials,  and  on  13  Mav,  1408,  gave  them  a  vicar-  1444),  the  first  saint  of  the  Observants,  John  Oapis- 

general  in  the  person  of  Thomas  de  Curte.    In  1414  tran  with  the  assistance  of  the  zealous  cardinal, 

about  two  hundred  of  their  nimiber  addressed  a  Nicholas  of  Cusa  (d.  1464),  extended  the  Observance 

petition  to  the  Council  of  Constance,  which  thereupon  so  greatly  in  Germany,  that  he  could  henceforth  dis- 

granted  to  the  friars  of  the  strida  observantia  reffularia  regard  the  attacks  of  the  lax  and  time-serving  sections 

a  special  provincial  vicar  in  every  province,  and  a  of  the  order.    At  the  Chapter  of  Barcelona,  in  1451, 

vicar-general  over  all,  Nicolas  Rodolphe  being  the  the  so-called  "StatutaBarchinonensia"  were  promul- 

first  to  fill  the  last-mentioned  office.    Angelo  Salvetti,  pated.    Though  somewhat  modified  these  continued 

general  of  the  order  (1421-24),  viewed  these  chan^  m  force  for  centuries  in  the  ultramontane  family, 
with  marked  disfavour,  but  Martin  V's  protection        The  compromise  essayed  ov  St.  James  of  the  March 

prevented  him  from  taking  any  steps  to  defeat  their  in  1455  was  inherently  hopeless,  although  it  granted 

aim.    Far  more  opposed  was  Salvetti's  successor,  to  the  vicars  of  the  Observants  actiw  voting  power  at 

Antonio  de  Massa   (1424-30).    The  ranks  of  the  the  general  chapters.    On  this  compromise  was  based 

Observants  increased  rapidly  m  France  and  Spain  in  the  "  BuUa  conccmiiffi"  of  Callistus  III  (2  February, 

consequence  of  the  exemption.    The  Italian  branch,  1456),  which  Pius  II  withdrew  (11  October,  1458). 

however,  refused  to  avail  themselves  of  anv  exemp-  The  Chapter  of  Perugia  (1464)  elected  as  general 

tion  from  the  usual  superiors,  the  provincial  and  the  Francesco  della  Rovere  (1464-69),  who  was  elevated 

general.  to  the  cardinalate  in  1468,  and  later  elected  pope 

In  Germany  the  Observance  appeared  about  1420  under  the  title  of    Sixtus   IV    (1471-84).     Sixtus 

in  the  province  of  Cologne  at  the  monastery  of  Gouda  nanted  various  privileees  to  the  Franciscans  in  his 

(1418),  in  the  province  of  Saxony  in  the  Mark  of  Bull  ''Mare  magnimi"  (1474)  and  his  "Bulla  aurea" 

Branaenbuiv(1425);  in  the  upper  German  province  (1479)>  but  was  rather  more  kindly  disposed  towards 

first  at  the  Heidelberg  monasterv  (1426).    Cloisters  the  Conventuals,  to  whom  he  had  belonged.    The 

of  the  Observants  alrcSidy  existed  in  Bosnia,  Russia,  generals  Francesco  Nanni  (1475-99),  to  whom  Sixtus 

Hungary,  and  even  in  Tatary.     In  1430  Martin  Y  ^ve  the  sobriquet  of  Samson  to  signalize  his  victory 

(1417-31)  summoned  the  whole  order,  Observants  and  m  a  disputation  on  the  Immaculate  Conception,  and 

Conventuals,  to  the  General  Chapter  of  Assisi  (1430),  Egidio  Delfini  (1500-06)  displayed  a  strong  bias  in 

''in  (ntler  that  our  desire  for  a  general  reform  of  the  favour  of  the  reform  of  the  Conventuals,  Egidio  using 

order  may  be  fidfilled".    William  of  Casale  (1430-42)  as  his  plea  the  so-called  "  Constitutiones  Alexandrinse^ 

was  elected  general,  but  the  intellectual  leader  of  sanctioned  b]r  Alexander  YI  in  1501.    His  seal  was 

AfEsisi  was  St.  John  Capistran.    The  statutes  promul-  far  surpassed  in  Spain  by  that  of  the  powerful  Minorite, 

sated  by  tihis  chapter  are  called  the  "Constitutiones  Francisco  Ximenes  de  los  Cisneros,  who  expelled 

Martinians"  from  the  name  €i  the  pope.    They  can-  from  the  cloisters  all  Conventuals  opposed  to  the 

oell^  the  offices  of  general  and  provmcial  vicars  of  the  reform.    At  Paris,  Delfini  won  the  large  house  of 

Observants  and  introduced  a  scheme  for  the  genial  studies  to  the  side  of  the  reformers.    The  Capiitdum 

reform  of  the  order.    All  present  at  the  chapter  had  aeneraUssimum  at  Rome  in  1506  was  expected  to 

bound  themselves  on  oath  to  carry  out  its  aecisions,  oring  about  the  union  of  the  various  branches,  but 

but  six  weeks  later  (27  July,  1430)  the  general  was  the  proposed  plan  did  not  find  acceptance,  and  the 

released  from  his  oath  and  obtained  from  Martin  V  statutes,  drawn  up  by  the  chapter  and  published  in 

the  Brief   "Ad  statum"  (23  August,  1430),  which  1508  under  the  title  "Statuta  lulii  11'^  could  not 

allow^  the  Conventuals  to  holcf  property  like  all  bridge  the  chasm  separating  the  parties.    After  long 

other   <xders.    This   Brief  constituted   the  Magna  deliberations  had  taken  place  under  generals  Rainaldo 

Charta  of  the  Conventuals,  and  henceforth  any  reform  Graziani  (1506-09), .  Philip  of  Bagnacavallo  (1509- 

of  the  order  on  the  lines  of  the  rule  was  out  of  the  11),  and  Bernardino  Prato  da  Chieri  (1513-17),  the 

question.  last  general  of  the  united  order,  Leo  X  summoned  on 

The  strife  between  the  Observants  and  the  Con-  11  July,  1516.  a  capitulum  generalissimum  to  meet  at 

ventuals  now  broke  out  with  such  increased  fury  that  Rome  on  the  feast  of  Pentecost  (31  May),  1517.    This 

even  St.  John  Capistran  laboured  for  a  division  of  the  dispter  first  suppressed  all  the  reformed  congrega- 

Older,  which  was  however  still  longer  opposed  by  St.  tions  and  annexed  them  to  the  Observants;  declared 

Bemardine  of  Siena.    Additional  bitterness  was  lent  the  Observants  an  independent  order,  the  true  Order 

to  the  strife  when  in  many  instances  princes  and  of  St.  Francis,  and  separated  them  completely  from 

towns  forcibly  withdrew   the   ancient  Franciscan  the  Conventuals.    The  General  of  the  Observants 

monasteries  from  the  Conventuals  and  turned  them  received  the  title  of  Minister  Generalis  totiua  ordinU 

over  to  the  Observants.    In  1438  the  general  of  the  FrcUrum  Minorum,  with  or  without  the  addition 

order  named  St.  Bemardine  of  Siena,  first  Yicar-  regvlaris  ObservanticB,  and  was  entrusted  with  the 

General  of  the  Italian  Observants,  an  office  in  which  ancient  seal  of  the  order.    His  period  of  office  was 

Bemardine  was  succeeded  by  St.  John  Capistran  in  limited  to  six  years,  and  he  was  to  be  chosen  alter- 

1441.  At  the  General  Chapter  of  Padua  (1443),  Albert  nately  from  the  famUia  cismordana  and  the  familia 

Berdiim  of  Sarteano(q.  v.),  an  Observant,  would  have  tdiramorUana — a  regulation    which    has    not    been 

been  chosen  general  in  accordance  with  thepapal  wish  observed.    For  the   other  family  a   Commissanus 

had  not  his  election  been  opposed  by  St.  Bemardine.  genercdis  is  always  elected.    In  processions,  eto.,  the 

Antonio  de  Rusconibus  (1443-50)  was  accordingly  Observants  take  precedence  of  the  Conventuals, 
elected,  and,  until  the  separation  m  1517,  no  Obseiv        B.  Second  Period  (1517-1909), — Christoforo  Numai 

vant  held  the  office  of  general.    In  1443  Antonio  of  Friuli  was  elected  first  General  of  the  Reformed 

appointed  two  vicars-eeneral  to  direct  the  Observants  Order  of  Franciscans  (prdo  Fratrum  Minorum),  but 

— tor  the  cismontane  family  (i.  e.  for  Italy,  the  East,  was  raised  a  month  later  to  the  cardinalate.  Francesco 

Austria-Hungary,  and  Poland)  St.  John  Capistran,  Lichetto  (1518-20)  was  chosen  as  his  successor  by  the 

and  for  the  lutraxtaontane  (all  other  countries,  includ-  Chapter  of  Lyons  (1518),  where  the  deliberations 

ing  afterwards  America)  Jean  Perioche  of  Maubert.  centred  around  the  necessary  rearrangement  of  the 

By  the  so-called  Separation  Bull  of  Eugene  lY, ''  Ut  order  in  provinces  and  the   promulgation  of   new 

sacra  ordinis  minoram"  (11  January,  1446),  outlined  general  constitutions,  which  were  based  on  the  statutes 

>by  St.  John  Capistran,  the  office  of  the  vicar-general  of  Barcelona  (1451,  cf.  supra).    Lichetto  and  his 


FBIABS                                286  nOABS 

8ucoe88or»— Paul  of  Soncino  (1520-23),  who  died  in  ^vemment  of  the  order  proved  as  noxioua  to  the 

1523,  and  Francisco  de  Angelis  Quifiones  (1523-28),  interests  of   the  Friars  Minor   as  the   established 

a  Spaniard,  diligently  devoted  themselves  to  estab-  churches  of  the  eighteenth  century  did  to  the  cause  off 

lishmg  the  Observance  on  a  firm  basis.    Quifiones  was  Christianity. 

named  cardinal  in  1528.  and  the  new  general,  Paolo  Generals   Juan   Merinero  of   Madrid   (1639-45), 
Pisotti   (1529-33),    unfortunately  disregarding  the  Giovanni  Mazzara  of  Naples  (1645-48),  and  Pedro 
ideal  of  his  predecessors  and  failing  entirely  to  grasp  Manero  (1651-55)  tried  without  success  to  eive  defi- 
the  significance  of  the  reforms  afoot  at  the  time  (for  nite  statutes  to  the  cismontane  family,  while  we  "Con- 
example  that  of  the  Capuchins),  was  deposed  in  1533.  stitutiones   Sambucans"     drawn    up    by   General 
In  1547  the  Chapter  of  Assisi  prescribed  grey  as  the  Michele  Buongiomo  of  Sambuca  (1658-64)  at  the 
colour  of  the  Franciscan  habit,  in  accordance  with  order  of  the  general  chapter,  did  not  remain  long  in 
the  custom  of  the  Observants,  and  forbade  the  wear-  force.    Ildefonso  Salisanes  (1664-70)  and  Francesco 
ing  of  beards.    At  the  General  Chapter  of  Salamanca  Maria  Rhini  (1670-74)  were  both  raised  to  the  episco- 
(1554),  Clemente  Dolera  of  MonesUa,  the  ^nend  in  pate.    Jos6  Ximenes  Samaniego  (1676-82)  sealously 
office,  promulgated  new  statutes  for  the  cismontane  eradicated  abuses  which  had  crept  into  the  order, 
family.    On  the  preferment  of   Clemente    to    the  especially  in  Spain  and  France,  and  died  as  Bishop  of 
cardinalate  in  1557,  Francesco  Zamora,  his  successor  Placencia  in  Spain  (1692).    Ildefonso  Biesma  (1702- 
(1559-65),  defended  at  the  Council  of  Trent  the  16)andJoe^  Garcia  (1717-23)  were  appointed  by  papal 
order's  rule  of  poverty,  which  was  then  sanctioned  by  Briefs.    The  next  general  was  the  famous  Lorenso 
the  council  for  the  Observants  and  Capuchins.    Under  Cozza  (1723-27)  who,  as  Gustos  of  the  Holy  Land, 
Luigi  Pozzo  (Puteus),  the  next  general  (1565-71),  the  had  obviated  a  schism  of  the  Maronites.    He  was 
Spanish  Conventuals  were  tmited  with  the  Observants  created  cardinal  by  Benedict  XIII.    At  the  Chap- 
by  command  of  the  pope,  and  a  general  reunion  of  the  ter  of  Milan  (1729),  Juan  Soto  was  elected  general 
separated  branches  of  the  order  seemed  imminent.  (1729-36),  and  dunng  his  period  of  office  luid  the 
The  two  succeeding  generals,  Christophe  de  Cheffon-  statutes  of  the  order  collected,  rearranged,  and  then 
taines,  a  Frenchman  (1571-79),  and  Francisco  Gon-  published  in  1734.    Raffaello  de  Rossi  (1744-50)  gave 
zaga  (1579-87) ,  laboured  industriously  for  the  rigorous  the  province  (otherwise  known  as  the  custody)  of  the 
observance  and  the  rule  of  poverty,  which  was  rather  Holy  Land  its  definitive  constitution.    From  1700  to 
loosely  interpreted,  especially  in  France.    Gonzaga  1723  no  general  chapter  could  be  held  in  consequence 
reformed  the  great  convent  of  studies  at  Paris  and,  of  the  continuous  state  of  unrest  caused  by  the  wars 
in  1581,  was  appointed,  in  opposition  to  his  wishes,  and  other  dissensions.    These  disputes  made  their 
Bishop  of  Cefam  TSicilv)  and  afterwards  of  Mantua,  appearance  even  in  the  order  itself,  and  were  fanned 
where  he  died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity,  in  1620.    The  to  a  flame  by  the  rivahy  between  the  nations  and 
process  for  his  beatification  is  pending  at  Rome,  between  the  di£ferent  reform  branches,  the  most 
Francis   of  Toulouse   (1587-93)   and   Bonaventura  heated  contention  being  between  the  Observants  and 
Secusi  of  Caltaeirone  (Sicily,  1593-1600)  were  em-  the  Reformati.    The  domestic  discipline  of  the  order 
ployed  frequently  on  embassies  by  the  popes,  and  thus  became  very  slack  in  certain  districts,  although 
revised  the  constitutions  of  the  order,  in  which,  how-  the  personals  of  the  Friars  Minor  was  at  this  time 
ever,  the  alterations  were  too  frequent.    Finally  at  unusually  hi^.    Benedict  XIII  vainly  endeavoured 
the  Chapter  of  Segovia  in  1621,  the  minister  general,  in  1727  to  cement  a  union  between  the  various  branches 
Benignus  of  Genoa  (1618-25),  approved  the  ''Statuta  (Observants,  Reformati,  Recollects,  and  Discalced). 
Segoviensia"    for   the    ultramontane    family,    with  The  general  chapter  of  1750.  at  which  Benedict  XIV 
suitable  additions  both  for  the  French  and  for  the  presided  and  warmly  praised  the  order,  elected  Pedro 
German-Belgian  nation.    Thereafter  the  latter  nation  Joannetio  of  Molina  (1750-56) — ^the  onlv  Discalced 
adhered  most  persevenngly  to  the  principles  of  these  who  has  been  general.    Clemente  Guignom  of  Palermo 
statutes;  that  their  consistency  in  this  respect  has  followed  (1756-62),  and  then  Joannetio  was  elected 
proved  a  source  of  prosperity,  vigour,  and  inner  ceneral  for  the  second  time  (1762-68),  this  occurrence 
strength  is  universally  known.    •  beine  absolutely  unique  in  the  history  of  the  order. 
About  this  period  the  so-called  Counter-Reforma-  Pascnale  Frosconi  (1768-91)  of  Milan  tried  in  vain  on 
tion  was  burstmfl;  into  vigorous  life  in  the  North,  and  several  occasions  to  hold  a  general  chapter.    During 
the  order  enterea  on  a  new  period  of  strenuous  vitality,  his  long  period  of  office,  the  Spaniards  endeavoured  to 
The  Reformation  had  dealt  a  terrible  blow  to  the  break  away  from  the  order  ([1774),  and  the  evil  effects 
Franciscans  in  these  parts,  annihilating  in  many  of  Gallicanism  and  Febronianism  were  beinjg  already 
instances  entire  provinces.    Supported  now  by  the  universally  felt,  kings  and  princes  suppressing  many 
emperor  and  the  Catholic  princes,  they  advanced  to  of  the  cloisters  or  forbidding  intercourse  with  Rome, 
regain  their  old  position  and  to  found  new  cloisters.  In  1766  Louis  XV  establii£ed  in  France  the  Com^ 
from  which  thejr  could  minister  to  their  flocks.    To  mimoncfes/^^ruliera,  which,  presided  over  by  Cardinal 
brin^  into  subjection  the  four  rather  lax  French  de  Brienne  and  conducted  with  the  greatest  pei^dy, 

!>rovmces  which  were  known  as  the  Pravinda  con-  brought  about  in  1771  a  union  between  the  Conven- 

aHeraUB  and  were  thenceforward  always  too  much  tuals  and  the  French  Observants.    The  former  had 

inclined  to  shelter  themselves  behind  the  government,  but  three  provinces  with  forty-eight  monasteries, 

the  ^neral,  Bernardine  of  Sena  (Portueal,  1625-33),  while  the  latter  had  seven  provinces  and  287  monas- 

obtamed  from  Urban  VIII  the  Bull  of  1  October,  1625.  teries.    The  French  Observants,  however,  were  al- 

The   French,  indeed,  justly  complained   that  the  ways  somewhat  inclined  towards  laxity,  particularly 

general  of  the  order  was  always  chosen  from  Italy  or  in  regard  to  the  rule  of  poverty,  and  had  obtained  in 

from  Spain.    The  privile^  usurped  by  the  Spanish  1673  and  1745  a  papal  Brief,  which  allowed  them  to 

kingps,  of  exertinga<;2Brt&dn  influence  in  the  election  and  retain  real  estate  and  vested  incomes.    The  French 

indeed  securing  that  the  general  should  be  alternately  Revolution  brought  about  the  annihilation  of  the 

a  Spaniard  and  an  Italian  (but  one  from  the  Crown  order  in  France. 

lands  of  Spain),  was  in  contradiction  to  all  Franciscan  In  Bavaria  (1769)  and  many  other  German  prinei- 

statutes  and  laws.    The  Spanish  generals,  further-  palities,  spiritual  and  secular,  the  order  was  suppressed, 

more,  resided  usually  at  Madrid,  instead  of  at  Rome,  but  nowhere  more  thoroughly  than  in  the  Austrian 

and  most  of  the  higher  offices  were  occupied  by  Span-  and  Belgian  states  of  Joseph  II  and  in  the  Kinedom 

iards — an  anomalous  situation  which  aroused  ^reat  of  the  Two  Sicilies  (1788)  tnen  ruled  by  Ferdinand  IV. 

resentment    amongst  the  friars   of  other  nations.  On  the  death  of  Pasquale  (1791)  Pius  Vl  appointed  as 

especially  France  and  in  Italy,  and  continued  until  eeneral  a  Spaniard,  Joachim  Compafiy  (1792-1806). 

1834.    This  introduction  of  national  politics  into  the  In  1804,  the  Spanish  Franciscans  efiFected,  with  the 


rBIABS 


287 


FBIABS 


aflristanoe  of  the  King  of  Spain,  their  complete  separa- 
tion  from  the  order,  although  the  sembltuice  of  unity 
was  still  retained  by  the  provision  of  Pius  VII,  that 
the  funeral  should  be  chosen  alternately  from  the 
Spaniards  and  the  other  nations,  .and  that,  durine  his 
term  of  office,  the  other  division  of  the  order  should  be 

fovemed  by  an  autonomous  vicar-general.  During 
793  and  1794  the  order  was  extinct  in  France  and 
Belgium;  and  from  1803  in  most  districts  in  Germany: 
from  1775  on,  it  was  sadly  reduced  in  Austria,  ana 
idso  in  Italy,  where  it  was  suppressed  in  1810.  The 
devastation  of  the  order  and  the  confusion  consequent 
on  it  were  deplorable.  The  generals  appointed  by  the 
pope,  Ilario  Uervelli  (1806-14),  Gaudenzio  Patrignani 
V1814-17),  Ciriflo  Almeda  y  Brea  (1817-24).  and 
Giovanni  Tecca  of  Capistrano  (1824-30),  rulea  over 
but  a  fraction  of  the  order,  even  though  prospects 
were  somewhat  brighter  about  this  perica.  In  1827, 
Tecca  published  the  statutes  which  had  been  drawn 
up  in  1768.  Under  the  Spanish  general,  Luis  Iglesias 
(1830-34),  the  formal  separation  of  Spanish  Francis- 
cans from  the  main  body  of  the  order  was  completed 
f  1832),  but  in.  1833  most  of  their  monasteries  were 
aestroyed  during  the  Peasants'  War  and  the  revolu- 
tion.  The  general,  Bartolom^  Altemir  (1834-38),  was 
banished  from  Spain  and  died  at  Bordeaux  in  1843, 
Giuseppe  Maria  Maniscalco  of  Alessandria  (1838-44) 
being  named  his  successor  by  Gregory  XVl.  The 
po^  also  appointed  the  two  succeeding  ^nerals, 
Lmgi  di  Loreta  (1844-50)  and  Venanzio  di  Celano 
(1850-56).  The  former,  in  1849,  named  Giuseppe 
Ariso  Commissary  of  the  Holy  Land.  In  1851, 
Ar^so  opened  the  nrst  monastery  at  Saint-Palais. 

About  this  p>eriod  Benigno  da  Valbona  introduced 
the  Reformati  into  France,  and  in  1852  founded  their 
first  monastery  at  Avignon,  while  Venansio  as  general 
laboured  indefat^bly  for  the  resuscitation  of  the 
Observants  in  the  same  country,  founding  new  mis- 
sions and  raising  the  standard  of  studies.  In  Russia 
and  Poland,  however,  many  monasteries  were  sup- 
pressed in  1831  and  1842,  a  general  strangulation 
being  afterwards  effected  b^  the  ukase  of  1864.  In 
1856,  at  the  general  chapter  in  the  Ara  Coeli  at  Rome, 
under  the  personal  presidency  of  Pope  Pius  IX,  Ber- 
nardino Tnpnf  etti  of  MY)ntef  ranco  was  elected  general 
( 1856-62) .  The  monasteries  of  Italy  were  suppressed 
by  the  Piedmontese  in  1866,  during  the  generalship  of 
RaffaeUo  Lippi  of  Ponticulo  (1862-69)  and  in  1873 
their  fate  was  shared  b^  the  houses  of  the  previously 
immune  Roman  provmce.  Bowed  with  grief  and 
years,  the  general  abdicated  (1869),  and,  as  a  general 
chapter  was  impossible,  Pius  IX  preferred  one  of  the 
Reformati,  Bernardino  del  Vago  of  Portogruaro 
(Portu  Romatino)  to  the  generalship  (1869-89). 
This  general  did  much  to  raise  the  status  of  the  order, 
and  founded,  in  1880,  an  official  ormn  for  the  whole 
order  (the  ''Acta  Otdinis  Minorum''),  which  contains 
the  official  decrees,  decisions,  and  publications  and 
also  many  works  on  canon  law  and  ascetic  theology 
for  the  discipline  of  the  order.  Durine  his  term  of 
office  the  Prussian  KuUurkampf  expelledthe  majority 
of  the  German  Franciscans  (1875),  most  of  whom 
settled  in  North  America,  and  the  French  monasteries 
were  suppressed  (1880),  the  scattered  Franciscans 
reassembhng  in  Italy.  The  Ara  Coeli  monastery,  the 
ancient  seat  of  the  general's  curia,  having  been  seised 
by  the  Italian  Government  to  make  room  for  the 
national  monument  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  the  general 
was  obliged  to  establish  a  new  mother-house.  The 
new  CoUegio  di  S.  Antonio  near  the  Lateran  was  made 
the  seat  of  the  minister  general;  it  is  also  an  inter- 
national college  for  the  training  of  missionaries  and 
lectors  (i.  e.  professore  for  the  schools  of  the  order). 
Bernardino  also  founded  the  CoUegio  di  S.  Bona- 
Ventura  at  Quaracchi,  near  Florence,  which  contains 
tiie  printing  press  of  the  order,  and  is  principally  in- 
tenaed  for  uie  publication  of  the  writings  of  tne  great 


Franciscan  scholars,  and  other  learned  works.  On  tbe 
retirement  of  Benu^ino  in  1889,  Luigi  Canali  of 
Parma  was  elected  general  (1889-97)  and  prepared  the 
way  for  the  union  of  the  four  reform  branches  of  the 
oraer  at  the  General  Chapter  of  Assisi  in  1895.  The ' 
reunion  is  based  on  the  constitutions  which  were 
drawn  up  under  the  presidency  of  Aloysius  Lauer  and 
approved  on  15  May,  1897.  Leo  XIIl  completed  the 
umon  by  his  Bull  '^Felicitate  quidam"  of  4  October, 
which  removed  every  distinction  between  the  branches, 
even  the  di£ference  of  name,  and  coaseauently  there 
exists  to-day  one  single,  tmdivid^  Oraer  of  Friars 
liinor  {Ordo  Fratrum  Mirufrum,  O.  F.  M.).  On  the 
resignation  of  Canali  as  general,  Leo  XIII  appointed 
Aloysius  Lauer  (4  Oct..  1897)  of  Katholisch-Willen- 
roth  ^province  of  Kassel,  Prussia) .  who  introduced  the 
principles  of  the  union  gradually  but  firmly,  as  it 
mvolved  many  changes,  especially  in  Italv  and  Aus- 
tria. On  his  death  (21  August,  1901)  Aloysius  was 
succeeded  as  vicar-general  bv  David  Fleming,  an 
Irish  friar  attached  to  the  English  province.  At  the 
^neral  chapter  of  1903,  Dionysius  Schuler,  of  Schlatt, 
m  Hohensollem,  who  belonged,  like  Father  Lauer,  to 
the  province  of  Fulda  (Thuringia)  and  had  laboured 
in  the  United  States  from  1875,  was  elected  jgeneral. 
He  also  devoted  himself  to  the  complete  estabhshment 
of  the  union,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  general 
reunion  of  theSpanisn  Franciscans  with  the  order. 
At  the  General  Cnapter  (or  more  correctly  spe^ng 
the  Congregatio  media)  of  Assisi  on  29  Ma^,  1909,  the 
order  celebrated  tiie  seventh  centenary  of  its  glorious 
foundation. 

At  present  (1909)  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  includes 
among  its  membera:  (1)  two  cardinals:  Joe^  Sebastifio 
Neto,  Patriarch  of  LisDon;  created  in  1883  (resigned 
in  1907);  Gregorio  Aguirre  y  Garcfa,  Archbishop  of 
Burgos,  created  in  1907;  (2)  six  archbishops,  including 
Monsi^or  Diomede  Falconio,  Apostolic  Deleeate  to 
ihe  United  States  since  1907;  (3)  thirty-two  bishops 
and  one  prelate  nuUius  (of  Santarem  m  Brasil) ;  (4) 
'  three  pr^ects  Apostolic. 

II.  The  Refobm  Pabubs.— A.  First  Period  (1226- 
1517). — Ail  Franciscan  reforms  outside  of  the  Obeer- 
vants  were  ordered  to  be  suppressed  by  papal  decree  in 
1506,  and  a^ain  in  1517,  but  not  with  complete  success. 
The  Clarem  are  dealt  with  under  Anqelo  Clareno  da 
CiNQULi;  the  Fraticelli  and  Spirituals  under  their 
respective  headings.  The  so-called  Cssarines,  or 
followers  of  Csesar  of  Speyer  (q.v.)  (c.  1230-37),  never 
existed  as  a  separate  cpnmgation.  The  Amadeans 
were  founded  by  Pedro  Jofio  Mendez  (also  called 
Amadeus),  a  Portuguese  nobleman,  who  laboured  in 
Lombardy.  When  he  died,  in  1482,  his  congregation 
had  twenty-eight  houses  out  was  afterwards  sup- 
pressed by  Pius  V.  The  Caperolani,  founded  also  m 
Lombardy  by  the  renowned  preacher  Pietro  Caperolo 
(a.v.) ,  returned  in  1480  to  the  ranks  of  the  Observants. 
Tne  Spiritual  followers  of  Anthony  of  Castelgiovanni 
and  Matthias  of  Tivoli  flourished  durins  the  period 
1470-1490;  some  of  their  ideas  resembled  those  of 
Kaspar  Waler  in  the  province  of  Strasburg,  which 
were  immediately  repressed  by  the  authorities. 
Among  the  reforms  in  Spain  were  that  of  Pedro  de 
ViUacreces  (1420)  and  the  sect  called  della  Capucciola 
of  Felipe  Berbeeal  (1430),  suppressed  in  1434.  More 
important  was  the  reform  of  iJuan  de  la  Puebla  (1480]), 
whose  pupil  Juan  de  Guadalupe  increased  the  severi- 
ties of  the  reform.  His  adherents  were  known  as 
GuadoLupenseSf  Discalced,  Capttdati,  or  Fratree  de  S, 
ETfonadw,  and  to  them  belonged  Juan  Zumarraga,  the 
first  Bishop  of  Mexico  (1530-48),  and  St.  Peter  of 
Alcdntara  (d.  1562,  cf.  below).  The  Neutrales  were 
wavering  Conventuals  in  Italy  who  accepted  the 
Observance  only  in  appearance.  Founded  in  1463, 
they  were  supjpressed  in  1467.  This  middle  position 
between  the  Observants  and  Conventuals  was  also 
taken  by  the  Martinianists,  or  MartinianSi  and  the 


VBIAB8  288  FBIABS 

Refonnati  (Observants)  nib  minutris  or  de  Commvr  a  province.  He  forbade  even  sandalsto  be  worn  on  the 
mlaU,  These  took  as  their  basis  the  decrees  of  the  feet,  prescribed  complete  abstinence  from  meat,  pro- 
Chapter  of  Assisi  (1^30),  but  wished  to  live  under  hibited  libraries,  in  all  of  which  measures  he  far  ex- 
provincial  ministers.  They  .existed  mostly  in  Ger-  ceeded  the  intentions  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi.  From 
many  and  France,  and  in  the  latter  country  were  him  is  derived  the  name  Alcantarines,  which  is  often 
called  Coletani,  for  what  reason  it  is  not  quite  clear  fldveh  to  the  Discalced  Friars  Minor.  Peter  died  in 
(cf.  CoLETTB,  Saint).  To  this  party  belonged  Boni-  October.  1562,  at  a  house  of  the  Observants,  with 
face  of  Ceva,  a  sturdy  opponent  of  the  separation  of  whom  aU  the  Spanish  reforms  had  entered  into  unioz\ 
the  Conventuals  from  the  Observants.  in  the  preceding  spring.    The  province  of  St.  Joseph, 

B.  Second  Period  (1617-1897). — Even  within  the  however,  did  not  rest  until  it  nad  redeveloped  aU  its 

pale  of  the  Regular  Observance,  which  constituted  old  peculiarities.    In  1572  the  members  were  first 

From  1517  the  main  body  of  the  order,  there  existed  called  in  papal  documents  DiecalceaH  or  ExcalceaU, 

plenty  of  room  for  various  interpretations  without  and  in  1578  they  were  named  Fratres  Capucird  de 

prejudicing  the  rule  itself,  althoufiji  the  debatable  ObservanHd.    Soon   other  provinces  followed  their 

area  had  been  considerably  restricted  bv  the  definition  example,  and  in  1604  the  Discalced  friars  petitioned 

of  its  fundamental  requuements  and,  prescriptions,  for  a  vicar-general,  a  definitor  general,  and  a  general 

The  Franciscan  Order  as  such  has  never  evaded  the  chap|ter  of  their  own.    In  1621  Pope  Gregory  XV. 

main  principles  of  the  rule,  has  never  had  them  abro-  captivated  by  the  eloquence  of  the  lay  brother  Paul 

gated  or  been  dispensed  from  them  b]r  the  pope.    The  of  Madrid,  appointed  a  vicar-general,  although  manv 

reformssincel517,  therefore,  have  neither  been  in  any  were  oppoeea  to  the  appointment.    On  Uregoixs 

sense  a  return  to  the  rule,  since  the  Order  of  Friars  death  (8  July,  1623)  his  concessions  to  the  Dis^oed 

Minor  has  never  deviated  from  it^  nor  have  they  been  friars  were  reversed  by  Urban  VIII,  who,  however,  in 

a  protest  against  a  universal  lax  interpretation  of  the  1642  recognised  their  provinces  as  interdependent, 

rule  on  the  part  of  the  order,  as  was  that  of  the  Obeer-  Hiey  were  not  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ultra- 

vants  against  the  Conventuals.  The  later  reforms  may  montane  commissary  general,  and  received  in  1703 

be  more  truly  described  as  repeated  attempts  to  draw  their  own  procurator  general,  who  was  afterwards 

nearer  to  the  exalted  ideal  of  St.  Francis.    Frequently,  chosen  (alternately)  for  them  and  the  Recollects, 

it  is  true,  these  reforms  dealt  only  with  externals —  They  never  had  general  statutes,  and,  when  such  were 

outward  exereises  of  piety,  austenties  in  the  rule  of  prepared  in  1761,  by  Joannetio,  a  general  from  their 

life,  etc.,  and  these  were  in  many  cases  gradually  own  branch,  the  provinces  refused  to  accept  them, 

recast,  mitimted,  had  even  entirely  .disappeared,  and  The  Discalced  gradually  established  houses  in  numer- 

by  1897  nothing  was  left  but  the  name.    The  Capu-  ous  provinces  in  Spain,  America,  the  Philippines,  the 

crnns  are  treated  in  a  separate  article;  the  other  lead-  East  Indies  and  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  which  was  at 

ing  reforms  within  the  Observance  are  the  Discalced,  this  period  under  Spanish  rule.    The  first  housesestab- 

the  Refonnati.  and  the  Recollects.    The  Observants  lished  in  Naples  were  handed  over  by  Sixtus  V  to  the 

are  desi^iated  by  the  simple  addition  of  reffularie  Reformed  Conventuals  in  1589.    In  addition  to  the 

abaervanlus.  while  these  reformed  branches  add  to  the  above,  a  house  in  Tuscany  and  another  in  London 

general  title  etricHorie  obeervarUicB,  that  is,  "  of  the  must  be  mentioned.    This  branch  was  suppressed  in 

stricter  Observance''.  1897. 

(1)  The  Diecdced. — Juan  de  la  Puebla  has  been        (2)  TheReformaH, — ^The  proceedings  of  the  general 

incorrectly  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Discalced  Pisotti  against  the  houses  of  the  Italian  Recollects  led 

Friars  Minor,  since  the  province  of  the  Holy  Angels  some  of  the  friars  of  the  Stricter  Observance  under  the 

(de  los  Angelos),  compoised  of  his  followers,  has  ever  leadership  of  Francis  of  Jesi  and  Bemardine  of  Asti 

remained  a  province  of  the  Observants.    The  Dis-  to  approach  Clement  VII,  who  by  the  Bull '' In  supre- 

calced  owe  their  onan  rather  to  Juan  de  Guadelupe  ma''  (1532)  authorised  them  to  go  completely  bare- 

(cf.  above).    He  belonged  indeed  to  the  reform  of  foot  and  granted  them  a  separate  custody  under  tiie 

Juan  de  la  Puebla,  but  not  for  long,  as  he  received  provincial.    Both  these  leaders  joined  the  Capuchins 

Eermission  from  Alexander  VI.  in  1496,  to  found  a  m  1535.    The  Reformati  ate  cooked  food  only  twice 

ermitage  with  six  brothers  in  tne  district  of  Granada,  in  the  week,  scourjged  themselves  frequently,  and 

to  wear  the  Franciscan  habit  in  its  original  form,  and  recited  daily,  in  addition  to  the  universally  prescribed 

to  preach  wherever  he  wished.    These  privileges  were  choir-service,  the  Office  of  the  Dead,  the  Omce  of  the 

renewed  in  1499,  but  the  Spanish  kingjs,  influenced  by  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Seven  Penitential  Psalms,  etc.. 

the  Observants  of  the  province,  obtamed  their  with-  which  far  exceeded  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis,  and  could 

drawal.    They  were  again  conterred,  however,  by  a  not  be  maintained  for  long.    In  1579  Gr^ry  XIII 

papal  Brief  in  1503,  annulled  in  1507,  while  in  1515  released  them  entirely  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 

these  friars  were  able  to  establish  the  custody  of  Estre-  provincials  and  almost  completely  from  that  of  the 

madura.    The  union  of  1517  again  put  an  end  to  their  general,  while  in  Rome  they  were  given  the  renowned 

separate  existence,  but  in  1520  the  province  of  St.  monastery  of  S.  Francesco  a  Ripa-    In  the  same  year 

Gabriel  was  formed  from  this  custody,  and  as  early  (1579),  however,  the  general,  Gonsaga,  obtained  the 

as  151$  the  houses  of  the  Discalced  fnars  in  Portugal  suspension  of  the  decree,  and  the  new  Constitutions 

constituted  the  province  de  la  Pietade.'   The  dogged  promulgated  by  Bonaventure  d  Caltagirone,  general 

S^rtinacity  of  Juan  Pasqual,  who  belonged  now  to  the  m  1595,  ensured  their  affiliation  with  the  provinces 

bservants  and  now  to  the  Conventuals,  according  to  of  the  order.    Althou^  Clement  VIII  approved  these 

the  facilities  afforded  him  to  pursue  the  ideas  of  the  statutes  in  1595,  it  did  not  deter  him,  m  1596,  from 

old  Egyptian  hermits,  withstood  every  attempt  at  reissuing  Gre^nr  XIII's  Brief  of  1579,  and  grantine 

repression.    After  much  difficulty  he  obtained  a  [Nipal  the  Reformati  tneir  own  procurator.    At  the  suit  (x 

Brief  in  1541,  authorizing  him  to -collect  companions,  two  lay  brothers,  in  1621,  Gregory  XV  not  only  con- 

whereup<rn  he  founded  the  custody  of  Sts.  Simon  and  firmed  this  concession,  but  gave  the  Reformati  Uieir 

Jude,  or  custody  of  the  Paschalites  (abolished  in  own  vicar-general,  general  chapter,  and  definitors  ^en- 

in  1583),  and  a  custody  of  St.  Joseph.    The  Paschal-  eral.     Fortunately  for  the  order,  these  concessions 

ites  won  a  strong  champion  in  St.  reter  of  Alcdntara,  were  revoked  in  1624  by  Urban  YlII,  who,  however, 

the  minister  of  the  province  of  St.  Gabriel,  who  in  by  his  Bull  ''Iniuncti  nobis''  of  1639,  raised  aU  the 

1557  joined  the  Conventuals.    As  successor  of  Juan  custodies  of  the  Reformati  in  Italy  and  Poland  to  the 

Pasqual  and  Commissary^  General  of  the  Reformed  dignity  of  provinces.    In  1642  the  Reformati  drew  up 

Conventual  Friars  in  Spain.  Peter  founded  the  poor  their  own  statutes;  these  were  naturally  composed  in 

and  diminutive  hermitage  or  Pedroso  in  Spain,  and  in  Italian,  since  Italy  was  alwavs  the  home  of  this  brandi 

1559  raised  the  custody  of  St.  Joseph  to  the  dignity  of  of  the  Friars  Mmor.    In  1620  Antonio  Arrigoni  a 


FBIAB8  289  ntlABft 

Galbatio  was  sent  by  the  Reformati  into  Bavaria,  and,  for  which  St.  Francis  made  special  provision  served 

despite  the  opposition  of  the  local  Observants,  sue-  for  this  object.    These  always  existeci  in  the  order  and 

eeeded  in  1625  in  uniting  into  one  province  ci  the  were  naturally  the  first  cloisters  of  which  reformers 

Reformati  the   monastenes  of  the  Archduchy  of  sought  to  obtain  possession.    This  policy  was  followed 

Bavaria,  which  belonged  to  the  Upper  German  (Stras-  by  the  Spanish  Disealced,  for  example  in  the  province 

burg)  province.    The  new  provmce  thenceforth  be-  of  S.  Antonio  in  Portugal  ri639).    They  had  vainly 

loneed  to  the  cismontane  family.    Arrigoni  also  in-  endeavoured' (1581)  to  make  themselves  masters  m 

troduced  in  1628  the  reform  into  the  province  of  St.  the  recoUection-houses  of  the  province  of  Tarragona, 

Leopold  in  the  Tyrol,  into  Austria  in  1632,  and  into  where  their  purpose  was  defeated  by  Angelo  de  Pas 

Bohemia  in  1660,  and  succeeded  in  winning  these  (1581),  and  of  the  province  of  Catalonia  (1622).    As 

countries  entirely  over  to  his  branch,  Carinthia  fol-  Martial  Bouchier  had  in  1502  prescribed  the  institu- 

Howing  in  1688.    After  many  disappointments,  the  tion  of  these  houses  in  every  province  of  the  Spanish 

ttwo  Polish  custodies  were  raised  to  the  status  of  Observants,  they  wer^  found  everywhere,  ana  from 

provinces  of  the  Reformati  in  1639.    In  the  course  them  issued,  the  Capuchins,  the  Reformati,  and  ihe 

tof  time,  the  proximity  of  houses  Of  the  Reformati  Recollects.    The  specific  nature  of  these  convente 

and  the  Observants  gave  rise  to  unedifying   con-  was  opposed  to  their  inclusion  in  any  province,  sinc^ 

tentions  and  rivalry,  especially  in  Italy.    Among  the  even  the  care  of  souls  tended  to  defeat  their  main 

heroic  figures  of  the  Reformati,  St.  Pacificus  otSan  object  of  seclusion  and  sequestration  from  the  world. 

Severino  calls  for  special  mention.    St.  Benedict  of  The  general  chapter  of  1676  ordained  the  foundation 

San  Fidelf o  cannot  be  reckoned  among  the  Reformati,  of  three  or  four  such  convents  in  every  province — ^a 

ashediedinaretreat  of  the  Recollects;  nor  should  St.  prescript  which  was  repeated  in  1758.    The  ritiri 

Leonard  of  Port  Maurice,  who  belonged  rather  to  the  (rUiro,  a  house  in  which  one  lives  in  retirement),  intro- 

Bo-called  RifarmeOaj  introduced  into  the  Roman  Prov-  duced  into  the  Roman  Province  of  the  Observants 

ince  by  Bl.  Bonaventure  of  Barcelona  in  1662.    The  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  centuiy,  were  also 

principal  house  of  the  Rif ormella  was  that  of  S.  Bona-  of  this  class,  and  even  to-day  such  houses  are  to  be 

Ventura  on  the  Palatine.    St.  Leonard  founded  two  found  among  Franciscan  monasteries, 
similar  monasteries  in  Tuscany,  one  of  which  was  that        (c)  The  luicollects  of  the  so-called  German-Belgian 

of  Incontro  near  Florence.    These  were  to  serve  as  nation  have  nothing  in  common  with  any  of  the 

places  of  religious  recollection  and  spiritual  refresh-  above-mentioned    reforms.    The    province    of    St. 

ment  for  priests  engaged  in  mission-work  among  the  Joseph  in  Flanders  was  the  only  one  constituted  of 

people.    Like  the  Di»Balced,  the  Reformati  ceased  to  several  recollection-houses  (1629).    In  1517  the  old 

nave  a  separate  existence  in  1897.  Saxon  province  (Saxonia),  embracing  over  100  monas- 

(3)  The  RecoUeda  {RecoUedt), — (a)  The  founda-  teries,  was  divided  into  the  Saxon  province  of  the 
tion  of  "recollection-houses"  in  France,  where  they  Observants  (Saxonia  S.  Cruds)  and  tne  Saxon  prov- 
were  badly  needed  even  by  the  Observants,  was  per-  ince  of  the  Conventuals  (Saxonia  S.  Johannis  Bap- 
haps  due  to  Spanish  influence.  After  the  bloody  tistfis).  The  province  of  Cologne  (Colonia)  and  the 
religious  wars,  wnich  exercised  an  enervating  effect  on  Upper  German  or  Strasburg  (Argentina)  province 
the  life  of  the  cloister,  one  house  of  this  description  were  also  similarly  divided  between  the  Observants 
was  founded  at  Cluys  in  1570,  but  was  soon  discon-  and  the  Conventuals.  The  proposed  erection  of  a 
tinned.  The  general  of  the  order,  Gonza^,  undertook  Thuringian  province  (Thuringia)  had  to  be  relin- 
the  establishment  of  such  houses,  but  it  was  Franz  quishedf  in  consequence  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Ref- 
Dozieck,  a  former  Capuchin,  who  first  set  them  on  a  ormation.  The  Saxon  province  was  subsequently 
finn  basis.  He  was  the  first  custoe  of  these  houses,  reduced  to  the  single  monastery  of  Halberstadt, 
among  which  that  of  Rabastein  was  the  most  con-  which  contained  in  1628  but  one  priest.  The  prov- 
epicuous.  Italian  Reformati  had  meanwhile  been  ince  of  Cologne  then  took  over  the  Saxon  province, 
invitcKl  to  Nevers,  but  had  to  retire  owing  to  the  whereupon  both  took  on  a  rapid  and  vigorous  growth, 
antipathy  of  the  population.  In  1 595  Bonaventure  of  and  the  foundation  of  the  Thuringian  Province  (Fulda) 
Caltagirone,  as  general  of  the  order,  published  special  became  possible  in  1633.  In  1762  the  last-named 
statutes  for  these  French  houses,  but  with  the  assis-  province  was  divided  into  the  Upper  and  the  Lower 
tance  of  the  Government,  which  favoured  the  reform-  Thuringian  provinces.  In  1621  tne  Cologne  province 
ing  party,  the  houses  obtained  in  1601  the  appointment  had  adopted  the  statutes  of  the  recollection-houses  for 
of  a  special  commissary  Apostolic.  The  members  all  its  monasteries,  although  it  was  not  until  1646  that 
were  called  the  RicoUds — since  RSform^  was  the  the  friars  adopted  the  name  RecoUecH,  This  example 
name  given  by  the  French  to  the  Calvinists — and  also  was  followed  by  the  other  provinces  of  this  ''nation", 
the  Cordeliers,  the  ancient  name  for  both  the  Obser-  and  in  1682  this  evolution  m  Germany,  Belgium,  Hol- 
vants  cmd  Conventuals.  As  reeards  the  interpreta-  land,  England,  and  Ireland,  all  of  which  belonged  to  this 
tion  of  the  rule,  there  were  ratner  important  differ-  nation,  was  completed  without  anv  essential  changes 
ences  between  the  Cordelier-Observants  and  the  in  the  Franciscan  rule  of  life.  The  Recollects  pre- 
R6collete,  the  interpretation  of  the  latter  being  much  served  in  general  very  strict  discipline  The  charge  is 
stricter.  From  1606  the  lUcoUets  had  their  own  prov-  often  unjustly  broueht  against  them  that  they  have 
inces,  amon^t  them  being  that  of  St-Denis  (Dionv-  produced  no  saints,  out  this  is  true  ouly  of  canonized 
sius)^  a  very  important  province  which  undertook  the  saints.  That  there  have  been  numerous  saints 
missions  in  Canada  ■  and  Mozambique.  They  were  amongst  the  friars  of  this  branch  of  the  Franciscan 
also  the  chaplains  in  the  French  army  and  won  renown  Order  is  certain,  although  they  have  never  been  dis- 
as  preachers.  The  French  kings,  beginning  with  tinguished  bv  canonization — ^a  fact  due  partly  to  the 
Henry  IV,  honoured  and  esteemed  them,  but  kept  sceptical  and  fervourless  character  of  the  population 
them  in  too  close  dependence  on  the  throne.  Thus  amongst  which  they  lived  and  partly  to  the  strict  dis- 
the  notorious  Commtseian  dee  RSgidiera  (1771)  aUowed  cipline  of  the  order,  which  forbade  and  repressed  all 
the  R6collets  to  remain  in  France  without  amalga-  that  singes  out  for  attention  the  individual  friar, 
mating  with  the  Conventuals.  At  this  period  the  R^  The  German-Beldan  nation  had  a  special  com- 
Gollets  had  11  provinces  with  2534  cloisters,  but  all  missary  general,  and  from  1703  a  general  procurator 
were  suppressed  by  the  Revolution  (1791).  at  Rome,  who  represented  also  the  Disealced.    They 

(b)  Recollection-houses  are,  strictly  speaking,  those  also  frequently  m^ntain^  a  special  agent  at  Rome, 

monasteries  to  which  friars  desirous  of  ae voting  them-  When  Benedict  XIII  sanctioned  their  national  stat- 

selves  to  prayer  and  penance  can  withdraw  to  conse-  utes  in  1729,  he  demanded  the  relinquishment  of  the 

erate  their  lives  to  spiritual  recollection.    From  the  name  of  Recollects  and  certain  minor  peculiarities  in 

very  inception  of  the  order  the  so-called  hermitages  their  habit,  but  in  1731  the  Recollects  obtained  from 
VT— 19 


FBIABS                                290  FRIAB8 

Clement  XII  the  withdrawal  of  these  injunctions.  In  Church.  In  1838,  the  Eiuflish  province  contained 
consequence  of  the  effects  of  the  French  Revolution  on  only  9  friara,  and  on  its  dissoUition  in  1840,  the  Belgian 
Germany  and  the  Imperial  Delegates'  Enactment  Recollects  b^gan  the  fotmdation  of  new  houses  in 
(1803),  the  province  of  Cologne  was  completely  sup-  England  and  one  at  Killamey  in  Ireland.  On  15 
pressed  and  the  Thuringian  (Fulda)  reduced  to  two  August,  1887,  the  English  houses  were  declared  an 
monasteries.  The  Bavarian  and  Saxon  i>rovinces  independent  custody,  and  on  12  February,  IS^l,  a 
afterwards  developed  rapidly,  and  their  cloisters,  in  province  of  the  order.  At  the  present  day  (1909) 
spite  of  the  KuUurkampL  which  drove  most  of  the  the  En^ish  province  comprises  in  England  and  Scotr 
Prussian  Franciscans  to  Aitnerica,  where  rich  harvests  Icmd  11  convents,  with  145  friars,  their  11  pari^es 
awaited  their  labours,  bore  such  fruit  that  the  Saxon  containing  some  40,000  Catholics;  the  Irish  province 
province  Twhose  cloisters  are,  however,  mostly  situ-  comprises  15  convents  with  139  brothers, 
ated  in  Rheinland  and  Westphalia),  although  it  has  III.  Statistics  of  thb  Order  (1260-1909). — The 
fotmded  three  new  provinces  in  North  America  and  Order  of  St.  Francis  spread  with  a  rapidity  unez* 
Brazil,  and  the  custody  of  Silesia  was  separated  from  pected  as  it  was  unprecedented.  At  the  general 
it  in  1902,  is  still  numerically  the  strongest  province  chapter  of  1221,  where  for  the  last  time  ail  members 
of  the  order,  with  615  members.  In  1894  the  custody  without  distinction  could  appear.  3000  friars  were 
of  Fulda  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  province.  The  present.  The  order  still  continued  its  rapid  develop- 
Belgian  province  was  re-erected  in  1844,  after  the  ment,  and  Elias  of  Cortona  (1232-39)  divided  it  into 
Dutch  had  been  already  some  time  in  existence.  72  provinces.  Oti  the  removal  of  Elias  the  number 
The  separate  existence  of  the  Recollects  also  ceased  in  was  fixed  at  32 ;  by  1274  it  had  risen  to  34,  and  it  re- 
1897.  mained  stable  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
Qreat  Britain  and  Ireland. — The  Franciscans  came  centuries.  To  this  period  belongs  the  institution  of 
to  En«;land  for  the  first  time  in  1224  under  Blessed  the  vicaricB,  which,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  Scot- 
Agnellus  of  Pisa,  but  numbers  of  Englishmen  had  land,  lay  in  the  Balkans,  Russia,  and  the  Far  East, 
already  entered  the  order.  B^  their  stnct  and  chee>  It  has  been  often  stated  that  about  1300  the  Francis- 
ful  devotion  to  their  rule,  the  first  Franciscans  became  cans  numbered  200,000^  but  this  is  certainly  an  exag- 
conspicuous  figures  in  the  religious  life  of  the  country,  geration.-  Although  it  is  not  possible  to  arrive  at  the 
developed  rapidly  their  order,  and  enjoyed  the  highest  exact  figure,  Ihere  can  scarcely  have  been  more  than 
prestige  at  court,  among  the  nobility,  and  among  the  60,0CX)  to  90,000  friars  at  this  period.  In  1282  the 
people.  Without  relaxing  in  any  way  the  nue  of  cloisters  were  about  1583  in  number.  In  1316  the  34 
poverty,  they  devoted  themselves  most  zealously  to  provinces  contained  197  custodies  and  1408  convents; 
study,  especially  at  Oxford,  where  the  renowned  m  1340, 211  custodies  and  1422  convents;  in  1384, 254 
Robert  Grosseteste  displayed  towards  them  a  fatherly  custodies  and  1639  convents.  The  Observants  corn- 
interest,  and  where  thev  attained  the  highest  reputa-  pletely  altered  the  conformation  of  the  order.  In 
tion  as  teachers  of  philosophy  and  theology.  Their  1455  the^  alone  numbered  over  20,000;  in  1493,  over 
establishments  in  London  and  Oxford  date  mm  1224.  22,400  with  more  than  1200  convents.  At  the  divi- 
As  early  as  1230  the  Franciscan  houses  of  Ireland  were  sion  of  the  order,  in  1517,  they  formed  the  great 
united  into  a  separate  province.  In  1272,  the  English  majority  of  the  friars,  numbering  30,000  with  some 
province  had  7  custodies,  the  Irish  5.  In  1282,  the  1300  houses.  In  1520  the  Conventuals  were  reckoned 
former  (Provincia  Anplise)  had  58  convents,  the  lat-  at  20,000  to  25,000.  The  division  brought  about  a 
ter  (F^vincia  Hibermse)  57.  In  1316  the  7  English  complete  alteration  in  the  strei^th  and  the  territories 
custodies  still  contained  58  convents,  while  in  Ireland  of  me  various  provinces.  In  1517  the  Conventuals 
the  custodies  were  reduced  to  4  and  the  convents  to  still  retained  the  34  provinces  as  before,  but  many  of 

30.  In  1340,  the  number  of  custodies  and  houses  in  them  were  enfeebled  and  attenuated.  The  Obsery- 
Ireland  were  5  and  32  respectively;  about  1385,  5  and  ants,  on  the  other  hand,  fotmded  26  new  provinces  in 

31.  In  1340  and  1385,  there  were  still  7  custodies  in  1517,  retaining  in  some  cases  the  old  names,  in  other 
England;  in  1340  the  number  of  monasteries  had  cases  dividing  the  old  territorjr  into  several  provinces, 
fallen  to  52,  but  rose  to  60  by  1385.  Under  Elias  of  The  Refonnation  and  the  missionary  activity  of  the 
Cortona  (1232-^9)  Scotland  (Scotia)  was  separated  Minorites  in  the  Old,  and  especially  in  the  New^  Worid 
from  England  and  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  province,  soon  necessitated  wide  changes  m  the  distribution, 
but  in  1239  it  was  again  annexed  to  the  English  prov-  number,  and  extent,  of  the  provinces.  The  confusion 
ince.  When  again  separated  in  1329,  Scotland  re-  was  soon  increased  bv  the  inaug;uration  of  the  three 
ceived  with  its  six  cloisters  only  the  title  of  vicaria,  great  reformed  branches,  the  Discalced,  the  Refonn- 
At  the  request  of  James  I  of  Scotland,  the  first  Obser-  ati,  and  the  Recollects,  and,  as  these,  ^lle  remaining 
vants  from  the  province  of  Cologne  came  to  the  coun-  under  the  one  general,  formed  separate  provinces,  the 
try  about  1447,  under  the  leadership  of  Cornelius  von  number  of  provinoes  increased  enormously.  Thejr 
Ziriksee,  and  founded  seven  houses.  About  1482  the  were  often  situated  in  the  same  geographical  or  politi- 
Observants  settled  in  En^and  and  founded  their  first  cal  districts^  and  were,  except  in  the  Northern  lancLs, 
convent  at  Greenwich.  It  was  the  Observants  who  telescoped  mto  one  another  in  a  most  bewildering 
opposed  most  courageously  the  Reformation  in  Eng-  manner — a  condition  aggravated  in  the  South  (espe- 
land,  where  they  suffered  the  loss  of  all  their  provinces,  cially  in  Italy  and  Spam)  by  an  insatiate  desire  to 
The  Irish  province  still  continued  officially  but  its  found  as  many  provmces  as  possible.  The  French 
houses  were  situated  on  the  Continent  at  Louvain,  Revolution  (1789-95),  with  its  ensuine  wars  and  other 
Rome,  Prague,  etc.,  where  fearless  missionaries  and  disturbances,  made  great  changes  in  the  conformation 
eminent  scholars  were  trained  and  the  province  was  of  the  order  by  the  suppression  of  a  number  of  prov- 
re-established  in  spite  of  the  inhuman  oppression  of  inoes,  and  further  changes  were  due  to  the  seculariza- 
the  government  of  England.  By  the  decision  of  the  tion  and  suppression  of  monasteries  which  went  on 
general  chapter  of  1625,  the  direction  of  the  friars  was  during  the  nmeteenth  century.  The  union  of  1897 
carried  on  from  Douai,  where  the  English  Franciscans  sUU  nirther  reduced  the  number  of  provinces,  by 
had  a  convent,  but  in  1629  it  was  entrusted  to  the  amalgamating  all  the  convents  of  the  same  district 

fmend  of  the  order.    The  first  chapter  assembled  at  into  one  provmce. 

russeb  on  1  December,  1630.    Jonn  Gennings  was  The  whole  order  is  now  divided  into  twelve  circum- 

chosen  first  provincial,  but  the  then  bruited  proposal  scriptions,  each  of  which  embraces  several  provinoes, 

to  re-establish  the  Scottish  convents  could  not  be  districts,  or  countries.^  (1)  The  first  circumscription 

realised.    The  new  province  in  England,  which,  like  includes  Rome,  Umbria,  the  March  of  Ancona,  and 

the  Iri^,  belonged  to  the  Recollects,  gave  many  Bologna,  and  contains  4  provinoes  of  the  order,  112 

glorious  and  intrepid  martyrs  to  the  order  and  the  convents,  and  1443  friars.    (2)  The  second  embraces 


FBIABS 


291 


FRIABS 


Tuscany  and  Noriheni  Italy  and  contains  8  provinces, 
138  convents,  and  2038  relisious.  (3)  The  third  com- 
prises Southern  Italy  and  Naples  (except  Calabria), 
witii  4  provinces,  93  convents,  and  1063  relisious.  (4) 
The  fourth  includes  Sicily,  Calabria,  and  Malta,  and 
has  7  provinces,  85  convents,  and  1045  religious.  (5) 
Ilie  mth  embraces  the  Tyrol,  Carinthia,  Dalmatia, 
Bosnia,  Albania,  and  the  Holy  Land,  with  9  provinces, 
282  convents,  and  1792  religious.  (6)  The  sixth  com- 
prises Vienna,  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Croatia,  Gali- 
cia,  and  Bohemia,  with  7  provinces,  160  convents,  and 
1458  friars.  -(7)  The  seventh,  which  is  numerically 
the  strongest,  includes  Germany,  Holland,  and  Bel- 
gium, with Tprovinces,  129  convents,  and  2553 mem- 
bers. (8)  Tne  eighth  comprises  France,  Corsica, 
Great  Britain,  and  Canada,  with  7  provinces,  63  con- 
vents, and  975  religious.  (9)  The  ninth  comprises 
Porti^gal  and  Northern  Spain  with  5provinces,  39 
convents,  and  1124  religious.  (10)  The  tenth  em- 
braces Southern  Spain  and  the  Philippines,  with  4 
provinces,  48  houses,  and  910  religious.  (11)  The 
eleventh  includes  Central  and  South  America,  with  12 
provinces,  97  convents^  and  1298  members.  (12)  The 
twelfth  comprises  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  with 
7  provinces  (including  the  Polish  commissariate  at 
Pulaski,  Wisconsin),  167  convents,  and  1195  religious. 
The  total  figures  for  the  order  are  consequently  (4 
October,  19&),  81  provinces,  1413  convents  and  16,- 
894  Franciscans.  In  1905  the  Franciscans  numbered 
16,842  and  their  convents  1373.  For  the  second  last 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  lowest  figures 
are  recorded,  the  figures  announced  at  the  general 
chapter  of  1889  being:  Observants  6228,  Reiormati 
5733,  Recollects  1621,  Discalced  858— that  is  a  total 
of  14,440  Franciscans.  That  only  the  Recollects  had 
increased  since  1862  may  be  seen  from  the  figures  for 
that  year:  Observants  10,200,  Reformati  9889,  Recol- 
lects and  Discalced  together  1813— a  total  of  21,902 
liinorites.  Tlie  year  1768  gives  the  highest  figures — 
about  77,000  in  167  provinces.  In  1762,  the  Observ- 
ants had  87  provinces,  2330  convents,  and  39,900 
members;  the  Reformati  19,000  members  with  37 
provinces  and  800  convents;  t^e  Recollects  11,000 
members,  490  convents,  22  provinces;  the  Discalced 
7000  members,  430  convents,  20  provinces.  Total, 
76,900  Minorites,  4050  cloisters,  166  provinces.  In 
1700  the  total  was  63,400  Minorites,  3880  convents, 
and  154  provinces ;  about  1680, 60,000  Minorites,  3420 
convents,  and  151  provinces. 

rV.  Thb  Various  Names  of  the  Friars  Minor. — 
The  official  name,  Fratrea  Minorea  (Qrdo  Fratrum 
Minorum)  (O.F.M.),  or  Friars  Minor,  was  variously 
translated  into  the  popular  speech  of  tne  Middle  Ages. 
In  England  the  Fnars  Minor  were  commonly  known 
as  '*the  Grey  Friars''  from  the  colour  of  their  habit. 
This  name  corresponds  to  the  Grabr4drene  of  Denmark 
and  Scandinavia.  In  Germany  they  were  usually 
known  aa  the  BaarfHaaer  (ficuirfuozzenf  Barvueen, 
Barvoten,  BarfUzzeiif  etc.)»  that  is,  "Barefooted" 
(wearins  only  sandals).  In  France  they  were  usually 
called  uie  Garddiera  from  their  rope-girdle  (cordey 
oordeUe)  but  were  also  known  as  the  Frkrea  Menoura 
(from  FraJtrea  Minorea),  After  the  fifteenth  century 
the  term  Corddiera  was  applied  to  both  the  Conven- 
tuals and  the  Observants,  but  more  seldom  to  the 
lUcollets  (Recollects).  Their  popular  name  in  Italy 
was  the  Frati  Minorit  or  simply  the  Frati.  The 
Observants  were  long  known  in  that  country  as  the 
ZoccolanHf  from  their  foot-wear. 

V.  The  Habit. — ^The  habit  has  been  gradually 
changed  in  colour  and  certain  other  details.  Its  colour, 
which  was  at  first  grey  or  a  medium  brown,  is  now  a 
dark  brown.  The  dress,  which  consists  of  a  loose- 
deeved  gown,  is  confined  about  the  loins  by  a  white 
cord,  from  which  is  hun^,  since  the  fifteenth  century, 
the  Seraphic  rosary  with  its  seven  decades  (see  Crown, 
Franciscan).    A  long  or  short  under-habit  of  the 


same  or  a  different  colour  and  trousers  are  also  worn. 
Shoes  are  forbidden  by  the  rule,  and  may  be  worn 
only  in  case  of  necessity;  for  these  sandals  are  sub- 
stituted, and  the  feel^are  bare.  Around  the  neck  and 
over  the  shoulders  han^  the  cowl,  quite  separate  from 
the  habit,  and  under  it  is  the  shoulder^sape  or  mozetta, 
whieh  is  round  in  front  and  terminates  in  a  point  at 
the  back.  The  Franciscans  wear  no  head-dress,  and 
have  the  great  tonsure,  so  that  only  about  three  finger- 
breadths  of  hair  remain,  the  rest  of  the  scidp  bSng 
shaved.  In  winter  they  wear  about  their  necks  be- 
tween the  cowl  and  the  habit  the  round  mantle  which 
almost  reaches  the  knees. 

VI.  The  CoNSTrrunoN  op  the  Order  (see 
Francis,  Rule  of  St.). — During  the  lifetime  of  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  everything  was  directed  and  in- 
fluenced by  his  transcendent  personality.  The  dura- 
tion of  offices  was  not  defined,  and  consequently  the 
constitution  was  at  first  juridically  speaking,  absolute. 
From  1239,  that  is  after  the  experiences  of  the  order 
under  Ellas  of  Cortona,  the  order  gradually  developed 
a  monarchical  constitution.  The  chapter  of  defiinitors 
for  the  whole  order  (thirteenth  century),  the  chapter 
of  custodies  in  each  province,  the  diacretua  sent  by  the 
subordinate  convents  to  the  provincial  chapter,  etc. 
are  institutions  which  have  long  ceased  to  exist.  To 
the  past  also  belongs  the  custody  in  the  sense  of  a 
union  of  several  convents  within  a  province.  To-day 
a  custody  signifies  a  few  cloisters  constituting  a 
province  which  has  not  yet  been  canonicaUy  erected. 

The  present  constitution  is  as  follows:  The  whole 
order  is  directed  by  the  minister  general,  elected  bv 
the  provincial  ministers  at  the  general  chapter,  whicn 
meets  ever^  twelve  years.  At  first  his  term  of  office 
was  indefiiute,  that  is,  it  was  for  life;  in  1517  it  was 
fixed  at  six  years;  in  1571,  at  eight;  in  1587,  again  at 
six;  and  finally  the  twelve-year  period  of  office  was 
settled  on  by  Pius  IX  in  1862.  The  general  resides 
at  the  Collegio  S.  Antonio,  Via  Meralana,  Rome. 
The  order  is  divided  into  provinces  (that  is,  asso- 
ciations of  the  convents  in  one  countiy  or  district), 
which  prescribe  and  define  the  sphere  of  activit]^  of 
the  various  friars  within  their  spnere  of  jurisdiction. 
Several  provinces  together  form  a  circumscription,  of 
which  there  are  twdve  in  the  order.  Each  circum- 
scription sends  one  definitor  general,  taken  in  turn 
from  each  province,  to  Rome  as  one  of  the  counsellors 
to  the  minister  general.  These  definitors  are  elected 
for  six  years  at  the  general  chapter  and  at  the  congre- 
gaiio  intermedia  (also  called  frequently,  by  an  abuse 
of  the  term,  a  general  chapter),  summoned  by  the 
general  six  years  after  his  election.  The  general 
chapter  and  the  cangregaHo  intermedia  may  be  con^ 
vened  by  the  general  in  any  place.  The  provinces 
of  the  order  are  governed  by  the  provincials  (miniatri 
proinncialea)f  who  are  elected  every  three  years  at  the 
Provincial  chapter  and  constitute  the  general  chapter. 
Their  term  of  office,  like  that  of  the  general,  was  at 
first  undefined;  from  1517  to  1547  it  was  three  years; 
from  1547  to  1571,  six  years;  from  1571  to  1587,  four 
years;  since  1587,  three  years.  While  in  office,  the 
provincial  holds  every  year  (or  every  year  and  a  half) 
the  intermediate  chapter  (capitulum  intermedium)  ^  at 
which  the  heads  of  all  the  convents  of  the  province 
are  chosen  for  a  year  or  a  year  and  a  half.  The  local 
superiors  of  houses  {conoenJt^ua)  which  contain  at  least 
six  religious,  are  called  guardians  (earlier  wardens); 
otherwise  thev  receive  the  title  prceaea  or  superior. 
The  provincial  has  to  visit  his  own  province  and  watch 
oyer  the  observance  of  the  rule;  the  general  has  to 
visit  the  whole  order,  either  personally  or  by  means 
of  visitors  specially  appointed  by  him  (maitatorea 
generalea).  The  indiviaual  convents  consist  of  the 
Fathers  (Patrea),  i.e.  the  regular  priests,  the  clerics 
studving  for  the  priesthood  (fratrea  derioi)  and  the  lay 
brothers  en^agea  in  the  re^lar  service  of  the  house 
(fratrea  laici).    Newly  received  candidates  must  first 


FRIAB8  292  FBIAB8 

make  a  year's  novitiate  in  a  convent  specially  in-  chai^  of  the  Lateran  Basilica  in  Rome.    As  inquisi- 

tended  for  this  end.    Convents,  which  serve  certain  tors  against  heresv,  the  Franciscans  were  in  the  imme- 

definite  purposes  are  called  colleges  (coUegia).    These  diate  service  of  tne  Apostolic  See. 
must  not,  however,  be  confounded  with  the  Seraphic        Observing  a  much  stricter  rule  of  poverty  and 

colleges,  which  ,are  to  be  found  in  modem  times  in  renunciation  of  the  world  than  all  other  orders,  the 

most  of  the  provinces,  and  are  devoted  to  the  in-  Franciscans  exercised  during  the  Middle  Ages  a  most 

struction  of  youthful  candidates  in  the  humanities,  as  salutaiy  social  influence  over  the  enslaved  and  im- 

a  preparation  for  the  novitiate,  where  the  students  privileged  classes  of  the  population.    The  constant 

first  receive  the  habit  of  the  order.    No  friar,  convent,  model  of  a  practical  poverty  was  at  once  consoling 

or  even  the  order  itself  can  possess  any  real  property,  and  elevating.    The  vast  contributions  of  their  monas- 

(Cf .  Francis,  Rule  of  St.)  teries  towards  the  maintenance  of  the  very  poor  cannot 

The  duties  of  the  individual  Fathers  vary,  according  be  indicated  in  rows  of  figures,  nor  can  their  similar 

as  they  hold  offices  in  the  order,  or  are  engaged  as  contributions  of  tonday.    They  also  exerted  a  wide 

lectors  (professors])  of  the  different  sciences,  as  preach-  social  influence  through  their  third  order  (see  Third 

ers.  in  giving  missions,  or  in  other  occupations  within  Order).    They  tended  the  lepers,  especiuly  in  Get- 

or,  with  the  permission  of  the  superiors,  without  the  many;  the  constantly  recurring  pests  and  epidemics 

order.   The  cardinal-protector,  introduced  in  the  order  found  them  ever  at  their  post,  and  thousands  of  their 

by  St.  Francis  himself,  exercises  the  office  and  rights  number  sacrificed  their  lives  in  the  service  of  the 

of  a  protector  at  the  Roman  Curia,  but  has  no  power  pli^enstricken  populace.    Thev  erected  infirmaries 

over  the  order  itself.  and  foundling-hospitals.    The  (Jbservants  performed 

^  VII.    General  Sphere  of  the  Order'js  AcnviTT.  most  meritonous  social  work  especially  in  Italy  by  the 

— ^As  a  religious  order  in  the  service  of  the  Catholic  institution  of  mantes  pietatia  {monti  de  Pietd)^  in  the 

Church,  and  under  her  care  and  protection,  the  Fran-  fifteenth  century,  conspicuous  in  this  work  being  BL 

ciscaDs  were,  according  to  the  express  wish  of  their  Bemardine  of  Feltre  (q.  v.)  the  renowned  preacher, 

founder,  not  only  to  devote  themselves  to  their  own  In  England  they  fought  with  Simon  de  Montfort  for 

personal  sanctification,  but  also  to  make  their  aposto-  the  liberty  of  the  people  and  the  ideal  of  universal 

late  fruitful  of  salvation  to  the  people  in  the  world. '  brotherhood,  which  St.  Francis  had  inculcated  in 

That  the  former  of  these  objects  has  been  fulfilled  is  sermon  and  verse,  and  to  their  influence  may  be  partly 

clearly  indicated  by  the  number  of  Friars  Minor  who  traced  the  birth  of  the  idea  of  popular  government  in 

have  been  canonized  and  beatified  b}r  the  Church.  Italy  and  elsewhere  in  Europe. 
To  these  must  be  added  the  army  of  friars  who  have        VIII.  The  Preaching  AcrrvnT  of  the  Order. — 

in  the  stillness  of  retirement  led  a  life  of  virtue,  known  St.   Francis  exercised  great  influence  through  his 

in  its  fullness  to  God  alone,  a  mere  fraction  of  preaching,  and  his  example  has  been  sealoudy  fol- 

whose  names  fill  such  volumes  at  the  "Martyrologium  lowed  by  his  order  throughout  the  centuries  with 

Franciscanum"  of  Father  Arthur  du  Monstier  (Paris,  conspicuous  success,  evident  not  only  in  popular 

1638  and  1653)  and  the  ''Menologium  trium  ordinum  applause  but  in  the  profound  effects  producea  on  the 

S.  P.  Francisci"  of  Fortunatus  HQber  (Munich,  1688),  lives  of  the  people.    At  first  all  the  friars  were  allowed 

containing  the  names  of  the  thousands  of  martyrs  to  deliver  simple  exhortations  and,  with  the  pei^ 

who  have  laid  down  their  lives  for  the  Faith  in  Europe  mission  of  St.  Francis,  dogmatic  and  penitential  ser- 

and  elsewhere  under  the  heathen  and  heretic.  mons.    This  privilege  was  restricted  in  1221,  and  still 

Like  all  human  institutions,  the  order  at  times  fell  further  in  1223,  after  which  year  only  specially  trained 
below  its  first  perfection.  Such  a  multitude  of  men,  and  tested  friars  were  allowed  to  preach.  Tne  Fran- 
with  their  human  infirmities  and  ever-changing  duties,  ciscans  have  always  been  eminently  popular  preachers, 
could  never  perfectly  translate  into  action  the  exalted  e.  g.  Berthold  of  Katisbon  (q.  v.),  a  German,  who  died 
ideals  of  St.  Francis,  as,  the  more  supernatural  and  in  1272;  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  (d.  1231);  Gilbert  of 
sublime  the  ideas,  the  ruder  is  their  collision  with  Toumai  (d.  about  1280) ;  Eudes  Rif;auld,  Archbishop 
reality  and  the  more  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  of  Rouen  (d.  1275) ;  Leo  Valvasson  of  Perego,  after- 
feebleness  of  man.  That  an  aspiration  after  the  wards  Bishop  of  Milan  (d.  1263);  Bona  venture  of 
fundamental  glorious  ideal  of  their  founder  has  ever  Jesi  (d.  about  1270);  Conrad  of  Saxony  (or  of  Brun»- 
distingiushed  the  order  is  patent  from  the  reforms  wick)  (d.  1270);  Louis,  the  so-called  Greculus(c.  1300); 
ever  arising  in  its  midst,  and  especially  from  the  Haymo  of  Faversham  (d.  1244) ;  Ralph  of  Rosa  (c. 
history  of  the  Observance,  inaugurated  and  established  1250).  The  acme  of  Franciscan  preaching  was 
in  the  face  of  such  seemingly  overwhelming  odds,  reached  by  the  Observants  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
The  order  was  established  to  minister  to  all  classes,  especially  in  Italy  and  Germany.  Of  the  many  illus- 
and  the  Franciscans  have  in  every  age  discharged  tnous  preachers,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  St. 
the  spiritual  offices  of  confessor  and  preacher  in  the  Bemardine  of  Siena  (d.  1444) ;  St.  John  Capistran  (d. 
palaces  of  sovereigns  and  in  the  huts  ot  the  poor.  Un-  1456) ;  St.  James  of  the  March  (d.  1476) ;  Bl.  Albert 
der  popes,  emperors,  and  kings  they  have  served  aa  Berdini  of  Sarteano  (d.  1450);  Anthony  of  Rimini  (d. 
ambassadors  and  mediators.  One  nundred  have  al-  1450);  Michael  of  Carcano  (Milan)  (d.  1485);  Bl.  Paci- 
readv  been  nominated  to  the  Sacred  College  of  Car-  ficus  of  Ceredano  (d.  1482);  Bl.  Bemardine  of  Feltre 
dinals,  and  the  number  of  Franciscans  who  have  been  (d.  1494);  Bemardine  of  Busti  (d.  1500);  Bl.  Angelo 
appointed  patriarchs,  archbishops,  and  bishops,  is  at  Carletti  di  Chivasso  (d.  1495);  Andrew  of  Faenza 
least  3,000.  The  popes  elected  from  the  Observants  (d.  1507).  In  Germany  we  find:  John  of  Minden  (d. 
are:  Nicholas  IV  (1288-92);  Alexander  V  (1409-10).  1413);  Henry  of  Weri  (d.  1463);  John  of  Werden  (d. 
Sixtus  IV  (1471-84)  was  a  Conventual  of  the  period  1437),  author  of  the  renowned  coUecUon  of  sermons 
before  the  division  of  the  order.  Sixtus  V  (1585-90)  "Dormi  secure";  John  Brugman  (d.  1473);  Dietrich 
and  Clement  XIV  (1769-74)  were  chosen  from  the  Coelde  of  MQnster  (d.  1515);  Johann  Kannemann  (d. 
Conventuals  after  the  division.  The  popes  have  about  1470),  a  preacher  on  the  Passion;  Johann 
often  employed  the  Minorites  as  legates  ana  nuncios,  Kannegieser,  "the  trumpet  of  Tmth"  (d.  about  1500); 
e.  g.  to  pave  the  way  for  and  carry  through  the  reunion  Johann  Gritsch  (d.  about  1410);  Johann  M&der: 
of  the  Greeks,  Tatars,  Armenians,  Maronites,  and  Johann  Pauli  (d.  about  1530),  whose  work  ''Schimpf 
other  schismatics  of  the  East.  Many  Minorites  have  und  Ernst"  was  long  a  favourite  among  the  Cierman 
also  been  appointed  grand  penitentiaries,  that  is.  people;  Heinrich  Kastner;Stephan  Fridolin  (d.  1498). 
directors  of  tne  papal  penitentiaries,  and  have  servea  In  Hungary:  Pelbart  of  Temesvar  (d.  about  1490). 
and  still  serve  in  Rome  as  Apostolic  penitentiaries  and  In  Poland:  Bl.  Simon  of  Lipnica  (d.  1482);  Bl.  John 
as  confessors  to  the  pope  himself  or  in  the  principal  of  Dukla  (d.  1484);  Bl.  Ladislaus  of  Gielnow  (d.  1505) 
basilicas  of  ihe  city.    Thus  the  Observants  are  in  In  France:  Olivier  Maillard  (d.  1502);  Michel  Minot 


FBIAB8                                293  rBlABS 

(d.  about  1522);  Thomas  8umamedlllyricus(d.  1520);  i>endent  prefecture  Apostolic.  Lower  Eg3rpt  con- 
Jean  Tisserand  (d.  1494);  Etienne  Brulefer  (d.  about  tinued  its  connexion  with  the  Holy  Land  until  1839, 
1507).  The  following  illustrious  Spanish  theologians  when  both  (with  Aden,  which  was  again  separated 
and  preachers  of  the  sixteenth  century  were  Friars  in  1889)  were  formed  into  a  vicariate  Apostolic,  in 
Minor:  Alphonsus  de  Castro  (d.  1558);  Didacus  de  which  state  they  still  remain.  In  Lower  Egypt  there 
Estella  (d.  1575);  Luis  de  Carvajal  (d.  about  1560);  are  now  sixteen  monasteries,  controlling  parishes  and 
John  of  Carthagena  (d.  1617);  St.  Peter  of  Alcantara  schools.  In  Upper  Egypt,  from  which  the  Copts  were 
(d  1562).  Renowned  Italian  Franciscans  were:  separated  in  1892,  are  eight  monasteries  with  parishes 
Francesco   Panigarola   (d.    1594);  Bartholomew  of  connected. 

Saluthio  (d.  about  1630);  St.  Leonard  of  Port  Maurice  In  1630  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda  sent  Fa- 
(d.  1751);  Bl.  Leopold  of  Gaiches  (d.  1815);  Luigi  thers  Mark  of  Sciuvo  and  Edward  of  Ben|amo  to 
Parmentieri  of  Casovia  (d.  1885);  Luigi  Arrigoni  (d.  Tripoli,  and  in  1643  appointed  Paschal  Canto,  a 
1875),  Archbishop  of  Lucca,  etc.  Other  well-known  Frenchman,  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Barbary — an  office 
French  Franciscans  were:  Michel  Vivien  (seventeenth  which  still  exists.  The  activity  of  this  mission,  like  the 
century),  Zacharie  Laselve  etc. ;  and  of  the  Germans  others  in  these  countries,  is  not  so  much  directed  to 
mention  may  be  made  of  Heinrich  Sedulius  (d.  1621),  the  conversion  of  Mohammedans  as  to  the  support  and 
Fortunatus  Hueber  (d.  1706)  and  Franz  Ampferle  (d.  help  of  the  Catholic  settlers.  Abyssinia  Ethiopia, 
1646).  Even  to-day  the  Friars  Minor  have  amount  Haoech)  was  first  visited  by  John  of  Montecorvino 
their  number  many  illustrious  preachers,  especially  in  (c.  1280).  Later,  Bl.  Thomas  of  Florence  was  sent 
Italy.  thither  by  Albert  of  Sarteano,  and  Sixtus  IV ,  after  the 
IX.  Influence  of  the  Order  on  the  Liturgy  other  missions  had  failed,  sent  Girolamo  Tomielli. 
AND  Religious  Devotions. — St.  Francis  prescribed  Many  missionaries  were  put  to  death,  and  in  1687 
for  his  Older  the  abridged  Breviary  then  reserved  for  a  special  prefecture  was  instituted  for  the  conversion 
the  Roman  Curia.  As  this  and  the  Missal  were  re-  of  the  Copts.  This  was  reinstituted  in  1815,  and 
vised  by  the  general,  Ha3rmo  of  Faversham,  at  the  in  1895  a  special  hierarchy  was  erected  for  the  same 
command  of  Gregory  IX,  and  these  liturgical  books  object.  In  1700  Father  Krump  undertook  the  founda- 
have  by  degrees,  since  the  time  of  Nicholas  III  (1277-  tion  of  a  new  mission  in  Ethiopia,  when  in  1718  three 
80),  been  universally  prescribed  or  adopted,  the  order  missionaries  were  stoned  to  death. 
in  this  alone  has  exercised  a  great  influence.  The  The  two  Genoese  ships  which  circumnavigated  Africa 
Breviarv  of  General  Quifionez  (1523-28)  enjoyed  a  in  1291  had  two  Minorites  on  board.  Others  accom- 
much  snorter  vogue.  To  the  iWiciscan  Onler  the  panied  Vasco  da  Gama.  In  1446  the  Franciscans 
Church  is  also  indebted  for  the  feasts  of  the  Visitation  visited  Cape  Verde  where  Roger,  a  Frenchman,  zeal- 
of  the  B.  V.  M.  (2  July),  the  Espousals  of  the  B.  V.  M.  ously  preached  the  Gospel.  In  1459  they  reached 
(22  now  23  January),  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus,  and  Guinea,  of  which  Alphonsus  of  Bolano  was  named 
to  some  extent  for  the  feast  of  St.  Joseph  (19  March)  prefect  Apostolic  in  1472.  They  thence  proceeded  to 
and  that  of  the  Blessed  Trinity.  The  activity  of  the  the  Coneo,  where  they  baptized  a  king.  In  1500  they 
Franciscans  m  promoting  devotion  to  titie  Immaculate  went  to  Mozambique  under  Alvarez  of  Coimbra.  The 
Conception,  since  Scotus  (d.  1308)  defended  this  doc-  French  Recollects  laboured  here  during,  the  seven- 
trine,  is  well  known.  St.  Francis  himself  laboured  teenth  oenturv,  but  since  1898  the  Portuguese  Fran- 
eamestly  to  promote  the  adoration  of  Our  Lord  in  the  ciscans  have  had  charge  of  the  mission.  At  the  be- 
Blessed  Eucharist,  and  Cherubino  of  Spoleto  founded  pjnnin^  of  the  sixteenth  century  Friars  Minor  settled 
a  sodality  to  accompany  the  Blessed  Sacrament  to  the  m  Mehnda  and  on  the  Island  of  Socotra  near  Aden, 
houses  of  the  sick.  In  1897  Leo  XIII  declared  Pas-  In  1245  John  of  Piano  Carpinis  (Piano  di  Carpine)  was 
chal  Baylon  (d.  1592)  patron  of  Eucharistic  Leagues,  sent  by  Innocent  IV  to  the  Great  Khan  in  Tatary,  and 
The  Christmas  crib  was  introduced  and  populariz^  by  penetrated  thence  into  Mongolia.  By  order  of  Louis 
the  order  (see  Crib)  to  which — especially  to  St.  Leon-  iX  William  of  Rubruck  (Rubruquis)  proceeded  thence 
ard  of  Port  Maurice  (d.  1751) — ^is  also  due  the  spread-  through  Armenia  and  Central  Asia  to  Karakoram. 
ing  of  the  devotion  known  as  "the  Stations  of  the  The  accounts  of  the  travels  of  the  last-mentioned  two 
Cross".  The  ringing  of  the  Angelus  morning,  noon,  intrepid  missionaries  enjoy  a  well-earned  historical 
and  evening,  was  also  inaugurated  by  the  Franciscans,  and  geographical  renown.  In  1279  Nicholas  III  sent 
especially  by  St.  Bonaventure  and  Bl.  Benedict  of  five  Franciscans  to  China,  among  them  John  of  Monte- 
Arezzo  (d.  about  1250).  corvino,  who  preached  on  the  outward  journey  in 
^  X.  Franciscan  Missions. — St.  Francis  devoted  Armenia,  Persia,  and  Ethiopia  and  on  his  return  jour- 
himself  to  missionary  labours  from  1219  to  1221,  and  ney  in  the  same  countries  and  in  India.  Having  con- 
devoted  in  his  rule  a  special  chapter  (xii)  to  missions,  verted  thousands  and  translated  the  New  Testament 
In  eveiT  part  of  the  world,  tne  Franciscans  have  and  the  Psalms  into  Chinese,  he  completed  in  1299 
laboured  with  the  greatest  devotion,  sdf-sacrifice,  a  beautiful  church  in  Pekine.  In  1307  Clement  V 
enthusiasm  and  success,  even  though,  as  the  result  of  appointed  him  Archbishop  of  Cambaluc  and  Primate 
persecutions  and  wars,  the  result  of  their  toil  has  not  of  the  Far  East  and  gave  him  six  suffragan  bishops, 
always  been  permanent.  The  four  friars  sent  to  Mo-  only  three  of  whom  reached  Peking  (1308).  (See 
rocco  in  1219  under  Berard  of  Carbio  (q.  v.)  were  mar-  China,  Vol.  Ill,  669-70.)  From  1320  to  1325  Odoric of 
tyred  in  1220.  Electus  soon  shared  their  fate,  and  in  Pordenone  laboured  in  Persia,  India,  Sumatra,  Java, 
1227  Daniel  with  six  companions  was  put  to  death  Borneo,  Canton,  Tibet,  and  China.  In  1333  John 
at  Ceuta.  The  bishops  of  Morocco  were  mostly  XXII  dispatched  twenty-seven  Franciscans  to  China, 
Franciscans  or  Dominicans.  In  1420  the  Observants  Giovanni  Marignola  of  Florence  foUowing  them  in 
founded  a  convent  at  Ceuta,  and  here  St.  John  of  1342.  In  1370  William  of  Prato  was  sent  as  arch- 
Prado  died  at  the  stake  in  1632.  This  mission  was  bishop  to  Peking  with  twenty  fellow-Minorites.  The 
entrusted  to  the  province  of  S.  Diego  in  1641,  and  to  appearance  of  the  Ming  d3masty  in  1368  brought  about 
the  province  of  Santiago  (Galicia,  Spain)  in  1860,  the  ruin  of  all  the  missions.  On  21  June,  1579,  Fran- 
after  it  had  been  constituted  a  prefecture  Apostolic  ciscans  from  the  Philippines  penetrated  to  China 
in  1859.  In  Oran,  Libya,  Tunis,  Algiers,  as  well  as  once  more,  but  the  real  founder  of  the  new  mission  in 
throu^out  Egypt,  Franciscans  have  laboured  since  China  was  Antonio  de  S.  Maria  (d.  1669),  who  was 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  signalized  their  exertions  sent  to  China  in  1633.  and  later  laboured  in  Cochin- 
by  a  glorious  array  of  martyrs  in  1288,  1345,  1358,  China  and  Korea.  China  was  also  visited  in  1661 
1370,  1373,  etc.^  This  mission  was  under  the  juris-  by  Bonaventura  Ibaflez  (d.  1691)  with  eight  friars, 
diction  of  that  in  the  Holy  Land.  In  1686  Upper  Henceforward  Franciscan  missions  to  China  were 
£gypt  was  separated,  and  became  in  1697  an  inde-  coni^tant.    In  1684  came  the  Italian  fathers  under  the 


FRIAB8  296  tftlABS 

Schwaner  (Black)  Berthold  (c.  1300),  the  reputed  dis-  d.  about  1250  fl2  June);  Benvenuto  of  Gubbio,  d. 

coverer  of  gunpowder;  Luca  Pacioli  (d.  about  1510);  about  1232  (27  June)*  Simon  of  Lipnica,  d.  14S2  (18 

Elektus  Zwmger  (d.  1690);  Charles  Plumier  (d.  1704).  July);  John  of  Dukla  (like  the  preceding,  a  Pole),  d. 

For  writers  on  the  history  of  the  order,  the  reader  1484  (19  July};  John  of  Lavema,  d.  about  1325  (9 
may  be  referred  to  the  bibliography,  sinoe  the  vast  Aug.);PeterofMolleano(Mogliano),d.  1490(13Aug.); 
majority  of  the  books  cited  have  been  written  by  SanctesofMontefabri(Urbino),d.l385(14Aug.);Johii 
Franciscans.  In  recent  times — to  some  extent  since  of  Perugia  and  Peter  of  Sassoferrato,  martyred  at 
1880,  but  mainly  since  1894 — ^the  investigation  of  the  Valencia  in  Spain,  1231  (3  Sept.);  CSentilis  ol  Mat»- 
histor^r  of  the  Friars  Minor,  especially  during  the  first  lica,  martyred  in  Persia  1430  (5  Sept.);  Vincent  of 
centuries  succeeding  the  foundation  of  the  order,  has  Aquilla,  d.  1504  (6  Sept.);  Apollinaris  with  thirty- 
aroused  a  keen  and  widespread  interest  fax  the  leading  nine  companions  of  the  First  and  Third  Orders,  mar- 
civilized  lands  and  among  scholars  of  eveiy  religious  tyred  in  Japan,  1617-32  (12  Sept.);  Bemardine  of 
denomination  and  belief.  Feltre,  d.  1494  (28  Sept.) ;  John  of  Penna  (Penne),  d. 

XII.  Saints  and  Beau  of  the  Order. — ^The  niun-  1271  (5  Oct.) ;  Ladislaus  of  Gielnlow,  d.  1505  (22  Oct.) : 

ber  of  Friars  Minor  who  have  been  canonised  or  beati-  Francis  of  Calderola,  d.  1407  (25  Oct.) ;  Theophilus  of 

fied,  is — even  if  we  exclude  here  as  t^irouehout  this  Corte,  d.  1740  (30  Oct.);  Liberate  de  Loro  (Lauro),  d. 

article,  the  members  of  the  other  orders  of  St.  Francis  about  1306  (30  Oct.);  Thomas  of  Florence,  d.  1447, 

(Conventuals,  Poor  Clares,  Tertiaries,  and  Capuchins)  Rainerius  of  Arezzo,  d.  1304  (5  Nov.);  Bemardine  of 

—extraordinarily   high.    In   this   enumeration   we  Aquila  (Fossa),  d.  1503  (7  Nov.);  Gabriele  Ferretti, 

further  confine  ourselves  to  those  who  are  officially  .  d.  1456  (14  Nov.) :  Humilis  of  Bisignano,  d.  1637  (5 

venerated  throughout  the  Church,  or  at  least  through-  Dec.);  Conrad  of  Offida,  d.  1306  (19  Dec.);  Nicholas 

out  the  whole  order,  with  canonical  sanction.    These  Factor,  d.  1583  (23  Dec.).    To  these  might  be  added 

exce^  one  hundred  in  number,  t^e  names,  dates  of  long  lists  of  Blessed,  who  enjoy  a  cultus  sanctioned 

decease,  and  feasts  of  the  besVknown  being  as  follows  by  the  Chiirch,  but  whose  cultus  is  only  local,  i.  e. 

(1)  Saint8, — Francis  of  Assisi,  d.  3  Oct.,  1226  (4  Oct.) ;  limited  to  their  native  or  burial-places  or  to  the  dio- 

Berard  of  Carbio  and  four  companions,  martyred  1220  ceses  with  which  they  were  connected.    If  these  be 

(16  Jan.);  Peter  Baptist  and  twenty-five  companions,  included  in  the  reckonimr,  the  nimiber  of  saints  and 

martyred  at  Nagaaedd,  Japan,  1597  (5  Feb.);  John  heaH  m  all  the  orders  of  St.  Francis  exceeds  300. 
Joseph  of  the  Cross,  d.  1734  (5  March);  Benedict  of        At  the  present  time  (1909),  ihe  postulatura  of  the 

San  Philadelphio,  d.  1589  (3  April) ;  Peter  Regalada,  d.  order  at  Kome,  whose  office  is  to  collect  evidence  oon- 

1456  (13  May);  Paschal  Bayton,  d.  1592  (17  May)*  oeming  the  candidates  for  beatification  and  canoniza- 

Bemaraine  of  Siena,  d.  1444  ^20  May):  Anthony  ot  tion,  is  ui^dng  the  cause  of  about  ninety  members  of 

Padua,  d.  1231  (13  June):  Nicnolas  Pick,  hai^ged  by  the  First,  Serond,  and  Third  Orders  of  St.  Francis. 

Ie8  Otteux  at  Gorciun  (Holland)  in  1572  with  eighteen  This  list  includes  some  names  belon£;ing  to  later  and 

companions,  of  whom  eleven  were  Franciscans  (9  even  recent  times,  and  it  wiU  thus  oe  seen  that  the 

July);  Bona  venture  of  Bagnorea.  d.  1274  (15  July)  ;  Order  of  Friars  Minor  never  ceases  to  produce  mem- 

Francis  Solanus,  the  Apostle  ot  South  America,  d.  bers  whose  holiness  entitles  them  to  the  highest  ecdesi- 

1610  (24  July) ;  Louis  of  Anjou,  Bishop  of  Toulouse,  d.  astical  honour — that  of  the  altar.    That  the  spirit  of 

1297  (19  AugO;  Pacificus  of  San  Severino,  d.  1721  Jesus  Christ,  which  St.  Francis  laboured  so  uninter- 

(25    Sept.);    Daniel,  and  seven   companions,  mar-  mittently  to  revive  in  the  world  and  instilled  into  his 

tyred  at  Ceuta  1227  (13  Oct.);  Peter  oi  Alc&itara,  a.  institutions,  still  lives  in  his  order  to  the  ^orificatioa 

1562  (19  Oct.)*  John  Capistran,  d.  1456  (23  Oct.);  of  the  Divine  Name,  the  great  efficiency  of  the  Friais 

Didacus  (Diego),  d.  1463  (12  Nov.);  Leonard  of  Port  Minor  in  our  day  is  sufficient  proof. 
Maurice,  d.  1751  (26  Nov.);  James  of  the  March        (i)  Gbnsral  Histort  of  ths  Ordbr  (Soubcbs,  ««.>. 

(Monteprandone),  d.  1476  (28  Nov.).  JVbte. — As  elsewhere  ihroui^out  this  artide,  only  relative  com- 

Beofar-Matthew  of  Girgenti   d  1455  (28  Jan.) ;  plSSSr"^S.'SS«t£*.:.  S.rfSLT£^fe 

Andreas  de'  Contl  dl  Slgna,d.  1302  (1  Feb.);   Odonc  but  general  worka,  and  of  these  only  a  selection,  are  eited. 

of  Pordenone,  d.  1331  (3  Feb.) ;  Anthony  of  StronCOne,  Chronica  Fr.  JordanijU  Yano  in  Ano/ecta  FnmcMoana  (An. 

1812  (9  Feb.) ;  Sebastian  of  AppanziO,  d.  1600  (25  tbb;  Dialogua  de  VUia  Sanetorum  Fralrum  AUmmim  (o.  1245>, 

Feb.);  John  of  Triora,  martyred  in  China,  1816  (27  ed.  Lbuubns  (Rome.  1902):  T.  Eoclmtom  (c.  1264),  De  Ad- 

Feb.);  Thomas  of  Cora,  d.  1720  (28  Febj;  Peter  of  "^^iJ^lS^^^ 

Treia,  d.  1304  (14  March);  Salvator  of  Orta,  d.  1567  Fmnc.,  II  (London.  1882);  complete ed.  in  An.  -FV.,  I,  217-57; 

(18  Maroh) ;  John  of  Parma,  d.  1289  (20  March) ;  Benr  abridgmgit  in  Man.  Oam,  HiH,,  Senpi,  (MO.  SS.)^Xvm. 

yenuto  Bishop  of  Osimo  d.  12^  (22  March);  W  ^^So^-^Ta^h'  f?:rfil'^J^ri^)fJ^SSrSl 

lUS  of  Mucia,  d.  about  1240  (26  March);  Per^nnUS  of  F^ldbb  (Rome.  1897);  CaUdofiua  OmeraKum  Minietrorum  O. 

Fallerone,  d.  about  1245  (27  Maroh);  Marco  Fantusri  £.  M.  (begun  in  1305).  ed.m  An.  Fr..  in.  683-708;  ed. 

of  Bologja,  d  1479  (31  March) ;  Thomas  of  Tolentinp,  f^t^f?^^SJ^JSie  ^xfe^^/L^^tk.  ?^%S 

martyred  m  Further  India,  1321  (6  Apnl) ;  J3em voguo  sqq.i^  Adam  of  Pabma.  ed.  SALnraKNB.  Chronica^  ^tten  i,:»2^ 

deBonis,d.  about  1235  ~      -  ^  .     -.  ^  ., 

tino,  d.  1606  (8  April)  

Arehiv  for 
C-m(Beiw 

SttndoTwn 

-^^-^  .-^  .      .,.    »  1  1    #  ^- .  ,       «   .»«»r.«^  .      iiv  ..-«..«.  «..«»,^..».  V...   1335),' ed.  LBmoBNS  (Rome,   1903); 

1290  (19  Apnl) ;  Leopold  of  Gaiche,  d.  1815  (20  Apnl) :  Pnmneiale  ordiniM  8.  Franeieei  Anttquitnmum  (c  1343).  ed. 

^dius  of  Assisi,  d.  1262  (23  April) ;  James  of  BitettO,  Eubbl  (Quanwjchi.  1892);  ^nmioa  XXIV  Omeralium  Minute 

P;dmyricuad  about  H^^  S^rD^^Vi^J^t^Vi^i' Ir*^ 

Pisa,  d.  1236  (8  May);  Francis  of  Fabnano,  d.  1322  (e.  i385).  (Milan.  1510, 1513;  Bologna,  1590, 1610).  also  in  An. 

(14  May) ;  Benvenuto  of  Recanati,  d.  1289  (15  May) ;  Fr.,  iv and  V  (Qumcchi.  1906. 1910) j  Bbrnardinb  o»  Fosba, 

T#>Vk«v  TtAiCmi^  maW^tTMwl  a4-  T^nrlnn   1  t^HSl  /'«>0^lrow^.  f/^Vwi  Chrontca  Frotrum  Mworutn  Obaervanlia  (c.  1480).  ed.  LsififBNB 

John  I orest,  martyred  at  London,  1638^ Mav) ,  John  ( j^^j^j  ig^g) .  Marianus  or  Florbncb.  Compendium  Chr<mi' 

of  Prado,  martyred  in  Morocco,  1631  (29  May);  Erco-  carum  O.  F.  M.  (c.  1515).  ed.  in  Archivum  Fnmciaeonum  Hi^ 

lane  de  Plagano  (Pia^e), d.  1451  (29 May);  James  toricum (A.F. J^.)..l-in (Quarocchi.  1908-10)^  Spe^umViim 

Q^^Avva.  A    iJn  /-i    Jy\^^\/\^A^>^w  ^  Siwx^M'L   A    lOtiA  8.  Frane%9e%  el  Soeutrum  eiua  (Pana,  9.  d.;  Venice,  1504;  Mets, 

Stepar,  d.  1411  (1  June);  Andrew  of  Sl^O,  d.   1254  jgog.   Antwerp,  1620;   Coloiie,  1623;    Raab,  ir32);    Monu^ 

(3  June);  Pacificus  of  Ceredano,  d.  1482  (5  June);  menta  Ordinie  Minorum  (Salamanca,  1506,  1510.  1511;  Baroe- 

Stephen  of  Narbonne  and  Raymond  of  Carbonna,  |<>%1523);  Finnmnentum  Tnum  OrdinumS.  Fnnci^ 

•vtiit^^kw^  U^  ♦!,<*  AiK{<MknB;<i.«a    lOito  /7  TiinA\>  Dof^y^  1512;  Venice.  1513);  Glassbbrobr  (c.  1508),  Chrontoa  ordmia 

murdered  by  the  Albigensians,  1242  (7  June) ,  i5arto-  j^^^;  /^j,  x  ^  ^„^  ir    n  (Ouaracchi,  1887),  i  mo.;  John  of 


lomeo  Pucci,  d.  1330  (8  June) ;  Guido  of  Cortona,    Kombrovo  (d.  1536).  Tmcuuua  Chnmica  O.  F,  Jv..  ed.  Zbxm- 


Min!  (Obe.)  in  An.  K.,  II  (Quaracchi.*  1887),'  1  mo.; 
Kombrovo  (d.  1536).  TraeUUua  Chronica  O.  F,  Ar..  c 


FRIAB8 


297 


FRIAB8 


BKBO  in  Archiv  fUr  Oeaterreichiaehe  O^aeh.,  XLDC  (VieDna. 
1872).  314-25;  Idbm.  MemcriaU  O.  F.  M.  (an  amplification  of 
the  last-mentlonod  work)  in  Monununta  Polonia  Hi^criea^  Y 
(Lemberg,  1888),  64  saq.;  Mark  of  Lisbon,  Chronica  de  la 
arden  dea  Im  FrayU»  hfenorea  (Lisbon.  1556,  etc.,  1613;  Sala- 
manca, 1626,  etc.).  It.  tr.  Dxola  (Brescia,  1581,  etc;  Milan, 
1609;  Venice,  1585,  etc.;  Naples,  1680.  etc.);  Fr.  tr.  (Paris, 
1600,  etc.);  Ger.  tr.  (Constance,  1604);  Ridolfz  (TossiaNANo), 
Hiatariarum  serap^ios  rdioicnia  libri  trea  (Venice,  1586);  Gon- 
EAGA,  Hiatoria  orioinia  aaraphica  rdtQionia,  ate,  (llomo,  1587; 
2nd  ed.,  Venice.  1603). 

The  principal  work  on  the  history  of  the  order  is  Annalaa 
.  Jftnonim,  in  8  fol.  vols.  (Lyons  and  Kome,  1625-54).  of  Wad- 
ding (d.  1658).  To  this  db  Mjbusbano  wrote  a  supplement 
(Turin,  1710);  Harold  wrote  an  abstract.  Epitome  Annalium 
Ord.  Min.,  in  2  foL  vols.  (Rome,  1662).  A  2nd  ed.  of  the  Annalea, 
with  the  supplement  of  dr  Mrlxbsano,  was  issued  in  16  fol.  vols. 
(Rome.  1731-36),  voL  XVII  (Rome,  1741)  is  an  index  onlv. 
Several  continuations  (Rome.  Naples,  Quaracchi,  1740-1886) 
bring  the  history  up  to  1622,  m  25  vols.  Other  works  are:  dr 
Gubrrnatib,  Orbia  aeraphicua  aau  hirtoria  de  tribua  ordinithia, 
etc.,  5  fol.  vols.  (Rome  and  Lyons,  1682-89),  vol.  VI  (Quaracchi, 
1887);  DR  Alva  bt  Astoroa,  Monumenta  anti^ua  aeraphiea 
<IiOu vain,  1664);  Idrm,  hidiculua  Bullarii  Franetaeani  (Rome, 
1655);  Sannig,  Chronik  der  dray  Orden  8.  Frandaci  (3  vols., 
.^ague,  1689,  etc.);  HObbr,  Dreufache  Chronikh  von  dem  drey- 
fachen  Orden  deaa  /T.  .  .  .  Franexaei  (Munich.  1686);  van  dbn 
Hacttb,  Breoia  Hiatoria  Ord.  Minorum  (Rome,  1777):  Ranxbr- 
Mabcxic  (pseudonsrm  of  Marraccini),  Apolooia  per  Vordine  de* 
Fratri  Minori  (Lucca,  1748-50),  3rd  vol.  by  da  Dbcdio,  who 
also  edited  the  Secoli  Serafiei  in  1757;  Krbsslxngbr,  Ortua  et 
proffreaaua  Ord.  Min.  Monachii  (Munich,  1732);  da  Vicbnea, 
iStoria  enmolcfiica  dei  ire  ordini  di  S.  Franeeaeo  (Venice,1760-1 ) ; 
DiA  Latbra,  Monualede*  FraH  Minori  (Rome,  1776);  Bbnoiti, 
Compendio  di  atoria  MinoriHca  (Pesaro,  1829);  Papini.  Storia 
di  8.  Ftaneaaeo,  2  vols.  (Foligno,  1825),  pAjmu)  da  Maouano, 
8toria  compendioaa  di  8.  Franeeaeo  a  dit  FroncsMont,  extending 
only  to  1414  (2  vols.^  Rome,  1874-76),  vol.  I.,  Ger.  tr.  (Munich, 
18^);  Jbiler,  in  Kxrchenlex.,  s.  v.  Franciacanerorden;  Patrru, 
T€Meau  aunoptitue  de  VHiatoire  de  Fordre  de  St.  Fron^oia  da  lt08 
h  1878  (Paris,  1878).  continued  to  1909  (Paris,  1909);  tr.  into 
Latin  under  title  Manuale  Hiatorim  O.  F.  M.  ,  .  .  latine  red- 
ditum  a  P.  GaUo  Haadbeck  (Freiburg,  1909) ;  Palombs,  Stona  di 
8.  Franeeaeo,  7th  ed.  (2  vols.,  Palermo.  1879);  Idbu,  Dei  Frati 
Minori  a  ddle  lore  denominaxioni  (Palermo,  1897). 

The  collection  Analeeta  Franciaeana  aive  Chronica  aiiaqiM 
varia  doeumenta  ad  Hiatoriam  Fratrum  Minorum  Speeiantia 
(vol.  I.  Quaracchi,  1885;  II,  1887;  III,  1897:  IV,  1906;  V,  1910) 
contains  the  important  c^ronibles,  etc.,  of  the  order.  A  specisl 
journal, iirrAtvum  Franciacanum  Hiatoricum  (A.F,  H.),  (vol.  I, 
1908;  II.  1909,  etc.),  was  started  in  1908  for  the  investigation  of 
the  history  of  the  order.  The  same  purpose  is  served — thou*^ 
much  less  oomprehenrively — by  the  Miaedlanea  Franeeaeana 
published  by  Faloci-Pulignani  (10  vols.,  Foligno,  1886-1908); 
Ettidea  Franciacainea  (20  vols.,  Paris,  1899-1908),  eroecially 
from  vol.  XII,  see  also  C.  Eubbl,  Die  aviononiaehe  Obedient  der 
Mendikantenorden  (Paderbom,  1900);  Daa  Archiv  fUr  Lit.-  und 
Kirehengeach.  (A.  L.  K.Q.),  cf.  supra;  Wxbshopf,  Die  Stdlunff 
der  Bdtelorden  in  den  deuiachen  freien  ReidiaHldten  in  M.  A. 
(Leipsig,  1905);  Holsapfbl,  Die  Anfdnge  der  Montea  Pietatia, 
1462-1515  (Munich,  1903),  tr.  Rocga  (San  Casciano,  1905); 
Fooco,  8tudii  francaacani  (2  vols.,  Naples,  1909);  Hbimbuchbr, 
Die  Orden  und  Conoregaiionen  der  kaihoL.  Kirdie,  II  (2nd  ed., 
Paderbom,  1907).  307-387, 424-475,  where  an  excellent  bibliog- 
raphy is  given.  The  best,  and  the  only  complete,  manual  of  the 
order's  history  is  the  Handbudi  der  Geadt.  dea  Frandeeaneror- 
dena  (Freiburg  and  St.  Louis). 

(2)  Bulls,  Grnbral  CoN9rrrunoN8  of  tbb  Ordbr. — Menu- 
menta  ord.  Min.  Firmament.,  ed.  Wadding  in  Annalea  O.  M., 
each  volume  of  which  contains  a  rich  appendix  of  documents; 
Sbaralba  (SBAiiAGLiA).Bu2tortum  Franctscantim  (1219-1302), 
(4  vols.,  Rome,  1759-68),  continued  by  Eubbl,  Bull.  Franc. 
(1303-1431},  V-VII  (Rome.  1898, 1902. 1904);  Eubbl, Bultom 
Knmeiacam  Epitome  .  .  .  addito  Supplemento  (Quaracchi, 
1908),  a  digest  of  all  the  bulls  of  Sbaralba  (Bull.  Fr.,  I-IV), 
with  supplement;  da  Latbra,  8upplementum  ad  Bullarium 
Franciacanum  (Rome,  1780),  intended  to  remove  the  "conven- 
tual" interpretation  of  Sbaralba.  The  different  constitutions 
of  the  order  since  1506  have  usually  been  issued  separately;  the 
latest  is  Regula  d  Conatiiutionea  generalea  Fratrum  Min.  (Rome, 
1897).  Gonceming  the  earliest  constitutions  see  Edrlb  in  A .  L. 
K.  O.,  VI,  1-138;  A.  F.  H.,  11  (1909),  269  sqq.;  LrrrLB, 
Decreea  of  the  General  Chaptera  of  the  Friara  Minor  (1260-82)  in 
Engliah  Hiatoncal  Review,  XIII  (London,  1898),  703  sciq.  The 
largest  collection  is  to  be  found  in  Chronolooia  hiatorico4eoalia 
Ordinia  Fratrum  Min.  (4  vols.,  Naples,  Venice^nd  Rome,  1650- 
1795).  The  oflSeial  decrees  of  the  pope,  the  Roman  Gongrega- 
tions  and  General  Curia  since  18S0  are  collected  in  the  Ada 
Ordinia  Minorum  (28  vols.  Quaracchi,  1882-1909). 

(3)  History  of  thb  Pbovincrb  oj  thb  Ordbr. — (i)  Italy: — 
Ant.  a  Tbrinca,  Tliealrum  BtriSaeo-Minoriticum  (Florence, 
1682);  Ant.  ab  Orvibto,  Chronciooia  ddla  provincui  aerafiea 
rif.  ddV  Umbria  (Perugia,  1717);  Ant.  da  Nola,  Cronica  adia 
nf.  prov.  di  Napdi  (Naples,  1718) ;  Pbtrus  Tognolbtto.  Paro- 
dxaoaerafieodiSicilia(V9i\ermo,  1067):  Flau.  Bottardi,  Jvemorie 
Storiche  ddV  Oaaervante  Prov.  di  Bdogna  (Parma,  1760.  etc.); 
Al.  a  Pbdblama,  Parva  Chronica  Prov.  Seratthiae  Ref'  (Assisi, 
1886);  Spila  da  Subiaco,  Memorie  Storiche  adla  Prov.  Romana 
Rif.  (3  vols.,  Rome.  1890-^);  Marcus  Cbrvonb  da  Lanciano, 
Comvendio  di  Storia  de*  FraH  Minori  nei  tre  Ahrusti  (Tjandano, 
1 883 ) :  PiccoNi  da  Gantalopo,  Cenni  hiografci  av^i  uomini  tUus- 
tri  dtUaifrao,  oaeero di  Bologna,  I  (Parma,  1894) ;  idbm,  Atti  eap^ 


tdari  ddla  minoriHea  Provincia  di  Bdogna  (1458-1905),  2  yola. 
(Parma,  1901-05);  Idbm,  Serie  crondogico-bioorafica  dei  Minr 
xairi  .  .  .  sdeUapror.dt'Bofoofio  (Parma,  1908).    (ii)  France: — 


Chronica  ik  Generalium  Ord.   Min.  in  A.    F.,    Ill,   1  saq.; 
Firmamentum  (cf.  supra)  (1512);  FoniRi,  Narration  hiatonqua 


Lb  Fbbvrb,  Hiatoire  chronologiqfue  de  laprovinee  dea  RScoUeta  de 
Paria  (Paris,  1677):  Ed.  d'Albn^on,  Baaai  de  Martyrologe  de 
VOrdre  dea  Frhrea  Mineura  pendant  la  rivolution  franfaiae  27M- 
1800  (Paris,  1892);  Ch£rancI:,  Noa  MaHyra  (Paris,  1906);  db 
Kbrvai^  Si.  Franpoia  d'Aaaiae  d  Vordre  airaphique  (Vannes, 
1898);  Villbrxt,  Lea  Frh-ea  Mineurea  de  France  en  face  du 
Protedantiame  (Vannes,  1902);  Daux,  Vordre  franciaeain  dana 
le  Montalbanaia  (Montauban,  1903);  db  Barbnton,  Lea  Fran- 
ciaeaina  en  France — only  64  pp.,  6th  ed.  (Paris,  1903);  Otbon 
DB  Pavib,  L*Aguitaine  Siraphique  (4  vols.,  Vannes,  Toumai, 
19(X)-07).  (ill)  Spain: — Ant.  Hbbrbra,  Chronica  de  la  Provin- 
cia de  Arag&n  (Zaragosa,  1703-5);  Al.  dr  Torrbs,  Chronica  de 
la  Provineia  de  Oranada  (Madrid,  l(^j;  Fran  a  db  Jbbus 
BIaria,  Chronieaa  de  la  Provincia  de  S.  Diego  en  Andalucia,  I 
(Seville,  1724) ;  Jos.  db  Jbsus  Maria,  Chronusa  de  Santa  Provin- 
eia da  Immaculada  ConcejcUo  de  Portugal  (Lisbon,  1760,  etc.). 
(iv)  Germany  and  NorUi  Europe: — Jordanub  a  Yano;  Glabs- 
BBRGBR  (^.  supra).  Chronica  anonyma  in  A.  F.,  I,  279-300; 
HObbr,  Dreyfache  Chronikh  (cf.  supra);  Placidub  Hbbeoo, 
Coamographia  Franciaeano-Auatriac€a  Provineia  8.  B^ardini 
(1732),  ed.  in  A.  F.,  I,  41-213;  Idbm.  Coamogr.  Provineiea  8. 
Joan,  a  Capiatrano  (Colore,  1740);  Fridrich,  Hiatoria  .  .  . 
Prov,  Hungaria  ord.  mm,  88.  aalvatoria  (Kosovo,  1759); 
BiBRNACXi,  SpeeiduM  Minorum  aeu  .  •  .  prov.  Sarmatiea  d 
Vioariaa  Ruaaieg  (Oacow,  1688);  Grbiderbr,  Oermania  Fran- 
ciaeana (2  vols.,  Innsbruck,  1777-^1);  Knudbbn,  En  gammd 
Kronike  on  Oraabroedrenea  Udjagdae  of  derea  Kloaire  i  Danemark 
(Gopenhagen,  1851),  Ger.  tr.  (Manster,  1863);  Fr.  tr.  (Brussels, 
1861);  It.  tr.  (Florence,  1862);  Wokbr,  Geadi.  der  norddeutachen 
Framiakanermiaaionen  der  aOchaiachen  Proving  von  hi.  Kreua 
(Freiburg,  1880);  Guoornbichiab,  BdtrAge  aur  Kirehengeach. 
dea  XVI.  und  Xvll.  Jahrhunderta.  Bedeutungund  Verdienate  dea 
Franxiakanerordena  tm  Kampfe  gegen  den  Prdeatantiamua 
(Bosen,  1880),  only  vol.  1  issued  (2nd  ed..  Bosen,  1881);  C. 
Eubbl,  Oeadi,  der  obe^deutadien  iStraaaburger)  MinoritenprovinM 
(WOrsDWg,  1880):  Lbmmbnb.  Niedera&^aiaehe  Frandakon' 
erkldater  im  Mittdalter  (Hildesheim,  1896);  Fribbb.  Oeach.  der 
Oeaterreichiachen  Minontenprovim  in  Archiv  fUr  daterreichiache 
Oeadi.,  IJCIV  (Vienna.  1882),  79  sqa. ;  Mingbb,  Oeach.  der Fran- 
eiakaner  in  Bayem  (Munich,  1896);  Schlaobr,  Beitrdge  aur 
Oeach.  der  kdlniachen  Franziakaner-Ordenaprovins  im  M.  A. 
(Cologne,  1904):  G.  Eubbl,  GeatA.  der  kolniadi.  MinorUen- 
Ordenaprovim  (Cologne,  1896);  Bihl,  Geach.  dea  Frantiakan- 
erklodera  Frauenberg  au  Fulda  (Fulda,  1907);  Rbibch,  Oeach. 
dea  Klodera  8.  Dorothea  in  Bredau  (Breslau,  1908);  Rant,  Die 
Franaiakaner  der  tiaierreichiadten  Provina,  ikr  Wirhmin  NiederO- 
derrdch,  Steiermark  und  Krain  (lil9-16$e')  (Stein  in  Osrolina, 
1908);  GoLicHOWBXi,  Materyaty  do  Hiatoryi  00.  Bemardun^ 
we  Polaee  (Cracow,  1899);  van  Bbrlo,  UOrdre  dea  Frh-ea 
Mineura  en  Bdqique,  18SS-1908  (Mechlin,  1908).  (v)  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland: — Eccubbton  (cf.  supra),  Eni^isn  version 
by  Cuthbbbt,  The  Friara  and  how  they  came  to  England  (Lon- 
don, 1903);  LrrrLB,  The  Grey  Friara  in  Oxford  (Oxford,  1892); 
Hiatorical  Sketch  of  the  Order  in  England,  appendix  to  L£on, 
Livea  of  the  SainU  (cf.  infra),  IV  (Taunton,  1887):  Parkinson. 
CoUedanea  Anglo-  Minoritiea,  or  a  Collection  of  tne  Antiguitiea  of 
the  Engliah  Franciaeana,  I  (London,  1726);  Angblub  a  a. 
Francisco  (Mason).  Ceriamen  aeraphicum  provincia  Anglia 
(Douai,  1649;  2nd  ed., Quaracchi,  1885);  Boubchibr,  Hiatoria 
de  Martyrio  Fratr.  Minorum  in  Anjdia  ([Ingolstadt.  1583); 
Brbwbr  and  Howlbtt,  Monumenta  f^raneiacana,  2  vols.,  R.  8. 
(London,  1858,  1882);  Thaddbub  (Hbrmanb>,  The  Franciaeana 
m  England,  1600-1850  (London,  1898);  Mbbhan,  TheRiaeand 
Fall  of  the  Jriah  Franctacan  Monaateriea  (Dublin,  1877):  Ed- 
wards, The  Grey  Friara  and  their  fbrat  houaea  in  ScoUand  (Aber- 
deen, 1907). 

(4)  HiBTORT  OF  THB  MiBSioNB. — ^Wadding,  Anmolea]  db  Gub- 
BBNATis,  Orbia Seraphicuaid.  supra);  da C^vbssa, Stona  C/htMr- 
adledeUe  Miaaioni  Franciaeana  (11  vols.,  Rome,  Ftato,  Florence, 
1857-05) ;  Idbm,  Sagaio  di  bibliografia  (cf.  supra),  containing  an 
extensive  bibliography;  VicroR-BBRN.  db  IIoubn,  Hiatoire 
univeradle  dea  Miaaiona  Frandaoainea  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1808),  a 
French  translation  of  portion  of  the  monumental  work  of  da 
Civbesa;  Juan  Franc,  db  S.  Antonio,  Cr^ieaa  de  la  apoat^ica 
prov,  de  8.  Gregorio  en  laa  ialaa  Filipinaa  (3  vols.,  Manila.  1738- 
41);  American  Cathdie  Quarterly  Review,  XXX  (1905),  672 
sqq.;  GrOtckbn  in  Hiatoriach^pdit.  BUtUer,  CXLTI  (Munich, 
1908),  587  sqq.;  Idbm  in  Pador  Bonua  (Trier,  1908),  XX,  456 
sqq.  (Cliina);  Idbm,  loc.  cit.,  XX,  81  sqq.  (Morocco);  Cabtbl- 
LANOB,  Apoatdado  aerdfUo  en  Marrueecoa  (Madrid  and  Bantiago, 
1896);  DA  ChvBSEA  and  Dombnichblli.  La  Ptdedina  ea  i 
rimariti  Miaaioni  Franeiaeani  (Florence,  1890);  Golubovich, 
Bibliolheca  bio-bibliografica  ddla  Terra  Santa  e  ddV  OrierUe 
franceaeano,  I  (Quaraocni,  1906);  Archivum  Franc.  Hiatoricum 
(Quaracchi,  1906},  I  sqq.;  FbbnXndbs,  Conapedua  Omnium 
Miaaionum  ordinu  Fratrum  Minorum  an.  1904-1006  (Quarac- 
chi. 1905). 

(5)  Particular  Bibliograprt. — ^Marianub  of  Florbncb. 
RiDOLFi  TosB.  (cf.  supra);  Willot,  Athena  Orthodoxorum 
Sodalitii  Franeiaeani  (Li^ge,  1598);  Wadding,  Scriptorea  Ord. 
Min.  (Rome,  1650;  2nd  ed.,Rome,  1806;  3rd  ed.,Rome,  1906); 
JoHANNBB  A  S.  Antonio,  BiMiotheca  Franciaeana  (3  vols.. 
Madrid,  1782-33):  Sbaralba,  Supvlementvm  d  Caahgatio  aa 
Scriptorea  Ord,  <S.  Frandaci  (2  vols.,  Rome,  1806;  2nd  ed.,  190fr- 


FBIAB8                              298  FBIAB8 

0);  Fabxas,  Scriptorea  ord.  Aftn.  Prov,  HunQoHa  Rtformaia^  (Daiien)  and  sent  him  witli  a  band  of  his  brethren  to 

"S^^JS^^IS^?^^  thenewlyerecteddioce8e..PopeI^^^^ 

Aot.  Uku.  a  VicOTiA,  Sdriptcret  Promneia  Ref.  8.  AnUmii  in  1613,  approved  the  nonunation.    Quevedo  reached 

An.  Fr.,  I,  331  sqq.j  Al.  dk  PbdblXma,  Scriptorea  Prw.  Ref.  the  scene  of  his  future  activity  on  12  April,  1514. 

§^9J22S\  *^  '^"-  ^\i^  ?^S-Li??^*  llieGreyFriaram  Ox-  Fathers  Juan  de  Aora  and  Juan  de  Tecto  entered  Hon- 

(2e  V Observance  en  Bdoujue  A  done  lea  Pays  Baa  (An  twwp,  1885) ;  duras  With  Cortes  abOUt  the  year  1526,  and  the  filBt 

MoRizso,  Scriuori  Franeeaeani  Rifamuui  del  TrenHno  crrent,  convent  was  erected  there  in  1626  or  1627.    Father 

1890);  Fbldbr,  Geadkda'maaena<^ieh^  ^^"i^,^^"*^  Toribio  de  Benavente  (Motolinia)  reached  Guatemala 

tiakanerorden  bta  umd^  Mttie  dea  IS.    Jahrhtmderta  (Freiburg,  ■^"**"w  w  a^^im**^**^  v-«»*'«y"t*«»/  *«^»*«vt  x^uavc.uM»u> 

1904).  Fr.  tr.  (Paris.  1908);  Anhiv.  Franc.  Hist.,  I  eqq.  about  1633.    Thereafter  nussions  and  convents  arose 

(6)  Haoxoobapht.— €f.  Dxaloous.  Catalogub,  Barthoio-  at  various  places,  until  in  1560  they  were  organised 


1879) :  Hobbr.  Menoiogium  .  .  .  ordinum  ...  5.  Franeiact  friars,  was  made  a  provmce.    During  the  yean  1671- 

(Munich.  1698);    Smibmund  da  yBNBBL4.  Biforafia  aerafiea  ^573  qq  £^^^3  arrived  there  from  Spain,  and  in  1600 

(Venice,  1846);   Lepdlmter  airaphtque  (12  vola.,  Bar-le-Duc,  *^     '  ««  a*MMo  waat^  m««»«  *Avr*^  i^^mu,  <m<u^«u  ^wv 

1872—);  LftoN  db  dLARY.  VAuHoliaSraphuiue  (4  vote.,  Paris,  the  provmce  reported  22  convents.    Father  Motohma 

1882);  tr.,Liveaafthe8aintaandBleaaedof  the  three  orderacf  SI.  is  said  tO  have  vlsited  Nicaragua  before  1530.     The 

Francia  (4  vote.,  Taunton,  1^-87);  It.  tr.,  L'Avreda  aera^ca  q^^  bishop  of  the  Country  was  the  Frandscan  Pedro 

(4  vote..  Quaraodii.  1898-1900);    Schoutbns,  Martyrohgium  "*o«  "^^f  Vnu    a  ^**"'«j   "«»«**«  *eM***«22*»*  riT-I 

MinoriUce^Beioieum  (Hoogstnujten.   1902) ;    OmoLm:  De  de  Ztifiiga.    The  twelve  convents  of  Nicaragua,  Costa 

eauaia  Beatorum  et  Servorum  Dei  Ord.  Mmorum  (Quaraochi,  Rica,  and  Talaman(»  were  organised  into  the  province 

1W5).  Michael  Bihl.  ©f  San  Jorge  (St.  Geor^)  in  1576.    Yucatan  received 

the  first  Friars  Minor  in  1534.    The  custody  of  San 

Friars  Minor  in  America. — ^The  ver3r  discovery  of  Joe£  was  established  in  1560,  and  it  became  a  province 

America  is  due,  under  God,  to  the  children  of  St.  in  1666.    In  1600  the  report  showed  the  existence  of  6 

Francis,  inasmuch  as  Christopher  Columbus,  the  dis-  regular  monasteries  and  16  minor  houses.    The  first 

coverer,  and  Queen  Isabella,  who  furnished  the  means,  Buhopof  Yucatan,  Juan  de  la  Puerta,  was  a  member 

were  members  of  the  Third  Oid^,  and  Father  Juan  of  the  Franciscan  Order. 

Perez,  the  counsellor  of  both,  was  the  superior  of  the        In  1616  the  King  of  Spain  sent  fourteen  Friars  Minor 

Franciscan  monasteij  of  ^La  Rdbida  in  Andalusia,  to  the  northern  coast  of  South  America,  later  called 

Father  Juan  Perez,  with  other  Franciscan  friars,  more-  New  Gnmada  and  now  known  as  Colombia.    In  1560 

over,  accompanied  his  illiistrious  friend  on  the  second  the  convents  of  this  district  were  united  in  a  custody, 

voyage  in  1493.    A  few  miles  west  of  Cap  Haitien,  and  in  1666,  when  there  were  twelve  monasteries,  the 

most  probablv  on  8  December,  he  celebratCKi  the  first  genen^  chapter  raised  the  custody  to  the  rank  of  a 

Mass  m  the  New  World  in  a  chapel  constructed  of  province  under  the  title  of  Santa  F6  de  Bogota.    Even 

boughs.    At  the  town  of  Isabella  he  erected  the  first  at  this  early  date  there  were  two  convents  of  Poor 

convent.    In  1496  the  place  was  abandoned,  and  a  Clares  in  that  region;  they  were  subject  to  the  jurisdio- 

monasteiy  of  stone  was  ordered  built  bv  Columbus  at  tion  of  the  Franciscan  provincial.    In  1687  this  prov- 

Nueva  Isabella,  afterwards  replaced  by  Santo  Do-  ince  reported  26  convents  and  44  Indian  missions.    In 

mingo.    It  was  finished  in  1502.    A  second  Francia-  1619  some  Franciscan  friars  reached  the  coast  of  Paria 

can  convent  arose  in  the  interior  at  La  Vega  about  the  or  Venezuela,  founded  missions,  and  opened  schools 

same  time.    In  connexion  with  both  houses  the  first  for  Indian  boys  whom  they  taught  reading,  writing, 

scl^ools  in  America  were  opened,  where  Indian  bovs  and  singing.    The  famous  Father  Marcos  de  Niza, 

were  taught  reading,  writing,  and  singing.    While  the  who  with  Francisco  Pizarro  penetrated  to  Ecuador 

secular  clergy  attended  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  and  Peru  in  1532,  founded  the  first  convent  at  Cuzco. 

Spaniards,  the  Franciscans  and  a  few  Hieronymites  It  was  in  this  country  that  St.  Francis  Solanus  lar 

devoted  themselves  to  the  conversion  of  the  natives,  boured  among  the  Incuans  and  Spanifurds  from  about 

Cardinal  Ximenes,  himself  a  Franciscan,  sent  thirteen  1689  to  1610  when  he  died.    Eleven  of  the  religiouB 

of  hia  brethren  to  Hispaniola  in  1502.    They  took  with  houses  of  Peru  were  organized  into  the  province  of  San 

them  the  first  bells  and  the  first  organ.    Before  the  Francisco  de  Quito  in  1666.    A  convent  of  Concep- 

lapse  of  ten  years  after  the  discovei^,  nineteen  Friars  tionist  Sisters,  a  branch  of  Poor  Clares,  existed  withm 

Mmor  had  landed  on  the  Isle  of  Hispaniola.    About  the  jurisdiction  of  this  province.    Another  province, 

the  year  1600  the  Franciscans  passed  over  to  the  island  that  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  of  Lima,  was  formed  of 

of  Cuba,  and  founded  the  first  monastery  in  honour  of  eleven  other  monasteries  and  seven  minor  convents 

St.  James  (Santiago)  for  the  conversion  of  the  Indians,  among  the  Indians  in  1566.    It  had  been  a  custody 

At  the  ^neral  chapter  of  the  order  held  at  Tours,  since  1663.    Both  provinces  are  still  in  existence. 

France,  m  1505,  the  convents  of  Hispaniola  and  Cuba  The  first  Franciscan  community  in  Chile  was  founded 

were  united  in  a  province  imder  the  title  of  Santa  at  Santiago  in  1635.    The  first  Bishop  of  Santiago, 

Cruz.    It  was  the  first  organization  of  its  kind  in  the  Martfn  Robleda,  of  the  Friars  Minor,  was  the  founder. 

Western  Hemisphere.    At  the  request  of  the  king,  A  custody  was  oipmized  in  1663,  and  in  1666  the 

Pope  Julius  II,  on  15  November,  1604,  appointed  the  twelve  convents  of  the  country  were  united  into  the 

Franciscan  Friar  Garefa  de  Padilla  first  Bishop  of  province  of  Santfsima  Trinidaa.    A  convent  of  terti- 

Santo  Domingo,  the  first  diocese  in  the  New  World,  aries  existed  at  the  same  time.    The  territory  along 

The  bishop-elect  was  consecrated  in  May,  1612,  but  the  Rfo  de  la  Plata  (Argentina  and  Paraguay)  became 

died  on  12  November,  1616,  before  reaching  his  see.  the  scene  of  Franciscan  activity  as  early  as  1538.    The 

In  161 1  the  king  sent  twenty-three  Friars  Minor  to  the  Franciscan  Juan  Barrott  was  appointed  first  Bishop  of 

island  of  San  Juan  or  Porto  Rico.    Before  the  end  of  Rfo  de  la  Plata  in  1664.    In  1692  a  custody  was  organ- 

the  same  year  the  Indian  missions  of  the  Greater  An-  ized,  and  in  1612  it  was  raised  ta  the  rank  of  a  prov- 

tiUes  and  most  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  were  in  charge  of  ince  under  the  invocation  of  Nuestra  Sefiora  de  la 

the  Franciscans.    Their  first  martyrs  fell  victims  of  Asunci6n.    Brazil  is  said  to  have  been  visited  by  Por- 

apostolic  zeal  among  the  cannibal  Caribs  in  1 51 6,  when  tuguese  Franciscans  as  early  as  1 499  or  1 501 .    Certain 

Fathers  Fernando  Salcedo  and  Diego  Botellio,  with  an  it  is  that  three  Friars  Minor  reached  that  country  in 

unknown  lay  brother,  were  captured,  killed,  and  de-  April,  1684,  and  a  custody  was  organized  in  the  same 

voured  by  the  savages.  y]ear.    In  1667  it  became  a  province  under  the  proteo- 

The  Franciscans  were  also  the  first  religious  on  the  tion  of  San  ^tonio.    In  1678-the  province  of  the  Im- 

mainland  or  continent  of  America,  as  they  landed  on  maculate  Conception  was  established  in  the  same 

the  Isthmus  about  the  year  1512.    When  King  Ferdi-  territory.    At  present  the  order  there  is  in  a  most  flour- 

nand  heard  of  it,  he  named  the  Franciscan  Father  ishing  condition.    Bolivia  was  entered  by  the  Friars 

Juan  de  Quevedo  Bishop  of  Santa  Marfa  de  la  Antigua  Minor  in  1606.    A  monastery  was  founded  at  Tarija  in 


299  FBIAB8 

honour  of  St.  Francis.    A  missionaTy  college  for  the  established  and  governed  imder  rules  approved  by  the 

training  of  missionaries  for  the  Indians  was  erected  in  pope  was  openedin  the  grand  monastery  of  Santa  Cruz 

the  same  city  in  1755.    Distant  Patagonia  saw  the  at  Quer^taro,  which  for  that  purpose  was  set  apart  by 

first  Friars  Minor  in  1578.    There  are  no  reports  ex.-  the  province  of  Michoacan  in  1682.    Another  was 

tant.  founded  at  GuadalupCi  Zacatecas,  in  1707,  by  the 

llie  Franciscans  first  landed  in  the  Philippines  on  Venerable  Antonio  Maigil,  the  Apostle  of  Texas  and 

24  June,  1577.    Nine  years  later  they  had  erected  six  Guatemala,  and  a  third  at  the  monastery  of  San  Fer- 

monasteries  and  reported  fourteen  missions  among  nando  in  the  City  of  Mexico  in  1734.    These  three  col- 

the  natives.    These  houses  were  united  in  the  prov-  leges  furnished  the  heroic  men  who  Christianized  the 

inoe  of  San  Gregorio  in  1586.  Indians  of  Texas,  Arizona,  Sonora,  and  California. 

Father  Pedro  Melgarejo  appears  to  have  been  the  Other  missionary  colleges  were  those  of  Orizaba, 
first  Franciscan  to  enter  Mexico.  He  arrived  during  Zapopan  near  Guadalajara,  Pachuca  in  the  State  of 
the  siege  of  the  capital  in  1521,  but  returned  to  Spain  Mexico,  and  Cholula  in  the  State  of  Puebla.  At  the 
in  the  next  year  tio  defend  Cort^.  The  first  mission-  present  time,  owin^  to  the  anti-Christian  laws  prevail- 
ary  work  among  the  Indians  was  done  by  the  three  ing  in  Mexico,  which  forbid  religious  to  live  m  corn- 
Flemish  Franciscans,  Fathers  Juan  de  Tecto  and  Juan  munitv,  the  Franciscan  provinces  and  colleges  have 
de  Aora  and  Brother  Pedro  de  Gante,  who  arrived  in  dwindled  so  that  the  number  of  friars  scarcely  exceeds 

1523.  Father  Martin  de  Valencia,  with  eleven  friars,  tiie  nulnber  of  convents  in  the  da^rs  of  religious  f ree- 
came  from  Spain  to  the  Mexican  capital  on  13  May,  dom.    Mexico  enjoys  the  distinction  of  having  pos- 

1524.  These  are  known  as  the  Twelve  Apostles  of  sessed  the  first  nuns  in  America.  The  fibrst  convent  of 
Mexico.  The  impression  they  made  all  over  New  Tertiary  Sisters  was  founded  at  the  capital  as  earlyas 
Spain  was  so  deep  that  the  natives  were  accustomed  1525  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  Inai^  ^Is.  The 
to  date  occurrences  from  l^e  arrival  of  these  twelve  Poor  Clares  were  brought  overtrom  Spain  m  1530  by 
friars,  under  the  caption  ''the  ;^ear  when  the  Faith  the  wife  of  the  great  conqueror  Cort^.  They  occupied 
came''.  Two  months  after  landing,  Father  Martfn^  aa  convents  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  Texcooo,  and  at 
Apostolic  delegate,  convoked  the  first  ecclesiastical  Huexocingp.  These  Sisters  conducted  academies  for 
council  in  the  New  World.  Five  secular  priests,  seven-  the  education  of  young  girls,  who  in  turn  made  them- 
teen  Franciscans,  six  secular  doctors  of  canon  law,  and  selves  useful  as  teachers  or  Tertiarv  Sisters,  or  in 
Hernando  Cortes  himself  took  part  in  the  deliberations  ts^ing  care  of  altars  in  their  native  viUases.  The  first 
which  opened  on  2  July,  1524.  On  the  same  occasion  Bishop  of  Mexico  was  the  learned  Juan  de  Zumteaga 
the  Franciscans  were  oi^nused  in  the  custody  of  the  of  the  Franciscan  Order.  He  had  been  nominated  by 
Holy  Go«)el,  the  fijnst  on  the  mainland,  and  the  whole  Charles  V  on  12  December,  1527.  and  approved  by 
oountrv  divided  into  four  missionary  districts,  which  Pope  Gement  VII.  It  was  he  wno,  late  m  1537  or 
were  Mexico,  Texcoco,  Huexocingo,  and  Tlascala.  To  eany  in  1538,  broueht  the  first  printinflj  press  to  Mex- 
eadi  of  these  Father  Martin  assigned  four  friars.  The  ico.  The  first  book,  a  compendium  of  the  Christian 
secular  priests  as  usual  confined  themselves  to  the  doctrine  in  both  the  Mexican  and  Spanish  lansuages, 
flpiritual  wants  of  the  Spaniards.  In  connexion  with  was  printed  by  his  order  in  1539.  From  that  date  to 
tne  principal  convents  the  Fathers  conducted  ^e  first  the  close  of  the  vear  1600. 1 18  books  were  published  in 
schools  in  Mexico  for  Indian  boys.  A  part  of  the  build-  Mexico.  Of  tnis  number  the  Franciscans  alone 
ingB  was  generally  set  apart  for  the  boys  who  made  brou^t  out  forty-one,  comprising  works  on  Christian 
their  home  with  tne  friars.  Oftentimes  as  many  as  600  doctrine,  morals,  history,  and  Indian-Spanish  vocab- 
and  800  children  received  instruction,  food,  and  doth-  ularies  or  dictionaries,  llie  remainder  were  published 
ing  from  tiiese  religious.  The  instruction,  besides  by  Dominicans,  Augustinians,  secular  priests,  and 
Christian  doctrine,  comprised  reading,  writing,  sing-  others.  Mexico  also  produced  two  Franciscan  saints: 
ing,  instrumental  music,  and  mechanical  arts.  These  St.  Philip  of  Jesus,  martyred  in  Japan,  and  Blessed 
institutions  were  the  first  free  boarding  and  manual  Sebastian,  whose  remains  are  venerated  at  Puebla. 
labour  schools  on  the  American  Continent.  One  of  the  From  the  earliest  days  the  numerous  Friars  Minor 
Franciscan  pupils.  Father  Alonzo  de  Molina^  O.F.M.,  were  enga^d  in  literary  work.  The  most  noted 
whose  mother  was  a  Spaniard,  in  1555  published  the  writers  are  Toribio  de  Benavente  (Motolinia),  Alonzo 
"  Vocabulario  Castellan-Mexicano".  This  work,  con-  de  Molina,  Bernardino  de  Sahagtin,  and  Ger6nimo  de 
taining  518  folia  pa^,  is  still  regarded  as  a  standard.  Mendieta  in  the  sixteenth  century ;  Augustln  de 
Father  de  Gante  himself  translated  hymns  into  the  Vetancurt,  Antonio  Tello,  Juan  de  Torquemada  (the 
language  of  the  Aztecs.  The  spiritual  fruit  was  so  Livy  of  New  Spain),  Baltasar  de  Medina,  and  Pablo  de 
abundimt  that  Sol6ranzo  y  Pereira,  according  to  Beaumont  in  the  seventeenth  century;  Francisco  de 
Father  Harold,  claims  that  everv  one  of  the  ori^al  Ayeta,  Isidro  Felix  de  Espinoza,  Jos^  Arlegui,  Her- 
twelve  friars  baptized  no  fewer  than  100,000  Indians,  men^nldo  de  Vilaplana,  Juan  Domingo  .firicivita, 
Down  to  the  vear  1531,  according  to  a  report  sent  to  and  Francisco  Pal6u  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

tlie  seneral  chapter  at  Toulouse,  one  mmion  natives  Father  Juan  Su^z  (Ju^u«z,  Xudrez),  one  of  the 

had  oeen  baptized.    The  first  hi^  school  for  Indian  Twelve  Apostles  of  Mexico,  was  the  first  Franciscan  to 

youths  was  erected  by  the  Franciscans  at  the  Indian  set  foot  within  the  present  territory  of  the  United 

town  of  Tlatelulco,  now  a  part  of  the  capital.    In  the  States.    He  had  been  named  Bishop  of  Florida  and 

course  of  time  the  number  of  friars  grew  so  rapidly  all  Rio  de  las  Palmas  in  1527  along  with  the  first  Bishop 

over  Mexico  that  about  tiie  close  of  the  sixteenth  oen-  of  Mexico,  and  on  14  April,  1528,  landed  on  the  north- 

tury  the  following  fullv  organized  provinces  existed:  western  coast  of  Florida  with  three  companions,  for 

Santo  Evangelio  ae  Mexico,  established  in  1534;  San  the  puipose  of  oonvertine  the  Indians.    The  whole 

Jos6  de  Yucatan,  organized  in  1559 ;  San  Pedro  y  San  expedition,  which  consisted  of  six  hundred  men  under 

Pablo  de  Michoacan,  formed  in  1565 :  San  Francisco  P^filo  de  Narvaez,  was  destroyed,  and  only  four  men 

de  Zacatecas,  organized  in  1603 ;  San  Diego  de  Mexico  are  known  to  have  escaped.   Tne  bishop-elect  and  his 

(Alcantarines),  established  in  1606;  and  Santiago  de  companions  were  most  probably  drowned  in  the  gulf. 

Xalisco,  organized  in  1608.    Fifty  3rears  later  these  In  1538  the  Franciscan  Juan  de  Torres,  who  bad 

provinces  together  reported  two  hundred  monasteries  joined  De  Soto  with  ei^ht  secular  priests,  two  Domin- 

and  convents.  icans.  and  one  Trinitanan,  perished  in  the  same  terri- 

The  p<Kniliar  character  of  the  natives  demanded  tory  like  the  others  of  that  unhappy  expedition.   The 

missionaries  specially  trained.    For  this  reason  Apos-  Dominicans  and  Jesuits  by  turns  made  heroic  efforts 

tolio  colle^  or  seminaries  were  founded  independent  to  win  the  natives,  but  after  several  of  their  number 

of  the  jurisdiction  of  Uie  provinces  but  with  the  sane-  had  been  massacred  by  the  savages,  they  abandoned 

t&m  of  the  Holy  See.    The  first  missionary  college  the  task  as  hopeless.    The  Friars  Minor,  beginning 


FRIARS 


300 


FRIARS 


with  the  ^ear  1573,  made  renewed  attempts  and 
laboured  with  such  success  that  in  1610  the  numerous 
missionary  houses  were  united  with  those  of  Cuba  in 
a  custody,  which  two  years  later  was  elevated  to  the 
rank  of  province  imder  the  title  Santa  Helena  de  la 
Florida.  It  was  the  first  organization  of  its  kind  in 
America  north  of  Mexico.  Juan  de  Copila  was  chosen 
first  provincial.  In  1634  there  were  reported  35  friars 
in  charge  of  44  Indiap  missions  and  mission  stations, 
around  which  gathered  as  many  as  30,000  converted 
Indians.  This  result  was  not  achieved  without  much 
hardship  and  loss  of  life.  Five  of  the  Fathers  were 
killed  at  their  post  by  the  savs^s,  and  one  was  held  as 
a  slave.  In  1646  there  were  nfty  friars  scattered  all 
over  Florida.  In  1702  and  1704  Governor  Moore  of 
the  En^ish  Protestant  colony  of  Georgia  fell  ui>on  the 
flourishmg  missions,  destroyed  the  buildings,  killed  or 
scattered  the  converts,  or  carried  them  into  slavery, 
and  butchered  seven  of  the  devoted  missionaries  m 
such  a  horrible  manner  that  the  historian  John  Gil- 
mary  Shea  exclaims:  ''The  martyrdom  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans of  Ayubale  has  i^o  parallel  in  our  annals,  except 
in  the  deaths  of  Fathers  Br^beuf,  Lalemant,  Daniel, 
and  Gamier  in  the  Huron  country;  but  the  butcheries 
perpetrated  there  were  not  enacted  before  the  very 
eyes  and  by  the  order  of  the  eovemor  of  a  Christian  (?) 
colony.''  In  1763  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  En^and  to 
recover  Havana.  Tne  destruction  of  the  Indian  mis- 
sions, which  "under  the  rule  of  the  Franciscans  had 
been  the  diadem  of  the  Church  in  Florida",  as  Shea 
declares,  and  the  subsequent  cession  of  the  territory  to 
the  hostile  English,  forced  the  Franciscans  to  leave  the 
country  ^ong  with  most  of  the  Spanish  colonists.  A 
few  reappeared  later,  but  no  permanent  settlement 
was  again  established.  Their  principal  monastery  in 
the  city  of  St.  Augustine  had  been  confiscated,  and  is 
now  a  United  States  Government  barracks.  The  last 
friar  seems  to  have  resided  in  Florida  about  the  year 
1795.  These  missionaries  are  also  noted  for  the  fact 
^at  one  of  their  number,  Francisco  Pareja,  in  1612 
published  a  catechism  in  the  laneuaee  of  the  Timu- 
C|uanan  Indians.  A  "  Confesario ' '  oy  nim  was  printed 
in  the  next  year;  a  grammar  in  the  Indian  tongue  fol- 
lowed in  1614,  and  an  abridgment  of  Christian  doc- 
trine in  1627,  the  first  books  printed  in  the  language 
of  North  American  Indians,  with  the  exception  of  Fr. 
Zumdrraga's  Compendium  mentioned  above. 

In  1685  three  French  Franciscans  and  three  Sulpi- 
dans  accompanied  Robert  de  la  Salle  into  Texas  as 
the  first  missionaries;  the  friars  came  exclusively  for 
the  Indians.  With  the  exception  of  Father  Athana- 
sius  Douay,  the  Rev.  Cavalier,  and  a  few  of  the  men 
who  escaped  to  Canada,  all  the  members  of  this  expe- 
dition were  massacred,  and  the  buildings  destroyed. 
In  1689  the  Spanish  Franciscan  Damian  Mazanet  ar- 
rived with  a  guard  of  soldiers.  In  the  course  of  time  a 
large  number  of  missions  were  established  on  the  Gulf 
coast,  in  the  rejgion  of  San  Sabd,  and  notably  on  the 
Rfo  San  Antonio,  but  the  War  of  Mexican  Independ- 
ence put  an  end  to  these  establishments.  The  most 
noted  among  the  friars  were  Antonio  Margil,  declared 
Venerable  by  Pope  Gregory  XVI,  in  1836,  and  Isidro 
Espinoza,  the  author  of  the  ''Cr6nica  Serdficay  Apos- 
t6hca",  the  standard  work  on  the  missions  of  Texas. 
Altogether  about  160  Fathers  and  la^  brothers  toiled 
among  the  Texans  under  the  most  disheartening  cir- 
eimistances  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Six  of  the  friars  were  killed  by  the  savages, 
and  six  are  said  to  have  perished  in  prairie  fires.  Since 
then  the  mission  builaings  have  been  deserted  or 
turned  to  the  use  of  parishes,  and  the  Indian  converts 
have  disappeared. 

Father  Marcos  de  Niza,  the  same  who  founded  the 
missions  of  Peru,  discovered  the  territories  of  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico  in  the  very  heart  of  the  continent  in 
1539,  eighty-eight  years  before  any  English  settle- 
ment was  made  on  the  sea-coast.    One  year  later  the 


same  Father,  in  company  with  Fathers  Juan  de  Pa- 
dilla,  Juan  de  la  Cruz,  and  Brother  Luis  de  Escalona, 
led  Francisco  Vdsquez  de  Coronado  to  Zufii  and  to  the 
Rio  Grande  del  Norte  near  the  present  city  of  Santa 
F6.  When  Coronado  and  his  soldiers,  disgusted  at 
not  finding  the  precious  metal  in  quest  of  which  tbey 
had  come,  abandoned  the  country  m  1542,  Padilla,  La 
Cruz,  and  Escalona  remained  behind  and  establiwed 
missions  near  Bernalillo  and  Pecos.  Father  Padilla 
after  some  success  proceeded  to  the  north-east  and 
was  killed  by  savages,  possibly  on  the  banks  of  the 
Platte  River.  Father  Juan  de  la  Cruz  and  Brother 
Escalona  were  murdered  at  the  instigation  of  medicine 
men.  Two  Fathers  and  Brother  Rodriguez  re-entered 
New  Mexico  from  the  south  in  1581  only  to  obtain  the 
crown  of  martyrdom  at  the  hands  of  some  Pueblo  In- 
dians near  Bernalillo.  It  was  Brother  Rodrfg^uez  who 
gave  to  the  territory  the  name  of  New  Mexico.  At 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  concerted  efforts  on 
the  part  of  the  Franciscans  protected  by  military 
guards  resulted  in  numerous  missions  all  over  the  ter- 
ritory and  in  northern  Arizona  amone  the  Moquis. 
At  most  of  these  places  the  Fathers  conducted  schools 
for  the  Indian  lx>ys.  During  the  revolt  of  August, 
1680,  sixteen  Franciscans  were  massacred  at  their 
poet  in  New  Mexico  and  four  others  wereput  to  death 
by  the  Indians  of  northern  Arizona.  Twelve  years 
later  other  friars  of  the  same  province  of  the  Holy  Goe- 
pel,  Mexico,  succeeded  in  restoring  most  of  the  de- 
stroyed missions,  but  not  till  six  of  their  number  had 
been  martyred  oy  the  treacherous  savages.  In  all 
thirty-eight  of  the  friars  were  killed  for  the  Faith  in 
New  Mexico  and  northern  Arizona.  Three  others 
were  lost  and  probably  suffered  the  same  fate.  From 
1539  to  about  1840  upwards  of  three  himdred  Fran- 
ciscans laboured  among  the  Indians  in  that  territory. 
In  October,  1897,  at  the  request  of  the  Most  Rev.  Peter 
Bourgade,  the  Cincinnati  province  accepted  missions 
in  New  Mexico,  and  at  present  these  Fathers  are  sta- 
tioned amon^  the  Navaho  Indians,  among  the  Pueb- 
los at  Cochiti,  Santo  Domingo,  San  Felipe,  and  Jemes. 
In  addition  they  have  charge  of  parishes  at  Pena 
Blanca,  Carlsbad,  and  RosweU.  In  southern  Arizona 
tiie  Fathers  of  the  missionary  collejge  ci  Santa  Cruz, 
Quer§taro,  took  chai^  of  the  Indian  missions  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  1767.  In  1780  the  fa- 
mous Father  Francisco  Garces  with  three  companions 
founded  two  missions  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gila  River 
on  the  California  side  of  the  Rio  Colorado;  but  all  four 
were  horribly  butchered  by  the  savages  in  July,  1781. 
Other  friars,  however,  continued  the  missions  among 
the  Papago  oelow  Tucson,  and  towards  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  erected  the  beautiful  church  at  Del 
Bac  which  still  commands  the  admiration  of  travellers. 
When  Mexico  won  independence,  the  leaders,  who 
hated  the  religious  and  more  particularly  the  Fran- 
ciscans, insisted  on  the  expulsion  of  those  of  Spanish 
birth,  and  thus  wrecked  the  missions,  as  nearly  all  the 
missionaries  were  Spaniards.  The  Franciscan  prov- 
ince of  St.  Louis  towards  the  dose  of  1895  agreed  to 
the  urgent  appeal  of  the  Right  Rev.  Peter  Bourgade, 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Arizona,  and  accepted  the  paru^  in 
the  city  of  Phoenix  with  all  the  surrounding  missions 
among  the  Pima  and  other  Arizona  tribes.  They  con- 
duct a  large  and  flourishing  school  on  a  reservation 
near  the  Salt  River. 

California  after  the  secularization  (see  California 
Missions)  retained  most  of  the  Fathers  until  their 
death.  The  missions  fell  into  ruins  or  later  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  secular  clergy.  In  1840  the  first 
Bishop  of  the  two  Califomias  was  appointed  in  the 
person  of  the  Franciscan  Garcfa  Diego  y  Morena.  In 
1884  onlv  the  mission  of  Santa  Barbara  was  still  in 
charge  of  the  friars  who  conducted  a  coUe^  there.  To 
prevent  the  community  from  dying  out  it  was  incor> 
porated  into  the  province  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  St. 
Louis.    Since  then  the  houses  and  friars  have  multi- 


ntAES 


301 


FBIABS 


plied  BO  that  on  the  Pacific  Coast  the  commissariat, 
vduch  was  organised  in  1898,  comprises  3  monasteries, 
8  residences,  1  classical  college  tor  aspirants  to  the 
order,  1  orphanage  for  boys,  50  Fathers,  15  professed 
clerics,  45  lay  brothers,  and  4  novices. 

The  bigotry  of  some  of  the  English  settlers  pre- 
vented the  Franciscans  from  securing  a  foothold  in  the 
Thirteen  Colonies,  though  at  the  mvitation  of  the 
Jesuits  several  friars  came  from  England  between  the 
years  1672  and  1699.  Persecutions  at  home  made  it 
mipossible  to  train  and  supply  successors.  Individ- 
ual friars  found  their  way  to  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Kentucky,  but  no  permanent  foundation  was  ef- 
fected. Michael  Egan,  who  became  first  Bishop  of 
Philadelphia,  arrived  from  Ireland  in  1803  and  tried  to 
establish  a  house,  but  failed  for  want  of  subjects.  A 
convent  of  Poor  Clares  enjoyed  a  short  life  at  Pitts- 
bmigearly  in  the  thirties.  In  the  great  North- West 
and  West,  Belgian  Franciscans  penetrated  to  Michigan, 
Minnesota,  and  Illinois,  but  they  too  disappeared  alter 
a  time,  except  at  Detroit,  where  they  continued  imtil 
the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  where  one  be- 
came a  martyr. 

Not  till  near  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy 
did  the  sons  of  the  seraphic  saint  find  it  practicable  to 
branch  out  from  Austria,  Germany,  and  Italy  into  the 
States.  In  1844  the  province  of  St.  Leopold/Tyrol,  re- 
solved to  grant  the  petition  of  the  Right  Rev.  J.  B. 
Purcell,  Bishop  of  Cincinnati,  and  sent  Father  William 
T^nterthiener.  He  was  given  charge  of  the  newly 
organized  German  parish  of  St.  John  the  Baptist. 
Many  other  Fathers  and  Brothers  joined  him,  so  that 
on  4  October,  1858,  St.  Francis  College  could  be 
founded  for  the  education  of  aspirants  to  the  order.  In 
the  following  vear  the  ten  existing  convents  were 
united  in  an  moependent  custody  under  the  invocation 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist.  In  1885  it  became  a  province 
which  at  present  numbers  5  monasteries,  31  resi- 
dences, 137  Fathers^  50  mt)fessed  clerics,  80  lay 
brothers,  and  7  novices.  The  Fathers  conduct  an 
ecclesiastical  colle^  attended  by  75  students,  and  are 
in  charge  of  84  parishes,  22  mission  stations,  including 
several  Indian  missions  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
41  parish  schools  attended  by  9000  pupils  and  one  In- 
dian boarding  school.  They  also  publish  "  Der  Send- 
bote",  a  German  monthly  periodical  for  the  Apostle- 
ship  of  Praver, "  Der  Franziskusbote  ". "  St.  Antnony's 
Messenger''  for  the  German  and  English-speakmg 
members  of  the  Third  Order,  and  "The  Sodalist",  a 
monthly  for  the  young. — At  the  urgent  request  of  the 
Right  Rev.  Henry  Damian  Juncker,  Bishop  of  Alton> 
lUmois,  the  provmce  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Germany,  in 
1858  sent  three  Fathers  and  six  lay  brothers  to  Teu- 
topolis.  In  the  course  of  time  many  others  followed, 
notably  in  consequence  of  the  persecution  inauguratea 
by  Bismarck  in  Prussia,  so  that  in  1879  the  various 
convents  were  separated  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
mother  province  and  formed  an  independent  province 
under  tne  title  of  the  Most  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus. 
The  mother-house  is  at  St.  Louis,  Missouri.  At  pres- 
ent the  province,  including  the  commissariat  of  Cali- 
fornia which  has  convents  in  California,  Arizona,  and 
Oregon,  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  order.  It  com- 
prises 13  monasteries,  33  residences,  250  priests^  80 
professed  clerics,  190  lay  brothers,  and  12  novices. 
The  Fathers  are  in  charge  of  42  parishes,  110  mission 
stations,  including  the  Indian  missions  of  Michi^m. 
Wisconsin,  California,  and  Arizona,  2  ecclesiastical 
coUe^,  with  about  200  students,  1  classical  and  com- 
mercial college,  attended  by  150  students,  97  paridi 
schools  frequented  by  17,500  children,  1  boys'  orphan- 
age which  cares  for  250  children,  5  Indian  boshing 
schools,  and  4  Indian  day  schools.  In  addition  to 
their  missionary  and  scholastic  labours,  several 
Fathers  have  been  en^ged  in  literary  work.  They 
have  published  catechisms  and  prayer  books  in  the 
languages  of  the  Chippewa  and  Menominee,  a  Chip- 


pewa Indian  grammar  and  exercise  book,  books  of 
devotion,  biographical  works,  several  historical  vol- 
umes, and  a  well-known  Latin  ceremonial.  They  also 
publish  at  Harbor  Springs,  Michigan,  from  their  own 
press,  the  **  Anishinabe  Enamiad  in  the  language  of 
the  Chippewa,  and  "The  Messenger  of  the  Holy  Cnild- 
hood".  Both  are  eight-page  monthlies. — Owing  to 
the  persecution  of  religious  in  Prussia,  a  number  of 
friars  from  the  province  of  St.  Elisabeth,  Thuringia, 
settled  at  Paterson,  New  Jersey,  in  1875.  In  1901 
the  several  commimities,  joined  by  the  English-speak- 
ing friars  of  the  Italian  custody,  were  united  in  a 
Province  under  the  protection  oi  the  Holy  Name  of 
esus.  It  now  has  4  monasteries,  7  residences,  64 
priests,  19  professed  clerics,  46  lay  brothers,  and  3 
novices.  Tne  Fathers  are  in  charge  of  10  parishes,  30 
mission  stations,  1  seminary  and  college  (AUe^my, 
N.  Y.)j  1  college  for  postulants,  the  College  and  Com- 
missariat of  the  Holy  Land,  Washineton,  D.  C,  and  10 
garish  schools  attended  by  2200  children.  They  pub- 
sih  the  "Pilmm  of  Palestine"  and  "St.  Anthony's 
Almanac  ".  Father  Paschal  Robinson  of  the  province 
published  "The  Writings  of  St.  Francis",  "The  Say- 
mgs  of  Blessed  Giles ",  "Introduction  to  Franciscan 
Literature",  and  "The  Life  of  St.  Francis".— At  the 
request  of  the  Right  Rev.  John  Timon,  Bishop  of  Buf- 
falo, some  Italis^  friars  arrived  at  Buffalo  in  1855. 
They  established  several  convents  in  the  States  of 
New  York,  Massachusetts,  and  Pennsylvania.  The 
custody  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  was  organized 
in  1861.  It  now  comprises  2  monasteries,.  5  resi- 
dences, 28  Fathers,  1  professed  cleric,  and  4  lay 
brothers,  in  charge  of  7  parishes,  7  mission  stations, 
and  5  parish  schools  attended  by  2400  pupils.  The 
most- noted  of  these  Fathers  was  the  Father  Pamfilo 
da  Magliano,  the  author  of  "St.  Francis  and  the  Fran- 
ciscans". He  also  foimded  the  Missionary  Sisters  of 
St.  Francis,  who  follow  the  Rule  of  the  Third  Order  of 
St.Francis. — ^The  Commissariat  of  Polish  Franciscans  in 
Wisconsin  is  composed  of  8  Fathers,  2  professed  clerics, 
20  lay  brothers,  and  3  novices,  who  occupy  1  monas- 
tery and  2  resiaences.  The  Fathers  have  charge  of  3 
Sarishes,  1  mission  station,  1  college  attended  by  25  stu- 
ents,  and  4  parish  schools  frequented  by  650  children. 
The  Franciscans  (Recollects)  first  appeu^ed  in  Can- 
ada in  June,  1615,  when  the  French  Fathers  Joseph  le 
Caron.  Denis  Jamet,  Jean  d'Olbeau,  and  Brother  raci- 
ficus  au  Plessis  arrived  at  Quebec.  They  at  once  dp- 
voted  themselves  to  mission  work  among  the  Algonkm 
and  Wyandot  or  Hurons  along  the  Great  Lakes.  For 
commercial  reasons  the  French  traders  were  opposed 
to  the  civilization  of  the  natives  and  gave  the  mission- 
aries considerable  trouble.  After  labouring  amid  in- 
credible hardships,  and  finding  that  their  forces  were 
too  weak,  the  friars  invited  uie  Jesuits  to  share  the 
field  with  them.  The  first  Jesuit  missionaries  arrived 
in  1625  and  toiled  side  by  side  with  the  Franciscans. 
One  of  the  friars,  Nicholaus  Viel,  was  killed  by  a 
savage  and  thus  became  the  protomartyr  of  Canada. 
In  1629  the  English  captured  Quebec  and  forced  both 
the  Franciscans  and  Jesuits  to  leave  the  country. 
Brother  Gabriel  Sagard,  who  had  come  in  1623,  com- 
posed an  Indian  vocabulary  of  132  pages,  and  de- 
scribed the  country  and  its  missions  in  two  volumes. 
Some  Franciscans  m  1619  started  a  mission  in  Acadia 
or  Nova  Scotia.  A  few  were  still  serving  there  in 
1633,  but  nothing  more  is  on  record.  Near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  seventeenth  century  several  French-Belsian 
Franciscans  arrived  in  Canada,  the  most  noted  of 
whom.  Father  Louis  H«nnepin,  passed  Niagara  Falls 
in  December,  1678,  and  was  the  nrst  to  describe  them 
in  his  "Description  de  la  Louisiane"  (Paris)  and 
"Nouvelle  D^ouverte"  (Amsterdam).  Hennepin 
penetrated  beyond  the  Mississippi  and  in  1680  dis- 
covered St.  Anthony's  Falls.  Father  Emanuel  Cres- 
pel  and  others  came  to  Canada  in  1726.  He  passed 
Great  Falls  and  travelled  as  far  as  Fox  River  in  Wis^ 


\ 


FBIBOUBO 


302 


FRnou&o 


eonsin.  He  seems  to  have  been  among  the  last 
FVanciscans  who  toiled  in  Canada  during  the  Colonial 
period.  In  1888  the  Very  Rev.  Frederic  De  Ghy- 
veldOy  of  the  French  province,  and  one  lay  brother 
arrived  at  Three  Rivers.  Other  Fathers  followed,  and 
now  the  three  monasteries  of  Three  Rivers,  Montreal, 
and  Quebec  number  46  Fathers,  38  professed  clerics, 
47  lav  brothers,  and  7  novices.  The  Fathers  are  en- 
gaged in  giving  missions  among  the  faithful. 

Wadding,  Annalea,  XVI  (Rome.  1740);  Gonzaga,  De 
Oriffine  Seraphica  Rdigionia,  II.  pt.  IV  (Rome.  1587):  FteBU- 
8INI,  Chronologia  Ht8torieo-Leffalx8t  I  (Naples,  1650);  Harold, 
Enitcme  Annalium  (Rome,  1662),  sec.  2;  Mbndibta.  Hiatoria 
EdeaidMica  Indiana  (Mezioo,  1870);  Tobqxtbmada,  Manarguia 
Indiana  (3  vols.,  Madrid,  1723);  Vxtancubt,  Crdnica  (Mexico, 
1697);  Idbic  Menologio  Serdfieo  (Mexico,  1697);  TsiLO,  Cr6- 
niea  Miaceldnea,  II  (Guadalajaia,  1891);  Medina,  Crdnioa  (Mex- 
ico, 1682);  Beaumont,  Crdniea  (4  vols.,  Mexico,  1873-74); 
ABLBaui,  Cr^ica  (Mexico,  1851);  Espinoza,  Crdniea  Serdfiea 
(Mexico,  1746);  Idem,  Cr&nica  de  Michoacan  (Mexico,  1899); 
AmucnnTA,  Cr&nica 'Apoatdlica  (Mexico.  1792);  Vilaplana, 
Vida  dd  Fr.  AnL  MarvU  (Madrid,  1775);  Icazbalcbta,  Fr. 
Juan  de  Zumdrraaa  (Mexico,  1881);  Babcia,  Ensayo  Crcncid' 
gico  (Madrid,  17^);  Vbga.  La  Florida  (Madrid,  1723);  Coll, 
Cd&n  y  La  Rdbida  (Madrid,  1892);  Saoabd,  Grand  Voyage 
(Paris,  1632);  Idbm,  HUtoire  du  Canada  (Paris.  1636);  Hbnnb- 
vts.Deaeriplion  of  Louieiana  (tr..  New  York,  1880);  Mabcbluno 
da  Givssza,  Storux  Universale  deue  Mieaiont  Franeeeoanet  V-VII 

iRome,  Prato,  Florence,  1861-1894);  Villobxsi.  II  CoUegio 
^raneeseano  dt  Tarija  (Quaraoehi,  1885);  Mao  llano.  8t.  Fran^ 
ei»  and  the  Franciacana  (New  York,  1867);  Shba,  The  Caiholie 
Church  in  Colonial  Daya  (New  York,  1886);  Idem,  Caiholie  Mia- 
aiona  (New  York,  1854);  Engelhabdt,  The  Franciacana  in  Calir 
fomia  (Harbor  Springs,  1897):  Idem.  Ttie  Franciacana  in  Ari- 
aona  (Harbor  Spnnss,  1899);  Idem,  Ttie  Miaaiona  and  Miaaian- 
ariea  of  California  (San  Francisco,  1908). 

Zephtrin  Engelhabdt. 

Fribonrg  (Switzerland),  University  of.— From 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  foundation  of  a  Catholic 
universitv  in  Switzerland  had  often  been  canvassed 
among  the  Catholic  cantons.  The  need  of  such  an 
institution  was  with  the  passa^  of  time  ever  more 
keenly  felt,  as  the  fact  tnat  higher  educational  in- 
stitutions existed  only  in  the  Protestant  cantons 
ensured  for  the  Protestants  a  certain  intellectual 
ascendancy.  In  spite  of  the  pressing  nature  of  the 
case^  however,  the  want  of  the  necessary  means  and 
the  jealousy  among  the  Catholic  cantons  combined  to 
prevent  any  solution  of  the  question  being  arrived  at. 
From  the  very  banning,  the  inhabitants  of  Fribouig 
had  laboured  most  zealously  for  the  establishment  of  a 
university  in  their  town.  Out  of  their  own  resources, 
t^ey  founded  in  1763  a  school  of  law,  which  was  con- 
tinued till  1889  and  then  meiged  in  the  juristic  faculty 
of  the  university.  During  the  nineteenth  century, 
ihe  Catholic  movement  in  Switzerland,  making  the 
Swiss ''  Pius-Vereln"  its  rallyin^-eentre,  zeinaugurated 
the  agitation  for  a  Catholic  university.  The  Catholic 
Conservative  Government  of  Fribourg  finally  took 
the  matter  in  hand,  and  George  Python,  State  Coun- 
cillor for  Fribourg  and  from  1886  Director  of  Public 
Education,  who  enjoyed  the  fullest  confidence  of  the 
people,  effected  the  foundation  of  the  university.  It 
was  certainly  a  bold  undertaking  for  a  little  state  of 
only  119,000  (in  1909,  130,000)  inhabitants,  but  the 
energy  and  political  acumen  of  Python  coupled  with 
the  unselfish  liberalitv  of  the  le^slative  council  were 
a  certain  guarantee  of  success.-  The  conversion  of  the 
public  debt  under  favourable  conditions  in  1886  re- 
sulted in  a  saving  of  2,500,000  francs  (500,000  dollars), 
and  on  24  December  of  the  same  year  the  supreme 
councU  resolved  to  set  aside  this  sum  as  a  foundation 
fund  for  the  proposed  university.  On  4  October,  1889, 
a  second  resolution  was  pa^ied,  appropriating  the 
interest  on  this  capital  to  the  foundation  of  the  first 
faculties,  which  were  opened  in  the  following  Novem- 
ber, the  juristic  faculty  Tthe  extended  school  of  law) 
with  nine  professors  and  tne  philosophical  (for  philoso- 
phy, literature^  and  history)  with  eighteen. 

The  town  oi  Fribourg,  seat  of  the  university,  con- 
tributed half  a  million  francs  towards  the  funded 
capital  of  the  university,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1890 
the  theological  faculty  was  instituted  with  seven  pro- 


fessors. In  accordance  with  an  agreement  betwera 
the  Government  of  Friboura  and  Father  Larocca, 
General  of  the  Dominicans,  this  faculty  was  with  the 
sanction  of  Leo  XIII  entrusted  to  the  Dominican 
Order,  and  placed  directly  under  the  care  of  the  Holy 
See.  Many  secular  priests,  however,  have  held  chairs 
in  the  theolop;ical  faculty,  which  has  received  from 
Rome  the  pnvilege  of  granting  academical  d^;rees 
(baccalaureate,  licentiate,  doctorate)  in  theology. 
The  other  faculties  confer  only  the  ae^;rees  of  licen- 
tiate and  doctorate.  By  the  appropnation  to  the 
university  of  the  profit  on  the  piiblic  supply  of  water 
and  electricity,  and  of  a  fixed  annual  sum  from  ibe 
newly-founded  state  bank,  the  further  development 
of  these  three  faculties  and  the  establishment  of  the 
faculty  of  mathematical  phyiBics  were  made  possible. 
The  new  faculty  was  opened  in  1895  with  eleven  pro- 
fessors, and,  as  the  institution  of  infirmaries  has  ^- 
ready  been  some  years  in  progress,  the  establishment 
of  the  medical  faculty — ^the  only  story  now  needed  to 
crown  the  academical  edifice — ^may  be  expected  at  an 
early,  date.  Meanwhile^  chairs  of  physiol^y  and 
bacteriology  have 'been  instituted  in  connexion  with 
the  faculty  of  mathematical  physics. 

Despite  many  difficulties,  including  the  crisis  caused 
by  the  wanton  dismissal  of  eight  Carman  professors 
in  1898,  the  development  of  me  University  of  Fri- 
bourg has  been  steadily  maintained.  As  a  cantonal 
pubhc  institution,  it  stands  on  the  same  legal  footing 
as  the  other  universities  of  Switzerland.  The  supreme 
authoritv  is  vested  in  the  Cantonal  Department  of 
Public  Education  (i.e  the  State  Council),  practically 
all  the  expenses  being  borne  by  the  canton.  The 
general  constitution  of  the  universi^  is  regulated  by 
tiie  Charter  of  1  December,  1899.  Leo  Xni  viewed 
its  foundation  with  a  great  satisfaction  to  which  he 
^ve  personal  expression  in  many  letters  to  the  author- 
ities of  the  Canton,  to  the  university  itself,  and  to  the 
Swiss  episcopate.  The  main  sources  of  revenue, 
according  to  the  cantonal  budget  for  1909,  are  as 
follows:  Interest  on  foundation  fund,  125,000  francs; 
yearly  contributions  from  state  bank,  80,000  frs. ;  prof- 
its arising  from  the  electric  and  water  works,  150,000 
frs. ;  lease,  2,580  frs.  To  this  sum  of  357,^80  frs.  must 
be  added  7700  frs.  for  the  le^al  chairs,  and  other 
endowments  (especially  the  "  Gnvel^and  tne  "  Wester- 
maier'O*  Many  funds  have  been  established  for  1^ 
assistance  of  students,  and  the  institution  of  prizes. 

In  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  its  founder^  the 
university  has  always  maintained  an  international 
character,  which  consists  not  alone  in  the  appointment 
of  native  professors  to  teach  the  history  and  literature 
of  their  native  lands,  but  also  in  the  various  nation- 
alities of  the  students  attracted  to  the  university. 
The  lectures  are  deliveied  in  Latin,  French,  and  Ger- 
man. In  the  winter  term  of  190S-9,  the  teaching  sta^ 
consisted  of  70  lecturers  from  ten  different  lancb,  but 
eispecially  from  Switzerland,  Germany,  France,  and 
Austria.  Their  distribution  among  the  faculties  was 
as  follows:  Theology,  13  ordinary  and  2  extraordinary 
professors;  Law,  14  ordinary  and  4  extraordinary 
professors;  Philosophy,  19  ordinary  and  3  extraordi- 
nary professors;  Mathematical  Physics.  10  ordinary 
and  3  extraordinary  professors  with  2  firivatdozerUenn  ' 
The  increase  in  the  attendance  at  the  university  may 
be  judged  from  this  table  of  matriculated  students: 


Winter  Term. 


Theology 

Law 

Philosophy 

Mathematical  Physics 

Total 


1890-1 


64 
46 
28 


138 


1900-1 


127 
65 
54 
80 


326 


1908-9 


202 
124 
107 
135 


568 


FRIDAY                               303  FBIDOUH 

Of  the  568  students  in  the  winter  tenn  of  1908-9.  Chi-li,  the  Amur  districts,  Kahlkhas  (Mongolia),  Sie» 

181  were  Swiss,  90  Germans,  86  Russians  (Poles  ana  eh  Van,  Yun-nan,  ^wei-chou,  and  Hu-kwang  (Hu-naa 

Lithuanians),  32  Bulgarians,  31  Italians,  23  from  the  and  Hu-pe),  for  which  purpose  they  traversed  the 

United  States,  21  from  Austria-Hungary,  and  the  whole  empire  from  south  to  north.    At  the  time  of  his 

remainder  from  eleven  other  lands.  death  Fndelli  had  been  rector  for  many  years  of  the 

The  tmiversity  is  governed  by  the  rector,  elected  Southern  or  Portuguese  church  (Nan-t'ang),  one  of 

each  year  at  the  general  meeting  of  the  ordinary  pro-  the  four  Jesuit  churches  at  Peking. 

fesBors.    He  is  assisted  by  the  senate,  which  consists  Fiire  lettev  in  N,  Welt-BoU  (Augsbuz^,  1726,  and  Yienna, 

of  the  rector,  p«>-n«tor.  and  the  d««8  ««d  a^istant  ^^^•^^i^!?i^^b^iti,.'^i^^^.^^ 

deans  of  the  separate  faculties.    At  the  head  of  each  ta  Chine  (The  Hacue,  1736),  I,  preface;  Huondbb,  Deutadie 

faculty  stands  the  dean,  who  also  holds  office  for  a  JmuiteamuHonAre  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1809).  87,  186. 

sin^e  year.    The  professors  are  appointed  by  the  A.  Hitondsb. 
Council  of  State  on  the  recommendation  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  faculty  concerned,  except  that  in  the 
appointment  of  professors  of  theoloey  due  attention  is 

always  paid  to  me  requirements  ofecclesiastical  law  u'**5"'^  j""^ 'l**!"! '^STr"*'  "^*^  •*'*i;    '*P?i'^^t9'  ^ 

and  the  terms  of  thelgieement  with  the  Dominican  her  legpnd^  mite  latest  form,  she  w^^ 

Older.    Candidates  wl  recognised  as  matricukted  ?,l?°/''l^"1^At?^yf^i*"2^ 

studente  on  the productionofa  certificate  which  can  ^»^»-    She  refused  the  nrofifered  hand  of  Kmg 

be  procured  by  following  a  certein  couree  of  academi-  ^^>  *  •    I?^{.  ^^  ^^^^^  *^^  ^^™;.  5* 

cal  studies  in  {heir  native  towns.    Since  1905,  women  ^^f,?^  *^*  ''^i^'^'Jfl^'^'  u  "^^^^^  ^^S' 

are  allowed  to  matriculate,  and,  in  additioA  to  the  nee8ponhim,an£helefthermherwll.    From  this 

regular  studente,  permission  miy  be  given  by  the  eventually  developed  the  monastej^^ 

i^tor  to  other  p;5iSons  to  attend  particular  lectures.  ^  ^^  ()ctober  (her  prmcipal  feast),  and  was  buned. 

As  such  peraonTnumbered  119  in  the  winter  term  The  ^hestwntten  fife  now  extent  wmuo^ 

190a-9,  lie  total  number  of  studente  who  attended  '^^  ^^'"f  ^^i^,  3^  ^^^F^i^' ^®**^' V^^'*  ^.^^^ 

lectures  during  this  period  was  687.    Allthematrio-  eraUy  admitted  that  the  substance  of  the  tradition 

ulated  studente  are  Srolled  in  a  general  association,  has^venr  appearance  of  ver^nuhtude.    From  the 

called  the  "Akademia",  and  also  contribute  to  an  ^.^J  her  translation  m  1180  (commemorated  12 

academic   sick-fund.    Many    societies    have    been  Feb.)  from  her  ongmal  tomb  to  the  g^tshm 

founded  by  the  studente  of  various  lands  for  thepro-  churoli,  her  fame  spread  fw-  and  wide;  for  the  umver- 

motion  of  social  and  intellectual  intercourse.    Thus,  sity  tos  now  visited  by  studente  from  aJl  parte,  who 

the  "Columbia"  has  been  instituted  by  the  studente  ^«?^  ^'^  *  year  m  solemn  procession  to  her  shrme 

from  the  United  Stotee,  and  publishes  ite  own  bulle-  «^^,  ^®P^  **er  feasts  with  great  solemmty.    Caxdinal 

tin  "The  Columbia".    There  are  three  colleges  for  Wolsey  trensforoaed  her  monastery  mtoClmst  O^^ 

theological  studente:  the  Albertinum,Salesianum,  and  CoUeM,  King  Henry  made  her  church  into  (hcford 

Canisianum.    A  special  university  society  has  been  ca.thedr^,  but  her  shrme  was  dismantled,  and  her 

inaugurated  to  further  the  intereste  of  the  university,  ^^^j  ^^^-^  seem  to  have  been  preserved,  were  rele- 

The  university  library  is  associated  with  that  of  ^^  *®J°^  out^f-the-way  corner.    In  the  reign 

the  canton  (which  contains  140,000  volumes,  16,000  of  Edrord  VI,  Catherme  Cathie  was  buned  near  the 

brochures,  634  manuscripto,  and  360  incunabula),  a  ?*«  ^[^^^  TS®**  ^^^  7^  *  runaway  nun,  who  had 

new  building  for  the  accommodation  of  both  libraries  ^^  through  the  form  of  marriage  with  Peter  Martyr, 

having  bwJ  opened  in  1908.    The  Ubraiy  expends  the  ex-fnar.    The,  Cathohcs,  as  was  but  natural, 

an  annual  sum  of  16,500  f«.  in  the  purchase  of  books  ^If^,.^®!*  ^?  ?  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary.    But 

and  journals.    There  are  separate  libraries  for  the  aftfr  Ehsabeth  had  remstoted  Prote^^         James 

different  academical  courses  and  institutes,  7650  frs.  Calfhill,  appointed  Canon  of  Chnst  Church  m  1561, 

being  spent  annually  on  those  in  connection  with  du^  ?P  ^?*i?®  ?,^^°«?  ^^^.^^]^^  mixed  them  up  (m 

thetiieological,  legal,  and  philosophical  faculties,  and  dension  of  the  Catholics)  ^nth  the  alleged  remaining 

30,000  fre.  for  those  of  the  facufty  of  mathematical  rehcs  of  the  samt,  and  buried  them  both  together  amid 

physics.    The  university  has  ite  own  scientific  pubU-  the  plaudite  of  his  Zwmghan  friends  m  England  and 

MLtion,  the  "Collectanea  Friburgensia",  for  which  Germany,  where  two  relations  of  his  exploit,  one  m 

only  contributions  from  professors  are  accepted,  and  J^^  ^^  ©pe  m  Geramn,  were  published  m  1662. 

m  which  twenty-five  works  have  aheady  appeared  in  ^he  Latm  relation,  which  is  conveniently  repnnted  m 

three  series.    The  list  of  the  publications  of  the  uni-  *he  Bollandiste,  is  followed  m  the  onanal  by  a  number 

versity  lecturers,  which  is  appended  to  the  rector's  o^  epitephs  on  the  theme  Hie  facet  rdigio  cam  superati- 

annual  report,  gives  one  a  good  idea  of  the  activity  of  '*?^  but  it  does  not  seem  that  these  words  were  in- 

the  professors  in  other  directions.  <»fl«d  ^^  *he  *o°^b»  though  it  is  often  said  that  they 

WiBTjucB.  The  UnmenUu  o/  PreOmy  in  awiUedand,  in  The  were.    The  episode  strikmgly  illustrates  the  character 

hi$h  Roeary  (1905);  DiekaUuUitche  mivertiuujM  Freiburg  w  of  the  continuity  between  the  ancient  faith  and  the 

der  SdnoeiM  in  Hietorisch-Politiaehe  BlAUer,  CXI  (1893),  569  r»*fftrmpH  rplim'nn  of  li^n^Und 

■qq.:    Uoemu    L^Univer^_de   Fribaurg^  (2d  ed.,  Fribourg.  ^^?'^To^^^^ir^^^^r. 


■qq.;  MOBBL,  UUnwemU  de  Fnbourg  (2d  ed..  l*nbours, 
lo95);  Rapooria  cmnude  det  Redewn  de  V  UntvereiU  de  Fribourg; 
llAnn  (>bBaumgabtbn).  L't^mvemfft  di  Friburgo  in  Sviaera, 


Ada  88,,  Oct,  VIII,  533^564;_Mabil]x>n,  Ada  88.  Ben. 

^*  Hunt  in 


tr.  £rom  the  OrenAoien  (feome,  1902).  ^{f9^  ^^o\*  V  HSP^S  2**^.£r?&  ^?SJ'  )^R' 

V     -«^                                frroart*  Vermtlta  (1562):    Pabkbr,  Body  Oxford,  7M7~1100  (1885); 

J.r.  AIRflCH.  PLuioom,  JJluoiefAon  0*/on«  (1887). 

Mday,  Good.    See  Good  Fridat.  J-  H.  Pollen. 

MdeDi  (properly  Friedel),  Xaveb  Ehrenbebt,  MdoUn,  SAnn*.  inissioiiary,  founder  of  the  Monas- 

Jesuit  missionary  and  cartographer,  b.  at  Linz,  Aus-  tery  oiS&ckingen,  Baden  (sixth  century).    In  accord- 

tria,  11  Maroh,  1673;  d.  at  Peking,  4  Jime,  1743.^  ance  with  a  later  tradition,  St.  Fridolin  is  venerated  as 

He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1688  and  in  1706  '  the  first  Irish  missionary  who  laboured  amons  the 

arrived  in  China.    FridelU  was  an  important  contrib-  Alainanni  on  the  Uoper  Khine,  in  the  time  of  the  Mero- 

utor  to  the  cartographical  survev  of  uie  Chinese  Em-  vingians.    The  eani^t  documentary  information  we 

pire,begunin  1708  and  completed  in  1718  (according  to  possess  concerning  him  is  the  biography  written  by 

othere,  1716).    Baron  Richthofen  says  that  this  work  Balther,  a  S&ckin0en  monk,  at  the  beginning  of  the 

is  "the  most  comprehensive  cartographical  feat  ever  eleventh  century  (Mon.Germ.  Hist.:  Script.  rer.Merov., 

performed  in  so  short  a  space  of  time  "  ("  China  ",  Ber-  III,  360-69).    According  to  this  life,  Fridolin  (or  Fri- 

tin,  1877, 1,  661,  see  631  sq.).    Together  with  Fathers  dold)  belonged  to  a  noble  family  in  Ireland  (Scottia 

E^gis,  JartouZy  and  othere,  he  designed  the  maps  of  inferior),  and  at  first  laboured  as  a  missionary  in  his 


nUEDBIOR 


304 


FRIENDS 


native  land.  Afterwards  croesing  to  France,  he  came 
to  Poitiera,  where  in  answer  to  a  vision,  he  sought  out 
the  relics  of  St.  Hilarius,  and  built  a  church  for  their 
reception.  St.  Hilarius  subsequently  appeared  to  him 
in  a  dream,  and  commanded  him  to  proceed  to  an 
island  in  the  Rhine,  in  the  territories  of  the  Alamanni. 
In  obedience  to  this  summons,  Fridolin  repaired  to  the 
**  Emperor"  Clovis,  who  granted  him  possession  of  the 
still  imknown  island,  and  thence  proceeded  through 
Helion.  Strasburg,  and  Goire,  founding  churches  m 
eveiy  aistrict  in  honour  of  St.  Hilarius.  Reaching  at 
last  the  island  of  S&ckineen  in  the  Rhine,  he  recognized 
in  it  the  island  indicated  in  the  dream,  and  prepared  to 
build  a  church  there .  The  inhabitants  of  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine,  however,  who  used  the  island  as  a  pastur- 
age for  ^eir  cattle,  mistook  Fridolin  for  a  cattle- 
robber  and  expelled  him.  On  his  production  of 
Clovis's  deed  of  gift,  he  was  allowed  to  retum^nd  to 
found  a  church  and  monastery  on  the  island.  He  then 
resumed  his  missionary  labours,  founded  the  Scottish 
monastery  in  Constance,  and  extended  his  mission  to 
Augsburg.  He  died  on  6  March,  and  was  buried  at 
SfiSingen.  The  writer  of  this  legend  professes  to 
have  derived  his  information  from  a  oiography,  which 
he  discovered  in  the  cloister  of  Helera  on  the  uoselle, 
also  founded  by  Fridolin,  and  which,  being  imable 
to  copv  from  want  of  parchment  and  ink,  he  had 
leamea  by  heart. 

This  statement  sounds  very  suspicious,  and  makes 
one  condude  that  Balther  was  compelled  to  rely  on 
verbal  tradition  for  the  information  recorded  in  his 
work.  Not  a  single  ancient  author  mentions  Fridolin, 
the  life  has  no  proper  historical  chronological  arrange- 
ment, and  the  enumeration  of  so  many  wonders  and 
visions  awakens  distrust.  Consequently,  most  mod- 
em historians  justly  reject  the  life  as  tmauthentic,  and 
as  having  no  historical  foundation  for  the  facts  re- 
corded, while  the  older  historians  believed  that  it 
contained  a  germ  of  truth.  In  the  eariy  Middle  Ages, 
there  was  certainly  some  connection  between  Sftckin- 
gen  and  Poitiers,  from  which  the  former  monastery 
received  its  relics,  and  this  fact  may  have  made  the 
author  connect  Fridolin  with  the  veneration  of  St. 
Hilarius  of  Poitiers,  and  the  churches  erected  in  his 
honour.  The  only  portion  of  the  life  that  can  be 
regarded  as  historically  tenable,  is  that  Fridolin  was 
an  Irish  missionary,  who  preached  the  Christian  relig- 
ion in  Gaul,  and  founded  a  monastery  on  the  island 
of  Sflckingen  in  the  Rhine.  Concerning  the  date  of 
these  occurrences,  we  have  no  exact  information. 
The  monastery,  however,  was  of  great  importance  in 
the  ninth  century,  since  the  earliest  extant  document 
concerning  it  states  that  on  10  February,  878,  Charles 
the  Fat  presented  to  his  wife  Richardis  the  Monasteries 
of  Sftckingen,  of  St.  Felix  and  of  Regula  in  Zurich.  ^ 

Vita  FruMinit  auetore  Balihero  monam,  in  the  foUowinc 
works:  Cozaan,  Ada  Sonet,  HibemuB  (Louvain,  1645),  I,  48l 
eg.;  Monk,  QudUn»ammluno  der  badudien  Landstomchichte 
(Karlsruhe.  1845).  I;  ed.  Kbusch  in  Man.  Oerm,  Hiat.^  ScripL 
rer.  M^rowino.,  III.  351-69;  Ada  88„  March.  I,  433-441. 

PoTTHAST.  Bibliotheea  histarica  medii  avi  (Berlin,  1896),  II, 
1322-23;  BtUiothetxi  hagiographiea  latina.  ed.  Bollandistb,  I, 
478:  Wattbnbach,  DeuiaelUanda  Oetchichlaquellen,  I  (7th  ed., 
Berlin.  1904),  155;  Hbfblb,  Oenchichte  der  Binfiihruno  de» 
Ckridmthtma  in  SudwtatL  DeuUchkmd  (TQbingen,  1837); 
LOtolf,  Die  OlaubendH)ien  der  Schweie  vor  St,  Oatttte  (Lucerne, 
1871).  267  sqq.:  Lbo.  Der  hi.  Fridolin  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1886); 
Hbbr,  St.  Fridolin,  der  Apoetd  Alemanniena  (Zarich,  1889); 
VON  Knonau.  NodimaU  die  Frage  St.  Fridolin  in  Anzeiffer  Mr 
Sdiumxeroeach.  (1889).  377-81;  Schuiav,  Beitrtkoe  twr  KrUik 
der  Vita  FridoHni,  Jahrbudi  fUr  Sditoeieergeeeh,,  XVin  (1893), 
134-152. 

J.  P.  KiRBCH. 

Frledrich  ▼on  Hansen  (Husen),  medieval  German 
poet,  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  minnesingers;  date  of 
birth  unknown;  d.  6  May,  II90.  His  name  is  men- 
tioned frequently  in  legal  documents,  for  the  first  time 
in  one  from  Mainz  dated  1171.  He  was  bom  in  middle 
Rhenish  territory,  as  is  shown  by  his  dialect,  especially 
by  his  rhymes,  but  several  towns  claim  the  honour  of 
being  his  birthplace,  and  the  question  cannot  be  defi- 


nitel^r  decided.  In  1175  he  was  in  Italy,  and  asain  in 
1 186  in  the  suite  of  Henry  VI.  The  n«rt  year  Be  was 
present  when  Frederick  I  (Barbarossa)  and  Philip 
Augustus  met  between  Mouzon  and  Yvois,  and  in  1188 
he  was  at  Worms  in  the  company  of  Count  Baldwin  V 
of  Hennegau.  He  accompanied  the  Emperor  Fred- 
erick, by  whom  he  was  held  in  high  esteem,  on  the 
crusade  of  1189,  and  met  his  death  at  the  battle  of 
Philomelium,  when  he  fell  with  his  horse  while  pursu- 
ing the  enemy.  His  popularity  was  great;  the  whole 
arm3r,  we  are  told,  mourned  his  death. 

Friedrich  von  Hansen  is  one  of  the  earliest  of  the 
minnesingers  who  are  known  to  have  imitated  French 
models,  with  which  he  became  acquainted  on  his 
travels  through  Burgundy  and  Provence.  Together 
with  Veldeke  he  introduced  the  Romance  element  into 
the  minnesong.  The  ProveuQal  influence  is  especially 
evident  in  the  dactylic  rh3rthm  of  his  verses,  which  re- 
sulted from  the  adoption  into  German  of  a  Romance 
ten-sjrllable  line  with  four  or  five  stresses.  His  rhymes 
are  still  occasionally  imperfect  and  his  songs  contain 
more  than  one  strophe.  Hansen's  poetry  is  not  at  all 
popular,  but  rather  artificial  in  form  and  often  ab- 
stnise  in  spirit.  He  is  fond  of  dall3ring  with  a  word, 
like  most  of  the  troubadours  or  minnesingers  he  sings 
chiefly  of  love's  pan^,  but  he  never  degenerates  into 
effeminacy.  Fnedrich  von  Hansen's  poems  are 
printed  in  F.  H.  von  der  Hagen's  "Minnesinger" 
(Leipzig,  1838,  4  vols.),  I,  212-217;  a  selection  may 
also  DC  found  in  K.  Lachmann  and  M.  Haupt,  ''Des 
Minnesangs  FrOhling"  (Leipzig,  1888),  42  sqq.;  in 
Friedrich  Pfaff,  ''Der  Minnesang  des  12  bis  14  Jahr- 
hunderts"  (Knrschners  Deutsche  National-Litteratur, 
VIII,  pt.  1, 17-24);  and  in  Karl  Bartsch,  "Deutsche 
Liedeniichter  des  12  bis  14  Jahrhunderts"  (4th  edition, 
by  W.  Golther,  Berlin,  1901  )i 

LdBHrsLD,  Ueber  Friedrich  von  Hauaen  in  Paul  and  Bbaunx, 
BeitrOffe,  II,  345-405;  Spiroatxb,  Die  Lieder  Friedriehe  von 
Hauaen  (Tabingen,  1876),  and  the  critical  introductionB  to  the 
above-mentioned  editions. 

Arthxtb  F.  J.  Remt. 

Ftienda,  Society  or  (Quakers),  the  official  desig- 
nation of  an.  Anglo-American  religious  sect  original^ 
stylins  themselves ''  Children  of  Truth ' '  and ''  Children 
of  light",  but "  in  scorn  by  the  world  called  Quakers". 
Tlie  foimder  of  the  sect,  (5eorge  Fox,  son  of  a  well-to-, 
do  weaver,  was  bom  at  Fenny  Drayton  in  Leicester- 
shire. England,  July,  1624.  His  parents,  upright 
people  andstrict  adherents  of  the  established  religion, 
destined  him  for  the  Church ;  but  since  the  boy,  at  an 
early  period,  fdt  a  strong  aversion  to  a  ''hireling 
ministry",  he  was,  after  receiving  the  bare  rudiments 
of  education,  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker.  He  ^w 
to  manhood  a  pure  and  honest  youth,  free  from  the 
vices  of  his  age,  and  "endued",  says  Sewel,  "with  a 
eravity  and  stayedness  of  mind  seldom  seen  in  chil- 
dren". In  his  nineteenth  vear,  while  at  a  fair  with 
two  friends,  who  were  "professors"  of  religion,  he  was 
so  shocked  by  a  proposal  they  made  him  to  join  them 
in  drinking  healtns,  that  he  abandoned  their  company. 
Returning  home,  ne  spent  a  sleepless  night,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  thought  he  heard  a  voice  from 
heaven  crying  out  to  him:  "Thou  seest  how  young 
men  go  together  into  vanity,  and  old  people  into  the 
earth;  thou  must  forsake  all,  young  and  old,  keep  out 
of  all,  and  be  a  stranger  unto  all."  Interpreting  the 
injunction  literallVi  Fox  left  his  father's  house,  peimi- 
1^  and  with  Bible  in  hand  to  wander  about  the 
country  in  search  of  light.  His  mental  anguish  at 
times  bordered  on  despair.  He  sought  counsel  from 
renowned  "professors^';  but  their  advice  that  he 
should  take  a  wife,  or  sing  psalms,  or  smoke  tobacco, 
was  not  calculatea  to  solve  the  problems  which  per- 
plexed his  soul.  Fiuding  no  food  or  consolation  in  the 
teachings  of  the  Church  of  England  or  of  the  innumer- 
able  dissenting  st^Cts  which  flooded  the  land,  he  was 
thrown  back  upon  himself  and  forced  to  accept  his 


FRIENDS                               305  ntlENDS 

own  imftginiTipi  as  ''revelations".    "I  fasted  much,"  as  slaves  be^nd  seas,  and  338  died  in  prison  or  ot 

he  tells  us  in  nis  Journal,  ''walked  abroad  in  solitary  wounds  received  in  violent  assaults  on  their  meeting. 

S laces  many  davs,  and  often  took  mjr  Bible  and  sat  in  They  fared  still  worse  at  the  hands  of  the  Puritans  in 
oUow  trees  and  lonesome  places  until  night  came  on ;  Massachusetts,  who  spared  no  cruelty  to  rid  the  colony 
and  frequentW^  in  the  night  walked  mounifully  about  of  this  "cursed  sect  of  heretics",  and  hanged  four  of 
by  myself.  For  I  was  a  man  of  sorrows  in  the  first  them,  three  men  and  a  woman,  on  Boston  Common, 
working  of , the  Lord  in  me."  This  anguish  of  spirit  What  marked  them  out  for  persecution  was  not  so 
continued,  with  intermissions,  for  some  years ;  and  it  is  much  their  theory  of  the  inwaiti  light  or  their  rejection 
not  surprising  that  the  lonely  youth  read  into  his  of  rites  and  sacraments,  as  their  refusal  to  pay  tithes, 
Bible  all  his  own  idiosyncrasies  and  limitations.  or  take  the  oaths  prescribed  by  law,  or  to  have  any- 
Founding  his  opinions  on  isolated  texts,  he  pad-  thing  to  do  with  the  army;  these  offences  being  aggra- 
ually  evolved  a  system  at  variance  with  eveiy  existing  vated  in  the  estimation  of  the  magistrates  by  their 
form  of  Christianity.  His  central  dogma  was  that  of  obstinacy  in  refusing  to  uncover  their  head  in  court 
the  "inner  ]i^t*%  communicated  directly  to  the  in-  and  "  thouing  and  theeing"  the  judges.  The  suffering 
dividual  soul  by  Qirist  "who  enHghteneth  every  man  Friends  found  at  last  a  powerful  protector  in  the  per- 
that  oometh  into  the  world",  'to  walk  in  this  light  son  of  their  most  illustrious  convert,  William,  son  of 
and  obey  the  voice  of  Christ  epeaking  within  the  soul  Admiral  Penn.  who  defended  his  coreligionists  in 
was  to  Fox  the  supreme  and  sole  duty  of  man.  Creeds  tracts  and  public  disputes,  and,  through  his  influence 
and  churches,  councils,  rites,  and  sacraments  were  with  the  last  two  Stuart  kings,  was  frequently  success- 
discarded  as  outward  things.  Even  the  Scriptures  ful  in  shielding  them  from  the  violence  of  the  mob  and 
were  to  be  interpreted  by  tne  inner  li^t.  I^  was  the  severity  of  the  magistrates.  Penn  furthermore 
surely  carrying  the  Protestant  doctrme  of  private  secured  for  them  a  safe  refuge  in  his  peat  colony  of 
judgment  to  its  ultimate  logical  conclusion,  l^conven-  Pennsvl  vania,  the  proprietorship  of  which  he  acquired 
lent  passages  of  Holy  Writ,  such  as  those  establishing  from  Charles  II  in  liquidation  of  a  loan  advanced  to 
Baptism  and  the  Eucharist,  were  expounded  by  Fox  the  Crown  by  his  father.  With  the  accession  to  the 
in  an  allegorical  sense ;  whilst  other  passages  were  in-  throne  of  James  II  the  persecution  of  the  Friends  prac- 
sisted  upon  with  a  literalness  before  unknown.  Thus,  tically  ceased ;  and  by  successive  Acts  of  Parliament 
from  the  text  "Swear  not  at  all",  he  drew  the  illicit-  passed  after  the  Revolution  of  1688,  their  legal  dis- 
ness  of  oaths,  even  when  demanded  by  iAie  ma^strate.  abilities  were  removed ;  their  scruples  about  paying 
Titles  of  honour,  salutations,  and  all  similar  things  tithes  and  supporting  the  army  were  respected;  and 
conducive  to  vanity,  such  as  doffing  the  hat  or  "scrap-  their  affirmation  was  accepted  as  equivalent  to  an 
ing  with  the  leg",  were  to  be  avoided  even  in  the  oath. 

presence  of  the  king.  War.  even  if  defensive,  was  de-  Meanwhile,  Fox,  in  the  intervals  between  ^is  fre- 
dared  unlawful.  Art,  music,  drama,  field-sports,  and  quent  imprisonments,  had  laboured  to  impart  the 
dancing  were  rejected  as  imbecoming  the  gravity  of  a  semblance  of  an  organization  to  the  society;  whilst 
Christian.  As  for  attire,  he  pleaded  for  that  simplicity  the  excesses  of  some  of  his  followers  compelled  him  to 
of  dress  and  absence  of  ornament  which  later  became  enact  a  code  of  discipline.  His  efforts  m  both  these 
the  most  striking  pecidiarity  of  his  followers.  There  directions  encoimtered  strong  opposition  from  many 
was  no  room  in  his  system  for  the  ordained  and  salaried  who  had  been  taught  to  regard  the  inward  light  as  the 
clergy  of  other  religions.  Fox  proclaiming  that  every  all-sufficient  guide.  However,  the  majority,  sacrific- 
man,  woman  or  chM,  wnen  moved  by  the  Spirit,  had  ing  consistency,  acquiesced;  and  before  the  death  of 
an  equal  right  to  prophesy  and  give  testimony  for  the  Fox,  13  Jan.,  1691,  Quakerism  was  established  on  the 
edification  of  the  brethren,  "^l^o  conclusions,  with  principles  which  it  has  since  substantially  preserved, 
disagreeable  consequence  to  the  early  Friends,  were  Although  the  Friends  repudiate  creeds  as  "exter- 
drawn  from  this  rejection  of  a  "priesthood  " ;  the  first  nal "  and  "  human  ",  yet  they,  at  least  the  early  Quak- 
was,  that  they  refused  to  pav  tithes  or  chureh  rates:  ers  and  their  orthodox  modem  followers,  admit  the 
ihe  second,  that  they  celebrated  marriage  among  fimdamental  dogmas  of  Christianity  as  expounded  in 
themselves,  without  calling  in  tiie  services  of  the  le-  the  Apostles'  Creed.  Rejecting  as  non-Scriptural  the 
gaily  appomted  minister.  _  term  Trinity ,  they  confess  the  Godhead  of  the  Father, 
Impelled  by  frequent  "revelations",  Fox  began  the  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost;  the  doctrine  of  the  Re- 
public preacmng  of  his  novel  tenets  in  1647.  It  was  demption  and  salvation  through  Christ;  and  the 
not  his  intention  to  increase  the  religious  confusion  of  sanctification  of  souls  through  the  Holy  Spirit.  Their 

the  time  by  the  addition  of  a  new  sect.    He  seems  to  ablest  apologists,  as  Robert  Barclay  and  William 

have  I                  *   ^  .1    .  .1      ,    .  .      1                  #  •«         L            X  L         i_i_  X         1  .       X.  *    . 

which 

flamini 

greeted 

enthusiasm  anci  evident  sincerity  of  the  uncouth  voice''  with  the  "external"  claims  of  Scripture  and 

young  preacher  gained  him  numerous  converts  in  all  the  historic  Christ.    These  doctrinal  weaknesses  were 


bly  short  time,  a  host  of  unordained  apostles,  male  the  soil  of  England,  nevertheless,  as  his  adherents 

and  female,  were  scouring  the  two  hemispheres,  carry-  grew  in  numbers,  he  was  forced  to  ^ther  them  intc 

ing  to  the  ends  of  the  earth  the  gospel  of  Fox.    One  congregations  for  purposes  of  worship  and  business, 

enthusiast  hastened  to  Rome  to  enlighten  the  pope:  a  These  "particular  meetings"  assembled  on  the  first 

second  went  to  the  Orient  to  convert  the  sultan.    Tne  day  of  toh  week.    They  worshipped  without  any  form 

antagonistic  religions  dominant  in  England  before  and  of  liturgy  and  in  silence  imtil  some  man,  woman,  or 

after  the  Restoration,  Presbyterianism  and  the  Estab-  child  was  moved  by  the  Spirit  to  "give  testimony", 

lished   Chureh,    made   eoimlly   determined   efforts,  the  value  ot  which  was  gauged  by  the  common  sense 

through  the  aid  of  the  civu  power,  to  crush  the  prow-  of  the  assembly.    By  a  process  of  development,  a 

ing  sect.    From  the  detailed  record  which  the  Friends,  form  of  chureh  government  came  into  being,  which 

in  imitation  of  the  primitive  Christians,  kept  of  the  has  been  described  as  follows: — 
sufferings  of  their  brethren,  we  gather  that  during  the        "The  whole  community  of  Friends  is  modelled 

reign  of  Charles  II,  13,562  "  QuaKers ' '  were  imprisoned  somewhat  on  the  Presbyterian  system.    Three  grada- 

in  various  parts  of  England,  198  were  transported  tions  of  meetinge  or  synods — monthly,  quarterly,  and 

VL— 20 


FRIENDS 


306 


yearly — administer  the  affairs  of  the  Society,  includ- 
ms  in  their  supervision  matters  both  of  spiritual  disci- 
pline and  secular  policy.  The  monthly  meeting, 
composed  of  all  the  congregations  within  a  defimte 
circuit,  judge  of  the  fitness  of  new  candidates  for 
membership,  supply  certificates  to  such  as  move  to 
other  districts,  choose  fit  persons  to  be  elders,  to  watch 
over  the  ministrv,  attempt  the  reformation  or  pro- 
nounce the  expulsion  of  all  such  as  walk  disorderly, 
and  generally  seek  to  stimulate  the  members  to  re- 
ligious duty.  Hiey  also  make  provision  for  the  poor 
of  the  Society,  and  secure  the  ^ucation  of  their  chil- 
dren. Overseers  are  also  appointed  to  assist  in  the 
promotion  of  these  objects.  At  monthly  meetings 
also  marriages  are  sanctioned  previous  to  uieir  solem- 
nization at  a  meeting  for  worahip.  Several  monthly 
meetings  compose  a  quarterly  meeting,  to  which  they 
forward  general  reports  of  their  condition,  and  at 
which  appeals  are  heard  from  their  decinons.  The 
yearly  meeting  holds  the  same  relative  position  to  the 
quarterly  meetings  that  the  latter  do  to  the  monthly 
meetings,  and  has  the  general  superintendence  of  the 
Society  m  a  particular  country."  (See  Rowntree, 
Quakerism,  Past  and  Present,  p.  60.)  All  the  yearly 
meetings  are  supreme  and  independent,  the  only  bond 
of  imion  between  them  being  the  circular  letters 
which  pass  between  them.  The  annual  letter  of  Lon- 
don Yearly  Meeting  is  particularly  prized.  With  the 
passing  away  of  its  f  oimders  and  the  cessation  of  per- 
secution, Quakerism  lost  its  missionary  spirit  and 
hardened  into  a  narrow  and  exclusive  sect.  Instead 
of  attracting,  new  converts,  it  developed  a  mania  for  > 
enforcing  "discipline",  and  "disowned",  that  is,  ex- 
pelled, multitudes  of  its  members  for  trifling  matters 
m  which  the  ordinary  conscience  could  discern  no 
moral  offence.  In  consequence,  they  dwindled  away 
from  year  to  year,  being  gradually  absorbed  by  other 
Thore  vigorous  sects,  and  many  drifting  into  Unitari- 
anism. 

In  the  United  States,  where,  in  the  banning  of  the 
last  century,  they  had  eight  prosperous  yearly  meet- 
ings, their  progress  was  arrestea  by  two  schisms, 
known  as  the  Separation  of  1828  and  the  Wilburite 
Controversy.  The  disturbance  of  1828  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  preaching  of  Elias  Hicks  (1748-1830),  an 
eloquent  and  extreme^  popular  speaker,  who,  in  his 
later  years,  put  forth  unsound  views  concemmg  the 
Person  ana  work  of  Christ.  He  was  denounced  as  a 
Unitarian;  and,  although  the  charge  seemed  well 
founded,  many  adhered  to  him,  not  so  much  from  par- 
taking his  theological  heresies,  as  to  protest  against 
the  excessive  power  and  influence  claimed  by  the  eld- 
ers and  overseers.  After  several  years  of  wrangling, 
the  Friends  were  split  into  two  parties,  the  Orthodox 
and  the  Hicksite,  each  disowning  the  other,  and 
claiming  to  be  the  original  society.  Ten  years  later 
the  Orthodox  body  was  again  divided  by  the  opposi- 
tion of  John  Wilbur  to  the  evangelistic  methods  of  an 
English  missionary,  Joseph  John  Qumey.  As  the 
main  body  of  the  Orthodox  held  with  Gumey,  the 
Wilburite  faction  set  up  a  schismatic  yearly  meeting. 
These  schisms  endure  to  the  present  day.  There  is 
also  a  microscopical  sect  known  as  "Primitive" 
Friends,  mainly  offshoots  from  the  Wilburites  who 
claim  to  have  eliminated  all  the  later  additions  to  the 
faith  and  practice  of  the  early  founders  of  the  society. 

In  the  fields  of  education,  charity,  and  philanthropy 
the  Friends  have  occupied  a  place  far  out  bf  propor- 
tion to  their  numbers.  There  exist  in  the  United 
States  many  important  colleges  of  their  foundation. 
They  are  exemplary  in  the  care  of  their  poor  and  sick. 
Long  before  the  other  denominations,  they  denoimced 
slavery  and  would  not  permit  any  of  their  members  to 
own  slaves.  They  dia  not,  however,  advocate  the 
abolition  of  slavery  by  violent  measures.  They  have 
also  been  eminently  solicitous  for  the  welfare  and  fair 
treatment  of  the  Indians. 


According  to  Dr.  H.  K.  Carroll,  the  acknowledged 
authority  on  the  subject  of  religious  statistics  (The 
Christian  Advocate,  Jan.,  1907),  the  standing  of  the 
various  branches  of  Friends  in  the  United  States  is  as 
follows: — 


Miniaten 

Churches 

CommmiioaDto 

Orthodox 
Hicksite 
WUburite 
Primitive 

1302 

115 

38 

11 

830 

183 

53 

9 

94,507 

19,545 

4,468 

232 

ScRAiT.  Creedt  of  Chriatendom  (New  York.  1884).  I.  Ill: 
Thoiiab,  Allan  C.  and  Richard  H..  Hiatcry  cf  the  Socitty  cf 
Friends  in  America  in  American  Church  Hietory  Series  (New 
York,  1804).  XII — oontaine  excellent  bibliography;  Smith, 
JoBBPH.  Deeeriptive  Catalome  of  Friends*  Books  (London,  1867; 
supplement,  London,  1893);  Idbm.  BHUioiheca  AntirOuakeriana, 
A  Calaloffue  of  Books  Adverse  to  the  Society  of  Friends  (London, 
1873);  Jannbt,  History  of  the  Reiioious  Society  of  Friends  from 
the  Rise  to  the  year  1828  (2nd  ed..  Philadelphia,  1837-^50).  The 
Works  of  Fox  were  published  at  London,  1694-1706;  the  Works 
of  Babclat  were  edited  by  William  Pbnn  (London,  1692). 

James  F.  Louohun. 

Mends  of  Qod  (Ger.  Gottesfreundb).  an  asso- 
ciation of  pious  persons,  both  ecclesiastical  and  lay, 
having  for  its  object  the  cultivation  of  holiness;  its 
name  alludes  no  cfoubt  to  John,  xv,  14, 15.  The  circle 
of  the  "  Friends  of  God  **  appears  to  have  had  its  origin 
in  Basle  between  the  jrears  1339  and  1343,  and  to  have 
thence  extended  down  the  Rhine  even  as  far  as  the 
Netherlands,  the  cities  most  prominent  in  its  history 
being  Basle,  Strasburg,  and  Cologne.  Seeing  the  dis- 
turbed state  of  society  in  the  large  territory,  the  holy 
associates  united  in  their  efiForts  to  counteract  the 
many  evil  influences  of  the  time,  by  appl^g  them- 
selves zealously  to  the  practices  of  the  intenor  me,  and 
workins  diligently  for  the  conversion  of  sinners. 
From  this  group  of  ascetics,  whose  sole  bond  of  union 
was  their  common  desire  for  holiness,  the  ^reat  school 
of  German  mystics  took  its  rise.  They  aimed  at  be- 
coming saints,  and  at  giving  edification  at  Catholic 
devotion,  not  heterodox  enthusiasm;  at  affective  con- 
templation, not  arid  speculation.  Their  great  leaders 
were  two  Dominicans,  the  eloquent  preacher  John 
Tauler  (c.  1300-1361),  and  the  contemplative  writer 
Blessed  Henry  Suso  (c.  1300-1365);  to  these  must  be 
added  Henry  of  N6rdlingen.  Conrad  of  Kaiserheim. 
and  the  Dominicans  John  ot  Tambach  (a  celebratea 
theologian),  John  of  Stemengassen,  Dietrich  of  Col- 
mar,  and  Nicholas  of  Strasburg.  Among  those 
whom  they  directed  in  the  path  of  perfection  were 
several  communities  of  nuns,  chiefly  Dominican  (e.  g. 
in  Unterlinden,  Engelthal).  Of  these  Dominii^- 
esses,  the  most  renowned  for  sanctity  are  the  mystical 
writers  Christina  and  Margaretha  Ebner.  Among 
their  disciples  living  in  the  world,  the  following  may  be 
mentionea:  Rulman  Merswin,  a  wealthy  merchant  of 
Strasbure  (1382),  Henry  of  Rheinfeiden,  and  the 
knight  ofLandsberg.  The  sermons,  treatises,  and  let- 
ters of  the  "  Friends  of  God  "  are  remarkable  for  beauty 
of  style,  those  of  Suso  constituting  the  best  prose  of 
the  fourteenth  centuiy,  the  correspondence  of  Henry 
of  NOrdlingen  and  Margaretha  Ebner  being  the  earliest 
examples  of  epistolary  literature  in  the  German  lan- 
guage, and  the  sermons  of  Tauler  being  masterpieces 
of  eloquence. 

As  long  as  the  association  remained  under  the  guid- 
ance of  men  like  Suso  and  Tauler,  masters  in  the 
spiritual  life,  it  was  preserved  from  blemish.  Suso 
was  the  founder  of  the  Children  of  Mary,  and,^  in  an 
age  that  witnessed  the  decadence  of  scholasticism  or 
scientific  theoloQr,  both  friends  based  all  their  mys- 
ticism on  Cathouc  doctrine,  particularly  on  the  solid 
system  of  St.  Thomas.  As  Suso's  **  Book  of  the  Eter- 
nal Wisdom"  was  composed  for  spiritual  reading,  so 
was  his  "  Book  of  Truth"  written  to  refute  the  (errors 
and  fanatic  excesses  of  the  Beghards  and  the  Brethr^ 


niGKNTO 


307 


FEoraEs 


cf  the  Free  Spirit.  On  his  part,  Tauler  opposed  the 
false  m^rsticisin  of  the  Fraticelli  and  the  sehismatical 
tendencies  of  Louis  of  Bavaria.  But  the  glory  of  the 
"Gottosfreunde"  soon  came  toan  end.  A  lay  mem- 
bar  of  the  association,  Rulman  Merswin,  through 
either  ignorance  or  fraud,  brought  the  whole  group  of 
German  mystics  into  disrepute.  The  doctrine  of  his 
alleged  guide  and  master  in  the  spiritual  life — ^the 
mysterious  layman  of  the  Oberland  (Der  Gottesfreund 
vom  Oberland),  the  "Friend  of  God"  par  exceUence, 
to  whom  Merswin,  in  his  posthumous  work  "  Das  Buch 
von  den  neun  Felsen",  ascribes  revelations,  prophe- 
cies of  impending  chastisements,  and  a  divine  mission 
to  purify  the  Church — ^waa  diametrically  opposed  to 
that  of  Suso,  Tauler,  and  the  others.  Denifle  has 
proved  conclusively  that  Merswin's  great  unknown  is 
a  myth,  but,  as  the  "Great  Friend  of  God''  had  pre- 
viously been  regarded  as  the  reformer  of  the  hierarchy 
and  a  precursor  of  Luther,  the  recluse  of  the  Oberland 
(Alsace)  was  much  lauded  and  often  quoted  by  those 
Protestant  writers  who  asserted  that  true  German 
mvsticism  was  incompatible  with  Roman  supremacy, 
scholastic  theology,  etc.  After  Rulman  Merswin's 
death,  Nicholas  m  Basle  became  the  leader  of  the 
peeudo-Friends  of  God,  but  was  eventually  condemned 
as  a  Beghard  and  burned  at  Vienna  in  1409.    Another 

e'ominent  member  of  this  sect,  his  disciple  Martin  of 
ainz,  had  suffered  a  like  punishment  sixteen  years 
before  in  Cologne,  for  submitting  unreservedly  to  a  lay- 
man and  maintaining  several  heretical  propositions. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the 
"  Friends  of  God  ",  whether  orthodox  or  heterodox,  dis- 
appear from  the  pages  of  history.  (See  Tauler,  John  ; 
Henrt  Suso,  Bl.;  Nicholas  of  Basle;  Mysticism.) 

HjbeqbnhOthbr-Kirsch,  Kirdienoesch.  (Frmburg,  1904),  II, 
790  sqq.;  Dbnitlb  in  Zeitachrift  f.  deuUchea  AUertum  (1880- 
1881);  Idbu,  I>a»  Bitch  vcn  der  jfeiaUiehen  Armuth  (Munich, 
1887);  Ehrlb  in  Stimmen  au9  Maria-Loach  (1881),  XXI,  38. 
252;  Grbith,  Die  deuiache  Myntik  im  Predigerorden  (Freiburg, 
1861);  Daa  Buch  mm  den  neun  FtUen  von  R,  Merawin  (Leipsic , 
1859);  JuNDT,  Lea  amia  de  Dieu  au  XIV*  aikde  (Paxia,  1879); 
Idbm,  Rulman  Merawin  el  Vami  de  Dieu  de  V Oberland  (Paris, 
1890);  Bbvan,  Three  Frienda  of  Ood:  Recorda  from  the  Uvea  of 
John  Tauler,  Nicholaa  of  Baale,  and  Henry  of  Suao  (London, 
1887);   BdBRiNOBR.  Die  deuiachen  Myatiker  (2nd  ed.,  Zurich, 


1877);  Tahlbr,  Predi^ten  (Leipzig.  1498i_and  Cologne,  1543); 

(Munich,  1880).  On  Rulman  Merswin,  in  particular,  see  sstrauch 
m  the  ReaUncyklopOdie  fUr  prot.  Theol.,  XVII.  203;  Bihlmbtbr 


ro.  nil  _ 

SuBiUB,   Latin   Paraphrase  <A   same    (Cologne,    1548);   Die 

jen  Heinrich  Seuae,  ed.  Dbnvlb 
irticular.  see  Strauch 


raph 
deutadhen  Schriften  dea  adigeri 


in  Bucbbbbobb's  Kirchl,  Handler.,  s.  v.  Ootteafreunde  and 
Meraunn* 

Reginald  Walsh. 

Frigento.    See  Aveluno,  Diocese  of. 

Ttifl^lety  Abbey  of. — The  monastery  ol  St.  Mich- 
ael was  founded,  about  960,  at  Frigolet,  by  Conrad  the 
F^fic,  King  of  Aries,  on  one  of  the  numerous  hills 
which  lie  between  Tarascon  and  Avi^on,  France. 
Successively  occupied  by  the  Benedictines  of  Mont- 
majour,  the  Augustinians,  the  Hieron^mites,  and  fin- 
ally by  the  Reformed  Augustinians,  it  was,  together 
with  ail  the  monasteries  in  France,  suppressed  and  sold 
by  the  French  Republic.  From  that  time  it  changed 
hands  frequently,  and  was  acquired,  at  length,  by  Itev. 
Edmund  coulbion,  who  purchased  it  from  Rev.  T. 
Delestrac.  Edmund  Boulbon,  b.  14  January,  1817, 
entered  the  Abbey  of  Our  Lady  of  La  Trappe  at 
Briquebec,  in  1850.  Of  a  robust  faith,  and  burning 
with  zeal  for  souls,  he  wished  to  lead  a  more  active  life. 
Acting  on  the  advice  of  his  superiors,  he  left  the  Trap- 

Sists  and  undertook  the  restoration,  in  France,  of  tne 
^rder  of  St.  Norbert,  the  constitution  of  which  seemed 
to  be  better  adapted  to  his  active  disposition.  On  6 
Jime,  feast  of  St.  Norbert,  he  received  the  white  habit 
from  the  hands  of  Mgr  de  Gassignies,  Bishop  of 
Soissons,  at  Pr^montr^. .  Pius  IX  approved  the  project 
in  an  audience  which  he  granted  to  Father  Eamund, 
4  December,  1856.  Witn  the  consent  of  Mgr  de 
Chalandon,  Archbishop  of  Aix,  Father  Edmund  took 
possession  of  Frigolet,  and,  having  admitted  several 
novioeo.  be  oommenoed  the  community  life  there.   In 


honour  of  Our  Lady  Conceived  without  Sin  he  erected 
a  magnificent  church,  which  was  solemnly  consecrated 
on  6  Oct.,  1866.  The  monastery  was  canonically 
erected  as  a  prioiy  on  28  August,  1868;  and  as  an 
abbey  in  Sep^,  1869,  the  Right  Rev.  Edmund  Boul- 
bon beine  its  first  abbot.  On  8  Nov.,  1880,  the  abbey 
of  Frigolet  was  seized  and  the  reli^ous  expelled. 
Eventually,  however,  they  were  permitted  to  return. 
Abbot  Boulbon  was  spared  the  miseries  of  a  second 
expulsion,  for  he  died  2  March^  1883. 

His  successor,  Paulinus  Boniface,  named  abbot  on 
10  June,  1883,  undid  by  his  bad  administration  the 
good  work  so  nobly  be^un  by  Abbot  Boulbon;  but 
after  a  canonical  visitation  by  Mgr  Gouthe-Soulard, 
Archbishop  of  Aix,  he  was  deposed,  and  the  direction 
of  the  abbey  entruisted  to  the  Rev.  Denis  Bonnefoy,  a 
prudent  and  saintly  religious.  Up  to  this  time,  the 
Abbey  of  Frigolet,  with  the  priories  founded  by  it,  had 
formed  as  it  were  a  separate  congregation  with  an 
organization  of  its  own,  having  no  connexion  with  the 
other  abbeys  or  the  general  chapter  of  the  order.  This 
state  of  affairs  was  remedied  by  a  decree  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  dated  17  Sept., 
1898;  and  the  congregation  of  Frigolet  was  incor- 
porated with  the  order.  Unfortunately,  the  Right 
Kev.  Denis  Bonnefoy,  who  was  made  abbot  on  21 
March,  1899,  died  on  20  Sept.'  of  the  same  year.  The 
religious  of  Frigolet  chose  for  their  abbot  Godfrey 
Maaelaine,  then  prior  of  the  Abbey  of  Mondaye,  Cal- 
vados, France,  the  distinguished  author  of  **  Lliistoire 
de  S.  Norbert"  and  otner  books.  Meanwhile  the 
French  Republic  had  framed  new  laws  against  all 
religious  institutions,  and  on  5  April,  1903,  the  relig- 
ious, expelled  from  their  abbey,  took  refuge  in  Bel- 
gium. There,  having  bought  what  was  left  of  the 
former  Norbertine  Abbey  of  Leffe  near  Dinant,  they 
restored  it;  and  continued  in  the  conventual  life,  in 
the  hope  that  some  day  the  fathers  might  be  per- 
mitted to  return  to  France.  The  Abbey  of  Frigolet 
had  founded  the  priories  of  Conoues  and  Etoite  in 
France,  and  of  Storrington  and  Bedworth  in  Eng- 
land.   It  has  also  sent  missionaries  to  Madagascar. 

F.  M.  Geudens. 

Fringes  (in  Scripture). — ^This  word  is  used  to 
denote  a  special  kind  of  trimming,  consisting  of  loose 
threads  of  wool,  silk,  etc..  or  strips  of  other  suitable 
material,  along  the  edge  or  a  piece  of  cloth.  The  Eng- 
lish Bible  uses  it  to  designate  a  particular  appendage 
of  the  Jewish  costume.  In  the  Mosaic  legislation, 
which  is  embodied  in  the  Pentateuch,  mention  is  made 
of  a  peculiar  ordinance.  "  The  Lord  also  said  to  Moses: 
Speak  to  the  children  of  Israel,  and  thou  shalt  tell 
them  to  make  to  themselves  fringes  in  the  comers  of 
their  garments,  putting  in  them  nbands  of  blue:  that 
when  they  shall  see  ^hem,  they  may  remember  all  the 
commandments  of  the  Lord''  (Num.,  xv,  37-39). 
"  Thou  shalt  make  strings  [A.  V.  and  R.  V. :  fringes]  in 
the  hem  at  the  four  comers  of  thy  cloak"  (Deut.,  xxii, 
12).  The  description  contained  in  these  two  passages 
is  anything  but  clear,  at  least  in  the  English  Bibles; 
but  it  may  be  supplemented  by  a  close  reading  of  the 
original  text,  a  knowledge  of  Eastem  customs,  and  the 
deteils  to  be  found  in  the  rabbinical  literature. 

The  word  "  fringes''  is  here  an  inaccurate  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew;  "  strings "  is  slightly  more  exact.  The 
Hebrew  word  gedtltm  means  literally  "  twisted  cords"; 
fi^k  would  be  best  translated  by  '* tassel".  It  is 
mdeed  an  ornament  of  this  description,  fastened  to  the 
four  comers  of  the  upper  garment,  which  is  the  object 
of  the  above  regulations.  This  upper  garment,  the 
"  cloak"  of  Deut.,  xxii,  12,  seems  to  have  been  a  large 
square  piece  of  cloth,  resembling  the  'aba  of  the  mod- 
em bedouin,  and  worn  like  the  paUium  or  l/tdricp  of 
the  Greeks,  the  four  comers  sometimes  hanging  in 
front  (hrlfiKtifia).  and  sometimes  one  of  the  comers 
cast  over  the  left  shoulder  (wtpipkiifta).    It  was  wery 


FRISIANS 


308 


FROISSABT 


likelv  th6  tassel  of  the  comer  thus  thrown  over  Our 
Lord's  shoulder  that  the  woman  with  the  issue  of 
blood  touched  ("behind  him"),  in  the  circumstance 
recorded  in  Matt.,  ix,  20,  and  Luke,  viii,  44.  We 
should  perhaps  go  back  to  a  very  ancient  custom, 
the  significance  of  which  was  lost  sight  of,  to  account 
for  the  wearing  of  these  ornaments.  At  any  rate,  a 
new  meaning  was  attached  to  them  by  the  lawgiver  of 
Israel. 

Of  these  "fringes",  or  tassels,  nothing  more  is  said 
in  the  O.  T.,  than  that  they  should  contain  "  ribands 
of  blue";  more  exactljr,  "a  cord,  or  thread  of  pur- 
ple". But  the  rabbinical  literature  contains  most 
minute  prescriptions  with  regard  to  these  ornaments. 
Owing  to  the  diflBculty  of  procuring  the  purple  dye, 
the  custom  prevailed  of  usmg  only  wlute  threads  ot 
wool.  They  should  be  four  in  numoer,  one  being  con- 
siderably longer  than  the  others,  spun  expressly  for 
the  purpose,  passed  through  an  eyelet  at  the  comer  of 
the  cloak,  twisted  a  certain  number  of  times,  and  tied 
by  five  knots.  According  to  Deut.,  the  ft^Uh  were 
intended  to  remind  the  people  of  the  commandments 
of  the  Law.  We  may  easily  understand,  therefore, 
why  the  Pharisees  were  wont  to  "enlarge  their 
fringes"  (Matt.,  xxiii,.5).  This  connexion  led  people 
to  attach  to  the  fi^h  and  its  various  parts  mystic 
significations,  and  to  the  statement  that  the  wearing 
of  it  is  the  most  important  precept  of  the  Law;  nay 
more,  is  of  equal  merit  witn  Uie  observance  of  the 
whole  Law. 

The  practice  of  wearing  the  ftpUh  is  still  scrupu- 
lously followed  by  the  Jews.  The  tassels  are  a  part  of 
the  large  tdUilh,  or  prayer-shawl,  used  universally 
during  religious  services:  this  garment  is  worn  in  such 
a  way  that  the  ^(fUh  are  visible  in  front.  Pious  Jews, 
moreover,  devised,  since  the  Dispersion,  an  article  of 
clothing,  the  small  tdllUh,  that  would  enable  them  to 
observe  the  Law  at  all  times.  This  tdUUh  is  similar  in 
shape  to  a  large  scapular,  with  the  tassels  fastened  to 
the  four  comers,  and  is  worn  as  an  underearment. 
Men  only  are  to  wear  the  tdUUh  and  the  ftguh. 

Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  Treat,  ^iefih  (Venioe,  1522-1523; 
French  traosl.  by  Schwab.  Paris,  1871-1890);  Maiuonidbs. 
Yad  Ha-hazdkak  (Ist  ed.  without  place  or  date;  3d  ed.,  Constan- 


Heb^iBorum  in   UaouNi.  TJutauma   Antiquitatum  Saerarum, 
XXI  (Venice,  1744-1709). 

Chables  L.  SonvAT. 

Frisians,  Conversion  of  the.    See  Wilubrord, 

Saint. 

Friti,  Samuel,  a  Jesuit  missionary  of  the  eighteenth 
century  noted  for  his  exploration  of  the  Amazon  River 
and  its  basin ;  b.  at  Trautenau,  Bohemia,  in  1654 ;  d.  20 
March,  1728.  He  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1673. 
In  1684  he  was  sent  to  Quito  as  a  missionary.  For 
forty-two  years  Fritz  acted  in  this  capacity  amone 
the  Indians  of  the  Upper  Maranon.  He  suooeedea 
in  converting  among  others  the  powerful  tribe  of 
Omaguas  (Omayas)  and  in  concentrating  into  civi- 
lized settlements  the  savages  of  forty  different  locali- 
ties, in  the  country  between  the  Rivers  Napo  and  Negro. 
An  adept  in  technical  arts  and  handicraft,  he  also  was 
endowed  with  extraordinary  lingiustic  abilities,  sup- 
plemented by  the  rare  gift  of  knowing  intuitively  how 
to  treat  the  Indians.  These  qualifications  enabled 
him  to  accomplish  prodigious  work  among  them,  and 
merited  for  him  the  respect  not  only  of  the  savages 
but  also  of  the  Spanish  Government,  to  which  he  ren- 
dered valuable  service  in  its  boundary  dispute  with  the 
Portuguese.  At  the  instance  of  the  Heal  Audiencia  of 
Quito  ne  began  (1687)  the  carto^phical  delineation 
of  itie  disputed  missionary  temtory  on  the  Upper 
Marafion  between  Peru  and  Quito.  In  1689  he  unaer- 
took,  in  a  primitive  pirogue^  a  daring  expedition  down 
the  Amazon  to  Pard,  where  he  was  captured  and  im- 
prisoned for  two  years  on  the  suspicion  of  being  a 


Spanish  spy.  Although  only  imperfectly  equipped 
with  the  necessary  instruments,  he  completed  a  com- 
paratively accurate  chart  of  the  river's  course.  This 
was  the  first  approximately  correct  chart  of  the  Mara* 
lion  territory.  He  was  also  the  first  to  follow  the 
Tunguragua  instead  of  the  Gran  Pard  (Ucayali)  and 
prove  it  the  real  source  of  the  Marafion. 

A  Protestant,  Wappaeus,  writes  of  him  in  his  "  Hand- 
buch  der  Geographic  und  Statistik  * '  (Leipzig,  1863-70, 1, 
pt .  Ill ,  595)  as  follows :  "  The  great  respect  j  ustly  shown 
at  that  time  by  European  scientists  for  the  geographical 
work  of  the  Jesuits  led  to  the  admission  into  their 
ranks  of  Father  Fritz  by  acclamation."  In  1707  this 
map  was  printed  at  Quito  and  extensively  copied,  e.  g. 
in  the  "Lettres  Edifiantes"  (Paris,  1781),  VIII,  284, 
and  the  "N.  WeltrBott"  (Augsburg,  1726, 1),  also  in 
Gondamine,  "Relation  abr^g^  d'un  voyage  fait  dans 
I'int^rieur  de  I'Am^rioue  M^rid. "  (Paris,  1/45),  which 
contains  the  revised  chart  of  Father  Fritz  for  compai^ 
ative  study.  The  chart  was  reprinted  in  Madrid,  in  1892, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  fourth  centenary  of  the  dis- 
covery of  America.  There  was  another  reprint  in  the 
"Recueil  de  voyage  et  de  documents  pour  servir  a 
I'hist.  de  la  gtogr.  ,  ed.  by  Schdfer  and  Cordier  ^Paris, 
1893).  Three  of  hib  letters  are  incorporated  m  the 
"N.  Weltr^Bott"  (Au^burg,  1726),  III,  nos.  24,  25; 
according  to  Gondamine  an  original  report  of  his 
travels  is  to  be  f oimd  in  the  archives  of  the  Jesuit  col- 
le^  at  Quito. 

Platzwbo,  LebentibUder  deuUeher  Jemiten  (PRderbom,  1882), 
137;  HuoNDBB,  DeuUche  JesuUen  MiaaionAreim  17,  u.  18.  Jahr~ 
hundert  (Freibure,  1889);  Borda,  Hiat.  de  la  C,  de  J.  en  la 
Nueva  Chranada  (Poiasy,  1872),  I,  72;  Chantbb  y  Hsrrbra, 
Hist,  de  las  Miaumea  delaC,d.J,end  Marafion  EapaAcl  (Mad- 
rid, 1901),  VI,  ix,  296  aq.;  Wolf.  Geoar.  y  Oeologia  del  Beuadcr 
(Leipsis.  1892),  606;  Ulloa,  Vuige  d  la  Amirua  Merid.  (Ma- 
arid,  1748),  I,  vi,  0. 6.  For  the  lingutBtio  abilitiea  of  Frits,  see 
Adblunq,  Mythrid,  (Beriin,  1806),  III,  ii.  611. 

A.  HUONDER. 

Froissarty  Jean,  French  historian  and  poet,  b.  at 
Valenciennes,  about  1337,  d.  at  Chimay  earl^  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  exact  dates  of  his  bu^h  and 
death  are  unknown,  as  well  as  the  family  from  which 
he  sprang.  In  1361,  after  receiving  ecclesiastical 
tonsure,  he  went  to  England  to  present  to  Queen 
Philippa  of  Hainault  an  account  in  verse  of  the  battle 
of  Poitiers.  This  marked  the  beginning  of  the  wan- 
dering life  whidi  led  him  through  the  whole  of  Europe 
and  made  him  the  guest  of  the  chief  personages  of  tne 
end  of  tiie  fourteenth  centuiy.  His  sojourn  in  Eng- 
land lasted  till  1367.  Queen  Philippa  received  him 
well  and  inspired  him  with  the  idea  of  writing  his 
duonides.  He  travelled  through  England  and  visited 
Scotland  where  he  met  David  Bruce.  In  1367  he  a6- 
companied  the  Black  Prince  to  Bordeaux,  returned  to 
London,  and  in  1368  accompanied  the  Duke  of  Clar- 
ence to  Milan  where  the  duke  was  to  wed  the  daugh- 
ter of  Galeazzo  Visconti.  From  Italy  Froissart  re- 
turned to  Valenciennes  where  he  learned  of  the  death 
of  Queen  Philippa  in  1369.  He  was  then  successively 
under  the  protection  of  Duke  Wenceslaus  of  Brabant 
(1369-1381),  and  Comte  Guy  de  Blois,  seigneur  of 
Beaumont,  who  bestowed  on  him  the  parish  of  Lestin- 
nes-au-Mont  and  a  canonicate  at  Chimay  (1384). 
Froissart  accompanied  Count  Guy  into  Flanders  and 
to  Blois.  Then,  to  secure  information  concerning  the 
Spanish  wars,  he  visited  the  court  of  Gaston  Phlbus, 
Oomte  de  Foix,  and  quitted  it  in  1389  in  the  company 
of  Jeanne  de  Boulogne,  the  affianced  bride  of  the  Due  db 
Berry.  In  1390  and  1391  he  wrote  his  history  at  Val- 
enciennes. He  was  at  Paris  in  1392,  whence  he  went 
again  to  London,  where  he  offered  his  poems  to  Rich- 
ani  II.  Having  quarrelled  with  Guy  de  Blois  he 
found  a  new  protector  in  Philip  the  Bold,  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  Little  is  known  of  his  latter  years,  which 
were  possibly  passed  at  Chimay. 

Froissart  composed  many  poems  of  love  and  ad- 
venture, such  as  "TEpinette  Amoureuse'',  in  which 


FROHEMTIH 


309 


FROMENTIN 


he  relates  the  story  of  his  own  life,  and  **  M^iador'',  a 
poem  in  imitation  of  the  Round  Table  cycle,  etc.  His 
chief  work  is  the  "  Chroniaues  de  France,  d'Angleterre, 
d'Eoosse,  de  Bretaene,  ae  Gascogne,  de  Flandre  et 
lieux  circonvoisins  ,  an  account  of  European  wars 
from  1328  till  1400.    In  the  numerous  manuscripts  of 


who  was,  with  Flers,  Huet,  Corot,  and  Rousseau,  one 
of  the  restorers  of  modem  landscape  painting.  A 
short  journey  to  Algeria,  in  1846,  showed  him  more 
clearly  ^he  line  he  was  to  follow.  In  1848  and  1852  he 
again  visited  that  country,  to  gamer  material  for  his 
work.    He  exhibited  at  the  Salon  in  1847.    In  1850 


the  "  Chronicles  * '  three  recensions  of  the  first  book  are  he  sent  in  eleven  paintings,  and  was  awarded  a  seconds 

recognizable.    The  first,  written  between  1369  and  class  medal.    The  only  other  notable  events  in  his 

1379  brinss  the  narrative  to  1378  (the  beginning  is  life  were  a  voyage  to  Egypt,  in  the  autiunn  of  1869, 

borrowedfromthe"Chronicle''of  Jean  le  Bel,  a  canon  in  the  company  of  Napoleon  III,  at  the  time  of  the 

of  Lidge).    The  tone  of  this  recension  is  favourable  to  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal;  and  a  short  stay  of  some 

the  Finnish.    The  second  recension,  represented  by  weeks  m  Holland,  in  July,  1875,  where  he  obtained 

the  Amiens  and  Valenciennes  MSS.,  was  written  under  matter  for  his  book,  "Les  Maitres  d'autrefois".    He 

the  inspiration  of  Guy  de    was  made  chevalier  of  the 


Blois  and  is  favourable  to  the 
French.  The  third  recension 
(Vatican  MS.),  written  after 
1400,  is  frankly  hostile  to 
Enjdand,  but  the  MS.  stops 
with  the  year  1340.  The 
second,  third,  and  fourth 
books  of  the  "CSironicles" 
were  written  between  1387 
and  1400. 

The  "Chronicles"  contain 
many  errors  and  are  very  par- 
tial, but  despite  these  faults 
no  work  conveys  so  lively  an 
impression  of  the  men  and 
things  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury a^  this  history  of  Frois- 
sart.  His  graceful  and  naive 
style  and  the  picturesaue 
turn  which  he  gives  to  nis 
recollections  mSke  him  the 
king  of  chroniclers.  The 
"Chronicles"  were  much 
copied;  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  manuscripts  of 
Froissart  is  at  Breslau, 
copied  in  1469  by  Aubert  de 
Hesdin,  and  admirably  illus- 
trated with  miniatures  (S. 
Reinach,  Gazette  des  Beaux 
Arts,  May,  1905).  Among 
the    moclem    editions    are 


Jban  Faoissabt 
After  a  picture  in  the  Arna  Library 


Legion  of  Honour  in  1859, 
and  officer  in  1869.  He  mar- 
ried in  1851. 

In  his  lifetime,  it  was  as 
a  painter  rather  than  as 
writer  that  he  became  re- 
nowned. Orientalism  was 
then  in  vo^e.  It  suited 
the  romantic  tastes  of  the 
age,  and  satisfied  the  gen- 
eral curiosity  for  exotic 
customs.  Great  painters 
Uke  Decamps,  Delacroix, 
and  Marilhat,  had  already 
made  a  specialtv  of  it. 
Moreover,  all  thoughts  were 
tumed  towards  Algeria,  a 
new,  mysterious  country, 
onlv  half-conquered,  which 
had  just  been  the  scene  of  a 
long  colonial  war.  The  pub- 
lic were  never  weary  of 
hearing  about  it.  Since  the 
land  has  become  so  well 
known,  this  interest  has 
ceased;  and  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  FromenUn's 
reputation  has  suffered  in 
consequence.  Such  is  the 
penalty  of  a  success  partly 
based  on  the  informative 
and  teaching  qualities  of  the 


those  of:  Buchon,   "Panthton  littdraire",  3  vols,  painter's  art.   The  actualitv  has  ceased  to  interest  us; 

(Paris,  1835  and  1846),  defective  in  the  first  book;  and  the  glory  of  the  artist  who  depended  on  it  must  nec- 

Kervyn  de  Lettenhove,  29  vols.  (Brussels,  1867-1877),  essarily  &de.  But  Fromentin  is  far  from  deserving  the 

E'ves  the  various  recensions  of  each  chapter:  Simeon  obscurity  into  which  he  is  now  relegated.    His  work, 

uce  began  to  publish  in  1869  the  edition  of  the  So-  as  a  painter,  is  that  of  a  charming  artist,  the  work  of  a 

ci4t^  de  I'Histoire  de  France,  8  vols.  (Paris,  1869-  landscapist  and  apainterof  customs,  who  had  the  secret 

1888) ;  G.  Raynaud,  commissioned  to  continue  this  ambition  of  becoming  an  historical  painter,  and  who, 

undertaking,  published  volumes  IX  to  XI,  which  con-  wisely  enough,  select^  in  the  modem  world  subjects 

tain  part  of  Book  II  (Paris,  1897-1899).    The  poem  and  plan  best  accommodated  to  his  ambition  and  his 

"M^liador"  was  edited  by  A.  Longnon  for  the  Soci^t^  abihty.    Fromentin's  art,  either  by  the  nature  of  his 

des  Anciens  Textes  Fran9ais  (Paris,  1895).  paintings  or  the  dimensions,  rarelv   surpasses  the 

Kkbytn  db  Lettenhove.  Froiuart,  Hude  ixUirairt  tur  le  *^ genre    properly  SO  called;  and  yet  there  is  something 

?ir'i^;l„S"%SSr!i^!^]'  l^l^T^X'^'^^^l  '«^*"«"y  impressive  ia  the  teiuty  of  the  An*  lifea^ 

(London,  1805);  Uousj^r,  Lea  Sources  deVHiatoire  de  France,  manners,  m  that  nomadlC,  feudal,  warUke  existence, 


8.  y.Lea  Valoie,  IV,  5-18  (Paris,  1904);  Saintbbubt,  Historv 
of  French  Literature:  Johnes.  Memaire  of  the  Life  of  Froissart, 
etc.  (London.  1801);  see  Chevauer,  Bio-bibl.,  s.  v.,  for  an 
extensive  bibliography. 

Louis  Br^hier. 

Fromentin,  EugIine.  French  writer  and  artist;  b. 
at  La  Rochelle,  24  October,  1820;  d.  at  Saint^Maurice, 


the  majestic  simplicity  of  the.  desert  spaces,  and  the 
immutable  tranquillity  of  the  Orient.  Finally,  one 
cannot  fail  to  recognize  the  distinctive  mark  of  Fro- 
mentin's  art.  He  is  not  a  faultless  painter,  but  he 
is  one  of  exouisite  delicacy.  After  1860,  especially, 
under  the  influence  of  Corot,  he  becomes  one  of  the 
cleverest   modem    "harmonists".    His   blue   slate- 


near  La  Rochelle,  26  August,  1876.  His  father,  a  coloured  Algerian  pictures,  with  their  remarkable 
distinguished  physician  and  art  connoisseur,  intended  greyish  tints,  have  not  b^n  excelled.  As  a  painter 
him  for  the  bar.  After  a  brilliant  course  of  studies,  of  the  Arab  horse,  in  the  "Cur6e"  of  the  Louvre,  he  has 
the  young  man  came  to  Paris,  in  November,  1839,  to  no  rival.  Sometimes  he  is  eloquent,  as  in  the  "Si- 
follow  the  lectures  in  law.  In  1843  he  became  asso-  moun",  the  "Soif",  or  the  famous"  Rue  d'ElAghouat". 
dated  with  Maltre  D^normandie,  an  attomey-at-law.  But  the  works  that  show  his  art  at  its  best  are  those 


But  his  literary  and  artistic  inclinations  gradually 
rendered  his  profession  insupportable.  Marilhat's 
exhibition  of  1844  definitely  decided  him  to  devote 
himself  to  painting.    He  became  a  pupil  of  Cabat, 


that  depict  both  customs  and  scenery,  as  the  "Passage 
du  Gu4''  (New  York),  the  "Chasse  au  Faucon"  (Chan- 
tilly);  in  these  he  is  a  kind  of  modem  Wouverman, 
more  elegant  and  poetic  than  the  former.    And  one 


ntONTAL 


310 


FROWIN 


may  anticipate  the  day  when,  Africa  in  its  turn  having 
been  subjected  to  civilization,  industiy,  and  uniform- 
ity, these  pictures  will  be  the  sole  witness  of  its  ancient 
customs,  and  will  then  assume  their  historic  signifi- 
cation. 

It  is,  however,  as  a  writer  that  Fromentin  is  rising 
more  and  more  to  fame.  His  work  is  very  varieo. 
As  a  result  of  his  travels,  he  published,  under  the 
titles  of  :"Un  6t6  dans  le  Sahara"  (Paris,  1856);  and 
''Une  ann^  dans  le  Sahel''  (Paris,  1858),  the  sou- 
venirs of  his  two  last  sojourns  in  Algeria.  In  these  he 
inaugurates  a  new  method  of  description,  much  less 
*' literary''  than  Chateaubriand's,  less  '' technical" 
than  Gautier's,  a  method  which,  in  French  tradition, 
marks  the  transition  from  Bemardin  de  Saint-Pierre 
toLoti.  ''Dominique"  appeared  later  (Paris,  1862). 
This  autobiography  and  transparent  history  of  a  pure 
youthful  love  is,  together  with  "Adolphe"  and  the 
"Princesse  de  Cloves'*,  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  the 
French  "roman  d 'analyse".  But  the  work  that  will 
transmit  Fromentin 's  name  to  posterity  is  his  "Maf- 
tres  d  'autrefois  "  (Paris,  1876) .  This  book  is  composed 
from  the  notes  made  during  a  journey  through  Bel- 
gium and  Holland  to  study  the  old  painters;  or  rather, 
this  journey  was  the  occasion  of  tne  work.  For  the 
author,  in  connexion  with  the  paintings  he  saw,  dis- 
cusses, in  passing,  the  questions  of  sesthetic  moment 
which  he  raises.  It  may  be  said  that  this  book  really 
originated  artistic  criticism.  As  a  critic  Diderot  is 
purely  literary,  Hegel  metaphysical,  Ruskin  reli^ous, 
moral,  or  apocalyptic,  Tame  historical,  or  philoso- 
phical; but  Fromentin  made  criticism  strictly  ''artis- 
tic", that  is  to  say,  he  seeks  thesecret  of  the  significance, 
value,  and  beauty  of  a  picture  solely  in  an  examina- 
tion of  the  work,  its  style,  and  its  methods  of  execution. 
It  is  through  the  painting  thus  understood  and  exam- 
ine that  ne  succeeds  in  determining  the  personality 
and  the  moral  characteristics  of  the  autnor.  Here 
Fromentin  is  a  great  creator  and  a  great  writer,  who 
really  invents  everything:  methods,  systems,  and 
terminology.  Some  of  his  descriptions  of  painting 
are  the  last  word  in  the  art  of  writing.  Certain  of  his 
analyses,  such  as  those  of  Rubens  and  Rembrandt,  are 
defimtive,  and  fix,  forever,  both  the  rules  of  the  style 
or  cla^,  and  the  portraits  of  these  great  men.  If 
to  understand  is  to  equal,  it  is  by  such  pages  that 
this  distinguished  writer,  who  has  won  a  place  among 
the  first  prose-writers  of  the  last  century,  has  really 
added  something  to  the  art  of  painting — ^that  is' to  say 
— the  manner  of  expressing  it  m  writing. 

Saintb-Bbuvs,  From«nhn  in  Nmtveaux  lundia,  VII  (I^tfis); 
GoNSB,  Eugene  Fromentin  (I^ris,  18S1),  with  letters  and  im- 
portant incited  fragments; '  Le>  desnns  dTBuphie  Fromentin 
(London,  1877,  folio);  Blancbon,  Lettren  de  Jeunease  de  Fn>- 
mentin  (Paris,  1909);  BHUNBni:iiB,  VarUtis  LiiUrairea  (Paris; 
8.  d.);  UiLLBT,  Eughne  Fromentin  ft  Dominiq^e  in  Revue  de 
Parte  (1  Aug.,  1905). 

Louis  Qillbt. 

Frontal.    See  Ai/tar,  sub-title  AUar-FronUsL 

Frontenac,  Count  Louib  de  Buade,  a  governor 
of  New  France,  b.  at  Paris,  1622;  d.  at  Quebec,  28 
Nov.,  1698.  His  father  was  captain  of  the  royal  castle 
of  St-Germain-en-laye;  his  mother,  rufe  Phelypeaux, 
was  the  daughter  of  the  king's  secretary  of  state: 
Louis  XIII  was  his  godfather.  By  his  valour  ana 
skill  he  won  the  rank  of  marshal  of  the  king's  camps 
and  armies.  He  served  in  Holland,  France,  Italy, 
and  Germany,  and  also  in  Candia  where  Turenne  had 
sent  him  to  command  a  contingent  against  the  Turks. 
A  brilliant  military  reputation,  therefore,  preceded 
him  to  Canada.  During  nis  first  administration  (1672- 
1682)  he  built  a  fort  at  Cataracouy  (now  Kingston) 
to  awe  the  Iroquois  and  facilitate  communications 
with  the  West.  To  explore  the  course  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, previously  discovered  by  Joliet  and  Marquette, 
he  sent  Cavelier  de  La  Salle,  who  named  the  country 
watered  by  that  river  Louisiana,  in  honour  of  Louis 
XIV.    Although  intelligent  and  magnanimous,  brave 


and  unflinching  in  neril,  he  was  proud,  imperious,  and 
ready  to  sacrifice  aU  to  personal  animosity.  He  quar- 
relled with  most  of  the  officials  of  the  colony  over 
petty  questions:  with  his  councillors,  with  the  inten- 
dant  (Duchesneau),  with  the  Governor  of  Montreal 
(Perrot),  and  with  Mgr  de  Laval,  whose  prohibition 
of  the  liquor-traffic  with  the  Indians  he  juoged  harm- 
ful to  commercial  interests.  The  king,  after  vainly 
trying  to  curb  his  haughtiness,  recalled  nim  in  1682. 

In  1689,  when  the  uprising  of  the  Iroquois  and  the 
Lachine  massacre,  in  retaliation  of  Governor  Denon- 
ville's  treacherous  deal- 
ing,  threatened  the  ex- 
istence of  the  colony, 
Frontenac  was  sent  to 
the  rescue  and  was  hailed 
as  a  deliverer.  He  had 
to  fight  the  allied  Iro- 
quois and  Ekiglish;  but 
his  bravenr  and  ability 
were  equal  to  the  task. 
After  d'Iberville's  bril- 
liant exploits  in  Hud- 
son Bay,  Frontenao 
divided  ms  forces  into 
three  corps,  which  cap- 
tured Corlar  (Schenec- 
tady), Saknon  Falls  (N. 
H.)  and  Casco  (Me.). 
When,  to  avenge  these 
disasters,  Boston  sent  a 
fleet  against  Quebec 
(1690),  Frontenac's  re- 

rnse  to  the  summons 
Phipps's  envoy  was: 
''Go  tell  vour  master 
that  we  shall  answer  him 
by  the  mouths  of  our 
guns'' — a  threat  which 
was  made  good  by  the 
enemy's  defeat.  In  1696 
Frontenac  wisely  disre- 
garded the  instructions 
of  France  to  evacuate 
the  upper  country, 
which  would  have 
ruined  the  colony,  and  merely  observed  a  defensive 
attitude.  He  desilt  the  Iroquois  power  a  severe 
blow,  burned  the  villages  of  the  Onnontagu^  and 
Onn^outs,  and  devastated  their  countiy.  By  his 
orders  d'Iberville  rased  Fort  Pemquid  in  Acadia,  cap- 
tured St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  and  nearly  the  entire 
island,  and  took  possession  of  all  Hudson  Bay  Terri- 
tory. Frontenac  died  sincerely  regretted  oy  the 
whole  colony  which  he  had  saved  from  ruin.  His  char- 
acter was  a  mixture  of  good  and  bad  qualities.  The 
latter  were  less  evident  during  his  second  administra- 
tion and  his  talents  rendered  eminent  services.  He 
found  Canada  weakened  and  attacked  on  all  sides;  he 
left  it  in  peace,  enlarged,  and  respected.  He  has  been 
justly  called  "saver  of  the  country".  In  spite  of 
his  Jansenistic  education  and  prejudices  against  the 
bishop,  the  Jesuits,  and  even  tne  Sulpicians,  he  pos- 
sessed a  rich  fund  of  faith  and  piety.  He  was  a  faitnful 
friend  of  the  Recollects,  and  was  buried  in  their  chunS. 

Hopkins.  Canada,  An  ancydopedia  of  the  CovaUry  rToronto, 
1800);  Garneau.  Hiatoire  du  Canada  (Montreal,  1882); 
Fbrland,  Coure  a'hialoire  du  Canada  (Quebec,  1882);  Rocbb- 
ifONTEix,  Lea  Jisuitee  et  la  Nouvelle-Franoe  (Paris,  1896); 
Chapaib,  Jean  Talon  (Quebec,  1004);  Gauthibil  Hiatoire  du 
Canada  (Quebec.  1876).  LlONEL  LiNDBAT. 

Ftowin,  Blessed,  Benedictine  abbot,  d.  11  March, 
1178.  Of  the  early  life  of  Frowin  nothing  is  known, 
save  that  he  is  claimed  as  a  monk  of  their  community 
by  the  historians  of  the  two  great  Benedictine  abbeys 
of  Einsiedeln  in  Switzerland  and  St.  Blasius  in  Baden. 
The  first  authentic  fact  in  his  career  is  his  election  as 


Ck>17NT  LoniB  DB  BUADB 

Fbontbnag 
Philippe  Hubert,  Quebec 


VBUOTUOSini 


311 


FtiHRIOH 


abboti  about  the  ^ear  1 142,  to  succeed  St.  Adelhelm  in 
^e  newly  established  monastery  of  Engelberg  (q.v.) 
in  the  Canton  of  Unterwalden,  Switzeriand.  As 
abbot  Frowin  was  conspicuous  for  sanctity,  learning, 
and  administrative  ability.  Throush  his  efforts  the 
possessions  and  privile^,  civil  ana  ecclesiastical,  of 
the  abbey  were  greatly  increased,  while  its  renown  as 
a  home  of  learning,  art,  and  pietv  spread  far  and  wide. 
Himself  a  man  of  great  intellectual  endowments, 
thoroughly  versed  in  all  the  science,  sacred  and  pro- 
fane, of  his  time,  he  established  a  famous  school  in  his 
abbey,  in  which  besides  the  trivium  and  quadrivium, 
philosophv  and  theol(^y  were  likewise  taught.  The 
library  which  he  collected  possessed,  for  those  days, 
a  vast  number  of  manuscnpts.  According  to  a  fist 
that  he  himself  has  left  us,  it  contained  Homer,  Cicero, 
Cato,  Ovid  and  other  authors  of  antiquity.  This 
rich  collection  perished  in  1729,  when  the  abbey  was 
destroyed  by  fire.  Blessed  Frowin  not  only  copied 
books  for  his  library,  but  composed  several.  Two  of 
these,  a  commentary  on  the  Lord's  Pra^rer,  and  a 
treatise  in  seven  books,  ''De  Laude  Liberi  Arbitrii'' 
("In  Praise  of  Free  Will",  but  in  reality  a  discussion 
of  the  chief  theological  questions  of  his  day,  directed, 
it  is  thought,  against  the  errors  of  Abelard)  are  still 
extant,  having  oeen  discovered  by  Mabillon  in  the 
archives  of  Emsiedeln.  Frowin's  other  works,  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Ten  Commandments  and  various 
parts  of  Hoty  Scripture,  are  lost.  Though  never 
formally  beatified,  Frowin  has  commonly  been  styled 
"Blessed"  by  the  chroniclers  (see  ''Act.  SS.",  March, 
IX,  683).  F^tin  C'Dictionnaire  Hagiographique", 
I,  iiii)  gives  7  March  as  his  feast  day,  and  credits  him 

with  many  miracles. 

P.  L.,  CLXXIX.  1801;  Gottwau>  in  KirdienUx.,  s.  v.; 
HuBTBB,  NcmencUUcr, 

John  F.  X.  Murphy. 

Frnctaosns  of  Braffa,  Saint,  Archbishop,  d.  16 
April,  c.  665.  He  was  tne  son  of  a  Gothic  general,  and 
studied  in  Palencia.  After  the  death  of  his  parents,  he 
retired  as  a  hermit  to  a  desert  in  Galicia.^  Numerous 
pupils  gathered  around  him,  and  thus  originated  the 
monastery  of  Complutum  (Compludo),  over  which  he 
himself  at  first  presided ;  Later,  he  appointed  an  ab- 
bot and  again  retired  into  the  desert.  In  the  course 
of  time,  he  founded  nine  other  monasteries,  also  one 
for  80  virgins  under  the  saintly  abbess  Benedicta.  In 
654,  Fructuosus  was  called  to  the  Bishopric  of  Dum- 
ium,  and  on  1  December,  656,  to  the  Arcnbishopric  of 
Braga.  The  life  of  this  greatest  of  Spanish  monastic 
bishops  was  written  by  Abbot  Valerius,  and  based  on 
the  accounts  of  his  pupils.  In  1102,  nis  relics  were 
transferred  to  CompK>stela.  The  feast  day  is  the  16  of 
April.  Fructuosus  is  depicted  with  a  stag,  which  was 
devoted  to  him,  because  he  had  been  sa^d  by  Fruo- 
tuosus  from  the  hunters.  There  are  still  extant  two 
monastic  rules  written  by  Fructuosus.  The  first  (25 
chapters)  was  destined  for  the  monastery  of  Complu- 
tum; it  has  an  appendix  (called  pactum)^  containing 
the  formulse  of  consecration  and  the  vows.  The  sec- 
ond, called  the  ''common"  rule,  which  consists  of  20 
chapters  and  refers  to  a  union  of  monasteries  governed 
by  an  abbot-bishop,  is  addressed  chiefly  to  superiors  of 
monasteries. 

Gaka,  KinhmgeKh.  von  Sjpanien  (1874),  II,  152-158;  Hbb- 
wsoBN,  Daa  Pactum  dea  hi.  FructuoBtu  v.  Braga:  zur  Oeachichte 
de§  MfindUuma  (Stuttgart,  1907).  The  rules  of  Fructuoaus  are 
in  P.  L.,  LXXXVII,  1009-1130.  See  ZOcklbh,  A»he9e  und 
M&ncfUkum,  2nd  ed.  (1897).  378-81. 

Gabriel  Meier. 

Fractao8ii8  of  Tarragona,  Saint,  bishop  and  mar- 
tyr; d.  21  Jan.,  259.  During  the  night  of  16  Jan.,  he, 
together  with  his  deacons  Augurius  and  Eulogius, 
was  led  into  prison,  and  on  21  Jan.  tried  by  the  judge 
.£milianu8.  He  confessed  that  he  was  a  Christian  and 
a  bishop,  whereupon  all  three  were  sentenced  to  be 
burnt  alive.  They  underwent  the  ordeal  courageously. 


and,  prayine  and  with  outstretched  hands^  gave  up 
the  ghost.  In  this  position  they  are  also  depicted.  St. 
Augustine  mentions  them  in  one  of  his  sermona 
(cdzziii),  and  the  Spanish  poet  Riidentius  has  cele- 
brated them  in  a  hymn  (Peristephanon,  hymn  6). 

Ada  SS.,  Jan.,  II,  340;  Ruinart,  Acta  Martyrum  (Ratubon* 
1857);  Gams,  Ktrchengeaeh.  van  Spanien  (1862),  I,  265-276. 

Gabriel  Meier. 
Fminentiiu,  Saint.    See  Edesius  and  Frumen- 

TIUS. 

Fachs,  JoHANN  Nepomuk  von,  chemist  and  miner- 
alogist; b.  at  Mattenzell,  near  Brembere,  Lower  Ha- 
vana, 15  May,  1774;  d.  at  Munich,  5  March,  1856. 
He  originally  studied  medicine,  but  after  the  year 
1801  devoted  himself  to  chemistry  and  mineralogy. 
Following  the  custom  of  his  country^  he  pursued  his 
studies  at  various  universities:  Heidelberg,  Berlin, 
Freiburg,  and  Paris.  In  1805  he  taught  chemistry 
and  mineralogy  at  the  University  of  Landshut,  and  at 
Munich  in  1826.  In  1823  he  was  nominated  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  1854  conserva- 
tor of  the  Museum  of  Minersdogy  of  Munich;  two 
years  before  his  death,  the  honour  of  nobility  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  the  King  of  Bavaria.  He  re- 
ceived many  other  honours.  His  memoirs,  which  are 
numerous,  and  play  an  important  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  sciences  of  mineraloey  and  chemistiy,  are 
eiven  in  the  collections  of  the  Munich  Academy,  in 
Kastner's  "Archives",  Poggendorff's  "Annalen", 
Dinger's  "Joumar',  and  other  publications. 

He  wrote  several  books,  among  others  one  "  On  the 
Present  Influence  of  Chemistry  and  Minersdogy  "  (Mu- 
nich, 1824);  one  on  the  "Theories  of  the  Earth'' 
(Munich,  1824);  "Natural  History  of  the  Mineral 
Kingdom"  (Kempten,  1842);  ana  a  work  on  the 
preparation,  properties,  and  uses  of  soluble  jgjass 
(Munich,  1857).  His  name  is  to  this  day  associated 
with  soluble  glass,  an  alkaline  silicate  used  in  a  special 
kind  of  fresco  painting^  called  stereochromy,  so  mudi 
so  that  sometimes  it  is  called  Fuchs's  soluble  {jlass. 
To-day  soluble  glass  is  also  used  in  the  application  of 
bandages  in  surgery.  His  discovery  of  water  ^ass 
was  published  in  1823.  He  pursued  his  researches  in 
other  departments  of  techmcal  knowledge,  his  work 
on  cement  bein^  particularly  valuable.  He  retired 
from  active  life  m  1852. 

His  collected  works,  produced  by  the  committee  of 
the  central  administration  of  the  polytechnic  union  in 
the  Kingdom  of  Bavaria,  were  edited,  with  his  necrol- 
ogy, by  Kaiser  (Munich,  1856).  His  work  included 
investigations  on  the  replacement  of  one  chemical 
group  by  another  in  minerals;  the  discovery  of  the 
amorphic  state  of  several  bodies;  the  artificial  pro- 
duction of  ultramarine  and  improvements  in  the  aye- 
ing  industry,  in  the  manufacture  of  beet-root  sugar, 
and  in  brewing.  A  variety  of  muscovite,  containing 
nearly  four  per  cent  of  chromium  (chrome  mica),  is 
named  "Fuchsite"  after  him.  Fuchs,  who  owed  nis 
eariy  education  to  Frauenzell  and  the  suppressed 
Jesuits  at  Ratisbon,  was  throughout  his  life  a  prac- 
tical and  earnest  Catholic* 

Knullbb,  Daa  Chriatentum  u.  die  Vertreler  der  neueren  Natur- 
wiaaenachaft,  241-244;  Kobbl^  Memorial  oration  on  Johann 


T.  0'(x>Noa  Sloanb. 


Ftthrich,  Joseph,  b.  1800;  d.  1876,  was  as  Catholic 
in  his  art  as  in  his  life.  He  was  fond  of  avowing  his 
principles  on  art  with  great  emphasis ;  he  declares  that 
religion,  art,  and  nature  are  harmoniously  combined  in 
his  mind,  that  he  does  not  admit  that  ecclesiastical  art 
is  its  own  end,  but  tiiat  its  end  is  to  be  serviceable  in 
God's  house,  not  as  mere  decoration,  but  as  a  means 
of  instruction,  in  order  to  manifest  to  the  heart  as  far 
as  possible  by  means  of  the  senses  the  life  of  faith. 
As  a  painter  nis  works,  like  Overbeck's,  were  inspired 


FULBEET 


312 


FULBEBT 


by  piety,  whUe  in  his  conceptions  and  their  expression 
he  resembles  Cornelius.  As  the  son  of  a  poor  painter 
in  the  Bohemian  town  of  Kratzau,  he  learned  the  ele- 
ments of  the  art  in  his  father's  workshop  and  practised 
drawing  while  keeping  his  flock,  the  Cnrist^Child  and 
the  adoration  of  the  shepherds  being  his  favourite  sub- 
ject. His  father  brought  him  at  the  age  of  sixteen  to 
thepainter  Bergler  in  Prague. 

Tnis  artist  was  so  well  pleased  with  two  composi- 
tions assigned  by  him  to  tne  novice,  that  he  advised 
him  to  exhibit  some  of  his  pictures.  Two  of  them 
were  actually  bought,  and  several  art  patrons  pro- 
cured for  him  the  funds  necessary  to  attend  the  acad- 
emy. The  reading  of  Romantic  poets  soon  made 
a  Romanticist  of  nim.  Cornelius^  illustrations  of 
"Faust"  and  Overbeck's  sketch  of  Tasso  confirmed 
this  tendency.  On  his  journeys  to  Dresden  and  Vi- 
enna he  became  fond  of  Dilrer  s  creations.  He  illus- 
trated the  Lord's  Prayer  in  nine  etchings  and  Tieck's 
"Genoveva"  in  fifteen.  To  the  recommendation  of 
some  Romanticists  he  was  indebted  for  the  means  for 
a  joumev  to  Rome,  which  he  began  towards  the  end  of 
1826.  In  Italy  he  studied  the  works  of  different  pe- 
riods of  art,  above  all  acquired  the  historic^  style, 
studied  the  representation  of  the  great  Christian  mys- 
teries, and  modified  his  method  by  the  study  of  the 
works  of  Raphael  and  Michelangelo.  Of  course  he  did 
not  fail  to  become  acquainted  with  Fra  Angelico,  a 
spirit  congenial  to  his  own.  In  Rome  he  immediately 
joined  the  Nazarene  School,  learned  monumental  tech- 
nic,  and  completed  the  Tasso  cycle  in  the  Villa  Mas- 
simi  by  adding  three  frescoes:  '^Armida  and  Rinaldo", 
'  Armida  in  the  Enchanted  Forest",  and  'The  Crusaders 
at  the  Holy  Sepulchre."  The  year  1829  saw  him  again 
in  Prague,  but  in  1834  he  went  to  Vienna,  where  he 
lived  tfll  his  death. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  two  of  his  eariy  pictures, 
painted  shortly  after  his  return,  viz.  "Jacob  and 
Kacher'  and  "Mary's  Journey  over  the  Mountains'', 
Bold  for  five  times  the  original  price,  even  durine  his 
lifetime.  In  184 1  he  became  professor  in  the  academy 
of  Vienna  and  was  raised  to  the  order  of  kni^thood  in 
1854,  and  was  henceforth  commonly  called  Kitter  von 
FQhrich.  Executed  with  the  same  care  as  the  paint- 
ings just  mentioned,  are  "Booz  and  Ryth'*,  "St.  Gu- 
di3a^  "Christ  in  Limbo",  "Christ  on  His  Way  to  the 
Garden".  He  painted  religious  pictures  almost  ex- 
clusively; of  Old-Testament  subjects  w& may  mention: 
"God  writes  the  Commandments  upon  the  Tables  of 
Stone",  "  Josue  and  the  Destruction  of  Jericho",  "The 
Sorrowmg  Jews";  of  New-Testament  pictures:  "Jo- 
seph's Dream",  "Joseph  and  Mary  on  their  Way  to 
Jerusalem",  "The  Birth  of  Christ",  "The  Storm  on  the 
Sea",  "The  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes".  These 
pictures  prove  the  grandeur  and  loftiness  of  religious 
themes  and  testify  to  the  moral  and  mystical  concep- 
tion of  the  artist.  Purity  in  form  and  energy  in  ex- 
pression, a  simple  beauty  in  movement  and  dress, 
without  pretension  and  affectation,  are  their  unmis- 
takable excellencies.  The  artist's  desire  to  apply  the 
monumental  fresco-technicin  his  native  country  was 
fulfilled  twice.  In  1844-46  he  painted  the  Stations 
of  the  Gross  in  the  church  of  St.  John  Nepomucene  in 
Vienna.  The  work  was  appreciated  on  sdl  sides,  and 
copies  of  it  have  reached  America  and  the  most  distant 
missions. 

In  1854-61  he  painted,  together  with  others,  the 
church  of  Altlerchenfeld  in  Vienna.  The  artist  him- 
self has  explained  to  us  the  plan  of  this  Christian  epos. 
Christ's  activity  as  the  Saviour  before,  during,  and 
after  his  earthly  career,  is  presented  here  to  the  eyes  of 
the  faithful  as  in  a  great  picture  Bible ;  in  the  vestibule, 
what  precedes  the  creation  of  man;  on  the  walls  of  the 
entrance  and  in  the  aisles,  the  prototypes  of  the  Old 
Testament;  in  the  nave,  scenes  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  the  pictures  in  the  transept  represent  the  proxi- 
mate preparation  for  the  redemption;  over  the  main 


altar,  the  Crucifiixion,  and  in  the  choir,  Christ's  life  in 
His  Church.    The  plan,  as  well  as  the  composition,  is 
magnificent;  in  the  execution  he  was  aided  by  less 
skilful  hands,  and  the  colouring  is  at  times  imperfect, 
as  is  the  case  in  most  of  the  works  of  the  Nazarenes. 
But  Ftihrich  acquired  his  greatest  fame  as  a  draughts- 
man.   Though  we  may  miss  at  times  individuality, 
characters  drawn  from  life^  and  dramatic  movement 
a  fact  which  will  not  astonish  us,  considering  the  ideal 
character  of  his  subjects,  still  he  meets  the  essential  re- 
quirements of  his  theme,  often  enraptures  us  bv  his 
naxveU  and  piety,  by  his  noble  lines  and  thoughtful 
invention.    His  cyclical  pictures  have  become  the 
joy  of  the  Christian  people.    The  master  here  achieves 
his  ideal  of  the  aiiist's  work.    The  artist  must  be  a 
man  of  meditation  and  a  man  of  enthusiasm,  who  can 
translate  the  element  of  instruction  from  the  purely 
intellectual  sphere  into  that  of  the  imairanation,  turn 
mere  inspection  into  contemplation.    The  Christmas 
cycle  or  "The  Way  to  Bethlenem"  in  its  twelve  num- 
bers contains  the  most  beautiful  pictorial  idylls.     Full 
of  charm  and  touching  is  the  symbolical  figure  of  the 
human  soul,  whose  attention  is  first  called  by  the  per- 
sonification of  Christian  art  to  the  mystery  of  the  In- 
carnation and  which  tHen  follows  the  events  with  the 
U^t  of  meditation  and  the  inspiration  of  art.    The 
fifteen  pictures  of  the  Easter  cycle, "  He  is  Risen  ",  sur- 
prise us  by  the  fertility  of  ideas,  by  the  astonishing 
skill  in  the  use  of  svmbolical  language,  by  their  digni- 
fied earnestness  and  deep  truth.  Equally  imperishable 
works  of  art  are  the  eleven  drawinm  and  etching  en- 
titled "Christ's  Triumph".    In  "ftomas  k  Kempis" 
(to  the  text  of  Guido  Gdrres)  FOhrich  found  an  oppor- 
tunity to  throw  the  principal  tenets  of  our  religion  into 
poetical  form,  and  at  the  same  time  to  reveal  the 
wealth  of  his  Christian  heart. 

To  these  works  must  be  added  ''The  Life  of  Mary", 
"The  Legend  of  St.  Wendelin",  "The  Psalter", 
"Poor  Henry",  and  "Memorials  for  Our  Time". 
Most  of  these  drawings  were  made  for  woodcuts,  "The 
Prodigal  Son"  and  *"Ruth"  for  copperplate  engrav- 
ings. Filhrich's  Catholic  principles  of  aesthetics  are 
laid  down  in  his  beautiful  t>ooklet  "Von  der  Kunst", 
also  in  "  Kunst  und  ihre  Formen ' '.  Moreover,  we  have 
from  his  pen  "  Brief e  aus  Italien"  and  an  autobiogra- 
phy; a  new  edition  of  the  latter,  prepared  by  friends 
and  enriched  with  additions,  appeared  in  1875  in 

Vienna. 

LuKAS  Ft^HBiCH,  the  son  of  the  artist,  in  the  HiHor.'polit, 
Bl&tter,  vol.  XCII,  625  aqq..  wrote  an  account  of  the  master's 
residence  in  Vienna  and  of  the  friends  who  used  to  meet  there; 
Idkm,  a  biography  in  Oraphiadu  KUnate,  YIII  (Vienna,  1886), 
1-3;  VALENTIN  in  DoHMX,KunatundKlln8iUr(Leipng,lS85)i 
Bbunnbb  in  Frankfurter  BroaehHren  (1888). 

G.  GlETllANN. 

FalbertofOhartre8,bishop,b.between952and962; 
d.  10  April,  1028  or  1029.  Mabillon  and  othero  tMnk 
that  he  was  bom  in  Italy,  probably  at  Rome;  but 
Pfister,  his  latest  biomipher,  designates  as  his  birth- 
place the  Diocese  of  Laudun  in  the  present  depart- 
ment of  Card  in  France.  He  was  of  humble  parent- 
ace  and  received  his  education  at  the  school  of  Heims, 
where  he  had  as  teacher  tiie  famous  Gerbert  who  in 
999  ascended  the  papal  throne  as  Sylvester  II.  In 
990  Fulbert  opened  a  school  at  Chartres  which  soon 
became  the  most  famous  seat  of  learning  in  France 
and  drew  scholars  not  only  from  the  remotestparts  of 
France,  but  also  from  Italy,  Germany,  and  England* 
Fulbert  was  also  chancellor  of  the  church  of  Ch&rtree 
and  treasurer  of  St.  Hilary's  at  Poitiers.  So  highly 
was  he  esteemed  as  a  teacher  that  his  pupils  were 
wont  to  style  him  "venerable  Socrates".  He  was  a 
strong  opponent  of  the  rationalistic  tendencies  which 
had  infected  some  dialecticians  of  his  times,  and  often 
warned  his  pupils  against  such  as  extol  their  dialectics 
above  the  teachings  of  the  Church  and  the  testimony 
of  the  Bible.  Stul  it  was  one  of  Fulbert's  pupils, 
B^rengarius  of  Tours,  who  went  farthest  in  subjecting 


rULCOUir                            313  rXTLDA 

faith  to  reason.    In  1007  Fulbert  succeeded  the  de-  and,  after  doing  severe  penance,  he  made  a  pilgrimage 

ceased  Rudolph  as  Bishop  of  Chartres  and  was  conse-  to  Rome,  there  to  receive  absolution  for  his  supposed 

crated  by  his  metropolitan.  Archbishop  Leutheric  of  guilt.    After  his  death  he  was  buried  in  the  cathedral 

Sens.    He  owed  the  episcopal  dignitv  chieflv  to  the  of  Loddve  and  honoured  as  a  saint.    His  body,  which 

influence  of  King  Robert  of  France,  who  had  been  his  had  been  preserved  intact,  was  burned  by  the  Hugue- 

fellow  student  at  Reims.    As  bishop  he  continued  to  nots  in  1572,  and  only  a  few  particles  of  his  remains 

teach  in  his  school  and  also  retained  the  treasurership  were  saved.    He  is  the  second  patron  of  the  Diocese  of 

of  St.  Hilary.    When,  about  1020,  the  cathedral  of  Loddve,  and  his  feast  falls  on  13  February. 

Chartres   burned   down,    Fulbert   at  once  began  to  .   Bernard  Guidonis,  Vita  FtUcmnni  in  Speculum  Sanctorale 

rebufld  it  in  greater  splendour.    In  this  undertaking  ^JL^HSiS'^ibiiS:  l^^^^'  ^"'"S^i"^  ^' /•,^'»«».  *Wd.. 

he  was  financially  assisted  by  King  Canute  of  Eng-  de  LodHe  (Paris,  lesi;  new  ed..  Lodfeve,  1836);  Bbc.  Viede 

land,  Duke  William  of  Aquitame,  and  other  European  ^J^^^^^^  ii^^»  1858);  Boutt.  Vie  de  Saint  Fulcran 

sovereigns.    Though  Fulbert  was  neither  abbot  nor  ^Si^j^LSive  isij^''*''**           "^^^  ^  ^^  ^"^""^  *" 

monk,  as  has  been  wron^y  asserted  by  some  histor-  '                                      j^  p^  TC-nvKm. 
fans,  still  he  stood  in  friendly  relation  with  Odilo  of 

Quny,  Richard  of  St.  Vannes,  Abbo  of  Fleury,  and  __ ,,     _,                   ,__            v     «„      , 

other  monastic  celebrities  of  his  times.    He  advo-  Fulda,  Diocbsb  op  (Fuldensis). — ^This  diocese  of 

cated  a  reform  of  the  clergy,  severely  rebuked  those  ^®  German  Empire  takes  its  name  from  the  ancient 

bishops  who  spent  much  of  their  time  in  warlike  expe-  Benedictine  abbey  of  Fulda.    To  systematize  the 

ditions,  and  inveighed  agamst  the  practice  of  grantmg  ^^^^  ®^  evangelizing  Germany,  St.  Boniface  organized 

ecclesiastical  benefices  to  laymen.  *  hierarchy  on  the  usual  ecclesiastical  basis;  in  Bava- 

Fulbert's  literary  productions  mclude  140  epistles,  "»  *^®  Dioceses  of  Salzburg,  Freising,  Ratisbon,  and 
2  treatises,  27  hymns,  and  parts  of  the  ecclesiastical  t^^^f  ^^^  Frwiconia  and  Thuringia,  Warzbuje, 
Office.  His  epistles  are  of  great  historical  value,  espe-  Eichst&tt,  Buraburg  near  Fntzlar,  and  Erfurt.  To 
cially  on  account  of  thelight  they  throw  on  the  liturgy  lacihtate  missionary  work  farther  north,  especially 
and  discipline  of  the  Chimih  in  the  eleventh  century,  among  the  Saxons,  he  sought  a  suitable  spot  for  the 
His  two  treatises  are  in  the  form  of  homilies.  The  location  of  a  monastery.  He  chose  for  this  mission 
first  has  as  its  subject:  "Misit  Herodes  rex  manus,  ut  ?*•  Stunmus,  who,  after  journeying  far  and  wide, 
afflteret  quosdam  de  ecclesid"  etc.  (Acts,  xii,  l);the  i?^^«*  ^  appropriate  place  in  the  great  forest  of 
second  is  entitled  "Tractatus  contra  Judseos"  and  guchoma,  m  the  district  of  Grabfeld  on  the  Fulda. 
proves  that  the  prophecy  of  Jacob,  "Non  auferetur  Boniface  sanctioned  this  choice  of  a  location,  and 
sceptrum  de  Jud&"  etc.  (Gen.,  xlix,  10),  had  been  ful-  petitioned  Carloman,  to  whom  the  country  round 
filled  in  Christ.  Five  of  his  nine  extant  sermons  are  ^}^^  belonged,  to  grant  him  the  site  for  a  monastery, 
on  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  towards  whom  he  had  a  Carlomsn  yidded  to  the  saint's  request,  and  also  in- 
great  devotion,  'fte  life  of  St.  Aubert,  Bishop  of  ^uced  the  Frankish  nobl^  who  had  estates  m  the 
Cambrai  (d.  667),  which  is  sometimes  ascribed  to  Ful-  V^J^^y^J^^"^  ^P^P^  ^^^  o^  ^e  Church.  On 
bert,  was  probably  not  written  by  him.  Fulbert's  }?  March,  744,  St.  Stunmus  took  ^lemn  possession  of 
episUes  were  first  edited  by  Papire  le  Masson  (Paris,  ^^  ^^*  ^^  r^sed  the  cross.  The  wilderness  was 
1585).  His  complete  works  were  edited  by  Charles  de  ^^  ?®^\  ^^  the  erection  of  the  monastery  and 
Villiers  (Paris,  1608),  then  inserted  in  "Bibl.  magna  churoh,  the  latter  dedicated  to  the  Most  Holy  R^ 
Patrum"(ColomeJ618),XI,in"Bibl.maximaPatr."  aeemer,  beeun. under  the  peraonal  direction  of  St. 
(Lyons,  1677),  XVIII,  and  with  additions,  in  Migne,  gomface.  He  appomted  St.  Stunmus  first  abbot  of 
P.  L.  CXLI   189-368.  ^*^®  °®^  foundation,  which  he  mtended  to  surpass  m 

'pn'sTER,  De  FuJberti  Camotenaia  epieeopi  vitd  rf  operibua  greatness  all  existing  monasteries  of  Germany,  and  to 

(Sancy.lSSO):  Histoire  littSraire  de  la  France,  VII.  261-279.  be  a  nursery  for  pnests.    The  rule  was  modelled  on 

273-%.  self  had  gone  to  Italy  (748)  for  the  express  purpose  of 

Michael  Ott.  becoming  familiar  with  it.  To  secure  absolute  au- 
tonomy for  the  new  abbey,  Boniface  obtained  from 
Fulcran,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Loddve J  d.  13  February,  Pope  Zachary  a  privilege,  dated  4  November,  751, 
1006.  According  to  the  biography  which  Bernard  Gui-  phicing  it  immediately  under  the  Holy  See,  and  remov- 
donis.  Bishop  of  Loddve  (d.  1331),  has  left  us  of  his  in^  it  from  all  episcopal  jurisdiction.  The  au then- 
saintly  predecessor,  Fulcran  came  of  a  distinguished  ticity  of  this  document  has  frequently  been  called  into 
family,  consecrated  himself  at  an  early  age  to  the  question,  but  on  the  whole  it  is  considered  as  well 
service  of  the  Chureh,  became  a  priest,  ana  from  hin  established.     (For  further  details  see  Tangl  in  ''Mit- 


ing  his  unwillingness,  was  chosen  as  his  successor  and  gien  frage''^  Ratisbon,  1908.)     In  753  Pepi 

was  consecrated  by  the  Archbishop  of  Narboime  on  royal  sanction  to  this  exemption  from  episcopal  juris- 

4  February  of  the  same  year.    He  was  untiring  in  his  diction.    Boniface  showed  his  love  for  Fulda  when 

efforts  to  conserve  the  moral  life  within  his  (uocese,  he  charged  that  his  remains  should  be  laid  to  rest  there. 
especiaUv  among  the  clergy  and  the  religious  orders;        Under  the  prudent  administration  of  St.  Sturmius 

he  rebuilt  many  churehes  and  convents,  among  them  (d.  779),  the  monaster3r  soon  rose  to  greater  splen- 

the  cathedral  dedicated  to  St.  Genesius  and  the  chureh  dour;  from  an  early  period  the  tomb  of  St.  Boniface 

of  the  Holy  Redeemer  with  the  Benedictine  monastery  made  it  a  national  sanctuary  for  Christian  Germany, 

attached  to  it.   The  poor  and  the  sick  were  the  objects  Great  success  crowned  the  agricultural  work  of  the 

of  his  special  care;  for  their  support  he  founded  hospi-  monks,  and  small  colonies  which  were  established 

tals  ana  endowed  others  already  existing.    The  follow-  in  different  places  gradually  became  the  centres  of 

ing  anecdote  from  his  life  is  worthy  of  mention.  A  villages  and  civil  communities.    Soon  Fulda  was  the 

bishop  of  Gaul  had  fallen  away  from  the  Faith  and  mother-house  of  a  number  of  smaller  monasteries, 

had   accepted  Jewish   teachings.    When   the  news  which  were  later  administered  bv  provosts  under  the 

reached  Fulcran,  he  exclaimed  in  an  excess  of  seal:  superiorship  of  the  abbot.    The  gifts  of  German 

"This  bishop  should  be  burned  I"    Shortly  afterwards  pnnces,  nobles,  and  private  individuals  increased  the 

the  reneeide  prelate  was  actually  seised  by  his  incensed  landed  possessions  ot  the  abbey  so  rapidly  that  they 

flock  and  delivered  up  to  death  by  fire.    Fulcran  was  soon  extended  over  distant  parts  of  Germany;  there 

then  filled  with  remorse  that  by  his  utterance  he  were  estates  in  Thuringia,  Saxony,  Hesse,  Bavaria, 

should  have  been  the  cause  of  the  apostate's  death,  Lorraine,  Swabia;  possessions  along  the  Rhine,  in 


rULDA 


314 


rULDA 


East  Fiiria,  and  Qven  at  Rome  (the  church  of  Sant' 
Andrea) .  Even  m  artistic  and  literary  lines  Fulda  rose 
to  preat  Importance.  On  the  site  of  the  first  church, 
which  had  Deen  artistically  decorated  by  Sturmius, 
there  rose  under  Abbots  Baugulf  (779-802),  Ratgar 
(802-17),  Eij^  (818-22),  and  Rabanus  Maurus  (822- 
42)  a  magnificent  edifice  which  roused  the  admiration 
of  contemporaries,  and  even  of  posterity,  and  exerted 
a  lasting  influence  on  architectural  and  artistic  ac- 
tivity in  distant  places.  In  addition  to  architecture, 
sculpture  and  painting  were  zealously  cultivated. 
The  monastic  school  established  by  Sturmius  b^an 
to  flourish  during  the  time  of  Charlemagne  and  Al- 
cuin,  and,  under  Rabanus  Maurus,  particularly,  was 
the  chief  nursery  of  civilization  and  learning  in  Ger- 
many, and  became  celebrated  throughout  Europe. 
It  was  open  not  only  to  theological  students,  but  also 
to  youn^  men  desiring  to  embrace  secular  careers. 
The  cumculum  embraced  the  subjects  usually  taught 
during  the  Middle  Ages:  the  seven  liberal  arts  (gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  dialectics,  arithmetic,  geometry,  phys- 
ics, and  astronomy),  the  different  branches  of  the- 
ology, and  the  German  language.  Among  the  most 
renowned  pupils  of  this  school  were:  Rabanus  Maurus, 
Walafried  Strabo,  Servatus  Lupus,  Otfried  of  Weissen- 
bur^,  Rudolfus  Fuldensis,  Williram,  Probus,  and 
Meginhard;  among  the  laity:  Einhard,  Bemhard, 
King  of  Italy,  and  Ulrich  von  Hutten.  Rabanus  also 
founded  a  fibrary  to  familiarize  the  Germans  with 
religious  and  classical  literature,  and  the  zeal  of  the 
monks  soon  produced  rich  treasures  of  valuable 
manuscripts.  Unfortunately  the  greater  part  of  this 
library  disappeared  during  the  looting  of  the  abbey 
b^  the  Hessians  in  1631,  and  has  not  since  been 
discovered. 

Gradually  the  monastery  rose  to  a  commanding 
position  in  the  German  Empire.  From  968  the  abbot 
was  primate  of  all  the  Benedictine  monasteries  of 
Germany  and  Gaul;  from  the  time  of  Otto  I,  arch- 
chancellor  of  the  empress,  whom  he  crowned  jointly 
with  the  Elector  of  Mainz;  from  the  twelfth  century 
he  was  a  prince  of  the  empire;  from  1184  had  the 
privilege  of  sitting  at  the  left  of  the  emperor;  and 
rrom  1360  the  imi)erial  banner  was  borne  before  him 
by  a  knight.  This  glory,  however,  was  not  wholly 
without  snadows.  The  monastic  discipline  was  re- 
laxed to  such  a  degree  that  Abbot  Marquard  (1150- 
65)  undertook  to  carry  out  a  reform  Irv  introducing 
the  regulations  in  force  at  Hirsau  (Consuetudines 
Hirsaugienses).  The  importance  of  the  school  as  a 
centre  of  learning  also  dcMclined.  The  great  wealth 
of  the  abbey  in  landed  possessions,  tithes,  revenues, 
and  regalia  drew  an  increasing  number  of  nobles  to 
tibe  monastery.  By  the  twelfth  century  the  monks 
of  noble  birth  had  monopolized  the  seats  of  the  chapter 
and,  in  the  course  of  time,  practically  all  the  important 
offices  of  the  abbey  itself,  as  well  as  the  provostships  of 
the  dependent  houses,  were  held  by  members  oi  the 
German  nobility.  The  difficulty  of  administering  the 
vast  landed  possessions  causea  the  abbots  to  grant 
certain  sections  in  fief,  which  eventually  resulted  in 
great  losses  to  the  abbey;  for  the  feudatories  fre- 
quently turned  their  positions  to  their  own  personal 
interests,  and  sousht  to  convert  the  fiefs  into  private 
property.  One  of  the  most  notable  illustrations  of 
the  greed  of  these  monastic  stewards  is  shown  by  the 
action  of  Count  Johann  von  Ziegenhain  in  the  four- 
teenth centuxy,  who,  in  an  insurrection  of  the  bur- 
gers of  the  city  of  Fulda  against  Abbot  Heinrich  VI 
von  Hohenberg  (1315-53),  lieaded  the  attack  on  the 
monastery.  Not  infreouently,  too,  the  obligations  of 
the  abbots  as  princes  ot  the  empire,  and  the  demands 
made  upon  them  by  the  state  proved  most  detrimental 
to  the  interests  of  the  monastery  and  its  inmates.  In 
1294,  on  application  of  the  convent,  the  pope  enjoined 
a  separation  of  the  abbatial  and  the  conventual  tables, 
which  was  put  into  effect  in  1300  under  Abbot  Hein- 


rich V  von  Weilnau  (1288-1313)  (cf.  Rabsam,  "Hdn- 
rich  V.  von  Weilnau,  FUrstabt  von  Fulda",  Fulda, 
1879).  Imperial  capitulations,  of  which  there  are 
records  as  early  as  the  time  of  Heinrich  VII  von 
Kranlucken  (1353-72),  especially  those  of  Johann  I 
von  Merlau  (1395-1440),  the  "Old  Statutes  of  1395", 
restricted  to  a  considerai>le  degxe  the  authority  of  the 
abbot  over  the  convent,  and  raised  correspondingly 
the  independent  status  of  that  institution.  In  the 
mother-house  the  dean  eventually  replaced  the  d^bot 
for  all  practical  purposes.  For  centuries  the  chapter 
preserved  this  independence,  which  involved  the 
almost  complete  exclusion  of  the  abbot  from  the  eccle- 
siastical oiganisation  of  his  monasteiy. 

At  a  comparatively  early  date  the  teachings  of  the 
Reformers  found  access  to  the  chapter  of  Fulda,  with 
which,  in  1513,  the  Abbey  of  Hersfeld  hkd  been 
united ;  and  Abbot  Johannes  III  von  Hennebeig  (1521- 
41)  was  forced  to  consent  to  a  decree  of  reform  favoui^ 
ing  the  spread  of  the  new  doctrines.  The  sealous 
Abbot  Balthasar  von  Dermbach  (1570-1606)  proved 
an  earnest  restorer  of  discipline  in  the  chapter,  vigor- 
ously inaugurating  the  wonc  of  the  Counter-Reforma- 
tion. Banished  by  the  members  of  the  chapter  and 
their  coUei^es  in  1576,  he  was  uiial)le  to  return  to  his 
abbey  imtu  1602,  great  progress  having  been  made 
meanwhile  by  the  imperiai  aaministrators  in  restoring 
the  Catholic  Faith.  The  foundation  of  a  Jesuit  college 
in  1571  was  the  signal  for  the  reflorescence  of  the 
school,  which  had  sunk  to  comparative  insignificance. 
In  addition  to  the  Jesuit  gjrmnasium,' Gregory  XIII 
founded  (1584)  a  papal  seminarjr,  which  ne  placed 
under  the  direction  of  the  Jesmts.  Both  of  these 
institutions  have  contributed  largely  to  the  main- 
tenance and  spread  of  the  Catholic  Faith  in  Germany. 
A  similar  seal  for  reform  was  displayed  by  Baltha- 
sar's  second  successor,  Johann  Bemhard  Schenk  von 
Schweinsbeig  (162^^-32),  whose  exertions,  together 
with  the  decrees  of  several  papal  visitors,  particularly 
Pietro  Luigi  Caraffa  (1627),  restored  to  the  abbot  a 
certain  measure  of  his  proper  authority,  over  against 
that  of  the  chapter  ana  the  professors  of  noble  birth. 
The  decrees  of  reform  issued  oy  Caraffa,  against  which 
the  provosts  rebelled  after  the  nuncio's  departure, 
were  repeatedly  confirmed  bv  the  Holy  See.  The 
capitulars  and  provosts  of  noble  birth  still  retained 
the  privil^e  of  admitting  into  the  chapter  only  such 
as  could  show  a  certain  number  of  noble  ancestors, 
and  this  prerogative  received  papal  confirmation  in 
1731.  During  the  Thirty  Years  War  the  chapter 
was  again  menaced;  in  1631,  Landgrave  Wilhelm  V  of 
Hesse,  by  virtue  of  a  treaty  with  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
received  the  abbey  in  fief  to  Sweden,  and  sought 
gradually  to  make  rrotestantism  predominant.  After 
the  battle  of  NOrdlingen,  however,  he  no  longer  had 
power  over  Fulda.  When  the  turmoil  of  the  war 
nad  ceased,  the  abbey  experienced  a  period  of  peace 
and  prosperity.  In  1732  the  Jesuit  and  Benedictine 
schools  were  united,  enlaroed,  and  converted  into  a 
university.  Benedict  XI V  raised  the  abbey  to  the 
rank  of  a  bishopric  (5  Oct.,  1752),  with  the  retention  of 
its  monastic  organization.  The  first  prince-bishop 
was  Amand  von  Buseck  (1737-56),  tne  collegiate 
chapter  of  one  dean  and  fourteen  capitulars  being 
now  the  cathedral  chapter. 

By  the  Imperial  Del^ates'  Enactment  (Reichade' 
jmtatianshauptschlusa)  of  1802  the  abbey  was  secular- 
ized, and  bestowed  on  the  Prince  of  Orania  as  a 
secular  principality;  it  embraced  at  this  time  forty 
sq.  miles,  with  a  population  of  100,000.  Under  Na- 
poleon, in  1809,  It  was  ceded  to  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Frankfort;  in  1815,  to  Hesse-Kassel,  with  which,  in 
1866,  it  passed  to  Prussia.  The  university  was  closed 
under  the  law  of  secularization,  and  the  papal  semi- 
nary was  converted  into  an  episcopal  seminary.  The 
last  prince-bishop,  Adalbert  III  von  HarstaU  (1788- 
1802),  died  in  1814. 


FOLDENSIS 


315 


FULOEMTIUS 


In  accordance  with  the  Bulls  "Provida  soleraque" 
of  1821  and  "Ad  dominici  gregis  custodiam"  of  1827. 
the  Diocese  of  Fulda  was  re-established  in  1829,  and 
made  suffragan  to  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  the 
Upper  Rhine,  the  first  bishop  being  Johann  Adam 
Rieger  (182^-31). 

In  1857  and  1871  the  boundaries  of  the  new  diocese 
were  so  altered  as  to  define  the  territory  now  em- 
braced within  it.  It  was  seriously  affected  by  the 
Kulturkami)f,  the  see  being  vacant  from  1873  to  1881, 
and  the  seminary  closed  between  1873  and  1886;  some 
of  the  religious  communities  suppressed  at  that  time 
have  never  been  re-established.  The  present  bishop 
(1909)  is  Joseph  Damian  Schmitt,  consecrated  in  1907. 

StaiisHca, — ^The  Diocese  of  Fulda  embraces  the 
Prussian  administrative  district  of  Kassel  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Hesse-Nassau,  Bockenheim  (a  section  of^the 
civic  circle  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  the  adminis- 
trative district  of  Wiesbaden),  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Saxe- Weimar,  and  one  parish  of  the  Grand  Ducl^  of 
Hesse;  Catholic  population  in  1900  was  167,306,  in 
1909  about  200,000.  It  comprises  the  exempt  civic 
district  of  Fulda,  with  3  panshes  and  14  deaneries; 
for  the  care  of  souls,  150  parishes  and  ciuracies;  40 
chaplaincies  and  posts  as  assistants;  53  administrative 
ana  teaching  positions.  The  bishop  is  elected  by  the 
cathedral  chapter,  which  consists  of  a  dean,  4  capitu- 
lars and  4  prebends.  The  clei^  employed  in  the 
care  of  souls  in  1909  number  226  secular  and  26  regu- 
lar priests,  giving  a  total  of  252  active  clergy,  includ- 
ing pastors,  curates,  chaplains,  and  assistant  priests, 
as  well  as  priests  engaged  in  the  work  of  teachins 
and  administrative  offices.  The  following  orders  and 
congregations  are  represented  in  the  diocese:  Fran- 
ciscans, at  Fulda  and  SalmQnster,  with  (1907)  35 
fathers,  and  40  brothers;  Oblates  of  Mary  Inmiacu- 
late,  at  Hilnfeld,  with  28  fathers,  and  29  brothers; 
Brothers  of  Mercy,  at  Fulda,  with  6  brothers.  Com- 
munities of  women  are:  1  abbey  of  Benedictine  nuns 
at  Fulda,  with  35  sisters;  1  monastery  of  the  English 
Ladies  at  Fulda,  with  36  sisters;  Ursulines  at  Fritzlar, 
32  sisters;  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  44 
communities,  with  363  sisters;  Poor  Servants  of 
Christ,  at  Frankfort-Bockenheim,  18  sisters;  Grey 
Nuns  of  St.  Elisabeth,  at  Eisenach,  9  sisters;  Vincen- 
tians  at  Kassel,  27  sisters;  School  Sisters  of  Divine 
Mercy  at  Kassel,  26  sisters. 

The  diocesan  institutions  are:  the  episcopal  semi- 
nary at  Fulda,  with  eight  professors  of  theology;  the 
episcopal  gymnasium  or  preparatory  seminary  at 
fiilda;  the  episcopal  Latin  schools  at  AmOneburg, 
Geisa,  HQnfeld,  and  Orb;  the  school  for  orphan^ 
boys  at  Sannerz;  a  similar  institution  for  girls  at 
Maberzell,  near  Fulda;  the  reform  school  for  young 
women  at  Horas  near  Fulda;  St.  Joseph's  House  for 
Orphans  and  First  Communicants  at  HQnfeld;  the 
Lioba  Hospital  for  Incurables  at  Fulda;  and  the 
asylum  for  mibeciles  at  Fulda.  The  most  important 
church  of  thediocese is  the  cathedral  at  Fulda,  in  the 
style  of  the  Renaissance,  erected  by  Prince-Abbot 
Adalbert  von  Schleifras  (1704-12)  on  the  site  of  the 
church  built  by  Abbot  Baugulf  and  his  successors. 
It  contains  precious  altars,  a  rich  treasury,  and,  as  its 
most  important  shrine,  the  tomb  of  St.  Boniface,  at 
which  the  bishops  of  Prussia,  Baden,  and  WUrtem- 
berg  gather  once  a  year  (cf.  Pfaff,  "Der  Dom  zu 
Fulda^',  2nd  ed.,  Fulda,  1855).  Mention  should  also 
be  made  of  the  church  of  St.  Michael  at  Fulda,  dating 
from  Carlovingian  times;  the  church  on  the  Petersbere 
near  Fulda;  the  church  of  St.  Peter  at  Fritzlar,  erected 
early  in  the  thirteenth  century;  and  the  Protestant 
church  of  St.  Elizabeth  at  Marourg,  a  noble  specimen 
of  the  thirteenth  century  Gothic.  The  most  popular 
place  of  pilgrimage  in  the  diocese  is  the  tomb  of  St. 
boniface. 

BKOUwaB,  Fuideiuium  arUiquiiatea  libri  TV  (Antwerp,  1612); 
BCBANNAT,  Corpua  tradiUcnum  FuldeMtum  (Leipiic.  1724); 


iDxif.  Ffddladter  L^n-hof  (Frankfort-<»i-tIi»-Ma&a.  IVMh 
iDBif,  Vindida  mscrundam  arehivi  FvUkmaU  dtjwwMrtttiw 
(Fmnkfort-on-thfr-Main,  1728);  Dbonkb,  TradUumea  H  onH* 
ouilatea  FtUdtnaea  (Kaasel,  1S44);  Idbm,  Codex  dipUmuUicuB 
FtUdensis  (Kassel,  1850;  index,  1862);  Abmd.  Ge$chiehU  de$ 
HoehstifU  Fulda  (Frankfort,  1862):  Gkgenbausb,  Dot  Klotter 
Ftdda  tm  Karolinoerzeitalier  (2  vols..  1871,  1873):  Komp.  Die 
gweiie  SchtUe  Fuldae  und  das  pApetltckea  Seminar  (Fulda,  1877); 
Idbm  in  KirchenUx.^  s.  v.;  Lots,  Die  Hoehaehule  tu  Fvlda^  m 
Heuenland,  XII  (1898);  Hbydknrbich,  Dae  tklteeU  Fuldaer 
Cartuiar  (Leipsig,  1899);  Richtbb,  Die  enlen  Anftknge  der 
Bau-vnd  KunettdtiokeU  dea  Kloatera  Fulda  (Fulda.  1900);  Idbm, 
QueUen  und  Abhandlunoen  tur  Oeechichte  der  AbUi  und  der  Di6- 
teae  Fulda,  I-III  (Fulda,  1904-07);  Schematiamua  der  Dibteee 
Fulda  (Fulda,  1904:  new  ed..  1909);  Feeioabe  turn  Bonifatiua- 
fubHAum.  1905  (Fulda,  1905);  a' collection  of  ori«nal  docu- 
ments relating  to  Fulda  is  in  the  oouxBe  of  preparation. 

Joseph  I4N8. 
FuldeiuiB  Ck>dex.    See  MSS.  of  the  Bible. 

VtilgentiiXB,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Ecija  (Astigi),  in 
Spain,  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  centurv.  Like 
his  brothers  Leander  and  Isidore,  two  holy  Arcnbishops 
of  Seville,  of  whom  the  first  was  older  and  the  second 
younger  than  Fulgentins,  he  consecrated  himself  to  the 
service  of  the  Church.  A  sister  of  the  three  was  St. 
Florentina  (q.v.).  Their  father  Severianus  lived  at 
first  in  Cartskgena;  he  was  a  Roman,  and,  according  to 
later  though  doubtful  information,  an  im^rial  prefect. 
Exact  data  regarding  the  life  of  Fulgentius  are  want- 
ing, as  he  is  mentioned  only  occasionally  in  contem- 
porary sources.  Leander,  in  his  "Libellus''  on  the 
religious  life  written  for  his  sister  Florentina,  states  that 
he  Ebb  sent  Fulgentius  back  to  his  native  town  of  Car- 
tagena, which  he  now  regrets  as  he  fears  that  harm 
may  befall  him,  and  he  requests  Florentina  to  pray  for 
him.  What  the  danger  was  to  which  Fulgentius  was 
exposed  we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  Probably 
through  the  influence  of  Leander,  who  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Seville  in  the  year  584  and  who  played 
an  important  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  Vis^othic  km^- 
dom,  Ful^ntius  became  Bishop  of  Astira  (Ecija).  m 
the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Se^e.  As  Leander  died 
in  6(X)  and  Pegasius  is  shown  to  have  still  been  Bishop 
of  Ecija  in  590.  we  may  safely  assume  that  Fulgentius 
was  chosen  bishop  between  590  and  600;  at  all  events, 
he  already  occupied  the  see  in  610.  Isidore,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  Archbishopric  of  Seville  upon  the 
death  of  his  brother  Leander.  dedicated  to  Fulgentius, 
"  his  lord,  the  servant  of  Goa'',  his  work  on  the  offices 
oi  the  Church,  "De  ecclesiasticis  officiis".  In  fact  it 
was  at  the  solicitation  of  Fulgentius  that  he  wrote  this 
account  of  the  ori^  and  authors  of  the  Church  ser- 
vices, i.e.,  of  the  Litursy. 

At  the  second  ^jrnodof  Seville  (619).  for  which  Isi- 
dore had  assembled  the  bishops  of  tne  province  of 
Bffitica,  a  controversy  between  the  Bishop  of  Astiei 
and  the  Bishop  of  Cordova  regarding  a  church  which 
was  claimed  by  each  as  beloneing  to  a  parish  in  his 
diocese  was  brought  up  for  settlement;  a  commission 
was  appointed,  and  it  was  declared  that  thirty  years' 
undisturbed  possession  should  constitute  a  le^f  title. 
Fulgentius  attended  the  sjmod  in  person,  his  name 
being  found  among  the  signatures  to  the  Acts  of  the 
council.  This  is  the  last  event  in  the  life  of  Fulgen- 
tius for  which  we  have  positive  proof.  In  any  case,  he 
died  before  the  year  633,  as  one  Marcianus  is  shown  to 
have  then  been  Bishop  of  Astigi.  Fulgentius,  like  his 
sister  and  brothers,  was  reverenced  as  a  saint .  In  Spain 
his  feast  was  celebrated  on  different  days;  in  the  "  Acta 
Sanctorum"  of  the  Bollandists  it  is  on  14  January. 
He  is  frequently  confused  in  medieval  writings  with 
Fulgentius,  Bishop  of  Ruspe;  some  works  have  also 
been  attributed  to  him,  of  which,  however,  no  traces 
remain.  It  is  said  that  long  after  their  deaths  the 
bones  of  St.  Fulgentius  and  those  of  his  sister,  St. 
Florentina,  were  carried  for  safety  into  the  Sierra  de 
Guadalupe,  and  that  in  the  fourteenth  century  they 
were  f  ouna  in  the  village  of  Bersocana  in  those  moun- 
tains. 


FXTLQENTIUS 


316 


FULGENniTS 


Ada  SS.^  Jan.,  I,  971-974  (translation  of  the  Biogmphy  by 
QcnNTANADUBf^AS);  Florbz,  Eapaila  aagradot  X,  89;  Gamb, 
Kirehengeachichte  Spaniena,  II,  2  (Ratisbon,  1874). 

J.  F.  KiBSCH. 

FolgentiuSy  Fabius  Claudius  Gordianus,  Saint, 
b.  468;  d.  533;  Bishop  of  Ruspe  in  the  province  of 
Byzacene  in  Africa,  eminent  among  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church  for  saintly  life,  eloquence  and  theological 
learning.  His  grandfather,  Uordianus,  a  senator  of 
Carthage,  was  despoiled  of  his  possessions  by  the 
invader  Genseric,  and  banished  to  Italy,  his  two  sons 
returned  after  his  death,  and,  though  their  house  in 
Carthage  had  been  made  over  to  Arian  priests,  they 
recovered  some  property  in  Byzacene.  Fulgentius  was 
bom  at  Telepte  in  that  province.  His  father,  Cls^u- 
dius^  soon  di^,  and  he  was  brought  up  by  his  mother, 
Manana.  He  studied  Greek  letters  before  Latin  "quo 
facilius  posset,  victurus  inter  Afros,  locutionem  Grse- 
cam,  servatis  aspirationibus,  tamquam  ibi  nutritus 
exprimere".  We  learn  from  these  words  of  his  biog- 
rapher that  the  Greek  aspi^tes  were  hard  for  a  Latm 
to  pronounce.  We  are  told  that  Fulgentius  at  an  early 
a^  committed  all  Homer  to  memory,  and  throughout 
his  life  his  pronunciation  of  Greek  was  excellent.  He 
was  also  well  trained  in  Latin  literature.  As  he  grew 
older,  he  governed  his  house  wisely  in  subjection  to  his 
mother.  He  was  favoured  by  the  provincial  authori- 
ties, and  made  procurator  of  the  fiscus.  But  a  desire 
of  religious  life  came  over  him :  he  practised  austerities 
privately  in  the  world  for  a  time,  until  he  was  moved  by 
the  "Enarrationes"  of  St.  Augustine  on  Psalm  xxxvi 
to  betake  himself  to  a  monastery  which  had  been 
founded  by  a  bishop  named  Faustus  near  his  episcopal 
city,  from  which  like  other  Catholic  bishops  he  had 
been  exiled  bv  the  Vandal  king,  Hunneric.  The  fer- 
vent appeal  of  the  yoimg  man  won  his  admission  from 
Faustus,  to  whom  he  was  already  well  known.  His 
mother  clamoured  with  tears  at  the  door  of  the  monas- 
tery to  see  her  son ;  but  he  gave  no  sign  of  his  presence 
there.  He  became  ill  from  excessive  abstinence,  but 
recovered  without  renouncing  it.  His  worldly  goods 
he  made  over  to  his  mother,  leaving  his  younger 
brother  dependent  on  her. 

But  Faustus  was  obliged  to  fly  from  renewed  perse- 
cution, and  by  his  advice  Fulgentius  sought  a  small 
monastery  not  far  off,  whose  abbot,  Felix,  had  been 
his  friend  in  the  world.  Felix  insisted  upon  resigning 
his  office  to  Fulgentius.  A  contest  of  humility  ended 
in  the  agreement  of  all  that  Fulgentius  should  be  co- 
abbot.  Felix  cared  for  the  house,  and  Fulgentius 
instructed  the  brethren ;  Felix  showed  charity  to  the 
guests,  Fulgentius  edified  them  with  discourse.  A  raid 
of  Moors  made  it  necessary  to  remove  to  a  safer  spot, 
and  a  new  retreat  was  started  at  Idida  in  Mauretania, 
but  Fulgentius  soon  left  Felix,  having  conceived  an 
ardent  desire  to  visit  the  monasteries  of  Eeypt,  for  he 
had  been  readins  the  "Institutiones^and  ''CoUationes'' 
of  Cassian,  and  ne  also  hoped  to  be  no  lon^r  superior, 
and  to  be  able  to  keep  yet  stricter  abstinence.  He 
took  ship  at  Carthage  tor  Alexandria  with  a  compan- 
ion named  Redemptus.  On  his  arrival  at  Syracuse, 
the  holy  bishop  of  that  city,  Eulalius,  told  him.  "The 
lands  to  which  you  wish  to  travel  are  separated  from 
the  communion  of  Peter  bv  an  heretical  quarrel ". 
Fulgentius  therefore  stopped  a  few  months  with  Eula- 
lius, and  then  sought  further  advice  from  an  exiled 
bishop  of  his  own  province,  who  was  living  as  a  monk 
on  a  tmy  island  on  the  coast  of  Sicily.  He  was  recom- 
mended to  return  to  his  own  monastery,  but  "  not  to 
forget  the  Apostles".  In  consequence,  he  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  Rome,  where  he  was  present  at  a.  speech 
made  by  Theodoric  before  the  senate,  and  had  an 
opportunity  of  despising  all  the  magnificence  the  court 
of  the  Gothic  king  could  show.  His  return  was  hailed 
with  joy  in  Africa,  and  a  nobleman  of  Byzacene  gave 
him  fertile  land  on  which  he  established  a  new  monas- 
tery.    But  Fulgentius  retired  from  his  position  as 


superior  in  order  to  live  a  more  hidden  life  in  a  large 
and  strict  abbey  which  flourished  on  a  rocky  island. 
Here  he  worked,  read,  and  contemplated.  He  was  an 
accomplished  scribe,  and  could  make  fans  of  palm 
leaves.  Felix,  however,  refused  to  submit  to  the  loss 
of  his  brother  abbot,  and  he  got  Bishop  Faustus  to 
claim  Ful^ntius  as  his  own  monk  and  to  order  his 
return  to  Felix.  The  bishop  ensured  his  continuance 
as  abbot  b^  ordaining  him  priest. 

At  this  time  the  Arian  King  Thrasimund  (496-523), 
though  not  so  cruel  a  persecutor  as  his  predecessors, 
allowed  no  Catholic  bishops  to  be  elected  in  Africa. 
It  was  decided  in  508  b^  such  bishops  as  could  mana^ 
to  meet  together  that  it  was  necessary  to  brave  this 
law,  and  it  was  decreed  that  elections  should  take 
place  quietly  and  simultaneously  in  all  the  vacant 
sees,  before  the  Government  had  time  to  take  pre- 
ventive measures.  Fuleentius  was  nominated  in  sev- 
eral cities;  but  he  had  fled  into  hiding,  and  could  not 
be  found.  When  he  thought  all  the  appointments  had 
been  made,  he  reappeared,  but  the  seaport  of  Ruspe, 
where  the  election  had  been  delayed  through  the  am- 
bition of  a  deacon  of  the  place,  promptly  elected  him; 
and  against  his  will  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  a 
town  he  had  never  seen.  He  insisted  on  retainmg  his 
monastic  habits.  He  refused  all  ease  and  continued 
his  fasts.  He  had  but  one  poor  tunic  for  winter  and 
simimer;  he  wore  no  oTarium^  but  used  a  leathern  gir- 
dle like  a  monk;  nor  would  he  wear  clericsd  shoes,  but 
went  barefoot  or  with  sandals.  He  had  no  precious 
chasuble  (casula),  and  did  not  permit  his  monks  to 
have  any.  Underhis  chasuble  he  woreagrey  or  buff  (7) 
cloak.  The  same  tunic  served  day  and  night,  and 
even  for  the  holy  Sacrifice,  at  which,  said  he,  the  neart 
and  not  the  garment  should  be  changed.  His  first  care 
at  Ruspe  was  to  get  the  citizens  to  build  him  a  monas- 
terv,  of  which  he  made  Felix  abbot,  and  he  never  lived 
without  monks  around  him.  But  very  soon  all  the  new 
bishops  were  exiled .  Fulgentius  was  one  of  the  j  uniors 
amon^  the  60  African  bishops  collected  in  Sardinia,  but 
in  their  meetings  his  opinion  was  eagerly  sought,  and  the 
letters  sent  in  the  name  of  all  were  always  drawn  up  by 
him.  He  also  frequently  composed  pastoral  letters  for 
individual  colleagues  to  send  to  their  flocks.  Ful^n- 
tins  had  brought  a  few  monks  with  him  to  Sardinia, 
and  he  joined  with  two  other  bishops  and  their  com- 
panions in  a  common  life,  so  that  their  house  became 
the  oracle  of  the  city  of  Calaris,  and  a  centre  of  peace, 
consolation,  and  instruction. 

It  was  perhaps  about  the  ^ear  515  that  Thrasimund 
issued  a  series  of  ten  questions  as  a  challenge  to  the 
Catholic  bishops,  and  the  reputation  of  Fulgentius  was 
now  so  great  that  the  king  sent  for  him  to  Carthage  to 
speak  in  the  name  of  the  rest.  The  saint,  during  his 
stay  in  that  city,  gave  constant  instructions  in  the 
faith  of  the  Holy  Irinitv,  and  reconciled  many  who 
had  been  rebaptized  by  the  Arians.  He  discussed  with 
many  wise  persons  the  replies  to  be  made  to  the  ten 
questions,  and  at  length  submitted  to  the  king  a  small 
but  able  work  which  we  still  possess  under  the  title  of 
"Contra  Arianos  liber  unus,  ad  decern  obiectiones 
decem  responsiones  continens".  The  king  then  pro- 
posed furtner  objections,  but  was  anxious  to  avoid  a 
second  reply  as  effective  as  the  former  one.  He  took 
the  unfair  and  tyrannical  course  of  having  the  new 
questions,  which  were  expressed  at  great  lensth,  read 
aloud  once  to  Fulgentius,  who  was  not  allowed  to  have 
a  copy  of  them,  but  was  expected  to  give  direct  an- 
swers; though  the  public  would  not  know  whether  he 
had  really  replied  to  the  point  or  not.  When  the 
bishop  pointed  out  that  he  could  not  even  recollect  the 

Siiestions  after  hearing  them  but  once,  the  king  de- 
ared  that  he  showed  a  want  of  confidence  in  his  own 
case.  Fulgentius  was  therefore  obliged  to  write  a 
larger  work,  "Ad  Trasimundum  regem  Vandalorum 
libri  tres",  which  is  a  very  fine  specimen  of  careful  and 
orthodox  theological  argument. 


FUL0ENTIU8 


31-7 


FUL0ENTIU8 


Hirasimund  seems  to  have  been  pleased  with  this 
reply.  An  Arian  bishop  named  Pinta  produced  an 
answer  which,  with  Fuigentius's  refutation  of  it,  is  lost 
to  us.  The  work^  now  qptitled  '*Ad versus  Pintam"  is 
^  spurious.  The  king  wished  to  keep  Fuigentius  at 
Carthage,  but  the  Arian  bishops  were  afraid  of  his 
influence  and  his  power  of  converting,  and  therefore 
obtained  his  exile.  He  was  put  on  bocuti  ship  at  night, 
that  the  people  of  Carthage  might  not  know  of  his 
departure.  But  contrary  winds  obliged  the  vessel  to 
remain  several  days  in  port,  and  nearly  all  the  city  was 
able  to  take  leave  of  tne  holy  bishop,  and  to  receive 
Holy  Communion  from  his  hand.  To  a  religious  man 
who  was  weeping  he  privately  prophesied  his  speedy 
return  and  the  liberty  of  the  African  Church. 

Fuigentius  was  accompanied  to  Sardinia  by  many  of 
his  monastic  brethren.  Instead,  therefore,  of  proceed- 
ing to  his  former  abode,  he  obtained  permission  from 
the  Bishop  of  Calaris  to  build  an  abbev  hard  by  the 
Basilica  of  St.  Satuminus.  and  there  ne  ruled  oyer 
forty  monks,,  who  obscrvea  the  strictest  renunciation 
of  private  property,  while  the  abbot  saw  to  all  their 
wants  with  great  charity  and  discretion;  but  if  any 
monk  asked  for  anything,  he  refused  him  at  once,  sabr- 
ing that  a  monk  should  be  content  with  what  he  is 
given,  and  that  true  religious  have  renounced  their 
own  will, "  parati  nihil  velje  et  nolle".  This  severity  in 
a  particular  point  was  no^  doubt  tempered  by  the 
samt's  sweetness  of  disposition  and  charm  of  manner, 
with  which  was  associated  a  peculiarly  winning  and 
moving  eloquence.  He  wrote  much  during  his  second 
exile.  Tlie  scythian  monks,  led  by  John  Maxentius  at 
Constantinople,  had  been  trying  to  get  their  formula 
approved  at  Rome:  "One  of  tne  iftnity  was  cruci- 
fied". At  the  same  time  they  were  attacking  the 
traces  of  Semipelagianism  in  the  works  of  Faustus  of 
Riez.  On  the  latter  point  they  had  full  sympathy  from 
the  exiles  in  Sardinia,  whose  support  they  nad  asked. 
Fuigentius  wrote  them  a  letter  in  the  name  of  the  other 
bishops  (Ep.  15),  and  composed  a  work  "Contra 
Faustum"  m  seven  books,  wnich  is  now  lost.    It  was 

{'ust  completed  when,  in  523,  Thraaimund  died,  and 
lis  successor,  Hilderic,  restored  liberty  to  the  Church 
of  Africa. 

The  exiles  returned,  and  new  consecrations  took 
place  for  all  the  vacant  sees.  When  the  bishops  landed 
at  Carthage,  Fuigentius  had  an  enthusiastic  reception, 
and  his  journey  to  Ruspe  was  a  triumphal  progress. 
He  returned  to  his  beloved  monastery,  but  insisted  on 
Felix  being  sole  superior;  and  he,  who  was  consulted 
first  among  all  the  bishops  of  the  province,  asked  leave 
in  the  monastery  for  the  least  things  from  the  abbot 
Felix.  He  delivered  in  writing  to  the  abbey  a  deed  by 
which  it  was  perpetually  exempted  from  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  bisnops  of  Ruspe.  This  document  was  read 
in  the  Council  of  Carthage  of  534.  It  was  in  fact  the 
custom  in  Africa  that  monasteries  should  not  of  neoes- 
dty  be  subject  to  the  local  bishop,  but  might  choose 
any  bishop  at  a  distance  as  their  ecclesiastical  superior. 
Fuigentius  now  gave  himself  to  the  care  of  his  diocese. 
He  was  careful  that  his  clergy  should  not  wear^  fine 
clothes,  nor  devote  themselves  to  secular  occupations. 
They  were  to  have  houses  near  the  church,  to  cultivate 
their  guldens  with  their  own  hands,  and  to  be  particu- 
lar aTOut  correct  pronunciation  ana  sweetness  in  sing- 
ing the  psalms.  He  corrected  some  with  words,  others 
with  scourging.  He  ordered  fasting  on  Wednesdays 
and  Fridays  for  all  clergy  and  widows,  and  for  those  of 
the  laity  that  were  able.  In  this  last  period  of  St.  Ful- 
gentius's  life  he  published  some  sermons,  and  ten  books 
against  the  Arian  Fabianus,  of  which  only  fragmente 
remain.  A  year  before  his  death  he  was  moved  to 
great  compunction  of  heart;  he  suddenly  quitted  all 
his  work,  and  even  his  monastery,  and  sailed  with  a  few 
companions  to  the  island  of  Circe,  where  he  gave  him- 
self to  reading,  prayer,  and  fasting  in  a  monastery 
which  he  had  previously  caused  to  m  constructed  on  a 


small  rock.  There  he  mortified  his  members  and  wept 
in  the  presence  of  God  alone,  as  though  he  anticipated 
a  speedy  death.  But  complaints  were  made  of  his 
absence,  and  he  returned  to  his  labours.  He  shortly 
fell  into  a  grievous  sickness.  In  his  sufferings  he  said 
ceaselessly:  "O  Lord,  give  me  patience  here,  and  for- 
giveness hereafter."  He  refused,  as  too  luxurious,  the 
warm  bath  which  the  physicians  recommended.  He 
summoned  his  clergy  and  m  the  presence  of  the  monks 
asked  pardon  for  any  want  of  sympathy  or  any  undue 
severity  he  might  have  shown.  He  was  sick  for  sev- 
enty days,  continuing  in  prayer  and  retaining  all  his 
faculties  to  the  last.  His  possessions  he  gave  to  the 
poor,  and  to  those  of  his  clergy  who  were  in  need.  He 
died  on  1  Januaiy,  533,  in  the  raxty-fifth  year  of  his  life 
and  the  twenty-nfth  of  his  episcopate. 

Besides  ^e  works  already  mentioned,  we  still  pos- 
sess of  St.  Fuigentius  some  nne  treatises,  sermons,  and 
letters.  The  best  known  is  the  book  "De  Fide",  a 
description  of  the  true  Faith,  written  for  a  certain 
Peter,  who  was  going  on  a  pilgnma^  to  the  schismatic 
East.  The  three  books  "Ad  Monimum".  written  in 
Sardinia,  are  addressed  to  a  friend  who  unaerstood  St. 
Augustine  to  teach  that  God  predestinates  evil.  St. 
Fuigentius  is  saturated  with  St.  Augustine's  writings 
and  way  of  thinking,  and  he  defends  him  from  the 
charge  of  making  God  predestinate  evil.  He  himself 
makes  it  a  matter  of  faith  that  unbaptized  infants  are 

Eunished  with  eternal  fire  for  original  sin.  No  one  can 
y  any  means  be  saved  outside  the  Qiureh ;  all  pagans 
and  heretics  are  infallibly  damned.  "It  is  to  think 
unworthily  of  grace,  to  suppose  that  it  is  given  to  all 
men",  since  not  only  not  all  have  faith,  but  there  are 
still  some  nations  which  the  preaching  of  the  Faith  has 
not  yet  reached.  These  harsh  doctrines  seem  to  have 
suited  the  African  temperament.  His  last  work 
against  Semipelagianism  was  written  at  Ruspe  and 
addressed  to  the  leaders  of  the  Scythian  monks,  John 
and  Venerius:  "  De  veritate  prsedestinationis  et  gratise 
Dei",  in  three  books.  To  these  we  may  add  the  two 
books,  "  De  remissione  peccatorum ' '.  He  wrote  much 
on  the  Holy  TVinity  and  the  Incarnation : "  Liber  contra 
Arianos",  "  Liber  ad  Victorem",  "  Liber  ad  Scarilam 
de  Incamatione".  To  St.  Augustine's  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  Fuigentius  adds  a  thorough  grasp  of  the 
doctrine  of  tne  Person  of  Christ  as  denned  against 
Nestorianism  and  Eutychumism.  His  Uiou^t  is 
always  logical  and  his  exposition  clear,  and  he  is  the 
principal  theologian  of  the  sixth  century,  if  we  do 
not  count  St.  Gregory.  His  letters  have  no  biographi- 
cal interest,  but  are  theological  treatises  on  chastity. 


virginity,  penance,  ete.    His  sermons  are  eloquent 
and  full  of  fervour,  but  are  few  in  number. 


Rbtnoldb  in  Diet.cf  Chriet.  Bioo-*  who  refers  also  to  ScHBoxcxBt 
KtrchengetehidUe,  xvii,  xviii,  and  Wiaaxns,  AufftuitniBmua  una 
Pelaffianiamua,  11;  there  is  an  excellent  summary  of  his  works  in 
FasBLAB-JuNQMANN,  PcUroloffta,  II;  WdRTKR.  Zur  Dogmen- 
gtaehichte  dea  Semipeiapianiamua,  III  (MQnster,  1000);  Fxckkr, 
Zur  WttrdiaunQ  des  Vita  FuloerUii  (Zeitschr.  f.  KircKenoeach,^ 
1900,  9):  Hblu  identifies  St.  Fuigentius  with  the  srsmmarian 
Fabius  Furius  Fuigentius  Planciades  (Rhein.  Mua.  Philol., 
1897, 177:  PhUoloffua.  1897,  253;  see  Tbuffkl-Schwabb.  GeMA. 


dor  r6m,  Ial,  5th  e<^.,  pp.  1238  sqq.)     On  the  collection  of 
80  spurious  sermons  appe    ----- 

5ubL  by  Hjaynaldus,  Eyoz 
iS.  dea  homiliea  du  Paeudo-Fvlgence  (in  Revue  BhiM.,  April, 
1909}.    The  best  edition  of  St.  Fuigentius  la  that  of  Dbbprbc 
(Fans,  1084),  reprinted  in  Mipie,  P.  L.,  IjXV.  (X,  Bardbn- 


iqq 

80  spurious  sermons  u>pended  to  St.  Fulgentius's  works  (first 
>ubL  by  Hjaynaldus,  Lyons,  1652)  see  G.  Morin,  Nolea  aur  un 


HXWKB,  Patrolooy  (tr.,  St.  Louis,  1908). 


John  Chapman. 


Vnlgentiiu  Ferrftndn8«  a  canonist  and  theolo^an 
of  the  African  Chureh  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth 
century.  He  was  a  deacon  of  Carthage  and  probably 
accompanied  his  master  and  patron,  Fuigentius  of 
Ruspe,  to  exile  in  Sardinia,  when  the  bishops  of  the 
African  Chureh  were  banished  from  their  sees  by  the 
Arian  King  of  the  Vandals,  Thrasamund.  After  the 
death  of  Thrasamund  and  the  accession  of  Hilderic,  in 


rULLEBTOH 


318 


nniOHAL 


523,  the  exiles  were  permitted  to  return,  and  Fulgen- 
tius,  although  only  a  deacon,  soon  gained  a  position  of 
ereat  importance  in  the  African  Church.  He  was 
^e^uently  consulted  in  regard  to  the  complex  theo- 
logical problems  of  the  time  and  was  known  as  one  of 
the  most  redoubtable  champions  of  orthodoxy  in 
Western  Christendom.  His  works  are  mostly  of  a 
doctrinal  character.  He  defended  the  Trinitarian  doc- 
trines against  the  Arians  and  dealt  besides  with  the 
question  of  the  two  natures  in  Christ,  with  baptism, 
and  with  the  Eucharist.  He  drew  up  a  "Breviatio 
Canonum  Ecclesiasticorum  "  in  which  ne  summarized 
in  two  hundred  and  thirty-two  canons  the  teaching  of 
the  earUest  councils,  NicsBa,  Laodicea,  Sardica,  etc., 
concerning  the  manner  of  life  of  bishops,  priests,  dea- 
cons and  other  ecclesiastics,  and  of  the  conduct  to  be 
observed  towards  Jews,  heathens  and  heretics.  He 
also  wrote  at  the  request  of  the  Comes  Reginus  (who 
was  probably  military  governor  of  North  Africa)  a 
treatise  on  the  Christian  rule  of  life  for  soldiers,  in 
which  he  laid  down  seven  rules  which  he  explained  and 
inculcated,  and  in  which  he  gave  evidence  of  his  piety 
and  practical  wisdom.  Through  no  desire  of  his  own, 
he  was  forced  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  controversy 
brought  about  through  the  condemnation  of  the 
"  Three  Chapters  "  by  the  Emperor  Justinian.  At  the 
request  of  Pope  Vigilius  the  Homan  deacons  Pelagius 
and  Anatolius  submitted  the  questions  involved  in  the 
emperor's  censure  of  the  works  of  Theodore  of  Mop- 
Buestia,  Theodoret  of  Cyrus,  and  Ibas  of  Edessa,  to 
their  Carthaginian  confrere,  requesting  him  at  the 
same  time  to  lay  the  matter  before  the  African  bish- 
ops. Ferrandus  at  oAce  declared  himself  in  the  most 
emphatic  manner  a^inst  yielding  to  the  schemes  of 
the  emperor  (Ep.  vi,  ad  Pelagium  et  Anatolium  dia- 
conos).  His  decision  met  with  the  approval  of  Rus- 
ticus.  Archbishop  of  Carthage,  and  was  subsequentlv 
ratified  by  the  council  of  African  bishops  over  which 
Rusticus  presided,  and  in  which  it  was  agreed  to  sever 
all  relations  with  Pope  Vigilius.  Ferrandus  died 
shortly  after  this  event  and  before  the  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople was  convened.  (For  his  works  see  P.  L., 
LXVII.) 

AuDOLUBNT,  Cafihag^  Romaine  (Paris,  1901),  555  8Q<Li  743 
sqq.;  Maassbn.  Geach.  d.  QueUen  und  LiU.  dea  kanon,  Rechta 
(Gras,  1870).  I,  799-802;  Bardxnhewer,  Patrotoffy*  tr.  Shahan 
(Freiburg  im  Br.;  St.  Louis,  1908),  618. 

Patrick  J.  Healt. 

Fullerton,  Ladt  Georgiana  Charlotte,  novelist, 
b.  23  September,  1812,  in  Staffordshire;  d.  19  Januarv, 
1885,  at  Bournemouth.  She  was  the  youngest  daugn- 
ter  of  Lord  Granville  Leveson  Gower  (afterwards  fist 
Eari  Granville)  and  Lady  Harriet  Elisabeth  Caven- 
dish, second  daughter  of  tne  fifth  Duke  of  Devonshire. 
She  was  chiefly  broueht  up  in  Paris,  her  father  having 
been  appointed  Endish  ambassador  there  when  she 
was  twelve  years  old.  Her  mother,  a  member-of  the 
Anglican  Church,  was  a  woman  of  deep  religious  feel- 
ing and  Lady  Georgiana  was  trained  to  devotion.  In 
1^3  she  married  in  Paris  an  attach^  of  the  embassy, 
Alexander  George  Fullerton,  who  was  of  good  Iriui 
birth  and  had  previously  been  in  the  Guards.  In  1841, 
when  Lord  Granville  retired  from  the  embassy.  Lady 
Georgiana  and  her  husband  travelled  for  some  time 
in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  Two  years  later,  Mr. 
Fullerton  was  received  into  the  Church,  after  long  and 
thoughtful  study  of  the  religious  Questions  involved 
in  this  step.  In  1844  his  wife  published  her  first  book. 
"  Ellen  Middleton",  a  tragic  novel,  of  some  power  ana 
showing  markedly  ''High  Anglican"  religious  views, 
so  that  Lord  Brougham  pronounced  it  "rank  Popery". 
It  was  well  received,  and  was  criticized  by  Mr.  Glad- 
stone in  "The  English  Review".  Two  years  after,  in 
1846,  the  author  placed  herself  under  tne  instruction 
of  Father  Brownhill,  S.  J.,  and  was  received  by  him  into 
the  Church  on  Passion  Sunday.  In  1847  she  published 
her  second  book, "  Grantley  Manor",  which  is  largely  a 


study  of  character,  and  is  usually  considered  an  ad- 
vance, from  a  literary  fK>int  of  view,  upon  the  first. 
There  was  then  a  pause  in  her  published  work,  which 
was  continued,  in  1852,  with  the  story  of  "  Lady  Bird  ". 
In  1855  her  only  son  died,  a  loss  she  never  quite  recov- 
ered from,  and  henceforth  she  devoted  herself  to  works 
of  charity.  In  1856  she  joined  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis.  She  and  her  husband  eventually  settled  in 
London  and  her  literary  work  became  a  large  part  of 
her  life.  She  not  only  wrote  novels,  but  a  good  deal  of 
biography,  some  poetry,  and  made  translations  from 
French  and  Italian.  All  her  books  have  distinction 
and  charm.  Some  of  her  chief  works  are:  "  Ellen  Mid- 
dleton"  (London,  1884) ; "  Grantley  Manor"  (London, 
1854);  "Lady  Bird"  (London,  1866);  "La  Comtesse 
de  Bionneval",  written  in  French  (Paris,  1857);  the 
same  translated  into  English  (London,  1858) ;  "  Laur- 
entia",  a  tale  of  Japan  (London,  1904);  "Constance 
Sherwood"  (Edinburgh  and  London,  1908);  "Seven 
Stories"  (London,  1896). 

Lbb  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  b.  v.;  Cbavbn,  Ididy  O.  FuUerton,  9a 
vie  et  aea  OBuvrea  (Paria,  1888),  EngliBh  version  by  Colbbidob 
(London.  1888);  Yongb,  Women  NovelisU  of  Queen  Victmia's 
Reion  (London,  1897);  The  Inner  Life  of  Lady  O,  FuUerton 
(London,  1899). 

Kate  M.  Warren. 
Fnllo  (The  Fuller).    See  Peter*  Fullo. 

Funo,  Bartolommeo,  theologian,  b.  at  Villon  near 
Piacenza;  d.  1545.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the 
Dominican  Order  and  made  great  progress  in  all  the 
ecclesiastical  sciences,  but  especially  m  canon  law. 
He  was  distinguished  as  an  inquisitor  at  Piacenza,  but 
is  best  known  for  his  work,  "Summa  casuum  con- 
scientise.  aurea  armilla  dicta".  This  work,  ^diich 
was  deaicated  to  Bishop  Catelan  of  Piacenza,  went 
through  many  editions,  the  two  most  important  and 
best  known  beine  those  of  Antwerp  (1591)  and  Lyons 
(1594).  It  was  held  in  high  esteem  bj  all  the  canon- 
ists of  the  time,  especially  because  it  contained,  in 
brief  and  compendious  form,  a  digest  of  all  similar 
explanations  smce  the  thirteenth  century.  In  one  or 
two  places,  by  a  series  of  clear  and  clean  cut  sentences, 
he  refutes  all  the  errors  of  probabUism.  The  author- 
ship of  the  work  has  been  disputed  by  one  or  two,  but 
witnout  reason.  He  is  also  the  author  of  "  Expositio 
compendiosa  in  epistolas  Pauli  et  canonicas",  and  a 
book  entitled,  "Poemata  qusdam".  His  first  work, 
"Philothea,  opus  immortalis  animi  dignitatem  con- 
tinens",  was  aedicated  to  Catalan  before  he  became 
bishop. 

(i€vnr  AND  EcHABD,  ScTxpL  0,  p.,  II,  123;  Sghbbbb  In 
Kirchenlex.t  8.  t. 

H.  J.  Smith. 

Fonchal,  Diocese  or  (Funchalbnsib),  in  the  Ma- 
deira Islands.  Both  in  neo-Latin  and  in  Portuguese 
the  name  of  the  town  signifies  "fennel"  (Lat.  fcenicu- 
larium).  Madeira,  the  Purpuraria  of  the  Romans, 
situated  in  the  extreme  west  of  the  ancient  world, 
about  440  miles  from  the  coast  of  Morocco,  was  dis- 
covered in  1344  by  the  famous  Bristol  lovers  {AmarUea 
de  Bristol),  Anna  Dorset  and  Robert  O'Machin;  later  . 
it  was  abandoned.  In  1419  Joan  Gongales  and  Tris- 
tan Vaz  took  possession  of  the  island.  In  1445  were 
first  planted  the  vines  (brought  from  Crete)  that  have 
since  rendered  Madeira  so  famous.  The  Christian  in* 
habitants  were  subject  at  first  to  the  Bishop  of  Tan- 
gier, until  Leo  X  (16  June,  1514)  made  Funchal  an 
episcopal  see.  In  the  interest  of  the  vast  territories  in 
Africa  and  Asia  then  subject  to  Portu^l,  Clement  VII 
(8  July,  1539)  raised  Funchal  to  archiepiscopal  rank, 
and  jgave  it  for  suffragans  Angra,  Cabo  Verae,  Goa. 
and  Santo  Thom^.  In  1551,  however,  it  was  reduced 
to  simple  episcopal  rank,  and  in  1570  was  made  a  suf- 
fragan of  Lisbon,  which  it  is  to  the  present. 

Funchal  is  delightfullv  situated  on  the  south  side  of 
the  Madeira  Islands,  and  was  therefore  the  first  halting 
place  for  Portuguese  and  Spanish  ships  on  their  way  to 


FUNDAMENTAL 


319 


FUNDAMENTAL 


the  New  World.  Owing  to  this  natural  advantage  the 
island  soon  became  a  ^reat  centre  of  wealth  and  for- 
eijgn  trade,  likewise  an  unportant  centre  for  the  spread 
oithe  Gospel  whose  missionaries  found  the  islands  con- 
venient as  a  resting-place  going  and  coming.  Funchal 
was  once  to  the  Portuguese  what  Gibraltar,  St.  Helena, 
and  Malta  now  are  to  the  English.  Therefore  they 
garrisoned  the  city,  tiiough  naturally  defended  by  its 
rugged  cliffs,  and  ouilt  there  four  mipregnable  for- 
tresses. Its  churches  and  monasteries  no  longer  ex- 
hibit their  former  architectural  splendour,  though,  as 
late  as  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
lintels  and  jambs  of  we  windows  in  man^^  houses  were 
of  massive  silver,  and  the  church  vessels  of  solid  gold 
(chalices,  pyxee^  monstranoes)  were  thickly  studded 
with  pearls,  diamonds,  and  other  precious  stones. 
Funcnal  has  long  been  a  favourite  resort  of  invalids, 
especially  those  suffering  from  diseases  of  the  lungs. 
Its  white  villas  and  edifices,  embowered  in  rich  tropi- 
cal vegetation,  charm  the  traveller  as  he  approaches 
from  the  sea.  The  roads  and  streets  are  qmte  steep 
and  the  usual  means  of  transportation  is  by  ox-slea. 
The  population  of  the  city  is  (1909)  about  20,000. 
Accordmg  to  the  '' Annuaire  Pontifical"  for  1906,  the 
diocese  contains  about  150,000  Catholics,  with  50  par- 
ish churches,  80  public  and  two  conventual  chapels,  all 

ministered  to  by  93  priests. 

Antonio  de  Sousa,  Cfatalogo  doa  Biapot  da  Igr^a  de  FunthoL 
(1721);  Gaiib.  Series  episcoporum  ecdesuB  CaOyolicce  (Ratlsbon, 
1873),  471;  Gernrdiia  CaUoliea  (Rome,  1008);  Biddle.  The 
iMnd  of  the  Wine  (Philadelphia,  1901);  Bbown,  Madeira  and  the 

"    I,  1901). 


Canary  Idanda  (LondoD, 


F.  FiTA. 


Fundamental  Articles. — ^This  term  was  employed 
by  Protestant  theologians  to  distinguish  the  essential 

§arts  of  the  Christian  faith  from  those  non-essential 
octrines,  which,  as  ihey  believed,  individual  churches 
might  accept  or  reject  without  forfeiting  their  daim  to 
ramE  as  parts  of  the  Chiurch  universal.  During  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  view  that  doctrines  migat  be 
thus  distin^|uished  mto  two  classes  was  widely  current 
in  tfa»  various  reformed  bodies;  and  several  well- 
known  divines  endeavoured  to  determine  the  principle 
of  the  division.  In  some  cases  their  aim  was  mainly 
practical.  They  hoped  in  this  way  to  find  a  dogmatic 
oasis  for  union  between  the  separated  churches. 
More  often,  however,  the  system  was  used  controver- 
siidly  to  defend  the  positbn  of  the  Protestant  bodies 
against  the  aiguments  of  Catholics. 

The  first  to  advance  the  theory  seems  to  have  been 
George  Cassander  (1513-66),  a  Catholic  by  religion, 
but  apparently  little  versed  in  theology.  In  his  work 
''De omcio  pu  ac  publi(»e  tranquillitatis  vere  amantis 
viri  in  hoc  religionis  dissidio"  (1561),  he  maintained 
that  in  the  articles  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  we  have  the 
true  foundations  of  the  Faith;  and  that  those  who 
accept  these  doctrines,  and  have  no  desire  to  sever 
themselves  from  the  rest  of  (])hristendom  are  part  of 
the  true  Church.  He  believed  that  thus  it  nusht  be 
possible  to  find  a  means  of  reuniting  Catholics,  (creeks, 
and  Protestants.  But  the  proix>sal  met  with  |io 
favour  on  either  side.  The  Louvain  professors,  Hesse- 
lius  and  Ravesteyn,  showed  that  the  theory  was 
irreconcilable  with  Catholic  theology;  and  (jalvin  no 
less  vehemently  repudiated  a  system  so  littJe  hostile 
to  Rome.  Among  Protestants,  however,  the  view 
soon  reappeared.  It  seemed  to  afiford  them  some 
means  of  reply  to  two  objections  which  they  were  oon- 
stantlv  called  on  to  meet.  When  Catholics  told  them 
that  uieir  total  inability  to  agree  amongst  themselves 
was  itself  a  proof  that  their  system  was  a  false  one, 
they  could  answer  that  thouj^  differing  as  to  non- 
essentials they  were  agreed  on  fundamentals.  And 
when  asked  how  it  could  be  maintained  that  the  whole 
Christian  world  had  for  centuries  been  sunk  in  error, 
they  replied  that  since  these  errors  had  not  destroyea 
the  funoamentals  of  the  faith,  salvation  was  possible 


even  before  the  gospel  of  reform  had  been  preached. 
It  is  asserted  that  the  first  io  take  up  this  standpoint 
was  Antonio  de  Dominis,  the  apostate  Archbishop  of 
Spalatro,  who,  during  the  reign  of  James  I,  sojourned 
some  yeara  in  England.  Whether  this  was  so  or  not, 
it  is  certain  that  from  this  period  the  distinction  be- 
comes a  recognized  feature  in  English  Fh>testant 
polemics,  while  on  the  other  hand  Catholic  writers  are 
at  pains  to  show  its  worthlessness.  It  fills  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  controversy  between  Father 
Edward  Knott,  S  J.^  and  the  Laudian  divine,  Christo- 
pher Potter.  At  this  time,  the  term  fundametUala  was 
understood  to  signify  those  doctrines  an  explicit  belief 
in  which  is  necessary  to  salvation.  Thus,  Potter  in 
his  "Want  of  (])harity  justly  charged  on  all  such 
Romanists  as  dare  affirm  that  Protestancy  destro^th 
Salvation"  (1633)  says:  "By  Fundamental  doctrines 
we  mean  such  Catholique  verities  as  are  to  be  dis- 
tinctly believed  by  every  Christian  that  shall  be 
saved"  (p.  211).  Knott  had  no  difficulty  in  showing 
how  hopelessly  discrepant  were  the  views  of  the  more 
eminent  Protestants  as  to  what  was  fimdamentaJ. 
His  attack  forced  his  opponents  to  change  their 
ground.  ChiUingworth^  who  replied  to  him  in  the 
notable  book,  "  The  Religion  of  Irotestants  a  safe  way 
to  Salvation"  (1637),  while  defining  fundamental 
articles  in  a  manner  similar  to  Potter  (op.  cit.,  c.  iii, 
n.  20),  neverthelesss  conceded  that  it  was  impossible  to 
draw  up  any  list  of  fundamental  doctrines.  He  urged 
indeed  that  this  mattered  little,  since  the  Bible  con- 
stitutes the  religion  of  Protestants,  and  he  who  accepts 
the  Bible  knows  that  he  has  accepted  all  the  essentials 
of  the  Faith  (op.  cit.,  c.  iii,  n.  59).  Yet  it  is  plain  that 
if  we  do  not  know  which  doctrines  are  fundamental, 
salvation  cannot  be  conditional  on  the  explicit  ac- 
ceptance of  these  particular  truths. 

The  doctrine  oi  fundamentals  was  destined  to  be- 
come notable  not  merely  in  En^and,  but  in  Germany 
and  France  sdso.  In  Germany  it  assumed  prominence 
in  connexion  with  the  Syncretist  dispute.  The  founder 
of  the  Syncretist  school  was  the  eminent  Lutheran 
theologian,  George  Calixt  (1586-1656).  A  man  of 
wide  culture  and  pacific  disposition,  he  desired  to 
effect  a  reconciliation  between  Catholics,  Lutherans, 
and  Calvinists.  In  a  treatise  entitled  "  Desiderium  et 
studium  ooncordise  ecclesiastics"  (1650),  he  argued 
that  the  Apostles'  Creed,  which  each  of  these  three 
r^igions  accepted,  contained  the  fundamental  doc- 
trines of  the  Christian  faith,  and  that  the  points  on 
which  they  were  at  variance  were  no  insuperable  bar 
to  union.  These  differences,  he  held,  mignt  be  com- 
posed, if  it  were  a^^reed  to  accept  as  revealed  truth  all 
that  is  contained  m  Scripture,  and  further  all  that  is 
taught  by  the  Fathers  of  the  first  five  centuries.  This 
eirenicon  brouehtxlown  upon  him  the  most  vehement 
attacks  from  the  extreme  party  of  his  coreligionists, 
above  all  from  Calovius,  tne  representative  of  rigid 
Lutheranism.  The  keenest  interest  was  aroused  in 
the  question,  and  on  both  sides  it  was  warmly  debated. 
The  effort,  tnough  well  meant,  proved  quite  abortive. 

The  most  famous  by  far  of  the  controversies  on  this 
subject,  however,  was  that  between  Bossuet  and  the 
Calvinist  Jurieu.  Jurieu's  book,  "  Le  Vray  Systdme 
de  I'E^ise"  (1686),  marks  a  distinct  stage  in  the  de- 
velopment of  IVotestant  theology;  while  the  work  in 
whidi  Bossuet  repUed  to  him  was  one  of  the  most 
effective  attacks  ever  levelled  against  Protestantism 
and  its  system.  "  Le  Vray  Syst^me ' '  was  an  attempt 
to  demonstrate  the  right  of  tne  French  Protestants  to 
rank  as  members  of  the  Church  Universal.  With  this 
aim  Jurieu  propounded  an  entirely  novel  theory  re- 
garding the  Church's  essential  constitution.  Accord- 
ing to  him  all  sects  without  exception  are  members  of 
the  Body  of  Christ.  For  this  nothing  is  necessary  but 
"to  belong  to  a  general  confederation,  to  confess  Jesus 
Christ  as  Son  of  God^  as  Saviour  of  the  world,  and  aa 
Messias;  and  to  receive  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 


FUKDABSENTAL 


320 


FUNDAMENTAL 


M  the  rule  and  Law  of  Christians''  (Syst^me,  p.  53). 
Yet  among  the  various  portions  of  the  Church  we 
must,  he  tells  us^  distinguish  four  classes:  (1)  the  sects 
which  have  retamed  all  the  truths  taught  in  the  Scrip- 
tures; (2)  those  which,  while  retaining  the  more  im- 
portant truths,  have  mingled  with  them  superstitions 
and  errors;  (3)  those  which  have  retained  the  funda- 
mental truths^  but  have  added  doctrines  which  are  in- 
compatible with  them;  and  (4)  those  which  have  set 
the  fundamental  verities  altogether  aside.  This  last 
class  are  dead  members  of  the  mjrstical  body  (ibid., 
p.  52).  Those  who  have  retained  the  fundamental 
articles  of  the  faith  are,  one  and  all,  living  parts  of  the 
Church.  When  he  comes  to  define  preciselv  which 
doctrines  are,  and  which  are  not,  fundamental,  Jurieu 
bids  us  fall  back  on  the  rule  of  Vincent  of  L6rins: 
Quod  semper,  quod  vbUpie,  quod  ah  omnibus.  Wher- 
ever all  bodies  of  Christians  still  existing,  and  possess- 
ine  some  importance  in  the  world,  agree  in  accepting 
a  dogma,  we  nave,  in  that  agreement,  a  criterion  which 
may  be  considered  infallible.  Among  truths  so  guar- 
anteed are,  e.  g.,  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  of  the 
Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  of  the  Redemption,  the  satis- 
faction, original  sin,  creation,  erace,  tne  immortality 
of  the  soul,  the  eternity  of  punisnment  (ibid.,  236-237). 
This  work  was  followed,  m  1688,  by  another  entitled 
''  Traits  de  Tunit^  de  TEglise  et  des  articles  fondamen- 
taux",  written  in  reply  to  Nicole's  criticisms.  In  the 
same  ^ear  appearea  Bossuet's  famous  "  Histoire  des 
Variations  des  Eglises  protestantes".  The  Bishop  of 
Meaux  pointed  out  that  this  was  the  third  different 
theory  of  the  Church  advanced  by  Protestant  theolo- 

fians  to  defend  their  position.  The  first  reformers 
ad  accepted  the  Scriptural  doctrine  of  an  indefecti- 
ble visible  Church.  When  it  was  demonstrated  that 
this  doctrine  was  totally  incompatible  with  their  de- 
nunciations of  pre-reformation  Christianity,  their  suc- 
cessors took  refuge  in  the  theory  of  an  invisible 
Church.  It  had  been  made  patent  that  this  was  con- 
trary to  the  express  words  of  Scripture ;  and  their  con- 
troversialists had,  in  consequenGe»  been  compelled  to 
look  for  a  new  position.  Tnis  Jurieu  had  provided  in 
hb  theory  of  a  Church  founded  upon  fundamental 
articles.  Bossuet's  polemic  was  the  death-blow  of  the 
new  theory.  Jurieu,  it  is  true,  replied ;  but  only  in- 
volved himself  in  yet  further  difficulties.  He  argued 
against  the  mainthlesis  of  the  ''Variations"  by  con- 
tending that  changes  of  doema  had  been  characteris- 
tic of  the  Christian  Churcn  from  its  earliest  days. 
Bossuet,  in  his  "  Avertissement  aux  Protestants  sur 
les  lettres  de  M.  Jurieu",  was  not  slow  in jpointing  out 
that  if  this  were  true,  then  the  principle.  Quad  semper, 
quod  ubique,  quod  ab  omnibus — according  to  Jurieu  the 
criterion  of  a  fundamental  article — ^had  ceased  to  pos- 
sess the  smallest  value.     (Avertissement,  I,  n.  22.) 

In  regard  to  the  relation  of  the  fundamental  doc- 
trines to  salvation,  Jurieu  is  in  agreement  with  the 
English  divines  already  quoted.  "By  fundamental 
points",  he  says,  "  we  understand  certain  general  prin- 
ciples of  the  dnristian  religion,  a  distinct  raith  and  be- 
lief in  which  are  necessary  to  salvation"  (Traits,  p. 
495).  Precisely  the  same  view  is  expressed  by  Locke 
in  his  "Reasonableness  of  Christianity".  After 
enumerating  what  he  regards  as  the  fundamental  ar- 
ticles of  faith,  he  says:  "An  explicit  belief  of  these  is 
absolutely  req[uired  of  all  those  to  whom  the  Gospel  of 
Jesus  Christ  is  preached,  and  salvation  througn  his 
name  proposed''  (Works,  ed.,  1740, 1,  583).  Water- 
land's  "Discourse  of  Fundamentals"  should  perhaps 
be  mentioned,  since  it  is  the  only  work  by  an  Anglican 
divine  explicitly  devoted  to  this  subject.  Its  pro- 
fessed aim  is  to  determine  a  basis  for  intercommun- 
ion among  various  Christian  bodies.  But  the  whole 
treatment  is  quite  academic.  It  had  become  patent 
how  impossible  was  the  task  of  determining  which 
articles  were  fundamental.  No  one  could  decide 
what  should  be  the  principle  of  selection.    Waterland 


enumerates  no  less  than  ten  different  views  on  this 

goint,  which  he  rejects  as  inadequate.  "We  have", 
e  says,  "  almost  as  many  different  rules  for  determin- 
ing fundamentals  as  there  are  different  sects  or  par- 
ties." Needless  to  say,  his  own  principle  has  as  little 
authority  as  those  which  he  rejects.  "Die  theonr  had, 
in  fact,  been  weighed  and  found  wanting.  It  afforded 
neither  a  basis  for  reunion  nor  a  tenable  doctrine  as  to 
the  constitution  of  the  Qiurch.  From  this  time  it  ap- 
pears to  have  ceased  to  occupy  the  attention  of  Prot- 
estant-writers. Doubtless  the  ideas  which  the  theory 
embodies  still  have  a  wide  range.  There  are  numbers 
to-day  who  still  think  that  while  the  differences  be- 
tween the  various  bodies  of  Christians  are  unessential, 
there  is  a  residuum  of  fundamental  truth  common  to 
all  the  principal  groups  of  believers.  From  time  to 
time,  this  view  has  taken  effect  in  efforts  after  partial 
reunion  among  certain  of  the  sects.  These  events, 
however,  fall  outside  our  scope:  for  they  stand  in  no 
historic  connexion  with  that  doctrine  of  fundamental 
articles,  which  in  the  seventeenth  century  filled  so 
important  a  place  in  Protestant  theology. 

it  remains  oriefly  to  notice  the  manner  in  which  the 
theory  conflicts  with  Catholic  dogma.  For  a  formal 
refutation  the  reader  is  referred  to  those  articles  in 
which  the  Catholic  doctrines  in  question  are  expressly 
treated.  (I)  In  the  first  place  the  theory  is  repugnant 
to  the  nature  of  Christian  faith  as  understood  by  the 
Church.  According  to  her  teaching,  the  essential 
note  of  this  faith  lies  in  the  complete  and  unhesitating 
acceptance  of  the  whole  depositum  on  the  ground  that 
it  is  the  revealed  word  of  God.  The  conscious  rejec- 
tion of  a  single  article  of  this  deposit  is  sufficient  to 
render  a  man  guilty  of  heresy.  Tne  question  is  not  as 
to  the  relative  importance  of  the  article  in  question, 
but  solely  as  to  whether  it  has  been  revealed  by  God  to 
man.  lliis  is  clearly  put  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  in 
the  "Summa  Theol.'^',  II-II,  Q.  v,  a.  3:  "In  a  heretic 
who  rejects  a  single  article  of  the  faith,  there  remains 
not  the  virtue  of  laith  whether  as  united  with  charity 
Uormata],  or  as  severed  from  charity  [informis]  .  .  . 
The  formal  object  of  faith  is  the  Supreme  Truth  in  so 
far  as  revealed  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  in  that  doc- 
trine of  the  Chureh  which  proceeds  from  the  Supreme 
Truth.  Hence  if  anyone  does  not  hold  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Church  as  to  an  infallible  and  divine  rule, 
...  he  does  not  possess  the  virtue  of  faith."  The 
Chureh  does  not  deny  that  certain  truths  are  of  more 
vital  moment  than  others.  There  are  some  as  to 
which  it  is  important  tiiat  all  the  faithful  should  pos- 
sess explicit  knowledge.  In  regard  to  others  explicit 
knowl^ge  is  not  necessary.  But  it  denies  emphat- 
ically that  any  Christian  may  reject  or  call  in  question 
any  truth,  small  or  great,  revealed  by  God.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  system  of  Fundamental  Articles,  in 
each  and  all  of  its  forms,  involves  that  while  some 
truths  are  of  such  importance  that  they  must  of  neces- 
sity be  held,  there  are  others  of  less  importance  which 
an  individual  Christian  or  body  of  Christians  may 
freely  deny  without  forfeiture  of  grace.  (2)  No  less 
complete  is  the  disagreement  as  to  what  is  requisite  in 
order  that  a  body  of  Christians  may  be  a  part  of  the 
true  Church  of  Christ.  In  the  system  under  review  it 
is  mamtained  that  all  the  sects  which  accept  the  fund^ 
amental  articles  of  the  faith  are  partaken  in  this 
privilege.  The  Catholic  Church  knows  of  one  and 
only  one  test  to  determine  this  question  of  member^ 
ship  in  Christ's  body.  This  test  does  not  lie  in  the 
acceptance  of  this  or  that  particular  doctrine,  but  in 
communion  with  the  Apostolic  hierarchy.  Such  is 
the  unanimous  teaching  of  the  Fathers  from  the 
earliest  times.  By  way  of  illustration  the  words 
of  Saint  Irenseus  may  here  be  cited:  "They  who 
are  in  the  Church",  he  writes,  "must  yield  obe- 
dience to  the  presbyters,  who  have  the  succession 
from  the  Apostles,  and  who  with  the  succession  of  the 
episcopate  nave  received  .  .  .  the  sure  gift  of  truth. 


FUNERAL 


321 


FUNERAL 


Let  them  hold  in  suspicion  those  who  sever  themselves 
from  the  succession.  These  have  all  of  them  fallen 
from  the  truth''  (Adv.  Hier.,  IV,  xxvi;  2).  The  the- 
ory which  finds  the  one  requisite  in  the  acceptance  of  a 
series  of  fundamental  articles  is  a  novelty  without  a 
vestige  of  support  in  Christian  antiquity.  (3)  It  is 
manuest  that  tne  theory  is  destructive  of  that  uni^  in 
faith  and  in  corporate  communion,  which  Christ  Him- 
self declared  should  for  ever  be  the  guarantee  of  the 
Divine  origin  of  the  Church  (John,  xvii,  21),  and 
which  the  Catholic  Church  has  ever  exemplified  and 
tau^t.  Jurieu,  it  may  be  noted,  frankly  owned  that 
on  his  theory  the  separate  sects  might  be  in  a  position 
of  mutual  excommunication,  and  yet  remain  members 
of  the  Church. 

To  sum  up:  the  system  of  fundamental  articles  is 
repuenant  to  the  religion  of  Christ.  It  is  a  stage  in 
the  disintegration  of  religion,  consequent  on  the  ad- 
mission of  the  principle  of  private  judgment  in  mat- 
ters of  faith;  and  it  is  a  stage  which  is  necessarily 
destined  to  lead  on  to  the  complete  rejection  of  re- 
vealed truth. 

Knott,  Mercy  and  Truth,  cr  Charity  maitUained  (St-Omor, 
1634),  hiftddUy  Vhmaaked  (Ghent,  1652);  ChilunowortH, 
The  Rdimon  of  ProUstanU  a  Safe  Way  to  Salvation  (Oxford. 
1637);  (;alixtus,  Desiderium  el  aUidtian  eoneordicB  ecdeeiaa- 
tica  (Helmatadt,  1650):  VBi/muTsruB,  Tradattu  de  Funda- 
tnetUalibua  in  Opera  j:ilotterdam,  1680),  I,  603-825:  Puf- 
nNDORP,  TfM  Dxvine  Feudal  Law,  or  CovenanU  vnth  Mankind 
represented  (tr.,  London,  1703);  Tubkbttxv,  Diaeowne  canr 
cemino FunaamerUaU  (tr.,  London,  1720);  Watbrland,  A  Di»' 
eaunte  of  FundamentaU  (1735)  in  Worka,  V  (Oxford.  1843). 

Q.  H.  JOTCE. 

Funeral.    See  Burial. 

Funeral  Dues,  the  canonical  perquisites  of  a  par- 
ish priest  receivable  on  the  occasion  of  the  funeral 
of  any  of  his  parishioners.  This  right  of  the  parish 
priest  is  twofold:  first,  the  ri^t  to  an  ofifering  when  a 
parishioner  is  buried  within  tne  limits  of  the  parish  to 
which  he  belonged :  second,  the  right  to  a  fourth 
(quarta  funeralii)  of  the  dues  when  a  parishioner  is 
buried  outside  the  limits  of  the  parish.  (The  ancient 
episcopal  quarta  funerdlia  has  fallen  into  desuetude.) 
The  n^ht  to  the  quarta  funeralia  is  founded  on  the 
obligations  of  a  parish  priest  to  his  parishioners  during 
life,  and  the  oonelative  duties  of  tnose  to  whose  care 
he  ministers  j  since  the  labourer  is  worthy  of  his  hire,  it 
IS  but  just  that  should  the  parishioner  elect  to  be 
buried  in  a  parish  other  than  tnat  to  which  he  canoni- 
cally  belongs,  the  parish  priest  should  not  altogether 
be  aeprived  of  emolument  for  his  past  services.  The 
Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXV,  cap.  xiii)  gives  the 
"fourth  portion"  the  name  of  ''quarta  funeralium''; 
but  other  designations  were  common  in  eaiiier  times, 
e.  g.  "portio  canonica"  (canonical  portion),  "cjuarta 
portio  (fourth  share),  "justitia"  (justice)  since  it 
was  considered  a  just  reward  for  the  work  of  a  parish 
priest  in  his  care  of  souls.  That  these  funeral  dues  are 
not  of  recent  origin  is  clear  from  ancient  ecclesiastical 
enactments  (Cap.  Cum  Quis,  II,  De  sepulchretis^  in 
yi^.  Leo  III  (Nos  instituta)  refers  to  this  ancient 
discipline  of  the  Clhurch : "  Do  not  break  away  from  the 
old  rules  which  our  forefathers  have  laid  down  for 
us".  StOl  earlier,  in  680,  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church 
we  find  that  there  were  four  payments  which  the 
Church  could  legally  claim ;  and  among  them  was  the 
payment  called  soul-shot ' '.  This  payment  was  the 
mortuary  charge  ordered  to  be  fixed  for  the  dead, 
while  the  grave  was  yet  open,  or  to  be  reserved  for  the 
church  to  which  the  deceased  belon^^  if  his  bodv 
were  buried  in  any  place  out  of  his  '^shriftshire  , 
i.  e.  his  proper  parish  (Lingard,  "Antiquities  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church",  I.  iv). 

As  a  price  for  burial,  the  parish  priest  can  demand 
nothing  without  incurring  the  suspicion  of  simony. 
Burial  IS  a  spiritual  right  belonging  to  the  faithful ;  and 
the  parish  priest,  in  virtue  of  his  office,  is  bound  to 
perform  this  duty  for  his  parishioners.  Nevertheless, 
if  there  is  a  legitimate  custom  which  allows  offerings  to 
YL— 21 


be  made,  or  if  the  bishop  should  have  established  a 
fixed  scale  of  offerings,  the  parish  priest  ma^  denuuid 
such  fees  provided  he  in  no  way  incurs  suspicion  of  ex- 
tortion. Also,  in  case  of  funerals  with  more  than  the 
ordinarv  burial  service,  a  demand  for  payment  for 
extra  labour  or  to  cover  expenses  is  quite  in  accordance 
with  canon  law.  The  Roman  Ritual  (tit.  vi,  De  ex- 
sequiis,  n.  6)  la^rs  down  that  the  amount  to  be  chareed 
for  funeral  services  is  to  be  fixed  by  the  bishop ;  it  also 
insists  that  in  all  cases  of  the  poNor  who  die  with  little 
or  no  property  the  parish  priest  is  bound  to  buiy.them 
without  char^  (ibid.,  n.  t).  This  is  in  keeping  with 
the  immemorial  affection  of  the  Church  for  the  poor 
(Tert.,  "Apol."xxxix;  Ambrose,  "De  Off.",  II,  cxlii; 
Schultze,  "De  Christ,  voter,  rebus  sepulchr.'',  Gotha, 
1879,  24).  fhnperor  Constantino  created  at  Constan- 
tinople a  special  association  for  the  burial  of  the  poor 
(Lex,  "B^CTftbnissrecht",  208).  The  medieval  Church 
granted  iadul^nces  for  the  burial  of  the  poor,  and  her 
synods  and  bishops  frequently  inculcatea  the  same  as 
^  a  work  of  mercy.  While  the  parish  i)rie8t  is  not  bound 
to  offer  Mass  on  that  occasion,  he  is  warmly  recom- 
mended to  do  so  by  Benedict  XIV  (Instr.  36)  and 
other  ecclesiastical  authorities  (Lex,  op.  cit.,  209-11). 
The  Council  of  Trent  (Seas.  XXII,  Decret.  de  obeer. 
et  evit.  in  celeb.  Missse)  in  veiy  clear  words  points  out 
the  duty  of  the  bishops  to  determine  specifically  all 
offerings  on  the  occasion  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  so  that 
there  may  be  no  opportunity  for  suspecting  simony  on 
the  part  of  any  ecclesiastic.  The  bishop  is  authorized 
to  prescribe,  in  re^rd  to  funerals,  what  portion  should 
belong  to  the  parish  priest  and  to  others  assisting  at 
the  altar;  how  much  should  be  given  to  those  who  ao- 
companv  the  body  to  the  grave;  to  those  who  toll  th6 
bells;  likewise  the  number  and  weight  of  the  candles 
used  during  the  burial  service,  the  remuneration. for 
the  use  of  nmeral  ornaments,  etc.  If  the  parishioner 
is  buried  outside  his  parish,  the  parish  pnest,  as  has 
been  already  said,  is  entitled  to  a  fourth  of  the  burial 
fees.  This  fourth  has  to  be  paid  by  the  church  of  the 
parish  in  which  the  burial  takes  place,  and  it  includes 
that  proportion  of  all  the  emoluments  that  come  to  the 
church  by  reason  of  the  funeral  up  to  the  thirtieth  day 
after  the  funeral.  In  the  case  of  tne  funeral  of  a  canon, 
the  "  quarta  funeralis"  is  due,  not  to  the  parish  priest 
of  the  cathedral,  but  to  the  parish  prielst  of  the  de- 
ceased canon's  domicile.  As  a  matter  of  practice  at 
the  present  day  there  are  many  churches  exempt  from 
the  payment  of  the  quarta  funeralis,  such  exemption 
being  obtained  either  by  pontifical  privilege,  custom, 
or  prescription.  Many  monasteries^  and  indeed  whole 
oraers,  have  been  exempted  by  pontifical  privilege  (St. 
Pius  V,  Etsi  Mendicantium,  16  May,  1567;  Paul  V, 
Decet  Romanum,  20  Aug.^  1605).  Benedict  XIII,  in 
1725,  annulled  all  exemptions,  so  far  as  Italy  and  the 
adjacent  islands  were  concerned.  By  custom  or  pre- 
scription the  obligation  of  paying  the  auarta  funeralis 
has  been  done  away  with  in  most  places,  although 
it  still  exists,  for  instance,  in  the  Diocese  of  Paris 
(France).  With  regard  to  the  fees  for  burial  in  our 
own  time,  there  is  no  customary  uniform  fee,  and 
the  enactments  of  provincial  eynods  contain  nothing 
veiy  definite  on  the  matter.  Generally  speaking,  if  a 
church  has  a  cemeterv  attached  a  scale  of  fees  is 
drawn  up  and  approved  by  the  bishop  for  that  church, 
the  charaes  varymg  according  to  the  degree  of  solem- 
nity with  which  the  funeral  is  carried  out.  In  oeme- 
tenes  not  attached  to  a  church,  and  which  are  whollv 
Catholic,  the  administrators  pay  a  fixed  fee  for  each 
funeral,  or  more  commonly  a  yearly  stipend  to  the 
cemetery  chaplain.  Where  the  cemetery  is  controlled 
by  secular  authority,  the  funeral  fees  are  arranged  for 
and  paid  b^  the  local  authority;  but  the  amoimt  of 
the  fee  vanes  according  to  the  locality. 

Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London,  1904):  Fbrrabis, 
Bibliotheea  mrompta,  ■.  v.  SepuUura;  Many,  De  Locia  SaeriB 
(Pariflj  1904);  Bouxx,  De  parocho;  Vkccriotti,  buiitutianm 
oanonica;  Albbbti,  De  SepuUura  eedee,  (1901);  Lbx,  BeorUb^ 


n<BrBk((RaUaboD.  IWM):  Uouubt.  £'£piu(  <<  r^foi  (4Ui  ed.,  hia   services   JQ  defending   the  Church   against   the 

LouvjU.  ises):  Z«Mi,  tfu«^  MnjiiiB^irfwM  '^'^jf  i  T*  Patarini,  was  permitted  by  Clement  III  to  wear  the 

(fctiibS'^lW)'^''-  <*=*'^  ^  t»^«*«  £-«*«/«»■  p^^  '^^j  j^j^^g  jj,^  '^,^  l^^  l^^  ,^_  ^ 

David  DuNrORD.  custom  which  led  to  many  difficulties  with  the  Arcbr 
bishops  of  Gran,  but  was  nevertheleee  confirmed  by 

rnsAnlPall,  a  black  cloth  usually  spread  over  Benedict  XIV  (17&4);  Wilhelm  (1360-1374),  during 

the  coffin  while  the  obsequies  are  performed  for  a  da-  whose  episcopate  the  cathedral  school  was  raised  to 

eeaaedperaon.     It  generally  has  a  white  cross  worked  the  rank  of  a  univeraity  (1367),  which  flourished  for  a 

through  its  entire  lei^th  and  width.    The  Roman  time,  but  which  ceased  to  exist  aft«r  the  defeat  in 

Ritual  does  not  prescribe  its  use  in  the  burial  of  a  battle  of  Louis  11  by  Solyman  I  in  1526;  Anton  Vran- 

priest  or  layman,  but  does  so  for  the  absolution  given  cics  (1553-1567)  and  Georg  Draekovicb  (1557-1563) 

after  a  requiem  when  the  body  is  not  present.    Still  who  worked  sealoiiflly  for  the  reform  of  the  leligious 

the  Congregation  of  Sacred  Rites  supposes  its  ex-  life  and  were  elevated  to  the  cardinaJate.    After  the 

istence,  since  it  forbids  eccleaaatics,  especially  in  sa-  conquest  of  the  city  by  the  Turks  in  1543,  the  cathe* 

ered  vestments,  to  act  aa  pall-bearers  lor  a  deceased  dral  was  transformed  into  a  moeque,  and  it  was  i»ly 
t  (3110,  15).    It  also  forbids  the  use  of  a  white 
t  pall  fring 


transparent  pall  fringed  with  gold  in  the  funeral  of 
canons  (3248,  3).  The  "Ceremoniale  Epiacoporum" 
orders  a  blacit  covering  on  the  bed  of  state  for  a  de- 
ceased bishop.  It  was  once  customary  specially  to 
invite  persons  to  carry  the  pall,  or,  at  least,  to  touch 
its  bordera  during  the  proceasion.  These  nall-beorers 
frequently  had  the  palls  nude  of  very  costly  materials 
and  these  were  afterwards  made  mto  sacred  veat^ 
ments.  Formerly  dalmatics  or  even  coverings  taken 
ttom  the  altar  were  used  aa  a  pall  for  a  deceased  pope, 
but,  on  account  of  abuaes  that  crept  in,  this  practice 
was  suppressed.  In  the  Council  of  Auxeire  (578,  can. 
xii)  and  in  the  statutes  of  St.  Boniface  the  pall  itiding 
the  body  was  forbidden. 

In  the  En^h  Church  the  funeral  pall  was  regularly 
employed,  lliua  we  read  that,  at  the  funeral  of  Rich- 
ard ifellowe.  Bishop  of  Durham  (d.  1316),  Thomas 

Count  of  Lancaster  offered  three  red  palls  bearing  the 

coat  of  arms  <rf  the  deceaaed  prelate.  On  the  same  Tii«  CA™«DM4t.  FOnfu«™«h  (Picn) 
occasion  Edward  II  of  En^and  sent  palls  erf  gold  j„  jgg^  ^f^  ^^^^  expulsion  of  the  Turks,  that  it  was 
doth.  At  the  bunal  of  Arthur  eon  of  Henry  VII,  again  opened  tor  Christian  worship.  Under  BishMM 
Lord  PowvB  laid  a  nch  cloth  of  gold  on  the  body.  ;^n,  iJ^rode  (170^-1732)  and  Georg  Girk  (ISsS- 
Similar  ndipalla  were  used  m  the  obsequies  of  Heniy  iggg),  diocesan  synods  were  held.  Biiiop  Ignatius 
VII  and  of  Queen  Mary.  - —  a ,.oA,  ,».,«>  ,_.._j_j  .  , r_.  **"..,    _ 


Francis  Mebshhan.  cathedral  in  approved  stvie  was  made  by  Ferdinrad 
DuUnszky.     The    cathedral    chapter    numbers    ten 

Flinfklrcliaii(HungarianP£cs),pioccsEOp(Qi7iN-  canons,  six  honorary  canons  and  two  prebendaries. 

QUE  EccixaiiNsie),  m  Hungary,  in  the  ecclesiasti-  The  diocese  is  divided  into  two  archdiaconatea  and 

cal  province  of  Gran.     Chriatianity  was  introduced  twenty-two  vice-diaconatea;  it  embraces  nSparishea, 

into  this  part  of  the  ancient  province  irf  Pannonia  with  258  dependent  churches  and  stations,  and  six 

(called  Vaietia  since  the  time  of  Diocletian)  before  the  curacies.     Of  the  parishes  33  are  German,  54  Bfagysr 

fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.    In  FQnfkirchen  itself,  and  the  rest  composed  of  mixed  natioaalitiea.    The 

formerly  the  Roman  colony  of  Sopiana,  there  has  been  number  of  Cathohea  in  the  dioceee  amotmted  in  1906 

found  an   under^und  sepulchral  chamber  dating  to  503,981.    In  the  same  year,  there  were  306  secular 

from  early  Christian  times;  it  is  atill  preserved,  and  priests  and  40  religious.     The  following  ordera  (tf  men 

contains  religious  paintings  belonging  to  the  second  exist  in  the  diooese:  Cistercians  (I  monastery,  with 

half  of  the  fourth  century  (Hensilmann,  "Die  alt-  a  college);  Franciscans  (7  monasteries);  Brothers  of 

christlicho  Grabkammer  m  FQnfkirchen"  in  "Mit-  Mercy   (1   convent);   Orders  and  congregations  of 

teilungen  der  Zentralkommission",  Vienna,  1873,  57  women:  Canonesses  of  Our  Lady  (1  convent);  Sieteta 

sq,  de  Rossi,  "Bullettino  di  areh.  crist.",  1874,  150-  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (11  convenU);  Sis- 

152).    It  is  probable  that  even  at  this  early  day  a  ters  of  Providence,  of  thb  Holy  Redeemer,  of  the  Holy 

houaeofChriatianwoTBhipexiBtedwherethecathecltal  Croaa  (1  convent  each).    The  territory  of  the  diocese 

now  stands.    During  the  "migration  of  the  nations",  embraoea  the  counties  of  Baranya  and  Tolna,  and 

city  and  country  were  devastated;  in  the  ninthcentury,  part  of  the  counties  of  Somogy  and  VerOcse. 
ttuB  territory  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the         Kouah,  ffiiiaria  cpitrajiatuiQuiruiuimtaientii.  7  toU. 

ChriKUj,  si™  P^sfrivm.,  .ad  Ajl^-taP  ""P;  lSSS:U"X]"jiJ'lSSS^''K„^.;^^rJtS^ 

nmm  of  SaUburg  (836-859)  consecrated  the  church  of  iicb,  looo),  II,  fiB0-fiB3. 

St.  Pel«r  in  the  city  even  then  called  "Ad  quinque  J.  p,  KniacH. 

Basilicas"   because   of  its  five   churches.     By  King 

Stephen  I   of    Hungary  FJtnfkirehen  was  made  a        Fnnk,  Franz  Xaver  von,  church  historian,  b.  in 

bishopric  in  the  year  1009.     The  first  bishop  was  the  the  small  market-townof  AblsgemQndinWQrtemberg, 

Frank,  Bonipert,  a  Benedictine  monk.     His  successor,  12  October,  1840;  d.  at  Tubingen,  24  February,  1907. 

Ifaurus  (1036-1070),  erected  a  cathedial,  the  original  The  son  of  an  inn-keeper,  Frans  first  attended  the 

foundations  of  which  still  stand,  on  the  site  of  the  old  gymnasiumatEllwagen,  and,  on  finishing  his  course  of 

church  of  St.  Peter  {restored,  1877-1896).    Mauruaia  secondarystudies,  proceeded  in  1859  to  the  University 

the  first  ecclesiastical  writer  in  the  kin^om  of  Hun-  of  TUbinsen.     Residing  at  the  theological  house  of 

gfLTj   and  is  honoured  as  a  saint  in  thus  diocese,  aa  studies  called  Wilheimsstif  t  he  studied  philosophy  and 

well'as  by  the  Benedictines.  theologv,  and  also  found  time  to  attend  courses  on 

Of  the  succeeding  biabopa,  the  following  are  worthy  classical  philology  and  political  economy  with  such 

al  mention:  CsJanua  (II8&-1218),  who,  on  account  Of  profit  that  in  1862  he  gamed  the  prize  olTered  by  tbet 


FUKS                                  323  FUNK 

faculty  of  political  science  for  the  best  essay  on  the  unsatisfactory.    He  devoted  many  years  to  the  prep- 

^eme:  "Was  verstand  man  im  18.  Jahrhundert  unter  aration  of  a  new  edition^  which  was  given  to  the 

Poiizei?"    (What  signification  had  the  word  police  in  public  in  1905  ("  Didascalia  et  Constitutiones  Aposto- 

the  18th  century?).  .  Some  of  his  earlier  publications  lorum",  ed.  F.  X.  von  Funk,  2  vols.  Paderbom,  1905), 

treated  subjects  connected  with  political  economy,  and  was  received  with  the.  greatest  commendation  by 

Having  received  his  doctorate  of  philosophy  in  1863,  the  learned  world.    He  a£o  published  three  worlcs 

he  devoted  a  year  in  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  to  connected  with  early  Christian  literature.    In  the 

moral  theology  and  preparation  for  the  priesthood,  treatise  ''Die  Echtheit  der  lenatianischen  Briefe" 

•He  was  ordained  at  Hottenbuiv,  10  August,  1864,  and  (Tubingen.  1883),  he  sucoessfully  refuted  ^e  attacks 

his  first  work  was  in  the  care  ofsouls;  he  felt,  however,  made  on  tnese  important  sub-apostolic  writings,  and 

that  the  whole  bent  of  his  mind  lay  in  the  direction  oi  demonstrated   conclusively   the   authorship   ot   St. 

intellectual  labour.     In  October,  1865,  he  obtained  Ignatius  of  Antioch. 

permission  to  proceed  to  Paris  to  pursue  further  the  For  many  years  his  attention  was  almost  exclusively 
study  of  political  economy;  the  journey  through  devoted  to  a  group  of  writings,  which  constitute  the 
France  ana  his  residence  at  Paris  acted  as  a  great  principal  source  of  information  as  to  early  Cliristian 
mental  stimulus.  On  his  return  in  1866,  he  was  liturgy  and  discipline,  namely  the  Didache,  the  Didas- 
appointed  tutor  at  the  Wilhelmsstift,  where  his  duty  calia,  the  Apostolic  (Constitutions,  the  ''Canones  Hip- 
was  to  direct  the  personal  studies  and  preparation  polyti",  the  Egyptian  Church  Order,  and  the  "Testa- 
for  examinations  of  the  theological  students.  When  mentum  Dommi  nostri  Jesu  Christi"  discovered  by 
Hefele,  then  professor  of  chunm  history  at  Tdbingen,  Rahmani.  In  opposition  to  the  somewhat  different 
was  called  to  Rome  in  1868  as  consuftor  during  the  views  of  other  investigators,  Funk  sought  to  establish 
preparation  for  the  Vatican  Council,  Fimk  act^  as  the  connexion  between  these  writings,  and  from  this 
substitute.  Hefele  did  not  return  to  his  chair,  being  the  date  of  their  origin.  The  two  works,  which  Funk 
appointed  Bishop  of  Rottenburg  on  17  June,  1869,  devoted  to  this  object,  are:  " Die  Apostolischen  Kon- 
and  Funk  was  appointed  his  successor.  In  187()  stitutionen'' (Ttlbin^n,  1891),  ana ''Das  Testament 
Funk  was  named  extraordinary,  and  in  1875  ordinary  unseres  Herm  und  die  verwandten  Schriften"  (Mainz, 
professor  of  church  historv,  patrolog]^,  and  Christian  1901).  Similar  investigations  in  the  field  of  literary 
archaeology,  an  office  which  he  filled  till  his  death.  history  and  numerous  (questions  touching  on  the 
His  life  was  henceforth  entirely  devoted  to  his  pro-  liturgy,  discipline  and  religious  life  of  earl^  Christian 
fessorial  duties  and  historical  researches,  especially  to  times  form  the  subject  of  &e  numerous  articles  which 
thevariousbranchesof  the  history  of  the  earlv  Church.  Funk  contributed  to  various  periodicals  during  the 
His  first  important  publications  belong  to  the  sphere  manv  years  of  his  academic  activitjr.  Most  of  these 
of  political  science  and  the  history  of  economics,  and  articles  were  published  in  the  "TQbinger  theologische 
include  the  two  treatises,  "Zins  und  Wucher,  eine  Quartalschrif t ",  the  "  Historisches  Jahrbuch  der  GOr- 
moraltheologischeAbhandlun^"  (Tubingen,  1868),  and  resgesellschaf t ",  the  "  Historisch-politische  Bl&tter'' 
" Geschichte des  kirchlichen  Zinsverbotes" (Tdbingen,  or  in  the  "Revue  dliistoire  eod^iastique".  and  thb 
1878).  Other  articles  on  the  same  subject  written  by  majority  are  included,  in  more  or  less  revised  form,  in 
him  either  during  this  or  a  later  period  are :  "  Klemens  the  collection :  "  Kirchengeschichtliche  Abhandlungen 
von  Alexandrien  Qber  Familie  und  Eigentum"  [Theo-  imd  Untersuchungen"  (3  vols.,  Paderbom,  1897, 1899, 
logische  Quartalschrift"  (1871),  427-449;  reprmted  1907).  Among  the  most  important  of  these  writings 
ia  "  Kirchengeschichtliche  Abhandlungen  und  Unter-  are  ^ose  dealing  with  the  above-mentioned  pseudo- 
suchungen",  II,  45  sqq.];  "Handel  und  Gewerbe  im  Apostolic  works  and  their  relations  to  one  another 


classical  philoloey  soon  led  him  into  the  province  of  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  (Ibid.,  1, 278, 293  sqq .,111, 1  sqq., 

early  Christian  literature  and  church  history,  and  in  85  sqq.,  134  sq^.).    One  subject  to  \^ich  he  often 

these  departments  he  accomplished  his  most  important  returned  and  which  involved  him  in  a  lone  controversy 

work  as  a  scholar.    In  the  former  department  his  with  other  scholars,  especially  with  Father  Kneller, 

task  consisted  principally  in  the  issuing  of  new  editions  S.J.,  was  the  convocation  and  papal  ratification  of  the 

of  texts,  prepared  m  accordance  with  the  rules  of  oecumenicsd  svnods  of  the  esAy  aees  [Abhandlungen, 

historical  and  textual  criticism.    His  predecessor  He-  I,  39  sqq.,  87  sqq.,  498  sqq.,  Iil7l43  sqq.,  406  sqcj.; 

fele  had  issued  a  scholarly  edition  of  tne  works  of  the  Kneller  retumea  to  the  subject  again  m  the  "  Zeit- 

Apostolic  Fathers,  "Opera  patrum  apostolicorum",  schrift  fttr  katholische  Theologie"  (1908),  75-99J.    Of 

butthelasteditionwasthatof  1855,  and  the  discovery  the  various  contributions  to  later  Church  history, 

of  important  manuscripts  rendered  a  new  edition  which  flowed  from  Funk's  industrious  p)en,  may  be 

necessary.    Funk  undertook  the  task^  and  the  "  Opera  mentioned  the  "Abhandlimgen  zur  Geschichte  der 

patrum  apostolicorum "  appeared   m   two  volumes  altbritischen  Kirche"  (Abhand.,  I,  421  sqq.),  "Gerson 

(TQbincen,  1878-1881),  the  first  containing  the  authen-  und  Gersen"  (Ibid.,  II,  473  sqq.),  "Der  Verfasser  der 

tic  and  the  second  the  apocryphal  writings.    After  Nachfolge  Christe"  (Ibid.,  11^^408 sqq.),  "Zur  Galilei- 

the  discovery  of  the  Didache,   a  new  edition    of  Frage"(Ibid.,  II,  4448qq.).  Funk  was  an  industrious 

the  first  volume  was  issued  in  1887;  a  fresh  edition  contributor  to  the  second  edition  of  Herder's  "Kirchen- 

(the  second)  of  &e  whole  work  appeared  in  1901.  lexikon",  in  which  are  found  no  less  than  136  articles. 

The  "Sammlung  von  Quellenschriften"  (Tflbingen,  some  of  considerable  length,   from  his  pen.    For 

1901 ;  2nd  ed.,  1906)  contains  a  synopsis  with  the  text  Kraus's  "  Real-Encyklop&oie  der  christlichen  Alter- 

of   the    authentic   writines.    Funk   also    published  tQmer"  he  also  wrote  several  articles.    The  excellence 

separately  the  Didache  and  certain  of  the  early  writ-  of  his  "  Lehrbuch  der  Kirchenseschichte",  as  a  general 

ingsconnected  with  this  work  ("Doctrina  XII  aposto-  church  history,  is  universally  reco^ized;  the  first 

lorum",  "Canones  apostolorum  ecclesiastici  ac  reli-  edition  appeared  in  1886,  the  fifth  m  1907,  shortly 

qiue  doctrinse  de  duabus  viis  expositiones  veteres",  before  his  death,  the  tireless  worker  being  suddenly 

TGbingen^    1887).    His   studies   of   the    "Apostolic  cut  down  in  the  midst  of  his  labours  bv  an  apoplectic 

Constitutions"  led  Funk  to  the  conviction  that  the  -stroke.    The  Tubingen  "TheolojgischeQuartcuschrift" 

existing  editions  of  the  "Constitutiones  apostolicae'*  for  1907  (p.  236  sqq.)  containeda posthumous  article 

and  of  the  Syrian  "Didascalia  apostolorum"  were  of  Funk's  on  the  reputed  writings  of  St.  Hippolytus. 


FUBHESS  324  FUB8ST 

Amone  the  Catholic  historians  whom  Germany  has  >•  ▼•  Lanauhire;  Hopb,  The  Abbey  of  St.  'Mary  in  Fumen; 

produced  in  the  laat  three  decades  Funk  was  un-  l>^a»^»*,  Monaetiam  (London.  184(B),  V,  244  aqq. 

doubtedly  the  greatest  authority  and  the  chief  histori-  ^*  ^*  Hind. 

cal  writer  on  early  Christian  times.    Clear  and  purely        « ,      ....  .   „  .     au  .        .       . 

critical  in  method,  his  sole  aim  waa  the  establishment  .  '^™'  *  l^**^""  ^  m  Proconsular  Afnca,  where  two 

of  historical  truth.    His  character  was  frank  and  ^^^^  ^^  *\^  ??°*^  ?^  ^25?,*^  ¥^®  existed.     One 

conscientious;  his  life  was  blameless,  ss  became  a  a»fl«>vered  m  the  rums  of  M-Msaadm,  near  Tebourba, 

minister  of  God.    As  a  controversialist  he  could  be  ^  *  bi^op  as  early  as  the  thud  century,  Geminius 

severe  when  an  opponent  allowed  himself  to  be  swayed  J.^l*®''  ^?^  ^*®^  shortly  before  St.  Cypnan.    Another 

by  any  other  motive  than  the  demonstration  of  exact  DJfnop»Smieon,  Msisted  at  the  Council  of  Carriage  in 

truth.    His  method  has  created  a  school  among  the  St^v..^?  ^^^^^  Furm  was  discovered  at  Henchir- 

Catholic  historians  of  Germany  which  has  bSn  a  fP^aja  about  seven  miles  from  Zama.    A  Donatist 

benefit  to  the  advancement  of  earnest  historical    in-  bishop  of  the  see  assisted  at  the  svnod  held  at  Carth- 

vestigation  and  scholarly  criticism.  age  m  411.    The  town  was  made  famous  by  the  coup- 

BiHLMBTXR,  Fran^oia  Xavier  von  Funek  in  Remie  d^hietaire  ^S^  ^^   ^^^   martyr  Mansuetus  of   Urusi,   who   was 

mseUaiaetytwt  (1907).  620-423.  bumed  alive,  according  to  Victor  of  Vita  (Histor. 

J.  P.  KiRscH.  perseo.  VandaL,  I,  3)  at  the  Mite  of  Urusi,  also  known 

Vni^A«a  Akk*«*  «u..»^.vj  :^  *i.-.^  -i.u   *  T  t.«  ^  t^®  gate  of  Fumi.    In  305,  during  the  same  perse- 

^?:^^1S.T?^»n°'^'^?T^.^ Y^  ofTByza^tlflort^^^^         °"^  "^  "'^  '^^  "^ 

afterwards  b«5Mie  Cistcrciaa.  ^^talis,  the  founder         TouiiiTE.    Giogmphie  de  VAfriquB  ChrSUefms   Proconeu^ 

of  Savigny  and  the  disciple  of  Robert  d' Arbnssel,  came  lain,  175-77. 

to  EnsTand  in  1119,  and  Stephen,  Count  of  Boulogne  S.  VailhI:. 

and  afterwards  King  of  England,  offered  him  landat 

Tulketh  on  the  Ribble,  one  mile  below  Preston.    A(>-        Fumiss,  John,  a  well-known  children's  missioner, 


cordinely,  in  1124,  Ewan  d'Avranches,  with  a  colony  b.  near  Sheffield,  England,  19  June,  1809;  d.  at  Clap^ 

of  monks,  was  sent  from  Savigny  to  establish  the  mon-  bam,  London,  16  Sept.,   1865.    His  father  was  a 

astery  at  Tulketh.    In  1127  Stephen  gave  to  these  wealthy  master-cutler.    He  was  educated  at  Sed^ey 

monks  his  forest  of^Fumess  in  Lancashire  and  thither  Park,  Oscott,  and  Ushaw  College,  where  he  became  a 


•««w,   «w>s«M   ■■..■—J,     Tw  MVM*  mm  A^M^v  Kill**!  V  JXt    VAAC  OCkAV    VTV/XajS  CUIU  VAKB  w**«AWk    v»«aa>««^   wa&<AV    jy^ut^a    iMJU^^vagaA    ^^XM^x^^m    c»ui\A    WUV 

mines  of  the  district.  Development  was  so  rapid  that  East,  rather  as  a  pugrim  than  a  tourist.  After  his  re- 
in 1134  a  colonv  of  monks  was  sent  forth  to  establish  turn  home,  1847,  he  spent  some  time  at  Islington. 
Calder  near  tne  Scoteh  border.  Besides  Calder,  London,  working  for  the  welfare  of  the  waifs  ana 
Swyneshead  and  Rushin  were  also  colonized,  and  from  strays,  for  "  Suffer  little  children  te  come  to  me"  was 
Calder  the  famous  Abbey  of  Byland  was  founded*.  By  his  motto  then  as  in  after  years.  He  became  a  pro- 
the  year  1148  the  Cistercian  Reform,  under  the  leader-  fessed  member  of  the  Conflregation  of  the  Most  Holy 
ship  of  St.  Bernard,  was  everywhere  attracting  atten-  Redeemer  at  St.  Trond,  Belgium,  1851,  and  after- 
tion  and  all  the  Savigny  monks,  those  of  Fumess  in-  wards  gave  missions  in  England  and  Ireland :  but  from 
eluded,  became  Cistercians.  In  1249  the  Cistercian  1855  until  his  death  he  devoted  himself  wholly  to  eiv- 
General  Chapter  placed  four  Irish  monasteries  under  ing  missions  to  children.  He  was  the  founder  of  ^il- 
the  control  of  Fumess,  viz.  Fermoy,  Wethirlaghn,  In-  dren's  missions  and  ''  the  children's  Mass",  and  by  his 
islounagh,  and  Corcumcrae.  Through  the  foundation  writings  systematized  the  philosophy  of  reliraous 
of  Rushin  there  was  frequent  communication  be-  training.  These  missions  lasted  sometimes  three 
tween  Fumess  and  the  Isle  of  Man  and  more  than  one  weeks,  and  were  given  not  only  to  school-children,  but 
monk  of  Fumess  became  Bishop  of  Man.  This,  no  to  working  bo^  and  girls.  His  maxim  was  that 
doubt,  was  due  to  the  privilege  held  by  the  Abbey  of  "nothing  so  disgusted  children  as  monotony",  and 
Rushin  of  appointing  the  bishop,  subject  to  the  con-  therefore  he  had  the  prayers  at  Mass  and  the  Rosary 
sent  of  the  Manxmen.  Nicholas  de  Meaux,  a  native  sung  to  simple  airs,  and  his  sermons  seldom  lasted 
of  the  Orkneys  and  once  a  canon  of  Wartre,  was  a  more  than  twenty  minutes.  He  entered  fully  into  the 
monk  at  Meaux,  a  monk  and  Abbot  of  Fumess,  and  mode  of  thought  of  the  child-mind,  and,  speaking 
finally  Bishop  of  Man.  Jocelin,  a  monk  of  Fumess  quietly  but  with  ^at  dramatic  power  from  a  plat- 
and  saterwards  of  Iniscourcy,  in  Ireland,  wrote  the  life  form,  he  always  riveted  their  attention.  He  was  a 
of  St.  Patrick  at  the  command  of  Thomas,  Archbishop  wonderful  story-teller,  seldom  moving  to  laupihter  but 
of  Armagh;  other  works  attributed  to  him  are:  "  Book  often  to  tears.  He  spent  his  spare  time  writmg  books 
of  British  Bishops";  "Life  of  St.  WaJdeve,  Second  for  children  which,  though  written  with  the  utmost 
abbot  of  Melrose";  "Life  of  St.  Kentigem  or  Mungo".  simplicity  of  language,  are  models  of  good  English. 
The  names  of  thirty-two  abbote  of  Fumess  are  known.  His  chief  works  are  "The  Simda^r-Scnool  Teacher" 
the  last  being  Ro^rPyle.  In  October,  1535,  the  royal  and  "God  and  His  creatures",  which  has  been  pub- 
commissioners  visited  the  abbey;  a  little  later  the  lished  in  French.  He  wrote  a  scathing  answer  to  an 
monks  were  accused  of  being  implicated  in  the  Pil-  attckckonhisworksby  the  "Saturday  Review  ".which 
srimage  of  Grace  and  two  of  them  were  imprisoned  at  was  then  the  great  organ  of  unbelief  in  England.  His 
Lancaster.  The  final  disruption  came  on  9  April,  writings  were  assaQed  as  "infamous  publications"  by 
1537,  when  the  abbot,  prior,  and  twenty-eight  monks  the  rationalist  historian  Lecky  in  nis  "  History  of 
were  forced  to  sign  tne  deed  of  surrender.  The  site  European  Morals",  chiefly  on  account  of  the  some- 
and  lands  were  at  first  held  by  the  Crown.  Later  they  what  lurid  eschatolosy  of  the  children's  books.  More 
were  assigned  to  the  £ku*l  of  Salisbury  and  aftermutls  than  four  millions  of  his  booklete  have  been  sold 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Prestons  of  Preston  throughout  Endish-speakin^  countries. 

Patrick.     They  were  next  acquired  by  Lord  George  ^ol^y^^Sr  Faiher  Furniaeand  H%a  Work  lor  CHOdrm  (liondon, 

AugU8tu8  Cavendish,  and  now\,eIong  4  the  Dukee S  iS2L^"L°Ti^'SS^dSl/£S!^,2^''°"'  '^^' 
Devonshire.     1  he  buildm^  were  renowned  more  for  Albert  Barry. 
their  grandeur  than  for  their  richness  and  beauty;  por- 
tions of  the  ruins  still  remain  to  show  this.  --—-^^   a.,-.AUUA«T                         T>*JlO 

i»-^  ^  f\-     •  J.-      JO          ^..i.    /,o«irx   T        -      .  Fiirsey,  Saint,  Abbot  of  Lagny,  near  Pans,  d.  16 

BmcK,  A  Deaenphon  of  Fumete  Abbey  (18fi5);  li>wM,  Annates  To„     «u^„*  at^n      tt^  «,«a +1,0  ?^^  ^^f  l?;,«^tt.«    .#>«  ^f 

Fwneateneee  (London.  1844);    Wwsn,  AtUioi^iHee  of  Fumeea  iS°;»  ^^^^  °^";«^!,-^      .  ^^  SVn  ,    ^.'^'  ?^^^ 

(Ulvsnton,  1813);  Tannbb,  NoUtia  Moruutiaa  (London,  1787),  Finloga,  pnnce  of  South  Munster,  and  Gelgesia,  dau^ 


fObstknbibo 


325 


•  • 


FtJBSTENBSBO 


ter  of  Aedhfinn,  prince  of  Hy-Brinin  in  Connaught. 
He  was  bom  prooablv  amongst  the  Hy-Briuin,  and 
was  baptised  oy  St.  Brendan  the  Traveller,  his  fa- 
ther's uncle,  who  then  ruled  a  monastery  in  the  Island 
of  Oirbsen,  now  called  Inisauin  in  Lougn  Corrib.  He 
was  educated  by  St.  Brendan's  tnonks,  and  when  of 
proper  age  he  embraced  the  religious  life  in  the  same 
monastery  under  the  Abbot  St.  Meldan,  his  "soul- 
friend"  (anam-(^ra).  His  great  sanctity  was  early 
discerned,  and  there  is  a  legend  that  here,  through  his 
prayers,  twin  children  of  a  chieftain  related  to  King 
Brendinus  were  raised  from  the  dead.  After  some 
years  he  founded  a  monastery  at  Hathmat  on  the 
shore  of  Lough  Corrib  which  Colgan  identifies  as  Kill- 
ursa,  in  the  deanery  of  Annadown.  Aspirants  came 
in  numbers  to  place  themselves  under  his  rule,  but  he 
wished  to  secure  also  some  of  his  own  relatives  for  the 
new  monastery.  For  this  purpose  he  set  out  with 
some  monks  for  Munster,  but  on  coming  near  his  fa- 
ther's home  he  was  seized  with  an  apparently  mortal 
illness.  He  fell  into  a  trance  from  the  ninth  hour 
of  the  day  to  cock-crow,  and  while  in  this  state  was 
favoured  with  the  first  of  the  ecstatic  visions  which 
have  rendered  him  famous  in  medieval  literature. 

In  this  vision  were  revealed  to  him  the  state  of  man 
in  sin,  the  remedies  for  sin^  the  beauty  of  virtue.  He 
heard  the  angelic  choirs  smging  "the  saints  shall  ^ 
from  virtue  to  virtue,  the  God  of  Gods  will  appear  m 
Sion".  An  injunction  was  laid  on  him  by  the  two  an- 
gels who  restored  him  to  the  body  to  become  a  more 
zealous  labourer  in  the  harvest  of  the  Lord.  Again, 
on  the  third  night  following,  the  ecstasy  was  renewed. 
He  was  rapt  aloft  by  three  aneels  who  contended  six 
times  with  demons  tor  his  soul.  He  saw  the  fires  of 
hell,  the  strife  of  demons,  and  then  heard  the  angel 
hosts  sing  in  four  choirs  ''Holy,  holy,  holy  Lord  God 
of  hosts  .  Among  the  spirits  ot  the  j  ust  made  perfect 
he  recognized  Sts.  Meldan  and  Beoan.  They  enter- 
tained him  with  much  spiritual  instruction  concerning 
the  duties  of  ecclesiastics  and  monks,  the  dreadfm 
effects  of  pride  and  disobedience,  the  neinousness  of 
spiritual  and  internal  sins.  Tney  also  predicted 
famine  and  pestilence.  As  he  returned  through  the 
fire  the  demon  hurled  a  tortured  sinner  at  him,  burn- 
ing him,  and  the  angel  of  the  Lord  said  to  him:  "be- 
cause thou  didst  receive  the  mantle  of  this  man  when 
dying  in  his  sin  the  fire  consuming  him  hath  scarred 
thy  body  also."  The  body  of  Fursey  bore  the  mark 
ever  after.  His  brothers  Foillan  and  Ultan  then 
joined  the  community  at  Rathmat,  but  Fiursey  seems 
to  have  renounced  the  administration  of  that  monas- 
tery and  to  have  devoted  himself  to  preaching 
throughout  the  land,  frequently  exorcising  evil  spirits. 
Exactly  twelve  months  afterwards  he  was  favoured 
with  a  third  vision.  The  angel  remained  with  him  a 
whole  day,  instructed  him  for  his  preaching,  and  pre- 
scribed for  him  twelve  years  of  apostolic  labour.  This 
he  faithfully  fulfilled  m  Ireland,  and  then  stripping 
himself  of  all  earthly  goods  he  retired  for  a  time  to  a 
small  island  in  the  otsean.  Then  he  went  with  his 
brothers  and  other  monks,  bringing  with  him  tiie  rel- 
ics of  Sts.  Meldan  and  Beoan,  through  Britain  (Wales) 
to  East  Anglia  where  he  was  honourably  received  by 
King  Sigebert  in  633.  |  The  latter  gave  nim  a  tract  of 
land  at  Cnobheresbur^  on  which  he  built  a  monastery 
within  the  enclosure  o!  a  Roman  fort— Burghcastle  in 
Suffolk — surrounded  by  woods  and  overlooking  the 
sea.  Here  he  laboured  for  some  3rear8  converting  the 
Picts  and  Saxons.  He  also  received  King  Sigebert 
into  the  religious  state.  Three  miracles  are  recorded 
of  his  life  in  this  monastery.  Again  he  retired  for  one 
year  to  live  with  Ultan  the  life  of  an  anchorite. 

When  war  threatened  East  Anglia,  Fursey,  disband- 
ing his  monks  until  quieter  times  should  come,  sailed 
with  his  brothers  and  six  other  monks  to  Gaul.  He 
arrived  in  Normandy  in  648.  Passine  through  Pon- 
thieu,  in  a  village  near  M^zerolles  he  found  grief  and 


lamentation  on  all  sides,  for  the  onlv  son  of  Duke  Hav- 
mon,  the  lord  of  that  country,  lay  dead.  At  the 
prayer  of  Fursey  the  boy  was  restored.  Pursuing  his 
journey  to  Neustria  he  cured  many  infirmities  on  the 
way;  by  miracles  he  converted  a  robber  and  his  family, 
who  attacked  the  monks  in  the  wood  near  Corbie,  and 
also  the  inhospitable  worldling  .Ermelinda,  who  had 
refused  to  harbour  the  weary  travellers.  His  fame 
preceded  him  to  P^ronne,  where  he  was  joyfully  re- 
ceived by  Erldnoald,  the  Mayor  of  the  Palace  to 
Clovis  II,  who  was  then  a  minor.  He  baptized  the  son 
of  Erkinoald,  and  through  his  prayers  obtained  the 
reprieve  of  six  criminals.  He  was  offered  any  site  in 
the  king's  dominions  for  a  monastery.  He  selected 
Latiniacum  (La^y),  close  to  Chelles  and  about  six 
miles  from  Paris,  a  spot  beside  the  Mame,  covered 
with  shady  woods  and  abounding  in  fruitful  vine- 
3rards.  Here  he  built  his  monastery  and  three  chap- 
els, one  dedicated  to  the  Saviour,  one  to  St.  Peter,  and 
the  third,  an  unpretending  structure,  afterwards  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Fursev  himsett.  Many  of  his  countrymen 
were  attracted  to  his  rule  at  Lagny,  among  them  Emi- 
lian,  Eloquius,  Mombulus,  Adal^us,  Etto,  Bertuin, 
Fred^^and,  LeMstan,  Malguil.  Having  certain  pre- 
monitions of  his  end,  he  set  out  to  visit  his  brothers 
Foillan  and  Ultafa  who  had  by  this  time  recruited  the 
scattered  monks  of  Cnobheresburg  atid  re-established 
that  monasterv,  but  his  last  illness  struck  him  down 
in  the  veiy  village  in  which  his  prayer  had  restored 
Duke  Haymon's  son  to  life.  The  village  was  thence- 
forward called  Forsheim,  that  is,  the  house  of  Fursey. 
In  accordance  with  his  own  wish  his  remains  were 
brought  to  P^ronne,  many  prodigies  attending  their 
transmission,  and  deposited  in  the  portico  of  the 
church  of  St.  Peter  to  which  he  had  consigned  the  rel- 
ics of  Sts.  Meldan  and  Beoan.  His  body  ULy  unburied 
there  for  thirty  dajrs  pending  the  dedication  of  the 
church,  visited  by  pilgrims  from  all  parts,  incorrupt 
and  exhaling  a  sweet  odour.  It  was  then  deposited 
near  the  altar.  Four  years  later,  on  9  Februa^,  the 
remains  were  translated  with  great  solemnity  by  St. 
Eligius,  Bishop  of  Noyon^  and  Cuthbert,  Bishop  of 
Cambrai.  to  a  chapel  specially  built  for  them  to  the 
east  of  tne  altar.  In  the  "  Annals  of  the  Four  Mas- 
ters", P^ronne  is  called  Cathair  Fursa, 

In  art  St.  Fursey  is  represented  with  two  oxen  at 
his  feet  in  commemoration  of  the  prodigy  by  which, 
according  to  legend,  Erkinoald's  claim  to  his  body 
was  made  ^ood;  or  he  is  represented  striking  water 
from  the  soil  at  Lagny  with  the  point  of  his  staff;  or 
beholding  a  vision  m  angels,  or  gazing  at  the  flames  of 

Eurgatory  and  hell.  It  is  disputed  whether  he  was  a 
ishop;  he  mav  have  been  a  cnorepiscopus.  A  litanv 
attributed  to  him  is  among  the  MSS.  m  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin.  An  Irish  prophecy  is  attributed  to  him 
by  Harris. 

CoLOAN,  Ada  SS.  Hib.,  16  Jan.;  9  Feb.;  Acta  SS.,  16  Jan.; 
Beds.  Ecc.  Hi»L,  III,  xiz;  Mabillon.  AnnaUa  Ord.  S.  Bened.; 
AnnaU  of  the  Four  Maatera^  ad  an.  774;  Mabquess  of  Butb  ed., 
Ada  SS.  Hib.  ex  Cod.  Salmant.,  1888;  Lanigan,  Ecc.  Hiat.,  II, 
448;  O'Hanlon,  Livea  of  Iriah  Sainta^  16  Jan.;  Atkinson,  Ea- 
aaya  (Dublin,  1805),  241;  Stokes,  Threa  Montha  in  the  Foreata  of 
France  (London,  1805).  81  sqq.;  Ware-Harris,  Writera  of 
Jrdandt  I,  iv,  35;  Butler,  Livea  of  the  Sainta,  16  Jan. 

C.  MULCAHY. 

Fttntenbergf,  Franz  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von, 
statesman  and  educator,b.7  August,  1729,at  Herdringen 
in  Westphalia ;d.  16 September,  1810,atMtinster.  After 
receiving  his  early  education  from  private  tutorsj  and 
from  the  Jesuits  at  Cologne,  he  attended  the  university 
there,  and  at  Salzburg,  for  the  study  of  jurisprudence, 
which  he  completed  at  the  Sapienza  in  Home  in  1753. 
In  1748  he  had  become  canon  at  the  cathedral  of  Mtkn- 
ster  and,  later,  also  at  Paderbom,  and  received  minor 
orders  and  subdeaconship,  though  he  had  no  intention 
of  entering  the  priesthood.  During  the  Seven  Years 
War  (176&-1763)  he  rendered  signal  services  to  his 
country  as  intermediary  between  Uie  opposing  camps. 


fUSOBI 


326 


FUBT 


and  throu^  his  influence  warded  off  many  a  calamity 
from  the  city  and  principality  of  MOnster. 

After  the  death  of  Clemens  August,  Elector  of 
Cologne  and  Prince-Bishop  of  Mttnster,  on  6  February, 
1761,  it  was  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  FUrsten- 
beig  that  Maximilian  Friedrich  von  Kdnigseck-Rothen- 
fels,  who  had  succeeded  Clemens  August  at  Cologne 
(6  ApriL  1761),  was  also  elected  Prince-Bishop  of  MUn- 
dter  m  September,  1762.  In  recognition  for  these  ser- 
vices the  new  prince-bishop  entrusted  FUrstenberg  with 
the  temporal  and  spiritual  administration  of  the  Prince- 
Bishopric  of  Mtinster.  In  1762  he  appointed  him 
privy  councillor  and  minister  and,  in  1770,  vicar- 
general  and  curator  of  educational  institutions.  No 
better  man  could  have  been  found  to  manage  the  tem- 
poral and  spiritual  affairs  of  the  Prince-Bishopric  of 
MUnster  which  had  suffered  severely  during  the  Seven 
Years  War.  Everybody  was  deep  in  debt  and  all 
trade  and  commerce  was  at  a  standstill.  To  restore 
prosperity  to  the  people  he  improved  agricultural  con- 
ditions by  dividing  the  land  into  marks,  draining 
marshes  and  reclaiming  much  soil  which  hitherto  had 
lain  idle  or  in  pasturage.  He  ameliorated  the  condition 
of  the  serfs  and  gave  an  impulse  to  the  entire  abolition 
of  serfdom.  In  order  to  liquidate  the  public  debt  he 
placed  a  duty  on  such  imported  goods  as  could  be 
easily  dispensed  with,  and  for  a  space  of  six  years 
levied  a  moderate  capitation  tax  from  which  the  priv- 
il^ed  estates  were  not  exempted.  He  improved  the 
mmtaiy  and  the  sanitaiy  i^stem,  the  former  by  found- 
ing a  nulitaiy  academy  at  MQnster  and  by  introducing 
the  "Landwehr",  the  latter  by  founding  a  college  of 
medicine  (1773)  and  inducing  its  director,  the  learned 
Christopher  Ludwig  Hoffmann,  to  draw  up  a  code  of 
medicinal  regulations  which  was  justly  admired 
throughout  Germany  as  a  model  of  its  kind. 

The  greatest  achievement  of  FUrstenberg  was  his 
reform  of  the  educational  system.  During  the  latter 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  higher  educational 
institutions  of  Germany  had  become  veritable  hotbeds 
of  rationalism  and  irreligion,  and  not  infrequently  pro- 
nounced freethinkers  were  engaged  to  instruct  the 
candidates  for  the  priesthood.  These  conditions  were 
not  only  permitted  but  often  directly  favoured  by  a 
few  unworthv  but  influential  prelates,  among  whom 
must  be  numbered  Filrstenberg  s  superior,  Max  Fried- 
rich,  the  Elector  of  Cologne  and  Prince-Bishop  of  MUn- 
ster. To  counteract  this  state  of  affairs,  FUrstenberg 
planned  a  reform  of  the  educational  institutions  in  the 
Diocese  of  MUnsjter.  Luckily  he  was  not  hampered  in 
this  by  his  superior,  the  prince-bishop.  He  began  his 
reform  with  the  gymnasium,  as  the  basis  of  the  educar 
tion  of  the  future  Catholic  priest,  whom  he  considered 
the  chief  leader  and  teacher  of  the  people.  After  con- 
sulting with  aclmowledged  educators,  especially  the 
Jesuits  who  then  directed  the  gjrmnasium  of  Milnster, 
he  drew  up  a  tentative  plan  for  the  gymnasium  in 
1770,  which,  after  a  few  changes,  was  enforced  by  his 
famous  school  ordinance  of  1776.  According  to  the 
new  plan  great  stress  was  laid  on  a  thorough  training 
in  theoretical  and  practical  Christianity,  and  a  course 
in  Catholic  philosophy  was  added  to  the  curriculum.  In 
the  same  year  he  turned  the  recently  suppressed  con- 
vent of  Ueberwasser  at  MUnster  into  a  seminary  where 
the  hitherto  neglected  candidates  for  the  priesthood 
could  receive  the  reaiiisite  moral  training.  *  FUr- 
stenberg then  directed  nis  attention  towards  the  com- 
pletion of  the  new  University  of  MUnster  (approved  in 
1773)  where,  as  an  effectual  safeguard  £^^inst  rational- 
istic tendencies,  he  appointed  to  professorial  duties 
only  men  who  had  been  educated  at  the  schools  of  his 
diocese  and  whom  he  knew  to  be  firmly  grounded  in 
their  Faith.  To  the  most  talented  of  these  he  offered 
every  opportunity  to  prepare  for  professorial  positions 
and  even  gave  them  the  means  to  pursue  special 
courses  at  K)reign  universities. 

FUrstenberg's  political  activity  came  to  a  close  in 


1780,  when  Maximilian  Franz,  the  brother  of  Emperor 
Joseph  II  of  Austria,  was  elected  coadjutor  to  Maxi- 
milian Friedrich  as  Arthbishop  of  Cologne  and  Prince 
Bishop  of  MUnster.  FUrstenberg  himself  had  aspired 
to  this  position  and  imdoubtedly  would  have  oeen 
elected  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  great  influence  of  the 
Court  of  Vienna  which  favoured  the  election  of  Maxi- 
milian Franz.  FUrstenberg  wa3  obliged  to  resign  the 
ministry  but  was  allowed  to  retain  the  office  of  vicar- 
general  and  curator  of  education.  He  now  turned  his 
entire  attention  towards  the  remodelling  of  element- 
ary education.  Through  his  ordinances  for  elementary 
schools  in  1782, 1788,  and  1801,  he  freed  the  system  of 
elementarv  ^ucation  of  at  least  the  most  striking 
abuses.  In  order  to  obtain  zealous  and  competent 
teachers  he  founded  a  normal  school  in  1783,  which 
he  put  in  charge  of  the  famous  educator,  Bernard 
Overberg.  After  Prussia  had  taken  possession  of  MUn- 
ster in  1803,  FUrstenbQrg's  influence  over  the  educa- 
tional system  began  to  decline,  and  when  in  1805 
he  protested  against  the  appointment  of  a  professor 
of  Protestant  uieology  at  the  Catholic  University  of 
MUnster,  he  was  honourablv  dismissed  as  curator  of 
education  on  the  plea  of  old.  age.  In  1807  he  also  re- 
signed the  position  of  vicar-general.  FUrstenberg's 
renown  as  an  educator  had  drawn  some  of  the  greatest 
minds  of  Europe  to  MUnster,  among  them  the  Princess 
Amelia  von  GaUitzin,  in  whose  return  to  the  Catholic 
Faith  from  which  she  had  become  estranged  in  her 
youth,  he  was  greatly  instrumental. 

EssER,  Franz  von  FUrstenberg  (Maoster,  1842);  EscH,  FranM 
von  FCretenberg  in  BMiothek  der  kath.  Pddagogik  (Freiburg  ini 
Br^lSQl),  IV.  59-310;  Galland  in  Hiat,  Pol.  BlAUer,  LXXXII. 
LXXXIlf,  LXXXV,  LXXXVI;  Nordhofp  in  AUaemeine 
Denials  Biographie.  a.  v.;  BbOhl.  Die  Tatigkeit  de3  AfiniHerB 
Franz  Freiherr  von  FUrztenberg  auf  dem  Oebiete  der  innarenPoli- 
Hk  dez  FUratbiUumz  Minizter  1763-1780  (Munstor.  1995^. 

Michael  Orr. 
FoBchi,  Michael.    See  Michael  of  Ceseita. 

Fussola,  a  titular  see  in  Numidia.  It  was  a  forti- 
fied town,  inhabited  for  the  most  part  by  Donatists 
and  situated  forty  miles  from  Hippo.  St.  Augustine 
appointed  as  its  first  Catholic  bisnop,  about  416,  a 
voung  man  named  Antonius,  who  afterwards  caused 
him  much  anxiety  (Ceillier,  ''Histoire  g^n^rale  des 
auteurs  sacr^s  et  eccl^siastiques'',  Paris,  1861,  VIII, 
11  sqq.).  A  certain  Melior  is  known  to  have  been 
bishop  in  484  (Gams,  465,  col.  3),  and  the  see  still 
existed  in  the  seventh  century  (Byzantische  Zeit- 
schnft,  II|  26).  The  fortress  of  Fossala  completed 
the  defences  of  Hippo.  S.  Vailh6. 

Fast  (or  Faust),  John,  a  partner  of  Gutenberg  in 
promoting  the  art  of  printing,  d.  at  Paris  about  1466. 
He  belonged  to  a  wealthy  family  of  Mainz,  but  very 
little  is  known  of  his  early  life.  In  1450  he  became  a 
partner  of  Gutenberg  in  the  establishment  of  a  print- 
mg  plant  at  Mainz,  Fust  furnishing  the  capital  and 
takinga  mortgage  on  the  tools  and  materials  as  secu- 
rity. The  partners  carried  on  the  business  for  several 
years,  but  the  partnership  was  dissolved  in  1455,  when 
Fust  brought  suit  against  Gutenberg  for  the  money 
that  he  had  advanced  and  obtained  possession  of  the 
printing  apparatus.  The  business  was  then  continued 
by  Fust  with  his  son-in-law,  Peter  Schttffer,  of  Gem- 
sheim,  as  partner.  In  1462,  when  Mainz  was  sacked, 
Fust's  workmen  were  scattered,  and  they  carried  with 
them  to  various  countries  the  printing  process  which 
had  been  guarded  as  a  secret  in  Mainz.  Fust  continued 
the  business,  however,  until  about  1466,  when  he  is 
thought  to  have  gone  to  Paris  and  to  have  died  there 
of  the  plague.  Among  the  books  that  were  issued 
from  the  press  of  Fust  and  Gutenberg  the  best  known 
is  the  magnificent  Latin  "Bible  of  forty-two  lines" 
(see  illustration  s.  v.  Editions  of  the  Bible),  so  called 
because  it  was  printed  forty-two  lines  to  the  page.  It 
is  known  also  as  the  Mazarin  Bible,  because  the  first 


fSTOH 


327 


F7T0H 


know^  copy  of  it  was  disoovered  in  Cardinal  Mazarin's 
library  at  raris.  It  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  early 
printer's  art.  They  also  printed  an  indulgence  granted 
Dy  Pope  Nicholas  V  to  the  King  of  Cyprus  (1454-^). 
In  paitnendiip  with  SchOff er  Fust  published  a  Psalter 
(1^7),  the  first  printed  book  with  a  complete  date; 
the  ''Rationale  Divinorum  Officiorum"  of  Durandus 
(1450):  and  Gcero's  "De  Officiis"  (1465),  the  first 
printed  edition  of  ^  classical  author.  Several  other 
Books  that  were  printed  by  Fust  and  his  partners  are 
still  extant,  some  of  them  very  beautif  id  in  their  execu- 
tion. 

Db  Vxnnib,  The  Invention  of  PrinHng  (New  York.  1878); 
VON  DSR  LiNDB,  OeBch.  doT  Sffinduno  dor  Buehdruekerkunat 
(Berlin,  1880).  I. 

Edmund  Bubkb. 

l^ytch,  William  Benedict,  an  Enjglish  Franciscan 
friar  of  the  Capuchin  Reform,  whose  family  name  was 
Filch;  b.  at  Canfield,  Essex,  in  1563;  d.  1610.  His 
parents  were  of  the  Puritan  party,  and  he  himself  pro- 


fessed Calvinism  until  he  wassenttostudyintxmdony 
where  he  embraced  the  Catholic  faith.  He  went  over 
to  Paris  and  entered  the  Capuchin  Order.  In  1599  he 
was  at  his  own  reouest  sent  to  England;  he  had 
hardly  landed  when  ne  was  seised  and  cast  into  Wis- 
beach  prison.  Here  he  remained  for  three  years,  and 
whilst  there  held  conferences  with  the  heretics  con- 
cerning the  true  Faith.  He  was  at  leneth  released 
through  the  intervention  of  the  French  Ambassador 
and  sent  back  to  France,  where  he  was  appointed 
master  of  novices.  He  was  held  in  great  reverence  at 
the  French  Court,  and  amongst  the  people  on  account 
of  his  gift  of  miracles  and  spirit  of  prophecy.  He 
wrote  several  ascetical  works,  the  most  famous  being 
his  treatise  "The  Will  of  God",  which  was  written  in 
English,  but  speedily  translated  into  various  European 
lan^ages.  In  1625  this  treatise  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  order  of  the  Minister  (General  of  the  Order. 
Bovauus*  AnnaL  ad  on.  1010;  Bibliothoea  Script,  Ord.  Cap. 

Fathbb  Cuthbebt. 


a 

OabaU,  a  titular  see  o!  Syria  Prima.  Ten  bishops  not  be  considered  as  suooessful.  The  onlv  thing  that 
of  this  city  are  known  between  325  and  553,  the  moBt  can  be  ^thered  with  certainty  from  St.  John's  state- 
famous  being  St.  Hilary,  writer  and  martyr  (fourth  ment  (xix,  13)  is  that  "  Gabbatha"  denotes  the  usual 
century),  and  Severian,  first  the  friend  but  later  the  place  in  Jerusalem,  where  Pilate  had  his  judicial  seat, 
enemy  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  (see  Echos  d'Orient,  and  whither  he  caused  Jesus  to  be  brou^t  forth,  that 
IV  15-17;  IX,  220).  Since  the  sixth  century  Ga-  he  might  deliver  in  His  hearing,  and  m  that  of  the 
bala  has  been  an  exempt  archdiocese  directly  depend-  Jewish  multitude,  his  formal  and  final  sentence  of 
ent  on  the  Patriarch  otAntioch.    The  diocese  is  again  condemnation. 

noticed  in  the  tenth  century  (Echos  d 'Orient,  X,-  97  Kmabbnbaubr,  In  Joannem  (PaiTB.  1898);  Calmss,  EvangUe 

and  140).    When  the  Arabs  took  possession  of  the  ^^^JS?*^  ff*^»  ^^U  ^  St^^*Lf  ?.f  *^o^A~*  (tr..  New 

city  in  639,  they  found  there  a  B^tine  fortress,  ^&.^^^'  ^■'^  ^  ^"'-  D^.  of  the  BM^  a.  y.  Gab- 

beside  whidi  the  Caliph  Moaviah  erected  a  second.  Fbancib  E.  Gigot. 
According  to  the  Arsibian  geographer  Yaqotit,  the 

Greeks  recovered  the  city  from  the  Mussulmans  in  969.  Gaboon  (Gabun),  Vicariate  Apostouc  op,  for- 

who  recaptured  it  in  1081.    The  crusaders  entered  merly  called  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  Two  Guinn 

Gabala  in  1109,  and  it  was  henceforth  the  seat  of  a  cm. — ^The  name  Gaboon  (Gaofto)  was  originally  given 

Latin  diocese.    For  the  Latin  titulars  see  Le  Quien,  by  the  Portuguese  to  the  estuary  on  whLcn  stancui  the 

III,  1169;  Ducange,  "Les  families  d'outre-mer",  796-  town  of  Libreville,  and  to  a  narrow  strip  of  territory  on 

796.  and  especially  Eubel,  I,  267;  II;  173.    Saladin  either  bank  of  this  arm  of  the  sea.     In  the  days  of 

took  the  citv  in  1187,  and  -in  1517  it  fell  into  the  the  slave  trade  it  was  merely  a  trading  station  on  the 

hands  of  the  Sultan  Semn.    Gabala,  at  present  called  Coast  of  Guinea  which  at  that  time  extended  from 

Djebeleh,  is  a  caza  of  the  vilayet  or  Beirut,  and  the  Sen^al  to  the  mouth  of  the  Congo  River.    At  the 

numbers  3000  inhabitants,  all  of  whom  are  Mussul-  present  Ume  the  name  of  Guinea  for  this  territory  and 

mans.    There  are  to  be  seen  here  a  small  harbour,  the  ecclesiastical  title  "The  Two  Guineas"  have  gone 

numerous  ruins,  sepulchral  chambers,  and  ancient  out  of  use  both  in  the  civil  and  the  reli^ous  sense. 

Christian  chapels  hewn  in  the  rock^  a  Roman  theatre,  and  Gaboon  designates  the  northern  portion  of  French 

baths  and  mosques,  one  of  which,  tom^rly  the  cathe-  Congo,  south  of  the  Equator  and  lying  between  the 

dral,  contains  the  tomb  of  the  Sultan  Ibrahim-Eddem,  Atlantic  ocean  and  longitude  12  east  of  Paris.    It  is 

who  died  in  778.  coextensive  with  the  basin  of  the  Ogowai  River,  to 

Zi^'rf^i^^*^  ^  Poterfm*.  165-168;  Babdbur.  Pa^  ^^ich   should   be   added   several  smaU  subsidiary 

•                                            g^  Vaii.hA.  streams  as  the  Muni,  the  Komo,  and  the  Rembo- 

Nkomi.       Its  surface  though  broken  and  uneven  is  at 

Oabbatha  (Aramaic  KDIJ)  is  the  Aramaic  appella-  no  point  of  great  elevation,  and  is  covered  by  a  great 

tion  of  a  place  in  Jerusalem,  designated  also  under  the  dense,  tropical  forest  interrupted  only  by  some  rocky 

Greek  name  of  Lithostrotos.   It  occurs  only  in  John,  plains  in  the  south.    The  only  roads  are  the  tracks 

xix,  13,  where  the  Evangelist  states  that  Pontius  Pi-  used  bythe  natives,  along  wmch  caravans  travel  on 

late  "  brought  Jesus  forth,  and  sat  down  in  the  judg-  foot.    The  rivers  are  often  blocked  by  rapids,  so  that 

ment  seat,  m  the  place  that  is  called  Lithostrotos,  and  navigation  is  both  uncertain  and  hazardous.    The 

in  Hebrew  Gabbatha."    The  name  ''Gabbatha"  is  climate  is  sultry,  humid,  and  subject  to  storms,  but 

certainly  an  Aramaic  word,  for  by  "  Hebrew''  St.  John,  the  temperature  remains  almost  stationary ;  the  rainy 

like  other  New  Testament  writers,  denotes  the  Ara-  season  lasts  from  September  to  May.    On  the  whole 

maic  language  which  was  spoken  commonlv  at  the  it  is  a  healthy  climate  for  men  of  temperate  lives,  and 

time  in  Judea.    It  is  not  a  mere  translation  of  "  Litho-  the  mortality  there  is  one  of  the  lowest  on  the  West- 

strotos",  which  properly  means  the  tessellated  or  African  coast.    The  population  of  Gaboon  is  very 

mosaic  pavement  whereon  stood  the  judgment-eeat,  mixed,  Gaboon  being  the  geo^phical  terminus  of  the 

but  which  was  extended  to  the  place  itselfin  front  of  migration  drawn  from  Sie  interior  by  trade.    No 

Pilate's  prsetorium,  where  that  pavement  was  laid,  doubt  many  of  the  races  become  broken  up  on  the  way, 

This  is  proved  by  the  practice  ot  St.  John,  who  else-  but  those  that  reach  the  coast  are  slowly  absorbed 

where  gives  Aramaic  names  as  distinctly  beloncme  to  among  the  earlier  settlers  there.   Indeed  many  of  these 

places,  not  as  mere  translations  of  the  Greek.    This  is  tribes  are  semi-nomadic  by  habit,  and  change  the 

provea  also  by  the  fact  that  "Gabbatha"  is  derived  sites  of  their  villages  as  soon  as  the  lands  in  their 

from  a  root  (3i"  back",  "elevation"),  which  refers,  not  vicinity  have  become  exhausted  by  crop-growing, 

to  the  kind  of  pavement,  but  to  the  "  elevation  "  of  the  It  thus  comes  to  that  pass  every  four  or  five  jrears  a 

place  in  question.    It  thus  appears  that  the  two  names  new  ethnc^raphical  map  of  the  country  is  necessary. 

"Lithostrotos"  and  "Gabbatna"  were  due  to  different  However  it  is  possible  to  divide  the  peoples  into 

cluunacteristics  of  the  spot  where  Pilate  delivered  Our  several  groups.    Under  the  first  group  may  be  in- 

Lord  to  death.    The  Aramaic  name  was  derived  from  eluded  the  old  slave-trading  races  that  have  been 

the  configuration  of  that  spot,  the  Greek  name  from  established  a  long  time  on  the  Coast.    Of  these  the 

the  nature  of  its  pavement.    Efforts  have  been  made  most  important  people  are  the  Mpongwe,  dwelling 

by  commentators  to  identify  "  Gabbatha"  either  with  along  the  Gaboon  estuary;  they  are  mentioned  in  the 

the  outer  court  of  the  Temple,  which  is  known  to  have  eighteenth  century  by  Dutch  navi^tors.    As  a  race 

been  paved,  or  with  the  meetin^place  of  the  Great  they  are  intelligent  and  keen  and  enjoy  an  undoubted 

Sanhedrin,  which  was  half  within,  half  without  the  ascendancy  over  the  other  black  races.    The^r  are. 

Temple's  outer  court,  or  again  with  the  ridge  at  the  moreover,    gentle    and    hospitable,    too   hospitable 

back  of  the  House  of  the  Ix>rd;  but  these  efforts  can-  perhaps.    They  easily  fall  victims  to  European  vices, 

328 


GABOOH  329  GABOOH 

and  immorality  and  alcohol  have  almost  wiped  them  plateau  which  was  thereupon  called  Libreville  (Free- 
out.  Not  more  than  i^  few  hundred  of  them  remain,  town).  Pdre  Le  Berre  was  eiven  tiie  official  title  of 
many  of  whom  go  as  traders  far  into  the  interior.  "Professor  of  Morals"  and  bejg^  instructing  them. 
The  point  of  the  Gaboon  peninsula  is  occupied  by  the  The  next  year  the  fiist  nuns  arrived,  the  French  Sich 
Ben^;  the  creeks  or  inlets  of  the  Manda  and  the  ters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  In  1849  P^re  . 
Mum  by  the  Baseki,  usually  known  as  the  Boulous  Bessieux  was  recalled  to  Europe^  consecrated  bishop, 
^Bulu);  both  tribes  live  by  fishing  and  are  dying  out  and  sent  back  to  Gaboon  as  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the 
m>m  alcoholism.  Their  languages  differ  from  each  Two  Guineas,  with  jurisdiction  over  a  coast  line  20CX) 
other  and  equally  from  that  of  the  Mpongwe.  How-  leaeues  Ions,  where  to-day  there  are  twenty-five 
ever  the  three  tnbes  settled  towards  ihe  South  in  the  ecclesiastical  divisions. 

delta  of  the  Ogowai,  the  Oronjgous  (Oronsu)y  the  About  this  time  the  Libreville  mission  made  many 
Galoas,  and  the  Nkomis  use  a  slightly  modified  form  attempts  to  set  up  stations  elsewhere ;  only  one  was  a 
of  Mpongwe,  follow  the  same  customs,  have  the  same  success,  that  among  the  Bengas  of  Cape  Esteiras,  and 
vices  as  the  Mpongwe  of  the  estuary,  and  engage  in  it  was  called  St.  Joseph's  Mission.  '  To-day  nearly  all 
the  rubber  trade  as  well  as  in  fishing.  The  second  of  this  small  tribe  are  Catholics.  While  the  Libre- 
fiToup  is  made  up  of  one  single  txibe,  the  Fans  or  ville  mission  was  in  process  of  organization,  building 
Fahouins  (Pawin)  who  inhabit  all  the  northern  a  suitable  church,  enlarging  its  schools,  and  clearing 
portion  of  Gaboon  as  far  as  the  Ivindo,  and  in  places  its  grounds,  the  little  government  station  about  a  mile 
are  to  be  found  alon^  the  left  bank  of  the  Ogowai.  away  was  gradually  becoming  a  small  town.  In  1860 
They  are  true  barbanans  and  are  an  invading  race,  it  became  necessary  to  erect  a  parish  there,  and  thus 
whose  progress  towards  the  coast  goes  on  unceasingly,  was  foimded  the  mission  of  Saint-Pierre,  having  for 
They  do  not  deserve  all  that  former  travellers  have  special  object  the  conversion  of  the  Mpongwe.  Hie 
said  as  to  their  ferocity,  but  they  are  very  fierce-  work  of  the  sisters  was  transferred  to  this  place  as  well 
looking,  muscular,  wariike.  and  al>ove  all  vindictive,  as  the  school  for  girls  and  a  native  hospital ;  later  the 
They  are  not,  however,  slave-dealers,  nor  do  they,  colony  built  a  church  and  at  present  the  parish  con- 
properly  speaking,  own  slaves;  their  wives  are  reiJly  tains  about  3000  faithful.  Monsignor  Bessietix  died 
their  slaves,  and  polygamy  is  more  in  vogue  and  more  in  1876  after  having  spent  33  years  in  Africa;  he  was 
bestial  among  them  than  elsewhere,  x^evertheless  succeeded  by  his  emy  companion,  Monsignor  Le 
they  are  not  victims  to  the  grosser  forms  of  immoral-  Berre.  Under  the  new  bishop  new  stations  were 
ity,  in  the  same  measure  as  other  tribes  are,  but  along  rapidly  founded,  and  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
the  great  rivers  and  at  the  coast  alcoholism  works  Ghost  continued  to  supply  the  necessary  missionaries, 
terrible  havoc  among  them.  Those  of  them  who  In  1879  a  mission  to  the  Pahouins  of  the  Como  was 
dwell  in  the  interior  still  practise  cannibalism  on  their  attempted  for  the  fiist  time,  and  the  Station  of  Saint- 
prisoners  of  war.  Paul  de  Doi^ila  was  opened ;  after  ^^reat  hardships 

A  third  group  of  peoples  is  to  be  foimd  in  the  south-  it  is  now  a  nourishing  mission  coimting  more  than 

em  part  of  the  country;  in  this  territory  live  tribes  still  1000  Catholics.    Soon  afterwards  the  missionaries 

given  over  to  slavery.    Thus,  for  instance,  the  Eet-  began  to  move  inwards  from  the  coast  and  the  estuary 

teiras  and  the  Balkalai,  who  act  as  middlemen  in  and  in  1881  the  missbn  of  Saint-Franfois-Xavier  was 

trading  with  the  tribes  dwelling  in  the  mountiuns,  the  founded  at  Lambarene  on  the  Ogowai;  in  1883  that 

Bayalois,  Bapunus,  Ndjavis,  Ishogcxs,  Mbytes,  Shak^,  Of  Saint-Pierre-Claver  among  the  Adumas,  which  was 

Adumas,  who  in  exchange  for  articles  ot  commerce  afterwards  moved  to  Franceville  near  the  source  of 

sell  their  children  as  slaves.    Tliese  slaves  are  brought  that  river.    In  1886  at  Fernando  Vaz  in  the  Nkomi 

secretly  to  the  coast,  but  are  no  longer  shipped  to  the  country  the  mission  of  Sainte-Anne  was  organized. 

Antilles  or  Brazil,  instead  they  are  bought  by  the  These  three  places  are  now  great  mission  centres  and 

Mpongwe  and  Nkomis  who  are  thus  enabled  to  lead  are  thoroughly  eauipped.    It  would  be  only  fitting  to 

lives  of  idleness.    All  these  groups  of  tribes  practise  add  to  this  list  Monsignor  Le  Berre's  new  stations  in 

fetichism.  They  believe  in  a  God  who  made  the  world,  the  Kamerun  and  in  Spanish  Guinea;  but  they  now 

in  an  immortal  soul  and  in  retribution,  for  evil;  they  form  part  of  new  ecclesiastical  divisions.    In  1891, 

worship  spirits  and  ghosts,  and  are  imder  the  sway  of  after  45  years  of  missionary  life,  the  holy  bishop  died.  . 

sorcerers  and  secret  societies,  to  which  even  the  author-  His  works  had  increased  tenfold  and  his  memory  is 

ity  of  their  chiefs  must  yield.  blessed.    He  was  succeeded  by  Monsi^or  Le  Roy. 

The  early  evangelization  of  the  country  by  Capu-  During  the  three  years  which  the  new  bishop  spent  at 

chins  from  Italy  left  no  pennanent  traces.    About  Gaboon  three  new  stations  were  created.    One  arose 

1840  an  American  prelate,  Monsignor  Barron,  was  the  on  the  banks  of  the  Hio  Muni,  first  at  KO0O,  then  at 

first  to  answer  the  appeal  made  for  a  priest  of  the  Butika,  at  the  present  frontier  of  Spanish  Guinea, 

Catholics  among  the  freed  negroes  that  the  United  among  the  Fans  of  the  north.    Another  was  estab- 

States  Government  had  shipp^  back  to  the  coast  of  lished  oelow  the  first  rapids  of  the  Ogowai,  also  in  the 

Africa.    Monsignor  Barron  gave  up  an  important  Fan   country.  ^  This   station   was   Saint-Michel    of 

poet  which  he  neld  under  the  Archoishop  01  Phila-  Ndjole.  The  third  station,  Sainte-Croix,  is  surrounded 

delphia  and  made  two  voyages  to  the  Guinea  Coast  by  the  Esteira  peoples  of  the  south-west.    At  the 

between  1840  and  1843.    The  Venerable  P^re  liber-  same  time  a  fre^  impulse  was  given  to  the  evuigeliz- 

mann  had  just  at  this  date  founded  at  Amiens  his  ins  movement,  for  this  was  the  period  of  the  principal 

new  congregation  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Maiy,  which  labour  on  the  languages,  of  translations,  of  relations, 

later  was  united  with  that  of  the  Holy  Gnost;  he  of  very  useful  journeys  of  exploration,  of  ordinances 

furnished  the  first  missionaries  to  Monsignor  Barron,  favouring  liie  work  of  the  catechists,  of  agreements 

In  the  first  year  six  out  of  seven  of  the  missionaries  with  the  tribes  concerning  the  reform  of  their  family 

died  as  much  of  starvation  as  of  sickness :  the  seventh,  customs,  etc. 

after  increditable  adventures,  succeeded  in  reaching        The  active  directbn  of  Monsignor  Le  Roy  ceased 

Cape  Palm  on  the  Gaboon.    This  was  P^re  Bessieux  in  1896  when  he  was  elected  Superior  General  of  the 

and  the  date,  29  September,  1884.    The  French  navy  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost.    He  was  replaced  at 

had  set  up  a  small  fort  there  intended  as  a  lookout  for  Gaboon  by  Monsignor  Adam,  the  present  bishop,  who 

vessels  engaged  in  the  slave  trade,  and  consequently  has  established  three  new  stations:  Notre-Dame-des- 

P^re  Bessieux  was  able  to  erect  the  first  station  at  this  Trois-Epis,  at  Samba  on  the  Ngume,  a  tributary  of 

spot.    The  following  year  brought  him  many  helpers,  tiie  left  bank  of  the  Ogowai,  and  Saint-Martin,  a 

and  among  them  r^re  Le  Berre.    In  1848  a  slave  little  further  up^  the  same  river,  both  of  them  in  the 

dhow  was  captured  by  the  French  and  forty-nine  midst  of  the  mixed  populations  of  the  south.    The 

daves  were  located  near  the  mission  station  on  a  little  third  post»  of  quite  recent  foundation,  is  Okano  near 


OABRZBL  33 

Boue  on  the  Ogowai  in  the  Fan  country.  Hon  than 
two  hundred  nuBsionuifis  have  died  in  the  Oaboon 
tetritoi^  and  a  hundred  continue  the  Work.  They 
ara  divided  into  prieata,  brothers,  both  lay  and  teach- 
ing, and  nuns.  There  are  47  priests ;  native  priests 
and  aeminariana,  native  brotheis  and  Histers,  and  up- 
wards of  a  hundred  catechists  aid  in  the  work  of 
evangelization,  and  the  number  of  Catholics  is  more 
than  12,000.  ,The  moral  gain  is  b]ow  but  evident; 
progreeB  is  always  being  made.  There  have  been 
great  obstacles  to  the  spread  of  the  Gosixil,  obstacles 
not  always  due  to  the  oarbarism,  fetichism,  slavery, 
and  cannibalism  of  the  pagan  tribes. 

H.  Briauut. 

0»briel,  ^Kni3,"FortitudoDei",  one  of  the  three 
archangels  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Only  four  ap- 
pearances of  Gabriel  are  recorded:  (a)  In  Dan.,  vui, 
he  explains  the  vision  of  the  homed  ram  as  portend- 
ing the  destruction  of  the  Persian  Empire  by  the 
Macedonian  Alexander  the  Great,  after  whoee  death 


n  the  foreheads  of  the  elect  (Ezecb., 
a  later  Jewish  literature  the  names  of  angela 


«Tau  o 


OioTuiai  Bu-hieii  (Qiurdno),  Pakjio  Colonns,  Some 

the  kingdom  will  be  divided  up  among  his  ^nerals, 
from  one  of  whom  will  spring  Antiochus  Ekiiphanes. 
(b)  In  chapter  ix,  after  Danid  had  prayed  lor  Israel, 

we  read  that  "  the  man  Gabriel Bying  swiftly 

touched  me ' '  and  he  communicated  to  him  the  mysten- 
ous  prophecy  of  the  "seventy  weeks"  of  years  which 
shoiUd  elapse  before  the  coming  of  Christ.  In  chapter 
X,  it  is  not  clear  whether  the  angel  is  Gabriel  ornot,  but 
at  any  rate  we  may  apply  to  him  the  marvellous  de- 
scription in  verses  6  and  6.  (c)  In  N.  T.  he  foretells  to 
Zacnary  the  birth  of  the  Precursor,  and  (d)  to  Hary 
that  of  the  Saviour.  Thus  he  is  throughout  the  an^ 
ofthelncamationandof  Consolation,  and  so  in  Chris- 
tian tradition  Gabriel  is  ever  the  angel  of  mercy  while 
Michael  is  rather  the  angel  of  judj;ment.  At  the  same 
time,  even  in  the  Bible,  Gsbnel  is,  in  accordance 
with  his  name,  the  angel  of  the  Power  of  God,  and 
it  is  worth  while  noting  the  frequency  with  which 
such  words  as  "great  ,  "might",  power",  and 
"strength"  occur  in  the  passages  referred  to  above. 
The  Jews  inde«d  seem  to  have  dwelt  particulariy  upon 
this  feature  in  Gabriel 's  character,  and  he  is  regarded 
by  them  as  the  angel  of  judgment,  while  Michael  is 
eaUed  the  angel  oi  mercy.  Thiu  they  attribute  to 
Gabriel  the  destruction  of  Sodom  and  of  the  host  of 
Sennacherib,  though  they  also  regard  him  as  the  angel 
who  buried  Moses,  and  as  the  man  deputed  to  mark 


the  figure  T 
4).    In  laU    .  _ 

were  considered  to  have  a  peculiar  efficacy,  and 'the 
British  Museum  possesses  some  magic  bowls  in^ 
scribed  with  Hebrew,  Aramaic,  and  S;mac  ineantsv- 
tions  in  which  the  names  of  Michael,  Raphael,  and 
GabrieloccuT.  Thesebowls  were  found  at  HUlahj  the 
site  of  Babylon,  and  constitute  an  interesting  relic  of 
the  Jewish  captivity.  In  apocry^al  Christian  litera- 
ture the  same  names  occur  cf.  Enoch,  iz,  and  the 
Apocalypse  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

As  remarked  above,  Gabriel  is  mentioned  only 
twice  in  the  New  Testament,  but  it  is  not  unreasona- 
ble to  suppose  with  Christian  tradition  that  it  is  hJs 
who  appeared  to  St.  Joseph  and  to  the  shephetds,  and 
also  that  it  was  he  who  strengthened"  Our  Lord  in 
the  ^krden  (cf.  the  Hymn  for  Lauds  on  24  March), 
Gabnel  is  generally  termed  onlv  an  archangel,  but  the 
expression  used  by  St.  Raphael,  "  I  am  the  angel  Ra- 
phael, one  of  the  seven,  who  stand  before  the  Lord" 
(Tob.,  xii,  15)  and  St.  Gabriel's  ovm  words,  "  I  am  Ga- 
briel, who  stand  before  God"  (Luke,  i,  19),  have  led 
some  to  think  that  these  angels  must  belong  to  the 
highest  rank;  but  this  is  generally  explained  as  refer- 
ring to  their  rank  as  the  highest  of  God's  messengers, 
and  not  as  placing  them  among  the  Seraphim  and 
Cherubim  (cf .  St.  'Thomas,  I,  Q,  cxii,  a.  3 ;  III,  Q.  xxx, 
a.  2,  ad  4™). 

Id  Bddltii>n  to  the  lit«r>tura  ludar  AnaML  and  in  the  bibli- 
od  dioliouries.  He  PuuT.  Tht  PropM  Danid  (Ijaadoa.  1808); 
Edibwbih,  Jaus  Oit  Mmiah  (LondoD  and  New  York,  IBM), 
Append.  XlII;  H.  Chobbt.  uiiJuul  and  Oabriti  in  Homildte 
Rniew  (isaol,  XIX.  IflDeZ:  Bariibmhbwbb.  MarO-VerUUf 
diftiag  in  BM.  Studien,  X,  4M  oqq. 

Hugh  Popis, 

CUbrtsl,  Brothebs  op  Saint. — The  Congregation 
of  the  Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction  of  St.  Gabnel 
was  originally  founded  by  Blessed  Louis  Grignon  de 
Montfort  in  1705  but  it  did  not  spread  much  till  it 
was  amalgamated  with  one  founded  in  1835  by  Mon- 
signor  Deshayes,  Vicar-General  of  Rennes.  It  took 
the  anomalous  title  of  the  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel; 
because  the  first  chapel  of  the  congregation  was 
dedicated  to  St.  Gabriel;  this  was  at  Boulogne.  The 
object  of  the  congr^ation  is  the  Christian  education 
of  the  young  and  also  of  the  bUnd,  the  deaf,  dumb,  and 
the  care  and  education  of  orphans.  The  members 
take  no  vows,  but  after  making  a  novitiate  of  three 
years  they  promise  to  obey  the  superior  and  to  devote 
themselves  to  the  works  of  th^  institute;  they  are 
generally  men  of  sufficient  means  to  support  them- 
selves. They  are  governed  by  a  superior  elected  by 
the  voteaof  the  whole  community  for  throe  years:  he 
is  assisted  by  four  counsellors  elected  in  the  some  way. 
The  congregation  in  1851  had  as  many  as  ninety-one 
houses  mostly  in  France  and  in  the  Diocese  of  Frank- 
fort in  Germany.  Later  it  had  122  schools  in  France 
besides  two  for  the  blind  and  eight  for  deaf-mutes. 
The  French  mother-house  was  at  St.  LaurenUsur- 
Sevre  in  Vend^:  in  1880  it  hod  790  members.  Recent 
statistics  give  the  congregation  170  schools  and  col- 
leges, eight  asylums  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  three  for 
the  blind,  and  several  homes  for  orphans.  The  novi- 
tiate for  Canada  is  at  Sault-au-Recollet  near  Mon- 
treal The  brothers  have  aicollege  at  Montreal  and 
four  schools  in  the  archdiocese,  besides  three  schools 
in  the  Diocese  of  Three  Rivers  and  one  at  St.  Ours  in 
the  Diocese  of  St.  Hyacinth. 

HEruBccBiB  in  KirAttdra.;   Bi . 

Britain;  Caltiotic  DirtOom;  Canada  EccUivuliqut, 

Francbbca  M,  Bteeli. 

CUbrioI  BeU.    See  Bells. 

Qabriel  Blel.    See  Bieu 

Gabriel  Poggontit  Blessed,  Pasdonist  studentj 
renowned  for  sanctity  and  miracles;  b.'at  Assisi,  1 
March,  1838;  d.  27  February,  1862,  at  Isola  di  Gisn 
Saeao,  Province  of  Abruuo,  Italy;  son  of  Sante  Fos- 


,'   Btxbu.  itorvuttritt  i4  Omrf 


OABRHLS                             331  OAD 

senti  and  A^es  Frisoiotti;  received  baptism  on  the  The  two  Maronitee  were  Gabriel  Sionita  and  Johi 

day  of  his  birth  and  was  cieJled  Francesco^  the  name  Hesronita.    Gabriel,  however,  was  bv  far  the  mort 

by  which  he  was  known  before  entering  rehgion;  edu-  prominent  of  the  two.    The}r  received  an  annual  sti* 

cated  at  the  Christian  Brothers'  School,  and  at  the  pend  of  600  livres,  and  Gabriel  was  appointed  to  the 

Jesuit  colle^  at  Spoleto.    Immediately  after  the  com-  chair  of  Semitic  languages  at  the  Sorbonne.    Unf or- 

{)letion  of  his  secular  education,  he  embraced  the  re-  tunately  both  de  Tnou  and  Duperron  died  within 

igious  state ;  on  21  Sept.,  1856  he  was  clothed  with  the  four  years,  and  serious  financial  difficulties  arose.    In 

Passionist  habit,  anci  received  the  name  of  GaJbride  1619,  it  is  true,  the  assembly  of  French  cbrgjr  at 

deO'  Addolorata.  .  He  made  his  religious  profession  on  Blois  voted  8000  livres  to  support  the  undertaking; 

22  Sept.,   1857,  and  then  began  his  ecclesiastical  but  through  some  malversation  of  funds,  this  money 

studies  as  a  Passionist  student.    He  was  gifted  with  was  never  actually  paid;  at  least  such  is  the  accusa- 

talent  of  a  high  order  and  with  a  wonderful  memory;  tion  brought  by  Gabriel  in  his  preface  to  the  Syriac 

and  in  his  reugious  life  he  was  distinguished  to  a  re-  Psalter  which  ne  published.    The  Maronites  seem  to 

markable  degree,  even  among  his  fervent  companions,  have  become  involved  in  pectiniary  embarrassments, 

for  his  exact  observance  of  rule,  his  spirit  of  prayer,  which  led  to  unseemly  feuds  with  the  leaders  of  the 

and  his  fervent  devotion  to  the  Passion  of  our  Lord,  undertaking.    In  1619,  however,  by  royal  diploma, 

to  the  Holy  Eucharist,  and  to  the  Dolours  of  the  Gabriel's  stipend  had  been  raised  to  1200  livres;  the 

Blessed  Virgin.    In  the  sixth  year  of  his  religious  life  following  year  he  received  the  doctor's  degree  and  two 

hediedof  consumption;  his  death  was  that  of  the  just,  years  later  the  priesthood.    Evidently  fdl  had  been 

holy  and  edifying,  and  he  was  buried  in  the  churcn  done  to  honour  and  support  these  Eastern  scholars; 

attached  to  the  retreat  at  Isola  di  Gran  Sasso  where  and  the  blame  probablv  lies  largely  with  Gabriel,  who 

his  remains  are  still  entombed,  and  where  numerous  can  hardly  be  excused  from  idleness  and  thriftlessness. 

prodigies  have  been  wrought,  and  numerous  conver-  In  1626,  as  Gabriel  held  no  classes  owing  to  lack  of 

sions  effected,  through  his  intercession.                 ^  ^  students,  his  stipend  was  curtailed.^    After  some  time, 

Little  was  known  of  Gabriel's  extraordinary  spirit-  however,  he  was  paid  on  the  original  basis;  and,  in 
ual  gifts  during  his  life.  He  was  not  singular,  he  1629,  his  salary  was  increased  to  2000  livres.  In  1630. 
conformed  himself  to  the  community  life;  he  was  only  he  recommenced  work  on  the  polyglot;  but,  as  he  did 
a  fervent  and  exemplaiy  Passionist  novice  and  student  not  apply  himself  industriously,  and  was  even  ac- 
hidden  from  the  world  in  the  cloister.  After  death,  cused,  apparently  with  some  show  of  reason,  of  care- 
this  youne  religious  in  a  few  years  was  declared  vener-  lessness  m  the  work,  he  again  found  himselt  in  diffi- 
able  by  the  Church,  thereby  testifying  that  he  had  culties.  In  the  quarrel  which  ensued,  Richelieu  sup- 
practised  all  the  virtues  in  an  heroic  degree;  and  he  ported  the  editor,  Le  Jay,  against  the  Maronites;  and 
was  beatified  and  raised  to  the  honours  of  the  altar,  by  as  it  was  feared  that  Gabriel  might  leave  the  countrv, 
special  privilege  of  the  supreme  pontiff  before  he  was  the  cardinal  had  him  imprisoned  in  Vincennes  f  1640) ; 
mty  years  dead.  he  was  released,  however,  at  the  expiration  of  three 

His  solemn  beatification  took  place  on  31  May,  months' time,  when  he  had  signed  an  undertaking  and 

1908^  in  the  Vatican  basilica,  in  tne  presence  of  the  given  sureties  that  he  would  prepare  the  texts  for  the 

cardinals  then  in  Rome,  of  the  Passionist  fathers  resi-  polyglot.    He  had  actually  completed  his  great  task 

dent  in  Rome,  and  of  representatives  from  all  the  some  time  before  his  death,  whicn  occurred  at  the  age 

provinces  of  the  congregation.    Among  those  present  of  71.    Gabriel's  share  in  tne  polyglot  is  as  follows:  he 

were  many  who  had  known  the  beatified  during  his  revised  and  corrected  almost  all  Syriac  and  Arabic 

life,  including  one  of  his  brothers,  Father  Norbert.  texts;  and  he  translated  the  Arabic  and  Svriac  texts 

C.P.,  his  old  spiritual  director  and  confessor  ana  into  Latin  with  the  exceptions  of  the  Book  of  Ruth. 

Signer  Dominico  Tiberi,  who  had  been  miraculously  But  he  made  only  a  revision  and  not  a  fresh  transla- 

cured  through  his  intercession.  tion  of  the  Gospels  into  Latin,  nor  did  he  translate  • 

The  Mass  and  Office  in  honour  of  Blessed  Gabriel  from  Syriac  into  Latin  the  Sapiential  books  or  the 

are  allowed  to  the  whole  Passionist  congregation,  and  Apocalypse.    Together   with   John   Hesronita   and 

his  feast  day  is  celebrated  on  31  Mav.    It  is  the  ex-  Victor  Uciala  he  published,  in  1614,  a  Latin  translation 

press  wish  of  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X  that  he  should  be  of  the  (Arabic)  Psalter;  in  1616,  he  publicdied  an  Ara- 

regarded  as  the  chief  patron  of  the  youth  of  to-day,  bic  grammar,  of  which,  however,  out  one  division 

and  especially  as  the  patron  of  yoimg  religious,  both  (Liber  I)  appeu«d,  containing  rules  for  reading.    In 

novices  and  professed,  in  all  that  concerns  their  1619,  appeared  his  "Geographia  Nubiensis",  i.  e.  a 

interior  lives.  translation  of  the  Maronite  editions  of  the  same,  or 

BoMAociA,  Af«fwi<»  »torM*«  »oinw  la  vita  €  Uvwta  ddjfwwmf  rather  of  Edrisi's  geography,  with  a  small  treatise  as 

FrancMoo  Poatentt  (1868,  1892  and  1894).     RaocoUa  deUe  let-  ««,,^„j,v    "n«  n/NVini^li'a  rwionf    ii«.K    m^^  «,.»»  ^n/^;« 

Unedaltn  Bcritti  dd  vm.  Servo  di  Die  (Rome.  1900).    A  life  of  appendix,    De  nonnullis  Onent.  urb.  neo  non  mdig. 

Blessed  Gabriele,  written  in  Enicliah  by  Hyacinth  Hage,  C.P.,  rehg.  ac.  monbus".     In  1634,  was  issued  a  "Poema 

was  published  in  Amerioa  in  1899  and  re-iasued  later  in  Dublin.  Emgmaticum  "  in  praise  of  Divine  wisdom  by  an  an- 

S±3'.r^°r.'S'S?^t1&^tio^!  VSr^^^o'SiSSi  Cient  Synan  phnoeopher|in  1630  "Testamltum  et 

Beir  AddoUrrala,  da  Padre  Oermano  di  S.  Stanialao  Pasaioniata;  pactiones  mter  Mohammedem  et  ChnstiansB  fidei  CUl- 

aeeeedGabneUPoeeenH  in  The  Tabiet(Jjondc^^M,  1908).  tores",  in  Arabic  and  Latin;    and  finally  (1640-2) 

Arthur  Deyine.  three  small  pamphlets,  one  in  Latin  and  two  in  French, 

Gabriels,  Hbnrt.    See  Ogdbnsburg,  Diocese  op.  containing  his  defence  in  the  actions  of  Le  Jay  and 

Vitr6. 

Gabriel  Sioiiita,  a  learned  Maronite,  famous  for  L»  Lono,  BiMi^ieoa  Sacra,  ed.  Mabh,  lO^urfa,  1778),  350 

his  share  in  the  publication  of  the  Parisian  polyglot  of  Pftj^Sif^RiR^r  «£,  fe'/l^^ 

the  Bible;  b.  1577.  at  Edden  on  the  Lebano^  3:1648.  Ji2fi£"i?ii2^?i  y.*^*  ^'^'  ^*™'  ^®^®^'  ^  ^''  ^^^ 

at  Paris.    Though  he  came  to  Rome  at  the  age  of  J.  P.  Abendzen. 
seven,  he  always  looked  upon  Arabic  as  his  mother 

tongue.    At  Rome  he  learnt  Latin,  Syriac,  and  ao-  Gad  CVX  fortune,  luck). — ^A  proper  name  which 

quired  a  slight  knowledge  of  Hebrew;  he  studied  the-  designates  in  the  Bible,  (I),  a  patriaroh;  (II),  a  tribe 

ology,  but  did  not  receive  the  priesthood  till  much  of  Israel;  (III),  a  prophet;  (I V)f  a  pagan  deitv. 

later,  in  Paris,  at  the  advanced  age  of  45.    Savary  de  I.  Gad,  a  patriarch,  to  wit,  the  seventh  son  of  Jacob, 

Brdve^  once  French  ambassador  to  Turkev  and  inter-  and  the  first  b^  Zelpha,  Lia's  handmaid.    He  was 

ested  in  Oriental  studies,  when  recalled  from  Rome,  bom  to  Jacob  m  Mesopotamia  of  Syria  (Aram),  like 

took  two  Maronites  with  him  to  Paris  to  assist  in  the  his  full  brother,  Aser  (Gen.,  xxxv,  26).    C^  his  birth, 

publication  of  the  polyglot  under  the  auspices  of  de  Lia  exclaimed:  Happflyt  (*133)  and  therefore  called  his 

Thou,  the  royal  librarian^  and  Cardinal  Duperron.  name  QaA  (Gen.,  xxx,  11).    The  ezdamatbn  and  the 


GADARA  .                             332  OADDI 

name  given  thereupon  bespeak  a  real  telation  between  author  of  a  book  narrating  part  of  David's  reign  (I 

the  name  of  this  son  of  Jacob,  and  that  of  the  pagan  Par.,  zzix,  30)  and  as  having  assisted  that  king  in 

deity  which  was  also  called ''Gad'';  although  the  exact  arranging  the  musical  Bervioes  of  Ihe  House  of  the 

nature  of  this  relation  is  variously  estimated  at  the  Lord  (II  Par.,  xxix,  25). 

present  day.    The  patriarch  Gad  begot  seven  sons  IV.  Gad,  a  pagan  divinity  explicitly  mentioned  in 

(Gen.,  xlvi,  16).    Nothing  more  is  said  in  Holy  Writ  Is..  Ixv,  11,  wnere  the  Hebrew  name  *i;i,  "Gad'',  is 

oono^ning  him  personally.  rigntly  rendered  "  Fortune "  in  Uie  Vulgate.    As  far  as 

II.  Gad,  a  tribe  of  Israel,  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  be-  is  known  in  the  present  day.  Gad  is  a  word  of  Cha- 
tween  eastern  Manasses  on  the  north,  and  Ruben  on  naanite  origin,  which,  long  before  the  passEtge  of  Isaias 
the  south.  The  territorial  possessions  of  the  descend-  just  referred  to  was  written,  had,  from  a  mere  appella- 
ants  of  Gad  cannot  be  given  with  perfect  exactness,  tive^  become  the  proper  name  of  a  deity.  Biolica) 
On  the  west,  the  portion  of  Gad  abutted  on  the  Jor-  testunony  to  the  ancient  worship  (k  Gad  in  Ghanaan 
dan,  and  ran  up  the  Arabah  or  Jordan  valley,  in  a  nar-  is  certainly  found  in  the  names  os  such  places  as  Baal- 
row  strip,  from  the  northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  to  gad  (Jos., xi,  17;  xii,  7;  xiii,  5)  and Magdalgad  "tower 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  lake  of  Genesareth ;  but  of  Gad"  (Joe.,  xv,  37).  A  trace  of  Gad's  worship  in 
on  the  other  three  siaes,  its  boundaries  cannot  be  Svria  may  perhaps  be  found  in  Lia's  exclamation  *\^2 
described  with  equal  certainty.  Thus^  on  the  east,  "begsul"  on  the  oirth  of  her  first  son  whom  ehe  also 
the  Bible  assigns  to  Gad  no  distinct  lunit.  On  the  ddled  "Gad"  (Caen.,  zxx,  11):  this  was  admitted  of 
north,  it  »ves,  in  one  place  (Deut.,  iii,  16),  the  river  old  by  St.  Augustine  (Qusestiones  in  Heptateuchum, 
Jeboc  as  the  esctreme  lunit  of  that  tribe,  while,  in  two  in  P.  L.,  XXXlV.  col.  571)^  and  at  a  much  more  recent 
other  places  (Jos.,  xiii.  26,  30),  it  treats  as  such  the  date  by  Dom  Caunet,  in  his  Commentary  on  Genesis, 
locality  of  Manaim(HeD.Mahanaim)  which  was  to  the  Fbxscib  E.  Gigot. 
north  of  the  Jeboc.    In  like  manner,  on  the  south, 

the  sacred  text  represents  in  Jos.,  xiii,  15  sqq.,  as  the  Oadara,  a  titular  seeof  Palsstina  Prima;  there  were 

boundary  between  Gad  and  Ruben,  a  stiiu^t  line  two  sees  of  this  name,,  one  in  Palsestina  Prima,  the 

drawn  eastwards  from  the  Jordan  and  passing  ex-  other  in  Paliestina  Secunda;  it  is  therefore  difficult  to 

actly  northward  of  Hesebon,  a  town  which  it  ascribes  ascertain  to  which  of  the  two  cities  the  known  bishops 

to  Kuben:  whereas,  it  assigns  elsewhere  (Num.,  xxxii,  belonged  (Le  (>uien.  III,  597).    Gadara  in  Palsestina 

34  sqq.;  Jos.,  xxi,  37),  to  Kuben  several  towns  north  Secunda  is  to-day  known  as  Oum-Keiss,  beyond  the 

of  Hesebon,  and  to  Uad,  the  very  town  of  Hesebon.  Jordan,  while  Gadara  in  Palsstixla  Prima^he  subject 

From  these  apparently  conflicting  biblical  data  it  is  of  this  article,  has  not  been  identified.    There  was  a 

natural  to  infer  that  the  extent  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  Gader  (Jos.,  xii,  13)  whose  king  was  defeated  by  Josue, 

varied  at  different  times  in  Hebrew  history,  and  to  a  place  which  is  also  mentioned  in  I  Par.,  ii,  51;  Joe., 

consider  as  simply  conventional  the  defimte  limits  xv,  58.    It  is  to-dav  called  Dj^dur,  half-way  between 

ascribed  to  Gad  on  the  ordinary  maps  of  Palestine  di-  Bethlehem  and  Heoron.     A  Gedera  (Greek  TdJhipa) 

vided  among  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.    The  follow-  is  mentioned  as  being  in  the  plain  of  Sephelah  (Joe., 

ing  are  the  principal  towns  mentioned  in  Jos.,  xiii,  25  zv,  36;  I  Par.,  iv,  23)  and  is  to-day  called  Khirbet- 

sqq.  and  Num.,  xxxii,  34-36,  as  belonging  to  the  de-  Djedireh.  south-west  of  Amwas,  or  rather  Qatrah,  a 

scendants  of  Gad:  Jaser,  Ramoth,  Masphe,  Betonim,  village  ot  the  plain  of  Sephelah.    Perhaps  neither  of 

Manaim,  Betharan,  Bethnemra,  Socoth,  Saphon,  Jee-  these  cities  is  our  Gadara,  and  it  can  haraly  be  identi- 

baa,  Etroth,  Sophan.    During  the  journey  through  fied,  as  is  often  done,  with  Gazara  or  Gaser,  a  well- 

the  wilderness,  the  tribe  of  Gad  counted  upwards  of  known  Scriptural  city,  now  Tell-Djezer,  near  Amwas. 

40,000  men  and  inarched  with  Ruben  and  Simeon  on  S.  Vailh^. 
the  south  side  of  Israel.    Allowed  by  Moses  to  settle 

on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan,  on  condition  of  aiding  Oaddi»  Agnolo,  Giovanni,  and  Taddeo,  Moren- 
in  the  conquest  of  western  Palestine,  the  Gadites  com-  tine  artists,  Taddeo  being  the  father  of  Agnolo  and 
plied  with  that  condition,  took  possession  of  the  terri-  Giovanni.  The  dates  of  their  birth  are  very  un- 
tory  which  they  had  desired  as  favourable  to  pastoral  certain.  Taddeo  was  probably  bom  about  1300; 
pursuits,  and  formed  for  centuries  the  most  important  Agnolo  and  Giovanni  after  1333.  The  father  died  in 
Israelite  tribe  beypnd  Jordan.  They  were  a  warlike  1366,  Giovanni  in  1383,  Agnolo  in  1396,  and  all  three 
race  whose  valour  is  highly  prsused  in  the  parting  bless-  are  buried  in  Santa  Ooce  in  Florence.  Taddeo  was 
ingofMose8(Deut.,xxxiii,  20, 21)  and  in  the  prophecy  the  godson  of  Giotto,  lived  with  him  twenty-four 
of  Jacob  (Gen.  xlix,  19),  and  were  able  to  hold  their  own  years,  and  became  the  most  eminent  of  his  numerous 
in  the  raids  made  against  them,  chieflv  by  the  children  scholars.  Vasari  says  that  he  "  surpassed  his  master 
of  Ammon.  Upon  the  disruption  of  Solomon's  eni-  in  colour",  and,  in  some  of  his  works,  "even  in  expres- 
pire,  they  formed  a  part  of  the  northern  kingdom,  and  sion  *  \  Two  paintings  signed  by  him  are  in  existence 
shaji«d  with  varying  success  in  the  subsequent  wars  —one  in  Berlin,  dated  1333,  and  another  in  the 
aeainst  northern  Israel.  Their  name  appears  on  the  church  of  Megognano,  dated  1355.  The  best  of  his 
Moabite  stone  (line  10).  Thev  were  earned  into  cap-  extant  frescoes  are  those  in  the  Giugni  Ghapel,  for- 
tivity  at  the  same  time  as  the  other  tribes  beyond  merly  belonging  to  the  Baroncelli  family,  in  the 
Jordan  by  Teglathphalasar  ^734  B.  c),  and  in  the  time  chureh  of  Santa  Ooce,  but  his  most  extensive  works, 
of  the  prophet  Jeremias  their  cities  were  inhabited  by  in  the  churehes  of  San  Spirito  and  the  Serviti,  have 
the  Aznmonites.  Their  territory  comprised  the  land  all  disappeared.  Many  of  his  frescoes  and  several 
of  Galaad,  the  fertility  and  beauty  of  which  are  still  of  his  most  celebrated  altar-pieces  have  entirely  dis- 
praised by  eastern  travellers.  appeared.    His  principal  work  was  in  Florence  but 

III.  Gad,  a  Hebrew  prophet,  contemporary  with  he  also  executed  several  examples  in  Arezzo  and  m  the 
King  David.  He  came  to  that  prince  when  the  latter  Casentino.  Perhaps  he  is  best  known  for  the  fact 
was  hiding  in  the  cave  of  Odollam  (I  Kings  FSamuel],  that  he  was  a  distinguished  architect,  and  designed 
xxii,  5),  and  was  prolmbly  one  of  the  (Tadites  who  the  present  Ponte  Vecchio  in  Florence,  and  also  lower 
joined  David  there  (I  Par.  [Chronicles],  xii,  8).  He  down  the  river  a  still  finer  bridge  (Ponte  Trinity.), 
then  began  under  God's  guidance  his  career  of  coun-  which  was  destroyed  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He 
seller,  which  eventually  won  him  the  name  of  "  the  seer  was  very  successful,  and  amassed  ereat  wealth. 

of  David"  (II  Kinp,  xxiv,  11;  I  Par.,  xxi,  9).    Gad  His  son  Aenolo  entered  the  stumos  of  Giovanni  da 

announced  to  the  king  the  divine  punishment  for  num-  Milano  and  Jacopo  del  Casentino ;  his  best  work  is  in 

bering  the  people,  ana  advised  him  to  erect  an  altar  to  the  cathedral  at  Ptato,  where  there  are  thirteen  free- 

Ciod  on  Ornan's  threshing-floor  (II  Kings,  xxiv,  11  coes  illustrating  the  story  of  the  Holy  Girdle,  and  in 

^q.;  I  Par.|  xxi,  9  sqq.).    He  ie  referred  to  ae  the  the  ohurob  of  ^mtn  Crooe  »t  Florence,  where  tnere  9X9 


<t 


GAETA  333  OACTA 

le  conquest  of  the  kingdom,  todk  pomicaoioii  of 
11  and  held  it  aa  their  own.  In  1228  it  rebelled 
illustrated  the  story  of  Christ  raising  Lazarus,  and  was  against  Frederick  II  and  surrendered  to  the  pope,  but 
regarded  as  the  moot  wonderful  pointing  of  a  dead  after  the  peace  of  gan  Germano  (1230)  it  was  given 
bMj  that  had  ever  been  seen.  He  was  the  master  of  back  to  the  Sicilian  kbgdom.  In  12SS  Don  Jaime  of 
Sicily  tried  to  gain  posaessioa  of  it,  but  failed.  In 
1435  Alfonso  V  of  Araapa  (Alfonso  I  of  Naples)  be- 
sieged it,  and  displayea  great  generosity,  to  his  own 
di^dvantage.  by  succouring  those  unable  to  bear 
arms  who  huaa  been  driven  out  from  the  besieged  town. 
After  a  disastrous  naval  battle  he  captured  it,  and 
gtuned  control  of  the  kingdom.  In  IfiDl  Gaeta  was 
retaken  by  the  French,  who,  after  the,defeat  of  Gari- 
diano  (3  Jan  1504),  abandoned  it  to  Gonsalvo  de 
Cordova,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic's  general.  In  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succesnon  it  was  captured 
(1707)  by  the  Austrian  general  Daun,  after  a  stubborn 
resistance  made  by  the  Spanish  viceroy.  In  1806 
Mass^na  took  it;  &ially  it  became  the  last  refuge  of 
Francis  II  of  Naples.  After  an  heroic  defence  it 
capitulated  13  Feb.,  1861,  thus  sealing  the  annexation 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  to  the  Kin^dem  of  Italy. 
Cialdini,  the  Piedmontese  general,  received  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Gaeta. 

This  city  has  often  been  the  refuge  of  illustrioua 
personages:  among  others,  of  Gelasius  II,  who  was 
.  ,    ,       aom  there:  of  Margaret,  Queen  of  Naples  (1387):  of 
an  even  more  celebrated  man,  Cennmo  Cennini,  the    Gregory  XII  (1410)  after  the  capture  of  Rome  by 
author  of  an  important  treatise  on  painting  in  fresco,     Alexander  V;  finally  ^of  Pius  IX  (1848),  during  the 
distemper,  and  other  media,  which  is  the  chief  souree     Roman  revolution.     The  cathedral  contains  the  reliM 
of  our  information  respecting  the  technic  of  the    of  St.  Erasmus,  transferred  from  Formiie,  and  is  a 
early  Florentine  artists,  and  bIbo  of  a  book,  the  im-    handsome  building  dating  from  the  twelfth  centu^; 
portanoe  of  which,  especially  with  rward  to  tempore     the  campanile,  in  Norman  style,  dates  frflm   1279. 
painting  and  the  application  of  pjJd,  can  hardly  be    The  chuttih  of  St.  Francis,  built  by  Frederick  II,  is  in 
over-estimated.    Giovanni  Gaddi,  the  brother  and 
pupil  of  Agnoto,  was  a  man  of  much  leas  importance, 
and  hardly  any  works  now  remain  which  can  be  at- 
tributed to  him  with  certainty,  as  in  the  rebuilding  of 
San  Spiritoat  Florence  mostof  his  work  waa  destroyed. 

Vauu,  Le  ViUdti  PtUori,  ed.  UiuHui  (FloRnoa,  1S7& 
lS85);aJ»BAU>TNUCci,  WoMnadi'  proteMnri dtl dittgao  IFUa- 
en«.  1688),  uid  (he  work  b]>  tlia  »ine  Hilhor  on  the  krotiiMiit 
Oiuaeppv  ol  PiuHU&,  iisued  Bt  Turin  in  1768. 

GbOBQE  Oni.Bt.wa  WiLUAltBOM. 

Oftota,  Abcbdiocese  or  (Caietana),  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Caserta  in  Campania  (Southern  Italy).  It  is 
the  ancient  Caieta,  situated  on  the  slopes  of  the  Torre 
di  Orlando,  a  promontory  overiooking  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Gaeta  was  an  ancient  Ionian  colony  of  the 
Samians  according  to  Strabo;  legend,  however,  de- 
rives its  foundation  from  Caiela,  we  nurse  of  i£neas 
or  Ascanius.  Among  the  ancients  it  was  famous  for 
its  lovely  and  temperate  climate.  Its  port  was  of 
great  importance  in  trade  and  in  war,  and  was  restored 
under  Antoninus  Pius.  Among  its  antiquities  is  the 
mausoleum  of  Lucius  Munatius  Flancus.  As  Bysan- 
tine  influence  declined  in  Southern  Italy  the  town 
began  to  grow.  In  the  ninth  century  (840)  the  in- 
habitants of  the  neighbourii^  Formis  fled  to  Gaeta 
throu^  fear  of  the  Saracens.  Though  under  the 
■uzenunty  of  Byzantium,  Gaeta  had  then,  like  Naples 
and  Amalfi,  a  republican  form  of  government  under 
a  "dux"  or  lord.  It  was  a  strong  bulwark  against 
Saracen  invasion,  and  in  847  aided  Leo  IV  m  the 
na^  fight  at  Ostia.  Later,  however,  looking  rather 
to  local  safety,  its  dux,  Docibilis,  entered  into  treaties 
with  Uie  Saracens.    From  the  end  of  the  ninth  century 

the  principality  of  Capua  claimed  it,  as  a  title  for  the  n  r,  ^ 

younwr  son  of   the. prince.     In   1039   Gaeta,  with  C*M»*m».  Ca™«dbii,  or  Oa-t* 

Amatfr  and  Naples,  acknowedged  the  rule  of  Guai-  veir  fine  Gothic-Italian  strHe,  and  contains  painting 
mario,  Duke  of  Salerno;  about  forty  years  later  with  andsculpturebvmanyoftiie  most  famous  Neapolitan 
the  whole  duchy  of  Salerno  it  became  part  of  Robert  artists.  The  Cnapel  of  the  Crucifix  is  a  curiosity.  It 
Guiscard's  new  Norman  territory.  isbuilt  on  a  huge  mass  qf  rock  that  hangs  like  a  wedge 

In  the  many  wars  for  posaession  of  the  Kingdom  of  between  two  adjoining  walls  of  rock.  Legend  tellB 
the  Two  Sicilies,  Gaeta,  owing  to  its  important  stra-  how  the  rock  was  thus  split  at  the  moment  of  our 
tegic  position,  was  attacked  as  often  and  as  bravely  as  Saviour's  death.  The  episcopal  see  dates  from  846, 
it  was  defended.    In  1194  the  Fisans,  allies  of  Henry    when  Constantine,  Bishop  of  Formiie,  fled  thither  and 


GAOABm  334  GAHAN 

established  his  residence.    The  See  of  Fonni®,  aban-    B6umon  de  TEglise  orientale  avec  l^^lise  romaine'* 


It  was  onoe  a  suffragan  of  Capua,  then  directly  subject    primaut4  de  Saint-Pierre  et  lee  li vres  lituigiques  de 
to  the  pope.    Pius  IX  raised  it  to  archiepiscopal  rank,    rEglise  russe"  (1863).    Gagarin  also  spent  several 


without  suffragans.    Among  its  bishops  of  note  were:  years  in  Constantinople,  where  he  founded  the  Society 

Francesco  Patrizio  (1460),  friend  of  Pius  II,  author  of  of  St.  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  which  aims  at  reunit- 

a  work  in  nine  books,  "De  Remo  et  De  Institutione  ing  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches.    With  this  object, 

Regis",  dedicated  to  Alfonso,  Duke  of  Calabria;  and  too,  he  published  ''L'E^lise  roumaine'',  etc.  (1865); 

Tommaso  de  Vio,  better  known  as  the  famous  Cardi-  "Constitution  et  situation  prdsente  de  toutes  les 

nal  Cajetan.    The  Archdiocese  of  Gaeta  has  now  42  Eglises  de  TOrient"  (Paris,  1865);  "Les  Eglises  ori- 

parishes  with  83,600  faithful,  3  monasteries  for  men,  entales  unies"  (1867),  scholarly  and  comprehensive 

9  convents  for  women,  and  2  Catholic  weekly  papers,  studies  on  the  Oriental  Churches.    Amongst  works  of 

Cappbllbtti.  L«  Chiese  (T  Italia  (1870),  ^Q.  3Stf-4^;  Gagarin's  more  mature  years  are:   "Les  hymnes  de 

Codex  diilomaticue  Cajianue  (Monte  Caaamo,  Issf-Ol);  CabI  1  ^ghse  russe     (1868):   and  the  very  interesting  Mid 

TBUCOLA,  Memarie  etonehe  deOa  citUi  di  Gaeta  (Milan.  1879).  discursi ve  *  Le  Cleig^  Russe  "  (new  ed.  Brussels,  1871 ; 

,                    '^                 U.  Beniqni.  tr.  London,  1872).    The  latter  is  a  collection,  in  book 

form,  of  a  series  of  articles  published  in  the  "Etudes 

Oagarixif  Ivan  Sebgejewitch,  of   the  princely  xeligieuses"  under  the  title  "La  rSforme  du  clei^ 

Russian  family  which  traces  its  origin  to  the  ancient  russe",  an  indictment  of  the  encroachments  of  civil 

rulers  of  Starodub,  b.  at  Moscow,  1  Aug.,  1814;  d.  at  &;gression  on  ecclesiastical  right.    The  "M^moires 

Paris,  19  July,  1882.    Ivan  (Johannes)  was  the  son  of  d%chetti"  [Paris,  Brussels,  1872 — "Les  J^suites  de 

the  Russian  state-councillor.  Prince  Sergius  Gagarin,  Russie"  (1783-1785)];  and  "Religion  et  Moeurs  des 

and  Barbara  Pushkin.    He  entered  the  service  of  the  Russes",  edited  by  Gagarin  (Paris,  1879),  are  further 

state  at  an  early  age,  and  was  first  named  attach^  to  proofs  of  his  great  activity.    Almost  all  the  sJ^ove 

his  uncle.  Prince  Gregory  Gagarin,  at  Munich,  on  were  published  at  Paris.    A  portion  of  his  works  were 

whose  death,  in  1837,  he  acted  as  secretary  to  the  legar  re-issued  bv  Brtthl,  in  "  Russische  Studien  zur  Theo- 

tion  at  Vienna.    He  was  afterwards  transferred  to  tiie  logic  und  Cieschichte  "  (Monster,  1857) ;  and  by  Hutt- 

Russian  embassy  at  Paris,  where  his  services  were  ler,in  "  Katholike  Studien  "(Auesburg,  1865).    When 

requisitioned  in  a  similar  capacity.    He  frequented  the  religious  orders  were  expelfed  from  France,  Ga- 

the  salon  of  his  near  relation,  Madame  Sophie  owetch-  garin  went  to  Switzerland,  but  soon  returned  to  Paris, 

ine,  ana  was  on  terms  of  familiar  intercourse  with  where  he  died. 

Ravignan,   Lacordaire's  successor  in   the   pulpit   of  Stbbbbb  in  KircheiUex..  ■.  ▼.;   Vapbrbau.  DieL  de»  Con' 

Notre-Dame.    Probably  this  dual  influence  assisted  ^;'  ?*^^*^*t9t**  l^r^*  ■•  r.Gagartne;  Romjnthal,  C«i^ 

^luwc-A^iuuo.     A  Avi^akrAj    uuo  Y«€M  *xxA*«^uvo^  cwo«ou^  verMenbUder,  III,  u.  IM,  aqq.    See  also,  for  indication  aa  to 

m  bringing  about  nis  conversion  to  Latnoiicism,  m  aources,  author's  preface  to  variouB  works. 

1842.    On  10  April  of  that  year  Gi^arin  made  his  P.  J.  MacAttlet. 

Profession  of  faitn,  and  was  received  into  the  Church 

y  Ravignan,  thereby,  according  to  Russian  law,  ^Oagliardi,  Achiujs,  ascetic  writer  and  spiritual 

putting  an  end  to  his  diplomatic  career,  and  forfeiting  director;  b.  at  Padua,  Italy,  in  1537;  d.  at  Modena, 

all  rights  to  his  inheritance.    In  the  latter  half  of  1843  ®  J^y»  1607.    After  a  brilliant  career  at  the  Univer- 

he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  passed  his  noviti-  sity  of  Padua  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1559 

ate  at  Saint-Acheul.    He  was  afterwards  employed  in  ^^^  *^o  brothers  younger  than  himself.    He  taught 

professorial  work  at  Brugelettes,  where  he  taught  philosophy  at  the  Roman  College,  theology  at  Padua 

churoh  history  and  philosophy,  at  the  Collie  of  Vau-  ^^  Milan,  and  successfully  directed  several  houses  of 

giraid  and  the  school  of  Ste-Genevidve,  and  at  Laval.  1^  order  in  Northern  Italy.    He  displayed  indefatig- 

He  spent  some  time  in  Versailles  and,  in  1855,  was  «^ble  zeal  in  preaching,  giving  retreats  and  directing 

back  at  Paris,  from  which  date  onwani  his  pen  was  congregations,  and  was  held  in  great  esteem  as  a  theo- 

ever  actively  employed  in  the  interests  of  religion  and  logian  and  spiritual  guide  by  the  Archbishop  of  Milan, 

learning.    Gagarin's  literanr  output  was  considerable;  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his 

many  of  his  articles  which  appeared  in  current  re-  pastoral  visitations,  and  at  whose  request  he  published 

views  and  periodicals  were  afterwards  collected  and  ?H  popular  handbook  of  reUgion, '^Catechismo  della 

published  in  book  form.  '^^  cattouca"  (Milan,  1584).     He  is  the  author  of 

As  a  polemist  Gagarin  was  thorough,  and  his  work  various  works  on  asceticism  and  mysticism,  some  of 

88  a  religious  propagandist  was  of  great  importance.  *^®n^  ''till  imedited.  Others  were  printed;  shortly  after 

His  grand  object  was  to  extinguish  dissension  and  ^^  death,  appeared  the  "Breve  compendio  intomo 

schism  amongst  the  Slavonic  peoples  and  win  over  alia  perfezione  cristiana"  (Brescia,  1611),  which  has 

Russia  to  the  Churoh  Universal.    In  conjunction  with  been  translated  into  five  langua^,  and  more  re- 

Fr.    Daniel,   Gagarin   founded    (1856)   the  journal  cently  the  valuable  "Commentaru  mExeroitiaspint- 

"Etudes  de  thiSogie,  de  philosophic  et  dOiistoire"  ualia  8.  P.  Ignatiide  Loyola"  (Bruges,  1882),  in  which 

(merged  into  "Etudes  religieuses,  historiques  et  lit-  ^?  explains  yerv  lucidly  thfe  author's  sugg;estions  for 

t^raires",  1862);   he  reestablished  the  '^CEuvre  de  distmguishmg  betw^n  the  good  and  evil  external 


Bcriptorum  8oc   Jeau;  Somiobb* 
TOGBL,  BibL  delaCde  JT.,  Ill,  1095. 

Paul  Debucht. 


Prop,  des  Sts.  Cyrille  et  M^thode"  (1858),  to  promote  influences  or  internal  motives  which  inspire  or  con- 
corporate  union  amongst  the  Churches;  and  contrib-  ^  human  conduct, 
uted  to  the  "Contempprain",  "Univers",  "Ami  de  la  ^c^i^fSSSfSto  cl^Tli 
Religion",  "Precis  hi8toriq(ues",  "Corr^pondant", 
"  Revue  des  questions  histonques  ",  etc.  The  "  Poly- 
biblion  "  (Pans,  1882),  another  review  in  which  articles  ^  Oahan,  William,  priest  and  author ;  b.  5  June,  1732, 
appeu^  from  the  pen  of  Gagarin,  exhibits  (XXXV,  in  the  parish  of  St.  Nicholas,  Dublin ;  d.  there,  6  De- 
166-188)  a  long  list  of  his  writing.  These  include:  oember,  1804.  He  entered  on  his  novitiate  in  the  Au- 
"La  question  religieuse  dans  I'Onent"  (1854);  "La  gustinian  Order,  12  Sept.,  1748  and  made  his  solemn 
Russie  serart-elle  catholique?"  (Paris,  1856),  tr.  Ger-  profession  18  Sept.,  1749.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was 
man  (Monster,  1857),  and  rendered  into  other  Ian-  sent  to  Louvain,  where  he  commenced  his  ecclesiasti- 


GAIAHITI8                              335  OAL 

4 

parochial  cleisr  at  the  time  being  insufficient,  he  was  he  entered  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts.    At  first  he  had 

asked  by  Archbishop  Lincohi,  and  was  permitted  by  to  engrave  fashion-plates  to  make  money  enough  to 

his  superiors,  to  take  up  the  work  of  a  aurate  in  St.  live,  but  his  determmed  application  to  his  art  brought 

Paul's  Parish.    After  three  years  in  this  capacity  he  him  the  Prix  de  Rome  for  engraving,  in  1856.    At  his 

returned  to  his  convent  in  St.  John's  Street,  where,  in  first  public  showing  in  1860,  his  prints  were  called 

the  leisure  intervals  of  an  ever-active  missionary  life,  laboured,  soft,  and  flaccid,  more  like  drv-point  etch* 

he  composed  the  well-known  "  Sermons  and  Moral  ings  than  burin  work,  and  ne  was  advised  to  adhere  to 

Discourses",  on  which  his  literary  reputation  chiefly  the  established  rules  of  his  art.    Gaillard  had  already 

rests.                                                                          .  chosen  a  new  method,  and  his  work  was  a  e^ock, 

These  "Sermons"  have  gone  through  several  edi-  because  not  done  according  to  the  formulas  that  tram- 

tions  (7th  ed.,  Dublin,  1873);  they  are  characterized  melled  engravers  of  that  day.  He  was  such  an  innovator 

not  so  much  by  exceptional  eloquence  as  by  solid  that  in  1^3  he  was  among  the  "refuses",  but  in  their 

learning  and  genuine  piety.    Dr.  Gahan  held  the  exhibition  his  portrait  of  Bellini  was  hailed  by  Burty 

oflSce  of  prior  m>m  1770  to  1778,  and  also  from  1803  as  the  work  of  a  master,  "'who  engraved  with  religious 

until  his  death  in  the  f olbwing  year.    In  1783  he  was  care  and  showed  a  bi^  classical  talent ".    QaiUard's 

made  provincial  of  his  order,  an  office  which  he  con-  manner — ^the  new  manner — was  to  engrave  with  soft, 

tinued  to  hold  for  some  years.    In  1786-7  he  travelled  delicate  lines,  drawn  closely  together  but  not  crossins, 

through  England,  France,  and  Italy.    About  1783  he  and  to  render  with  vaporous  delicagr  every  fold, 

made  the  acquaintance  of  Dr.  John  Butler,  Bishop  of  wrinkle,  or  mark  on  the  sxin  with  Van  £yck-like  care. 

Cork,  who  afterwards  turned  Protestant  on  his  succes-  Henceforth  Gaillard  was  represented  by  engravings 

sion  to  the  title  and  estates  of  Dunboyne.    A  frequent  and  paintings  at  every  Salon.    He  is  best  known  by 

and  friendly  correspondence  took  place  between  these  his  '^L'Homme  k  I'CBvlet",  which  brou^t  him  only 

two,  and  the  grief  which  Dr.  Gahan  felt  for  the  fall  of  $100.    This  masterpiece  was  completed  m  eight  days 

his  friend  (1787)  was  turned  into  joy  when  he  at-  — the  face  in  one. 

tended  Lord  Dunb^rne  on  his  deathbed,  and  received  His  admirable  portraits  of  Pius  IX  and  Leo  XIII, 
him  back  into  the  Church  (1800).  For  this,  howevei%  broad  in  general  effect  although  worked  with  micro- 
he  was  to  suffer.  In  spite  of  Dr.  Gahan's  advice  and  scopic  seal  and  realism,  raised  'Hhe  insubordinate 
that  of  Dr.  Troy,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  Lord  Dun-  scholar ''to  the  rank  of  the  most  celebrated  engraver  of 
boyne  insisted  on  willing  his  County  Meath  estate  to  his  day.  Another  great  plate  is  the  St.  ^bastian 
the  trustees  of  Maynooth  College,  recently  founded  modelled  with  delicate  touches,  and  showing  studied 
(1795)  by  the  Irish  Parliament.  But  as  the  will  was  outline,  delicate  chiaroscuro,  and  a  marvellous  relief, 
disputed,  and  the  issue  of  its  validity,  according  to  the  " My  ami"  he  said  **  is  not  to  diarm,  but  to  be  true ; 
law  then  in  force,  depended  on  whether  or  not  the  my  art  is  to  sav  all."  His  marvellous  work  led  many 
testator  had  died  "a  relapsed  Papist",  Dr.  Gahan  was  to  suspect  he  had  some  secret  process  or  mysterious 
compelled  to  appear  as  a  witness)  and  was  asked  to  ''tour  de  main",  but  it  was  his  penetrating  mind  and 
reveal  tiie  naturo  of  his  ministrations  to  the  dying  observant  eye  that  seised  the  soul  beneath  the  human 
nobleman.  He  refused,  of  course,  to  do  so,  and  after  face.  Gaillard  was  decorated  in  1876,  became  oflicer 
underlying  six  painful  examinations  in  the  Chancery  of  the  ''L§gion  d'Honneur"  in  1886^  and  President  of 
office  m  Dublin,  he  was  committed  to  jail  at  the  Trim  the  Soci^ti  des  Graveurs  au  Bunn  in  1886.  Just 
assizes,  24  Aug..  1802,  to  which  the  case  had  been  before  his  death  the  Government  ordered  him  to  en- 
referred  for  fiiuLi  judgment,  his  persistent  refusal  to  grave  Leonardo  da  Vinci's  "  Last  Supper"  and  "Mona 
testify  as  to  the  religion  in  which  Dimboyne  had  died  Lisa".  As  a  painter  Gaillard  was  accurate,  minute 
being  ruled  by  the  presiding  judge,  Lord  Kilwarden,  to  and  conscientious;  yet  his  small  canvases  are  effect- 
constitute  contempt  of  court.  This  imprisonment,  ive,  exhibit  great  power  of  characterisation,  and  are 
however,  lasted  only  a  couple  of  days,  and  the  re-  large  in  their  "ensemble".  He  painted  the  human 
mainder  of  Dr.  Gahan's  useful  life  was  passed  in  peace  face  as  he  engraved  it — with  the  precision  and  exacti- 
in  his  convent  in  Dublin,  where  he  died  holding  the  tude  of  the  early  Flemings.  His  catalogued  engrav* 
office  of  prior.  As  there  were  no  Catholic  cemeteries  ings  number  80;  his  "  Vir|^"  after  BeUini  deserves 
at  the  time,  his  remains  were  laid  to  rest  in  the  grav&>  special  mention, 
yard  attached  to  St.  James's  Protestant  Chureh.  Uirmmn,  Modem  Painting  (New  York,  1896).  11,  646;  Bb- 

Besides  the  "Sermons"  already  spoken  of,  Dr.  R/^™» ^P«ntre.  (7«i;«uj^rfuX/X» 5i*ci«  (Paiia,  1887),  vol.. 

Gahan  published  the  following  works:  "A  History  of  '                                                       Leigh  Hunt. 

the  Christian  Church":  "The  Christian's  Guide  to^j-ncsi^  a 

Heaven,  or  complete  Manual  of  Catholic  Piety';:  "A  Owns,  Pope.    Bee  Caius  and  Soter. 

Short  and  Plain  Exposition  of  the  Catechism  " ; "  Cath-  Oal;  Saint. — Of  the  ninety-eight  bishops  who  have 

olic  Devotion ''j  "  A  Short  and  Easy  Method  to  Discern  occupied  the  see  of  Clermont-Ferrand  (Auvergne)  the 


ommunicanii    va  revision  oi  rai;aer  jDciKer  Boimuuu;;  nrsii  ana  most  uiusi;riou8  was  Dianop  irom  oz/  vo  ooi. 

The  Spiritual  Retreat,  translated  from  the  Frendi  the  second,  from  640  to  650.    Bom  of  a  senatorial 

of  BouKialoue";  "An  Abridgment  of  the  History  of  family  of  Auvergne,  the  first  St.  Gal  eariy  embraced 

the  Old  and  New  Testament  ',  i.  e.  of  Reeve's  trana-  the  monastic  life,  and  then  became  councillor  to  St. 

lation  from  the  French  of  Royamount.  Quintianus.  whom  he  was  to  succeed  in  the  See  of  Clei*- 

Brbnan,  ^edMiagieal  HMory  of  7r02an^(2d  ed..  Dublin,  mont.    Thierry  I,  King  of  Austrasia,  having  invaded 

t.i!'&«M^-;..^./™^S^.1«%^  Auvergne  toot  Gal  prSoner  and  attachejTSm  to  the 

8L  AugustiiM  in  Irdand,  with  Hogrqphioal  $ketdiea,  etc  (Dublin,  oratory  of  his  palace.    He  regamed  his  liberty  some 


Oaianites.    See  Monophtbitbs. 

Oiillard,  Claude-Febdinand,  a  French  engraver 

and  painter;  b.  at  Paris,  7  Jan.,  1834;  d.  there^  27  Jan..  chief  event  of  his  episcopate  was  the  Council  of  Cler- 

1887.    His  early  studies  were  probably  with  Hopwooa  mont  in  535.    Fifteen  prelates  of  the  kingdom  of  Aus- 

and  Leeouturier;  but  his  chief  master  was  Cogniet,  trasia  assisted  at  it  imder  Uie  presidency  of  Honoratus, 

with  whom  he  began  engraving  in  1850.    InthisyeaTi  Bishop  of  Boiuges.    They  drew  up  seventeen  canons, 


OALATIANS                            336  GALATXANS 

of  which  the  first  sixteen  are  oontaizied  in  the  2>ecfv(um  tanis,^  Deiotanis,  etc.    Place  names  are  of  a  similat 

of  Gratian.  and  have  become  laws  of  the  universal  character,  e.  g.  Drynemeton,  the  "temple  of  the  oaks'* 

Church.    The  following  is  a  sununary  of  the  most  re-  or  The  Temple,  from  nemed,  "temple''  (compare 

markable:  bishops  are  prohibited  from  submitting  to  Augustonemetiun   in   Auvergne,    ana   Vememeton, 
the  deliberations  of  councils 
^fidrs,  before  having  dealt 

discipline:  clerics  are  forbidden  ^  «>^^/.^«»  ^  »^«.»»»  ^»»».w»  w.  ^^  ^^^^.^^  „^  ..^.q^».w^v  »  ^. 
in  their  aisputee  with  bishops;  exconununication  is  dissertatbn  i,  4th  ed.,  London,  1S74,  235.) 
pronounced  against  bishops  who  solicit  the  protection  As  soon  as  these  Gauls,  or  Galatians,  had  gained  a 
of  princes  in  order  to  obtain  the  episcopacy,  or  who  firm  footing  in  the  coimtr^  assigned  to  them,  they  be- 
cause forged  decrees  of  election  to  be  signed.  The  ^n  to  send  out  maraudmg  expeditions  in  all  aiiec- 
council  auo  declares  itself  forcibly  a|^inst  the  mar-  tions.  They  became  the  terror  of  their  neighbours, 
riagefl  of  Christians     *"    '                 *         •    -  .i     •  j        .  m    .•             .l       t.  i      *  *       »#.. 

relatives,  and  the  mi 

Gal  took  part  in  the                      ,  ,        „        . 

promulgated  eneraetic  decrees  for  the  abolition  of  Soter  from  his  having  saved  his  country  from  them, 

slavery,  and  in  540  in  the  fifth,  which  condemned  the  At  length  Attalus  I,  Kins  of  Pergamum,  a  friend  of 

errors  of  Eutvches  and  Nestorius.    His  feast  is  oele-  the  Romans,  drove  them  oack  and  confined  them  to 

brated  on  3  July.  Galatia  about  235-232  b.  c.    After  this  many  of  them 

The  second  St.  Gal  succeeded  St.  Csesarius;  he  was  became  mercenary  soldiers ;  and  in  the  great  battle  of 

a  man  of  great  sanctity,  and  was  one  of  the  most  emi-  Magnesia,  180  b.  c^  a  body  of  such  Galatian  troops 

nent  bishops  in  Gaul.    Little,  however,  is  Imown  of  his  fought  against  the  Romans,  on  the  side  of  Antiochus 

life.    His  feast  is  kept  1  November.  the  Great,  King  of  Syna.    He  was  utteriv  defeated  by 

Prbgobt  of  Toubs,  HiH,  Franeorumjy,  6, 6, 13;  BsAifcn,  the  Romans,  under  Scipio  Asiaticus,  and  lost  50,000  of 

It  ^7^SSr^i;^Xf^^^l^^^tf^^)t-  "•  }^  '»«»-^  ^^J^  the  Consul  Manlius  enteml  Gala. 

A   FonRNirr  tia,  and  defeated  the  Galatians  m  two  battles  graphi- 

caUy' described  by  Livv.  XXXVIII,  xvi.  These 
GalatUns,  Epistle  to  the. — Galatia. — ^In  the  events  are  referred  to  in  I  Mach.,  viii.  On  account  of 
course  of  centuries,  Gallic  tribes,  related  to  those  that  ill-treatment  received  at  the  haiids  of  Mithradates  I, 
invaded  Ital^  and  sacked  Rome,  wandered  east  Kinje;  of  Pontus,  the  Galatians  took  the  side  of  Pompey 
through  niyricum  and  Pannonia.  At  length  they  in  the  Mithradatic  wars  (64  b.  c).  As  a  reward  for 
penetrated  through  Macedonia  (279  b.  c),  and  assem-  their  services^  Deiotarus,  their  chief  tetrarch,  received 
bled  in  great  nunioers  under  a  prince  entitled  Brennus,  the  title  of  kmg.  and  his  dominions  were  greatly  ex- 
for  the  purpose  of  invading  Greece  and  plundering  the  tended.^  Henceforward  the  Galatians  were  under  the 
rich  temple  of  Delphi.  Tne  leaders  disagreed  and  the  protection  of  the  Romans,  and  were  involved  in  all  the 
host  soon  divided,  one  portion,  under  Brennus,  inarch-  troubles  of  the  civil  wars  that  followed.  They  sup- 
in^  south  on  Del])hi;  the  other  divisbn,  under  Leon-  ported  Pompey  against  Julius  Csesar  at  the  battle 
onus  and  Lutenus,  turned  eastward  and  overran  of  Pharsalia  (48  b.  c).  Amyntas,  thdr  last  king, 
Thrace,  the  country  round  Byzantium.  Shortly  after-  was  set  up  by  Mark  Aiitony,  39  b.  c.  His  kingdom 
wards  they  were  joined  by  the  small  remnants  of  the  finally  included  not  only  Gkuatia  Proper  but  also  the 
army  of  Brennus,  who  was  repulsed  by  the  Greeks,  great  plains  to  the  south,  together  with  parts  of  Lyca- 
and  killed  himself  in  despair.  In  278  b.  c,  20,000  onia,  ramphylia,  Piaidia,  and  Phrygia,  i.  e.  the  coun- 
Gauls,  under  Leonorius,  Luterius,  and  fifteen  other  try  contaixiing  the  towns  Antioch,Iconium,Lystra  and 
chieftains^  crossed  over  to  Asia  Minor,  in  two  divisions.  Derbe.  Amyntas  went  to  Actium,  31  b.  c,  to  support 
On  reunitmg  they  assisted  Nicomedes  I,  King  of  Bithy-  Mark  Antony ;  but  like  many  others  he  went  over,  at 
nia,  to  defeat  his  younger  brother;  and  as  a  reward  for  the  critical  moment,  to  the  side  of  Octavianus.  after- 
their  services  he  gave  Qiem  a  large^ tract  of  country,  in  wards  called  Augustus.  Augustus  confirmed  nim  in 
the  heart  of  Asia  Minor,  henceforward  to  be  known  as  his  kingdom,  which  he  retained  until  he  was  slain  in 
Galatia.  The  Galatians  consisted  of  three  tribes:  the  ambush.  25  b.  c.  After  the  disath  of  Amyntas,  Augus- 
Tolistoboii,  on  the  west,  with  Pessinus  as  their  chief  tus  made  this  kin^om  into  the  Roman  province  of 
town;  the  Tectosages,  in  the  centre,  with  their  capital  Galatia,  so  that  this  province  had  been  m  existence 
Ancyra;  and  the  Trocmi^  on  the  east,  roimd  their  chief  more  than  75  years  wnen  St.  Paul  wrote  to  the  Gala- 
town  Tavium.    Each  tnbal  territory  was  divided  into  tians. 

four  cantons  or  tetrarchies.    Each  of  the  twelve  te-  The  North  and  the  South  Galatian  Theories. 

trarchs  had  under  him  a  judge  and  a  general.    Acoun-  — St.  Paul  addresses  his  letter  to  the  churches  of 

oil  of  the  nation,  oonsistmg  of  the  tetrarchs  and  three  Galatia  (Gal.,  i,  2),  and  calls  them  Galatians  CGal.^  iii, 

hundred  senators,  was  periodically  hcdd  at  a  place  1);  and  in  I  Cor.,  xvi,  1,  he  i^aks  of  the  collections 

called  Drynemeton,  twenty  miles  sou^-west  of  An-  which  he  ordered  to  be  made  m  the  churches  of  Gala- 

cyra.    That  these  people  were  Gauls  (and  not  Ger-  tia.    But  there  are  two  theories  as  to  the  meaning  of 

mans  as  has  sometimes  been  suggested)  is  proved  b^  these  terms.    It  is  the  opinion  of  Lipsius,  lightfoot, 

the  testimony  of  Greek  and  Latm  writers,  by  their  Davidson,  CSiase,  Findlay^  etc.,  that  the  Epistle  was 

retention  of  me  Gallic  language  till  the  fifth  century,  addressed  to  the  people  of  Galatia  Proper,  situated  in 

and  by  their  personal  and  place  names.    A  tribe  m  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor  towards  the  north  (North- 

the  west  of  Gaul  in  the  time  of  Caesar  (Bell.  Gall..  VI,  Galatian  Theory).    Others,  such  as  Renan,  Perrot, 

xxiv)  was  called  Tectosages.    In  Tolistoboii  we  have  Weizs&cker,  Hausrath,  Zahn,  Pfleiderer.  Gifford,  Ren- 

the  root  of  the  word  Toulouse,  and  in  Boii  the  well-  dall,  Holtzmann.  Clemen,  Ramsay,  uomely,  Pace, 

known  Gallic  tribe.    Brennus  probably  meant  prince;  Knowling,  etc.,  nold  that  it  was  addressed  to  tne 

and  Strabo  says  he  was  called  Frausus,  which  in  Celtic  southern  portion  of  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia. 

means  terrible.    Lutenus  is  the  same  as  the  Celtic  containing  Pisidian  Antioch,  Iconium,  Lystra,  and 

Lucterius,  and  there  was  a  British  saint  called  Leon-  Derbe.  which  were  visited  by  Saints  Paul  and  Bama- 

onus.    Other  names  of  chieftains  are  of  undoubted  bas,  <iurmg  their  first  missionary  joumev  (South- 

dallic  origin,  e.  g.  Belgius,  Achichorius,  Gezato-Dias-  Galatian  Theory).    Lightfoot  was  the  chief  upholder 

tus,  Brogoris  (same  root  as  Brogitarus,  AUobroges),  of  the  North-Galatian  theory;  but  a  great  deal  nas  be- 

Bitovitus,  £>p080gnatus  (compare  Csssar's  Boduogna-  come  known  about  the  geography  ofAsia  Minor  since 

tus.  etc.),  Combolomarus  (Cnsar  has  Virdomanis,  he  wrote,  more  than  fifty  years  ago,  and  the  South- 

Inautbmarus),    Adiorix,    Albbriz^   Ateporix    (like  Galatian  Theory  has  proportionately  gained  ground. 

Oesar's  Dunmorix,  Ambiorix,  Vercingetoriz),  Biog^  A  German  Catholic  professor,  Steimnann  (Der  ^^■'"'^ 


GALATDOro 


337 


OALATIAMS 


laeisdes  G&laterforiefes),  has,  however,  recently  (1908) 
given  Lightfoot  his  strong  support,  though  it  must  be 
admitted  that  he  has  done  little  more  than  emphasize 
and  expand  the  arguments  of  Chase.  The  great  conr- 
phfBus  of  the  South-Galatian  theory  is  ProtTSir  W.  M. 
Kamsay.  The  following  is  a  brief  summaiy  of  the 
'principal  arguments  on  both  sides. 

(1)  The  fact  that  the  Galatians  were  being 
chao^ged  so  soon  to  another  g0Bi)el  is  taken  by  Light- 
foot  as  evidence  of  the  characteristic  fickleness  of  the 
Gauls.  Ramsay  replies  thaC  tenacity  in  matters  of 
religion  has  ever  been  diaracteristic  of  the  Celts.  Be- 
sides, it  is  precarious  to  argue  from  the  political  mobil- 
ity of  the  Gauls,  in  the  time  of  Csesar,  to  the  religious 
inconsistency  of  Galatians,  whose  ancestors  left  the 
West  four  hundred  years  before.  The  Galatians  re- 
ceived St.  Paul  as  an  angel  from  heaven  (Gal.,  iv,  14). 
Uffhtfoot  sees  in  this  enthusiastic  reception  proof  of 
Celtic  fickleness  of  charyter.  In  the  same  way  it 
may  be  proved  that  the  oOOO  converted  by  St.  Peter 
at  Jerusalem,  and,  in  fact,  that  nearly  all  the  converts 
of  St.  Paul,  were  Celts.  Acts  (xiii-xiv)  gives  sufiSciend 
indications  of  fickleness  in  South  Galatia.  To  take 
but  one  instance:  at  Ljrstra  the  multitude  could 
scarcely  be  restrained  from  sacrificing  to  St.  Paul; 
shortly  afterwards  they  stoned  him  and  left  him  for 
dead. 

(2)  St.  Paul  warns  the  Galatians  not  to  abuse  their 
liberty  from  the  obligations  of  the  Law  of  Moses,  by 
following  the  works  of  the  fiesh.  He  then  gives  a  long 
catalogue  of  vices.  From  this  Lightfoot  selects  two 
(pJ9aij  kQ/juh)  as  evidently  pointing  to  Celtic  failings. 
Against  this  it  may  be  urged  that  St.  Paul,  writing  to 
the  Romans  (xiii,  13),  exhorts  them  to  avoid  these  two 
very  vices.  St.  Paul,  in  givins  such  an  enumeration 
here  and  elsewhere,  evidently  ooes  not  intend  to  paint 
the  peculiar  failings  of  any  race,  but  simply  to  repro- 
bate the  works  of  uie  flesh,  of  the  carnal  or  lower  man; 
"they  who  do  such  things  shall  not  obtain  the  king- 
dom of  God"  (Gal.,  V,  2ir 

(3)  Witehcraft  is  also  mentioned  in  this  list.  The 
extravagant  devotion  of  Debtarus.  says  Lightfoot, 
"fully  bears  out  the  character  ascrioed  to  the  parent 
race".  But  the  Emperor  Tiberius  and  many  officials 
in  the  empire  were  ardent  devotees  of  augury.  Sor- 
cery is  coupled  by  St.  Paul  with  idolatry,  and  it  was 
ite  h^itual  ally  not  only  amongst  the  Gauls  but 
throughout  the  pagan  world. 

(4)  ^  Lightfoot  says  that  the  Galatians  were  drawn 
to  Jewish  observances ;  and  he  takes  this  as  evidence  of 
the  innate  Celtic  propensity  to  external  ceremonial, 
"appealing  rather  to  the  senses  and  passions  than 
the  heart  and  mind".  This  so-called  racial  characteiv 
istic  ihay  be  questioned,  and  it  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  the  whole  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitante  of  Asia 
Minor  were  given  over  heart  and  soul  to  gross  paean 
ceremonial.  We  do  not  gather  from  the  Epistle  tnat 
the  Galatians  were  naturally  attracted  to  Jewish 
ceremonies.  They  were  only  puzzled  or  rather  dazed 
(iii,  1)  by  the  specious  arsumente  of  the  Judaizers, 
who  endeavoured  to  persuade  them  that  they  were  not 
as  perfect  Christians  as  if  they  adopted  circumcision 
ana  the  Law  of  Moses. 

(6)  On  the  Soutii-Galatian  theory  it  is  supposed 
that  the  Epistle  was  written  soon  after  St.  Paul's 
seoond  visit  to  Derbe,  Lystra,  loonium,  eto.  (Acto, 
xvi).  Lightfoot  makes  use  of  a  strong  anniment 
against  this  early  date.  He  shows,  by  a  detaSed  ex- 
amination, that  the  Epistle  bears  a  dose  resemblance, 
both  in  argument  and  language,  to  parte  of  the  £p.  to 
the  Romans.  This  he  thinks  can  be  accounted  for  only 
on  the  supposition  that  both  were  written  about  the 
same  time^  and.  therefore,  several  years  later  than  the 
date  required  lor  the  South-Galatian  view.  To  this 
Rendall  (Expositor's  Greek  Test.,  London,  1903,  p. 
144)  replies  that  the  coincidence  is  not  due  to  any 
simflarity  in  the  circumstances  of  the  two  commum- 
VI.— 22 


ties.  "  Still  less  can  the  identity  of  language  be  fairiy 
urged  to  prove  an  approximation  of  the  two  epistles. 
For  these  fundamental  truths  formed  without  doubt 
the  steple  of  the  Apostle's  teaching  throughout  the 
years  of  continuous  transition  from  Jewish  to  Christian 
doctrine,  and  his  language  in  regard  to  them  could  not 
fail  to  become  in  some  measure  stereotyped.'' 

(6)  The  controversy  has  raged  most  fiercely  round 
the  two  verses  in  Acte,  xvi,  6,  and  xviii,  23,  uie  only 
places  where  there  is  any  reference  to  Galatia  in  Acte: 
(a)  "And  they  went  through  the  Phrygian  and  Gala- 
tian  region"  [r^w  ^pvylaof  xal  FaXarcjc^r  X^P^^Vi  (b)  "he 
departed,  and  went  throueh  the  Galatian  region  and 
Phrygia'  [or  "  Phrygian  "]  yriiw  raXaroH^y  xc^par  koX  ♦pu- 
yUiw],  Lightfoot  held  that  Galatia  Proper  was  meant  in 
the  first  passage,  and  Galatia  Proper  and  Phrygia  in 
the  second.  Other  supporters  of  the  North-Galatian 
theory  think  that  the  countries  of  North  Galatia  and 
Phrygia  are  meant  in  both  cases.  Their  opponente, 
relying  on  the  expressions  of  contemporary  writers, 
maintain  that  South  Galatia  was  intended  in  both 
places.  The  former  also  inteipret  the  second  part  of 
xvi,  6  (Gr.  text)  as  meaning  tnat  the  travellers  went 
through  Phiygia  and  Galatia  after  they  had  passed 
through  South  Galatia,  because  they  were  forbidden 
to  prcSudi  in  Asia.  Ramsay,  on  the  other  hand,  main- 
tains that  after  they  had  passed  through  the  portion  of 
Phrygia  which  had  been  added  to  the  southern  part  of 
the  province  of  Galatia  (and  which  could  be  called 
indifferently  Galatian  or  Phrygian)  they  passed  to  the 
north  because  they  were  forbBden  to  preach  in  Asia. 
He  holds  that  the  order  of  the  verbs  in  the  passage  is 
in  the  order  of  time,  and  he  gives  examples  of  similar 
use  of  the  aorist  participle  (St.  Paul  The  Traveller, 
London,  1900,  pp.  ix,  211,  212).  The  argumente  on 
both  sides  are  too  technical  to  be  given  in  a  short 
article.  The  reader  may  be  referred  to  the  following: 
North-Gralatian:  Chase,  "Expositor",  Dec.,  1893,  p. 
401,  May,  1894,  p.  331;  Steinmann,  "Der  Leserkreis 
des  Galaterbriefes"  (Monster,  1908),  p.  191.  On  the 
South-Galatian  side:  Ramsay,  **' Expositor",  Jan., 
1894,  p.  42,  Feb.,  p.  137,  Apr.,  p.  288,  "St.  Paul  The 
Traveller",  ete.;  Knowling^  "Acte  of  the  Apdstles", 
Additional  Note  to  ch.  xvm  (Expositor's  Greek  Test., 
London,  1900,  p.  399);  Gifford,  "Expositor",  July, 
1894,  p.  1.  • 

(7)  The  Galatian  churches  were  evidently  important 
ones.  On  the  North-Galatian  theory,  St.  Luke  dis- 
missed their  conversion  in  a  single  sentence:  "They 
went  through  the  Phrygian  and  Galatian  reson" 
(Acte,  xvi,  o).  Tliis  is  strange,  as  his  plan  througnout 
is  to  give  an  account  of  the  establishment  of  (Christian- 
ity by  St.  Paul  in  each  new  regpon.  Lightfoot  fully 
admite  the  force  of  this,  but  tries  to  evade  it  by  ask- 
ing the  question:  "Can  it  be  that  the  historian  gladly 
drew  a  veil  over  the  infancy  of  a  church  which  swerved 
so  soon  and  so  widely  from  the  purity  of  the  Gospel?" 
But  the  subsequent  failing  of  tne  Corinthians  did  not 
prevent  St.  Liike  from  giving  an  account  of  their  con- 
version. Besides,  the  Galatians  had  not  swerved  so 
widely  from  the  purity  of  the  Gospel.  The  argumente 
of  the  Judaizers  made  some  of  them  waver,  but  they 
had  not  accepted  circumcision;  and  this  Epistle  con- 
firmed them  m  the  Faith,  so  that  a  few  years  later  St. 
Paid  writes  of  them  to  uie  Corinthians  (I  Cor.,  xvi, 
1) : "  Now  concerning  the  collections  that  are  made  for 
the  sainte,  as  I  have  given  order  to  the  churches  of 
Galatia,  so  do  ye  also."  It  was  long  after  the  time 
Ihat  St.  Paul  could  thus  confidently  command  the 
Gralatians  that  Acto  was  written. 

(8)  St.  Paul  makes  no  mention  of  this  collection  in 
oiir  Epistle.  According  to  the  North-Galatian  theory, 
the  £4>istle  was  written  after  the  instructions  were 
^ven  for  the  collection;  the  omission  is,  therefore, 
mexplicable.  On  the  South-Galatian  theory  it  is 
quite  natiutd,  because  the  Epistle  was  written  several 
years  before  the  collection  was  made.    In.  Acto,  zz^  4 


OALATIANS 


338 


GALATXANS 


etc.,  a  list  is  given  of  those  who  carried  the  collections 
to  Jerusalem.  ^  There  are  representatives  from  South 
Galatia,  Achaia,  Macedonia,  and  Asia;  but  there  is 
no  deputy  from  North  Galatia — ^from  the  towns  of 
Ancyra,  Pessinus,  Tavium.  The  following  went  to 
Jenisalem  on  this  occasion,  the  majoritv  probably 
meetine  at  Corinth,  St.  Paul,  St.  Luke,  and  Sopater  of 
Berea  (probably  representing  Philippi  and  Adiaia: 
see  II  Cor.,  viii^  18-22) ;  Aris&chus  and  Secundus  ot 
Blacedonia;  Gaius  of  Derbe,  and  Timothy  of  Lystra 
(S.  Galatia);  and  lychicus  and  Trophimus  of  Asia. 
There  is  not  a  word  about  anybody  from  North  Gala- 
tia, the  most  probable  reason  being  that  St.  Paul  had 
never  been  there  (see  Bendall,  Expositor,  1893,  vol. 
II,  p.  321). 

(9)  St.  Paul,  the  Roman  citizen,  invariably  employs 
the  names  of  the  Roman  provinces,  such  as  Acnaia, 
Macedonia^  Asia;  and  it  is  not  probable  that  he  de- 
parted from  this  practice  in  his  use  of  "Galatia". 
The  people  of  South  Galatia  could  with  propriety  be 
styled  Cialatians.  Two  of  the  towns,  Antioch  and 
Lystra,  were  Roman  colonies;  and  the  other  two 
boasted  of  the  Roman  names,  Qaudio-Iconium,  and 
Claudio-Derbe.  ''  Galatians  "  was  an  honourable  title 
when  applied  to  them;  but  they  would  be  insulted  if 
they  were  called  Phrygians  or  Lycaonians.  All  admit 
that  St.  Peter  named  the  Roman  provinces  when  he 
wrote  "to  Hie  elect  strangers  disper^  through  Pon- 
tus.  Oalatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and  Bithynia"  (I  Pet., 
1,1). 

(10)  The  manner  in  which  St.  Paul  mentions  St. 
Barnabas  in  the  Epistle  indicates  that  the  latter  was 
known  to  those  for  whom  the  Epistle  was  primarily 
intended.  St.  Barnabas  had  visited  South  Galatia 
witii  St.  Paul  (Acts,  ziii,  xiv),  but  he  was  unknown  in 
North  Galatia. 

(11)  St.  Paul  states  (ii,  5)  that  the  reason  for  his 
course  of  action  at  Jerusalem  was  "that  the  truth  of 
the  gospel  migAt  ccm/inii«  with  "  the  Galatians.  This 
seems  to  imply  that  they  were  already  converted.  He 
had  visited  the  southern  part  of  the  tifalatian  province 
before  the  coimcil,  but  not  the  northern.  The  view 
favoured  above  receives  confirmation  from  a  consid- 
eration, as  appended,  of  the  persons  addressed. 

The  Kind  op  People  Addressed. — ^The  country^  of 
South  Galatia  answers  the  conditions  of  the  Epistle 
admirably;  but  this  cannot  be  said  of  North  Galatia. 
From  the  Epistle  we  gather  that  the  majority  were 
Gentile  converts,  that  many  were  probably  Jewish 
proselyte  from  tneir  acquaintance  with  the  Old  Test- 
ament, that  Jews  who  persecuted  them  from  the  first 
were  living  amongst  them;  that  St.  Paul  had  visited 
them  twice,  and  that  the  few  Judaizers  appeared 
amongst  them  only  after  his  last  visit.  We  know 
from  Acts,  xiii,  xiv  (and  early  history),  that  Jews  were 
•  settled  in  South  Galatia.  During  the  first  missionarv 
journey  unbelieving  Jews  made  their  presence  felt 
everywhere.  As  soon  as  Paul  and  Barnabas  returned 
to  Syrian  Antioch,  some  Jewish  converts  came  from 
Judea  and  taught  that  circumcision  was  necessary  for 
salvation  (Acts,  zv,  1).  Paul  and  Barnabas  opposed 
them,  and  went  up  to  the  council,  where  it  was  de- 
creed that  circiundsion  and  the  Law  of  Moses  were 
not  necessary  for  Uie  Gentiles;  but  nothing  was  deter- 
mined as  to  the  attitude  of  Jewish  converts  regarding 
these  things.  In  Judea  they  continued  to  observe 
them,  following  the  example  of  St.  James,  though  it 
was  implied  in  the  decree  that  they  were  matters  of  in- 
difference. This  was  shown,  soon  after,  by  St. 
Peter's  eating  with  the  Gentiles.  Gn  his  withdraw- 
ing from  them,  and  when  many'  others  followed  his 
example,  St.  Paul  publicly  vindicated  the  equality  of 
the  (ientile  Christians.  The  majoritv  agreed;  but 
there  must  have  been  "false  brethren'' amongst  them 
(Gal.,  ii,  4)  who  were  Christians  only  in  name,  and 
who  hated  St.  Paul.  Some  of  these,  in  all  probability. 
toUowed  him  to  South  Galatia,  soon  after  his  second 


visit.  But  they  could  no  longer  teach  the  necessity  of 
circumcision,  as  the  Apostofio  decrees  had  been  al- 
ready delivered  there  by  St.  Paul  (Acts,  xvi,  4). 
These  decrees  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Epistle  be- 
cause they  did  not  settle  the  point  now  insisted  on  by 
the  Judaizers,  viz.  the  advisability  of  the  Galatians 
accepting  circumcision  and  the  Law  of  Moses,  far  their 
greater  verfecHon.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  evi- 
dence tnat  there  were  any  Jews  settled  at  this  time  in 
North  Galatia  (see  Ramsay,  St.  Paul  The  TraveUer). 
It  was  not  the  kind  of  country  to  attract  them.  The 
Gauls  were  a  dominant  class,  living  in  castles,  and 
leading  a  half  pastoral,  half  nomadic  ufe,  and  speaking 
their  own  Gallic  language.  The  country  was  very 
sparsely  populated  by  the  subjugated  agricultum 
inhabitants.  During  the  long  wmter  the  ground  was 
covered  with  snow;  in  summer  the  heat  was  intense 
and  the  ground  parched;  and  one  might  travel  many 
miles  without  meeting  a  human  being.  There  were 
some  fertile  tracts;  but  the  greater  part  was  either 
poor  pasture  land,  or  barren  undulating  hilly  ground. 
The  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  in  the  few  towns  were  not 
Gauls.  Trade  was  small,  and  that  mainly  in  wool. 
A  decree  of  Augustus  in  favour  of  Jews  was  supposed 
to  be  framed  for  those  at  Ancyra,  in  Galatia.  It  is 
now  known  that  it  was  addressed  to  quite  a  different 
re^on. 

Why  WBnTBN. — ^The  Epistle  was  written  to  coun- 
teract the  influence  of  a  few  Judaizers  who  had  come 
amongst  the  Galatians,  and  were  endeavouring  to 
persuade  them  that  in  order  to  be  perfect  Christians  it 
was  necessiuT  to  be  circumcised  and  observe  the  Law 
of  Moses.  Tneir  arguments  were  sufficiently  specious 
to  puzzle  the  Galatians,  and  their  object  was  likely  to 
mm  the  approval  of  unbelieving  Jews.  They  said 
that  what  St.  Paul  taught  was  good  as  far  as  it  went: 
but  that  he  had  not  taught  the  full  perfection  ot 
Christianity.  And  this  was  not  surprismg,  as  he  was 
not  one  of  the  great  Apostles  who  had  been  taught  by 
Clhrist  Himself^  and  received  their  commission  from 
Him.  Whatever  St.  Paul  knew  he  learned  from 
others,  and  he  had  received  his  commission  to  preach 
not  from  Christ,  but  from  men  at  Antioch  (Acts,  xiii). 
Circumcision  and  the  Law,  it  is  true,  were  not  neces- 
sary to  salvation ;  but  they  were  essential  to  the  full 
penection  of  Christianity.  This  was  proved  by  the 
example  of  St.  James,  of  the  other  Apostles,  and  of  the 
first  disciples,  at  Jerusalem.  On  tins  very  point  this 
Paul,  the  Apostle,  placed  himself  in  direct  opposition 
to  (Dephas,  the  Pnnce  of  the  Apostles,  at  Antioch. 
His  own  action  in  circumcising  Timothy  showed  what 
he  expected  of  a  personal  companion,  and  he  was  now 
probably  teaching  the  good  of  circumcision  in  other 
places.  These  statements  puzzled  the  Galatians,  and 
made  them  waver.  They  felt  aggrieved  that  he  had 
left  them,  as  they  thought,  in  an  inferior  position: 
they  began  to  observe  Jewish  festivals,  but  &ey  haa 
not  yet  accepted  circumcision.  The  Apostle  refutes 
these  arguments  so  effectively  that  the  question  never 
again  arose.  Henceforth  his  enemies  confined  them- 
selves to  personal  attacks  (see  II  Cor.). 

Contents  of  the  Epistle. — The  six  chapters  nat- 
urally fall  into  three  divisions,  consisting  of  two  chap- 
ters each.  (1)  In  the  first  two  chapters,  after  the 
general  introduction,  he  shows  that  he  is  an  Apostle 
not  from  men,  nor  through  the  teaching  of  any^  man, 
but  from  Christ;  and  the  gospel  he  taught  is  m  har- 
mony with  the  teaching  of  the  great  Apostles,  who 
£^ve  him  the  right- hand  of  fellowship.  (2)  ^e  next 
(iii,  iv)  shows  the  inefficacy  of  circumcision  and  the 
Law,  and  that  we  owe  our  redemption  to  Christ  alone. 
He  appeals  to  the  experience  of  tne  Galatian  converts, 
and  brings  forward  proofs  from  Scripture.  (3)  He 
exhorts  them  (v,  vi)  not  to  abuse  their  freedom  from 
the  Law  to  indulge  in  crimes,  "  for  they  who  do  such 
things  shall  not  obtain  the  kingdom  of  God".  It  is 
not  for  love  of  them,  he  admonishes,  t^at  the  Judal- 


QALATIAMS  339  QALATIABTS 

sera  wish  the  Galatians  to  be  circumcised.    If  there  is  stand,  with  Kendall,  that  two  classes  of  peraons  are 

virtue  in  the  mere  cutting  of  the  flesh,  the  inference  meant:  first,  the  leading  men  at  Jerusalem;  secondly, 

from  the  argument  is  that  the  Judaisers  could  become  the  three  Apostles.    St.  Paul's  argument  was  to  show 

still  more  perfect  by  miUcmg  themselves  eunuchs —  that  his  teaching  had  the  approval  of  the  great  men. 

mutilating  themselves  like  the  priests  of  Cybele.    He  St.  Jam^  is  mentioned  first  because  the  Judaiaera 

writes  the  epilogue  in  large  lettero  with  his  own  hand,  made  the  greatest  use  of  his  name  and  example. 

Importance  op  the  Epistle. — As  it  is  admitted  on  "  But  of  them  who  are  in  repute  (what  they  were  some 

all  hands  that  St.  Paul  wrote  the  Epistle,  and  as  its  time,  it  is  nothing  to  me.    God  accepteth  not  the 

authenticity  has  never  been  seriously  called  inques-  peraoi^  of  man)",  versed.  St.  Augustine  is  almost  alone 

tion,,itiBimportknt,  not  only  for  its  biographical  data  m  his  interpretation  that  it  made  no  matter  to  St. 

and  direct  teaching,  but  also  for  the  teaching  implied  Paul  that  the  Apostles  were  once  poor  ignorant  men. 

in  it  as  being  known  at  the  time.     He  claims,  at  least  Others  hold  that  St.  Paul  was  referring  to  the  privi- 

indirectly,  to  have  worked  miracles  amongst  the  Gala-  lege  of  being  personal  disciples  of  our  Lord.    He  said 

tians,  and  that  they  received  the  Holv  Gnost  (iii,  5),  that  that  did  not  alter  the  fact  of  his  Apostolate,  as 

almost  in  the  words  of  St.  Luke  as  to  tne  events  at  Ico-  God  does  not  regard  the  person  of  men.    Most  prob- 

nium  (Acts,  xiv,  3).    It  is  the  Catholic  doctrine  that  ably  this  verse  does  not  refer  to  the  Apostles  at  all; 

faith  is  a  gratuitous  gift  of  God ;  but  it  is  the  teaching  and  Comely  supposes  that  St.  Paul  is  speaking  of  the 

of  the  Church,  as  it  is  of  St.  Paul,  that  the  faith  that  is  elevated  position  held  by  the  presbyters  at  the  coun- 

of  any  avail  is  **  faith  that  worketh  by  charity"  (Gal.,  dl,  and  insists  that  it  did  not  derogate  from  his  Apos- 

v,  6);  and  he  states  most  emphatically  that  a  good  tolate. 

life  is  necessary  for  salvation;  for,  after  enumerating        (c)  "/  withstood  Cephas". — ''But  when  Cephas  was 

the  works  of  the  flesh,  he  writes  (v,  21), "  Of  the  which  come  to  Antioch,  I  withstood  him  to  the  face,  because 

I  foretell  you,  as  I  have  foretold  to  you,  that  they  who  he  was  blamed  [jcarevwuo-M^wf,  perf.  part. — ^not,  "to 

do  such  things  shall  not  obtain  the  kingdom  of  God."  be  blamed",  as  in  Vulg.].    For  before  that  some  came 

In  vi,  8,  he  writes:  " For  what  things  a  man  shaU  sow,  from  James,  he  did  eat  with  the  Gentiles;  but  when 

those  also  shall  he  reap.    For  he  that  soweth  in  his  the3r  were  come,  he  withdrew  and  separated  himself, 

flesh,  of  the  flesh  also  shall  reap  corruption.     But  he  fearing  them  who  were  of  the  circumcision.    And  to 

that  soweth  in  Uie  spirit,  of  the  spirit  shall  reap  life  his  di^imulation  the  rest  of  the  Jews  consented,  so 

everlasting."    The  same  teaching  is  found  in  others  of  that  Barnabas  also  was  led  by  them  into  that  dissimu- 

his  Epistles,  and  is  in  perfect  agreement  with  St.  lation.    But  when  I  saw  that  they  walked  not  up- 

Tames:   "For  even  as  the  body  without  the  spirit  is  rightly  unto  the  truth  of  the  gospel,  I  said  to  Cephas 

dead;  so  also  faith  without  works  is  dead"  (James,  ii,  before  them  all:  If  thou,  being  a  Jew,  livest  after  the 

26).    The  Epistle  implies  that  the  Galatians  were  manner  of  the  Gentiles,  and  not  as  the  Jews  do,  how 

well  acquainted  with  tne  doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  the  dost  thou  compel  the  Gentiles  to  live  as  do  the  Jews?" 

Divinity  of  Christ,  Incarnation,  Redemption,  Bap-  (ii,  11-14).    Here  St.  Peter  was  found  fault  with^ 

tism,  (xrace,  etc.    As  he  had  never  to  defend  his  probably  by  the  Greek  converts.    He  did  not  with- 

teaching  on  these  points  against  Judaizers,  and  as  the  draw  on  account  of  bodily  fear,  Bsya  St.  John  Chrys- 

Epistle  is  so  early,  it  is  clear  that  his  teaching  was  ostom;  but  as  his  special  mission  was  at  this  time  to 

identical  with  that  of  the  Twelve,  and  did  not,  even  in  the  Jews,  he  was  afraid  of  shocking  them  who  were 

appearance,  lend  itself  to  attack.  still  weak  in  the  Faith.    His  usual  manner  of  acting, 

I) ATE  OF  THE  Epistle. — (1)  Marciou  asserted  that  to  which  he  was  led  by  his  vision  many  yeara  pre- 

it  was  the  first  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles.     Prof.  Sir  W.  viously,  shows  that  his  exceptional  withdrawal  was  not 

Ramsay  (Expositor,  Aug.,  1895,  etc.)  and  a  Catholic  due  to  any  error  of  doctrine.    He  had  motives  like 

professor.  Dr.  Valentin  Weber  (see  below),  maintain  tiiose  which  induced  St.  Paul  to  circumcise  Timothy, 

that  it  was  written  from  Antioch,  before  tne  council  etc. ;  and  there  is  no  proof  that  in  acting  upon  them  he 

(a.  d.  49-50).    Weber's  arguments  are  very  plausi-  committed  the  slightest  sin.    Those  who  came  from 

bie,  but  not  quite  convincing.    There  is  a  good  sum-  James  probably  came  for  no  evilpurpose;  nor  does  it 

mary  of  them  in  a  review  by  Gayford,  "Journal  of  follow  they  were  sent  by  him.    The  Apostles  in  their 

Theological  Studies",  July,  1902.    The  two  visits  to  letter  (Acts,  xv,  24)  say:  "Forasmucn  as  we  have 

Galatia  are  the  double  journey  to  Derbe  and  back,  heard,  that  some  going  out  from  us  have  troubled 

This  solution  is  offered  to  obviate  apparent  discrepan-  you  ...  to  whom  we  gave  no  commandment".    We 

cies  between  Gal.,  ii,  and  Acts,  xv.     (2)  Comely  and  need  not  suppose  that  St.  Peter' foresaw  the  effect  of 

the  majority  of  the  upholders  of  the  South-Galatian  his  example.    The  whole  thing  must  haye  taken  some 

theory  suppose,  with  much  greater  probability,  that  it  time.    St.  Paul  did  not  at  first  obiect.    It  was  only 

was  written  about  a.  d.  53,  54.     (3)  Those  who  defend  when  he  saw  the  result  that  he  spoke.    The  silence  of 

the  North-Galatian  theory  place  it  as  late  as  a.  d.  57  or  St.  Peter  shows  that  he  must  have  agreed  with  St. 

58.  Paul;  and,  indeed,  the  argument  to  the  Galatians 

Difficulties  of  Gal.,  ii  and  i. — (a)  ''I  went  up  required  that  this  was  the  case.    St.  Peter's  exalted 

.  .  .  and  communicated  to  them  the  ^pel  .  .  •  lest  position  is  indicated  by  the  manner  in  which  St.  Paul 

perhaps  I  should  run,  or  had  run  in  vam. "    This  does  says  (i,  18)  that  he  went  to  behold  Peter,  as  people  go 

not  imply  any  doubt  about  the  truth  of  his  teaching,  to  view  some  remarkable  sight ;  and  by  the  fact  that  m 

but  he  wanted  to  neutralize  the  opposition  of  the  spite  of  the  preaching  of  St.  Paul  and  Barnabas  for  a 

Judaizers  by  proving  he  was  at  one  with  the  others,  long  time  at  Antioch,  his  mere  withdrawal  was  suffi- 

(h)  The  followinp;  have  the  appearance  of  beine  iron-  cient  to  draw  all  after  him,  and  in  a  manner  compel 

icali^-^Icommumcated. . .  tothemwhoseemedtobe  the  Gentiles  to  be  circumcised.    In  the  expression 

some  thing"  (ii,  2);  "But  of  them  who  seemed  to  be  "when  I  saw  that  they  walked  not  uprightly",  ^ley 

something  ...  for  to  me  they  that  seemed  to  be  some-  does  not  necessarily  include  St.  Peter.    The  mcident 

thing  added  nothing"  (ii,  6) ;  "  But  contrariwise  ...  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts,  as  it  was  only  transitory. 

James  and  Cephas  and  John,  who  seemed  to  be  pillars  ".  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl. ,  I,  xii)  says  that  St.  Clement  of 

Here^we  have  three  expressions  roU  Sokov^iw  in  verse  Alexandria,  in  the  fifth  book  of  the  'Tworvirt&ctit  (Out- 

2;  Twr  SoK^rrtaw  eJval  rt,  and  ol  BoKovrres  in  verse  6;  lines),  asserts  that  this  Cephas  was  not  the  Apostle, 

and  oZ  SoKovpT€t  arSKoi  elrai  in  verse  9.    Non-Catholic  but  one  of  the  seventy  disciples.    Clement  here  has 

scholars    agree    with    St.    John    Chrysoetom  that  few  followers, 
there  is  nothing  ironical  in  the  original  context.    As        A  very  spirited  controversy  was  carried  on  be- 


OALATINO 


340 


OALATZNO 


Biieh  as  Origen  and  St.  Chrysostom,  supposed  that  the 
matter  was  arranged  beforehand  between  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul.  They  agreed  that  St.  Peter  should  with- 
draw and  that  St.  Paul  should  publicly  reprehend 
him,  for  the  instruction  of  all.  Hence  St.  Paul  says 
that  he  withstood  him  in  appearance  {xarii  wpbawrov). 
Otherwise,  says  St.  Jerome,  with  what  face  could  St. 
Paul,  who  became  all  things  to  all  men,  who  became 
a  Jew  that  he  might  gain  the  Jews,  who  circumcised 
Timothy,  who  shaved  his  head,  and  was  ready  to  offer 
sacrifice  at  Jerusalem,  blame  St.  Peter  for  acting  in  a 
similar  manner?  St.  Augustine,  laying  stress  on  the 
words  "when  I  saw  that  they  walked  not  uprightly", 
etc.,  maintained  that  such  an  interpretation  would  be 
subversive  of  the  truth  of  Holy  Scripture.  But 
against  this  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  not  so  very  dear 
that  St.  Peter  was  included  in  this  sentence.  The 
whole  controversy  can  be  read  in  the  first  vol.  of  the 
Venetian  edition  of  St.  Jerome's  works,  Epp.,  Ivi,  Izvii, 
civ,  cv,  cxii,  cxv,  cxvL 

(d)  Ajyparent  Discrepancies  between  the  EpieUe  and 
Acta. — (1)  St.  Paul  says  that  three  years  after  his  con- 
version (after  having  visited  Arabia  and  returned  to 
Damascus)  he  went  up  to  Jerusalem  (i,  17, 18).  Acts 
states  that  after  his  baptism  "he  was  with  the  disciples 
that  were  at  Damascus,  for  some  days"  (ix,  19).  .  He 
immediately  began  to  preach  in  the  synagogues  (ix, 
20).  He  increased  more  in  strength,  and  confounded 
the  Jews  (ix,  22).  ''And  when  many  days  were 
pass^,  the  Jews  consulted  together  to  kill  him"  (ix, 
23) ;  he  then  escaped  and  went  to  Jerusalem.  These 
accounts  are  not  contradictory,  as  has  been  sometimes 
objected;  but  were  written  from  different  points  of 
view  and  for  different  purposes.  The  time  for  the 
visit  to  Arabia  may  be  placed  between  Acts,  ix,  22 
and  23*  or  between  "some  days"  and  "many  days". 
St.  Luke's  "many  days"  ( Wpaa  IjcaraQ  may  mean  as 
much  as  three  years.  (See  III  Kings,  ii,  38;  so  Paley, 
Lightfoot,  Knowlin^,  Lewin.)  The  adjective  Uapii 
is  a  favourite  one  with  St.  Liike,  and  is  used  by  him 
with  great  elasticity,  but  generally  in  the  sense  of 
largeness,  e.  g.  "a  widow:  and  a  great  multitude  of  the 
city"  (Liike,  vii,  12);  "tiiere  met  him  a  certain  man 
who  had  a  devil  now  a  very  long  time"  (Luke,  viii,  27) : 
"a  herd  of  many  swine  feeding"  (Luke,  viii,  32);  "ana 
he  was  abroad  for  a  2(m^  time"  (Luke,  xx,  9);  "for  a 
long  time,  he  had  bewitched  them"  (Acts,  viii,  11). 
See  also  Acts,  xiv,  3,  21  (Gr.  text);  xviii,  18;  xix,  19, 
26;  XX,  37.  (2)  We  read  in  Acts,  ix,  27,  that  St. 
Barnabas  took  St.  Paul  "to  the  apostles".  St.  Paul 
states  (Gal.,  i,  19)  that  on  this  occasion,  besides  St. 
Peter,  "  other  of  the  apostles  I  saw  none,  saving  Jam^ 
the  brother  of  the  Lord".  Those  who  find  a  contra- 
diction here  are  hard  to  satisfy.  St.  Luke  employs  the 
word  ApoetUs  sometimes  in  a  broader,  sometimes  in  a 
narrower  sense.  Here  it  meant  the  Apostles  who 
happened  to  be  at  Jerusalem  (Peter  and  James),  or 
the  assembly  over  which  they  presided.  The  objec- 
tion can  be  pressed  with  any  force  only  against  those 
who  deny  that  St.  James  was  an  Apostle  in  any  of  the 
senses  used  by  St.  Luke  (see  Brbthbsn  of  thb 
Lord). 

One  of  the  best  eritioal  oommentariee  on  Qahttians  Is  Cob* 
NBLT,  Commentariut  in  S.  Fault  Epiatolam  ad  Oaiataa  in  the 
Cunua  Scriptura  Sacra  (Plarifl,  1892).  Other  useful  Oatholio 
oommentaries  are  the  well-known  works  of  X  Lapidb,  Esnus, 
BispiNo,  Palmxbri,  MacEtxllt. 

Patristic  Litbratubi:  There  are  oommentaries  on  the 
Epistle  by  Aicbrosiastkb,  St.  Auoustinb,  St.  Cbbtbostom, 

St.  JBBOIfB,  (EcVlCBNrDS,  PBLAOrUS.  PBUfAStUa^TBBODOBBT, 

Tbbodorb  or  Mopbubstia  (a  fragment),  and  Thbophtlact 
(all  in  Migne).  and  by  Sr.  Thomas  Aquinas  (many  editions  of 
St.  Paul's  Epistles). 

Critical  KDmoKB  m  Enoush:  Ltanrroor,  GakUians  (4th 
ed.,  London,  1874):  Ramsat,  Hiatorioal  Commentary  on  Oala- 
tianM  (London,  1900);  Rbndall,  Oalatiant  in  Expontor^B  Oreds 
Teat,,  III  (London,  1903). 

Fob  Nobth-Galatian  Trbobt:  LtoBrrooT  (supra);  Crasb 
in  Bxpontor,  Dec.,  1893,  May,  1894;  Findlat  in  Expooitory 
Timet,  VII;  (^bbbtbam  in  Cflaenoal  Review,  yol  III  (London, 
1894);  ScHicnDBL.  Oalatia  in  Bncyc.  Bw.;  Bblsbb,  Die 
Selbetoertheidiguno  aet  keUioen  Paulue  (Freiburg,  1896);  Stbik- 


if ANN,  Der  Leaerkreie  dee  OalaterbriefeiK  (MOnsCflr,  1908) 
tains  a  very  full  bibliography. 


Idbm,  St.  Paul  the  TraveUet  (London,  1900);  Idbm,  Hietorical 
Commentary  on  Galaiiane  (London,  1900);  Idbm  in  Hast.. 
Diet,  of  the  Bible;  Knowung,  Acts  of  the  Apoetlea  (additional 
note  to  ch.  xviii)  in  Expositor' a  Greek  TesL  (London,  1900); 
Rbndall,  op.  cit.  above;  Idbm  in  Expositor,  Nov..  1893,  Apr., 
1894;  GiPPORO  in  Expositor,  July,  1894;  Bacon  m  ^xpontor, 
1898, 1899;  Woodhousb,  Oalatia  in  Encyc.  Bibl.;  Wbbbr,  Die 
Abiassuno  des  Oalaterbriefes  von  dem  Apoetelkonxil  (Ratisbon, 
1900);  lx>mu,DieAdres8aten  des  Galaterbriefea  (Ratisbon,  1900): 
Idbm,  Das  Datum  des  Oalaterbriefes  (Passau,  1900);  Idem  in 
Katholik  (1898-99),  Die  theol.^prakt.  Monatssehrift^  and  Die 
Zeitschrift  far  kaih.  Theologie, 

C.  Aherne. 

GalatinOi  Pibtro  Colonna,  Friar  Minor,  philoso- 
pher, theologian,  Orientalist;  b.  at  Galatia  (now  Ca- 
jazzo)  in  Apulia:  d.  at  Rome,  soon  after  1539;  received 
the  habit  as  early  as  1480,  studiea  Oriental  languages 
in  Rome  and  was  appointed  lector  at  the  convent  of 
Ara  Cceli;  he  also  held  the  office  of  provincial  in  the 
province  of  Bari,  and  that  of  penitentiary  under  Leo 
X.  Galatino  wrote  his  chief  work  "  De  Arcanis  Ca- 
tholics Veritatis",  at  the  request  of  the  pope,  the 
emperor,  and  other  dietaries,  in  1516,  at  which  time, 
owmg  mainly  to  John  Reuchlin's  "  Au^nspiegel ",  the 
famous  controversy  on  the  authority  of  the  Jewish 
writings  was  assummg  a  very  menacing  aspect.  Gala- 
tino took  up  Reuchlin's  defence.  Resolved  to  combat 
the  Jews  on  their  own  ground,  he  turned  the  Cabbala 
against  them,  and  sought  to  convince  them  that  their 
own  books  yielded  ample  proof  of  the  truth  of  the 
Christian  religion,  hence  their  opposition  to  it  should 
be  branded  as  obstinacy.  He  ^ve  his  work  the  form 
of  a  dialogue.  The  two  conflicting  Christian  parties 
were  represented  by  Capnio  (Reuchlin)  and  tne  In-i- 

Suisitor  Hochstraten,  O.  P.  In  conciliatory  terms, 
ialatino  responded  to  the  queries  and  suggestions  of 
the  former,  and  refuted  the  objections  ofthe  latter. 
He  had  borrowed  largely  from  the  ''Pu^o  Fidel"  of 
the  Dominican  Rayihond  Martini,  remodelling^  how- 
ever, the  material  and  supplementing  it  with  copious 
quotations  from  the '  'Zohar^'  and  the '  Mjale  Razayya  ". 
In  a  long  letter  to  Paul  III  (MS.  Vat.  Libr.,  cod. 
Ottob.  Lat.  2366,  fol.  300-308)  he  vehemently  de- 
fended himself  and  his  partv  against  the  chai^  of 
having  forged  the  last-named  book,  which  he  firmly 
held  to  be  tne  work  of  **  Rabbenu  h&-^!adosh  *\  Gala- 
tino was  aware,  no  less  than  his  critics,  that  his  **  De 
Arcanis  Cath.  Ver. "  had  many  shortcomings,  both  in 
matter  and  form,  and  he  begged  his  readers  to  con- 
sider that  he  was  compelleoto  finish  it  within  the 
space  of  a  year  and  a  half.  The  work  became  very 
popular  and  ran  through  several  editions.  •  For  the 
rest,  (jalatino's  extensive  knowledge  and  his  thorougjh 
acquaintance  with  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Jewish  Aramaic 
is  fully  borne  out  by  his  numerous  other  unpublished 
writings.  In  bold  language  he  inveighs  against  the 
corruption  among  the  clergy  and  discusses  the  ques- 
tion of  reform.  While  engaged  on  his  remarkable 
work  "  De  Vera  Theolo^a  "  his  strength  threatened  to 
fail  him  by  reason  of  his  ereat  a^  and  infirmity,  but, 
having  taken  a  vow  to  defend  m  the  course  of  this 
work  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  he  instantly,  so  he  tells  us,  re- 
covered his  strength  and  healtn  (MSS.  52,  54,  60, 
St.  Isidore's  Coll.).  In  1539,  Paxil  III,  in  a  special 
Bull,  bequeathed  Galatino's  works,  about  thirty  in 
number,  to  the  convent  of  Ara  Coeli  and  enjomed 
that  special  care  be  taken  of  them.  The  MSS.  are 
now  preserved  in  various  Roman  archives. 

Wadding,  Anndles,  XVI  (2Dd  ed.,  Rome,  1736),  447  aq.; 
Idbm,  Seriptores,  ed.  M  ardkcchxa  (Rome,  1006),  187  8q9.;  Bab- 
TOLOCCiUB,  Biblioth.  Mam.  Rabb.  (Rome,  1675),  paaaim:  Im- 
bonatus,  Biblioth.  Lat,-Hobr.  (Rome,  1604),  103  aqq.;  WoLr. 
BUdioth.  ffebr.  (Hamburg,  1716-^),  I,  III.  IV,  n.  1827;  ClA- 
MBNT,  Biblioth.  Curieuse,  IX(LeipBic,  1760),  26  aqq. ;  Tiraboschi, 
StoriadellaLeUerat.  Ital.,  VII,  pt.  I  (Rome,  1784),  344 aq.;  Sbaba* 
LBA,   Supplementum   (Rome,    1806).   504;   FABBicxut-BfAiiBV 


GALEBinS  341  GALILEE 

Biblialh.  LaL  Med.  JM,  III  (Florence,  1858),  6  aqq.;  Easbb  in         Clinton,  Faati  Romania  II;  Ootau,  Chrcndoffie  d«  V§mpir9 

Kvth«rUex.t  a.  v.  Pttnu  Oalatinua,  romain  (Paris  — );  Bbrnhabd,  PolUuehe  Ge»ehtehU  Rom*  von 

Tno^LhS  PlabSMANN.  Valerian  Ms  Diodetian;  Burckbaxdt,  Die  Zeit  Conetantine  dm 

Groseen  (3d  ed..  1898);  Schillbr,  GeediicfUe  der  romanieAon 

GaleriUB,    VaLBRIUS    MaXIMIANUS,    a    native     of  KaiaeneU  (2  vola..  Gotha.  1883);  8mmcK.Ge»chidUe  dee  UnUr- 

lUyria,  was  made  Casar  1  March,  293,  by  Diocletian,  oofHf*  der  anuken  WeU  (2  vote.,  6erlm.  18W. 
whose  daughter  Valeria  he  married  and  who  in  turn  JIarl  Hobbeb. 

adopted  her  husband.    The  latter  began  his  career  as        -  ..       ,  t^      .  .  ,  ^  .m        i_ 

an  illiterate  shepherd,  was  a  man  of  violent  character,        Qalien,  Joseph,  Domimcan,  professor  of  philoeophy 

fond  of  pleasure  and  poUticaUy  insignificant :  but  he  a?d  theologr  at  the  University  of  Avignon,  meteorolo- 

was  an  efficient  soldier  and  a  loyal  and  devoted  bench-  gist,  physicist,  and  wnter  on  aeronautics;  b.  1699,  at 

man  of  Diocletian.    When  about  this  time  the  latter  Samt^Pauhen,  near  Le  Puy,  m  Southern  France;  d. 

divided  the  empire  between  the  two  Augusti,  Diocle-  1762  m  the  Dommican  monastery  at  Le  Puy— w, 

tian  and  Maximinian,  and  their  two  Cosars,  Galerius  according  to  other  accounts,  m  1782  at  Ayimon.    He 

received  the  countries  on  the  Danube.    His  official  entered  the  order  at  Le  Puy.    He  studied  philosophy 

residence  was  at  Sirmium,  but  he  was  especially  active  and  theology  at  the  Dommican  mstitution  m  Avignon 

in  the  East,  Diocletian's  share  of  the  empire.    From  with  such  succ^  that  he  was  sent  to  Bordeaux  as 

293  to  295  he  conducted  campaigns  agamst  the  Ger-  P^^essor  of  philosophy  a^  early  as  1726.    From  the 

mans  on  the  lower  Danube  and  defeated  them  repeat-  year  1745  on  he  held  the  chair  of  theology  at  Avignon, 


tions.  The  Christians  had  been  constantly  increasing,  tnbution  was  a  booklet  that  he  iMued  aiionymously 
both  among  the  soldiers  and  the  civil  officials.  Mag-  in  1755  at  Avignon  under  the  title:  "Mtoou«  tou- 
nificent  churches  were  being  erected  in  the  large  cities,  chant  la  nature  et  la  formation  de  la  grfile  et  des 
and  the  time  seemed  not  far  distant  when  the  new  autres  m4t6ores  qui  y  ont  rapport,  avec  une  cons^- 
religion  would  gain  the  ascendancy  over  the  old.  quence  ult^neure  de  la  possibiDt^  de  naviger  [sic]  dans 
Chnstianity  had,  therefore,  to  be  rooted  out,  the  Holy  1  air  A  la  hauteur  de  la  region  de  la  grfile.  Amusement 
Scriptures  abolished,  the  churches  destroyed,  and  the  physique  et  g6om6tnque".  The  second  edition  of 
cemeteries  confiscated.  The  Christians  themselves  this  booldet,  this  time  with  the  name  of  ite  author, 
were  degraded  to  the  condition  of  pariahs.  The  appeared  as  early  as  1757.  The  change  m  ite  title 
edicts,  ever  increasing  in  severity,  were  enforced  much  renders  it  easy  to  discern  what  made  the  monograph 
more  strictly  in  the  East  where  Galerius  was  in  com-  so  mteresting.  It  was  now  called :  "  L'art  de  naviguer 
mand  than  m  the  West.  It  was  in  the  East  that  the  dans  les  au«,  amusement  physique  et  gSom^triaue. 
decisive  strugde  between  paganism  and  Christianity  pr6c^d6  d  un  njf  moire  sur  la  formation  de  la  grfile." 
was  fought  out.  When  Diocletian  voluntarily  aban-  After  propoundmg  his  theory  regardmg  hail  storms, 
doned  the  imperial  throne  at  Nicomedia  in  May,  305,  Galien  calculates  how  large  an  air-ship  would  have  to 
he  named  Galerius  .his  successor.  The  latter  thence-  be  in  order  to  transport  an  entire  army  with  ite  equip- 
forth  passed  most  of  his  time  in  illyricum.  ment  to  Af  nca.  His  scheme  was  to  construct  a  gigan- 
Constantius  Chlorus,  the  Caesar  in  Gaul,  who  was  tic  cube-shaped  vessel  of  ^ood,  strong  canvas  of 
older  than  Galerius,  was  reaUy  his  superior  m  mental  double  thickness  plastered  with  wax  and  tar,  covered 
gifte.    At  the  death  of  Constentius  in  306  the  soldiers  with  leather  and  reinforced  m  places  with  ropes  and 


Ognize  mm.      wnenxaaxenuus,  sonoi  i^nerei/irBa  i:*™-  ^,*~>',wy^  ^x^.  .^v,  —  »»v^.     *-  ^^v^  .^a^Kv^  «m*x* 

peror  Maximian,  and  son-in-Uw  of  Galerius.  had  been  breadth  it  would  be  larger  than  the  city  of  Avignon 

chosen  Casar  by  the  Senate  and  the  Praetorians,  dis-  and  would  resMtible  a  f  aip^irod  mountain.    This  vessel 

satisfied  with  Galerius's  extension  to  Rome  of  prcH  would  have  to  float  in  the  atmospheric  strata  of  the  hail 

vincial  taxation,  the  latter  led  an  army  against  Rome  belt,  as  the  atmosphere  there  is  a  thousand  times  lighter 

to  uphold  the  partition  of  the  empire  as  ordained  by  than  water,  while  m  the  strata  above  this^  mto  which 

Diocletian.    But  some  of  his  troops  deserted  him,  and  the  top  of  the  cube  would  extend,  the  air  is  two  thou- 

Severus,  whom  he  had  appointed  ruler  of  the  Western  sand  .times  h^ter  thaB  water.    For  the  scientific 

Empire  with  the  title  of  Aiuzustus,  was  killed  at  the  principles  of  his  oroposal  Gahen  rehed  on  Lana,  S.J., 

instigation  of  Maxentius.    Meanwhile  at  Camuntum  perhaps  also  on  Schott,  S.J.    His  chief  claim  to  im- 

Valerius  Licinianus  Licinius,  a  countryman  and  friend  portence  lies  m  the  fact  that  the  Montgolfier  brothers 

of  Galerius,  was  proclaimed  C»sar  of  the  Western  were  acquainted  with  him,  or  at  least  his  booklet.  His 

Empire.   Nevertheless,  Galerius  was  unable  to  master  birthplace  was  very  near  to  theirs,  and  hke  Galien  the 

the  situation  either  in  Itely  or  the  East,  and  never  Monl^olfiers  b^n  with  meteorological  observations; 

attained  the  supreme  imperial  dignity  which  Diocle-  moreover,  the  eWer  of  the  brothers  made  a  first  asoen- 

tian  had  held.    One  part  of  the  empire  after  the  other  sion  at  Avignon  in  1782.    In  aeronautical  works 

rebelled  and  became  autonomous.    He  finally  ceased  Galien  is,  for  the  most  part,  unfairly  treated;  as  the 

his  persecution  of  the  Christians,  for  the  sanguinary  writers  assume  that  his  scheme  was  meant  seriously, 

character  of  which  he  was  personally  responmble;  it  contrary  to  his  statement  given  on  the  title  page, 
had  lasted  eight  years  and  had  disgusted  even  the  G.  B.  Wilhblm. 

pagan  population.    Menaced  by  the  alliance  between 

Constentine  and  Maxentius,  he  issued  an  edict  30  Galilee  (Sept.  and  N.  T.  FaXxXaid;  Heb.  T7^),  the 
April^  311,  in  Nicomedia  permitting  the  Christians  to  native  land  of  Jesus  Christ,  where  He  began  His 
practise  their  religion  without  let  or  hindrance.  A  ministry  and  performed  many  of  His  wo&,  and 
few  days  later  Galerius  died  on  the  Danube.  The  whence  He  drew  His  Apostles.  Originally,  the  He- 
Christian  authors  of  his  time,  Lactantius  in  particular,  brew  word  061U,  derived  trom  gdUd, "  to  roll ",  meant  a 
condemned  him  violently  as  the  author  of  the  last  circle  or  district,  and  in  ite  feminine  and  plural  forms 
great  peraecutioa  of  the  Christiaoe*  was  applied  indifferently  to  several  regions  in  Palee- 


GALILEI 


342 


GALILSI 


tine.  The  simple  term  OdlU  (Galilee)  occurs  first  in 
Jos.,  XX,  7  (cf.  Jos.^  xxi,  32;  and  I  Par.,  vi,  76),  where  it 
denotes  that  portion  of  Nephtali  lying  to  the  north- 
east of  Lake  Merom,  in  whicn  la^  Cedes,  one  of  the  six 
,  cities  of  refuse.  In  III  Kings,  ix,  11,  the  expression 
"land  of  Gaulee"  is  used  to  designate  the  northern 
part  of  Palestine,  that  embraoecTthe  twenty  cities 
0iven  b;^  Solomon  to  Hiram,  King  of  Tyre.  Isaias 
(ix,  1)  gives  to  "the  land  of  Zabulon,  and  the  land  of 
Nephtd"  the  name  "Galilee  of  the  Nations"  (D.  V. 
"  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles"),  undoubtedly  on  account  of 
the  lai^  Gentile  population  in  that  region.  As  early 
as  the  Machabean  period,  the  limits  of  Galilee  had  ex- 
tended to  Samaria  (I  Mach.,  x.  30),  without  however 
including  the  plain  of  Jezrael  and  the  territory  of 
Ptolemais  (I  Mach.,  xii,  47, 49).  The  New  Testament 
freouentl^r  recognizes  it  as  dividing,  with  the  provinces 
of  Samaria  and  Judea,  all  of  Western  Palestine. 
Josephus  and,  more  accurately,  the  Talmudists  (cf. 
Neubauer,  "  La  Geographic  du  Talmud  ",  Paris,  1868) 

give  its  boundaries  at  this  period,  as  Phoenicia  and 
oele-Syria  on  the  north;  the  Jordan  valley  on  the 
east;  Samaria,  having  En  Gannim  (modem  Jennin)  at 
its  frontier,  on  the  south;  the  Mediterranean  and 
Phoenicia  on  the  west.  The  territory  thus  described 
is  naturally  divided  by  a  hi^  ridge,  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  which  was  Caphar  Hanan  (Kefr  *Andn), 
into  Upper  Galilee,  embracing  ancient  Nephtali  and 
the  northern  part  of  Asher,  and  Lower  Galilee,  em- 
bracing ancient  Zabulon  and  parts  of  Asher  and  Issa- 
char.  Although  mountain  ranges  extend  throughout 
the  territory,  rising  to  a  height  of  4000  feet  in  I^per, 
and  to  1800  feet  in  Lower  Galilee,  the  land  is  very 
productive,  especially  in  the  southern  division  where 
the  valleys  and  plains  are  greater,  and  is  capable  of 
sustaining  a  very  large  population. 

Josue  (xix,  10-39)  names  69  important  Canaanite 
towns  and  cities,  existing  in  the  conquered  territory 
allotted  to  the  Hebrew  tribes  of  Nephtali,  Zabulon. 
Asher,  and  Issachar.  Josephus  ("  Vita",  45)  countea 
204  prosperous  villages  ana  15  fortified  cities  in  the 
Galilee  of  his  time.  Now  its  population  is  small,  and 
for  the  most  part  scattered  among  miserable  villa^ 
and  mud  hamlets.  Safed,  one  of  the  four  sacred  cities 
of  Palestine  revered  by  Jews,  which  has  a  population 
of  about  15,000,  of  whom  9000  are  Jews,  is  the  principal 
city  in  the  north.  Nazareth,  a  Christian  city  (about 
10,000),  is  the  chief  city  in  tne  south.  The  deporta- 
tion of  Jews  by  Theglathphalasar  (Tiglath-Pileser), 
734  B.  c,  gave  an  overwhelming  preaominance  to  the 
Gentile  elements  noted  in  the  population  b^  Isaias. 
Although  the  Jews  multiplied  rapidly  in  Gahlee  after 
the  Babylonian  exile,  they  were  oppressed  by  the 
heathen  as  late  as  the  Machabean  penod  (I  Mach.,  v, 
45-54),  and  did  not  prevail  until  the  first  century 
before  Christ.  As  results  of  their  long  intercourse 
with  the  conauered  Canaanites.  and  Phoenician,  Syr-  ' 
ian,  and  Greek  immigrants,  ana  their  separation  from 
their  brethren  in  Judea  by  interlyin^  Samaria,  they 
spoke  a  dialect  and  had  peculiarities  in  business, 
family  and  religious  customs,  that  brought  upon  them 
the  contempt  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem.  Under 
the  Roman  Empire  both  Christianity  and  Judaism 
flourished  there,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  ruins  of  numer- 
ous synago^es,  churches,  and  monasteries  belonging 
to  that  penod  that  were  destroyed  by  the  Moslems. 
There  are  also  notable  ruins  of  churches  and  monas- 
teries erected  by  the  Crusaders,  who  restored  Chris- 
tianity in  Palestine  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  were 
not  finally  overcome  until  1291,  when  Acre  in  Galilee, 
their  last  stronghold,  was  taken  by  the  Moslems.  The 
territory  is  now  a  Turkish  possession  belonging  to  the 
vila^ret  of  Beirut.  The  people  are  divid^  m  their 
religious  beliefs.  Catholics  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Maronite  Rites,  Orthodox  Greeks,  and  Druses  live  side 
by  side  with  Moslems.  Near  Saifed  there  are  several 
modem  Jewish  cQlome9« 


^^IP™:-^^  Gw.  of  «fc«Ho«w  La»d  (I^don.  1886);  PmlmimM 
ExplanUmFund,  3fcm<nr«.  I  (1881);  Mbrrill,  GalUee  m  Ih^ 
tMMof  CAmj(  (London,  1891);  vonSghOmbr.  Jewikk  PeopU  m 

iJ*  T^^^f,  ^*"^  (New  York.  1886);  GutaiN.  GaliUe  (2  vol*.. 
Pans,  1880). 

A.  L.  McMabon. 

Galilei,  Alessandbo,  an  eminent  Florentine  archi- 
tect; b.  1691;  d.  1737.  Having  attained  some  distinc- 
tion, he  was  mvited  by  several  noblemen  to  accompany 
them  to  England,  where  he  resided  seven  years.  Af- 
terwards he  returned  to  Tuscany  and  was  appointed 
state  architect  by  the  Grand  Dukes  Cosmo  III 
and*  Giovanni  Gastone.  He  does  not  seem  to  have 
erected  anything  remarkable  either  in  England  or 
Tuscany.  His  abilities,  however,  were  made  manifest 
at  Rome,  to  which  place  he  had  been  invited  by 
Clement  All.  He  designed  the  facade  of  S.  Giovanni 
de'  Fiorentini  (1734),  and  the  great  fa^e  of  S.  Gio- 
vanni in  Laterano.  The  latter  was  the  result  of  a 
competition  set  on  foot  by  Clement  XII.  Of  twenty- 
one  designs  sent  in,  that  of  Galilei  was  accepted  and 
carried  out.  He  also  designed  the  Corsini  chapel  in 
the  same  edifice.  Galilei  has  been  much  criticised  on 
the  ground  that  his  arrangement  of  the  orders  was  not 
correct  .but  his  treatment  of  the  ornamental  parts  is  con- 
sidered admirable.  He  was  well  versed  in  mathemat- 
ics, and  possessed  many  other  valuable  acquirements. 

MiLixiA,  Lives  of  Cdebraled  ArchUecU,  II.  310;  Spoonbr,  Bio- 
ffraphical  Hiatorv  of  the  Fine  Arte,  I,  837;  Andbbson,  Italian 
RenaiBeance  Architecture^  157;  Lanpham  Seriee:  Rome  as  an  Art 
City,  74;  LoNanDLix)w,  CycLomgdia  of  Architecture  in  Italy, 
Greece  and  the  Levant,  384-6-8;  LOBxa,  History  of  Art,  II,  334. 

Thomas  H.  Poolb. 

Galilei,  Galileo,  generally  called  Galileo,  b.  at 
Pisa,  18  Februaiy,  1564;  d.  8  January,  1642.  His 
father,  Vincenzo  Galilei.  belon^;ed  to  a  noble  family  of 
straitened  fortune,  and  nad  ^ined  some  distinction  as 
a  musician  and  mathematician.  The  boy  at  an  early 
age  manifested  his  aptitude  for  mathematical  and 
mechanical  pursuits^  but  his  parents,  wishine  to  turn 
him  aside  from  studies  which  promised  no  substantial 
return,  destined  him  for  the  medical  profession.  But  all 
was  in  vain,  and  at  an  early  age  the  ^outh  had  to  be  left 
to  follow  the  bent  of  his  native  genius,  which  speedily 
placed  him  in  the  very  first  rank  of  natural  philoso- 
phers. 

It  is  the  great  merit  of  Galileo  that,  happily  com- 
bining experiment  with  calculation,  he  opposed  the 
Srevailing  system  according  to  which,  instead  of  goins 
irectly  to  nature  for  investigation  of  her  laws  ana 
processes,  it  was  held  that  these  were  best  learned  by 
authoritv,  especially  by  that  of  Aristotle,  who  was 
supposed  to  have  spoken  the  last  word  upon  aU  such 
matters,  and  upon  whom  many  erroneous  conclusions 
had  been  fathered  in  the  course  of  time.  Against  such 
a  superstition  Galileo  resolutely  and  vehemently  set 
himself,  with  the  result  that  he  not  only  soon  dis- 
credited many  beliefs  which  had  hitherto  been  ac- 
cepted as  indisputable,  but  aroused  a  storm  of  oppo- 
sition and  indignation  amongst  those  whose  opinions  he 
discredited;  the  more  so,  as  he  was  a  fierce  controver- 
sialist, who,  not  content  with  refuting  adversaries,  was 
bent  upon  confounding  them.  Moreover,  he  wielded 
an  exceedingly  able  pen,  and  unsparingly  ridiculed 
and  exasperated  his  opponents.  Undoubtedly  he  thus 
did  much  to  bring  upon  himself  the  troubles  for  which 
he  is  now  chiefly  remembered.  As  Sir  David  Brewster 
(Martyrs  of  Science)  sa^rs,  **  The  boldness,  may  we  not 
say  the  recklessness,  with  which  Galileo  insisted  on 
making  proselytes  of  his  enemies,  served  but  to  idien- 
ate  them  from  the  truth." 

Although  in  the  popular  mind  Galileo  is  remem- 
bered chiefly  as  an  astronomer,  it  was  not  in  this  char- 
acter that  he  made  really  substantial  contributions  to 
human  knowledge,  as  is  testified  by  such  authorities  as 
Lasrange,  Ara^o,  and  Delambre,  but  rather  in  the 
field  of  mechamcs,  $uid  especially  of  dynamics,  which 


2  *■ 


11 


aALZLKZ  343 

science  may  be  aiid  to  owe  its  exigtenoe  to  him.  Be-  full  eif^iifloanoe.  The  moou  was  shown  not  to  be, 
fore  he  was  twenty,  observation  of  the  oscillBtiooB  of  a  as  the  old  astronomy  taught,  a  smooth  and  perfect 
swinging  lamp  in  the  cathedral  of  Pisa  led  bim  to  the  sphere,  of  different  nature  to  the  earth,  but  to  pooDoaa 
discovery  of  the  isochronism  of  the  pendulum,  which  lulla  and  valleys  and  other  features  resembling  those 
theory  he  utitiied  fifty  vears  later  in  the  construction  of  our  own  globe.  The  planet  Jupiter  was  found  to 
of  an  astronomical  docK.  In  1588,  a  treatise  on  the  have  aatellites,  thus  displaying  a  solar  system  in  min- 
centre  of  gravity  in  solids  obtained  lor  him  the  title  of  iature,  and  supportine  the  doctrine  of  Copernicus.  It 
the  Archimedes  of  his  time,  and  secured  him  a  lecture-  had  been  argued  a^mst  the  said  systein  that,  if  it 
shipin  the  University  of  Pisa.  During  the  years  im me-,  were  true,  the  infenor  planets,  Venus  and  Mereury, 
diately  following,  taking  advantage  of  the  celebrated  between  the  earth  and  tne  aun,  should  in  the  course  at 
leaning  tower,  &  laid  tne  foundation  experimentally  their  revolution  exhibit  phases  like  those  of  the  moon, 
of  the  theory  of  falling  iiodies  and  demonstrated  the  and,  these  being  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  Copernicus 
falsity  of  the  peripatetio  maxim,  hitherto  accepted  had  to  advance  the  quite  erroneous  explanation  that 
without  question,  that  their  rate  of  descent  is  propor^  these  planets  were  Uansparent  and  the  sun's  rays 
tional  to  their  weight.  This  at  once  raised  a  storm  on  passed  through  them.  But  with  his  telescope  Gaiileo 
the  part  of  the  Aristoteleans,  who  would  not  accept  found  that  Venus  did  actually  exhibit  the  desired 
even  facta  in  contradiction  of  their  master's  dicta,  phases,  and  the  objection  was  thus  turned  into  an 
Calileo.  in  consequence  of  this  and  other  troubles,  argument  for  Copemicaniam.  Finally,  the  spots  on 
found  it  prudent  to  quit  PisB  and  betake  himself  to  the  sun,  which  Galileo  soon  perceived,  served  to  prove 
Florence,  the  original  home  of  his  family.  By  the  in-  the  rotation  of  that  luminary,  and  that  it  was  not 
fiuence  of  friends  with  the  Venetian  Senate  he  was  incorruptible  as  had  been  assumed, 
nominated  in  1592  to  the  Prior  to  theee  discoveries, 
chair  of  mathematics  in  the  Galileo  had  already  aban- 
University  of  Padua,  which  doned  the  old  Ptolemaic 
he  occupied  for  eighteen  astronomy  for  the  Coperni- 
years,  with  ever-increasing  can,  but,  as  he  confessed  in 
renown.  He  afterwards  be-  a  letter  to  Kepler  in  1597, 
took  himself  to  Florence,  he  had  refrainnl  from  mak- 
being  appointed  philosopher  ing  himself  its  advocate, 
and  mathematician  extraor-  lest  like  Copernicus  himself 
dinary  to  the  Grand  Duke  he  should  be  overwhelmed 
of  Tuscany.  During  the  with  ridicule.  His  telescopic 
whole  of  this  period,  and  to  discoveries,  the  si^ificance 
the  close  of  his  life,  his  inves-  of  which  he  immediately  per- 
ti^tion  of  Nature,  in  all  her  ceived,  induced  him  at  once 
fields,  was  unwearied.  Fol-  to  lay  aside  all  reserve  and 
lowing  up  his  experiments  at  come  forward  as  the  avowed 
Pisawjthothersuponinclined  and  strenuous  champion  of 
planes,  Galileo  established  Copemicnnism,  and,  appeal- 
the  laws  of  falling  bodies  as  ing  as  these  discoveries  did  to' 
they  are  still  formulated.  the  evidence  of  sensible  phe- 
He  likewise  demonstrated  nomena,  they  not  only  did 
the  laws  of  projectilee,  and  more  than  anything  else  to 
largely  anticipated  the  laws  recommend  the  new  system 
of  motion  as  finally  eetab-  to  general  acceptance,  but  in- 
UshedbyNewton.  Hestudied  vested  Galileo  himself  with 
the  properties  of  the  cvcloid  the  credit  of  being  the  great- 
and  attempted  the  problem  of  est  astronomer  of  bis  age,  if 
its  quadrature;  while  in  the  not  the  greatest  who  ever 
"infinitesimals",  which  he  hved.  They  were  also  the 
was  one  of  the  first  to  Intro-  Qiuua  Oxuixi  cause  of  his  lamentable  con- 
duce into  geometrical  demon-  T«n»-ootu  bmt,  XVII  Ggntury,  FVranoa  troveray  with  eccleeiaatical 
strations,  was  contained  the  authority,  which  raises  ques- 
germof  thecolculus.  In  statics,  he  gave  the  firvt  direct  tionsof  graver  import  than  any  otners  connected  with 
and  entirely  satisfactory  demonstration  of  the  laws  of  his  name.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  understand 
equilibrium  and  the  principle  of  virtual  velocities,  clearly  his  exact  position  in  this  regard. 
Inhydrostatics,  he  set  forth  the  true  principle  of  flota-*  The  direct  services  which  Galileo  rendered  to  astron- 
.  tion.  He  invented  a  thermometer,  though  a  defective  omy  are  virt^ially  summed  up  in  his  telescopic  dis- 
one,  but  he  did  not,  as  is  sometimes  clauned  for  him,  coveries,  which,  brilliant  and  important  as  tiiey  were, 
invent  the  microscope.  contributed  little  or  nothing  to  tne  theoretic^  perfeo- 
Thoudi,  as  has  been  said,  it  is  by  hia  astronomical  tion  of  the  science,  and  were  sure  to  be  made  by  any 
discovenes  that  he  is  most  widely  remembered,  it  is  careful  observer  provided  with  a  telescope.  A^in,  he 
not  these  that  constitute  his  most  substantial  title  to  wholly  neglectea  discoveries  far  more  fundamental 
fame.  In  this  connexion,  his  greatest  achievement  than  hie  own,  made  by  his  great  contemporary  Kepler, 
was  undoubtedly  his  virtual  invention  of  the  telescope,  the  value  of  which  he  either  did  not  perceive  or  en- 
Hearing  early  in  1609  that  a  Dutch  optician,  named  tirely  ignored.  Since  the  first  and  second  of  his  famous 
Lipperahey,  had  produced  an  instrument  by  which  the  laws  were  already  published  by  Kepler  in  160S  and  the 
apparent  siie  of  remote  objects  was  magnified,  Galileo  third,  ten  years  later,  it  is  truly  inconceivable,  as 
at  once  realized  the  principle  by  which  such  a  result  Delambre  says,  that  Galileo  should  not  once  have 
could  alone  be  attained,  and,  after  a  single  night  de-  made  any  mention  of  these  discoveries,  far  more  diffi- 
voted  to  consideration  of  the  laws  of  refraction,  he  cult  than  his  own,  which  finally  led  Newton  to  deter- 
eucceeded  in  constructing  a  telescope  which  magnified  mine  the  general  principle  which  forms  the  very  soul  of 
three  times,  its  magnifying  power  being  soon  increased  the  celestial  mechanism  thus  established.  It  is,  more- 
to  thirty-two.  This  instrument  being  provided  and  over,  undeniable,  that  the  proofs  which  Galileo  ad- 
tumcd  towards  the  heavens,  the  discoveries,  which  duced  insupport  of  theheliocentricsyBtemofCopemi- 
have  made  Galileo  famous,  were  bound  at  once  to  fol-  cue.  as  against  the  geocentric  of  Ptolemy  and  the 
low,  though  undoubtedly  ne  was  quick  to  grasp  their  ftncienta,  were  far  from  conclusive,  and  failed  toco«- 


▼inoe  such  men  as  Tyeho  BrahA  (who  however,  did  the  oioe  popes  «^o  fdlowed  him.  nor  the  Roman 

not  live  to  see  the  teleecooe)  and  Lord  Bacon,  who  to  Congregations  raised  any  alarm,  ana,  as  has  been  seen, 

Uie  end  remaiaed  an  unbeliever-    Milton  also,  who  Galueoliimself  in  1597,  speaking  of  the  rialcs  he  ni^t 

visited  Galileo  in  his  old  age  (1638),  appears  to  have  run  by  an  advocacy  of  Copernicanism,  mentioned  ndi- 

auqiended  his  judgment,  for  there  are  passages  in  hia  culeoulyandsaidnothingof  persecution.    Evenwhen 

great  poem  wtuch  seem  to  favour  both  systems.    The  hehadmadehisfamousdt3coveries,nochangeoccuned 

proof  from  the  phenomenon  of  the  tides,  to  which  in  this  respect.     On  the  contrary,  coming  to  Rome  in 

GaJileo  appealed  to  establish  the  rotation  of  the  earth  1611,  he  was  received  in  triumjih;  ail  the  world,  cleii- 

on  its  axis,  is  now  universally  reoogniied  as  a  grave  cal  and  lay,  flocked  to  see  him,  and,  setting  up  his 

error,  and  he  treated  with  scorn  Kepler's  suggestion,  telescoiK  in  the  Quirinal  Garden  belonging  to  Caidinal 

f  oresnadowing  Newton's  eatabliahment  of  the  true  doc-  Bandini.  he  exhibited  the  Bun-spota  and  other  objeota 

trine,  that  a  certain  occult  influence  of  the  moon  was  to  an  aamiring  throng. 

in  some  way  responsible.    In  r^ard  to  comets,  again,  '     It  was  not  tul  four  years  later  that  trouble  arose,  the 
he  maintained  no  less,  erroneously  that  they  were  eccleeiastical  authorities  taking  alarm  at  the  pereist- 
atmoHpheric  phenomena,  liice  meteors,  though  Tycho  ence  with  which  Galileo  proclaimed  the  truth  of 
bad  demonstrated  the  falsity  of  such  a  view,  which  the  Copemicaa  doctrine.    That  their  oppodtion  was 
was  recommended  only  as  the  solution  of  an  anti-  grounded,  as  is  constantlv  assumed,  upon  a  fear  lejt 
Copemiean  difficulty.  men  should  be  enlightened  by  the  diffusion  of  ecientifio 
In  (rpit«  of  all  deficiency  in  bis  ai^^uments,  Galileo,  truth,  it  is  obviouBl|y  absurd  to  maintain.    On  the 
prtrfoundly  assured  ol  the  truth  of  bis  cause,  set  him-  contrary,  they  were  mmly  convinced,  with  Bacon  and 
self  with  his  habitual  vehemence  to  convince  others,  others,  that  Uie  new  teaching  was  rsdically  false  and 
and  BO  contributed  unscientific,  while  it  is  now  ^uly  admitted  that  Gali- 
in  no  small  degree  leo  himself  had  no  sufficient  proof  of  what  he  so 
to    create    the  vehemently  advocated,  and  Professor  Huxley  after 
troubles  which  examini^  the  case  avowed  his  opinion  that  the  oppo- 
greatly    erabit-  nente  of  Galileo  "  had  rather  the  best  of  it".    But  wnat, 
tered    tne    latter  more  than  all,  raised  alarm  was  anxiety  for  the  credit 
part  of  his  life.  In  of  Holy  Scripture,  the  letter  of  which  was  then  unt- 
regardtoth^his-  versally  believed  to  be  the  supreme  authority  in  mat- 
tery, there  are  two  ters  of  science,  as  in  all  others.     When  therefore  it 
main  points  to  be  spoke  of  the  sun  staying  his  course  at  the  prayer  of 
considered.    It  is  Josue,  or  the  earth  as  being  ever  immovable,  it  was 
in  the  first  place  assumed  that  the  doctrine  of  Copernicus  and  GaUleo 
constantly  as-  was  anti-ScHptural,  and  therefore  heretical.     It  is 
suiVied,  especially  evident  that,  since  the  days  of  Copernicus  himself,  the 
at  the  present  day.  Reformation  controversy  had  done  much  to  attach 
that  the  opposi-  suspicion  to  novel  interpretations  of  Holy  Writ, 
tion  which  Coper-  which  was  not  lessened  by  the  eiKieavours  of  Galileo 
nicaoiam  encoun-  and  hia  ally  Foscarioi  to  find  positive  arguments  for 
tered  at  the  hands  Copemicanism  in  the  inmired  volume.     Poecarini,  a 
of     ecclesiastical  Carmelite  friar  of  noble  lineage,  who  had  twice  ruled 
authority    was  Calabria  as  provincial,  and  had  considerable  reputa- 

Kompted  by  tion  as  a  preacher  and  theologian,  threw  himself  with 
tr^  of  science  more  zeal  than  discretion  into  the  controversy,  as 
SwiHDiNa  Livr.  Cathedhal  or  Fiu  and  a  desire  to  when  he  sought  to  find  an  argument  for  Copemican- 
From  whiob  Galileo  duooynoit  the  keep  the  minds  of  ism  in  the  seven-branched  candlestick  of  the  Old  Law. 
iKHduvnum  of  iho  pondulum  ^1^^  jj,  j^e  dark-  Above  all,  he  excited  alarm  by  publishing  works  oa 
nees  of  ignorance.  To  suppose  that  any  body  of  the  subject  in  the  vernacular,  and  thus  spreading  the 
men  could  deUberately  adopt  such  a  course  is  ndic-  newdoctrine,whichwaBBtartlingevenfor  the  learned, 
ulous,  especially  a  body  which,  with  whatever  de-  amongst  the  masses  who  were  mcaimble  of  forming 
fects  of  method,  had  for  so  long  been  the  only  one  any  sound  judgment  concerning  it.  There  was  at  the 
which  concerned  itself  with  science  at  all.  It  is  like-  time  an  active  sceptical  party  in  Italy,  which  aimed  at 
wise  contradicted  by  the  history  of  the  very  contro-  the  overthrow  of  all  religion,  and,  as  Sir  David  Brew- 
versy  with  which  we  are  now  concerned.  Accord-  ster  acknowledges  (Martyrs  of  Science),  there  is  no 
ing  to  a  popular  notion  the  point,  upon  which  beyond  doubt  that  this  party  lent  Galileo  all  its  support. 
air  others  churchmen  were  determined  to  insist,  was  In  these  circumstances,  Galileo,  hearing  that  some 
the  geocentric  system  of  astronomy.  Nevertheless  it  'had  denounced  his  doctiine  as  anti-Scnptural,  pre- 
waa  a  churebman,  Nicholas  Copernicus  (a.  v.),  who  sentod  himself  at  Rome  in  December,  1615,  and  was 
first  advanced  the  contrary  doctrine  that  the  sun  and  courteously  received.  He  was  presently  interrogated 
not  the  earth  is  the  centre  of  our  system,  round  which  before  the  Inquisition,  which  after  consultation  de- 
our  planet  revolves,  rotating  on  its  own  axis.  His  clared  the  system  he  upheld  to  be  scientifically  false, 
great  work.  "  De  Revolutionibus  orbium  ccelestium  ",  and  anti-Scriptural  or  heretical,  and  that  be  must  re- 
was  published  at  the  earnest  solicitation  of  two  dis-  nounceit.  "This  he  obediently  did,  promising  to  teach 
tinguiahed  churchmen.  Cardinal  Schftmberg  and  Tiede-  it  no  more.  Then  followed  a  decree  of  the  Congr^a- 
mann  Giese,  Bishop  of  Culm.  It  was  dedicated  by  tion  of  the  Index  dated  5  March,  1616.  prohibiting 
permission  to  Pope  Paul  III  in  order,  as  Copernicus  various  heretical  works  to  which  were  added  any  ad- 
explained,  that  it  mi^t  be  thus  protected  from  the  vocating  the  Copemiean  system.  In  this  decree  no 
attacks  which  it  was  sure  to  encounter  on  the  part  of  mention  is  made  of  Galileo,  or  of  any  of  his  works, 
the  "mathematicians"  (i.  e.  philosophers)  for  its  ap-  neither  is  the  name  of  the  pope  introduced,  though 
perent  contradiction  of  the  evidence  of  our  sensee,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  fully  approved  the  decision, 
even  of  common  sense.  He  added  that  he  mode  no  having  presided  at  the  session  of  the  Inquisition, 
account  of  objections  which  might  be  brought  bv  wherem  the  matter  was  discussed  and  decided.  In 
ignorant  wiseacres  on  Scriptural  grounds.  Indeed,  thus  acting,  it  is  undeniable  that  the  ecclesiastical 
tor  nearly  three  quarters  of  a  century  no  such  difEcul-  authorities  committed  a  grave  and  deplorable  error, 
ties  were  raised  on  the  Catholic  side,  although  Luther  and  sanctioned  an  altogether  false  principle  as  to  the 
and  Melanchthon  condemned  the  work  of  Cc^micus  proper  use  of  Scripture.  Galileo  and  Foscarini  rightly 
in  unmeasured  terms.    Neither  Paul  III,  nor  any  of  urged  that  Hdy  Writ  is  intended  to  teach  men  to  go  to 


aALIUa  345  OAULn 

heaven,  not  how  the  heavens  go.     At  the  sama  time,     not  in  a  prison  cell  with  barred  windows,  but  in  the 

it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  while  there  waa  as  yet  Qo    handsome  and  commodious  apartment  of  an  official 
sufficient  proof  o{  the  Copemican  syBtem,  no  objection     of  the  Inquisition."    For  the  rest,  he  was  allowed  to 
was  made  to  its  being  taught  as  aD  hypothesis  which     use  as  his  places  of  confinement  the  houses  of  friends, 
explained  all  phenomena  in  a  simpler  manner  than  the     always   comfortable   and   usually   luxurious.     It    is 
Ptolemaic,  and  might  for  all  practical  purposes  be     wholly  untrue  that  he  was^ — as  is  constantly  stated- 
adopted  by  astronomers.     What  was  object«i  to  was     either  tortured  or  blinded  by  his  persecutors — though 
Uie  assertion  that  Copemicanism  was  in  fact  true,     in  1637,  &ve  years  before  his  death,  he  became  totally 
"whicbappearatocontradict Scripture".     Itisclear,     blind — or  that  he  was  refused  burial  in  coosecratea 
moreover,  that  the  authors  of  the  judgment  them-    raound.    On  the  contrary,  although  the  pope  (Urban 
selves  did  not  consider  it  to  be  absolutely  final  and     VIII)  did  not  allow  a  monument  to  be  erected  over  his 
irreversible,  torCardinal  Belknnine,  the  moat  influen-     tomb,  he  sent  his  special  blessing  to  the  dying  man, 
tial  member  of  the  Sacred  College,  wnting  to  Foecar-     who  was  interred  not  only  in  consecrated  ground,  but 
ini,  after  urging  that  he  and  Galueosh'ould  be  content     withinthechurchofSantaCroce  at  Florence.    Finally, 
to  show  that  their  syalem  explains  all  celestial  phe-     the  famous  "  E  pur  si  muove",  supposed  to  have  been 
nomena— an  unexceptional  proposition,  and  one  suffi-    uttered  by  Galileo,  as  he  rose  from  his  knees  after 
cient  for  all  practical  purposes — but  should  not  cat*- 
Borically  assert  what  seemed  to  contradict  the  Bible. 
thus  continued:  "I  say  that  if  a  real  proof  be  founa 
that  the  sun  is  fixed  and  does  not  revolve  round  the 
earth,  but  the  earth  round  the  sun,  then  it  will  be 
necessary,  very  carefully,  to  proceed  to  the  explana- 
tion of  the  passages  of  ScKpture  which  appear  to  be 
contrary,  and  we  should  rather  say  that  we  have  mis- 
understood these  than  pronounce  that  to  be  false 
which  is  demonstrated." 

By  this  decree  the  work  of  Copernicus  was  for  the 
first  time  prohibited,  as  well  as  the  "Epitome"  of 
Kepler,  but  in  each  instance  onlv  doitte  eorrigatur,  the 
oorreetions  prescribed  being  suco  as  were  necessary  to 
exhibit  the  Copemican  system  as  an  hypothesis,  not  as 
an  established  fact.  We  learn  further  that  with  per- 
mission these  works  might  be  read  in  their  entirety, 
by  "the  learned  and  skilful  in  the  science"  (Remua 
to  Kepler).  Galileo  seems,  says  von  Gebler,  to  have 
treated  the  decree  of  the  Inquisition  pretty  coolly, 
speaking  with  satisfaction  of  the  trifliiw  changes  pre- 
scribed in  the  work  of  Copernicus.  He  left  Rome, 
however,  with  the  evident  intention  of  violating  the 
promise  extracted  from  him,  and,  while  he  pursued 
unmolested  his  searches  in  other  branches  of  science, 
he  lost  no  opportunity  of  manifesting  his  contempt  for 
the  astronomical  system  which  he  had  promised  to 
embrace.  Nevertheless,  when  in  1624  he  a^in  visited 
Rome,  he  met  with  what  is  rightly  desenbed  as  "a 
noble  and  generous  reception".  The  pope  now  reign- 
ing, Urban  VIII,  had,  as  Cardinal  Barberini,  been  his 

friend  and  had   0{ipoBed  his  condemnation  in  1616.  —  „ 

He  conferred  on  his  visitor  a  pensioUj  to  which  as  a  j\KBi^a»nU Croce'rioreoca 

foreimer  in  Rome  Galileo  had  no  claim,  and  which,  ^^  ' 

says  Brewster,  must  be  regarded  as  an  endowment  at  renouncing  the  motion  of  the  earth,  is  an  acknowl- 
Elcience  itself.  But  to  Galileo's  disappointment  Urbui  edged  fiction,  of  which  no  mention  can  be  found 
would  not  annul  the  former  judgment  of  the  Inquisi-  till  more  than  a  century  after  his  death,  which  took 
tion.  After  his  return  to  Florence,  GaUleo  set  himself  place  8  January,  1642,  the  year  in  which  Newton 
to  compose  the  work  which  revived  and  aggravated     was  ham. 

all  former  animosities,  namely  a  dialogue  in  which  a  Such  in  brief  is  the  history  of  this  famous  conflict 
Ptolemist  is  utterly  routed  and  confounded  by  two  between  ecclesiastical  authority  and  science,  to  which 
Co^micans.  This  was  pub1i«hed  in  1632,  and,  being  special  theological  importance  has  been  attached  in 
plamlyinconsistentwithhis tormerpromi3e,wastaken  connexion  witb  the  question  of  papal  infatlibihty. 
by  the  Roman  authorities  as  a  direct  challenge.  He  Can  it  be  said  that  either  Paul  V  or  Urban  VIII  so 
was  therefore  again  cited  before  the  Inauisition,  and  committed  himaelf  to  the  doctrine  of  ^eocentricism  as 
again  failed  to  display  the  courage  of  his  opinions,  to  impose  it  upon  the  Church  as  an  article  of  faith,  and 
declaring  that  since  his  former  trial  in  1616  he  had  so  to  t«ach  as  pope  what  is  now  acknowledged  to  be 
never  held  the  Copemican  theory.  Such  a  declara-  untrue?  That  both  these  pontiffs  were  convinced 
tion,  naturally,  was  not  taken  very  seriously,  and  in  anti-Copernicans  cannot  be  doubted,  nor  that  they 
spite  of  it  he  was  condemned  as  "vehemently  stis-  believed  the  Copemican  system  to  be  unscriptural  and 
peeled  of  heresy"  to  incarceration  at  the  pleasure  of  desired  its  suppression.  The  question  is  however, 
the  tribunal  and  to  recite  the  Seven  Penitential  whether  either  of  them  condemned  the  doctrine  ex 
Psalms  once  a  week  for  three  years.  cathedra.     This,  it  is  clear,  they  never  did.     As  to  the 

Under  the  sentence  of  imprisonment  Galileo  re-  decree  of  1616,  we  have  seen  that  it  was  issued  l:^  the 
mained  till  his  death  in  1042.  It  is,  however,  untrue  Congregation  of  the  Index,  which  can  raise  no  diffi- 
to  speak  of  him  as  in  any  proper  sense  a  "prisoner",  culty  in  re^id  of  infallibility,  this  tribunal  being  ab- 
As  his  Protestant  biographer,  von  Gebler,  tells  us,  solutely  incompetent  to  make  a  dogmatic  decree. 
"One  glance  at  the  truest  historical  source  for  the  Nor  is  the  case  altered  by  the  fact  that  the  pope  ap- 
&mous  trial,  would  convince  any_  one  that  Galileo  proved  the  Congregation's  decision  tn /orma  eommuni, 
spont  altogether  twenty-two  days  in  the  buildings  of  that  is  to  say,  to  the  extent  needful  for  the  purpose  in- 
tlie  Holy  Office  (i.  e.  the  Inquisition),  and  even  then     tended,  namely  to  prohibit  the  circulation  of  writings 


GALXTZar                            346  OALL 

which  were  judged  harmful.  The  poi)e  and  his  a»-  Princess  Elisabeth  was  roused  to  bitter  hatred  of  the 
sessors  may  have  been  wrong  in  such  a  iudgment,  but  Catholic  Church,  and  bound  herself  by  oath  never  to 
this  does  not  alter  the  character  of  the  pronounce-  change  her  religion.  But  after  four  ^ears,  the  influ- 
ment,  or  convert  it  into  a  decree  ex  cathedra.  ence  of  her  mother's  consistency  of  life  and  the  con- 
As  to  the  second  trial  in  1633,  this  was  concerned  version  of  other  members  of  the  family  induced  her  to 
not  so  much  with  the  doctrine  as  with  the  person  of  examine  the  question,  and  finally  she  too  made  her 
Galileo,  and  his,  manifest  breach  of  contract  m  not  ab-  submission.  Her  vocation  followed  soon  after  her 
staining  from  the  active  propaganda  of  Copemican  conversion,  and  she  leit  it  to  Father  Rozaven  to  find 
doctrines.  The  sentence,  pa^ea  upon  him  m  conse-  for  her  "an  austere  order  devoted  to  education", 
(juence,  clearly  implied  a  condemnation  of  Copemican-  His  choice  was  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart.  Eliz- 
ism,  but  it  made  no  formal  decree  on  the  subject,  and  abeth  Galitzin  received  the  habit  at  Metz,  in  1826,  her 
did  not  receive  the  pope's  signature.  Nor  is  this  only  first  vows  were  taken  in  Rome  at  the  Trinity  dei 
an  opinion  of  theologians;  it  is  corroborated  by  Monti,  1828,  and  her  profession  took  place  in  Paris, 
writers  whom  none  wiliaccuse  of  any  bias  in  favour  of  1832.  In  1834;  she  was  named  secretary  general  to 
the  papacy.  Thus  Professor  Augustus  De  Morgan  thefoundress,  Blessed  Madeleine  Sophie  Barat,  and,  in 
(Budget  of  Paradoxes)  declares  "It  is  clear  that  the  1839,  was  elected  assistant  general  and  namea  visitor 
absurdity  was  the  act  of  the  Italian  Inquisition,  for  the  of  the  convents  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  the  United 
private  and  personal  pleasure  of  the  pope^who  knew  States. 

that  the  course  he  took  could  not  convict  him  as  pope —  Mother  Galitzin  carried  out  her  duties  of  assistant 

and  not  of  the  body  which  calls  itself  the  Church"  aeneral  and  visitor  in  a  characteristic  spirit.  Thoush 

And  vonGebler  ("Galileo  Galilei"):  "The  Church  never  burning  with  ardour  to  attain  the  best  in  all  reli- 

condemned  it  (the  Copemican  system)  at  all.  for  the  gious  perfection,  her  strict  ideas  of  government,  and 

Qualifiers  of  the  Holy  Office  never  mean  the  Cfhurch  ".  the  tendency  to  dissimulation,  which  autocratic  na- 

It  may  be  added  that  Riccioli  and  other  contempora-  tures  sometimes  reveal  in  the  pursuit  of  their  ends, 

ries  of  Galileo  were  permitted,  after  1616,  to  declare  prevented  her  from  acquiring  fully  the  spirit  of  the 

that  no  anti-Copemican  definition  had  issued  from  the  constitutions  of  her  order.    She  made  ^ve  mistakes, 

supreme  pontiff.  but  the  Blessed  foundress,  always  willing  to  make 

More  vital  at  the  present  day  is  the  question  with  allowances  for  others,  excused  them  and  ever  recog- 

which  we  commenced:  "Does  not  the  condemnation  nized  that  Mother  Galitzin's  heart  was  true  to  the 

of  Galileo  prove  the  implacable  opposition  of  the  society.    Conscious  of  the  harm  she  had  done  in  press- 

(}hurch  to  scient^c  progress  and  enlightenment?  "    It  ing  the  matter  of  some  changes  in  the  constitutions, 

may  be  replied  witn  Cardinal  Newman  that  this  in-  Mother  Galitzin  beeged  to  be  sent  back  to  the  United 

stance  serves  to  prove  the  opposite,  namely  that  the  States,  to  restore  the  original  organization  of  the  soci- 

Church  has  not  mterfered  with  physical  science,  for  ety.    In  the  midst  of  an  outbreak  of  yellow  fever  in 

Galileo's  case  "  is  the  one  stock  argument "  (Apologia,  Louisiana  she  nursed  the  sick  with  heroic  devotedness, 

c.  v).    So  too  Professor  De  Morgan  acknowledges  until  she  was  herself  struck  down  and  died. 

("Motion  of  the  Earth"  in  "EngUsh  Chrclopadia^') :  „  Gaiotin.  ^^^^l^gWW"*  ^«  ^^n^«"r,ff*™»  ^^^' 

"The  Papal  power  must  upon  tfewhole  hkve  been  gggj^-  ^'^  ^  ^'«'«'  Maddnne  Sophie  Bamt  (ttoehmmpton. 

moderately  used  in  matters  of  philosophy,  if  we  may  '                                                Janet  Stuabt. 
fudge  by  the  great  stress  laid  on  this  one  case  of  Gah- 

leo.    It  is  the  standing  proof  that  an  authority  which  Gall,  Saint  (Gallus;  in  the  most  ancient  manu- 

has  lasted  a  thousand  years  was  all  the  time  occupied  script  he  is  called  Gallo,  Gallonus,  Gallunus,  and 

in  checkine  the  progress  of  thought." — So  Dr.  Whewell  sometimes  also  Callo,   Chelleh,  Giuanus,  etc.). 

speaking  m  this  same  case  says  (History  of  the  Indue-  An  Irishman  by  birth,  he  was  one  of  the  twelve  disci- 

tive  Sciences):  "I  would  not  be  understood  to  assert  pies  who  accompanied  St.  Columbanus  to  Gaul,  and 

the  condemnation  of  new  doctrines  to  be  a  general  or  established  themselves  with  him  at  Luxeuil.    Gall 

characteristic  practice  of  the  Romish  Church.    Cei^  again  followed  his  master,  in  610,  on  his  voyage  on  the 

tainly  the  intelligent  and  cultivated  minds  of  Italy,  Ithine  to  Bregenz;  but  he  separated  from  him  in  612, 

and  many  of  the  most  eminent  of  her  ecclesiastics  when  Columbanus  left  for  Italy;  and  he  remained  in 

among  them,  have  been  the  foremost  in  promoting  and  Swabia,  where,  with  several  companions,  he  led  the 

welcoming  the  progress  of  science,  and  there  were  life  of  a  hermit,  in  a  desert  to  the  west  of  Bregenz,  near 

found  among  the  Italian  ecclesiastics  of  Galileo's  time  the  source  of  the  river  Steinach.    There,  after  his 

many  of  the  earliest  and  most  enlightened  adherents  death,  was  erected  an  "ecclesia  Sancti  Galluni"  gov- 

of  the  Copemican  system."  emed  by  a  "presbyter  et  pastor".    Before  the  middle 

The  literature  conceming  Galileo  Lb  abundant.    In  particular  of  the  eighth  century  this  church  became  a  real  monas- 

?X^S^'^^'^C^^^T^B%t^Ai:^:SJ,1^;  ^'  th«  fi«t  abbot  of  which  WM  St  Otmar     The 

lSmu,Budoei  of  Paradoxes  (London,  1872);  Whbw»ll,  ^Mtory  monastery  was  the  propertv  of  the  Diocese  of  Con- 

ef  the  Jndttetive  Sciencee  (3d  ed.,  London,  1857);  Biuewbtbr^  stance,  and  it  was  only  in  818  that  it  obtained  from 

tSTi  1^1^h'^T^'^i^T^im^^SS.^S&  »»»«  Emperor  Louis  the  Pious  the  right  to  be  "umbered 

ttudim  (Ratiabon,  1882);  ChioupiN,  VaJLeur  dee  DScieione  Doc-  among  the  royal  monasteries,  and  toenjovthepnvilege 

trinalee  d  DiectjMnairee  (Parii,  1907);  db  Jauoby,  Le  procia  of  immunity.     At  last,  in  854,  it  was  freed  from  all 

f^Sif'/lVlltVr^iJi^^^  ^^II^^^^TIl*^^'^V^\^'  the  see.  of  Constance 

hancaxB.  1  and  16  Oct.,  1904;  Ward  in  Dublin  Review,  April,  and  henceforth  was  attached  only  by  ties  of  canonical 

dependence.    Called  "Abbey  of  St.  Gall",  not  from 


§s^««e^T9&TiD^^^^^  ^^?  fT\^yi?  !SH"^*l'.  "^^  ^'/^^.?i^ilf«?' 

we^  Wdieystem  in  Stimmen  atu  MariorLaach,  suppl.  101.  .  Baint  who  had  hved  in  this  place  and  whose  relics  were 

John  Gebabo.  honoured  there,  the  monastery  played  an  illustrious 

part  in  history  tor  more  than  a  thousand  years. 
Galitiin,  Elizabeth,  Princess,  religious  of  the  Apart  from  this  authentic  history,  there  exists  an- 
Sacred  Heart;  b.  at  St.  Petersburg,  22  Febmary,  otherversionortraditionfumished  oy  theLivesof  St. 
1797;  d.  in  Louisiana,  8  December,  1843.  Her  father  Gall,  the  most  ancient  of  which  does  not  antedate  the 
was  Prince  Alexis  Andrevitch,  her  mother  Countess  end  of  the  eighth  century.  A  portion  of  the  incidents 
Protasof,  the  friend  and  "second  conscience"  of  Ma-  related  in  these  Lives  is  perhaps  true;  but  another 
dame  Swetchine.  When  her  mother  abandoned  the  part  is  certainly  le^ndary,  and  in  formal  contradiction 
creed  of  the  Russiaa  "  Orthodox  "  Church  and  em-  to  the  most  ancient  charters  of  the  abbey  itself.  Ac- 
braced  the  Catholic  Faith  (a  step  to  which  the  penalty  cording  to  these  biographies,  Gall  was  ordained  a 
of  exile  or  death  was  still  attached  by  Russian  law),  priest  in  Ireland  before  his  departure  for  the  Continent^ 


CMLLL                                347  OALL 

• 

therefore  before  500.  Having  reached  Bregens  with  manuscripts  was  undertaken  at  a  veiy  eariy  date,  and 
Columbanus,  he  laboured  in  the  countiy  as  a  mission-  the  nucleus  of  the  famous  library  gathered  together, 
ary,  and  actively  combated  the  pagan  superstitions.  The  abbey  gave  hospitality  to  numerous  Anglo-Saxon 
Prevented  by  illnees  from  following  Columbanus  to  and  Irish  monks  who  came  to  copy  inanuscripts  for 
Itoly,  he  was  placed  under  interdict  by  the  displeased  their  own  monasteries.  Two  distmguished  guests  of 
Columbanus,  and  in  consequence  could  not  celebrate  the  abbey  were  Peter  and  Romanus,  chanters  from 
Mass  until  several  years  later,  after  the  death  of  his  Rome,  sent  by  Pope  Adrian  I  at  Charlemagne's  re- 
old  master.  Gall  delivered  from  the  demon  by  which  quest  to  propagate  the  use  of  the  Gregorian  chant, 
she  was  possessed  Fridiburga,  the  daughter  oi  Cunzo  Peter  went  on  to  Metz,  where  he  established  an  inl- 
and the  oetrothed  of  Sigebsrt,  King  of  the  Franks;  portant  ohant-school,  but  Romanus,  having  fallen 
t£e  latter,  through  gratitude,  granted  to  the  saint  an  sick  at  St.  Gall,  stayed  there  with  Charlemagne's  con- 
estate  near  Arbon,  which  belonged  to  the  royal  treas-  sent.  To  the  copies  of  the  Roman  chant  that  he 
uiy,  that  he  might  found  a  monastery  there.  Natiuv  brought  with  him,  he  added  the  ''Romanian  signs", 
ally  the  monastery  was  exempt  from  all  dependence  the  interpretation  of  which  has  since  become  a  mat- 
on  the  Bishop  of  Constance;  moreover.  Gall  twice  ter  of  controversy,  and  the  school  he  started  at  St. 
refused  the  episcopal  see  of  that  city,  whicn  was  ofiFered  Gall,  rivalling  that  of  Metz,  became  one  of  the  most 
to  him,  and  naving  been  instrumental  in  securing  the  frequented  in  Europe. 

election  of  a  secular  cleric,  the  deacon  John,  the  latter  The  chief  MSS.  produced  by  it,  still  extant,  are  the 

and  his  successors  placed  themselves  in  every  way  ''AntiphonaleMissarum"(no.339),  the^'Antiphonar- 

at  the  service  of  the  abbey.    Gall  also  declined  the  ium  Sti.  Gregorii"  (no.  359),  and  Hartker's  "  Anti- 

abbatial  dignity  of  Luxeuil,  which  was  offered  him  by  phonarium"  (nos.  390-^1),  the  first  and  third  of 

the  monks  of  the  monastenr  after  the  death  of  St.  which  have  been  reproduced  in  facsimile  by  the 

Eustace.    Shortly  afterwards  he  died,  at  the  age  of  Solesmes  fathers  in  tneir  '' Pal^graphie  Musicale". 

ninety-five,  at  Arbon,  during  a  visit;  but  his  body  was  The  other  schools  of  the  abbey — ^for  the  younger 

brou^t  back  to  the  monastery,  and  God  revealed  the  monks  and  for  lay  scholars  attracted  thither  by  the 

sanctity  of  his  servant  by  numerous  miracles.    His  fame  of  the  monastic  professors — were  founded  as 

feast  is  celebrated  on  16  October,  the  day  ascribed  to  eariy  as  the  ninth  century,  for  the  well-known,  but 

him  in  some  very  ancient  martyrologies,  while  Adon,  unrealized  plan  of  820  provicles  separate  accommoda- 

it  is  not  known  for  what  reason,  makes  it  occur  on  20  tion  for  both  schools.    The  domestic  history  of  the 

February.    The  saint  is  ordinarily  represented  with  a  community  during  these  centuries  of  consolidation 

bear;  for  a  legend,  recorded  in  the  Lives,  relates  that  was  not  altogether  free  from  troubles.    Even  during 

one  nieht,  at  the  command  of  the  saint,  one  of  these  the  lifetime  otOthmar,  the  monks  had  to  defend  them- 

animab  brought  wood  to  feed  the  fire  which  Gall  and  selves  against  the  bishops  of  Constance,  who,  having 

his  companions  had  kindled  in  the  desert.  already  secured  jurisdiction  over  the  neighbouring 

The  most  ancient  Life,  of  which  only  fragments  Abbey  of  Reichenau,  refused  to  recognise  the  exemp- 

have  been  discovered  till  the  present  date,  but  other-  tion  and  other  privileges  of  St.  Gall.    For  many  years 

wise  very  important,  has  been  remodelled  and  put  in  the  monks  had  to  fight  for  their  independence,  but  it 

the  better  style  of  the  ninth  century  by  two  monks  was  not  until  the  time  of  Louis  the  Pious  that  their 

of  Reichenau:  in  816-24  by  the  celebrated  Wettinus,  efforts  were  crowned  with  success  and  their  rights 

and  about  833-34  by  Walafrid  Strabo,  who  also  re-  confirmed.    From  that  time  up  to  the  end  of  the 

vised  a  book  of  the  miracles  of  the  saint,  written  some-  tenth  century  was  the  golden  age  of  the  abbey,  during 

what  earlier  by  Gozbert  the  Younger,  monk  of  St.  which  flourished  many  celebrated  scholars — ^the  three 

Gall.    In  850  an  anonymous  monk  or  the  same  abbey  Notkers,  Eckhard,  Hartker  and  others.    The  decrees 

wrote,  in  verse,  a  Life  which  he  published  under  the  of  the  Council  of  Aachen  (817)  for  the  furtherance  of 

name  of  Walafrid ;  and  others  after  him  further  cele-  discipline  and  the  religious  spirit  were  loyally  carried 

brated  the  holy  patron  in  prose  and  verse.  into  effect  by  Abbot  (K>tzbert  (815-837),  under  whom 

Viia  S.  Columbani,  I,  rxj  vUcb  8.  OcUi  <r«  an/tcuwMmiv,  ed.  the  monks  built  a  new  and  magnificent  church  and  by 

^'^^^^^':SSZi^i^\L^JI^:6%;n"SZ?^<;X'li  T^"^"^  ^%  "HTU?"  gr«y «nl«»»d-    He  pur- 

42S-73— for  other  anoient  writings  see  Bibl.  hag.  lai.,  3245-^258.  chased  many  fresh  MSS.  and  set  his  monks  to  multi- 

See  alflo  Rbttbbro.  Obaervationea  ad  vilam  wincti  Galli  $pectanUB  ply  copies  of  them.     His  SUCOessor  Grimald  (841-872) 

(Marburs;  1842);   Sickbl,  St.  Gallen  unter  den  eratm  KaroHn-  Z^jLAg^  ^n  iV»A  wnrlr    AnA  n  oAfsAnmw  Hrawn  im  in  hin 

gem  in  MiUheaungen  zur  vaterlAndische  GeschichU  (St.  Gall.  fF"®^?.?  ^'^  WOrlC,  and  a  catalogue  drawn  upm  nis 

1865),  1-21;  Mbtbr  von  Kkonau  in  Miuheaunaen,  etc..  XIII  time,  still  extant,  shows  the  Wide  range  of  subjects 

a872).230--«;  XVI  (1877).  470-71:  Eau.  Ktrcf^ng^uhickte  represented.    Over  four  hundred  of  the  MSS.  men- 

^  ^r^!  l^^S^^^Atelcl'SJS^^  tioned.in  that  catalogue  are  still  at  St  GaU  ^^^^ 

""                                      -  Durmg  the  abbacy  of  Engelbert  II  (924-933)  an 

.            -,  incursion  of  the  Huns  threatened  the  abbey,  and  most 

Albert  PoNCBLOT.  of  the  valuable  books  and  MSS.  were  removed  to 

Reichenau  for  safety,  some  never  being  returned.  In 
Gall,  Abbet  of  Saint,  in  Switzerland,  Canton  St.  937  a  disastrous  fire  almost  entirely  destroyed  the 
Gall,  30  miles  S.  E.  of  Constance;  for  many  centuries  monastery,  but  the  library  fortunately  escaped.  The 
one  of  the  chief  Benedictine  abbeys  in  Europe;  abbey  and  town  were  rebuilt  and  fortified,  and 
founded  about  613,  and  named  after  Gallus,  an  Irish-  throughout  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  St. 
man,  the  disciple  and  companion  of  St.  Columbanus  in  Gall  maintained  its  place  in  the  front  rank  of  monastic 
his  exile  from  Luxeuil.  When  his  master  went  on  to  establishments.  With  the  thirteenth  century,  how- 
Italy,  Gallus  remained  in  Switzerland,  where  he  died  ever,  came  a  period  of  decline.  Various  causes  con- 
about  646.  A  chapel  was  erected  on  the  spot  occupied  tributed  to  this,  one  of  them  being  the  fact  that  the 
by  his  cell,  and  a  priest  named  Othmar  was  placed  neighbouring  feudal  lords  took  to  quartering  them- 
there  by  Charles  Martel  as  custodian  of  the  saint's  selves  and  their  retinues  upon  the  abbey  more  often 
relics.  Under  his  direction  a  monastery  was  built,  than  was  good  for  monastic  discipline.  The  abbots 
many  privileges  and  benefactions  being  bestowed  also  were  uequently  called  upon  to  settle  their  quai^ 
upon  it  oy  Charles  Martel  and  his  son  Pepin,  who  with  rels,  and  a  spirit  of  worldliness  thus  crept  into  the 
G^hmar  as  first  abbot,  are  reckoned  its  principal  cloister.  About  the  same  time  the  abbey  and  town 
founders.  By  Pepin's  persuasion  Othmar  substituted  became  an  independent  principality,  over  which  the 
the  Benedictine  rule  for  that  of  St.  Columbanus.  He  abbots  ruled  as  territorial  sovereijzns,  taking  rank  as 
also  founded  the  famous  schools  of  St.  Gall,  and  under  Princes  of  the  Empire.  Ulrich  Yl  (1204-1220)  was 
him, and  his  successors  the  arts,  letters,  and  sciences  the  first  to  hold  that  dignity.  Records  as  to  the 
were  assiduously  cultivated.    The  work  of  copying  library  during  this  period  are  scanty.    In  the  foiuv 


landM,  Ath       .   . 

Quellen,  7th  ed.,  I,   133-34;  Krusch,  loc.  eU.,  229-51.     For 

earUer  litentuie  see  GEOVAiinB.  Bio-BiU„  2d  ed.,  1641-1642. 


GALLA 


348 


GALLA 


teenth  oentuiy  Humanists  were  allowed  to  take  away 
some  of  the  rarest  of  the  classical  MSS.  and  in  the 
sixteenth  the  abbey  was  raided  by  the  Calvinists,  who 
scattered  many  of  the  most  valuable  books.  In  1530 
Abbot  Diethehn  inaugurated  a  restoration  with  such 
success  that  he  has  been  called  the  third  founder  of 
St.  Gall.  The  library  was  one  of  his  chief  cares  and 
his  successors  zealously  followed  his  g^ood  example. 
Through  their  efforts  the  monastic  spirit,  the  schools 
and  the  studies  all  revived  and  attained  to  something 
of  their  former  ereatness.  In  1602,  when  the  Swiss 
congregation  of  tne  Order  of  St.  Benedict  was  formed, 
the  Abbey  of  St.  Gall  took  precedence  as  the  first 
house  of  the  congregation,  and  many  of  its  abbots 
subsequently  held  the  office  of  president. 

A  printing-press  was  started  under  Pius  (1630- 
1674)^  which  soon  became  one  of  the  most  important 
in  Switzerland.  In  17 12  a  great  change  came  over  the 
fortunes  of  the  monastery.  It  was  pillaged  by  the 
Swiss,  who  spared  nothing.  Most  of  the  books  and 
MSS.  were  carried  off  to  Zurich,  Berne  and  other 
places,  and  onlv  a  portion  of  them  were  afterwards 
restored  to  St.  Gall.  The  abbot  of  the  time,  Leodegar 
by  name,  was  obliged  for  security  to  place  his  monas- 
tery imder  the  protection  of  the  townspeople  whose 
ajicestors  had  been  serfs  of  the  abbey,  but  who  had, 
since  the  Reformation,  thrown  off  the  yoke  of  sub- 
jection. When  these  disturbances  were  over,  a  final 
attempt  was  made  to  revive  the  glories  of  the  abbey. 
The  monastery  was  rebuilt  for  the  last  time  under 
Abbots  Celestme  II  and  Bede,  but  the  resuscitation 
was  short-lived.  In  1798  the  Swiss  directory  sup- 
pressed the  ecclesiastical  principality  and  secularized 
the  abbey,  and  in  1805  its  revenues  were  sequestrated. 
The  monks  took  refuge  in  other  houses  of  tne  congre- 
gation, the  last  abbot,  Pancras  Forster,  dying  in  1829 
at  Muri.  When  the  Diocese  of  Constance  was  sup- 
pressed in  1821,  that  portion  of  it  in  which  St.  Gall 
was  situated  was  united  to  the  Diocese  of  Coire,  but  in 
1846  a  rearrangement  made  St.  Gall  a  separate  see, 
with  the  abbey  church  as  its  cathedral  ana  a  portion 
of  the  monastic  buildings  being  assigned  for  the 
bishop's  residence.  The  church,  rebuilt  1755-65  in 
the  rococo  style,  contains  some  finely-carved  choir- 
stalls  and  a  beautiful  wrought  iron  screen.  The 
conventual  buildings,  besides  the  bishop's  palace,  now 
accommodate  sdso  the  cantonal  offices  and  what  re- 
mains of  the  library — about  thirty  thousand  volumes 
and  MSS.  Tlie  town  of  St.  Gall  nas  a  population  of 
over  30,000  and  is  one  of  the  principal  manufacturing 
centres  in  Switzeriand,  muslm  and  cotton  being  its 
chief  industries. 

Mabu^lon,  Annalea  0,S.B.  (F&ria,  1703-^9):  Idbm,  Acta  SS. 
0.8.Bi  (Venloe.  1733).  11;  Stb-Mabthb,  OaUia  Christiana 
(Paris,  1731),  V:  Ziboblbaubr,  HisL  LiL  O.S.B.  (Augsburg, 
1754);  Pbrtz,  Man,  Oerm.  Hist.:  Seriptorea  (Hanover,  1826), 
I:  Ybpbs,  Corsica  General,  O.S.B,  (VaUadolid,  1609-21),  II, 
III:  Wbidmann,  Geachichte  der  BiblioUuk  von  8.  Oalien  (St. 
Gall,  1841);  Schubiobr,  Die  SAngerachule  8.  OeUlene  (Einsie- 
deln,  1858);  vos  Anx,  Oeachichte  dea  Cantons  3.  GeUlen;  Wart- 
ICANN,  Urkundenbuch  der  Abtet  S.  Gotten,  a.d.  700-1350  (Zurich, 
1863-82);  Mionb.  Diet.  desAbbauu  (Paris,  1856);  PalSograjOtie 
MusioaU  (Solesmes,  1889),  I;  David,  Les  Grandea  Abbayea 
d^ Occident  (Bruges,  1908);  Hooan,  The  Monastery  ondLibraru 
afSLGaUhn  Irwh  BccL  Ree.,  XV  (1894). 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 

Oalla,  Saint,  a  Roman  widow  of  the  sixth  century; 
feast,  5  October.  According  to  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
(Dial.  IV,  ch.  xiii)  she  was  the  daughter  of  the  younger 
Symmachus,  a  learned  and  virtuous  patrician  of  Rome, 
whom  Theodoric  had  unjustly  condemned  to  death 
(525).  Becoming  a  widow  before  the  end  of  the  first 
year  of  her  married  life,  she,  still  very  young,  founded 
a  convent  and  hospital  near  St.  Peter's,  there  spent 
the  remainder  of  her  days  in  austerities  and  works  of 
mercy,  and  ended  her  life  with  an  edifying  death.  The 
letter  of  St.  Fulgentius  of  Ruspe.  ^De  statu  vidu- 
arum",  is  sunposed  to  have  been  adoressed  to  her.  Her 
church  in  Rome,  near  the  Piazza  Montanara,  once 


held  a  picture  of  Our  Lady,  which  according  to  tradi- 
tion represents  a  vision  vouchsafed  to  St.  G^la.  It  is 
considered  miraculous  and  was  carried  in  procession  in 
times  of  pestilence.  It  is  now  over  the  nigh  altar  of 
Santa  Maria  in  Campitelli. 

Messenger  (New  York),  XXXIX,  279;  Dunbab  in  DitL 
ChrisL  B%og.,  s.  v.;  Acta  SS.,  Oct.,  Ill,  147. 

Francis  Mershican. 

GaUEi  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  embraces  the 
territory  of  the  Galla  or  Oromo  tribes  in  Abyssinia. 
In  its  widest  extent  the  vicariate  lies  between  34^ 
and  44**  long.  E.  of  Greenwich,  and  4°  and  10**  N.  lat. 
The  Oromo  or  Galla,  doubtless  slightl]^  European  in 
descent,  came  originally  from  the  region  of  Hcalal, 
lying  between  the  junction  of  the  two  Niles  and  the 
River  Baro.  Eventuallv,  about  the  fifteenth  century, 
they  began  to  invade  Abyssinia,  where  they  soon  be- 
came so  powerful  that  they  shared  the  power  with  the 
Negus  of  Ethiopia.  The  Galla  are  divided  into  two 
principal  branches,  the  Borana  or  Western  Galla,  and 
the  Barentouma  or  Eastern  Galla,  both  of  them  sul>- 
divided  into  numerous  tribes.  There  exist  among  the 
Galla  other  important  tribes,  also  ^nuine  nejgro  tribes 
and  tribes  of  Mussulman  origin.  The  vicariate  dates 
from  4  May,  1846.  The  Capuchin,  Right  Rev.  Gu^i- 
elmo  Massaia.  was  the  first  vicar  Apostolic.  He  was 
bom  at  Piova,  province  of  Asti,  Piedmont,  9  June, 
1809,  and  had  been  a  member  of  the  aforesaid  order 
twenty-one  years  when  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Cassia,  24  May,  1846,  and  sent  to  the  Galla  tribes.  It 
was  then  verv  difficult  to  gain  access  into  the  interior 
of  Africa;  only  after  five  years  of  incessantly  renewed 
attempts  and  at  the  cost  of  great  hardships  and  many 

Serils  was  he  able  to  reach  ttie  re^on  of  Galla  Assan- 
abo^  20  November,  1852.  Havms  evangelized  the 
districts  of  Goudrou,  Lagamara,  Limmou,  Nonna, 
and  Guera,  this  valiant  apostle  entered,  4  Oct.,  1859, 
the  Kingdom  of  Kaffa,  where  conversions  were  abun- 
dant, with  apostolic  foresight  he  provided  the  con- 
verted tribes  with  priests^  so  t^at  when  persecution 
obliged  him  to  flee,  Christianity  did  not  disappear. 

In  1868  he  was  at  Choa,  where  he  laboured  with  suc- 
cess until  1879,  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  King 
Menelik^  who  made  him  his  confidential  counsellor 
and  paid  him  great  respect.  In  the  interval  the 
missions  of  Kaffa  and  Guera  were  administered  by  his 
coadjutor  Bbhop  Felicissimo  Coccino,  who  died  "26 
February.  1878.  In  1879  Negus  John  of  Abvssinia 
compelled  his  vassal  Menelik  to  order  Bishop  Massaia 
to  return  to  Europe.  The  venerable  prelate,  who  had 
already  been  banished  seven  times,  and  was  now  more 
broken  by  labour  and  sufferings  than  by  age,  handed 
over  the  government  of  the  vicariate  to  his  coadjutor 
Bishop  l^urin  Cahagne,  since  14  Feb.,  1875,  titular 
Bishop  of  Adramittium.  Bishop  Massaia  was  created 
cardinal  by  Leo  XIII,  10  Nov.,  1884;  he  died  6  Aue., 
1889.  He  left  valuable  memoirs  (see  below),  the 
publication  of  which  was  rewarded  by  the  Italian 
government  with  the  nomination  to  a  high  civil  order, 
not  accepted,  however,  by  the  venerable  missionary. 
The  mission  of  Harar  was  founded  by  Bishop  Taurin, 
who  from  1880  to  1899  sustained  a  glorious  combat 
in  this  hot-bed  of  Islam  and  opened  the  way  to  the 
present  quite  prosperous  mission.  He  has  written  a 
catechism  and  valuable  works  of  Christian  instruction 
in  the  Galla  language.  His  name  is  held  in  veneration 
throughout  these  regions.  The  vicariate  now  in- 
cludes the  three  great  districts  of  Choa,  Kaffa  and 
Harar.  There  are  15  principal  stations  and  an  equal 
number  of  secondary  ones.  The  Christians  number 
more  than  18,000.  The  mission  possesses  a  semimuy 
for  priests  and  a  preparatory  seminary.  It  maintains 
3  principal  and  12  secondary  schools,  3  dispensaries,  1 
leper-hospital,  1  printing  house,  and  important  am- 
cultural  works.  The  vicar  Apostolic  has  under  nia 
jurisdiction  125  European  Capuchin  missionaries  from 
the  province  of  Toulouse,  France.    There  are  also  8 


GALLAGHEB 


349 


OALU 


native  priests,  10  catechists,  35  seminarists,  17  Fran- 
ciscan Sisters  (Calais),  and  12  Frdres  Gabri^Listes 
(Bl.  Louis-Marie  Grignon  de  Montfort). 

MA8841A.  Imiei  tnrUaeifique  anni  di  miaeione  neW  aita  Etio- 
pia  (illustrated  ed.,  Milan,  1885-96),  XII;  abridged  ed.,  In 
Abiannia  efrai  QaUi  (Florence.  1895):  db  Salviac,  Let  Oalla 
(Parifl,  1001);  Miuionea  Catholica  (Rome,  1907);  Gbntilk. 
L'ttpottolo  dei  OaUi  (Asti,  1907);  Analecta  Ord.  Cappwxinorutn 
(18S9),V.291. 

Andreas  Jarosbeau. 

Gallagher,  John.    See  Goulburn,  Diocesb  of. 

Gallagher,  Nicholas  A.  See  Galveston,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

Gallait,  Louis.  Flemish  painter;  bom  at  Toumai, 
10  May,  1810;  died  in  Brussels,  20  Nov.,  1887.  He 
produced  melodramatic  and  sensational  pictures,  very 
much  on  the  lines  of  those  of  Ary  Scheffer^  with  a  lean- 
ing towards  the  pathetic  and  emotional  side.  Gallait 
was,  however,  a  more  accomplished  painter  than 
Scheffer,  with  whom  his  works  nave  frequently  been 
compared.  His  colouring  was  superior,  and  his  draw- 
ing more  accurate,  but  the  two  men  were  possessed  of 
similar  devotional  fervour,  and  poetic  emotion  of  a 
sentimental  tyi)e.  Gallait  was  a  youthful  prodi^, 
and  produced  his  first  picture  when  ten  years  old .  ob- 
taining an  important  local  prize  for  it.  One  ot  his 
earliest  performances  was  purchased  by  the  municipal 
authorities  of  Toumai  and  presented  to  the  Cathedral, 
and  it  was  ovring  to  the  generosity  of  his  own  towns- 
people that  he  was  enabled  in  1835  to  go  to  Paris  and 
stuay  under  Hennequin.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Institute  of  France,  and  honorary  foreign  Royal 
Academician.  Several  of  his  pictures  were  exhibited 
in  London  in  1862,  and  three  at  the  Roval  Academy 
in  1872,  when  he  was  residing  at  51  Bed.ford  Square. 
He  painted  in  water-colours  as  well  as  in  oil,  and  was 
maoe  an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Institute. 

Contemporary  referencee  in  The  Athenaeum  and  varioos  art 
macasines  of  1887  and  1892.     Bee  alec  AH  Journal,  April,  1866. 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Galland,  Antoine,  French  Orientalist  and  numis- 
matist, b.  at  Rollot,  near  Montdidier.  in  Picardv. 
1646,  d.  at  Paris,  1715.  When  he  was  four  yeara  old 
his  father  died  leaving  him  in  poverty,  but  through 
his  diligence  and  industry  he  won  protection  which 
enabledhim  to  pursue  his  studies  at  Noyon  and  later 
at  Paris.  He  was  already  known  as  a  scholar  at  the 
age  of  twenty-four,  when  de  Nointel,  the  French  am- 
bassador at  Constantinople,  took  him  to  the  East  to 
study  the  faith  of  the  Greeks,  several  articles  of  which 
were  the  subject  of  a  controversv  between  Arnault  and 
the  Pl!Otestant  minister  Claude.  In  1675  Galland 
accompanied  Nointel  to  Jerusalem,  and,  in  1679  he 
was  chfiuraed  by  Colbert,  and,  after  nis  death  by  Lou- 
vois,  witn  scientific  researches  in  the  Levant,  with 
title  of  king's  antiquary.  He  profited  by  these  jour- 
neys to  bea>me  familiar  with  modem  ureek,  and  to 
learn  Turkish,  Persian,  and  Arabic.  In  1701  he  was 
admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Medals, 
and  in  1709  he  was  appomted  to  the  chair  of  Arabic  at 
the  College  de  France.  We  are  indebted  to  him  for 
numerous  letters,  notes,  observations  and  remarks  on 
the  coins  and  inscriptions  of  Greek  and  Latin  antiq- 
uity, many  of  which  have  been  inserted  in  Banduri's 
"Bibliotheca  nummaria".  He  collaborated  in  Her- 
belot's  ''Bibliothdque  Orientale",  which  he  brought 
to  a  conclusion  after  the  death  of  ite  author.  He  is 
chiefly  famous  for  his  translation  of  the  eastern  tales, 
"The  Arabian  Nighte"  (Paris,  1704-08).  This  eraceful 
thou^  inaccurate  translation^  the  first  which  nad  ap- 
peared in  Europe  until  that  time,  brought  great  fame 
to  ite  author.  At  his  death  he  left  manv  manu- 
scripte,  a  number  of  which  have  been  publisned,  e.  g. 
"Indian  tales  and  f&bles  of  Pidpal  and  Lokinan'';  the 
''History  of  the  princes  of  the  line  of  Tameriane", 
translated  from  the  work  of  the  Persian  historian 


Abdel-rezzac;  "Ottoman  History",  translated  from 
the  Turkish  of  Nalm  Effendi;  "History  of  Ghenras- 
Khan ' ',  from  the  Persian  history  of  Nurkhoud ;  "  Nu- 
mismatic Dictionary",  ete. 

MicBAUD,  Bioffraphte  univeneUe;  db  Boss,  Hiticire  de 
VAoadimM  royale  dea  htacripHona  d  BeUea-Lettret,  depuia  aan 
iUMiaaemeni,  avec  lea  Hogea  dea  Aeadhniciena  morta  depuia  aon 
renouveOemeni  (Paris,  1740);  Maurt,  Lea  aeadimiea  d^autrefcia; 
Vaneienna  acadhnia  dea  inaeripticna  at  BeUea-Lettrea  (Puis, 
1882).  ^     „ 

A.  FOURNBT. 

Gallandi,  Andrea,  Oratorian  and  patristic  scholar, 
b.  at  Venice,  7  December,  1709;  d.  there  12  January, 
1779,  or  1780.  Gallandi  was  descended  from  an  an- 
cient French  family.  He  puraued  his  theological  and 
historical  studies  under  such  excellent  teachera  as  the 
two  Dominicans,  Daniello  Concina,  a  renowned  moral- 
ist, and  Bernardo  de  Rossi  (de  Rubeis),  a  noted  his- 
torical scholar  and  theologian.  With  both  of  these 
instructors  he  kept  up  a  warm  friendship  after  he  had 
joined  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  He  established 
his  reputetion  as  a  scholar  by  compiling  the  still  valu- 
able work  of  reference:  "Bibliotheca  veterum  patrum 
antiquorumque  scriptorum  ecclesiasticorum  Grseco- 
Latina"  (Venice,  1765-81,  14  vols.;  2nd  ed.,  1788). 
The  work  was  dedicated  to  the  Venetian  Senate,  but 
Gallandi  did  not  live  to  see  ite  completion.  It  is- a 
collection  of  380  ecclesiastical  writera  of  the  first  seven 
centuries;  ite  specif  merit  is  that  instead  of  compilixu^ 
important  worKs  already  accessible  in  print,  Gallanai 
eatheied  together  the  smaller  and  less  known  writing. 
Greek  ori^nals  were  i>rinted  in  good  type  with  Latin 
translations,  and  copious  notes  relative  to  the  au- 
thora  and  their  works  were  added.  He  also  published 
a  collection  of  the  treatises  of  famous  canoniste  (Cons- 
tant of  Saint-Maur,  the  Ballerini,  ete.)  on  the  origin 
and  development  of  canon  law,  which  was  entitled, 
"De  vetustis  canonum  collectionibus  dissertetionum 
syUoge"  (Venice,  1778,  1  vol.  folio;  Mainz,  1790,  2 
vols.).  At  his  death  Gallandi  left  the  following  work 
which  has  never  been  published:  ''Thesaurus  antiqui- 
tetis  ecclesiastics  historico-apolo^tico-criticus  com- 
plectens  SS.  patrum  gesta  et  scripte  doctissimorum 
virorum  dissertetionibus  asserta  et  illustrata  ac  juxte 
seriem  XII  sec.  digeste". 

HuBTBR,  Nomendalor,  8.  v.;  NouveUe  biooraphie  ginirala 
(Paris,  1858),  XIX.  291. 

Patricius  Schlager. 

Galle,  Diocese  of  (Gallenbis),  in  Ceylon,  created 
by  Leo  XIII  25  Aug.,  1893,  by  detachmg  two  civil 
provinces,  the  Southern  (2146  sq.  miles)  and  Saba- 
raeamuwa  (1901  sq.  miles),  from  the  Archdiocese  of 
Colombo.  The  totel  popidation  is  about  900,000,  of 
whom  10,160  are  (1909)  Catholics.  Besides  a  few 
Europeans  and  burghere  of  mixed  descent,  the  popula- 
tion mcludes  Singalese,  Moore,  and  Tamils.  There  is 
a  still  greater  religious  divereity:  Sivites,  Parsees, 
Mohammedans,  Protestante  of  various  denominations, 
mostly,  however,  Buddhiste  of  the  Southern  type.  For 
these  reasons  the  conversion  of  the  non-Catholic  popu- 
lation is  difficult;  the  racial  and  religious  differences 
affect  seriously  the  instruction  of  the  faithful,  sparsely 
scattered  over  a  large  area.  Leo  XIII  entrusted  the 
new  diocese  to  the  Belgian  Jesuite,  and  appointed  as 
first  bishop  the  Very  Rev.  Joseph  Van  Reeth,  rector 
of  the  novitiate  at  Tronchiennes  (Belgium).  The 
bishop-elect  (b.  6  Aug.,  1843)  was  consecrated  on  19 
March,  1895,  in  Antwerp,  his  native  town.  Accom- 
panied by  three  prieste  and  one  la^  brother,  he  took 
possession  of  his  see  9  Nov.,  1895,  since  when  progress 
has  been  slow  but  steady.  The  clergy  comprises  22 
Jesuite  and  5  secular  pnesto  (4  natives  and  1  Euro- 
pean), residing  in  eleven  centres,  each  having  ite 
churcn,  mission-house,  and  school.  The  Catholic  pop- 
ulation has  been  doubled.  The  number  of  confessions 
has  risen  from  6381  (1897)  to  27,956  (1908),  and  that 
of  Communions  from  7196  to  48,000.    In  1897  only 


GALLSOO 


350 


GALLIA 


335  boys  and  376  girls  attended  the  14  Catholic  schools, 
of  which  9  had  bSsn  opened  that  year;  there  are  now 
(1909)  some  2140  bo^  and  1009  girls  in  39  schools. 
In  1901  was  opened  St.  Aloysius's  College,  under  the 
Jesuit  Fathers,  with  300  pupils.  Belgian  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  Jesus  and  Ms^  render  praiseworthy  help. 
Thev  have  a  convent  in  Galle  (1896)  and  one  m  Mat- 
ara  (1908),  while  a  third  is  being  built  at  Kegalla.  ^  To 
l^e  Galle  convent  is  attached  a  room  for  lace-making, 
work  from  which  won  a  gold  medal  at  the  St.  Loms 
Exhibition  (U.  S.  A.)  in  1904.  A  similar  institution 
has  been  started  at  Matara. 

Hfiaaiona  Bdgea  de  la  Compapnie  de  Jinta  (monthly,  Bniasda); 
Miationea  Caiholica  (Rome,  ProiMiganda,  1907). 

J.  COOBEMAN. 

QaUego,  Juan  Nicasio,  priest  and  poet;  b.  at 
Zamora,  Spain,  14  Dec,  1777;  d.  at  Maarid,  9  Jan., 
1853;  received  his  training  at  Salamanca;  entering 
into  Holy  orders,  he  soon  went  to  Madrid,  where  he 
was  given  a  post  in  the  royal  palace,  being  made 
director  of  the  royal  pages.  His  feelings  as  a  patriot 
and  his  love  for  pseudo-classiciBm  very  naturally 
led  him  to  associate  himself  with  the  coterie  about 
the  poet  Quintana.  Imitating  the  latter's  metres,  he 
surpassed  him  in  perfection  of  form,  but  remains 
somewhat  his  inferior  in  respect  of  inspiration.  It  is 
by  virtue  of  only  seven  odes  and  elegies  that  Gallejgo 
attained  the  high  rank  which  he  certainly  occupies 
amons  Spaniidi  poets.  Of  these  the  first  was  the  ode, 
''A  la  d^ensa  de  Buenos  Ayrea*'  (1807),  directed  against 
the  English,  who.  taking  advantage  of  Spain's  naval 
weakness,  and  tne  imeasiness  in  the  colonies,  had 
seized  for  the  moment  the  capital  of  the  Argentine 
region.  With  intensified  liberal  tendencies,  Gallego 
presented  himself  for  election,  and  was  returned  a 
deputy  to  the  Cortes.  He  had  consistently  opposed 
the  French  invaders  of  the  Spanish  soil,  witn  botn  pen 
and  voice,  vet  the  despotic  Ferdinand  VII,  after  his 
return  in  1814,  imprisoned  him  because  of  his  liberal- 
ism. During  the  second  constitutional  period,  now 
free  again,  he  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Valencia, 
the  'Royel  Spanish  Academy  took  him  into  its  mem- 
bership, and  made  him  its  perpetual  secretary.  The 
most  mmous  of  the  few  compositions  left  by  Gallego 
is  the  elegy  ''El  Dos  de  Mayo",  which  commemorates 
the  events  of  2  May,  1808,  when  the  heroic  and  de- 
voted opposition  presented  to  the  French  troops  by 
three  Spanish  artillerymen,  Ruiz,  Daoiz  and  Velarte, 
led  to  tne  rising  of  the  whole  land  against  the  Napo- 
leonic usurper.  The  effect  of  Gallego 's  stirring  strains 
upon  his  countrymen,  urging  them  to  resist  unto  the 
death,  can  hardly  be  exaggerated.  Excellence  of 
form  characterizes  this  poem,  as  it  does  his  elegy  on 
the  death  of  the  Duchess  of  Frias. 

His  poems  are  in  the  Biblioteoa  de  atUorea  eapaflcUa^  LXVIX. 
BiANCO-GABCfA,  Hiataria  de  la  lUenUura  eapaflola  en  d  aiglo 
XIX, 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

GaUeae.  See  CivrrX  Castellana,  Orte,  and 
Gallssb,  Diocese  of. 

Galletti,  Pietro  LuigIj  Benedictine,  historian  and 
archaeologist;  b.  at  Rome  m  1724 ;  d.  there,  13  Decem- 
ber, 1790.  He  was  educated  im  Rome  where  he  en- 
tered the  Order  of  St.  Benedict.  While  a  monk  in  the 
Abbey  of  St.  Paul  Without  the  Walls,  he  made  a  col- 
lection of  the  numerous  ancient  inscriptions  used  in 
the  pavement  of  the  floor  of  the  famous  basilica  or 
scattered  among  the  cloister  buildings  and  in  the  sur- 
rounding vineyards.  These  became  soon  the  nucleus 
of  a  classified  museum  of  Christian  and  Pagan  inscrip- 
tions. Later  on  he  became  keeper  of  the  archives  and 
librarian  of  the  Benedictines  m  Florence.  Pius  VI 
bestowed  various  benefices  on  him  and  made  him 
titular  Bishop  of  Cyrene.  ,  , 

As  a  historian  Galletti  displayed  great  erudition  and 
diligence-    Some  of  his  writmgs  are  still  authoritative. 


notably  his  collection  of  inscriptions  and  his  works  on 
the  higher  papal  officials  of  tne  old  Lateran  Palace. 
His  literary  activities  were  directed  to  widelv  di- 
vergent periods  and  spheres  of  historical  ana  ar- 
chsological  research .  On  Roman  antiquity  he  wrote : 
''Capena,  municipio  dei  Romani"  (Rome,  1756),  and 
"Gabbio,  antica  citt&  di  Sabina,  scoperta  ove  era 
Torri"  (Rome,  1757).  His  two  works  "Del  Vesta- 
rario  della  santa  Romana  chiesa"  (Rome,  1758),  and 
"Del  Primicerio  della  S.  Sede  Apostolica  e  di  altri 
Uffiziali  Maggiori  del  Sacro  Palazzo  Lateranense" 
(Rome,  1776}deal  with  the  early  history  of  the  Roman 
Curia.  The  latter  work  is  especially  thorough  and 
important.  Among  his  contributions  to  the  historv  of 
the  religious  orders  the  followinjg  are  noteworthy: 
"  Lettera  intomo  la  vera  e  sicuraongine  del  ven.  ordine 
di  S.  Girolamo"  (Rome,  1755),  and  "  Ra^onamento 
dell '  origine  e  de'  primi  tempi  dell '  abbadia  Fiorentina ' ' 
(Rome.  1773).  He  was  the  author  of  a  biography  of 
the  bisnops  of  Viterbo:  "  Lettera  a  Giannantonio  fier- 
etta  sopra  alcuni  vescovi  di  Viterbo"  (Rome,  1759), 
and  of  Cardinal  Passionei:  "Memorie  per  servire  alia 
storia della  vita  del  card.  Domenioo  Passionei"  (Rome, 
1762).  His  work  on  the  early  churches  of  Rieti  is  of 
value  for  CSiristian  archsBology:  "Memoria  di  tre  an- 
tiche  chiese  di  Riete,  S.  Michele  Arcangelo^  S.  A^ata 
alia  Rocca,  S.  Giacomo"  (Rome,  1765).  Fmally,  it  is 
to  Galletti  that  is  due  the  first  great  collection  of 
medieval  inscriptions,  treated  as  a  source  of  historical 
information.  His  "  Inscriptiones  VenetSB  infimi  sevi 
Romae  exstantes  "  (Rome,  1757)  was  followed  in  the 
same  series  by  the  inscriptions  found  in  Rome  con- 
cerning Bologna,  Rome  itself  (3  vols.),  the  March  of 
Ancona,  and  I'iedmont,  in  all  seven  volumes  (1757- 

66). 

HuBTBH,  Nomtrulaicr,  s.  ▼.:  Bioffraphia  univenaUa.  s.  ▼.; 
Paou,  La  notigia  apaUanti  a  Mona.  P.  Luigi  QaUdH  (Rome, 
1791). 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Gallia  OhriBtlanat  a  documentary  catalogue  or 
list,  with  brief  historical  notices^  of  all  the  dioceses  and 
abbeys  of  France  from  the  earliest  timeb,  also  of  their 
occupants.  In  1621  Jean  Chenu,  an  avocai  at  the 
Parlement  of  Paris,  published  a  book  entitled  "Archi- 
episcoporum  et  episcoporum  Gallise  chronolo^'ca  his- 
toria  .  Nearly  a  thira  of  the  bishops  are  missmg,  and 
the  episcop^  succession  as  given  by  Chenu  was  very 
incomplete.  In  1626  Claude  Robert,  a  priest  of  Lan- 
gres,  published  with  the  approbation  of  Baronius  a 
"(Pallia  Christiana",  in  which  he  even  entered  a  large 
number  of  churches  outside  of  Gaul,  and  gave  a  short 
history  of  the  metropolitan  sees,  cathedrals,  and  ab- 
beys. Two  brothers  de  Sainte-Marthe,  Sc6vole 
(1571-1650)  and  Louis  (1571-1656),  appointed  royal 
historiographers  of  France  in*  1620,  had  assisted  Chenu 
and  Robert.  At  the  Assembly  of  the  Clergy  in  1 646  a 
number  of  prelates  commissioned  these  orothers  to 
compile  a  more  definitive  work.  The:^^  died  before  the 
completion  of  their  work,  and  it  was  issued  in  1656  by 
the  three  sons  of  Sc6vole  de  Sainte-Marthe,  Pierre 
(1618-90),  himself  historiographer  of  France,  Abel 
(1620-71),  theologian,  and  later  general  of  the  Oratory, 
and  Nicolas-Charles  (1623-62),  prior  of  Claunay.  On 
13  September,  1656,  the  Sainte-Marthe  brothers  were 
presented  to  the  Assembly  of  the  French  Clergy,  who 
nad  accepted  the  dedication  of  the  work  on  condition 
that  a  passage  suspected  of  Jansenism  be  suppressed. 
The  work  formea  four  volumes  in  folio,  tne  first 
for  the  archdioceses,  the  second  and  third  for  the 
dioceses,  and  the  fourth  for  the  abbeys,  all  in  alplu^ 
betical  order.  The  title  was  "  Gallia  Christiana,  qua 
series  omnium  archiepiscoporum,  episcoporum  et  ab- 
batum  Francis  vicinarumque  ditionum  ab  origine 
ecclesiarum  ad  nostra  tempera  per  auatuor  tomos  de- 
ducitur,  et  probatur  ex  antiquse  ndei  manuscriptis 
Vaticani,  regum,  principum,  tabulariis  omnium  Gal- 
li»  cathedralium  et  abbatiarum".    Such  as  it  was^ 


GALLIOAKISM                           351  GMJJOAKISM 

the  work  poesessed  considerable  value  at  the  time,  volumes  appeared  and  then  the  work  ceased.    Some 

especially  for  the  fullness  of  its  lists  and  for  the  repro-  jrears  ago  Cfanon  Albands  projected  a  complete  revi- 

duction  of  a  large  number  of  valuable  manuscripts,  sion  of  the  ''Gallia  Christiana",  each  ecclesiastical 

The  defects  and  omissions,  however,  were  obvious,  province  to  form  a  volume.    Alban^s,  who  was  one  of  • 

The  Sainte-Marthe  brothers  themselves  announced  in  the  first  scholars  to  search  the  Lateran  and  Vatican 

their  preface  the  early  appearance  of  a  second  edition  libraries,  in  his  efiforts  to  determine  the  initial  years  of 

corrected  and  enlarged.    As  early  as  1660  the  Jesuit  some  episcoi)al  reigns,  found  occasionally  either  the 

Jean  Colomb  published  at  Lyons  the  "  Noctes  Blanca-  acts  of^  election  or  the  Bulls  of  provision.    He  hoped 

landanse",  wnich  containea  certain  additions  to  the  in  this  way  to  remove  certain  supposititious  bishops 

work  of  the  Sammarthani,  as  the  brothers  and  their  who  had  been  introduced  to  fill  gaps  in  the  catalogues, 

successors  are  often  called.  but  died  in  1897  before  the  firat  volume  appeared. 

The  edition  promised  by  the  Sainte-Marthe  brothers  Through  the  use  of  his   notes  and  the  efforts  of 

did  not  appear.    In  1710  the  Assembly  of  the  French  Canon  Chevalier  thrto  additional   volumes  of  this 

Clergy  offered  four  thousand  livres  to  Denys  de  Sainte-  "  Gallia  Christiana  (novissima)",  treating  Aries,*  Aiz, 

Marine  (1650-1725),  a  Benedictine  of  Samt^Maur  re-  and  Marseilles,  have  appeared  at  Montroliard  since 

nowned  for  his  polemics  against  the  Abb4  de  Ranc6  on  1899. 

the  subject  of  monastic  studies,  on  condition  that  he  Drbux  du  Radxbb,  BibliotMgue  hiBtorique  et  criUquie  du 

should  bring  the  revision  of  the  '  *  Gallia  Christiana  "  to  P<ntou  (Paria,  1764);  Oaaia  Christiana,  Vol.  IV,  Prifaoe;  GaUia 


tion  should  continue  the  undertaking  after  his  death.  1902). 

In  1715  through  his  efforts  the  first  volume  appeared,  GBOBaas  Gotau. 

devoted  to  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  Albi,  Aix, 

Aries,  Avignon,  and  Auch.    In  1720  he  produced  the  Gallicanism. — ^This  term  is  used  to  designate  a 

second  volume,  dealing  with  the  provinces  of  Bourges  certain  group  of  religious  opinions  for  some  timepecid- 

and  Bordeaux,  and  in  1725  the  third,  which  treated  iar  to  the  Church  of  France,  or  Gidlican  Churcn,  and 

of  Cambrai,  Colore,  and  Embrun.    After  his  death  the  Uieological  schools  of  that  country.    These  opin- 

the  Benedictines  issued  the  fourth  volume  (1728)  on  ions,  in  opposition  to  the  ideas  which  were  called  in 

Lyons,  and  the  fifth  volume  (1731),  on  Mechlin  and  France  "Ultramontane",  tended  chiefly  to  a  restraint 

l&ns.    Between  1731  and  1740  on  account  of  the  of  the  pope's  authority  in  the  Church  in  favour  of  that 

controversies  over  the  Bull  "  Unigenitus"  Dom  F61ix  of  the  bishops  and  the  temporal  ruler.  It  is  important. 

Hodin  and  Dom  Etienne  Brice,  who  were  preparing  however,  to  remark  at  the  outset  that  the  warmest  ana 

the  later  volumes  of  the  "Gallia  Christiana"^  were  most  accredited  partisans  of  Gallican  ideas  by  no 

expelled    from   the  Abbey    of   Saint-Germam-des-  means  contested  the  pope's  primacy  in  the  Church, 

Pr^.    They  returned  to  Paris  in  1739  and  issued  the  and   never  claimed   for   their   ideas   the   force   of 

sixth  volume,  dealing  with  Narbonne,  also  (1744)  the  articles  of  faith.    They  aimed  only  at  making  it  clear 

seventh  and  eighth  volumes  on  Paris  and  its  suffragan  that  their  way  of  regarding  the  authoritv  of  we  pope 

sees.    Pdre  Duplessis  united  his  efforts  with  theirs  and  seemed  to  them  more  in  conformity  witn  Holy  ^np- 

the  ninth  and  tenth  volumes,  both  on  the  province  of  ture  and  tradition.    At  the  same  time,  their  theory 

Reims,  appeared   in    1751.     The  eleventh  volume  did  not,  as  they  regarded  it,  transgress  the  limits  of 

(1759)  dealmg  with  the  province  of  Rouen  was  issued  free  opinions,  which  it  is  allowable  for  any  theological 

by  P^re  Pierre  Henri  and  Dom  Jacques  Taschereau.  school  to  choose  for  itself  provided  that  the  Catholic 

In  1770  the  twelfth  volume  on  the  provinces  of  Sens  Symbol  b^  duly  accepted. 

and  Tarentaise  appeared,  and  in  1785  the  thirteenth  General  Notions. — Nothing  can  better  serve  the 

on  the  provinces  of  Toulouse  and  Trier.  At  the  out-  purpose  of  presenting  an  exposition  at  once  exact  and 

break  of  the  Revolution  four  volumes  were  lacking,  complete  ox  the  Galhcan  ideas  than  a  summary  of  tiie 

Tours,  Besangon,  Utrecht,  and  Vienne.    Barth61emy  famous  Declaration  of  the  Clergy  of  France  of  1682. 

Haur^au  published  (1856,  1860,  and  1865)  for  the  Here,  for  the  first  time,  those  ideas  are  organized  into 

provinces  of  Tours,  BesanQon,  and  Vienne,  respeo-  a  system,  and  receive  their  ofiicial  and  definitive 

-.    .          •           jf__  x_  xi_^  T»      j.-_x;           xi__j  xi__  o         1       «._.       J     *  xv_                 ^    which  accom- 

reduoes  to  the 

following  four  articles: — 

has  no  place  in  thfe  great  collection,  but  this  defect  has  (1)  St.  Peter  and  the  popes,  his  successors,  and  the 

been  remedied  in  part  by  the  "  Bullarium  Trajeo-  Church  itself  have  receivecl  dominion  [puissance]  from 

tense'',  edited  by  Gisbert  Brom  and  extending  from  God  only  over  things  spiritual  and  such  as  concern 

the  earliest  times  to  1378  (The  Hague,  1891-96).  The  salvation,  and  not  over  things  temporal  and  civil. 

new"GalliaChristiana",  of  which  volumes  I  to  V  and  Hence  kings  and  sovereigns  are  not  b^  God's  com- 

XI  and  XIII  were  reprinted  by  Dom  Piolin  between  mand  subject  to  any  ecclesiastical  dominion  in  things 

1870  and  1877,  and  Volumes  VI  to  IX  and  XII  by  the  temporal;  they  cannot  be  deposed,  whether  directfy 

publisher  H.  Welter,  places  after  each  metropolitan  or  indirectly,  by  the  authority  of  the  rulers  of  the 

see  its  suffragan  sees,  and  after  each  see  the  abbeys  be-  Church ;  their  subjects  cannot  be  dispensed  from  that 

longing  to  it.    The  documents,  instead  of  encumber-  submission  and  obedience  which  they  owe,  or  absolved 

ing  the  body  of  the  articles,  are  inserted  at  the  foot  of  from  the  oath  of  allegiance. 

each  column  under  the  title  "Instrumental.    This  ^2)  The  plenitude  of  authority  in  things  spiritual, 

colossal  work  does  great  honour  to  the  Benedictines  which  belongs  to  the  Holy  See  and  the  successors  of 

and  to  the  Sainte-Marthe  familv.    "The  name  of  St.  Peter,  in  no  wise  affects  the  permanence  and  im- 

Sainte-Marthe'*,  wrote  Voltaire,  ^'is  one  of  those  of  movable  strength  of  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of 

which  the  country  has  most  reason  to  be  proud."  Constance  contained  in  the  fourUi  and  fifth  sessions 

In  1774  the  Abb^  Hugues  du  Temps,  vicar-gen-  of  that  council,  approved  bv  the  Holy  See,  confirmed 

eral  of  Bordeaux,  undertook  in  seven  volumes  an  by  the  practice  ot  the  whole  Church  and  the  Roman 

abridgment  of  the  "Gallia",  under  the  title  "Le  clergjg  pontiff,  and  observed  in  all  ages  by  the  Gallican 

de  France",  of  which  only  four  volumes  appeared.  Church.    That  Church  does  not  countenance  the 

About  1867  the  Abb^  Fisquet  undertook  the  publica-  opinion  of  those  who  cast  a  slur  on  those  decrees,  or 

tion  of  an  episcopal  histoiy  of  France  (La  France  Pon-  who  lessen  their  force  bv  saying  that  their  authority 


OAIXJCAHISM 


352 


OALTJOAHISM 


tanee]  must  also  be  regpulated  in  accordance  with  the 
canons  made  by  the  Spirit  of  God  and  consecrated  by 
the  respect  of  the  whole  world.  The  rules,  customs, 
and  ^constitutions  received  within  the  kingdom  and 
the  Galilean  Church  must  have  their  force  and  their 
effect,  and  the  usages  of  our  fathers  remain  inviolable, 
since  the  dignity  of  the  Apostolic  See  itself  demands 
that  the  laws  and  customs  established  by  consent  of 
that  august  see  and  of  the  Churches  be  constantly 
maintained. 

(4)  Although  the  pope  have  the  chief  part  in  ques- 
tions of  faith,  and  his  decrees  apply  to  all  the  Churches, 
and  to  each  Church  in  particular,  yet  his  judgment  is 
not  irreformable,  at  least  pending  the  consent  of  the 
Church. 

According  to  the  Galilean  theory,  then,  the  papal 
primacy  was  limited,  first,  b^  the  temporal  power  of 
princes,  which,  by  the  Divine  will,  was  inviolable; 
secondly  by  the  authority  of  the  general  council  and 
that  of  the  bishops,  who  alone  could,  by  their  assent, 
give  to  his  decrees  that  infallible  authority  which, 
of  themselves,  they  lacked;  lastly,  b^  the  canons  and 
customs  of  particular  Churches,  which  the  pope  was 
bound  to  take  into  account  when  he  exercised  his 
authority.  ^ 

But  Gallicanism  was  more  than  pure  speculation. 
It  reacted  from  the  domain  of  theory  into  that  of 
facts.  The  bishops  and  magistrates  of  France  used  it, 
the  former  as  warrant  for  increased  power  in  the 
^vemment  of  dioceses,  the  latter  to  extend  their 
jurisdiction  so  as  to  cover  ecclesiastical  affairs.  More- 
over, there  was  an  episcopal  and  political  Gallicanism, 
and  a  parliamentary  or  judicisu  Gallicanism.  The 
former  lessened  the  doctrinal  authoritv  of  the  pope 
in  favour  of  that  of  the  bishops,  to  the  degree  marked 
by  the  Declaration  of  1682;  the  latter,  affecting  the 
relations  of  the  temporal  and  spiritual  powers,  tended 
to  augment  the  rights  of  the  State  more  and  more,  to 
the  prejudice  of  those  of  the  Church,  on  the  grounds  of 
what  they  called ' '  the  Liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church" 
{lAberUs  de  VEglise  GaUicane). 

These  Liberties,  which  are  enumerated  in  a  collec- 
tion, or  corpus,  drawn  up  by  the  jurisconsults  Guy 
Coquille  and  Pierre  Pithou,  were,  according  to  the 
latter,  ei^htv-three  in  number.  Besides  tne  four 
articles  cited  above,  which  were  incorporated,  the 
following  may  be  noted  as  among  the  more  important: 
The  Kings  of  France  had  the  right  to  assemble  coun- 
cils in  their  dominions,  and  to  make  laws  and  regula- 
tions touching  ecclesiastical  matters.  The  pope's 
legates  could  not  be  sent  into  France,  or  exercise  tneir 
power  within  that  kingdom,  except  at  the  king's  re- 
quest or  with  his  consent.  Bishops,  even  when  com- 
manded by  the  pope,  could  not  go  out  of  the  kingdom 
without  the  king's  cons<;nt.  The  royal  officers  could 
not  be  excommunicated  for  any  act  performed  in  the 
discha^  of  their  official  duties.  The  pope  could  not 
authorize  the  alienation  of  any  landea  estate  of  the 
Churches,  or  the  diminishing  of  any  foundations. 
His  Bulls  and  Letters  might  not  be  executed  without 
the  Pareatis  of  the  king  or  his  officers.  He  could  not 
issue  dispensations  to  the  prejudice  of  the  laudable 
customs  and  statutes  of  the  cathedral  Churches.  It 
was  lawful  to  appeal  from  him  to  a  future  council,  or 
to  have  recourse  to  the  "appeal  as  from  an  abuse" 
(appd  camme  d'abus)  against  acts  of  the  ecclesiastical 
power. 

Parliamentary  Gallicanism  ^  therefore,  was  of  much 
wider  scope  than  episcopal ;  indeed,  it  was  often  dis- 
avowed by  the  bishops  of  France,  and  about  twenty  of 
them  condemned  Pierre  Pithou 's  book  when  a  new 
edition  of  it  was  published,  in  1638,  by  the  brothers 
Dupuy. 

Origin  and  History. — ^The  Declaration  of  1682 
and  the  work  of  Pithou  codified  the  principles  of  Galli- 
canism, but  did  not  create  them.  We  have  to  inquire, 
then,  how  l^ere  came  to  be  formed  in  the  bosom  of  the 


Church  of  France  a  body  of  doctrines  and  practioei 
which  tended  to  isolate  it,  and  to  impress  upon  it  a 
physiognomy  somewhat  exceptional  m  the  Catholic 
body.  Galileans  have  held  that  the  reason  of  this 
phenomenon  is  to  be  found  in  the  very  origin  and 
nistory  of  Gallicanism. 

For  the  more  moderate  among  them,  Galilean  ideas 
and  liberties  were  simply  privilege8^--concessiona 
made  by  the  popes,  who  had  been  quite  willing  to 
divest  themselves  of  a  part  of  their  autnority  in  favour  , 
of  the  bishops  or  kinm  or  France.  It  was  thus  that 
the  latter  could  lawfmly  stretch  tlieir  powers  in  eccle- 
siastical matters  beyond  the  normal  limits.  This  idea 
made  its  appearance  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Philip  the 
Fair,  in  some  of  the  protests  of  that  monarch  against 
the  policy  of  Boniface  VIII.    In  the  view  of  some 

g artisans  of  the  theory,  the  popes  had  always  thought 
t  to  show  ^pecial  consideration  for  the  ancient  cus- 
toms of  the  Galilean  Church,  which  in  every  age  had 
distinguished  itself  by  its  exactitude  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  Faith  and  the  mainjtenance  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline.  Others,  again,  assigned  a  more  precise 
date  to  the  granting  of  tnese  concessions,  referring 
their  orisin  to  the  period  of  the  earliest  Cariovineians, 
and  explaining  them  somewhat  differently .^They 
said  that  the  popes  had  foimd  it  impossible  to  recall 
to  their  allegiance  and  to  due  respect  for  ecclesiastical 
discipline  the  Prankish  lords  who  had  possessed  them- 
selves of  episcopal  sees;  that  these  lords,  insensible  to 
censures  and  anathemas,  rude  and  imtau^t.  recog- 
nized no  authority  but  that  of  force;  and  tnat  the 
popes  had,  therefore,  granted  to  Carloman,  Pepin,  and 
Charles  the  Great  a  spiritual  authority  which  they 
were  to  exercise  only  under  papal  control.  It  was  this 
authority  that  the  Kings  of  France,  successors  of  these 

{)rinces,  nad  inherited.  This  theory  comes  into  col- 
ision  with  difficulties  so  serious  as  to  have  caused  its 
rejection  as  well  by  the  majority  of  Galileans  as  by 
their  Ultramontane  adversaries.  The  former  by  no 
means  admitted  that  the  Liberties  were  privileses, 
since  a  privilege  can  be  revoked  by  him  who  nas 
eranted  it;  and,  as  they  regarded  the  matter,  these 
Liberties  could  not  be  touched  by  any  pope.  More- 
over, they  added,  the  Kings  of  France  nave  at  times 
received  irom  the  popes  certain  cleariy  defined  privi- 
le^;  these  privileges  have  never  been  confounded 
with  the  GaUican  Liberties.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
historians  could  have  told  them,  the  privileges  ac- 
corded by  popes  to  the  King  of  France  in  the  course  of 
centuries  are  known  from  the  texts,  of  which  an  au- 
thentic collection  could  be  oompOed^  and  there  is 
nothing  in  them  resembling  the  Liberties  in  question. 
Again,  why  should  not  these  Gallican  Liberties  have 
b^n  transmitted  to  the  German  Bmperors  as  well, 
since  they,  too,  were  the  heirs  of  Pepm  and  Charie- 
magne?  Besides^  the  Ultramontanes  pointed  out. 
there  are  some  pnvileges  which  the  pope  nimself  coula 
not  grant.  Is  it  conceivable  that  a  pope  should  allow 
any  group  of  bishops  the  privilege  of^callin^  his  infalli- 
bility in  question,  putting  his  doctrinal  decisions  upon 
trial,  to  be  accepted  or  rejected?— or  grant  any  kings 
the  privilege  of  placinjg  his  primacy  under  tutelage  by 
suppressing  or  curtailing  his  liberty  of  communication 
with  the  faithful  in  a  certein  territory? 

Most  of  ite  partisans  regarded  Gallicanism  rather  as 
a  revival  of  Hie  most  ancient  traditions  of  Christianity, 
a  persistence  of  the  common  law,  which  law,  according 
to  some  (IHthou,  Quesnel),  was  made  up  of  the  oon- 
ciliar  decrees  of  the  earliest  centuries  or,  according  to 
others  (Marca,  Bossuet),  of  canons  of  the  general  and 
local  councils,  and  the  decretals,  ancient  and  modem, 
which  were  received  in  France  or  conformable  to  their 
usage.  "Of  all  Christian  countries",  says  Fleunr, 
"France  has  been  the  most  careful  to  conserve  the 
liberty  of  her  Church  and  oppose  the  novelties  intro- 
duced by  Ultramontane  canoniste".  The  Liberties 
were  so  called,  because  the  innovations  constituted 


GALUOAKISM 


353 


GMJJOAMISM 


conditions  of  servitude  with  which  the  popes  had  bur- 
dened the  Church,  and  their  legality  resulted  from  the 
fact  that  the  extension  given  by  the  popes  to  their  own 
primacv  was  founded  not  upon  Divine  mstitution,  but 
upon  tne  false  Decretals.  If  we  are  to  credit  these 
authors,  what  the  Gfdlicans  maintained  in  1682  was 
not  a  collection  of  novelties,  but  a  body  of  beliefs  as 
old  as  the  Church,  the  discipline  of  the  first  centuries, 
llie  Church  of  France  had  upheld  and  practised  them 
at  all  times;  the  Church  Universal  had  believed  and 
practised  them  of  old,  until  about  the  tenth  centui^; 
St.  Louis  had  supported,  but  not  created,  them  by  the 
Prasnatic  Sanction;  tne  Council  of  Constance  had 
tau^t  ^em  with  Hie  pope's  approbation.  Gallican 
ideas,  then,  must  have  naa  no  other  ori^  than  that  of 
Christian  dogma  aujd  ecclesiastical  discipline.  It  is 
for  history  to  tdl  us  what  these  assertbns  of  the  Galli- 
can theorists  were  worth. 

To  the  similarity  of  the  historical  vicissitudes 
through  which  they  passed,  their  common  political 
allegiance,  and  the  early  smpearance  of ^  a  national 
sentiment,  the  Churches  of  France  owed  it  that  they 
very  soon  formed  an  individual,  compact,  and  homo- 
geneous body.  From  the  end  of  the  fourth  oentunr 
tiie  popes  themselves  recognized  this  solidarity.  It 
was  to  the  "Gallican"  bishops  that  Pope  Damasus — 
as  M.  Babut  seems  to. have  demonstrated  recently 
— addressed  the  most  ancient  decretal  which  has 
been  preserved  to  our  times.  Two  centuries  later.  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  pointed  out  the  Gallican  Churcn  to 
his  envoy  Augustine,  the  Apostle  of  England,  as  one  of 
those  whose  customs  he  might  accept  as  of  equal 
stability  with  those  of  the  Roman  Church  or  of  any 
other  whatsoever.^  But  already-^if  we  are  to  believe 
the  young  historian  just  mentioned — a  Council  of 
Turin,  at  which  bishops  of  the  Gauls  assisted,  had 
eiven  the  first  manifestation  of  Gallican  sentiment. 
Unfortunately  for  M.  Babut 's  thesis,  all  the  signifi- 
cance which  he  attaches  to  this  council  depends  upon 
the  date,  417,  ascribed  to  it  by  him,  on  the  mere 
strength  of  a  personal  conjecture,  in  opposition  to  the 
most  competent  historians.  Besides,  it  is  not  at  all 
plain  how  a  council  of  the  Province  of  Milan  is  to  be 
taken  as  representing  the  ideas  of  the  Gallican 
Church. 

In  truthj  that  Church,  during  the  Merovingian 

Seriod,  testifies  the  same  deference  to  the  Holy  S^  as 
o  all  the  others.  Ordinary  questions  of  discipline 
are  in  the  ordinary  course  settled  in  coimcils,  often 
held  with  the  assent  of  the  kings,  but  on  great  occa- 
sions— at  the  Councils  of  Epaone  (517),  of  Vaison 
(529),  of  Valence  (529),  of  Orleans  (538),  of  Tours 
(567) — the  bishops  do  not  fail  to  declare  that  they  are 
acting  under  the  impulse  of  the  Holy  See,  or  defer  to 
its  admonitions;  they  take  pride  in  the  approbation 
of  ttie  pope ;  they  cause  his  name  to  be  read  aloud  in 
the  churches,  just  as  is  done  in  Italy  and  in  Africa; 
they  cite  his  decretals  as  a  source  of  ecclesiastical  law; 
they  show  indignation  at  the  mere  idea  that  any- 
one should  fail  m  consideration  for  them.  Bishops 
condemned  in  councils — ^like  Salonius  of  Embrun, 
Sfi^taritis  of  Gap.  Contumeliosus  of  Riez — ^have  no 
difficulty  in  appealing  to  the  pope,  who,  after  exami- 
nation, either  confirms  or  rectifies  the  sentence  pro- 
nounced against  them. 

The  accession  of  the  Cariovingian  dynasty  is 
marked  by  a  splendid  act  of  homage  paid  in  France  to 
the  power  of  the  papacy:  before  assuming  the  titie 
of  king,  Pepin  makes  a  point  of  securing  the  assent  of 
Pope  Zadiary .  Without  wishing  to  exaggerate  the  sig- 
nificance of  this  act,  the  bearing  of  whicm  the  Galileans 
have  done  every  thine  to  mimmize,  one  may  be  per- 
mitted to  see  m  it  tne  evidence  that,  even  before 
Gregory  VII,  public  opinion  in  France  was  not  hostile 
to  &e  intervention  of  the  pope  in  political  affairs. 
From  that  time  on,  the  advances  of  the  Roman  pri- 
macy find  no  serious  opponents  in  France  before 
VI.— 23 


Hincmar,  the  famous  Archbishop  of  Reims^  in  whdm 
some  have  been  willing  to  see  the  very  founder  of 
Gallicanism.  It  is  true  that  with  him  there  already 
appears  the  idea  that  the  pope  must  limit  his  activity 
to  ecclesiastical  matters,  and  not  intrude  in  those  per- 
taining to  the  State,  which  concern  kings  only ;  that 
his  supremacy  is  bound  to  respect  the  prescriptions  of 
the  ancient  canons  and  the  privileges  of  the  Churches; 
that  his  decretals  must  not  be  placed  upon  the  same 
footing  as  ihe  canons  of  the  coimcils.  But  it  appears 
that  we  should  see  here  the  expression  of  passing  feel- 
ings, inspired  by  the  particular  circumstances,  niuch 
rather  man  a  deliberate  opinion  maturely  conceived 
and  conscious  of  its  own  meaning.  The  proof  of  this 
is  in  the  fact  that  Hincmar  himself,  when  his  claims 
to  the  metropolitan  dignity  are  not  in  question,  con- 
demns vety  sharply,  though  at  the  risk  of  self-contra- 
diction, the  opinion  of  those  who  think  that  the  king  is 
subject  only  to  God,  and  he  makes  it  his  boast  to  "  fol- 
low the  Roman  C!hurch.  whose  teachinss",  he  says, 
quoting  the  famous  woros  of  Innocent  I,  "  are  imposed 
upon  all  men ' '.  His  attitude,  at  any  rate,  stands  out 
as  an  isolated  accident;  the  Council  of  Troyes  (867) 
proclaims  that  no  bishop  can  be  deposed  williout 
reference  to  the  Holy  See,  and  the  Council  of  Douzy 
(871),  although  held  imder  the  influence  of  Hincmar. 
condemns  the  Bi^op  of  Laon  only  imder  reserve  ot 
the  riehts  of  the  pope. 

Wiui  the  first  Capets  the  secular  relations  between 
the  pope  and  the  Gallican  (]!hurch  appeared  to  be 
momentarfly  strained.  At  the  Coimcils  of  Saint- 
Basle  de  Verzy  (991)  and  of  Chelles  (c.  993),  in  the 
discourses  of  Amoul,  Bishop  of  Orleans,  in  the  letters 
of  Gerbert,  afterwards  Pope  Sylvester  II,  sentiments 
of  violent  hostility  to  the  Holy  See  are  manifested, 
and  an  evident  determination  to  elude  the  authority 
in  matters  of  discipline  which  had  until  then  been 
recognized  as  belonging  to  it.  But  the  napacy  at 
that  period,  given  over  to  the  tyranny  of  Orescentius 
and  oliier  lo^  barons,  was  unaergoins  a  melancholy 
obscuration.  When  it  regained  its  independence,  its 
old  authority  in  France  came  back  to  it;  the  work  of 
the  Councils  of  Saint-Basle  and  of  Chelles  was  undone ; 
princes  like  Hug}i  Capet,  bishops  like  Gerbert,  held  no 
attitude  but  that  of  submission.  It  has  been  said  that 
during  the  early  Capetian  period  the  pope  was  more 

g>werful  in  France  than  he  had  ever  b«en.  Under 
reeory  VII  the  pope's  leeates  traversed  France  from 
norm  to  south,  they  convoked  and  presided  over  num- 
erous councils,  and,  in  spite  of  sporadic  and  incoherent 
acts  of  resistance,  they  deposed  bishops  and  excom- 
municated princes  just  as  m  Germany  and  Spain. 

In  the  following  two  centuries  Gallicanism  is  even 
yet  unborn;  the  pontifical  power  attains  its  apogee  in 
France  as  elsewhere ;  St.  Bernard,  then  the  standard- 
bearer  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  St.  Thomas  outr- 
line  the  theory  of  that  power,  and  their  opinion  is  that 
of  the  school  m  acceptmg  the  attitude  of  Gregory  VII 
and  his  successors  m  regard  to  delinquent  princes, 
St.  Louis,  of  whom  it  has  been  sou^t  to  make  a 
patron  of  the  Gallican  system,  is  still  ignorant  of  it-^ 
for  the  fact  is  now  established  that  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  long  attributed  to  him,  was  a  wholesale 
fabrication  put  together  (about  1445)  in  the  purlieus 
of  the  Royal  Chancellery  of  Charles  VII  to  lend  coun- 
tenance to  the  Pracpatic  Sanction  of  Bourges. 

At  the  opening  of  the  fourteenth  century,  however, 
the  conflict  between  Philip  the  Fair  and  Boniface 
VIII  brines  out  the  first  ghmmerings  of  the  Gallican 
ideas.  That  king  does  not  confine  himself  to  main- 
taining that,  as  sovereign^  he  is  sole  and  independent 
master  of  his  temporalities;  he  haughtily  proclaims 
that,  in  virtue  of  the  concession  made  br^  the  pope, 
with  the  assent  of  a  general  council,  to  C!narlemagne 
and  his  successors,  h^  has  the  rieht  to  dispose  of 
vacant  ecclesiastical  benefices.  With  the  consent 
of  the  nobility,  the  Third  Estate,  and  a  great  part  of 


OALU0ANI8M 


354 


OALLXOANISM 


the  deigy,  he  appeals  in  the  matter  from  Boniface 
Vin  to  a  future  general  coimcil — the  implication 
being  that  the  council  is  superior  to  the  pope.  The 
same  ideas  and  others  still  more  hostile  to  the  Holy 
See  reappear  in  the  strugde  of  Fratricelles  and  Louis 
of  Bavana  a^inst  John  XXII:  they  are  expressed  by 
the  pens  of  William  Occam,  ot  John  of  Jandun,  and 
of  Biarsilius  of  Padua,  professors  in  the  University  of 
Paris.  Among  other  things,  they  deny  the  Divine 
ori^  of  the  papal  primacy,  and  subject  the  exercise 
of  it  to  the  good  pleasure  of  the  temporal  ruler.  Fol- 
lowing the  pope,  the  University  of  Paris  condemned 
these  views;  but  for  all  that  they  did  not  entirely  dis- 
appear from  the  memory,  or  from  the  disputations,  of 
the  schools^  for  the  principal  work  of  Marsilius,  "De- 
fensor Pacis",  was  translated  into  French  in  1375, 
probably  by  a  professor  of  the  University  of  Paris. 
The  Great  Schism  reawakened  them  suddenly.  The 
idea  of  a  coimcil  naturally  suggested  itself  as  a  means 
of  terminating  that  melancholy  rending  asunder  of 
Christendom.  Upon  that  idea  was  soon  sniitod  the 
"conciliary  theory",  which  sete  the  coimcu  above  the 
pope,  makmg  it  the  sole^  representative  of  the  Churdi, 
the  sole  organ  of  infallibibty.  Timidly  sketdied  by 
two  professors  of  the  University  of  Paris,  Conrad  of 
Gelnnausen  and  Henry  of  Langenstein,  this  theory 
was  completed  and  noisily  interpreted  to  the  public  by 
Pierre  a'Ailly  and  Gerson.  At  the  same  time  the 
clergy  of  France,  disgusted  with  Benedict  XIII,  took 
upon  itself  to  withdraw  from  his  obedience.  It  was  in 
the  assembly  which  voted  on  this  measure  (1398)  that 
for  the  first  time  there  was  any  question  of  bringing 
back  the  Church  of  France  to  ite  ancient  liberties  and 
customs — of  giving  ite  prelates  once  more  the  right 
of  conferring  and  disposing  of  benefices.  The  same 
idea  comes  mto  the  foreground  in  the  claims  put  for- 
ward in  1406  by  another  assembly  of  the  French 
clergy;  to  win  me  votes  of  the  assembly,  certain 
orators  cited  the  example  of  what  was  happening  in 
England.  M.  Haller  has  concluded  from  this  mat 
these  so-called  Ancient  Liberties  were  of  Endish 
origin,  that  the  Galilean  Church  really  borrowed  them 
from  ite  neighbour,  only  imagining  them  to  be  a 
revival  of  ite  own  past.  This  oi>inion  does  not  seem 
well  founded.  The  precedente  cited  by  M.  Haller  go 
back  to  the  parliament  held  at  Carlisle  in  1307,  at 
which  date  the  tendencies  of  reaction  against  papal 
reservations  had  already  manifested  themselves  m  the 
assemblies  convoked  by  Philip  the  Fair  in  1302  and 
1303.  The  most  that  we  can  admit  is,  that  the  same 
ideas  received  parallel  development  from  both  sides 
of  the  channel. 

Together  with  the  restoration  of  the  "Ancient 
Liberties"  the  assembly  of  the  clergy  in  1406  intended 
to  maintain  the  superiority  of  the  council  to  the  pope, 
and  the  fallibility  of  the  latter.  However  widely  they 
may  have  been  accepted  at  the  time,  these  were  only 
individual  opinions  or  opinions  of  a  school,  when  the 
Council  of  Constance  came  to  give  them  the  sanction 
of  ite  high  authority.  In  ite  fourth  and  fifth  sessions 
it  declared  that  the  council  represented  the  Church, 
that  every  person,  no  matter  of  what  dignity,  even  the 
pope,  was  bound  to  obey  it  in  what  concerned  the  ex- 
tirpation of  the  schism  and  the  reform  of  the  Church; 
that  even  the  pope,  if  he  resisted  obstinately,  mi^t 
be  constrained  by  process  of  law  to  obey  it  in  uie 
above-mentioned  pomte.    This  was  the  birth  or,  if  we 

g refer  to  call  it  so,  the  legitimation  of  Gallieanism. 
0  far  we  had  encountered  m  the  history  of  the  Galli- 
can  Church  recriminations  of  malcontent  bishops,  or 
a  violent  gesture  of  some  prince  discomforted  m  his 
avaricious  designs ;  but  these  were  only  fite  of  resent- 
ment or  ill  humor,  accidente  with  no  attendant  conse- 
quences ;  this  time  the  provisions  made  a«;ainst  exer- 
cise of  ^e  pontifical  authority  took  to  themselves  a 
body  and  found  a  fulcrum.  Gallieanism  has  im- 
planted itself  in  the  minds  of  men  as  a  national  doctrine 


and  it  only  remains  to  apply  it  in  praotioe.  This  is  to 
be  the  work  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges.  In 
that  instrument  the  deigy  of  France  inserted  the 
articles  of  Constance  repeated  at  Basle,  and  upon  that 
warrant  assumed  authority  to  regulate  the  coUation 
of  benefices  and  the  temporal  acSninistration  of  the 
Churches  on  the  sole  basis  of  the  common  law,  imder 
the  king'spatronage,  and  independently  of  the  pope's 
action,  from  Eugene  IV  to  Leo  X  the  popes  did  not 
cease  to  protest  against  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  until 
it  was  replaced  by  the  Concordat  of  1516.  But,  if  ite 
provisions  disappeared  from  the  laws  of  France,  the 
principles  it  embodied  for  a  time  none  the  less  con- 
tinued to  inspire  the  schools  of  theolojgy  and  paiiia- 
mentary  junsprudenoe.  Those  principles  even  ap- 
peared at  the  Council  of  Trent,  where  the  ambassadors, 
theologians,  and  bishops  of  France  repeatedly  diam- 
pioned  them,  notebly  when  the  questions  for  decision 
were  as  to  whether  episcopal  jurisdiction  comes 
immediately  from  God  or  throiu^  the  pope^  whether 
or  not  the  council  ought  to  ask  confinnation  of  ite 
decrees  from  the  sovereifisi  pontiff,  ete.  Then  safjn, 
it  was  in  the  name  of  trie  Liberties  of  the  Galncan 
Church  that  a  part  of  the  clergy  and  the  Parlemen- 
taires  opposed  the  publication  of  that  same  council; 
and  the  crown  decided  to  detach  from  it  and  publish 
what  seemed  good,  in  the  form  of  ordinances  emar- 
nating  from  the  royal  authority. 

Nevertheless,  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  reaction  against  the  Protestant  denial  of 
all  authority  to  the  pope  and,  above  all,  the  triumph 
of  the  League  had  enfeebled  Gallican  convictions  ia 
the  minds  of  the  clergy,  if  not  of  the  parliament. 
But  the  assassination  of  Henry  IV,  which  was  ex- 
ploited to  move  public  opinion  aminst  Ultramontan* 
ism.  and  the  activity  of  Edmond  Richer^  syndic  of  the 
Soroonne,  brought  about,  at  the  beginnins  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  a  strong  revival  of  GalRcanism^ 
which  was  thenceforward  to  continue  gaining  in 
strength  from  day  to  day.  In  1663  the  Sorbonne 
solenmly  declared  that  it  admitted  no  authority  of 
the  pope  over,  the  kins's  temporal  dominion^  nor  his 
superiority  to  a  senenJ  council,  nor  infallibility  apart 
from  the  Church's  consent.  In  1682  matters  were 
much  worse.  Louis  XIV  having  decided  to  extend  to 
all  the  Qiurches  of  his  kingdom  the  regale,  or  right  of 
receiving  the  revenue  of  vacant  sees,  and  of  conferring 
the  sees  themselves  at  his  pleasure.  Pope  Innocent  XI 
strongly  opposed  the  kingi  designs,  miteted  by  this 
resistance,  the  king  assembled  the  deigy  of  France 
and,  on  19  March,  1682,  the  thirty-six  prelates  and 
thirty-four  deputies  of  the  secona  order  who  con- 
stituted that  assembly  adopted  the  four  articles 
recited  above  and  transmitted  them  to  all  the  other 
bishops  and  archbishops  of  France.  ^  Three  days  later 
the  kms  commanded  the  reg^tration  of  the  articles 
in  all  the  schools  and  faculties  of  theology;  no  one 
could  even  be  admitted  to  degrees  in  theolo^  without 
having  maintained  this  doctrine  in  one  of  his  theses, 
and  it  was  forbidden  to  write  anything  against  them. 
The  Sorbonne,  however,  yielded  to  the  ordinance  of 
registration  only  after  a  spirited  resistance.  Pope 
Innocent  XI  testified  his  displeasure  by  the  Bescnpt 
of  11  April,  1682,  in  which  he  voided  and  annulled  all 
that  the  assembly  had  done  in  regard  to  the  r^ale,  as 
well  as  all  the  consequences  of  that  action;  ne  also 
refused  Bulls  to  all  members  of  the  assembly  who  were 
proposed  for  vacant  bishoprics.  In  like  manner  his 
successor  Alexander  VIII.  oy  a  Constitution  dated  4 
August,  1690,  quashed  as  detrimental  to  the  Holy  See 
the  proceedings  both  in  the  matter  of  the  regale  and 
in  that  of  the  declaration  on  the  ecclesiastical  power 
and  jurisdiction,  which  had  been  prejudicial  to  the 
clerical  estate  and  order.  The  bishops  designate  to 
whom  Bulls  had  been  refused  received  them  at  lenffthf 
in  1693,  only  after  addressing  to  Pope  Innocent  Xll  a 
letter  in  which  they  disavowed  everything  that  had 


OALLICANISM                         355  OALU0AHZ8M 

faieen  decreed  in  that  assembhr  in  regard  to  the  ecde-  Critical  Examination. — ^The  principal  force  of 

Biastical  power  and  the  pontincal  auuority .    Tlie  long  Gallicanism  always  was  that  which  it  drew  from  the 

himself  wrote  to  the  pope  (14  SepteinbBr,  1693)  to  external  circumstances  in  which  it  arose  and  ^w  up: 

announce  that  a  royal  order  had  been  issued  agaonst  the  difficulties  of  the  Church,  torn  by  schism;  the 

the  execution  of  the  edict  of  23  March,  1682.    In  spite  encroachments  of  the  civil  authorities;  political  tur- 

of  these  disavowals,  the  Declaration  of  1682  remamed  moil;  the  interested  support  of  the  kings  of  France, 

thenceforward  the  living  s^bol  of  Gallicanism.  pro-  None  the  less  does  it  seek  to  establish  its  own  right 

fessed  b}r  the  ereat  majority  of  the  French  clergy,  to  exist,  and  to  legitimize  its  attitude  towards  the 

obligatonly  defended  in  the  faculties  of  theology,  theories  of  the  schools.    There  is  no  denying  that  it 

schools,  and  seminaries,  guarded  from  the  lukewarm-  has  had  in  its  service  a  long  succession  of  theologians 

ness  of  French  theol(^;i^is  and  the  attacks  of  foreigners  and  jurists  who  did  much  to  assure  its  success.    At 

by  the  inquisitorial  vieilance  of  the  French  parlia-  the  beginning,  its  first  advocates  were  Pierre  d'Ailly 

ments,  which  never  failed  to  condemn  to  suppression  and  Gerson, whose  somewhat  daring  theories,  reflecting 

every  work  that  seemed  hostile  to  the  principles  of  the  the  then  prevalent  disorder  of  ideas,  were  to  triumph 

Declaration.                    ^  in  the  Council  of  Constance.    In  the  sixteenth  century 

From  France  Gallicanism  spread,  about  the  middle  Almain  and  Major  make  but  a  poor  figure  in  contrast 

of  the  eighteenth  century,  into  the  Low  Countries,  with  Torquemada  and  Cajetan,  the  leading  theorists 

thanks  to  the  works  of  the  jurisconsult  Van-EIspen.  of  pontifical  primacjjr.    *But  in  the  seventeenth  century 

Under  the  pseudonym  of  Febromus,  Hontheim  intro-  the  Gallican  doctnne  takes  its  revenge  with  Richer 

duced  it  into  Germany,  where  it  took  the  forms  of  and  Launoy,  who  throw  as  much  passion  as  science 

Febronianism  and  Josephism.    The  Council  of  Pistoia  into  their  efforts  to  shake  the  work  of  Bellarmine,  the 

f  1786}  even  tried  to  acclimatize  it  in  Italy.    But  its  most  solid  edifice  ever  raised  in  defence  of  the  Church's 

aiffusion  was  sharply  arrested  bv  the  Revolution,  constitution  and  the  papal  supremacy.    Pithou,  Du- 

which  took  away  its  chief  support  by  oyertuminfi;  the  pu^,  and  Marca  edited  texts  or  disinterred  from  ar- 

thrones  of  kingps.    Against  the  Revolution  that  drove  chives  the  judicial  monuments  best  calculated  to 

them  out  and  wrecked  their  sees,  nothing  was  left  to  support  parUamentary  Gallicanism.    After  1682  the 

the  bishops  of  France  but  to  link  themselves  closely  attack  and  defence  of  Gallicanism  were  concentrated 

with  the  Holy  See.    After  the  Concordat  of  1801 — it-  almost  entirely  upon  the  four  Articles.  Whilst  Charlas, 

self  the  most  dazzling  manifestation  of  the  pope's  in  his  anonymous  treatise  on  the  Liberties  of  the 

supreme  power — French  Governments  made  some  Catholic  Church,  d'Aguirre,  in  his  "Auctoritas  in- 


canism  was  never  again  resuscitated  except  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Declaration,  Alexander  Natalis  and 
form  of  a  vague  mistrust  of  Rome.  On  tne  fall  of  EUies  Dupin  searched  ecclesiastical  history  for  titles 
Napoleon  and  the  Bourbons,  the  work  of  Lamennais,  of  on  which  to  support  it.  .Bossuet  carried  on  the  de- 
**  L  Avenir"  and  other  publications  devoted  to  Roman  fence  at  once  on  the  ground  of  theologv  and  of  histoiy. 
ideas,  the  influence  of  Dom  Gu^ranger,  and  the  effects  In  his  ''Defensio  dedarationis",  which  was  not  to  see 
of  religious  teaching  ever  increasingly  deprived  it  of  the  light  of  day  until  1730,  he  dischar^  his  task 
its  partisans.  When  the  VaUcan  Council  opened,  in  with  equal  scientific  power  and  moderation.  Again, 
1869,  it  had  in  France  only  timid  defenders.  When  Gidlicanism  was  ably  combatted  in  the  vrorks  of 
that  council  declared  that  the  pope  has  in  the  Church  Muzzarelli,  Bianchi,  and  Ballerini,  and  upheld  in 
theplenitudeof  jurisdiction  in  matters  of  faith,  morals,  those  of  Durand  de  Maillane,  La  Luzerne,  Maret, 
discipline,  and  administration,  that  his  decisions  ex  and  DOllinger.  But  the  strife  is  prolonged  beyond  its 
ca^iedrA  are  of  themselves,  and  without  the  assent  of  interest;  except  for  the  bearing  otsome  ^w  arguments 
the  Church,  infallible  and  irreformable,  it  dealt  Galli-  on  either  side,  nothing  that  is  altogether  new.  after  all, 
canism  a  mortal  blow.  Three  of  the  four  articles  were  is  adduced  for  or  against,  and  it  may  be  said  that  with 
directlv  condenmed.  As  to  the  remaining  one,  the  Bossuet's  work  Gallicanism  had  reached  its  full 
first,  tne  council  made  no  specific  declaration;  but  an  development,  sustained  its  sharpest  assaults,  and 
important  indication  of  the  Catholic  doctrine  was  exhibited  its  most  efficient  means  of  defence, 
given  in  the  condemnation  fulminated  by  Pius  IX  Those  means  are  well  known.  For  the  absolute 
against  the  24th  proposition  of  the  Syllabus,  in  which  independence  of  the  civil  power,  affirmed  in  the 
it  was  asserted  that  the  Church  cannot  have  recourse  first  Article,  Galileans  drew  their  ailment  from  the 
to  force  and  is  without  anv  temporal  authoritv,  direct  proposition  that  the  theory  of  indirect  power,  accepted 
or  indirect.  Leo  XIII  shed  more  direct  lignt  upon  By  BeUarmine,  is  easily  reducible  to  that  of  direct 
the  question  in  his  Encyclical  ''Immortale  Dei"  (12  power,  which  he  did  not  accept.  That  theory  was  a 
November,  1885),  where  we  read:  "God  has  appor-  novelty  introduced  into  the  Church  by  Gregory  VII; 
tioned  the  government  of  the  human  race  between  until  his  time  the  Christian  peoples  and  the  popes  had 
two  powers,  the  ecclesiastical  and  the  civil,  the  former  suffered  injustice  from  princes  without  asserting  for 
set  over  thin^  divine,  the  latter  over  things  human,  themselves  the  right  to  revolt  or  to  excommunicate. 
Each  is  restncted  within  limits  which  are  perfectly  As  for  the  superiority  of  councils  over  popes,  as  based 
determined  and  defined  in  conformity  with  its  own  upon  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  the 
nature  and  special  aim.  There  is  therefore,  as  it  were,  Gallicans  essayed  to  defend  it  chiefly  by  appeiding  to 
a  circumscribed  sphere  in  which  each  exercises  its  the  testimony  of  history  which,  according  to  them, 
functions  iure  proprio".  And  in  the  Encyclical  "Sa-  shows  that  general  councils  have  never  been  de- 
pientite  Christianse"  (10  January,  1890),  the  same  pendent  on  the  popes,  but  had  been  considered  the 
pontiff  adds:  "The  Church  and  the  State  have  each  its  nighest  authority  for  the  settlement  of  doctrinal  dis- 
own power,  and  neither  of  the  two  powers  is  subject  putes  or  the  establishment  of  disciplinary  regulations, 
to  the  other."  The  third  Article  was  supported  oy  the  same  argu- 
Stricken  to  death,  as  a  free  opinion,  by  the  Council  ments  or  upon  the  declarations  of  the  popes.  It  is 
of  the  Vatican,  Gallicanism  could  survive  only  as  a  true  that  that  Article  made  respect  for  the  canons  a 
heresy;  the  Old  Catholics  have  endeavoured  to  keep  matter  rather  of  high  propriety  than  of  obligation  for 
it  alive  under  this  form.  Judging  by  the  paucity  of  the  Holy  See.  Besides,  the  canons  alleged  were 
the  adherents  whom  they  have  recruited---daily  be-  among  those  that  had  been  established  with  the 
coming  fewer — ^in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  it  seems  consent  of  the  pope  and  of  the  Churches,  the  plenitude 
very  evident  that  the  historical  evolution  of  these  of  the  pontifical  jurisdiction  was  therefore  safeguarded 
ideas  has  reached  its  completion.  and  Bossuet  pointed  out  that  this  article  had  called 


OALLIOANISM 


356 


OALUCANISM 


forth  hardly  any  protests  from  the  adversaries  of 
Gallicanism.  It  was  not  so  with  the  fourth  Article, 
which  implied  a  negation  of  papal  infallibility.  Rest- 
ing chiefly  on  history,  the  whole  Gallican  argument 
reduced  to  the  position  that  the  Doctors  of  the  Church 
—St.  Cyprian,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Basil,  St.  Thomas, 
and  the  r^t — ^had  not  known  pontifical  infallibility; 
that  pronouncements  emanating  from  the  Holy  See 
had  been  submitted  to  examination  by  councils;  that 
popes — Liberius,  Honorius,  Zosimus,  and  others — ^had 
promulgated  erroneous  dogmatic  decisions.  Only  the 
tine  of  popes,  the  Apostolic  See,  was  infallible;  but 
each  pope,  taken  individually,  was  liable  to  error. 

This  IS  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  force  of  this  line 
of  argument,  or  set  forth  the  replies  which  it  elicited; 
such  an  enquiry  will  more  appropriately  form  part  of 
the  article  aevoted  to  the  pnmacy  of  the  Roman  See. 
Without  involving  ourselves  in  technical  develop- 
ments, however,  we  may  call  attention  to  the  weak- 
ness, of  the  Scriptural  scaffolding  upon  which  Gallican- 
ism supported  its  fabric.  Not  only  was  it  opposed  by 
the  luminous  clearness  of  Christ's  words — *^Thou  art 
Peter,  and  upon  this  rock  will  I  build  My  Church"; 
''I  have  prayed  for  thee,  Peter,  that  thy  faith  fail 
not  .  .  .  confirm  thy  brethren" — ^but  it  finds  noth- 
ing in  Scripture  which  could  warrant  the  doctrine  of 
the  supremacy  of  council  or  the  distinction  between 
the  line  of  popes  and  the  individuals — the  Sedea  and 
the  Sedena,  Supposing  there  were  any  doubt  of 
Christ's  having  promised  infallibility  to  Peter,  it  is 
perfectly  certain  that  He  did  not  promise  it  to  the 
council,  or  to  the  See  of  Rome,  neither  of  which  is 
named  in  the  Gospel. 

The  pretension  implied  in  Gallicanism — ^that  only 
the  schools  and  the  cnurches  of  France  possessed  the 
truth  as  to  the  pope's  authority,  that  they  had  been 
better  able  than  any  others  to  defend  themselves 
against  the  encroachments  of  Rome — was  insulting 
to  the  sovereign  pontiff  and  invidious  to  the  other 
churches.  It  does  not  belong  to  one  part  of  the 
Church  to  decide  what  council  is  oecumenical,  and 
what  is  not.  By  what  right  was  this  honour  refused 
in  France  to  the  Councils  of  Florence  (1439)  and  the 
Lateran  (1513^,  and  accorded  to  that  of  Constance? 
Why,  above  all,  should  we  attribute  to  the  decision  of 
this  council,  which  was  only  a  temporary  expedient 
to  escape  from  a  deadlock,  the  force  of  a  general 
principle,  a  dogmatic  decree?  And  moreover,  at  the 
time  when  these  decisions  were  taken,  the  council 
presented  neither  the  character,  nor  the  conditions, 
nor  the  authority  of  a  general  synod;  it  is  not  clear 
that  among  tiie  majority  of  the  members  there  was 
present  any  intention  of  formulating  a  dogmatic 
definition,  nor  is  it  proved  that  the  approbation  given 
by  Martin  V  to  some  of  the  decrees  extended  to  these. 
Another  characteristic  which  is  apt  to  diminish  one's 
respect  for  Gallican  ideas  is  their  appearance  of  having 
been  too  much  influenced,  originally  and  evolutionally, 
by  interested  motives.  Suggested  by  theologians 
who  were  under  bonds  to  the  emperors,  accepted  as  an 
expedient  to  restore  the  unity  of  the  Church,  they 
had  never  been  more  loudly  proclaimed  than  in  the 
course  of  the  conflicts  which  arose  between  popes  and 
kings,  and  then  always  for  the  advantage  of  the  latter. 
In  truth  they  savoured  too  much  of  a  courtly  bias. 
"The  Gallican  Liberties",  Joseph  de  Maistre  has  said, 
''are  but  a  fatal  compact  signed  b^  the  Church  of 
France,,  in  virtue  of  which  she  submitted  to  the  out- 
rages of  the  Parliament  on  condition  of  beine  allowed 
to  pass  them  on  to  the  sovereign  pontiff".  The 
history  of  the  assembly  of  1682  is  not  such  as  to  give 
the  lie  to  this  severe  judgment.  It  was  a  Gallican — 
no  other  than  Baillet — who  wrote:  "The  bishops  who 
served  Philip  the  Fair  were  upright  in  heart  and 
seemed  to  be  actuated  by  a  genmne,  if  somewhat  too 
vehement,  seal  for  the  rights  of  the  Crown;  whereas 
among  those  whose  advice  Louis  XIV  followed  there 


were  some  who,  under  pretext  of  the  public  welf^ire, 
oolyr  sou^t  to  avenge  thennelves,  by  oblique  and 
devious  methods,  on  those  whom  they  regarded  as  the 
censors  of  their  conduct  and  their  sentiments. " 

Even  apart  from  every  other  consideration,  the 
practical  consequences  to  which  Gallicanism  led,  and 
the  way  in  which  the  State  turned  it  to  accoimt 
should  suffice  to  wean  Catholics  from  it  forever.  It 
was  Gallicanism  which  allowed  the  Jansenists  con- 
demned by  popes  to  elude  their  sentences  on  the  plea 
that  these  had  not  received  the  assent  of  the  wnole 
episcopate.  It  was  in  the  name  of  Gallicanism  that 
the  kin^  of  France  impeded  the  publication  of  the 
pope's  instructions,  and  forbade  the  bishops  to  hold 
provincial  councils  or  to  write  against  Jansenism— or, 
at  any  rate,  to  publish  charges  without  endorsement 
of  the  chancellor.  Bossuet  nimself,  prevented  from 
publishing  a  charge  against  Richard  Simon,  was 
forced  to  complain  that  they  wished  "to  put  all  the 
bishops  under  the  yoke  in  the  essential  matter  of  their 
ministry,  which  is  the  Faith  ".  Alleging  the  Liberties 
of  the  Gallican  Church,  the  French  Parliaments  ad- 
mitted appda  comme  d'abiu  against  bishops  who  were 
guilty  of  condemning  Jansenism,  or  of  admitting  into 
their  Breviaries  the  Office  of  St.  Gresory^  sanctioned 
by  Rome;  and  on  the  same  general  principle  they 
caused  pastoral  letters  to  be  burned  by  the  common 
executioner,  or  condemned  to  imprisonment  or  exile 
priests  whose  onlv  crime  was  that  of  refusing  the 
sacraments  and  Cnristian  burial  to  Jansenists  m  re- 
volt i^inst  the  most  solemn  pronouncements  of  the 
Holy  See.  Thanks  to  these  **  Liberties  ",  the  jurisdic- 
tion and  the  discipline  of  the  Church  were  almost 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  civil  power,  and  F^nelon 
gave  a  fair  idea  of  them  when  he  wrote  in  one  of  his 
letters:  "  In  practice  the  king  is  more  our  head  than 
the  pope,  in  France — Liberties  against  the  pope, 
servitude  in  relation  to  the  king — ^The  kind's  authonty 
over  the  Church  devolves  upon  the  lay  judges — ^The 
laity  dominate  the  bishops".  And  F^nelon  had  not 
seen  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1790  assume,  from 
Gallican  principles,  authority  to  demolish  completely 
the  Constitution  ot  the  Church  of  France.  For  there 
is  not  one  article  of  that  melancholy  Constitution  that 
did  not  find  its  inspiration  in  the  writings  of  Gallican 
jurists  and  theologians.  We  may  be  excused  the 
task  of  here  enterixig  into  an^  lengthy  proof  of  this; 
indeed  the  responsibility  which  Gallicanism  has  to 
bear  in  the  sight  of  history  and  of  Catholic  doctrine  is 
already  only  too  heavy. 

BosBUBT,  D^ermo  dedarationia  conventua  deri  gaUieani  in 
(Euvrea,  ed.  Quxllaumb  (Paris,  1885),  X;  Pithou,  Lea  liberlia 
de  VEgliae  ootticane  (Pftria,  l.Sfi4);  Maboa,  De  ecncordia  aaeet' 
doiii  el  imperii  (Frankfort,  1708);  Durand  db  Mailianb,  Lea 
Inertia  de  VEgltae  ffollicane  prouviea  et  eommeaUea^  6  vols. 
(Lyons.  1771);  Natalxs  Albxandbb,  Hiatcria  EcdeaiaHiea 
(Venice,  1778);  IX;  Babxjt,  La  plua  andenne  dicrHale  (^aiia, 
1904);  LeconcUede  Turin  CPaatBt  19(A)  \  Ducrbsnb,  Le  Cone«2« 
de  Turin  in  Reoue  &istor?ou«  (1905).  LXXXVII:  Maambn, 
CencUia  ttvi  merovingici  (Hanover,  1893);  Lor,  Etudea  aur  le 
rkgne  de  Huguea  Capet  el  la  fin  du  X*  aikcle  (Paris.  1903); 
Dboebt,  Un  ouvrier  de  la  Rfforme  au  XI'  aikcle  in  Revue  daa 


Philippe  le  Bel  (Paris.  1718);  Valozs.  La  France  el  le  grand 
aehiamed* Occident,  4  vob.  (Paris.  1896-1902);  Idem,  Hiatoireda 
la  Pragmatique  aancticn  de  Bourgea  (Paris,  1906);  Knbbb.  Dm 
Enatehung  der  conciliaren  Theoria  (Rome.  1893);  Hallbb. 
Papatum  und  Kirchenreform  (Berlin.  1903).  I:  Putol,  Edmona 
Richer,  2  vols.  (Paris,  1876);  Q^rin.  Reehennea  aur  VaaaemhUe 
du  dergk  de  France  de  168t,  2d  ed.  (Paris,  1870);  Lauras.  Ncu- 
veaux  idaireiaaementa  aur  VaaaembUe  de  168t  (Paris,  1878); 
MzcBAUD.  Louia  XIV  el  Innocent  XL  III  and  IV  (Paris,  1883); 
Flburt,  Inatitution  au  droit  eecUaiaatigue,  2  vols.  (Paris.  1767); 
and  Nouveaux  Ojmaculea,  ed.  Embrt  (Paris,  1807);  Charulb. 
Traelatua  de  libertatibua  eedeaia  gallieana  (Li^ge,  1684); 
ScRWANB,  Hiatoiredea  dogmaa,  tr.  Dbgbrt,  V,  VI  (Pans,  1903); 
J.  oB  Mautrb,  Du  papa  (Lyons.  1821);  Idbm.  De  VEf^iaeaaXU' 
eane  dana  aon  rapport  avee  le  aouverain  pontife  (Pans,  1821); 
DuPiN,  Manud  du  droit  eedfaiaatique,  3rd  ed.  (Psris,  1845); 
PiooT,  Mfmoirea  pour  aervir  t  Vhialoire  ecdiaiaatiQue  pendoni  U 
XVIIU  aikcle,  7  vols.  (Paris.  1853-1857);  DBNtmaBB,  Budiwi' 
dion  aymbolorum,  10th  ed.  (Freiburg  Irn  Br.,  1908). 

A.  Dbobbt, 


OALUOAM                            357  OALUOAN 

Oallicaa  Bite,  The. — ^This  subject  will  be  treated  the  Diptychs  and  the  Pax),  as  "foreign  importations" 

under  the  following  six  heads:  I.  History  and  Ori^:  and  did  not  recognize  in  them  the  ancient  usage  of 

II.  MSS.  and  Other  Sources:  III.  The  Liturgical  his  own  Church,  and  he  thinks  it  hard  to  explain  why 

Year;  IV.  Tlie  Divine  Office;  V.  The  Mass;  VI.  The  the  African  Qiurch  should  have  accepted  the  Roman 

Occasional  Services.  reforms,  while  St.  Ambrose,  himself  a  Roman,  refused 

I.  History  and  Origin. — ^The  name  Gallican  Rite  them.  He  assumes  that  tne  Ambrosian  Rite  is  not 
is  eiven  to  the  rite  which  prevailed  in  Gaul  from  the  really  Roman,  but  Gallican,  much  Romanized  at  a 
eaniest  times  of  which  we  have  any  information  imtil  later  period,  and  that  the  Gubbio  variations  of  which 
about  the  middle  or  end  of  the  eighth  century.  .There  St.  Innocent  complained  were  borrowed  from  Milan, 
is  no  information  before  the  fifth  century  and  very  (3)  The  third  theory  is  perhaps  rather  complicated 
little  then;  and  throughout  the  whole  period  there  was,  to  state  without  danger  of  misrepresentation,  and 
to  judge  by  existing  documents  and  descriptions,  so  has  not  been  so  definitelv  stated  as  the  other  two  by 
much  diversity  that,  though  the  eeneral  outlines  of  any  one  writer.  It  is  held  in  parts  by  Probst,  Father 
the  rite  were  of  the  same  pattern,  uie  name  must  not  Lucas,  the  Milanese  liturgiologists,  and  many  others 
be  taken  to  imply  more  than  a  very  moderate  amount  whose  opinion  is  of  weight.  In  order  to  state  it  clearly 
of  homogeneity.  The  Rite  of  Spain,  fairly  widely  it  will  be  necessary  to  point  out  first  certain  details 
used  from  the  nfth  century  to  the  end  of  the  eleventh,  in  which  all  the  Latin  or  Western  rites  agree  with  one 
and  still  lingering  on  as  an  archaeological  survival  in  another  in  differine  from  the  Elastem.  and  in  this  we 
chapels  at  l^ledo  and  Salamanca,  was  so  nearly  allied  speak  only  of  the  Mass,  which  is  of  lar  more  impor- 
to  the  Gallican  Rite  that  the  term  Hispano  Gallican  tanoe  than  either  the  Divine  Office  or  the  occasional 
is  often  applied  to  the  two.  But  this  Spanish  Moza-  services  in  determining  origins.  Tlie  Eastern  Euchsr 
rabic  Rite  has,  like  the  allied  Celtic,  enough  of  ah  inde-  ristic  offices  of  whatever  nte  are  marked  by  the  in- 
pendent  history  to  require  separate  treatment,  so  that,  variability  of  the  priest's  part.  Tliere  are,  it  is  true, 
though  it  will  be  necessary  to  allude  to  both  by  way  of  alternative  anaphoras  which  are  used  either  ad  Wnivnif 
illustration,  this  article  will  be  devoted  primarily  to  as  in  the  SyrcAjacobite  Rite,  or  on  certain  days,  as 
the  rite  once  used  in  what  is  now  France.  Of  the  in  Byzantine  and  E^t  Syrian,  but  they  are  complete 
origin  of  the  Gallican  Rite  there  are  three  principal  in  tnemselves  and  do  not  contain  passages  appro- 
theories,  between  two  of  which  the  controversy  is  not  priate  to  the  day.  The  lections  of  course  vary  with 
yet  settled.  These  may  be  termed  (1)  the  Ephesine,  the  day  in  all  rites,  and  varying  antq>hons.  troparia, 
(2)  the  Ambrosian,  and  (3)  the  Roman  theories.  etc.,  are  sung  by  tne  choir;  but  the  priest  s  part  re- 

(1)  The  first  has  been  already  mentioned  imder  mains  fixed.  In  the  Western  rites,  wnether  Hispano- 
Ambrosian  Rttb  and  CEi;nc  Kite.  This  theory,  Gallican,  Ambrosian,  or  Roman,  a  very  large  propor- 
which  was  first  put  forward  by  Sir  W.  Palmer  in  his  tion  of  me  priest's  oart  varies  according  to  the  day, 
"Ori^ines  Liturgicffi",  was  once  veiy  popular  among  and,  as  will  oe  seen  by  the  analysis  of  its  Mass  in  this 
Anglicans.  According  to  it  the  Galucan  Kite  was  re-  article^  these  variations  are  so  numerous  in  the  Galli- 
ferred  to  an  original  brou^t  to  Lyons  from  Ephesus  can  Rite  that  the  fixed  part  even  of  the  Prayer  of 
by  St.  Pothinus  and  St.  Irenseus,  who  had  received  it  Consecration  is  strangely  uttle.  Certain  of  the  varying 
through  St.  Polycarp  from  St.  John  the  Divine.  The  prayers  of  the  Hispano-Gallican  Rite  have  a  tendency 
idea  originated  paruy  in  a  statement  in  the  eighth-  to  tall  into  couples,  a  Bidding  Prayer,  or  invitation  to 
century  tract  in  Cott.  MS.  Nero  A.  II  in  the  British  pray,  sometimes  of  considerable  lensth  and  often 
Museum,  which  refers  the  Gallican  Divine  Office  (Cur-  partaking  of  the  nature  of  a  homily,  addressed  to  the 
8U8  GaUorum)  to  such  an  oricin,  and  partly  in  a  state-  consregatiouj  and  a  collect  embodying  the  suggestions 
ment  of  Colman  at  the  Synod  of  Whitby  (664)  respect-  of  3ie  Biddmg  Prayer,  addressed  to  GodT  These 
ing  the  Johannine  origin  of  the  Celtic  Easter.  The  Bidding  Prayers  have  survived  in  the  Roman  Rite  of 
Cottonian  tract  is  of  little  or  no  historical  value;  to-day  m  the  Good  Friday  intercessory  prayers,  and 
Colman's  notion  was  disproved  at  the  time  by  St.  they  occur  in  a  form  borrowed  later  from  the  Gallican, 
Wilfrid ;  and  the  Ephesine  theory  has  now  been  ^ven  in  the  ordination  services,  but  in  general  the  invitation 
up  by  all  serious  lituigiologiste.  JAar  Duchesne,  m  his  to  prayer  is  reduced  to  ite  lowest  terms  in  the  word 
"  Origines  du  culte  chr^tien",  has  finally  disposed  of  Oremus,  Another  Western  peculiarity  is  in  the  form 
the  possibility  of  so  complicated  a  rite  as  the  Gallican  *of  the  recital  of  the  Institution.  The  principal  East- 
havmg  so  early  an  origin  as  the  second  century.  em  liturgies  follow  St.  Paul's  words  in  I  Cor.,  xi,  23- 

(2)  The  second  theory  is  that  which  Duchesne  25,  and  date  the  Institution  by  the  betrayal,  ip  rj 
pute  forward  in  the  place  of  the  Ephesine.  He  holds  rvicrl,  i  wap€8l8oTo  (in  the  night  in  which  He  was  be- 
that  Milan,  not  Lyons,  was  the  principal  centre  of  trayed),  and  of  the  less  important  anaphoras,  most 
Gallican  development.  He  lays  great  stress  on  the  either  use  the  same  expression  or  paraphrase  it.  Tlie 
incontestable  importance  of  Milan  and  the  Church  of  Western  liturgies  date  from  the  rassion,  Qui  pridie 
Milan  in  the  late  fourth  century,  and  conjectures  that  quam  pateretur,  for  which,  though  of  course  the  ract  is 
a  liturgy  of  Oriental  origin,  introduced  perhaps  by  the  found  there,  there  is  no  verbS  Scriptural  warrant. 
Cappadocian  Auxentius,  Bishop  of  Milan  from  355  to  The  Mozarabic  of  to-day  uses  the  Pamine  words,  and 
374,  spread  from  that  centre  to  Gaul^  Spain,  and  no  Gallican  Recital  of  the  Institution  remains  in  full; 
Britain.  He  pointe  out  that  "the  Gallican  Liturgy,  but  in  both  the  prayer  that  follows  is  cidled  (with 
in  the  features  which  distinguish  it  from  the  Roman,  alternative  nomenclature  in  the  Gallican)  Post- 
betrays  all  the  characteristics  of  the  Eastern  lituraies,"  Pridie  and  the  cateh  words  "Qui  pridie"  come  at  the 
and  mat  "some  of  ite  formularies  are  to  be  found  end  of  the  Post-Sanctus  in  the  Gallican  Masses,  so 
word  for  word  in  the  Greek  texte  which  were  in  use  that  it  is  clear  that  this  form  existed  in  both.  These 
in  the  churches  of  the  Syro-Byzantine  Rite  either  in  variations  from  the  Eastern  usages  are  of  an  early 
the  fourth  century  or  somewhat  later",  and  infers  from  date,  and  it  is  inferred  from  them,  and  from  other 
this  that  "  the  Gallican  Liturgy  is  an  Oriental  liturgy,  considerations  more  historical  than  lituigicJal,  that  a 
introduced  into  the  West  towards  the  middle  of  we  liturgy  with  these  peculiarities  was  the  common  prop- 
fourth  century".  He  does  not,  however,  note  that  erty  of  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Italy.  Whether,  as  is  most 
in  certain  other  important  peculiarities  tne  Gallican  likely,  it  originated  in  Rome  and  spread  thence  to  the 
Liturgy  agrees  with  the  Roman  where  the  latter  countries  under  direct  Roman  influence,  or  whether 
differs  from  the  Oriental.  Controverting  the  third  or  it  ori^nated  elsewhere  and  was  adopted  by  Rome, 
Roman  theory  of  orisin,  he  lays  some  stress  upon  the  there  is  no  means  of  knowing.  The  adoption  must 
fact  that  Pope  St.  Innocent  I  (416)  in  his  letter  to  have  happened  when  liturgies  were  in  rather  a  fluid 
Decentius  ot  Gubbio  spoke  of  usages  which  Mgr  state.  Tne  Gallicans  may  nave  carried  to  an  extreme 
Duchesne  recognizes  as  Gallican  (e.  g.  the  position  of  the  changes  begun  at  Rome,  and  may  have  retained 


OALUOAN 


358 


OALUOAM 


some  archaic  features  (now  often  mistaken  for  Orien- 
talisms) which  had  been  later  dropped  by  Rome.  At 
some  period  in  the  fourth  century — ^it  has  been  con- 
jectured that  it  was  in  the  papa^  of  St.  Damasus 
(366-84) — reforms  were  made  at  Rome,  the  position 
of  the  Great  Intercession  and  of  the  Pax  were  altered, 
the  latter,  perhaps  because  the  form  of  the  dismissal 
of  the  catechimiens  was  disused,  and  the  distinction 
between  the  miaaa  catechumenorum  and  the  missa 
fiddium  was  no  longer  needed,  and  therefore  the  want 
was  felt  of  a  position  with  some  meaning  to  it  for  the 
sign  of  Christian  unity,  and  the  long  and  oiffuse  prayers 
were  made  into  the  short  and  crisp  "collects  of  the 
Roman  type.  It  was  perhaps  then  that  the  variable 
Post-Sanctus  and  Post-Pridie  were  altered  into  a  fixed 
Canon  of  a  type  similar  to  the  Roman  Canon  of  to- 
duYf  though  perhaps  this  Canon  began  with  the  clause 
wmch  now  reads  '^Quam  oblationem",  but  according 
to  the  pseudo-Ambrosian  tract  "De  Sacramentis 
once  read  '^Fac  nobis  banc  oblationem".  This  may 
have  been  introduced  by  a  short  variable  Post-Sano- 
tus.  This  reform,  possibly  through  the  influence  of 
St.  Ambrose,  was  adopted  at  Milan,  out  not  in  Gaul  and 
Spain.  At  a  still  later  period  changes  were  again 
made  at  Rome.  They  have  been  principally  attrib- 
uted to  St.  Leo  (440-61),  St.  Gelasius  (492-96),  and 
St.  Gregory  (590-604),  but  the  share  that  these  popes 
had  in  the  reforms  is  not  definitely  known,  though 
three  varying  sacramentaries  have  been  called  by 
their  respective  names.  These  later  reforms  were  not 
adopted  at  Milan,  which  retained  the  books  of  the  first 
reform,  which  are  now  known  as  Ambrosian. 

Hence  it  may  be  seen  that,  roughly  speakins,  the 
Western  or  Latin  Liturgy  went  through  mree  phases, 
which  may  be  called  for  want  of  better  names  the 
Galilean,  the  Ambrosian,  and  the  Roman  stages. 
The  holders  of  the  theoiy  no  doubt  recognize  auite 
clearly  that  the  line  of  demarcation  between  tnese 
stages  is  rather  a  vague  one,  and  that  the  alterations 
were  in  many  respects  gradual.  Of  the  three  theories 
of  origin  the  Ephesine  may  be  dismissed  as  practically 
disproved.  To  both  of  the  other  two  the  same  objec- 
tion may  be  urged,  that  they  are  lar^ly  founded  on 
conjecture  and  on  the  critical  examination  of  docu- 
ments of  a  much  later  date  than  the  periods  to  which 
the  conjectures  relate.  But  at  present  there  is  little 
else  to  go  upon.  It  may  be  well  to  mention  also  a 
theory  put  forward  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Bishop  in  the  "Church 
Quarterly'!  for  July,  1908,  to  the  effect  that  the  Galil- 
ean Liturgy  was  not  introduced  into  Gaul  from  any- 
where, but  was  the  original  liturgy  of  that  countrv, 
apparently  invented  and  developed  there.  He  speaks 
or  an  original  independence  of  Rome  (of  course  liturgi- 
cally  only)  followed  by  later  borrowings.  This  does 
not  seem  to  exclude  the  idea  that  Rome  and  the  West 
may  have  had  the  germ  of  the  Western  Rite  in  com- 
mon. Again  the  theory  is  conjectural  and  is  only 
very  slightly  stated  in  the  article. 

The  later  history  of  the  Galilean  Rite  until  the 
time  of  its  abolition  as  a  separate  rite  is  obscure.  In 
Spain  there  was  a  definite  centre  in  Toledo,  whose  in- 
fluence was  felt  over  the  whole  peninsula,  even  after 
the  coming  of  the  Moors.  Hence  it  was  that  the 
Spanish  Rite  was  much  more  regulated  than  the 
Chilean,  and  Toledo  at  times,  though  not  very  success- 
fully, tried  to  give  liturgical  laws  even  to  Gaul,  though 
probably  only  to  the  Visigothic  part  of  it.    In  the 

freater  part  of  France  there  was  lituigical  anarchy, 
here  was  no  capital  to  give  laws  to  the  whole  coun- 
try, and  Hie  rite  developed  there  variously  in  various 
places,  so  that  among  the  scanty  fragments  of  the 
service-books  that  remain  there  is  a  marked  absence 
of  verbid  uniformity,  though  the  main  outlines  of  the 
services  are  of  the  same  type.  Several  councils 
attempted  to  regulate  matters  a  little,  but  aoly  for 
certain  provinces.  Among  these  were  the  Councils  of 
Vannes  (465),  Agde  (506),  Vaison  (529),  Tours  (567), 


Auxerre  (578),  and  the  two  Councils  of  MAeon  (581, 
623).  But  all  along  there  went  on  a  certain  process 
of  Romanizing,  diie  to  the  constant  applications  to 
the  Holy  See  for  advice,  and  there  is  also  another 
complication  in  the  probable  introduction  during  the 
seventh  century,  through  the  Columbanian  mission- 
aries, of  elements  of  Irish  origin.  The  changes  towards 
the  Roman  Rite  happened  rather  gradually  during  the 
course  of  the  late  seventh  and  eighm  century,  and  seem 
synchronous  with  the  rise  of  the  Maires  du  Palais,  and 
their  development  into  kings  of  France.  Nearly  all 
the  Galilean  books  of  the  later  Merovinaan  period, 
which  are  all  that  are  left,  contain  many  Roman  ele- 
ments. In  some  cases  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that 
the  Roman  Canon  was  first  introduced  into  an  other- 
wise Galilean  Mass,  but  the  so-called  Gelasian  Sacra- 
mentary,  the  principal  MS.  of  which  is  attributed  to 
the  Abbey  of  St-Denis  and  to  the  early  eighth  century, 
is  an  avowedly  Roman  book,  though  containing 
Galilean  additions  and  adaptations.  And  the  same 
may  be  said  of  what  is  left  of  the  undoubtedly  Prank- 
ish book  known  as  the  '*Missale  Francorum"  of  the 
same  date.  Mgr  Duchesne  attributes  a  good  deal  of 
this  eighth-century  Romanising  tendency  to  St.  Boni- 
face, tnough  he  shows  that  it  had  begun  before  lus 
day.  The  Roman  Liturgy  was  adopted  at  Metz  in 
the  time  of  St.  Chrodegang  (742-^6).  The  Roman 
chant  was  introduced  about  760,  and  by  a  decree  of 
Pepin,  quoted  in  Charlemagne's  "Admonitio  Gene- 
rahs"  in  789,  the  Galilean  chant  was  abolished  in  its 
favour.  Pope  Adrian  I  between  784  and  791  sent  to 
Charlemagne  at  his  own  request  a  copy  of  what  was 
considered  to  be  the  Sacramentary  of  St.  Gregoiy, 
but  which  certainly  represented  the  Roman  use  m  the 
end  of  the  eighth  century.  This  book,  which  was  far 
from  complete,  was  edited  and  supplemented  by  the 
addition  of  a  large  amount  of  matter  derived  from  the 
Gidlican  books  and  from  the  Roman  book  known  as 
the  Gelasian  Sacramentary,  which  had  been  gradually 
supplanting  the  Gallican.  It  is  probable  that  the 
editor  was  Charlemagne's  principal  lituigical  adviser, 
the  Englishman  Alcuin.  Copies  were  distributed 
throughout  CTharlema^e's  empire,  and  this  "compo- 
site Utui^",  as  Mgr  Duchesne  says,  ''from  its  source 
in  the  Imperial  cnapel  spread  throughout  all  the 
churches  of  the  Prankish  Empire  and  at  length,  find- 
ing its  way  to  Rome  gradually  supplanted  there  the 
ancient  use".  More  than  half  a  century  later,  when 
Charles  the  Bald  wished  to  see  what  the  ancient 
Gallican  Rite  had  been  like,  it  was  necessary  to  import 
Spanish  priests  to  celebrate  it  in  his  presence. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  name  QaUican  has  also 
been  applied  to  two  other  uses:  (1)  a  French  use 
introduced  by  the  Normans  into  Apulia  and  Sicily. 
This  was  only  a  variant  of  the  Roman  Rite.  (2)  The 
reformed  Breviaries  of  the  French  dioceses  in  the 
seventeenth  to  mid-nineteenth  centuries.  These  have 
nothine  to  do  with  the  ancient  Gallican  Rite. 

II.  MSS.  AND  Other  Sources. — ^There  are  no  MSS. 
of  the  Gallican  Rite  earlier  than  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventh  century,  though  the  descriptions  in  the  letters 
of  St.  Germanus  of  Paris  (555-76)  take  one  back  an- 
other century.    The  MSS.  are: — 

(1)  The  Keichenau  Fragments  (Carlsruhe,  253), 
described  (no.  8)  in  Delisle's  '^M^moire  sur  d'anciens 
Sacramentaires." — ^These  were  discovered  by  Mone  in 
1850  in  a  palimpsest  MS.  from  the  Abbey  of  Reichenau 
in  the  library  of  Carlsruhe.  The  MS.,  which  is  late 
seventh  centuiy,  had  belonged  to  John  II,  Bishop  of 
Constance  (760-81).  It  contains  eleven  Masses  of 
purely  Gallican  type,  one  of  which  is  in  honour  of  St. 
Germanus  of  Auxerre,  but  the  others  do  not  specify 
any  festival.  One  Mass,  except  the  Post-Pridie, 
which  is  in  prose,  is  entirely  m  hexameter  verse. 
Mone  pubUshed  them  with  a  facsimile  in  his  ^'Latein- 
ische  und  Griechische  Messen  aus  dem  zweiten  bis 
sechsten  Jahrhundert  "(Frankfort,  1850).    They  were 


QALLIOAN 


359 


C^ALLiOAit 


roprinted  in  Migne's  "Patrologia  Latina"  (VoL 
CXXXVIII),  and  by  Neale  and  Forbes  in  '^The 
Ancient  Liturgy  of  the  Gallican  Church"  (Burntis- 
land, 1855-67). 

(2)  The  Peyronf  Matt  and  Bunien  Fragments, — Of 
these  disjointed  palimpsest  leaves,  those  of  Mai  and 
Peyron  were  found  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at 
Milan,  and  those  of  Bunsen  at  St.  Gall.  Pe3rron's 
were  printed  in  his  "M.  T.  Ciceronis  Qrationum  Frag- 
menta  inedita"  (Stuttgart,  1824),  Mai's  in  his  ''Scrip- 
torum  Veterum  Yaticana  Collectio",  and  Bunsen's  in 
his  ''Analecta  Ante-Niceana".  All  these  were  re- 
printed by  C.  E.  Hammond:  Peyron's  and  Bunsen 's  in 
his  "Ancient  Liturgy  of  Antioch"  (Oxford.  1879), 
and  Mai's  in  his  "Ancient  Liturgies"  (Oxford,  1878). 
The  last  are  also  in  Migne's  "Patrologia  Latina"  with 
Mone's  Reichenau  fragments.  The  reyron  fragment 
contains  part  of  what  looks  like  a  Lenten  CorUeetatio 
(Preface)  with  other  prayers  of  Gallican  type.  The 
Bunsen  fragment  contains  part  of  a  Mass  for  the  Dead 
(Post-Sanctus,  Post-Pridie)  and  several  pairs  of 
Bidding  Prayers  and  collects,  the  former  having  the 
title  "Exhortatio"  or  "Exhortatio  Matutina".  The 
Mai  fragments  begin  with  part  of  a  Biddinjj  Praver 
and  contain  a  fragment  of  a  CorUeetatiOf  with  that 
title,  and  fragments  of  other  prayers,  two  of  which 
have  the  title  "Post  Nomina",  and  two  others  which 
seem  to  be  prayers  "Ad  Pacem". 

(3)  The  Afiseale  Gothicum  (Vatican,  Queen  Chris- 
tina MSS.  31 7).— Described  by  Delisle.  No.  3.  A  MS. 
of  the  end  of  the  seventh  centuiy ,  whicn  once  belonged 
to  the  Petau  Library.  The  name  is  due  to  a  fifteenth- 
century  note  at  the  beginning  of  the  book,  and  hence 
it  has  been  attribute  by  Tomasi  and  Mabillon  to 
Narbonne,  wluch  was  in  the  Visigothic  Kingdom. 
Mgr.  Duchesne,  judging  b^  the  inclusion  of  Masses  for 
the  feasts  of  St.  S3rmpnorian  and  St.  L^ger  (d.  680), 
attributes  it  to  Autun.  The  Masses  are  numbered, 
the  MS.  bcttdnning  with  Christmas  Eve,  which  is 
numbered  'Htll".  Probably  there  were  once  Wo 
Advent  Masses,  as  in  the  "Missale  Gallicanum". 
There  are  eighty-one  numbered  sections,  of  which  the 
last  is  the  first  praver  of  "  Missa  Romenslf  cottidiana", 
with  which  the  MS.  breaks  off.  The  details  of  the 
Masses  in  this  book  are  given  in  the  section  of  the 
present  article  on  the  liturgical  year.  The  Masses  are 
all  Gallican  as  to  order,  but  many  of  the  actual  prayers 
are  Roman.  The  "Missale  Gothicum"  has  been 
printed  by  Tommasi  (Codices  Sacramentorum,  Rome, 
1680),  Mabillon  (De  liturgift  GallicanA,  Paris,  1685), 
Muratori  (Liturgia  Romana  Vetus,  Venice,  1748), 
Neale  and  Forbes  (op.  cit.),  and  in  Migne's  "Patrolo- 
gia  Latina"  (Vol.  LXXII). 

(4)  Missale  Gallicanum  Vetus  (Vatican.  Palat.  493). 
— Described  by  Delisle,  No.  5.  The  MS.,  which  is  of 
the  end  of  the  seventh,  or  the  early  part  of  the  eighth, 
oentuiy  is  odIv  a  fragment.  It  b^ns  with  a  Mass  for 
the  feast  of  St.  Germanus  of  Auxerre  (9  Oct.),  after 
which  come  prayers  for  the  Blessing  of  Virgins  and 
Widows,  two  Advent  Masses,  the  Christmas  Eve 
Mass,  the  Expositio  and  Traditio  Syrnbcli,  and  other 
ceremonies  preparatory  to  Baptism;  the  Maundy 
Thursday,  Good  Friday  and  Blaster  Sunday  ceremonies 
and  the  baptismal  service,  Masses  for  the  Sundays 
after  Easter  up  to  the  Rogation  Mass,  where  the  M!S. 
br^Jra  off.  The  Masses,  as  in  the  "Gothicum",  are 
GalUcan  in  order  with  manv  Roman  prayers.  The 
Good  Friday  prayers  are,  with  a  few  verbal  variations, 
exactly  those  of  the  Roman  Missal.  The  MS.  has 
been  printed  by  Tommasi,  Mabillon,  Muratori,  and 
Neale  and  Forbes  (op.  cit.),  and  in  Vol.  LXXII  of 
Migne's  "Patrologia  Latina." 

(5)  The  LuxeuU  Lectionary  (Paris,  Bibl.  Nat., 
9427). — ^This  MS.,  which  is  of  the  seventh  centurv 
was  discovered  by  Mabillon  in  the  Abbey  of  Luxeuil, 
but  from  its  containing  among  its  very  few  saints' 
days  the  feast  of  St.  Genevieve,  Dom  Morin  (Revue 


B^n^ictine,  1893)  attributes  it  to  Paris.  It  contains 
the  Prophetical  Lessons,  Epistles,  and  Gospels  for  the 
year  from  Christmas  Eve  onwards  (for  the  details 
of  which  see  the  section  of  this  article  on  the  lituigical 
year).  At  the  end  are  the  lessons  of  a  few  special 
Masses,  for  the  burial  of  a  bishop,  for  the  dedication  of 
a  church,  when  a  bishop  preaches,  "et  plebs  decimas 
reddat",  when  a  deacon  is  ordained,  when  a  priest  is 
blessed,  "in  jprofectione  itineris",  and  "lectiones 
cotidianse".  This  Lectionary  is  purelv  Gallican  with 
no  apparent  Roman  influence.  The  MS.  has  not  been 
print^  in  its  entirety,  but  Mabillon  in  "De  Liturgift 
Gallican&"  gives  the  references  to  aU  the  lessons  and 
the  b^nnings  and  endings  of  the  text. 

(6)  The  Letters  of  St,  Germanus  of  Paris.— These 
were  printed  by  Mart^ne  (De  Antiquis  Ecclesis 
Ritibus,  Bassano,  1788)  from  a  MS.  at  Autun,  and  are 

Eiven  also  in  Vol.  LXXII  of  Migne's  "Patrologia 
atina".  There  appears  to  be  no  reason  to  doubt  that 
they  are  genuine.  They  contain  mystical  interpreta- 
tions of  tne  ceremonies  of  the  Mass  and  of  other  ser- 
vices.   Mgr.  Duchesne  says  of  the  descripUons,  on 


which  the  interpretations  are  based,  that  ^'We  may 
reconstruct  from  the  letters  a  kind  of  Ordo  GaUicanus*^, 
(See  section  of  this  article  on  the  Mass.) 

Much  side  light  is  thrown  on  the  Gallican  Rite  by 
the  Celtic  books  (see  Celtic  Rtte),  especially  by  the 
Stowe  and  Bobbio  Missals.  The  latter  has  been 
called  Gallican  and  attributed  to  the  Province  of 
Besan^on,  but  it  is  now  held  to  be  Irish  in  a  much 
Romanised  form,  though  of  Continental  provenance, 
being  quite  probably  from  the  originally  Irish  monas- 
tery ot  Bobbio,  where  Mabillon  found  it.  A  com- 
parison with  the  Ambrosian  books  (see  Ambrosian 
Liturgy  and  Rite)  mav  also  be  of  service,  while  most 
lacunsB  in  our  knowledge  of  the  Gallican  Rite  may 
reasonably  be  conjectur^y  filled  up  from  the  Mozara^ 
bic  books,  which  even  in  their  present  form  are  those 
of  substantially  the  same  rite.    There  are  also  litur- 

?*cal  allusions  in  certain  early  writers:  St.  Hilary  of 
oitiers,  St.  Sulpicius  Severus  (d.  about  400),  St. 
Csesarius  of  Aries  (d.  about  542),  and  especially  St. 
Gregory  of  Tours  (a.  595),  and  some  information  may 
be  gathered  from  the  decrees  of  the  Gallican  councils 
mentioned  above. 

The  above  are  all  that  exist  as  directly  Gallican 
sources,  but  much  information  maj  also  be  gleaned 
from  the  books  of  the  transition  period,  which,  though 
substantially  Roman,  were  much  edited  with  Germamc 
tendencies  and  contained  a  large  amount  which  was  of 
a  Gallican  rather  than  a  Roman  type.  The  principal 
of  these  are: 

(1)  The  Gdasian  SacramerUary,  of  which  three  MSS. 
exist,  one  in  the  Vatican  (Queen  Christina  MS.  316), 
one  at  Zurich  (Rheinau  30),  and  one  at  St.  Gall  (MS. 
348).  The  MSS.  are  of  the  early  eighth  century.  The 
groundwork  is  Roman,  with  Gallican  additions  and 
modifications.  Evidence  for  the  Gallican  rites  of 
Ordination  and  some  other  matters  is  derived  from 
this  book.  The  Vatican  MS.  was  published  by  Tom- 
masi and  Muratori,  and  a  complete  edition  from  all 
three  MSS.  was  edited  by  H.  A.  Wilson  (Oxford, 
1894). 

(2)  The  Missale  Francorum  (Vatican,  Q.  Christina 
MS.  257,  Delisle  No.  4). — ^A  fragment  of  a  Sacramen- 
tary  of  a  similar  type  to  the  Uelasian,  though  not 
identical  with  it.  ranted  by  Tommasi,  Mabillon,  and 
Muratori. 

(3)  The  Gregorian  Sacramentary, — Of  this  there  are 
many  MSS.  It  represents  the  Sacramentanr  sent  by 
Pope  Adrian  I  to  Qiarlemaene,  after  it  had  been  re- 
arranged and  supplemented  t|y  Gelasian  and  Gallican 
additions  in  France.  One  MS.  of  it  was  published  by 
Muratori.  In  this,  as  in  many  others,  the  additions 
form  a  supplement,  but  in  some  (e.  g.  the  Angouldme 
Sacramentary,  Bibl.  Nat.  Lat.  816)  the  Gelasian  addi- 
tions are  interpolated  throughout. 


OALLIOAN 


360 


OALIJOAN 


in.  The  LrruRGicAL  Year. — ^The  Luxeufl  Lection* 
ary,  the  Goihicum  and  GaUicanum  Missals,  and  the 
Galiican  adaptations  of  the  Hieronymian  Martyrology 
are  the  diief  authorities  on  this  point,  and  to  these 
may  be  added  some  information  to  be  gathered  from 
the  regulations  of  the  Councils  of  Agde  (506),  Orleans 
(541),  Tours  (567),  and  M&cOn  (581),  and  from  the 
''Historia  Francorum"  of  St.  Gregory  of  Tours,  as  to 
the  Galiican  practice  in  the  sixth  century.  It  is 
probable  that  there  were  many  variations  in  different 
times  and  places,  and  that  the  influence  of  the  Hiero- 
nymian Martyrology  brought  about  many  gradual 
assimilations  to  Rome.  The  year,  as  is  usual,  began 
with  Advent.  The  Council  of  M&con,  which  arranges 
for  three  days'  fast  a  week,  durine  that  season,  men- 
tions St.  Martin's  Day  as  the  key-aay  for  Advent  Sun- 
day, so  that,  as  at  present  in  ihe  Mozarabic  and 
Amorosian  lutes,  there  were  six  Simdays  of  Advent 
(but  only  two  Advent  Masses  survive  in  the  GaUica- 
num). The  Goihicum  and  the  Luxeuil  Lectionary 
both  begin  with  C!hristmas  Eve.  Hien  follow  CSirist- 
mas  Day;  St.  Stephen;  St.  John  (according  to  Lux- 
euil); St.  James  and  St.  John  (according  to  the 
(jothicum,  which  agrees  with  the  Hieronymian  Mar- 
tyrology and  with  a  Syriac  Menology  of  412,  quoted 
by  Ducnesne.  The  Mozarabic  has  for  29  December 
"Sanctus  Jacobus  Frater  Domini",  but  that  is  the 
other  St.  James) ;  Holy  Innocents;  Circumcision;  St. 
Genevieve  (Luxeuil  llectionary  only.  Her  day  is  3 
Jan.) ;  Sunday  after  the  Circumcision  (Luxeuil).  visil 
of  Epiphany;  Epiphany;  two  Sundays  after  Epiph- 
any (Luxeuil);  ''Festum  Sanct®  Marine "  (Luxeuil, 
called  "Assumptio"  in  the  Gothicum,  18  Jan.);  St. 
Agnes  (Gothicum) ;  after  which  follow  in  the  Gk>thi- 
ciun,  out  of  their  proper  places,  Ste.  (])ecfly  (22  Nov.) ; 
Clement  (23  Nov.)*  Satuminus  (29  Nov.);  Andrew 
(30  Nov.);  and  Eulalia  (10  Dec);  the  Ck)n version  of 
St.  Paul  ((Gothicum);  St.  Peter's  Chair  (in  both. 
This,  from  ite  position  after  the  Ck)nverBion  of  St.  Paul 
in  the  Gothicum,  ou^t  to  be  St.  Peter's  Chair  at 
Antioch,  22  Feb. ;  but  it  will  not  work  out  as  such  with 
the  two  Sundays  between  it  and  the  Epiphany  and 
three  between  it  and  Lent,  as  it  appears  in  the  Luxeuil 
Lectionary;  so  it  must  mean  St.  Peter's  Chair  at 
Rome,  18  Jan.,  which  is  known  to  have  been  the  festi- 
vbX  Iropt  in  Gaul);  three  Sundays  after  St.  Peter's 
Chair  (Luxeuil) ;  Inittum  Quadragesima;  five  Lenten 
Masses  (Gothicum);  Palm  Sunday  (Luxeuil);  "Sym- 
boli  Traditio"  (Gothicum);  Monday,  Tuesday  and 
Wednesday  of  Holy  Week,  called,  by  the  name  still 
used  in  the  Ambrosian  Rite,  AiUherUica  Hebdomada 
HLiUxeufl);  Maundy  Thursday;  Grood  Friday;  Easter 
£)ve;  Easter  Day  and  the  whole  week;  Low  Sunday, 
called  in  both  Clausum  Paacha;  four  more  Sunda^rs 
after  Easter  (Luxeuil) ;  Invention  of  the  Cross  (Gk>thi- 
cum,  3  May) ;  St.  John  the  Evangelist  (Gothicum,  6 
May);  three  Rotation  days;  Ascension;  Sunday 
after  Ascension  (Luxeuil);  Pentecost;  Simday  after 
Pentecost  (Luxeuil);  Ste.  Ferreolus  and  ferrutio 
(Gk>thicum,  16  Jime);  Nativity  of  St.  John  Baptist; 
Ste.  Peter  and  Paul;  Decollation  of  St.  John  Baptist; 
Missa  de  Novo  fructus  (sic,  Luxeuil);  St.  Sixtus 
((3othicxm:i,  6  Aue.);  St.  Lawrence  ((jothicum,  10 
Aug.):  St.  Hippolytiis  (Gk)thicum,  13  Aug.);  Ste. 
Cornelius  and  Cvpnaa  (Gothicum,  16  Sept.);  Ste. 
John  and  Paul  (dlothicum,  26  June) ;  St.  Symphorian 
(Gothicum,  22  Aug.) ;  St.  Maurice  and  his  companions 
(Gothicum,  22  Sept.);  St.  Leger  (Gothicum,  2  Oct.); 
St.  Martin  (Gothicum,  22  Nov.).  Both  books  have 
also  Commons  of  Martyrs  and  Confessors,  the  Luxeuil 
has  Commons  of  bishops  and  deacons  for  a  number  of 
other  Masses,  and  the  Gothicum  has  six  Sunds^ 
Masses.  The  Gallicanum  has  a  Mass  in  honour  of  ^. 
Germanus  of  Auxerre  before  the  two  Advent  Masses. 
In  both  the  Gothicum  and  Gallicanum  a  large  space  is 
given  to  the  services  of  the  two  days  before  Easter, 
and  in  the  latter  the  Expositio  and  Traditio  Symboli 


are  given  at  great  length.  The  moveable  feaste  de- 
pen&d,  of  course,  on  Easter.  When  the  Roman 
Uhurch  altered  the  Easter  cycle  from  the  old  computa- 
tion on  a  basis  of  84  vears  to  the  new  cvcle  of  532 
years  of  Victorius  of  Aquitaine  in  457,  the  Galiican 
Church,  unlike  the  Celte,  did  the  same;  but  when,  in 
525,  the  Roman  Church  adopted  the  19  years  cycle  of 
Dionvsius  Exiguus,  the  Galiican  Cllhurch  continued  to 
use  tne  circle  of  Victorius,  until  the  end  of  the  ei^th 
or  beginning  of  the  ninth  centurv.  Lent  beg^  with 
the  first  Sunday,  not  with  Ash  Wednesday.  Tliere  is 
a  not  very  intelligible  passage  in  the  canons  of  the 
Ck)imcil  of  Tours  (567)  to^  the  effect  that  all  throueh 
August  there  were  "  festi  vitates  et  missse  sanctorum  ', 
but  this  is  not  borne  out  by  the  existing  Sacramen- 
taries  or  the  Lectionary. 

IV.  The  Divine  Office. — ^There  is  curiously  little 
information  on  this  point,  and  it  is  not  possible  to 
re-construct^  the  Galiican  Divine  Office  from  the 
scanty  allusions  that  exist.  It  seems  probable  that 
there  was  considerable  diversity  in  various  times  and 
places,  though  coimcils,  both  in  France  and  Spain, 
tried  to  bring  about  some  uniformity.  The  principal 
authorities  are  the  Ck)uncils  of  Agde  (506)  and  Tours 
(567),  and  allusions  in  the  writings  of  St.  Gregory  of 
Tours  and  St.  Csesarius  of  Aries.  These  and  other 
details  have  been  ^thered  together  by  Mabillon  in  his 
"  De  LiturgiA  Gallicanft",  and  nis  essay  on  the  Galiican 
Cursua  is  not  yet  superseded.  The  general  arrange- 
ment and  nomenclatiu^  were  very  similar  to  those  of 
the  Celtic  Rite  (q.  v.).  There  were  two  principal 
services,  Matins  {ad  Matutinamf  Matutinum)  and 
Vespers  (ad  Duodecimam^  ad  Vesperas,  Lucemarium) ; 
and  four  Lesser  Hours,  Prime,  or  Ad  Secundam, 
Terce,  Sext  and  None ;  and  probably  two  nieht  serv- 
ices. Complin,  or  ad  initium  noctis^  and  Noctiuns. 
But  the  application  of  these  names  is  sometimes  ob- 
acuTB,  It  IS  not  quite  clear  whether  Noctums  and 
lAuds  were  not  jomed  together  as  Matins;  CSsesarius 
speaks  of  Primay  while  the  Gallicanum  speaks  of  Ad 
secundam;  Csesarius  distinguishes  between  hucemor 
rium  and  Ad  Duodeciman,  wnile  Aureljan  distinguishes 
between  Ad  Duodeciman  and  Compjlin;  the  Gothicum 
speaks  of  Veapera  PaachoB  and  IniHum  NocHs  Paschce, 
and  the  Gallicanum  has  Ad  Duodedmam  Paschm, 
Tlie  distribution  of  the  Psalter  is  not  known.  The 
CouncQ  of  Tours  orders  six  psalms  at  Sext  and  twelve 
ad  Dyodecimam,  with  Alleluia  (presumably  as  Anti- 
phon).  For  Matins  there  is  a  curious  arrangement 
which  reminds  one  of  that  in  the  Rule  of  St.  Colum- 
banus  (see  Celtic  Rfte,  III).  Normally  in  summer 
(apparently  from  Easter  to  Jvlyr)  "sex  antiphonse 
binis  psalmis"  are  ordered.  This  evidently  me^LUS 
twelve  pMsalms,  two  imder  each  antiphon.  In  August 
there  seem  to  have  been  no  psalms,  because  there  were 
festivals  and  Masses  of  sainte.  "  Toto  Augusto  mani- 
cationes  fiant,  quia  festivitates  sunt  et  misss  sano- 
torum".  The  meaning  of  manicationee  and  of  the 
whole  statement  is  obscure .  In  September  there  were 
fourteen  psalms,  two  under  each  antiphon ;  in  October 
twenty-four  psalms,  three  to  each  antiphon;  in  No- 
vember twenty-seven  psalms,  three  to  each  antiphon; 
and  from  December  to  Easter  thirty  psalms,  three  to 
each  antiphon.  CaBsarius  orders  six  psalms  at  Prime 
with  the  hymn  "Fulgentb  auctor  aetheris",  two  les- 
sons, one  from  the  old  and  one  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  a  capUellum;  six  psalms  at  Terce,  Sext,  and 
None,  with  an  antiphon,  a  hymn,  a  lesson,  and  a 
capitellum :  at  Liuxmarium  a  "  Fsalmus  Directaneus  ", 
whatever  that  may  be  (cf.  the  "  Psalmus  Directus"  of 
the  Ambrosian  Rite),  two  antiphons,  a  hymn,  and  a 
capitellum ;  and  ad  Duodecimamj  eignteen  psalms,  an 
antiphon,  hymn,  lesson,  and  capitellum.  From  this 
it  seems  as  though  Lucemarium  and  Ad  Duodedmam 
together  made  up  Vespers,  combining  the  twelfth  hour 
of  the  Divine  Office  (that  is,  of  the  recitetion  of  the 
Psalter  with  ite  accompanimente)  with  a  service  for 


OALUOAN  361  OALLIOAN 

what,  without  any  intention  of  levity,  one  may  call  scriptions  of  the  Spanish  Mass  given  by  St.  Isidore,  one 

"  lightmg-up  time   .    The  Ambrosian  and  Mozarabic  may  arrive  at  a  fairiy  clear  ^neral  idea  of  the  service, 

Vespers  are  constructed  on  this  principle,  and  so  is  the  though  there  exists  no  Qalhcan  Ordinary  of  the  Mass 

Byzantine  *Eavepuf6s,  and  no  Antiphoner.    Mgr.  Duchesne,  in  his  '^Origines 

Cffisarius  mentions  a  blessing  given  by  the  bishop  at  du  Quite  chr^tien",  has  given  a  very  full  account  con- 

the  end  of  Lucernariumf  ''cumque  expleto  Luoemario  structed  on  this  basis,  though  some  will  differ  from 

benedictionem  populo  dedisset   ;  and  the  following  is  him  in  his  supplying  certain  details  from  Ambrosian 

an  order  of  the  Council  of  Agde  (canon  30):  "Et  quia  books,  and  in  Lis  claiming  the  Bobbio  Sacramentary 

convenit  ordinem  ecclesise  ab  omnibus  sequaliter  cus-  as  Ambrosian  rather  than  Celtic, 
todiri  studendum  est  ut  ubique  fit  et  post  antiphonas        The  Order  of  this  Mass  is  as  follows: — 
collectiones  per  ordinem  ab  episcopis  vel  presoyteris        (1)  The  Entrance. — Here  an  ArUiphana  (Introit) 

dicantur  et  hymni  matutini  vel  vespertini  diebus  om-  was  sung.    Nothing  is  said  of  any  Prc^ratio  Sacerdo- 

nibus  decanten'tur  et  in  condusione  matutinarum  vel  HSf  but  there  is  one  given  in  the  Celtic  Stowe  Missal 

vespertinarum  missarum  post  hymnos  capitella  de  (see  Celtic  Rite)  ;  and  the  Irish  tracts  describe  a  pre- 

psalmis  dicantur  et  plebs  collecta  oratione  ad  ves-  Hminary  preparation  of  the  Chalice,  as  does  also  the 

peram  ab  Episcopo  cum  benedictione  dimittatur".  Mozarabic  Missal.    As  no  Antiphoner  exists,  we  have 

The  rules  of  Csesarius  and  AureUan  both  speak  of  two  no  specimen  of  a  Gallican  Officium,  or  Introit.    Du- 

noctums  with  lessons,  which  include  on  tne  feasts  of  chesne  gives  a  Mozarabic  one,  which  has  something  of 

martyrs  lessons  from  their  passions.    They  order  also  the  form  of  a  Roman  Responsory.    The  Antiphona 

Magnificat  to  be  sung  at  Lauds,  and  during  the  Paschal  was  followed  by  a  proclamation  of  silence  by  the  dea- 

days;  and  on  Sundays  and  greater  festivals  Gloria  in  con,  and  the  salutation  Dominus  sU  semper  vobixum 

Excdfda.    There  is  a  short  passage  which  throws  a  litr  by  the  priest.    This  is  still  the  Mozarabic  form  of 

tie  lig^t  upon  liie  Lyons  use  of  the  end  of  the  fifth  cen-  Dominus  vdbiscum. 

tury  in  an  account  of  the  Council  of  Lyons  in  499,  (2)  The  Canticles. — ^These,  according  to  St.  Oer- 
quoted  by  Mabillon.  The  council  assembled  by  King  manus,  were:  (i)  The  Ajus  {ttywi)  which  may  be  the 
Gundobad  of  Burgundy  began  on  the  feast  of  St.  Just.  Greek  Trisagion  Ckywt  Be6s,  x.r.X.)  or  the  Greek  of 
The  vigil  was  kept  at  his  tomb.  This  began  with  a  the  jSoTicftM,  probably  the  latter,  which  is  still  used  else- 
lesson  horn  the  Pentateuch  (^'a  Moyse")>  in  which  oo-  where  in  the  Mozarabic,  and  seems  to  be  referred  to  in 
curred  the  words  "Sed  ego  indurabo  cor  ejus",  etc.  the  Ajus,  ajus^  ajus  of  the  Life  of  St.  G^iy  of  Cambrai 
(Ex.,  vii,  3).  Then  psalms  were  sung  and  a  lesson  and  the  Sanctus,  sanctus,  sanctus  of  the  Council  of  Vai- 
was  read  from  the  prophets,  in  which  occurred  the  son  (529).  In  the  Bobbio  there  is  a  prayer  PosM/ti^. 
words  "  Vade,  et  dices  populo  huic:  Audite  audientes'',  Tii)  The  Kyrie  Eleison,  sung  b^  three  boys.  This  has 
etc.  (Isaias,  vi,  9),  then  more  psalms  and  a  lesson  from  oisappeared  from  the  Mozarabic.  It  is  mentioned  by 
the  Gospels  containing  the  words  "V£Btibi,Corozain I"  the  Council  of  Vaison  (529).  (iii)  The  Canticle  of 
etc.  (Matt.,  xi,  21 ;  or  Luke,  x,  13),  and  a  lesson  from  Zacharias  (Benedidus).  This  is  called  Prophetia  and 
the  Epistles  ("ex  Apostolo'')  which  contained  the  there  are  collects  post  Prophetiam  in  the  Reichenau- 
words  "An  divitias  bonitatis  ejus",  etc.  (^Rom.,  ii,  4).  fragments,  the  Gotnicum,  and  the  Bobbio.  The  Moz- 
St.  .^obard  in  the  ninth  century  mentions  that  at  arabic  and  Celtic  books  have  Gloria  in  Excdsis  here, 
Lyons  there  were  no  canticles  except  from  the  Psalms,  but  in  the  former  the  "  Benedictus"  is  used  instead  on 
no  hymns  written  by  poets,  and  no  lessons  except  from  the  Sunda3r  before  the  Nativity  of  St.  John  Baptist, 
Scripture.  Mabillon  says  that  though  in  his  day  called  Dominica  pro  adventu  S,  johannis.  A  different 
Lyons  agreed  with  Rome  in  many  things,  especially  in  Canticle,  Sanctus  Deus  Archangdorum  was  used,  ao- 
the  distribution  of  the  Psalter,  and  admitted  lessons  eordinjg  to  St.  Germanus,  in  Lent, 
from  the  Acts  of  Saints,  there  were  still  no  hymns  ex-  (3)  The  Lessons. — These  were  the  Lectio  Prophetica 
cept  at  Complin,  and  he  mentions  a  similar  rule  as  to  from  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  Lectio  Apostolica  or 
hvmns  at  Vienne.  But  canon  23  of  the  Council  of  Epistle.  In  Paschal  time  the  Apocalypse  took  the 
I^urs  (767)  allowed  the  use  of  the  Ambrosian  hymns,  place  of  the  Lectio  Prophetica,  and  a  lesson  from  the 
Though  the  Psalter  of  the  second  recension  of  St.  Acts  of  the  Apostles  that  of  the  Epistle.  In  Lent  the 
Jerome,  now  used  in  all  the  churches  of  the  Roman  Histories  of  the  Old  Testament  were  read  instead  of 
Rite  except  the  Vatican  Basilica,  is  known  as  the  the  Prophetical  Lesson,  and  on  Saints'  Days  the  Acts 
"Gallican'',  while  the  older,  a  revision  of  the  "  Vetus  of  the  Saints.  This  agrees  with  the  present  Mozara- 
Itala",  used  now  in  St.  Peter 'sat  Rome  onlv,  is  known  bic,  except  in  the  Acts  of  the  Saints,  and  with  the 
as  the  "Roman",  it  does  not  seem  that  the  Gallican  Luxeuil  Lectionaiy,  and  the  Bobbio.  The  Acts  of 
Psalter  was  used  even  in  Gaul  until  a  comparatively  Saints  were  used  as  Mass  Lessons  in  the  Ambrosian 
later  date,  though  it  spread  thence  over  nearly  all  the  Rite  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century.  According  to  St. 
West.  At  present  the  Mozarabic  and  Ambrosian  Germanus  the  second  lesson  followed  immediately  on 
Psalters  are  variants  of  the  "Roman",  with  peculiari-  the  first,  but  in  the  Mozarabic  the  BenedicUe  and  a 
ties  of  their  own.  Probably  the  decadence  of  the  Gal-  Psallendo  (Responsorpr)  come  between  them.  In  the 
lican  Divine  Office  was  very  graduaL  In  the  eighth  Gidlican  the  BenedicUe  and  a  Responsorium  followed 
century  tract  in  Cott.  MS.  Nero  A.  II.  the  "Cursus  the  Epistle.  The  Bobbio  has  a  fixed  collect.  Post 
Gallorum"  is  distinguished  from  the  "Cursus  Roman-  Benedictionem,  which  is  that  which  follows  Bmedictus 
orum",  the  "Cursus  Scottorum"  and  the  Ambrosian,  es  (Dan.,  iii)  on  Ember  Saturdays  in  the  Roman  Mis- 
all  of  which  would  seem  to  have  been  going  on  then.  sal. 

The  unknown  writer,  though  his  opinion  is  of  no  value        (4)  The  Gospel. — ^This  was  preceded  by  a  procession 

on  the  origin  of  the  "Cursus",  may  well  have  known  in  tribunal  analoaii,  i.  e.  to  the  ambo.    The  word 

about  some  of  these  of  his  own  knowledge;  but  AmiX^mf  is  still  the  Byzantine  term  for  the  desk  from 

through  the  seventh  century  there  are  indications  of  a  which  the  Gospel  is  read.    A  clerk  again  sang  the 

tendency  to  adopt  the  Roman  or  the  Monastic  "cur-  "Ajus",  and  seven  lighted  candles  were  carried.    The 

sus"  instead  of  the  Gallican,  or  to  mix  them  up,  a  clerks  cried  out  Gloria  tibi,  Domine,    Sanctus  was 

tendency  which  was  resisted  at  times  by  provincial  sung  as  they  returned.    Nothing  is  said  about  A^eluta 

councils.  preying  the  Gospel,  nor  is  there  any  in  the  Mozara- 

V.  The  Mass.— The  chief  authorities  for  the  Galli-  bic.    The  Celtic  Rite,  as  shown  by  the  Stowe  Missal, 

can  Mass  are  the  Letters  of  St.  Germanus  of  Paris  included  an  Alleluia  at  that  point,  as  do  most  other 

(555-576) ;  and  by  a  comparison  of  these  with  the  ex-  rites. 

tant  Sacramentaries,  not  only  of  Gaul  but  of  the  Celtic        (5)  Here,  according  to  St.  Germanus,  followed  the 

Rite,  with  the  Irish  tracts  on  the  Mass,  with  the  books  Homily^ 
of  the  still  existing  Mozarabic  Rite,  and  with  the  de-        (6)  The  Prex.— The  passage  of  St.  Germanus  is 


QALUOAN 


362 


OALLIOAN 


"Preees  vero  psallere  levitas  pro  popiilo  ab  origine 
libri  Moysaici  dudt  exordium,  ut  audita  Apostoli 

SHBdicatione  levitss  pro  populo  depreoentur  et  sacer- 
otes  prostrati  ante  Dominum  pro  peccatiB  populi  in- 
tercedant".  Duchesne  makes  this  refer  to  a  Bidding 
Litany  to  follow  the  Homily,  but  judging  from  the 
analogy  of  the  Stowe  Mass,  which  places  a  litany  be- 
tween the  Epistle  and  Gospel,  and  of  the  Mozarabic, 
which  on  Sundays  in  Lent  has  a  veiy  similar  litany 
between  the  Prophetical  Lesson  and  the  Epistle,  said 
bjr  the  priest  who  "prostemat  se  ad  pedem  altaris",  it 
might  oe  possible  to  understand  ^'audita  Apostoli 
pnedicatione"  to  mean  "after  the  Epistle".  The 
Koman  Good  Fiidav  prayers,  however,  which  are 
similar  in  import  to  this  litany,  follow  the  Gospel;  and 
so  does  the  ureat  Synapte  of  l^e  Clementine,  the  By- 
zantine, ^nd  other  Eastern  rites,  which  have  petitions 
of  the  same  type,  and  one  of  which  is  probabhr  the 
oridnal  source  of  this  Prex.  The  Ck>uncil  of  Lyons 
(517)  also  mentions  "orationem  plebis  que  post  evan- 
fdia  legeretur".  No  Gallican  text  of  this  litany  ex- 
ists, but  it  was  probably  much  of  the  same  type  as 
that  of  the  Stowe,  which  is  called  "Deprecatio  Sanoti 
Biartini",  and  that  which  takes  the  place  of  the 
"Gloria  in  Exoelsis"  in  Lent  in  the  Ambrosian.  The 
Prex  is  followed  by  a  prayer  called  Post  Precem. 

(7)  The  Dismissal  of  the  Catechumens. — ^This  is 
mentioned  by  St.  Germanus  as  an  ancient  rite  of 
which  the  form  was  still  observed.  He  says,  in  almost 
the  same  words  which  James  of  Edessa,  speaking  of 
the  Syrian  Rite,  used  a  century  later,  that  the  deacon 
proclaims  "juxta  antiquum  Ecclesiss  ritum''.  No 
mention  is  made  by  St.  Germanus  of  penitents,  but 
the  Council  of  Lyons  just  mentioned  gave  them  per- 
mission to  remain  until  after  the  Prex.  In  the  Stewe 
Mass,  as  in  the  Roman,  l^ere  is  no  allusion  to  cate- 
chumens or  penitents. 

(8)  The  Great  Entrance  and  Offertory. — It  seems 
appropriate  to  give  the  Byzantine  name  to  this  cere- 
mony, for,  according  to  St.  Germanus's  description,  it 
resembled  the  Great  Entrance  of  that  rite  rather  than 
anything  which  is  now  found  in  either  the  Roman  or 
the  Mozarabic  of  to-day,  or  in  the  Celtic  Rite;  and 
the  Procession  of  the  Vecchioni  at  Milan  (see  Am- 
brosian Rite)  is  altogether  a  different  matter.  First 
came  the  closing  of  the  doors.  This  took  place  im- 
mediately after  the  Dismissal  of  the  Catechumens  in 
the  Liturgy  of  St.  James,  and  b  put  at  the  same  point 
in  the  description  of  James  of  Eaessa.  In  the  Byzan- 
tine Rite  of  to-day  it  comes  after  the  Great  Entrance. 
In  the  Roman  Rite  there  is  no  sign  of  it.  St.  Germa- 
nus gives  it  a  mystical  meaning  about  the  gates  of  the 
soul,  but  James  of  Edessa  gives  the  real  origin,  the 
guarding  of  the  mysteries  against  the  heathen.  Then 
we  alr^y  prepared  Elements  were  brought  in,  the 
bread  in  a  vessel  shaped  like  a  tower,  the  mixed  wine 
and  water  in  the  chalice.  St.  Germanus  speaks  of 
them  as  Corpus  Domini  and  Sanguis  Christi  (cf .  the 
wording  of  tne  B^rzantine  h3rnm  known  as  the  Cheru- 
bicon).  While  tms  was  done  the  choir  sang  what  St. 
Germanus  calls  the  Sonum.  The  Mozarabic  Missal 
calls  the  Responsory  which  comes  at  this  point  the 
Lauda,  and  tne  name  Soniui  is  given  to  ve^  similar 
Responsories  sun^  at  Vespers  and  Lauds.  While  the 
Elements  were  being  offered  the  choir  sang  the  Lavdes, 
which  included  Alleluia.  This  is  the  Mozarabic 
Sacrificiumf  the  Roman  Offertorium,  St.  Isidore 
gives  the  latter  name  to  it.  The  tract  in  the  Irish 
^'Leabhar  Breac"  speaks  of  elevating  the  chalice 
"quando  canitur  Irruda  Deo  sacrificium  laudis"t  but 
the  Stowe,  beine  a  priest's  book,  is  silent  about  any 
antiphon  here,  though  the  prayers  said  by  the  priest 
are  given.  In  the  Stowe  Missal  the  Offertoiy,  which 
is  a  good  deal  Romanized,  is  preceded  by  the  Creed. 
In  the  Ambrosian,  as  in  the  Byzantine,  the  Creed 
follows  the  Offertory.  In  the  Gallican  of  St.  Ger- 
manus there  was  as  yet  no  Creed.    By  ttte  time  of 


James  of  Edessa  it  had  got  into  the  Syrian  Lituigy, 
but  the  Roman  did  not  adopt  it  till  much  later  (see 
Cbbbd,  Litubgical  Usb  of).  The  Mozarabic  puts  it 
after  the  Consecration.  St.  Germanus  mentions  three 
veils,  the  ''palla  linostima"  [linostema  is  defined  by  St. 
Isidore  (Ong.,  19, 22)  as  a  material  woven  of  flax  and 
wool]  "corporalis  palla"  of  pure  linen,  "super  quam 
oblatio  ponitur",  and  a  veil  of  silk  adorned  with  gold 
and  gems  with  which  the  oblation  was  covered.  Irob- 
ably  the  "linostima"  covered  the  chalice,  like  the 
modem  pall. 

(9)  The  pray^  that  follows  is  not  mentioned  by  St. 
Germanus,  but  is  given  in  the  Gallican  books.  It  is 
preceded  b^  a  Bidding  Prayer.  The  titles  of  the  two 
are  PrcBfatio  Missce  and  CoUectio  (the  usual  expression 
being  * '  Collectio  sequitur") .  They  vary  with  the  day, 
and  are  found  in  the  Gothicum,  Gallicanum,  Bdbbio, 
and  some  of  the  Reichenau  fragments.  St.  Isidore 
mentions  them  as  the  first  two  of  the  prayers  of  the 
Mass.  In  the  Mozarabic  the  Bidding  Irayer  is  called 
Missa,  and  is  followed  b^  ''Agyos,  agyos,  agyos, 
Domine  Deus  Rex  seteme  tibi  laudes  et  pratias",  sung 
bv  the  choir,  and  an  invariable  invitation  to  praver. 
The  variable  prayer  which  follows  is  called  Alia  Ora- 
tio.  The  ''Missa''  is  almost  alwavs  a  Bidding  Prayer 
addressed  to  the  people,  while  the  "Alia  Oratio''  is 
nearljT  always  adcfressed  to  God,  but  sometimes  both 
are  Bidding  Prayers  and  sometimes  both  are  prayers 
to  God. 

^10)  The  Diptychs. — St.  Germanus  says  "Nomina 
defunotorum  ideo  hor  ill&  recitantur  qu&  pallium 
tollitur".  The  Gallican  books  and  the  Bobbio  have 
variable  prayers  Post  Nomina,  and  the  Reichenau 
fragments  have  also  prayers  Ante  Nomina,  which  are 
sometimes  Bidding  Prayers,  as  are  sometimes  the 
prayers  Post  Nomina  in  the  Gotiiicum.  The  form  of 
the  Intercession  is  given  in  the  Stowe,  but  moved  to 
its  Roman  positions  in  the  Gelasian  Canon.  The 
Mozarabic  retains  the  old  position,  and  has  a  prayer 
Post  Nomina,  which  St.  Isidore  calls  the  third  prayer. 
Tha  position  of  the  Great  Intercession  at  this  point 
exactly  is  peculiar  to  the  Hispano-GaUican  rite,  but  it 
obmes  verv  near  to  the  Alexandrian  position,  which  is 
in  the  middle  of  the  Preface,  where  a  rather  awkward 
break  is  made  for  it.  The  West  S3rrian  and  Byzantine 
lituigies  place  the  Great  Intercession  after  the  Epik- 
lesis,  the  East  S3rrian  before  the  Epiklesis,  and  the 
Roman  and  Ambrosian  divide  it  in  two,  placing  the 
Intercession  for  the  Living  before,  and  tnat  for  the 
Dead  after  the  Consecration,  with  Commemorations  of 
Saints  with  each. 

(11)  The  Pax. — St.  Germanus  mentions  that  the 
Kiss  of  Peace  came  next,  as  it  does  now  in  the  Mozara- 
bic. St.  Isidore  associates  it  with  the  fourth  prayer, 
which  in  the  Gallican  and  Mozarabic  books  is  called 
Ad  Pacem,  The  Roman  Rite,  which  has  completely 
obliterated  all  distinction  between  the  Missa  Cate- 
chumenorum  and  the  Missa  Fidelium,  associates  this 
si^  of  unity,  not  with  the  bejginnin^  of  the  latter,  but 
with  the  Communion,  and  this  position  is  as  old  as  the 
letter  of  St.  Innocent  I  (416)  to  Decentius  of  Gubbio. 
The.  Ambrosian  now  follows  the  Roman,  as  did  the 
Celtic  Rite  when  the  Stowe  Missal  was  written;  but 
the  Bobbio  retained  the  collect  Ad  Pacem  in  its  original 
place,  though  it  was  probably  not  used  with  the 
Gelasian  Canon. 

(12)  The  Anaphora. — St.  Germanus  merely  men- 
tions the  Sursum  Corda^  and  says  nothing  about  what 
follows  it.  The  dialogue  was  probably  in  the  usual 
form,  thou^  the  curious  variation  in  the  present 
Mozarabic  Rite  makes  that  somewhat  uncertain. 
Then  follows  the  Contestatio  or  Immolation  called  by 
the  Mozarabic  books  lUatiOf  which  is  in  the  Roman 
Rite  the  Prcefatio,  St.  Isidore  calls  it  the  fifth  prayer 
and  uses  the  word  Rlaiio  for  it.  The  Gallican  books, 
the  Bobbio,  and  the  Mozarabic  Missal  give  a  variable 
one  for  every  Mass,  and  the  Gallican  books  often  give 


QALUGAV                              363  OALLIOAN 

two.    The  general  form  is  the  same  as  the  Roman,  not  described,  but  in  the  Celtic  Rite  (q.  y.)  there  was 

perhaps  more  diffuse  in  its  expressions.    Usually  the  a  very  complicated  fraction,  and  in  the  Mozarabic  the 

words  Per  quern  alone  at  the  end  of  the  proper  section  Sacred  Host  is  divided  into  nine  particles^^ven  of 

indicate  t^e  conclusion.  -  The  Mozarabic  Illiatibns  end  which  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  cross.    The  Coun- 

in  varying  ways,  alwajrs  of  course  leading  up  to  the  cil  of  Tours  (567)  directs  that  the  particles  shall  be 

Sanctus.  arranged  ''non  in  imaginario  ordine  sed  sub  crucis 

(13)  The  Sanctus. — The  Galilean  wording  is  not  titulo,  so  that  it  is  probable  that  the  Gallican  fraction 
found,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  suspect  any  variations  was  similarly  elaborate.  The  Stowe  Gaelic  tract 
unless  the  Mozarabic  '^ gloria  majestatis  iuab"  was  also  speaks  of  two  fractions,  the  first  into  two  halves  with 
Gallican.  a  re-uniting  and  a  commixture,  the  second  into  a 

(14)  The  Post-Sanctus. — ^This  takes  up  the  idea  of  number  of  partides  varying  with  the  rank  of  the  day. 
the  Sanctus  and  amplifies  it,  leading  on  to  the  Recital  The  ''Leabnar  Breac"  tract  only  mentions  the  first, 
of  the  Institution.  It  generally,  but  not  always,  be-  Dom  L.  Goueaud  C'Les  rites  de  la  Consecration  et  de 
gins  with  *' Vere  Sanctus,  vere  Benedictus".  lliere  is  la  Fraction  oans  la  Liturgie  Celtique",  in  ''Report  of 
a  variable  Post-Sanctus  for  ever]^  Mass.  In  the  Gal-  the  19th  Eucharistic  Congress"  (p.  359)  conjectures 
lican  books  this  passafi^  ends  with  some  expression,  that  l^e  first  was  the  Host  of  the  celebrant,  the  second 
generally  simply  ''  per  Christum  Dominum  nostrum",  that  for  the  communicants. 

which  serves  as  the  antecedent  to  ''Qui  Pridie",  etc.  (18)  The  Pater  Noster. — ^This  was  preceded  by  a 


In  ^e  Mozarabic  tiie  usual  ending  is  "Ipse  Dominus    variable  introduction  after  the  plan  of  FrcBceptia  salun 


institution  begins  a  fresh  sentence  with  no  relative.  In  the  Mozarabic  the  introduction  Ad  orationein 

All  Liturgies  except  the  Roman  have  some  form  of  Daminicam  is  variable,  the  Embolism  is  not. 

Post-Sanctus.    Even  the  Ambrosian  has  one  for  fl9)The(}ommixture.— Of  the  manner  of  this  in  the 

Easter  Eve,  and  the  Celtic  Stowe  Missal  seems  to  use  Gallican  Rite  there  is  no  information,  nor  is  there  any 

one  with  or  without  the  Roman  Canon.    The  Bobbio,  record  of  the  words  used.    But  see  Celtic  Rite.    In 

completel^r  Romanized  from  the  Preface  onwards,  the  Mozarabic  the  particle  Regnum  (see  Mozarabic 

does  not  include  one*  among  its  variables.    In  one  Rite^  is  dipped  iii  the  chalioe  with  the  words  "Vicit 

Mass  in  the  Gothicum  (Easter  Ev^  the  Post-Sanctus  Leo  de  tribu  Juda,  radix  David,  Alleluia.    Qui  sedes 

(so  called  by  Neale  and  Forbes)  contains  a  quite  supeo*  Cherubim,  radix  David,  Alleluia"^  and  the 

definite  Epiklesis,  but  the  prayer  which  follows  is  particle  is  dro{)ped  into  the  chalice,  the  pnest  saying 

called  ad  fractionem  panie,  so  it  may  be  really  a  Post-  "Sancta  Sanctis;  et  oonjunctio  corporis  D.N.J.C.  sit 

Pridie.  sumentibus  et  potantibus  nobis  ad  veniam  et  de- 


(15)  The  Recital  of  the  Institution. — "Qui  pridie  functis  fidelibus  praestetur  ad  requiem, 
quam  pro  nostr&  omniiun  salute  pateretur"  is  all  that  ^20)  The  Benediction. — This  when  p 
exists  of  the  Gallican  form,  as  catchwords,  so  to  speak,  bisnop  was  a  variable  formula,  sometimes  of  cbn- 
This,  except  that  "et"  comes  there  before  "ommum",  siderable  length.  St.  Germanus  gives  a  form  which 
is  the  Ambrosian.  The  Stowe  and  Bobbio  have  the  was  said  by  priests  "Pax,  fides  et  caritas  et  communi-' 
Rmnan  "Qui  pridie  quam  pateretur",  etc.,  but  Uie  catio  eoipons  et  sanguinis  Domini  sit  semper  vobis- 
corrector  of  the  Stowe  has  added  the  Ainbrosian  cum."  There  is  a  very  similar  form  in  the  Stowe 
ending  "passionem  meam  pnedicabitis",  eto.  The  Missal  and  in  the  Ambrosian,  but  in  both  these  it  is 
Mozarabic^  though  Post-Pridie  is  the  name  of  the  oonnected  with  the  Pax  which  comes  at  this  point,  as 
prayer  which  follows,  has  (after  an  invocatoiy  prayer  in  the  Roman  Rite.  In  the  Mozarabic,  the  deacon 
to  our  Lord)  "D.  N.  J.  C.  in  quft  nocte  tradebatur",  proclaims  "Humiliate  vos  benedictioni".  This  is 
etc.,  following  St.  Paul's  words  in  I  Cor.,  xi,  in  which  alluded  to  by  St.  Cssarius  of  Aries,  and  is  very  like 
it  agrees  with  the  principal  Eastern  Liturgies.  This  is  ria  n^'Kia  'iuijuw  r$  KvpUp  kkht/tep  in  the  Byzantine 
probablya  late  alteration.  Rite.    Then  follows  a  long  variable  Benediction  of 

(16)  The  Post-Pridie,  called  also  Post  Myeterium  four  clauses,  pronounced  by  the  priest,  the  people 
and  Post  Secreta,  these  two  being  the  more  usual  responding  "Amen"  to  each  dause.  The  Gallican 
Gfdllcan  names,  while  Post-Pridie  is  the  universal  Benedictions  were  of  the  same  type.  The  practice  of 
Mozarabic  name.  This  is  a  variable  prayer,  usually  a  Benediction  before  (>)mmunion  continued  in  France 
addressed  to  Christ  or  to  the  Father,  but  occasionally  long  after  the  extinction  of  the  Gallican  Rite,  and  sur- 
in  the  Mozarabic  in  the  form  of  a  Bidding  Prayer,  vives  to  this  day  at  Lyons.  It  Was  also  the  practice 
The  petitions  often  include  something  of  an  oblation,  of  the  Aiislo-Saxon  Church.  Dom  Cabrol  r'Bene- 
like  the  Unde  et  memoreSf  and  often  a  more  or  less  diction  Episcopale"  in  "Report  of  the  19th  Euchar- 
definite  Epiklesis.  Of  the  eleven  Masses  in  the  Rei-  istic  Congress'O  considers  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  Bene- 
chenau  fragment  four  contain  a  definite  Emklesis  in  dictions  were  not  survivals  of  Gallican  (Celtic)  usage, 
this  prayer,  one  has  a  Post-Pridie  with  no  E^piklesis,  but  were  derived  from  the  ancient  practice  of  Rome 
one  n  unfinished,  but  has  no  Epiklesis  as  far  as  it  goes,  itself,  and  that  the  rite  was  a  general  one  of  which 
and  in  the  rest  this  prayer  is  wanting,  i    In  the  Glothi-  traces  are  found  nearly  everywhere. 

cum  there  is  generally  no  Epiklesis,  but  nine  of  the        (21)  The  (}ommunion.--St.  (3ermanus  gives  no 

Masses  there  have  one  of  some  sort,  in  some  cases  details  of  this,  but  mentions  the  sin^ng  of  the  Tre- 

vague.    In  the  Mozarabic  this  prayer  is  usually  only  canum.    His  description  of  this  is  not  very  dear. 

the  oblation,  thoush  rarely  there  is  an  Epiklesis.    It  "Sic  enim  prima  in  secund&,  secunda  in  tertift,  et 

is  followed  there  by  a  fixed  prayer  resembling  the  rursum  tertia  in  secund&  rotatur  in  prim&. "    But  he 

clause  Per  qwsm  hcec  omnia  in  the  Roman  Canon.  takes  the  threefold  chant  as  an  emblem  of  the  Trinity. 

(17)  The  Fraction. — Of  this  St.  Germanus  says  only  The  Mozarabic  on  most  days  has  a  fixed  anthem,  Ps. 


The  Mozarabic  has  substituted  for  it  the  recitation  of  called  Ad  Accedentee,    In  Lent  and  EasteMide  there 

the  Creed,  "prster  in  locis  in  quibus  erit  antiphona  are  variants.    The  rather  obvious  Guetaie  et  videie  is 

propria  ad  confractionem  panis",  which  is  chiefly  given  also  in  the  Stowe  Missal  and  Baneor  Antiphoner, 

during^  Lent,  and  in  votive  Masses.    In  the  Stowe  and  is  mentioned  by  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusuem.    It  occurs 

there  is  a  long  responsoiy,  apparently  not  variable,  in  certain  Eastern  Liturgies.    In  the  Mozarabic  it  is 

No  Gallican  Confratorium  remains.    The  fraction  is  followed  by  the  Communxo  "Refecti  Christ!  corpore  et 


OALUOAH                              364  QALLIOAN 

sanguine,  te  laudamus,  Domine,  Alleluia"  (thrice),  in  the  form  of  a  cross  with  a  triple  insufflation,  and  an 

with  a  variant  in  Lent.    This  is  found  also  in  the  exorcism,  which  here  is  in  an  imusual  place. 

Celtic  books.    Probably  it  was  used  in  the  Qallican  (3)  The  Baptismal  formula  ''Baptizo  te  in  nomine, 

also.    In  the  Mozarabic  the  priest's  Commimion,  with  ...  in  remissionem  peccatorum,  ut  habeas  vitam 

his  private  devotions,  goes  on  during  these  anthems,  setemam^'. 

St.  Csesarius  of  Aries  and  the  Council  of  Auxerre  (4)  The  Chrismation.    The  formula  "Perungo  te 

(about  578),  cjuoted  by  Duchesne,  allude  to  the  fact  chrisma  sanctitatis"  seems  to  have  been  mixed  up 

that  men  received  the  Most  in  the  bare  hand,  but  that  with  a  form  for  the  bestowal  of  the  white  gannent,  for 

women  covered  the  hand  with  a  linen  cloth  called  it  goes  on  "timicam  immortalitatis,  quam  D.NJ.C. 

daminicaliSf  which  each  brought  with  her.  trsuditam  a  Patre  primus  accepit  ut  earn  inte^ram  et 

(22)  The  Post-Commimion. — ^This,  as  given  in  the  inlibatam  preferas  ante  tribunal  Qiristi  et  vivas  in 
Gallican  books,  is  a  variable  PrcefatiOf  or  Bidding  ssecula  sseculorum".  Probably  the  omission  is  '^  .  .  . 
Prayer,  followed  by  a  collect.  The  former  is  entitled  in  Nomine"^  etc.,  in  the  one  formula;  and  "  Accipe 
Post  Communionem,  the  latter  CoUectio,  The  Moz-  vestemcandidam",  or  possibly ''Accipe"  alone,  in  the 
arable  has  only  a  collect,  which  is  variable,  but  with  a  other.  Mgr.  Duchesne's  su^estion  of  ''a  special 
smaller  selection  than  the  other  prayers.  symbolism,  according  to  which  the  chrism  would  be 

(23)  The  Dismissal  formula  of  the  Gallican  Mass  considered  as  a  garment  "does  not  commend  itself,  for 
is  not  extant.    It  may  have  been  like  the  Stowe  want  of  a  verb  to  govern  "timicam".    Still  there  is 
"Missa  acta  est  in  pace",  or  one  form  of  Mozarabic  another  formula  for  the  white  garment  farther  on. 
^'Missa  acta  est  in  nomine  D.B.J.C.,  profidamus  cum  (5)  The  Feet-washing.    The  form  here  is  similar  to 
pace."  that  in  the  GaUicanmn,  the  Bobbio,  and  the  Stowe: 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  analysis  that  the  "^gp  te  lavo  pedes.    Sicut  D.N  J.C.  fecit  discipulis 

Gallican  Mass  contained  a  very  small  nimiber  of  fixed  suis,  tu  facias  hospitibiis  et  peregrinis  ut  habeas  vitam 

elements,  so  that  nearly  the  whole  service  was  varia-  stemam."    This  ceremony  is  only  foimd  in  Gaul, 

ble  acconling  to  the  day.     The  absence  of  an  Ordi-  Spain,  and  Ireland.    At  the  Coimcil  of  Elvira  in  305 

nary  is,  therefore,  of  less  importance  than  it  would  be  an  order  was  made  that  it  should  be  i)erformed  by 

in,  for  instance^  the  Roman  or  the  Ambrosian.    The  clerks  and  not  by  priests.    This  limitation,  of  which 

full  list  of  variables,  as  shown  from  the  Reichenau  the  wording  is  quite  clear^  has  been  unaccountably  in- 

fra^ents,  the  Gothicum,  and  St.  Germanus's  de-  terpreted  to  mean  that  it  was  then  forbidden  alto- 

Bcription,  is: —  getner. 

(I)  The  Introit.    (2)  (CoUectio)  post  Prophetiam.  (6)  The  Vesting  with  the  white  garment.    This  has 

(3)  Lectio  Prophetica.   (4)  Lectio  Apostolica,   (5)  Re-  a  form  similar  to  the  Roman  and  Celtic,  but  not  quite 

svonsorium  before  the  Gospel.     (6)  Gospel.    (7)  Post  the  same. 

Precem.    (8)    Sonum,    (9;    Laudes.    (10)    PrcefaHo  (7)  Two  final  Bidding  Prayers  with  no  collect. 

Missce.     (11)    CollecOo.    (12)    ArUe   Nomina,    (13)  The  Gallicanum  has  a  much  fuller  form,  with  the 

Post  Nomina.     (14)  Ad  Pacem,    (15)  Contestatio  or  Traditio  and  Exposito  Symbolic  etc.    It  is: — 

Jmmolaiio.     (16)    Post-Sanctus.      (17)    Post-Pridie,  (1)  "Ad  faciendum  Catechumenum."    A  long  and 

(18)  Confradoriumf     (19)  Ante  Orationem  Domini-  curious  exorcism  beginning  "Adgredior  te.  immun- 

cam,    (20)  Post  Orationem  Dominicam,    (21)  Bene-  dissime,  damnatespiritus".    This  is  only  a  fragment, 

dictio.    (22)     Trecanum  t    (23)     Communio  t    (24)  and  probably  the  unction  and  salt  came  here,  as  in  the 

Post  Communionem,    (25)  CoUectio  or  Consummatio  Spanish  Rite. 

Misste,    Of  these  nos.  2,  8,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14, 15,  16.  (2)  "Expositio  vd  Traditio  Symboli."  An  address, 

17,  19,  20,  21,  24,  25  belong  to  the  priest's  part  and  the  Creed,  a  long  exposition  of  it,  and  a  collect.    The 

t       ,.    ^  .    .       ,    .  «  ^  ^  _j  _  _  .         ^_i^__*__  xi__  T> £jjj^^    'Them 


lon^  to  the  part  of  the  choir,  and  would  be  foimd  in  (3^  "Expositio  Evangeliorum  in  aurium  apertione 

Antiphoners,  tf  any  sudi  existed;  and  3, '4. 6  are  found  ad  electos."    An  address  followed  by  a  few  words  of 

in  the  Lectionary.    No.  12  is  only  foima  among  the  each  of  the  Gospels  and  an  exposition  of  the  emblems 

Reichenau  fragments,  but  it  is  foimd  there  in  every  of  the  Evangeusts.    This  is  found  Jn  the  Gelasian 

Mass  of  which  the  MS.  is  not  imperfect  at  ^at  part  of  Sacramentary. 

the  service.    Thus  the  fixed  parts  of  the  service  would  (4)   "  Prsemissiones  ad  Scrutamen."    A  Bidding 

only  be:  (a)  The  three  Canticles,    (b)  The  Ajus  and  Prayer  and  a  collect. 

Sanctus,  etc.,  at  the  Gospel,    (c)  The  Prex,    (d)  The  (5)  ''^Pttefatio  Orationis  Dominic®."    The  tradition 

Dismissal,    (e)  The  priest's  prayers  at  the  Offertonr.  and  eiroosition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer, 

(f)  The  Great  Intercession,    (g)  The  Pax  formula,  (h)  (6)  ''Missa  in  symboli  traditione."    This  is  imper- 

The  Sursum  Corda  dialogue,    (i)  The  Sanctus.    (k)  feet,  but  agrees  nearly,  as  far  as  they  both  gp,  with  a 

The  Recital  of  the  Institution.    (1)  The  Pater  Noster,  Mass  of  the  same  title  in  the  Gothicum. 

and  possibly  the  Confractorium,  Trecanum  and  Comr  (7)  "Expositio  Symboli."    This,  thourfi  on  the 

muntOf  with  probably  the  priest's  devotions  at  Com-  same  lines  as  the  earlier  one,  differs  m  wording^.    It  is 

munion.    Most  of  these  are  very  short,  and  the  only  very  incomplete  and  has  probably  got  into  this  place 

really  important  passage  wanting  is  the  one  fixed  by  mistake. 

passage  in  the  Prayer  of  Consecration,  the  Recital  of  (8)  "Opus  ad  Baptizando  (sic)."    This  ispreceded 

the  Institution.  by  various  services  for  Maundy  Thursday,  Good  Fri- 

VI.  The  Occasional  Services.— A.  Ths  Baptismal  day,  and  Easter  Eve,  including  the  Blessing  of  the 

Service,— The  authorities  for  the  Gallican  Baptismal  Candle.    It  begins  with  a  "  Praefatip  antw^uam  exor- 

Service  are  the  Gothicum  and  the  Gallicanum,  both  of  cidietur"  and  a  collect.    Then  follow  the  exorcism 

which  are  incomplete,  and  a  few  detafls  in  the  second  and  blessing  of  the  font,  and  the  infusion  of  the 

Letter  of  St.  Germanus  of  Paris.    The  forms  given  in  chrism,  this  time  in  the  form  of  three  crosses, 

the  Stowe  and  Bobbio  are  too  much  Romanized  to  (9)  The  Interrogation.    This  includes  the  renuncia- 

fllustrate  the  Gallican  Rite  very  much.    The  form  tion  of  Satan  and  a  confession  of  faith.    TTie  latter 

given  in  the  Gothicum  is  the  least  complete.    It  con-  has  a  peculiar  form,  evidently  directed  against  Arian- 

sists  of: —  ism: — 

(1)  "Ad   Christianum   faciendum."    A   Biddmg  "Credis  Patrem  et  Filium  et  Spmtum  Sanctum 
Prayer  and  collect,  with  the  form  of  signing  on  eyes,  unius  esse  virtutis?    R.  Credo. 

ears  and  nostrils.  Credis  Patrem  et  Filium  et  Spmtum  Sanctum 

(2)  The  Blessing  of  the  Font.    A  Bidding  Prayer,  a  ejusdem  esse  potestatis?    R.  Credo.                   ' 
collect,  a  Contestatio  (Preface),  the  infusion  of  chrism  Credis  Patrem  et  Filium  et  Spmtum  Sanctum 


OALLI0ANTT8 


365 


OALLI0ANTT8 


trinsB  veritatis  una  manente  substantia  Deum  esse 
perfectum?    R.  Credo." 

(10)  The  Baptional  fonnula:  '^Baptizo  te  cieden- 
tem  in  Nomine,  etc.,  ut  habeas  vitam  setemam  in 
sscula  saeculorum." 

(11)  The  Chrismation.  The  formula  is  the  same  as 
the  modem  Roman. 

(12)  The  Feelrwashin^.  The  words  are  slightly 
different  from  those  in  me  Qothicum,  Bobbio,  and 
Stowe,  but  to  the  same  effect. 

(13)  The  "Post  Baptismum".  A  single  prayer 
(without  Bidding  Prayer)  beginning  "Deus  ad  quem 
scubias  veteris  hominis  in  fonte  depositas".  It  will 
be  seen  that  there  is  no  giving^  of  the  white  robe  in  the 
Gallicanum,  and  that  the  sismng  of  the  hajid,  found  in 
the  Celtic  Rite  (q.v.),  is  absent  from  both  it  and  the 
Gothicum. 

The  Holy  Week  ceremonies  which  are  mixed  with 
the  Baptismal  service  in  the  two  books  are  not  very 
characteristic.  The  couplets  of  invitatory  and  collect 
which  occur  in  the  Roman  Good  Friday  service  are 
given  witlk  verbal  variations  in  the  Gallicanumy  but 
not  in  the  Gothicum;  in  both,  however,  there  are 
other  prayers  of  a  similar  type  and  prayers  for  some  of 
the  Hours  of  Good  Friday  and  Easter  Eve.  The 
Blessing  of  the  Paschal  Candle  consists  of  a  Bidding 
Prayer  and  collect  (in  the  Gothicum  only),  the  ''Ex- 
ultet"  and  its  Preface  nearl^r  exactly  as  in  tne  Roman, 
a  ''Collectio  post  benedictionem  cerei",  and  "Col- 
lectio  post  hymnum  cerei."  There  is  no  ceremony  of 
the  New  Fire  in  either. 

B.  The  Ordination  services  of  the  Galilean  Rite  do 
not  occur  in  any  of  the  avowedhr  Galilean  books,  but 
they  are  found  in  the  Gelasian  Sacramentaiy  and  the 
Missale  Francorum,  that  is  to  say,  a  mixed  form 
which  does  not  agree  with  the  more  or  less  contempo- 
rary Roman  form  in  the  Leonine  and  Gregorian  Sacra- 
mentaries,  though  it  contains  some  Roman  prayers,  is 
found  in  these  two  books,  and  it  may  reasonably  be 
inferred  that  the  differences  are  of  Galilean  ongin. 
Moreover,  extracts  relating  to  ceremonial  are  given 
with  them  from  the  SUUulaEcdesitB  Aniiquaj  formerly 
attributed  to  the  Fourth  Council  of  Carthage,  but  now 
known  to  be  a  GaUican  decree  "promulgated  in  the 
province  of  Aries  towards  the  end  of  the  fiuh  century" 
(Duchesne).  The  ceremonial  therein  contained  agrees 
with  that  described  in  ''De  Officiis  Ecclesiasticis"  by 
St.  Isidore  of  Seville.  The  forms  for  minor  orders,  in- 
cluding subdeacon,  were  very  short,  and  consisted 
simply  of  the  delivery  of  the  instruments:  keys  to 
porters,  books  to  lectors  and  exorcists,  cruets  to  aco- 
lytes, chalice,  paten,  basin,  ewer  and  towel  to  subdea- 
cons,  with  appropriate  words,  followed  by  a  Bidding 
Prayer  and  collect  of  the  usual  Galilean  type,  the 
whole  being  preceded  by  addresses.  These  forms, 
with  considerable  additions  in  the  case  of  subdeacons, 
occur,  Bidding  Prayers  and  all,  in  the  Roman  Ponti- 
fical of  to-day.  In  the  ordination  of  deacons  there  is 
a  form  which  is'  found  in  the  Byzantine  Rite,  but  has 
not  been  adopted  in  the  Roman,  the  recognition  by 
the  people,  after  an  address,  with  the  cry  of  "IMgnus 
esti  .  This  is  used  for  priests  and  bishops  also  (cf. 
'A|tt>t,  in  the  Byzantine  ordinations).  The  Biddmg 
Prayer  and  collect  which  follow  are  both  in  the  present 
Roman  Pontifical,  though  separated  by  much  addi- 
tional matter.  The  ordination  of  priests  was  of  the 
same  type  as  that  of  deacons,  with  the  addition  of  the 
anointiz^  of  the  hands.  The  address,  with  a  varied 
end,  and  the  collect  (but  not  the  Bidding  Prayer),  and 
the  anointing  of  the  hands  with  its  formula  are  m  the 
modem  Pontifical,  but  with  very  large  additions. 
The  consecration  of  bishops  be^an,  after  an  election, 
with  a  presentation  and  recogmtion,  neither  of  which 
is  in  the  modem  Pontifical.  Then  followed  a  long 
Bidding  Prayer,  also  not  adopted  in  the  Roman  Rite, 
and  the  Consecrating  Prater  Deus  omnium  honorum, 
part  of  whieh  is  emb^ied  m  the  Preface  in  the  Leonine 


and  Gre^rian  Sacramentaries,  and  in  the  present 
Pontifical.  During  this  prayer  two  bishops  held  the 
Book  of  the  Gospels  over  the  candidate,  and  all  the 
bishops  laid  their  hands  on  his  head.  Then  followed 
the  anointing  of  the  hands,  but  apparently  not  of  the 
head  as  in  the  modem  rite,  with  a  formula  which  is  not 
in  the  Roman  books. 

C.  The  Consecration  of  a  Church  does  not  occur  in 
the  recognized  Galilean  books,  and  l^e  order  of  it  has 
to  be  inferred  from  later  books  and  from  prayers  in  the 
Gelasian  Sacramentiuy  and  Missale  Francorum.  It 
would  seem,  as  Mgr.  Duchesne  shows  in  his  excellent 
anal3rsis  of  both  rites  (Origines  du  culte  chr6tien),  that 
at  a  time  when  the  Roman  Rite  of  Consecration  was 
exclusively  funerary  and  contain^  little  else  but  the 
deposition  of  the  relics,  as  is  shown  in  the  Ordinea  in 
the  St.  Amand  MS.  (Bibl.  Nat.  Lat.  974),  the  Gallicaa 
Rite  resembled  more  closely  that  of  the  modem  Pon- 
tifical, which  may  be  presumed  to  have  borrowed 
from  it.  The  oommen&ry  of  Remigius  of  Auxerre 
(late  ninth  century),  published  hy  Martdne,  and  the 
Sacramentaiy  of  Angoul^me  TBibL  Nat.  Lat.  816, 
about  800)  which  is  mixed  Gelasian  and  Gr^orian, 
and  the  Sacramentaiy  of  Gellona  (Bibl.  Nat.  Lat. 
12048)  are  the  other  authorities  from  which  Duchesne 
derives  his  details.  The  order  of  the  Celtic  Consecra- 
tion given  in  the  Leabhar  Breac  is  veiy  similar  (see 
Celtic  Rite).    The  order  is: 

(1)  The  Entrance  of  the  bishop,  with  "Tollite  por- 
tas,  principes,  vestras",  etc.,  which  exhibits  the  out- 
line of  the  present  rite.  (2)  The  Alphabets,  as  at 
present.  (3)  The  Exorcism,  Blessing  and  mixing  of 
water,  salt,  ashes  and  wine.  (4)  The  Lustration  of 
the  Altar  and  of  the  inside  of  the  church.  (5)  The 
Consecration  Prayers.  These  are  the  Prayers  ''  Deus, 
qui  loca  nomini  tuo"  and  "Deus  sanctificationum, 
omnipotens  dominator",  which  occur  at  the  same 

Soint  at  present.  The  latter  prayer  in  the  Galilean 
lite  is  worked  into  a  Preface  (in  the  Roman  sense  of 
the  word).  OS)  The  Anointing  of  the  Altar  with 
chrism,  with  uie  five  crosses  as  at  present.  The  Celtic 
Rite  had  seven.  (7)  The  anointing  of  the  church  with 
chrism.  Nothing  is  said  about  crosses  on  the  walls. 
(8)  The  Consecration  of  the  Altar,  with  the  burning  of 
a  cross  of  incense  thereon,  and  a  Bidding  Prayer  and 
collect.  (9)  The  Blessing  of  Unen.  vesseb,  etc.  (10) 
The  Translation  of  the  Relics  whicn  have  been  kept  in 
a  separate  place  and  a  night  watch  kept  over  them. 
This  service,  which  is  clearly  the  moaem  elaborate 
consecration  in  germ,  has  also  many  points  in  common 
with  the  'AjcoKovBta  c/f  '"ByKatwia  NaoC  in  the  Byzantine 
Euchologion,  which  is  still  simpler.  The  three  are 
evidently  three  stages  of  the  same  service. 

Mabxllon,  De  Liturgid  GaUieand  (Pftris,  1085);  Mubatobi, 
Liturtfia  Romana  vtttui  (Venice,  1748);  MabtI:nb,  De  ArUiquia 
Ecdnia  Rittbua  (Basssno,  1788) :  Nbalb  and  Forbxs,  Ancient 
lAturvu  of  the  OaUioan  Church  (Burntialand.  1855-67):  H.  A. 
Wilson.  The  QeUuian  Saeramentary  (Oxford,  1804);  Fxi/roBt 
Sacramentariwn  Ltonianum  (Cambridge,  1896);  Ditchbsnb, 
OriffineaducuUeehr&ieniPn.'na,  1002;tr.LondoD,  1004):DBL.iaiA 
Mimoire  eur  cTanciena  Sacrameniavree  (Paris,  1886);  Ubbbbbt, 
Mcnumenta  veterie  Liiurgia  Alemanniea  (St.  Blaiae,  1777); 
Pbobst,  Die  abendlOndiadie  Mesae  vomfiinTten  bia  gum  achten 


(Paris,  1004);  B.  Bishop,  Liturgical  Note  in  Kuptxbb,  The 
Prayerbook  cf  ^thdwatd  (O&mbridge,  1002);  Idbm,  TheBariieat 
Roman  Maaa-book  in  Duhlin  Review  (Oct.,  1804);  Idbm.  Span- 
iah  Symptoma  (in  Qallican,  Irish,  and  Koman  Service  books),  in 
Journal  of  Theologieal  Studiea  (Oct.,  1005);  Lbjat,  articles  in 
Reoue  cPhtat  et  de  litter.  Rdig.:  Rit  Romain  el  Rit  Qallican,  II,  03; 
Orioine  et  date  du  Rit  Oallican,  II.  173;  Lea  Livrea  OaUitana,  II. 
188  (1807);  W.  C.  Bishop.  Primitive  Form  of  conaeeration  of  the 
.Holy  Buehariat,  in  Churdi  Quarterly  (July,  1008);  B&umbb, 
Oeachiehte  dea  Breviera  (Freiburg,  1805);  Batiffol,  Hialoire  du 
BrMaire  romain  (Paris,  1803;  tr.  London,  1808);  Hammond, 
Ancient  Liturgy  of  AnOodi  (Oxford,  1870);  Idem,  Ancient 
Liturgiea  (Oxford,  1878). 

Henrt  Jenner. 

OaDieanns,  Saints. — ^The  following  saints  of  this 
name  are  commemorated  on  25  June: — 


OALUENUS                             366  OALLXPOU 

(1)  Galucanxtb,  Saint,  Roman  Martyr  in  Egypt,  thage,  who  was  executed   14  September,  258:   at 

862-303,  imder  Julian.    Accoiding  to  nis  Acts  (in  Rome  Sixtus  II  and  his  deacon  St.  Lawrence  suffered 

"Acta  SS.",  Jime,  VII,  31).  which  are  not  very  re-  martyrdom.    After  the  death  of  his  father,  Gallienus 

liable,  he  was  a  distinguisned  general  in  the  war  granted  liberty  of  worship  to  the  Christians.    He  reo- 

against  the  Persians,  was  consul  with  Symmachus,  330  ognized  as  his  deputy  in  the  East  Odenathus,  ruler  of 

(perhaps  also  once  before  with  Bassus,  317).    After  the  conmierdal  city  of  Palmyra  and  energetic  con- 

his  conversion  to  CJhristianity  he  retired  to  Ostia,  qiieror  of  Sapor  I,  Kinc  of  Persia.    Afterwards  he 

founded  a  hospital  and  endowed  a  church  built  by  made  him  emperor.    In  the  ooiuw  of  the  wars  against 

Constantine.  Under  Julian  he  was  banished  to  E^pt.  the  enemies  of  the  empire,  the  soldiers  at  various 

and  lived  with  the  hermits  in  the  desert.    A  small  times  proclaimed  eighteen  of  their  generalsprovincial 

church  was  built  in  his  honour  in  the  Trastevere  of  emperors.    These  men  were  also  called  "The  Thirty 

Rome.    His  relics  are  at  Rome  in  the  church  of  Sant'  Tyrants  ".    Among  them  were  Postumus  in  Graul,  and 

Andrea  della  Vidle.    The  legend  of  his  conversion  was  Ingenuus  in  Pannonia.  over  whom  Gallienus  won  a 

dramatized  by  Roswitha.  partial  victoi^,  with  tne  help  of  ^Aureolus,  the  com- 

Gamxack  in  Diet.  ChriH.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Gbbins  in  Buch-  mander-in-diief  of  the  imperial  armies.    When  the 

BuoaB,  Kirdd,  HandUxikon,  s.  v.;  OaUikanus.  troops  in  Italy  acdaimed  Aureolus  "imperator",  he 

triea  to  make  himself  master  of  Italy  and  Rome,  but 


Bbnnkt  in  Dta.  Christ.  Biog.,  8.  ▼.:  OaUia  Chriatiana,  III, 
1052;  DncHXSinB,  Fasten  Ejnaeopaux,  I,  291  (Paris,  1907). 


mo^,  assisxea  m  person  aL  max  oi  v^arpenwas  m  ^^fle  this  siege  ^as  going  on. 

?^JJ?®™^  r??  *L*r^  Second  Ckmncil  of  Orange        Clwton,  FtuS  Romanf(o3oTdh  H;  Bchillbr,  R6m.  Kauer- 

m  520,  and  at  the  Third  Coimcil  of  YaiSOn  m  the  gw^kichU:   Suck.  UnUrgang  der  AnHkm  Wdt,  II;    LiNSBN- 

same  vear  matb.  Bdt&mpfung  de»  Chr%»ienthuin»  dutch  den  rCmiechen  Stoat 

/Q\  n./rT^A-wTTo   TT    QATwn    *»;«<fl«  T)i*.l«^.v  ^t  "CV*,  (1905),  168  aqq.;  KiAJiasi^  Hi$t,  dee  Pereieutione;  Hbalt,  7%« 

(3)  GAlXiCAlfUS  n,  Sadjt,  mnth  Bl^op  of  Em-  )^alenim,  PmSetiian  (Now  York.  a.  d.). 

brun,  assisted  at  the  Fourth  Coimcil  of  Orleans.  541,  Karl  Hoebbb. 

and  was  represented  by  Probus  at  the  fifth  of  Orleans. 

He  is  said  to  have  consecrated  the  chiurch  of  the        Gallifet,  Josbph  db,  priest;  b.  near  Aix,  France. 

Spanish  martyrs  Vincent,  Orontius,  and  Victor,  built  2  Biay,  1663;  d.  at  Lyons,  1  Sept.,  1749.    He  entered 

at  Embrun  by  Palladius.    It  is  probable,  however,  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  on  taking 

that  Palladius  never  existed  (he  is  not  known  except  up  his  studies  came  under  the  dnection  of  Father  de 

from  some  hagiographical  documents  of  little  value),  la  Colombi^re,  the  confessor  of  Bl.  Margaret  Maiy 

and  that  Gallwanus  governed  the  diocese  from  618  to  Alacoque.    It  is  not  surprising  that  from  such  a 

549  and  perhaps  imiS  554.  director  he  should  acquire  that  love  of  the  Sacred 

« ,_  rvr.  ^t  ..  «.  _ V,  ...  ^.  . ,.       —  Heart  which  he  cultivated  with  so  much  fervour  as  to 

-r-        .  merit  the  title  of  the  Apostle  of  the  devotion  to  the 

±BAKCis  Mbrshmak.  Sacrsd  Heart.    While  on  a  mission  of  charity  during 

^  „,  -^^ ▼  «  ^  his  third  year  of  probation  at  Lyons,  he  caught  a  fever 

aaUienns,  Publtus  Licinius  Egnattob,  Ron^  ^hich  brought  him  to  death's  door.    So  distressed 

emperor;  b.  about  218 j  d.  at  Milan,  4  Mardi,  268;  ^ere  his  brethren  at  the  fear  of  losing  him  that  a 

appomted  regent  by  lus  father  Valerian  when  the  certain  father  made  a  vow  in  his  name  that,  if  he  were 

(fermans  thr^tened  the  boundaries  of  the  empire  on  gpared.  Father  de  Gallifet  would  spend  his  life  in  the 

^®  ?*JiP®^^?^  *^®  ?"^^^V.  ^r^ii^'^^v*^^  ^^®  ^®^  cause  of  the  Sacred  Heart.    From  that  time  he  began 

em  half  of  the  empire  and  his  father  the  CMtem  por-  to  recover.    He  ratified  the  vow,  and  never  slackened 

W  in  255.    Gallienus  was  by  nature  mdolent  and  i^  his  efforts  to  fulfil  it.    His  superiors  realizing  his 

fond  of  pleasure.    He  was  crud  to  the  vanquished,  fitness  for  government  advanced  him  to  three  succes- 

and  was  unable  to  repel  the  attacks  of  the  Frankish  gi^e  rectorships— at  Vesoul,  at  Lyons,  and  at  Gre- 

myaders  of  Gaul,  but  bnbed  their  (^f^  noble.    The  last-named  appointment  was  foUowed  by 

take  the  wardensh^of  the  Rhenish  bprderhne.    When  the  provinciabhip  of  the  Aovince  of  Lyons.    In  1723, 

ttie  Alemanm  burst  through  the  htMs  Rluaicua,  or  he  was  chosen  assistant  for  France,  an  office  which 

RhatiM  bwmer,  and  mvaded  Upper  Italy,  the  senate  brought  him  to  Rome.    Here  he  found  it  in  his  power 

armed  the  Roman  burgesws  for  the  first  time  m  thuty  to  work  more  effectively  for  the  spread  of  the  devotion 

years  and  raised  a  force  of  troops  on  its  own  responsi-  that  was  dearest  to  his  heart.    Returning  from  Rome 

bnity.    Gallienus  defeated  the  enemy  at  Milan,  but  i^  1732,  he  again  became  rector  at  Lyons,  where  he 

made  an  aUiance  with  one  of  toe  chiefs  of  the  Marco-  passed  his  declining  years,  a  model  of  meekness, 

manm,  and  gave  hun  Upper  Pannonia.    He  forbade  tumflity,  and  charity.    He  wrote  an  admirable  book 

the  senators  to  enter  the  militaiy  service,  to  have  any-  on  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  one  on  the  chief  virtues  of 

thing  to  do  with  the  army,  arid  excluded  them  from  the  Christian  reli^;  his  greatest  work,  "De  Cultu 

the  admmistration  of  the  provinces.    In  consequence  Sacrosancti  Cordis  Dei  ac  Domini  Nostri  Jesu  Christi", 

of  this  decree,  the  former  distmction  between  imperial  appeared  in  1726.    The  main  purpose  of  this  book  met 

and  senatorial  Movmces  disappewed.  ^  During  the  ^th  much  opposition  at  fiiBt,  and  its  well-supported 

wws  agamst  the  Germans  many  distmpii^ed  Roman  ^^  f q,  the  establishment  oi  a  feast  of  the  Sacred 

officers  were  proclaimed  emperors  m  the  various  ^^^rt  was  not  crowned  with  victory  till  1765.    The 

provmces.    The  most  successful  of  these  was  Aure-  ^aious  apostle  had  in  the  meantime  gone  to  his  re- 

han,  who  later  became  sole  emperor.    Inconsequence  ward,  thou^  he  lived  to  see  the  establishment  of  over 

of  the  withdrawal  of  the  troops  from  the  eastern  700  confraternities  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
boundanes,  the  countries  near  the  Bosphorus  and  the         Db  Gallwbt,  The  Adorable  Heart  of  Jeaue  (New  York,  1809); 

Black  Sea  were  laid  open  to  pillage  at  the  hands  of  the  SoioixBvoaBL,  Bibl.  de  la  C.  de  J.,  ill,  1 124-31;  db  Guil- 

Goths.    Simultaneously  the  Persians^  under  Sapor  I  c!SS'as^C^j!^(F^ufz  1^*°^  ^  ^'^''*''  ^^^ 
swooped  down  on  Asia  Minor.    Valerian  led  an  army  ''       Joseph  H.  Smith. 

against  them,  but  was  betrayed  and  captured.    His 

servitude  lasted  imtil  his  death  in  260.  OaUipoU,  Diocesb  of  (Gallipolitana),  in  the 

Gallienus  thereupon  became  sole  ruler.    A  bloody  province  of  Lecce  (Southern  Italy).    The  city^  is  built 

persecution  of  the  Christians  broke  out  in  257-258,  on  a  hi^h  rock  in  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum  and  loined  to 

instigated  bv  imperial  edicte;  they  were  accused  of  the  mainland  by  a  bridee  of  twelve  arehes.    it  is  sur- 

failure  to  take  up  arms  in  defence  of  the  empire  from  rounded  by  a  bastioneawall  and  dominated  by  a  cas- 

ite  invaders.    Whoever  refused  to  take  part  in  the  tie;  has  also  an  important  trade  in  wine,  oil  and  fish. 

Roman  pagan  rites  was  first  exiled,  then  slain.    One  Drinking-water  is  brought  to  the  town  from  the  main- 

of  the  first  victims  was  St.  Cyprian,  Bishop  of  Car-  land  by  means  of  an  aqueduct.    The  harbour  is  a 


OALUTZZV  367  OALUTZZV 

natural  one,  and  not  particularly  safe.    It  is  thought  her  the  ''Diotima",  his  famous  "Lettres  sur  I'ath^* 

that  the  place  owes  its  origin  to  the  inhabitants  of  isme".    The  educational  reform*  introduced  byFrana 

Gallipolis  in  Sicily.    In  450,  it  was  laid  waste  bv  the  v.  Fllrstenberg,  Vicar-General  of  Manster,  induced  her 

Vandals;  in  the  days  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  (590-  to  take  up  her  residence  in  the  Westphalian  capital. 

604)  Gallipolis  belonged  to  the  Roman  Chiuch.    Dur-  Here  she  soon  became  the  centre  of  a  set  of  intellectual 

ing  the   Norman  invasion  it  resisted  stubbornly,  men  led  bv  FOrstenbers.    This  circle  also  included  the 

Roger  I  eave  it  to  his  brother  Bohemund,  who  had  gymnasia!  teachers,  (wnom  she  incited  to  the  deeper 

been  made  Prince  of  Tarentum;  thenceforth  the  city  study  of  Plato),  O^erberg,  the  reformer  of  popular 

shared  the  lot  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  school  education,  Clemens  Aujnistus  von  Droste-Vis- 

Charles  of  Anjou  besieged  it  in  1284  and  destroyed  chering,  Count  Leopold  von  Stolberg,  the  profound 
it,  drivine  the  inhabitants  from  their  homes;  in  1327  philosopher  Hamann,  who  was  interred  in  her  garden. 
Robert  the  Good  gave  them  permission  to  return,  The  poet  Claudius  of  the  '' Wandsbecker  Bote"  was 
within  a  short  time  the  town  agam  became  prosperous,  also  a  familiar  visitor,  and  Goethe  numbered  the  hours 
In  1429,  the  Turks  disembarked  there,  in  1484,  the  passed  by  him  in  this  circle  among  his  most  pleasant 
Venetians,  in  order  to  force  King  Ferdinand  to  with-  recollections.  The  reading  of  Sacred  Scripture,  neee»- 
draw  his  troops  from  the  pontifical  states,  blockaded  sitated  by  the  religious  education  of  her  cnildren,  and 
the  port  with  a  fleet  of  60  vessels.  Despite  the  death  her  constant  intercourse  with  noble  Catholic  souls,  led 
of  their  leader,  Giacomo  Morello,  they  overcame  the  to  her  return  to  positive  religious  convictions.  On  28 
stubborn  resistance  of  the  citizens,  and  sacked  the  Aug.,  1786,  at  the  instance  of  Overberg,  she  ap- 
town  ruthlessly-  It  was  quickly  restored;  but  in  proached  the  tribimal  of  penance  for  the  first  time  m 
1496,  the  Venetians,  in  revenge  for  the  assistance  laven  many  years.  Soon  after  she  made  this  aealous  priest 
to  Ferdinand  II  by  the  town,  took  possession  of  Galli-  her  chaplain.  Under  his  influence,  she  imderwent  a 
poU:  even  the  French  blockade  in  1501  did  not  sue-  complete  change  which  affected  idl  her  surroundings, 
ceed  in  driving  them  out.  In  1509  Gallipoli  was  given  Her  religious  me  took  on  a  lar^r  srowth,  and  pro- 
back  to  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  at  that  time  under  duoed  the  most  admirable  frmt.  She  became  the 
Spanish  rule.  A  very  remarkable  feat  of  arms  oc-  centre  of  Catholic  activity  in  Mdnster.  In  those  revo- 
curred  in  1528  when  600  Gallipolitans  routed  an  army  lutionaiy  and  godless  times,  she  provided  for  the 
of  4000  French  infantry  and  300  cavalry.  The  last  spread  of  religious  writings,  proved  a  support  for  the 
blockade  occurred  in  1809  when  the  English  attacked  religious  faith  of  many  of  her  friends,  and  induced 
the  place  and  were  repulsed.  others,  among  them  Count  Stolberg,  to  make  their 

Among  its  famous  citizens  are:  the  painters  Gio-  pesce  with  the  Churoh.    Her  gentle  charity  assuaged 

vanni  Andrei  Coppola,  Giovanni  Domemca  Catalano,  the  distress  of  many,  and  she  readily  and  generously 

Giuseppe  Ribera  (Spagnuoletto);   the  sculptor  Ve&-  assistedpoorand  destitute  priests.  ForeztensivecircIeB 

pasiano    Genuino;     the    poets    Giovanni   Coppola,  hers  was  a  model  of  reli^ous  life,  and  her  social  aetiv- 

Bishop  of  Muro,  and  Onofno  Orlandini;  the  mnscon-  ity  was  for  many  a  providential  blessing.    Portions  of 

suits  Tommaso  Briganti  ([1762)  and  FiHppo  Briganti  her  oorreroondence  and  diaries  were  published  b^ 

(1804);  the  physician  and  naturalist  Giovanni  Presta  Scheuter  (Monster,  1874-76)  in  three  parts.    This 

(1797).    The  earliest  bishop  we  know  of  is  one  Bene-  admirable  lady  was  the  mother  of  the  well-known 

oict  who  lived  in  the  days  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great.  American  missionary  Prince  Demetrius  Gallitzin. 

The  Greek  Rite,  which  was  introduoed  probably  in  the  ,  ,KA'nfaAUpJ)mJlwQrdufkeUm  oMdem  LAen  dnr  FMA/iCM* 

fikntVt  Mnfiimr    romainArl  in  iiba  until  fhft  vAfu*  11)1^  "'^'*'^  (Manstor,  1828);  Qalland,  Dm  Fltnhin  A,  von  Ocmbm 

tentn  century,  remamea  m  use  untu  ine  year  iDid.  ^^^  ^^  Frmind»  (Cologne.  I88O). 
Among  other  bishops  are:    Melcmsedech,  present  Patbigius  Schlagbb. 

at  the  Second  Coimcu  of  Nicfisa  (787) ;  Alessio  Calce- 

donio  (1493),  one  of  Bessarion's  disciples;   Alfonso        Qallitiln,  Dbmbtrtos  AuansriNE.  prince,  priest, 

Herrera  (1576),  a  generous  and  charitable  man*  Vin-  and  missionary,  b.  at  The  Hague,  Holumd,  22  Deoem- 

censo  Capece  (1595),  a  man  of  remarkable  holiness:  bo*,  1770;  d.  at  Loretto,  Pennsylvania,  U.  S.  A.,  6 

Antonio  Peres  de  la  Lastra  (1679),  philosopher  ana  May,  1840.    He  was  a  scion  of  one  of  the  oldest, 

theologian;  Oronsio  Filomarmo  (1701),  a  renowned  wealthiest,  and  most  illustrious  families  of  Russia, 

theoloeian.    The  cathedral,  built  in  16^,  has  a  fa-  His  father,  Prince  Demetrius  Qallitzin  (d.  16  March, 

mous  ragade;  it  is  the  work  of  Francesco  Bischetini,  1803),  Russian  ambassador  to  Holland  at  the  time  of 

and  Scipione  Lachibui.    The  frescoes  of  tiie  cupola  his  son's  birth,  had  been  previously  for  fourteen  years 

(martyraom  of  St.  A^tha)  and  on  the  walls  are  the  Russian  ambassador  to  France,  and  was  an  intimate 

work  of  Carlo  Malinconico.    The  see  is  a  suffragan  of  acquaintance  of  Diderot,  Voltaire,  d'Alembert.  and 

Otranto;  it  has  3  parishes  and  20,100  souls,  a  convent  other  rationalists  of  the  day.    Though  nominally  an 

of  Carmelite  nuns,  and  a  foundline  hospital.  Orthodox  Russian,  he  accepted  and  openly  professed 

Cappbluwti.  U  eki»€dC Italia,  (1870).  XXl.  327-31 :  Rav-  the  principles  of  an  infidel  philosophy.    On  28  August, 

Sot  ii'a^^C^Sii^     )  "^  ^'^^i  ^®  married  in  Aachen  the  Countess  Amalie,  only 

XJ.  Benigni.  daughter  of  the  then  celebrated  Prussian  Field-Mar- 
shal von  Schmettau.    Her  mother.  Baroness  von 

Qallitiln  (or  Goltzik),  Adelb  Amalib,  princess;  Ruffert,  being  a  Catholic,  Amalie  was  baptized  in  the 

b.  at  Berlin.  28  Au^.,  1748;  d.  at  Angelmoade,  near  Oatholic  Church,  but  her  religious  education  was 

Manster,  Westphalia,  27  April,  1806.    She  was  the  n^ected,  and  it  was  not  imtQ  1786  that  she  became 

daughter  of  the  Prussian  General  Count  von  Schmet-  a  fervent  Catholic,  which  she  remained  until  her  death, 

tau,  and  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith,  though  she  27  April,  1806. 

soon  became  estranged  from  her  religion.  In  1768,  little  attention  was  paid  to  the  religious  education 
she  married  the  Russian  Prince  Dimitnr  Alexejewitsch  of  Demetrius,  who  was  bom  and  baptirod  in  the  Greek 
GalUtsin,  who  was  under  Catharine  li  ambassador  at  Orthodox  Chureh.  In  youth  his  most  constant  corn- 
Paris,  Turin  and  The  Hague.  In  each  of  these  capi-  panion  was  Frederick  William,  son  of  William  V,  then 
tals,  the  princess,  thanks  to  her  beauty  and  her  emi-  reding  Stadtholder  of  the  Netherlands.  This  friend- 
nent  quauties  of  mind  and  heart,  played  a  brilliant  ship  continued  even  after  Frederick  William  became 
r61e.  At  the  age  of  twenty-four  she  forsook  society  Kins  of  the  Netheriands  and  Duke  of  Luxembuz]^  ab 
suddenly  and  devoted  herself  to  the  education  of  her  Wiluiam  I.  Almost  from  his  infancy  the  younff  prmce 
children.  She  applied  herself  assiduously  to  the  study  was  subjected  to  rigid  discipline,  and  his  intellectual 
of  mathematics,  classical  philology,  and  philosophy  faculties,  trained  by  the  best  masters  of  the  age, 
under  the  nqted  philosopher  Franc  Hemsterhuis,  who  reached  their  fullest  development.  When  about 
kindled  her  enthusiasm  tor  Socratio-Platonic  idealism,  seventeen  he  became  a  sincere  Catholic,  and  to  please 
and  later  under  the  name  of  "Diokles"  dedicated  to  his  mother,  whose  birth  (1748),  marriage  (1768),  and 


OALUTZm  368  GALUTZIK 

First  Hdl^  Communion  (1786)  ocourred  on  28  August,  io^  oolong.  He  was  the  firet  to  be  buried  in  tike  por> 
tbe  feast  of  St.  Augustine,  assumed  at  confirmation  tion  of  thu  land  set  aside  for  a,  cemetery,  which  Father 
tiut  name,  and  thereafter  wrote  his  name  Demetrius  Brnaiua  consecrated  on  one  of  bis  earljr  visits  to  tbe 
Augustine.    After  fiiUBhiiia  bis  education  he  was  &p-    settlement. 

pointed  aide-de-camp  to  tne  Austrian  General  von        Father  Oallitzin  first  exercised  his  ministry  at  Bal- 

Lillien,  but  as  there  was  no  opportunity  for  him  to     timore  and  in  the   scattered   missions  of  southern 

continue  a  military  career  his  parents  resolved  that  he    Fenn^lvania  and  northern  Maryland  and  Virg^ia. 

should  spend  two  years  in  travelling  throu^  America,     In  1796,  while  stationed  at  Conewago,  Pennsylvania, 

hcTeceived  a,  sick-call  to  attend  s  Mrs.  John  BurgooD, 

a  I^testant,  who  lived  at  McGuire's  Settlement, 

about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  distant,  and  who 

ardently  desired  to  become  a  Catholic  before  her 

death.     Father  Gallitiin  immediately  started  on  the 

long  journey,  instructed  Mrs,  Burgoon,  and  received 

her  into  the  Church.     During  this  visit  to  the  Alle- 

t^enies  he  conceived  the  ides,  of  forming  there  a 

Catholic    settlement.     In    preparation   therefor,    he 

invested  his  means  (considerable  at  that  time)  in  the 

purchase  of  land  adjoining  the  four  hundred  acres 

donated  to  the  Church,  and  at  the  urgent  request  of 

the  litUe  mountain   colony  obtainea  from  Bishop 

Carroll  permission  to  fix  his  permanent  residence  there 

with  jurisdiction  extending  over  a  territory  with  a 

radius  of  over  one  hundredmiles.    In  the  summer  of 

1799  he  commenced  his  career  as  pioneer  priest  of  the 

Alleghenies.    His  first  care  was  to  erect  a  church  and 

house  of  loKs,  hewn  from  the  immense  pine  trees  of 

the  surrounding  forest.    In  a  letter  to  Bishop  Carroll, 

dated  9  February,   1800,  ho  writes;    "Our  church, 

which  was  only  begun  in  harvest,  got  finished  fit  for 

service  the  night  Mfore  Christmas.    It  is  about  44 

<L    Tir  -1  1  J-  J    It.      t      •      I     J        ij_   -J  J     feet  long  by  25^uilt  of  white  pine  logs  with  a  very  good 

the  West  IntLes,  and  other  foreim  laads.  ^Provided     ghinglo  root.     I  kept  service  in  it  at  Christmas  for  the 

with  letters  of  mtroduction  to  Bishop  ^rroll  of  Bait*-    ^t  time.    There  is  also  a  house  built  for  me,  16  feet 

more,  and  accompanied  by  his  tutor,  Father  Brosius,     j,,  u,  besides  a  little  kitchen  and  a  stable."     While 

afterwards  a  prominent  missionary   m  the   United     the  church  and  house  were  being  constructed,  he  said 

States,  be  embarked  at  Rotterdam,  Holland  18  Au-    Mass  for  the  few  Catholics  of  the  settlement  in  the  log- 

guat,  I792j  and  landed  m  Baltimore,  28  October.    To    house,  erected  two  yeors  previously  by  Luke  McGuire, 

avoid  the  inconvenience  and  expense  of  traveUmg  as  a     the  elder  son  of  the  captain.     That  house  is  still 

Russian  prince,  he  assumed  the  name  of  Schmet,  or    standing  (1909)  and  serves  as  a  residence  for  tha 

Smith,  and  for  many  years  was  known  m  the  United    descent&nts,  in  direct  male  Une,  of  the  founder  of 

States  as  Aogustme  Smith.    Soon  after  amving  at    McGuire's    Settlement.     To    accommodate  the  in- 

Baltimore,  he  was  deeply  impressed  with  tlw  needs  of     creasing  influx  of  Catholic  colonists,  Father  GalUtsin 

the  Church  m  America.    Ke  revived  to  devote  his    jn  igog  enlarged  the  log  church  to  almost  double  its 

fortune  and  life  to  Uie  salvation  of  souls  m  t^  country    former  capacity,  and  as  the  population  continued  to 

of  his  adoption.    Despite  the  objections  of  his  rela-    increase.hetookdown  the  log  building  in  1817,  and  on 

tives  Mid  friends  m  Europe,  he,  with  the  approval    the  same  site  erected  a  frame  church,  forty  by  thir^ 

of  Bishop   CarroU.   entered   St.   Mary's  Semmary,    feet,  which  served  as  the  pariah  church  vmUl  18«f. 

Baltimore,   as  one  of   its  first   students,    it   having 

been  founded  the  previous  year  (1791)  by  Sulpician 

priests,  refugees  from  France.  On  18  March,  1795,  he 

was  oidaint^  priest,  being  the  first  to  receive  in  the 

limits  of  the  original  thirteen  of  the  United  States  all 

the  orders  from  tonsure  to  priesthood. 

In  1788  Captain  Michael  McGuire,  an  officer  in  the 
Revolutionary  army,  purchased  about  1200  aciee  of 
land  near  the  summit  of  the  Alleghenies,  in  what  is 
DOW  Csjnbria  County.  Pennsylvania,  and  was  tbe  first 
white  man  to  establish  a  residence  within  the  limits  of 
tiiat  county.  He  brou^t  his  family  from  Maryland 
and  built  his  log-cabin  m  the  valley  below  the  site  of 
tbe  present  town  of  loretto,  in  the  midst  of  a  dense 
forest  which  covered  all  that  portion  of  the  State.  His 
nearest  neighbouis  were  fully  twenty  miles  distant. 
Soon  relatives  and  friends  followed  from  Maryland.  CHii>xL 

established  themselves  in  the  vicinity,  and  formed  tWirw-  * 

what  came  to  be  known  far  and  wide  as  McGuire's 
Settlement,  later  called  Georfield,  the  lands  lying  Father  Heyden,  one  of  Father  Gallitsin's  biogm- 
on  the  headwaters  of  Clearfield  Creek.  Some  years  phers,  writes  (1869):  "What  now  constitutes  the  oio- 
after  his  arrival  Father  Gallitzin  named  it  Loretto,  ceses  of  Pittsburg,  Erie,  and  a  large  port  of  the  Harris- 
after  the  city  of  Loreto  in  Italy;  but  it  was  not  imtil  buig  new  epiacopal  see,  was  then  the  missionary  field 
1816  that  he  laid  out  the  town  and  caused  the  plan  of  of  a  single  priest.  Rev.  Prince  Gallitzin.  If  we  except 
Iota  to  be  recorded  in  the  county  arehives.  Captain  tbe  station  at  Youngstown,  Westmoreland  County, 
McGuire  died  in  1793,  bequeathmg  to  Bishop  Carroll  where  the  Rev.  Mr,  Browers  had  settled  a  few  years 
four  hundred  acres  of  his  land  in  trust  for  the  benefit  before,  there  was  not,  from  Conewago  in  Adams 
of  the  resident  clergy  who,  he  hoped,  would  be  ap-  County  to  Lake  Erie — from  the  Susquehanna  to  the 
pointed  to  provide  for  the  spiritual  wants  of  bis  grow-    Potomac— a  solitary  priest,  church,  or  religious  estab- 


r  Father  Qilutiih 


Kshment  of  any  kind,  whea  he  opened  bis  miaaionary  nia,  by  a  certAin  minister  wbo  went  out  of  his  way  to 

career.    From  tbis  statement  we  majr  conceive  some  attack  what  be  called  "popeiy".    Repelling  thia  at- 

idea  of  tbe  incredible  privations  and  toils  which  be  had  tack,  Father  Gatlitzin  fiist  published  his  "Defense  of 

to  encounter  in  visitioK  the  various  widely  remote  Catholic  Principles",  which  ran  through  several  edi- 

points  where  some  few  Catholics  happened  to  reside."  tions  and  was  the  means  of  many  conversions.     Thia 

As  early  as  1800,  and  frequently  thereafter,  he  wrote  was  fallowed  by  "A  Letter  on  tne  Holy  Scriptures" 

to  Bishop  Carroll,  begging  that  one  or  more  priests  be  and  "An  Appeal  to  the  Protestant  Public", 
sent  to  ,3bu«  bis  burdens.    And  so  for  more  than        For  twenty  years  Father  Gallitzin  bad  laboured 

twenty  veare  he  was  obliged  to  perform,  unassisted,  a  alone  in  a  vast  mission  whose  Catholic  population  waa 

work  which  would  have  proved  onerous  for  seveial.  constantly  increasing;   in  1834,  when  r'ather  Lemke 

He  was  not  only  the  good  shepherd  of  his  multi-  was  sent  to  his  assistance  and  was  assigned  the  north- 
plying  Sock;  he  was  a&)  in  a  particular  nmnnpr  em  part  of  Cambria  County  as  bis  sphere  of  action,  the 
their  worldly  benefactor.  FoUowmg  out  his  idea  of  parish  of  Loretto  was  restricted  within  comparatively 
establishing  a  Catholic  oolony  at  the  place  which  be  narrow  limits.  In  the  meantime  Father  Gallitiin'a 
named  Loretto.  and  wbicb  ne  made  the  cradle  of  reputation  for  sanctity,  the  fame  of  his  talents,  and 
Catholicity  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  he,  by  means  of  the  account  of 
remittances  from  Germany  and  loans  contracted  on  his  labours  had 
the  strength  of  bis  expectations,  purehased  large  por-,  spread  far  and 
tionsof  land  adjoining  the  settlement,  which  he  sold  in  tnde;  and  it  was 
small  trects  to  the  incoming  colonists  at  a  very  low  his  deep  humility 
rat«  and  on  easy  terms.  For  much  of  this  land  he  was  as  well  as  his  love 
never  repaid.  Moreover,  he  built,  at  hta  own  ex-  forhisconununity 
pense,  saw-mills,  grist-mills,  and  tanneries,  and  estab-  that  prevented  his 
fished  other  mdustries  for  the  material  benefit  of  his  advancement  to 
flock.  In  accomplishing  all  this  he  necessarily  bur-  the  honours  of  the 
dened  himself  with  a  heavy  personal  debt;  not  im-  Church.  He  ac- 
prudently,  however,  for  he  had  received  solemn  asaur-  ceptcd  the  office  of 
ances  that  he  would  obtain  a  portion  of  his  father's  Vicai-General  for 
large  estate,  as  well  as  his  share  of  his  mother's  be-  Western  Pennsyl- 
quest-  The  Russian  Government,  nevertheless,  disin-  vania,  conferred 
herited  him  for  becoming  a  Catholic  and  a  priest,  and  on  bim  by  Bishop 
the  German  prince  who  had  married  his  sister  squan~  Conwell  of  Phila- 
dered  both  his  and  her  inheritance.  In  these  cireum-  delphia,  in  1827, 
stances,  he  was  compelled,  in  1827,  to  appeal  to  the  because  he  felt 
charitable  public;  the  appeal  was  endorsed  by  Charles  that  in  that  office 
Carroll  of  Carrollton,  who  beaded  the  list  with  a  sub-  he  could  promote 
Bcription  of  one  hundred  dollars;  on  the  list  stands  the  the  interests  of  the 

name  of  Cardinal  Cappellari,  afterwards  Pope  Gregory  Chureh;    but   he      Mokumsmt  o^  FiTnaa  OiLLiinH 

XVI,  who  subscribed  two  hundred  dollars.    Yet  ft  strongly    resisted  Lo"tto,  rennayivanui 

was  not  until  near  the  close  of  bis  life  that  the  burden  the  proposals  to  nominate  him  for  the  position  of  first 

of  debt  was  finally  lift«d.     During  the  forty-one  yeara  Bishop  of  Cincinnati  and  first  Bishop  or  Detroit.   For 

of  his  pastorate  in  the  All^ieniee,  he  never  received  a  many  years  before  his  death  he  lived  in  the  hope  of 

cent  of  salary ;  he  maintained  bimaelf,  his  household,  seeii^  Loretto  made  an  episcopal  see,  for  Loretto  was 

and  the  many  orphans  whom  he  sheltered,  and  abun-  then  a  flourishing  mission  and  the  centre  of  a  con- 

dantlysupphed  the  wants  of  the  needy  amonjg  his  flock  stantly  increasing  Catholic  population,  while  Pittsburg 

out  ol  the  produce  of  his  farm,  wbicb  by  bis  intelligent  was  a  small  town  containing  but  few  Catholics.   After 

method  of  cultivation  became  very  productive.    It  is  forty-one  years  spent  on  the  rugged  heights  of  the 

estimated  that  he  expended  $150,000  of  his  inherit-  Alleghenies. hediedashehadlived^poor.     Oncoming 

ance,  a  small   portion  of  the  amount  that  should  to  MoGuires  Settlement  he  found  a  dense  wilderness; 

rightly  have  come  to  him,  but  an  immense  sum  for  the  he  left  it  dotted  with  fertile  farms.    As  an  evidence  of 

times  in  which  he  lived,  in  the  establishment  of  his  his  reli^ous  laboure  in  Pennsylvania,  it  may  be  stated 

Catholic  colony  on  the  Alleghenies.     For  some  years  that  within  a  radius  of  fifteen  miles  from  the  spot  on 

(1801-1807)  he  was  rewarded  with  iiwatitude.     His  which  in  1799  he  built  his  log  church  there  are  now  no 

actions  were  misconstrued,  his  words  and  writings  less  than  twenty-one  flourishing  parishes,  thirty-thrett 

misinterpreted,  his  character  vilified,  bis  honour  at-  priests,  and  four  religious  and  educational  institutions. 

tacked,  and  even  violent  hands  were  laid  on  his  per-  He  was  buried,  according  to  his  desire,  midway  be- 

son,  and  all  this  by  members  of  his  own  flock.     But,  tween  his  residence  and  the  chureh  (they  were  about 

with  the  encouragement  of  his  bishop  and  the  aid  of  thirty  feet  apart};   in  1S47  bis  remains  were  trans- 

the  civil  courts,  he  brought  his  defamere  to  acknowl-  ferred  to  a  vault  in  a  field  nearer  the  town,  over  wbicb 

edge  their  guilt,  for.  which  they  voluntarily  and  pub-  a  bumble  monument  was  erected  out  of  squared 

liciy  made  full  reparation  before  their  fellow  Catholics  blocks  of  rough  mountain  stone.     In  1391  bis  remains 

in  the  Loretto  church.  were  taken  from  the  decayed  coffin  of  cherry  wood  and 

For  fourteen  yeare  after  bis  ordination  Father  Gal-  placed  in  a  metallic  casket ;  in  1899,  on  the  occasion  of 

litsin  was  known  to  the  general  public  as  Augustine  the  centenary  celebration  of  the  foundation  of  the 

Smith.     This  was  the  name  which  be  subscribe  to  all  Loretto  Mission,  the  rude  monument  was  capped  by  a 

his  legal  papers  and  to  his  entries  in  the  parish  register  pedestal  of  granite,  and  this  in  turn  by  a  bronze  statue 

of  baptisms  and  marriages.    But,  fearing  serious  diffi-  of  the  prince-priest,  donated  by  Charles  M.  Schwab, 

oulties  in  the  future,  at  his  request,  on  16  Dec.,  1809,  who  also  built  the  large  stone  chureh,  which  was  sol- 

the  Pennsylvania  legislature  validated  the  acts  and  emnly  consecrated,  2  Oct.,  1901. 
purehasee  made  under  that  assumed  name,  and  legal-        Leukk  LAm  \md  Wirkm  lUanstir,' isei);  HcmEH.  IWf* 

nod  the  resumption  of  his  real  name.      Notwithstand-  and  Chararirr  of  »™.  Pnnce  Drmitnut  A.  de  GaUiHin  (Balti- 

ing  his  varied  labours.  Father  Gallitsin  found  time  to  S^  ?«5t''v.HE°7i?m"-.f±,'7,  "it^'^Uf'Pj^^'i^:^ 

•^  ,.,  ,       1,1.       A.    ■     e  **i.^.i_  rnatt  (n«w  York.  1872);   Kittell,  sotivenrr  of  Loretto  Ltnun- 

publish  several  valuable  tracts  m  favour  of  the  Catho-  ary  (Cmwin   P&    iseei:  Htar  in  CaAnlic  World  (Naw  York, 

fie  cause.     He  was  the  firet  in  the  United  States  to  iSBs),  LXi^biDpL™™  .oAin.  Caih.  iiiu.  Maa.  (^iiadeiphiB. 

Antfli-  thB  liatji  nf  «in*mvRnra  in  Hnfnniv  nf  tliB  miiir<.Vi  •  1893).  IV:  Pisa  la  V.  8.  Cath.  HtH.  Uag.  (New  Ycwk,  1890), 

enter  tne  lists  oi  controvert  in  aeience  or  tne  unuran,  „,  g^nsBa  in  Anwruon  CoIAoIk  HUimal  Mavaint  (Plila- 

he  was  provoked  thereto  by  a  sermon  delivered  on  delphia,  180E),  VI. 

Thanksgiving  Day,  1814,  in  Huntingdon,  Pennsylva-  pBRniNAND  Khteix. 

VI.— 24 


GALLOWAY  370  OALLWIY 


the  ^  ^_^ ,^^ ^ ^_  ^^ ^ 

of  Dumfries,  Kirkcudbright,  and  Wiigtown,  with  about  1824);  Walcott,  AnHerU CAunA^/^eoaaruTcEdiuaburgfa,  IHlXT; 

four-fifths  of  the  County  of  Ayr,  thus  embracing  a  gp'"- i:#*?  ^<»''5S^.(?<^J*»^^^^7>JrM^^"'^/^'^: 

territory  of  3347  Bquare"^^^  and  a  general  popula-  ^S^Sk^i^^^lS}^ 

tion  of  373,670,  of  which  Catholics  form  only  a  small  SeoOmd  for  1878  and  1908;  Th»  CaOolie  Chureh  of  ScoOand, 

fraction.    From  an  historical  point  ot  view,  a  singular  Siatistia  (Ohugpw,  1878). 

interest  attaches  to  this  diocese  since  it  is  certainly  the  William  Itibneb. 

moat  ancient  eccleaia^cal  foundation  in  Scotland,  its        ogUuppl,  Pasqualb,  phflosopher,  b.  at  Tropea,  in 

founderand  first  budiop,  St.  Nmian,  bemg  "the  first  CalabriaT  2  April,  1770    d.  at  SaplM,  13  Dec.!l846, 

authentic  personals  that  meete  us  in  th«  succession  of  ^^ere  frl>m  ifel  iie  wai  a  professor  in  the  uniwnrity. 

Scottish  nussionanes"  (BeUesheim).    This  illustoouB  His  principal  works  are  "^o  filosofico  sulla  critiw 

»mt,  a  Bnton,  born  on  the  Solway  shore,  educated  at  deUa  oonSecenaa  umana"?*  vols;    "Letteie  sulk 

Rome  and  consecrate!  bishop  by  St.  8mcius.fo^^^  vicende  della  filosofia  da  Cartesio  k  Kant";   "Ele- 

hisepisc^opalsM  at  irfeaA»r«  and  dedicated  his  cathe-  mentidiFiloeofia";  "LesionidiLogicaeMetifisica"; 

dml  to  St.  Martm  of  Tours,  m  397;  and,  having  evan-  upaoBoBi^  deUa  volont4";    "Coniideiasioni  filoso- 

gehsed  the  cpimtry  as  far  norOi  as  the  Grampian  ^^^  ^^,  jdealismo  tiasoen^ntale".    Of  his  "Stoiia 

mountains,  died  about  432     The  dates  here  pven  .j^u^  Filisofia"  he  completed  only  the  first  volume, 

are  on  the  authority  of  the  majority  of  Scottish  ^^  ohflosophy  is  a  miiture  of  awent  to  and  dissent 
writers. 


style  unusual  amon^  the  Britons".    At  what  precise  t-ined  t&  objective  lealitv  of  ourknowledee  which 

date  the  territorial  title  of '« Galloway  "  came  into  we  ^e  based  on  the  testimony  of  consciousness,  iaiting  us 

IS  not  amte  clear.    It  is  obviouriy  improbable  that  the  ^^^  „„,.  ^^  ^f  ^^  j^^^^  experience,  but  al^  of 

area  of  the  diooMe  wm  at  all  defined  m  St.  Nmian  s  ^^e  external  (»uses  to  which  it  iidue.    This  theory 

time,  but  from  the  etehth  till  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  ^3^  ^j^^^  ^^  jj^^  ^^^  GaUuppi  agreed  with  hii 

century  it  was  hmiteJto  the  district  of  Galloways  i.  e.,  ^^at  space  and  tinle  are  a  priori  fcrnS  in  the  mind, 

^e  two  Counti^  of  Kirkcudbright  and  Wigtown,  j^^^  ^^  sensists,  he  demed  that  the  mind  was 

The  succ^on  of  bishops  m  this  see  was  three  times  ^|^j    ^^  „,  inceptive,  and  held  that  like  a 

mterrupted  m  the  couise  of  its  history,  f  or  penods  ^uild/r  ft  arranged  and  order^the  materials  supplied 

averaging  three  hundred  years'  duration  each.    The  ^   deducing  tSrefrom  new  truths  which  sensation 

l?**-^*^fJ*?  ^'i«P  "j'S'u '"'^''*'"*°*f7i:^?^''  alone  could  never  reach.    He  threw  no  light,  however, 

Durie,  died  m  1658,  and  the  see  was  vacant  three  hun-  j,^  ^^  difference  between  sensory  anT inteUectual 

dred  and  twOTty  yews.         ......       .     ,_  yttt  knowledge.    This  was  the  great  weakness  of  hb  argu- 

•  \'!?S^  '^^A-^l'*  *^*  *^  *M®V  K}^i^  ment  a^inst  the  Scottishlchool,  that  the  soul  per- 

in  1878,  and  the  lM>t  Rev.  John  McLachlan,  D.D.,  oeives  not  only  its  own  affectioM  or  the  qualities  of 

Vicar-Geneial  of  the  Western  Vicanate  of  Scotland  y^^,^^  ^ut  ali)  its  own  substance  and  that  of  things 

Tras  appointed  the  first  bishop.    From  the  extent  outside  itself.    It  was  also  natural  that  Galluppi 

of  temtoiy  it  would  be  perhaM  more  accurately  ^^^^  ^e  foremost  in  attacking  the  theories  of  Ros- 

descnbed  as   a   new   diocese,   for   it  was  formed  ^^  oonceming  the  idea  of  G<3  as  the  first  object  of 

out  of  two  outlying  portioM  of  the  former-  east-  our  knowledge:  and  it  was  this  polemic  (quiet  enough 

«n  and  western  vicamtes  and  has  more  than  double  ^  jt^y^  ^^  ^^^      blic  attStion  to  the  Rovere- 

the  area  it  had  at  either  previous  restoration.    The  ^^  nhilosoDher 

Catholic  population,  small  in  numlter  M>d  thinly  dis-  r^f  ^orility  of  our  actions,  according  to  Galluppi, 

persed  over  the  whole  temtory,  beloMed  chiefly  to  depends  on  the  notion  of  duty  which  ^nngs  from  &e 

ttie  poorer  kbouring  class  and,  excepting  the  larger  *^  ^^^^^  ^f  man.   He  never  made  u^  of  the  phrase 

bur^,  such  as  Ayr,  Dumfries,  and  Kilmarao^,  was  «  J^^^ji^  imperative '  \  but  everything  goes  to  show 

very. madequately providedfor m re^t of ordii»ry  ^^^^ ^ ^^ ^^ j,^ jj j ^^t completeF^pe Kant's 

rehgvous  and  educational  needs.    But  the  new  bishop  influence:  aiS^  although  he  asserted  as  the  two  great 

was  a  man  of  great  energy  and  seal,  with  a  wide  mis-  ^^^ral  commandmenta  "Be  just"  and  "Be  benefi- 

sionwy  and  adnmustmtive  experience.  Mid  m  a  com-  ^^^„  ^^  ^^ne  the  less  approved  of  Kant's  moral 

Mratiyely  short  tune  he  not  only  thoroughly  oTgpmi»i  principle.    Hence  we  do  not  find  in  him  any  hint  as  to 

the  diocese  but  also  furnished  it  abundantly  with  &,o  connexion  between  the  moral  law  and  God,  beyond 

churches,  schools,  presbyteries,  and  an  efficient  clergy.  ^  statement  that  God  must  reward  virtue  and  punish 

While  engaged  m  t]us  great  work  he  received  generous  ^^     Against  the  Scottish  school,  on  the  other  hand, 

encouragement  wid  support;  from  many  of  the  wealth-  ,j^  jg^jgl  ^^^  morality  depends  on  the  feelinw.    His 

wr  members  of  his  flock,  e.  g.  Jhe  thml  Maraueas  of  theodicy  is  well  within  thiiimits  of  that  oTXeibnis, 

Bute;  Rev.  Su' David  Oswald  Hunter-Blair,  BMonet;  j  therefore  admits  not  only  the  possibiUty  of  revelsr 

Captain  R.  D.  Barre  Cumnghame,  and  others.  Bishop  tfon,  but  also  the  divinity  o^  Chrkianity.    The  care 

feSti^f«i;if  ^  ^'f;  tSf  ;^l*?^:!^.^^  andclesmess  of  his  style  made  his  works  ye^_popu. 


mocesajstausuM  tor  itKiB  snow  a  t,ainouc  population  thought,  and  Scholasticism  regained  its  hold  among 
of  17,625  souls,  21  misaons  41  churches  or  chapeb  CathBli<4,  GaUuppi's  philosophy  quickly  lost  grounZ 
3q_pnests  m  active  work,  28  elementary  schools,  10    xxe  always  keot  aloof  from  loolitical  auestions:  and 


30  pnests  m  active  work,  28  elementory  schools,  10    g    ^      •    kept  aloof  from  political  questions: 
religious  comniumties  ^U  smce  1878),  and  vanous    y^  ^orki  were  planned  and  TOtten  in\is  own  home, 
educatioMl  and  charitable  mstitutions.  .  The  diocjMB         y^  the  noiie  and  bustle  of  a  large  and  happy 
was  a  suffragan  of  York  (England)  previous  to  1472;    f^mjiy 

from  that  date  until  1492  it  was  subject  to  St.  Aii-       wbiotb.  Kmt  in  IMwn,  I88O  (Naples  1897). 
drews;  and  from  then  until  the  extmction  of  the  U.  Bbnigmi. 

ancient  hierarohy  it  was  transferred  to  Glaa^w.    It 
'  now  a  si^ragan  of  the  new  Arohbishopno  of  St. 
idrews  and  Edinburgh. 


Oallwey,  Pbtes;  b.  at  Killamey^  13  Nov.,  1820; 
I.  in  London,  23  Sept.,  1906;  one  of  the  best-known 


GALTKLU  371  GALTAHI 

London  prieata  in  his  time.      He  was  educated  at  ia  1805  spiritual  referee  at  GUniburg,  but  owing  to 

Stonyhunit,  joined  the  Society  of  Jeaua  at  Hodder,  political  changes  he  loet  his  position  here,  and  ten 

7  Sept.,  1836,  waa  ordained  priest  in  1852,  and  pro-  vears  later  was  assigned  to  the  same  duty  at  luw- 

fessed  of  four  vowa  in  1854.     As  prefect  of  studJM  at  bruck.     In  1810  he  become  Vicar-General  of  Vorarl- 

Stonyhuret,   1855-57,  he  made  important  improve-  berg.     On   30   Januai^y,    1820,   he   was   conaecrated 

ments  in  the  methods  of  study.     In  1857  he  was  sent  auxiliary  bishop  of  Bnxen,  and  nine  years  later  took 

to  the  Jesuit  churdi  in  London,  where— except  for  an  formal  poHsesaioQ  of  the  clmir  of  St.  Cassian  as  Bishop 

interval  ot  ei^t  years  during  which  be  held  the  pro-  of  Brixea. 

vincialate  and  otner  offices — he  spent  the  remainder        Like  his  distinguished  predecessors,  Galura  directed 

of  his  Ufe.     He  was  a  man  of  deep  spirituality,  much  all  his  efforts  towards  safeguarding  the  unity  of  the 

venerated  as  a  preacher,  spiritual  director,  and  giver  Faith  in  his  diocese.    By  the  estaolishment  of  mis- 

of  retreats;  he  was  also  noted  for  his  love  of  the  poor  sions  and  educational  institutions  and  by  the  intro- 

and  his  earnest  advocacy  of  almsdeeds.    So  great  were  duction  of  religious  orders,  especially  the  Jesuits  (who 

his  energy  and  enterprise  that  he  set  his  stamp  on  all  had  been  bamsbed  from   there)  and  the  Sisters  of 

he  undertook.     Several  London  convents  and  Catho-  Hercy  (in  1838),  he  succeeded  in  restoring  mueh  of 

lie  institutions  owe  largely  to  bis  seal  and  encourace-  what  the  secular  power  had  destroyed  during  the 

ment  both  their  first  foundation  and  their  successTul  adnunistration  of  his  predecessor.     He  was  highly 

subsequent    development.     His    writinra    comprise  respected  by  the  oivil  authorities,  and  his  deeply  re- 

among  others:   "Salvage  from  the  Wreck",  sermons  lieioua  spirit,  his  charity  towards  the  poor,  and  his 

S reached  at  the  funerals  of  some  notable  Catholics  administiative  abilities  have  made    him  an  oma- 

1890);  "Watcbes  of  the  Passion"  (3  vols.,  1894),  a  ment  to  his  church  and  country.     Besides  numerous 

Knee  of  meditations  on  the  Fasaion,  embodying  the  ascetical.    homiletical,   and    catechetical    works,    be 

Bubstauee  of  his  retreats;  anumberof  sermons,  tracts,  wrote  also:     (1)    "Christkatholiache    Religion"    (5 

and  other  small  publications,  mostly  of  a  topical  kind,  vols.,  Augsburg,  1796-1800);  (2)   "Neue  Theologie 

No  life  of  Father  0»llw«y  hM  »  fw  beOQ  written,  eioept  «  des     Christenthums "    (AueBbura,     18CMJ-1805)  :      (3) 

•Ushi  .k-teh  by  PKCT  F.T«,»^  (Lond™.  mul  "Lehrbuch  derChristlicWi>ohrieaogenheifYAu^ 

HTSKET   t.   SMITH.  |j„j^    ig4ij 
_,.,„__             r.                            /f  Him^a.  /tvmencl.  {2nd  ed.),irr,  922; THimntDSBB.  Ltbm 

GUtMO-lraorO,    DiOCEBD     or     (GaUTELUNENBIS-  wi^  Wirkm  4m  Famb.  Oalura  {Inubruck.  IBM);    PauiaB, 

NoRSN8is),intheprovinceofSas8ari  (Sardinia),  on  a  LUtraiunt.  (18101,1,118-32. 

hill  of  the  same  name,  auffragan  ot  Cadiari.     In  the  Josbph  Scbboeder. 

nei^bourhood  there  are  quarries  of  reJ  jasper.    The        OUtmU,  Lnioi.  physiciaa,  fa.  at  Bol(«na.  Italy,  9 

ancient   ca^edralwntains   some    good    paintrngs  September.  1737;  i  there,  4  December,  im     Utob 

Nuoro,  the  Nora  of  the  a^cienta,  ui  a  sub^refectiire  of  his  original  intention  to  study  theolc«y  and  to  enter  a 

the  aame  province,  and  stands  about  2000  feet  above  monasUcorder 

sea-level.     Near  it  are  seen  lai^  quarries  of  granite  His   family,   how- 

and  argentiferous  le^,  and  a  punous  irregular  ruin,  ^ver,       p^^uaded 

apparenUy  of  early  Roman  onRin     In  the  vicimty  him    to^andon 

are  twenty-four  of  the  so-called  Nuraghx  (known  lo-  thatidea    Hetook 

<»Uyaa  the  Giants' Tombs),  huge  stone  buildinra  in  the  up  the  study  of  the 

diape  of  truncated  conea.    Thew  belong  to  the  neo-  natural      wiences 

hthic  age,  ^d  were  a  <»««»  of  wonder  even  to  the  f„„,  the  point  of 

ancients.     Here  also  are  the  Yxrjihenea  or  Domos  de  yip„  ^f  (j,e  anato- 

'"^'  *.  "ITT  "'  i?te'™F"q,'«;;cating  rooms  exca-  ^^i  ^^d  physiol- 

vated  out  of  the  granite  rock.  Galtelli  was  an  episcopal  ™rigt   AttCT  main 

^inll38,  when  Innocent  II  made  it  a  suffragan  of  ^^niig  hia  thesis 

f^io?   ■;■  ^^  r'^il^  to  the  Holy  See.  „„  the  nature  and 

Inl495,  It  was  Buppresaed  by  Alexander  VI,  and  Its  fonnation   of   the 

territory  united  to  Caglian.    In  1787,  at  the  rajuest  bones  he  was  an- 

o(  King  Victor  Emmanuel  III,  it  waa  re-established,  pointed     publio 

but  the  bishop  continued  to  live  at  Nuoro.     Amone  l2i>ti,nn.     oi     tdo 

ita  bishops  of  note  waa  Fra  Amolfode  Bissalia  (136^  Un"^rsitv    <rf 

renowned  for  his  learning  and  eloquence.    Inthedio-  Boloena    and    at 

cese  are  25  parishes,  56,300  Catholics^  1  Franciscan  ^^^^  ™  ^f  twenty- 

monaatery,  2  nunneriea,  1  boya'  boarding-school,  and  gve  Uught  anatomy 

litmorit  lapra  I'aniica  caUidraU  di  GaUtOi  (Guliui    JS73)'  COUCheur.      In   1790,   alter    thirty    years    of    wedded 

II*»nK,Sio™i«cLdrfloAmJ«imo(1841),m.325-2T.8S-88.   '  life,   he   lost   his  wife   Lucia,   the  daughter  of    Dr. 

U.  Bbnioni.  Galeaiii,  one  of  his  teachere.    He  kept  his  chair  at 

the  university  until  20  April,  1798,  when  he  resigned 

Cnlnrs,  Bernhard,  Pnnce-Biahop  of  Brixen;   b.  because  he  would  not  take  the  civil  oath  demand^  by 

21    August,    1764,    at    Herboliheim,    Breisgau;     d.  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  it  being  contrary  to  his  polit- 

17  May,_  185S.     After  he  had  completed  his  classical  ical  and  religioua  convictions.     As  a  result  he  bad  to 

studies  in  hia^  native  town  he  entered  the  convent  of  take  ref  uee  with  his  brother  Giacomo  and  broke  down 

the  Friare  Minor  at  Altbreisach    but  because  of  ite  completely    through    poverty    and    diacouragement. 

suppression  by  Emperor  Joseph  II,  his  stay  here  was  Soon  after  this  hia  friends  obtained  his  exemption  from 

of  short  duration.     In  1783  he  entered  the  seminary  the  oath  and  his  appointment,  on  account  of  his  scien- 

of  Freibuqj  where,  after  a  briUiant  couree  in  the  eccle-  tific  fame,  as  professor  emeritus.     He  died  before  the 

aiastical  sciences,  he  was  honoured  with  the  doctorate  decree  went  into  effect. 

of  theology.     He  was  ordained  priest  in  1788  in  tbe         Galvani'a  work  in  comparative  anatomy  and  physi- 

eeminary  of  Vienna  whither  he  had  gone  to  follow  a  oloey  includes  a  study  of  the  kidneys  of  birds  and  of 

course  of  practical  theology-  _  In  the  aame  year  he  re-  their  sense  of  hearing.     He  ia  famous  more  especially 

turned  to  the  seminary  of  Freiburg,  and  after  acting  aa  on  account  of  his  experiments  eoncieming  "the  elec- 

prefect  of  studies  for  two  yeare  he  took  up  parochial  trical  forces  in  muscular  movements"    leading  up  to 

work,  first  at  Altobemdorf  and  later  in  the  cathedral  his  theory  of  animal  electricity.     This  began  with  tbe 

of  Freiburg.    Recognizing  in  him  a  man  of  learning  accidental  observation,  in  1780,  of  the  twitehina  of  the 

and  sound  judgment.  Emperor  FranciB  appointed  him  le^  of  a  dissected  frog  when  the  bared  cnu^  nerve 


five  taught  anatomy  at  the  Institute  of  Sciences. 


GALVESTON 


372 


GALVESTON 


was  touched  with  the  steel  scalpel,  while  sparks  were 
passing  from  an  electric  machine  nearbv.  He  worked 
diligently  alon^  these  hnes,  but  waited  for  eleven  years 
before  he  published  the  results  and  his  ineenious  and 
simple  theory.  This  theory*  of  a  nervous  electric  fluid, 
secreted  by  the  brain,  conducted  by  the  nerves,  ana 
stored  in  the  muscles,  has  been  abandoned  by  scien- 
tists on  account  of  later  discoveries,  but  Galvani  was 
led  to  it  in  a  very  logical  manner  and  defended  it  by« 
clever  experiments,  which  soon  bore  fruit.  Thus  he 
discovered  that  when  nerve  and  muscle  touch  two  dis- 
similar metals  in  contact  with  each  other,  a  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscle  takes  place;  this  led  ultimatehr  to 
his  discussions  with  Volta  and  to  the  discovery  of  the 
Voltaic  pile.  The  name  Galvanism  is  given  to  the 
manifestations  of  current  electricity. 

Galvani  was  by  nature  courageous  and  reHjgious.  It 
is  reported  by  Alibert  that  he  never  ended  his  lessons 
**  without  exhorting  his  hearers  and  leading  them  back 
to  the  idea  of  that  eternal  Providence,  which  develops, 
conserves,  and  circulates  life  amon^  so  many  divers 
beings".  His  works  (Opere  di  Lmgi  Galvani)  were 
collected  and  published  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
the  Institute  of  Bologna  (1841-42).  The  following 
are  some  of  the  titles,  with  the  original  dates  of  pubh- 
cation  in  the  ''Antichi  Commentari"  of  the  Bologna 
Institute:  "Thesis:  De  Ossibus"  (1762);  "De  Renibus 
atque  Ureteribus  Volatilium"  (1767);  "De  VolatiUum 
Aure"  (1768-70);  "De  Viribus  Electricitatis  in  motu 
musculari  commentarius"  (1791),  reprinted  at  Mo- 
dena,  1792,  with  a  note  and  dissertation  by  Gio.  Al- 
dini ;  translated  by  Mayer  into  German  (Prague,  1793), 
and  again  published  as  a  volume  of  Ostwald's  "  IGas- 
siker"  (Leipzig,  1894);  "Dell'  uso  e  deir  attivitH  deU' 
arco  conduttore  nelle  contrazioni  de'  muscoli"  (1794); 
"Memorie  sulla  elettricit^  animale"  (1797). 

Popular  Science  MonOUy,  July,  1892;  Walsh  in  Catholic 
World  (June.  1904);  Aubbrt,  Eloaea  Hiatoriquea  (Paria,  1806); 
Vbntubou,  Elogio  (Bologna,  1802). 

William  Fox. 


Galveston,  Diocese  of  (Galvestoniensis). — It 
was  established  in  1847  and  comprises  that  part  of  the 
State  of  Texas,  U.  S.  A.,  between  the  Sabine  River  on 
the  east,  the  Colorado  River  on  the  west,  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  on  the  south,  and  the  northern  line  of  the 
counties  of  Lampasas,  Coryell,  McLennan,  Limestone. 
Freestone,  Anderson,  Cherokee,  Nacogdoches,  ana 
Shelly  on  the  north,  an  area  of  43,000  square  miles. 
French  Recollects  with  La  Salle  attempted  in  1685  to 
found  the  first  missions  among  the  Indians  in  Texas, 
and  they  were  followed  b^  Spanish  Franciscans  from 
Mexico  sent  in  1689  to  build  a  barrier  to  French  occu- 
pation. These  efforts  met  with  reverses,  but  early  in 
the  eijghteenth  century  the  missionary  zeal  of  the 
Franciscans  re-establisned  many  of  the  old  missions 
and  extended  them  in  numerous  new  directions.  They 
remained  in  a  flourishing  state  until  1812  when  they 
were  suppressed  by  the  Spanish  Government.  The 
colonization  of  Texas  from  the  United  States  and  the 
declaration  of  its  independence  as  a  republic  in  1836 
diecked  any  further  efforts  to  reopen  the  missions  for 
several  ^rears,  and  then  the  Rev.  John  Timon,  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Buffalo  (q.  v.),  and  the  Rev.  John  M. 
Odin,  two  Lazarists  from  the  community  in  Missouri, 
visited  the  state  and  aroused  the  long-neglected  reli- 
gious sentiments  of  the  people.  MesLsures  were  taken 
for  the  promotion  of  Catholic  immigration  and  the 
public  officials  of  the  new  republic  gave  every  encour- 
agement to  their  work.  In  1841  Father  Odin  was 
named  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Detroit,  but  refused  the 
Bulls.  Texas  was  then  made  a  vicariate  Apostolic 
and  Father  Odin  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of 
Claudiopolis,  6  March,  1842.  There  were  then  only 
four  pnests  in  Texas.  Bishop  Odin  set  to  work  vig- 
orously to  build  up  his  charge.  The  Texan  Congress 
returned  several  of  the  ancient  churches  to  their  origi- 


nal uses,  schools  were  opened,  and  the  Ursuline  nuns, 
the  first  religious  community  in  Texas,  were  intro- 
duced to  care  for  them.  In  1847  the  pope  erected  the 
state  into  a  bishopric  with  Galveston  as  its  episcopal 
see  and  Bishop  Ooin  was  transferred  to  its  charge*  In 
addition  to  the  Ursulines  he  secured  the  services  of 
communities  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Incarnate  Word,  the 
Brothers  of  Mary,  and  the  Oblates,  to  the  latter  of 
whom  he  gave  chfiLrge,  in  November,  1854,  of  tiie  Col- 
lege of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  He  visited 
Europe  twice  to  secure  priests  and  material  help  for 
his  diocese.  On  the  death  of  Archbishop  Blanc  of 
New  Orleans^  Bishop  Odin  was  promot^,  15  Feb., 
1861,  to  be  his  successor.  During  his  incumbency  of 
the  See  of  Galveston  he  increased  the  number  of 
priests  to  forty-two  and  the  churches  to  fifty,  and  left 
the  diocese  with  a  college^our  academies  for  girls  and 
five  schools  for  boys.  He  was  bom  at  Ambierle, 
France,  25  Feb.,  1801^  and  died  there.  25  Mav.  1870. 

Claude  Maiy  Dubuis,  C.S.C.,  an  indefatigable  mis- 
sionaiy,  who  had  servea  long  and  unselfishly  for  the 
Church  in  Texas,  was  hb  successor.  He  was  bom  10 
March,  1817,  at  Coutouvre,  Loire,  France,  and  or- 
dainea  priest  at  Ljrons,  1  June,  1844,  where  he  was 
also  consecrated  bishop,  23  November,  1862.  After 
vears  of  hardships  in  Texas  he  resigned,  12  July,  1881. 
out  kept  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Galveston,  and  retirea 
to  France.  Here  he  lived  at  Vernaison  in  the  Diocese  of 
L^ons,  receiving  in  1894  promotion  to  the  titular  Arch- 
bishopric of  Area.  He  assisted  the  ordinary  of  Lyons 
in  episcopal  work  until  his  death,  which  took  place 
22  May,  1895.  Peter  Dufal,  C.S.C.,  had  been  named 
coadjutor  to  Bishop  Dubuis  with  the  right  of  succes- 
sion on  14  May,  1878.  He  was  then  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic of  Eastern  fiengal  and  titular  Bishop  of  Delcus, 
having  been  consecrated  at  Le  Mans,  France,  25  No- 
vember, 1860.  He  was  bom  8  Nov.,  1822,  at  Lamure, 
Puy-de-Ddme,  France,  and  oniained  priest  in  the  t)io- 
cese  of  Blois,  8  Sept.,  1852.  On  translation  to  Galves- 
ton he  retained  his  titular  see ;  he  resigned  the  Texas 
diocese  on  account  of  ill  health,  18  Apru,  1880,  and  re- 
tired to  the  house  of  his  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
Cross  at  Neuilly,  near  Paris,  France,  where  he  died  in 
1889.  Nicholas  Alo^ius  Ualla^er,  fourth  bidiop, 
was  appointed  administrator  of  Galveston  in  the  ab- 
sence of  Bishop  Dufal,  having  been  consecrated  at 
Galveston,  30  April,  1882,  titular  of  Canopus.  In 
1894  he  succeeded  to  the  title  of  Galveston.  He  also 
acted  as  administrator  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  on  the  death 
of  Bishop  Rosecrans  in  1878.  Bom  19  Feb.,  1846,  at 
Temperanceville,  Belmont  County,  Ohio,  he  was  or- 
dained priest,  25  Dec,  1868,  at  Columbus,  Ohio. 

The  religious  communities  of  men  represented  in 
the  diocese  are:  the  Jesuits  who  have  charge  of  St. 
Mary's  University,  Galveston;  the  Basilians  (from 
Canada)  managing  St.  Thomas's  College,  Houston,  St. 
Mary's  Seminsuy,  La  Porte,  and  St.  Basil's  CoUeee, 
Waco;  the  Fathers  of  the  Coneregation  of  the  Holy 
Cross  at  Austin;  the  Paulist  fiithers  at  Austin. 

Tlie  religious  communities  of  women  are:  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  the  Incarnate  Word;  Sisters  of  Charity 
(Emmitsburg) ;  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic ;  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Cross;  Sisters  of  St.  Mary;  Sisters  of  Divine 
Providence;  Ursuline  Sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Family.  Statistics  ( 1909) :  PriesU  82  (53  seculars,  29 
reli^us);  churches  82  (missions  with  churches  35); 
stations  35;  chapels  16'  brothers  6;  women  religious 
375:  ecclesiastic^al  students  12;  colleges  for  bovs  4, 
students  375;  academies  for  girls  9;  parochial  scnools 
32;  pupils  in  academies  and  parish  scnools  5000;  hos- 
pitals 7;  Catholic  population  56,000. 

Srsa,  Hiatory  cf  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  SUUea  (New 
York.  1804);  Idbm,  Hiet.  Cath.  Mieeiona  (New  York.  1855); 
Rbubs.  Bioo.  Cud.  Cath,  Hierarchv  of  United  Statee  (MUwau- 
kee,  1898);  Catholic  Directory,  1009;  Freeman'e  Journal  (New 
York),  Momino  Star  (New  (Jrleans,  June.  1870),  files. 

Thomas  F.  Mbbhan. 


QALWAT  373  OALWAT 

Otlway  uid  KUmftcdnagh,  Diocebe  or  (Galvien-     1324,  and  Galway  town  became  in  consequence  part  of 
SIS  ET  Duacgmsib),  in  Ireland;  on  amalgamation  of    the  latter  dioceae.    But  the  Galway  men,  r^rdii^ 
two  distinct  ancient  sees;  escejitiiiK  the  parish  of    the  HUirounding  people  as  little  better  than  savages, 
Shrule  (County  Mayo)  entirely  in  County  Golway.     werereluctant  to  m  associated  with  them,  and  in  14S4 
Kilmacduagh,  covenng  137,&20  acres,  includee  the    obtained  from  the  Archbishop  of  Tuam  exemption 
irtiole  Barony  of  Kiltortan,  and  part  of  Dunkellin    from  his  jurisdiction.    ITie  arrangement,  sanctioned 
and  Lou^irea.    Galwav  diocese  includes  the  barony    by  a  Bull  of  Innocent  VIII,  was  to  have  the  church  of 
of  Galway  and  part  of  MoycuUen  and  Clare.     Its  ex-     St.  Nicholas,  at  Galway,  a  collegiate  church,  governed 
tent  is  less  thfui  Kilmacduagh,  the  united  dioceaea     by  a  warden  and  eisht  vicars ;  these  having  jurisdic- 
covering  about  260^000  acres.     KUmacdua^  coin-    tion  over  the  whole  town,  as  well  as  over  a  few 
cides  with  the  ancient  territory  of  Hy   Fiachrach     parishes   in   the   neighboumood.     And   warden   and 
Aidhne.     On  Ptolemy's  map  the  district  was  called     vicars  "were  to  be  presented  and  solely  elected  by  the 
the  country  of  the  Gangani;  later  it  was  occupied  bv    inhabitants  of  the  town".    It  was  a  peculiar  arraiige- 
tbe  Firbolg;  and  in  the  aixtii  century  by  the  deecena-     ment.     The  warden  exercised  episcopal  jurisdiction, 
ants   of   Kachrach,    brother   of   Niall   of   the   Nine     appointed  to  parishes,  visited  the  religious  institutions. 
Hostages  and  unde  of  Dathi.    The  time  of  its  con-    but  did  not,  of  course,  confer  orders.    The  eight 
version  to  Christianity  is  uncertain.     I^bably  it  was    vicars  resembled  somewhat  the  canons  of  a  cathedral 
Christian  before  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  and  it  is     church.     In  1485  Galway  obtained  a  new  royal  char- 
certain  that  St.  Coiman  was  its  first  bishop.     A  near     ter  subjecting  the  town  to  a  mayor,  bailiffs,  and  cor- 
relative of  King  Guaire  of  Connaught,  and  a  native  of    poration.    In    1651    the  warden   and   vicars   were 
Kiltartan,  he  was  bom  after  the  miadte  of  the  sixth     dispossessed  of  their  church  and  lands,  which  were 
century  and  educated  at  Arran,  aJter  which  he  lived     given  to  a  lay  warden  and  vicars,  all   Protestants 
for  years  a  hermit's  life  in  the  Burren  mountains.    Just  a  century  later  the  Catholics  were  driven  from  the 
Drawn  from  his  retreat  by  the  persuasions  of  his 
friends,  he  founded  a  monastery  at  Kilmacduagh 
(610),  becoming  its  abbot,  and  subsequently  bishop  of 
the  whole  Hy  Fiachrach  territory.     He  died  in  632, 
and  was  buried  at  Kilmacduagh.    In  the  five  cen- 
turies following,  the  annalists  moke  mention  of  only 
three  bishora  of  Kilmacduagh.     At  the  Synod  M 
Hells,  the  atocese  was  made  a  suffragan  of  Tuom. 
Among  its  subsequent  bishops  we  find  men  with  the 
distinctively  Irish  names  of  O'Ruan,  O'Shaughnessy, 
O'Murray,  O'Felan,  O'Brien,  and  CMoloney.     In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII  the  bishop  was  Christopher  Bod- 
kin,  a  time-server  who  earned  the  goodwill  of  Henry 
and  of  Elizabeth,  and  who  through  royal  favour  was 
promoted  to  the  See  of  Tuom.     Persecution  had  to  be 
faced   by  his  successors.     One   of  these,   Hu^   De 
Burgo,  was  a  prominent  figure  in  the  Confederation  of 
Kilkenny  (1642-50),  and  a  prominent  opponent  of 

the  Nuncio  Rinuccini;  when  the  war  ended  in  the  »„,„.  „,  a,  «■._,„.„■.  !-•._„.„_.,    «•„„„„_. 

tnumi^  of  Cromwell,  exile  was  his  fate,  mipnsonment 

ordeath  tiie  fate  of  the  priests,  and  confiscationthat    town  by  the  Cromwellians.    Gradually  they  como 
of  the  Catholic  landholdera.    After  1653  the  See  of    back,  and  having  been  tolerated  during  the  leign  of 

i^a. ^j I. 1 I  u...  ..;».....    t*,,4.  ..»»-  noA  *l.™      m I rr  ^..  J  *^„^..__  j !__».? t tt 


Kilinacduagh  was  ruled  by  vicars,  but  after  1720  the  (Charles  II  and  favoiuied  under  hissucceasor,  James  11, 

episcopal  succession  was  regularly  maintained.     In  had  again  to  face  persecution  during  the  penal  times, 

1750  Kilmacduagh  was  unitedwith  the  smaller  Diocese  In  1731  the  town  contsined  about  5000  mhabitants. 

of  Kilfenora,  the  latter  situated  entirely  in  County  In  1747  the  Protestant  governor  complained  of  the 

Clare,  and  corresponding  in  extent  with  tne  Barony  of  insolence  of  the  Catholics,   and   of  the  number  of 

Corcomroe.     This  union  has  continued.     At  first  the  priests  coming  there  from  abroad;  in  1762  out  of  it« 

Bishop  of  Kilmacduagh  whs  Apostolic  Administrator  14^000  inhabitants  all  were  Catholica  except  350. 

of  Kilfenora,  his  auccessor  Bisnop  of  Kilfenora  and  During  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 

Apost«lic  Administrator  of  Kilmacduagh,  and  so  on  there  were  frequent  disputes  between  the  warden  and 

alternately.  the  Archbishop  of  Tuam  as  to  the  Istter's  rights  in 

Contemporary  with  the  monastery  of  Kilmaedua^  Galway.    There  were  troubles  also  attending  the  eleo- 

was  that  of  Annaghdown,  on  Lough  Corrib,  founded  m  tion   of   the  warden  and   vicars.     Driven  from   the 

the  second  half  of  the  sixth  century  by  St.  Brendan,  corporation,  the  Catholics  had  no  legsJly  existing  free 

In  process  of  time,  Annaghdown  became  an  episco-  bui^;esses,  and  had  been  compelled  to  meet  by  stealth, 

pal  see  extending  over  the  territory  ruled  by  the  and  constitute  a  mayor  and  corporation,  so  as  to  have 

■  O'Elahertys.     Inthiadistrictwasthetownof  Galway.  the  necessary  electoral  body.     But  the  Galway  Tribes 

Raced  where  the  waters  of  the  Corrib  mingle  with  the  insisted  on  keeping  the  wardenship  in  their  own  hands, 

it  first  but  a  fishing  village.     In  the  ninth  When  the  repeal  of  the  penal  laws  allowed  a  Catholic 


century  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes;  subsequently  corporation  to  come  into  existence,  in  1793,  the  in- 

it  was  rebuilt  and  protected  by  a  strong  castle ;  in  the  habitants  insisted  on  exercising  their  right  to  vot«, 

twelfth  century  again  destroyed  by  the  King  of  Hun-  and  conflicts  with  the  Tribes  aroae.     Theae  disputes 

ster;  and  towards  the  end  of  that  century  wrested  were  finally  ended  in  I83I  by  the  extinction  of  tie 

from  the  0'Flahert,ya  by  the  powerful  Anglo-Norman  wardenship  and  the  erection  ot  Galway  into  an  episco- 

famUy  of  De  Burgo.     Other  Anglo-Norman  families  pal  see.     In  1866  the  Bishop  of  Kilmacdua^  Deing 

also  settled  there,  these  in  process  of  time  being  called  unable  to  discharge  his  duties,  the  Bishop  ofGslway 

the  Tribes  ot  Galway.     Loyal  to  England  and  despis-  was  appointed  Apostolic  Administrator  of   Kilmao- 

ing  the  old  Irish,  whom  they  drove  out,  the  settlers  dua^  and  Kilfenora,  "durante  beneplacito  Sonctte 

made  progreaa,  and  Galway  in  the  Grat  half  of  the  Sedis".     In  1883  the  union  of  the  three  dioceses  was 

seventeenui  century,  with   its  guilds  of  merchanta,  mode  permanent  by  papal  Bull.     Since  that  date  the 

its  mayor,  sheriff,  and  free  burfjesses,  was  in  trade,  bishop  is  "Bishop  of  Galway  and  Kilmacduagh  and 

commerce,  and  wealth  little  inferior  to  Dublin  itself.  Apostolic  Administrator  of  Kilfenora".    Among  those 

Tba  Diocese  of  Annaghdown  was  joined  to  Tuam  in  oonnectedwithtitediooeaeaeTeralhaveacquiredfome. 


OAMA                                  374  OAMALISL 

St.  Geallagh,  who  died  about  550,  is  still  venerated  in  new  fleet  of  twenty  ships,  to  safe|;uard  the  interests  of 

Kilchrist,  St.  Soumey  in  Ballindereen,  St.  Foila  in  the  commercial  enterprises  established  in  the  meantime 

Garenbridge.  St.  Colga  in  Kilcolgan.     In  the  ninth  in  India  by  Cabral,  and  of  the  Portuguese  who  had 

century  Uvea  Flan  MacLonan,  chief  poet  of  Ireland.  In  settled  there.    On  the  outward  voyage  he  visited 

the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  lived  John  Sofala  (East  Africa),  exacted  the  payment  of  tribute 

Lynch,  author  of  ^'Cambrensis  Eversus";  O'Flaherty,  from  the  Sheikh  of  ICilwa  (E.  Africa),  and  proceeded 

author  of  the  "  Ogygia ' ' ;  Dr.  Kirwan,  Bishop  of  Killala ;  with  unscrupulous  might,  and  even  indeed  with  ereat 

MacFirbis,  the  ammlist;  Dr.  Fahy,  whose  nistory  has  cruelty,  agamst  the  /S^bian  merchant  ships  ana  the 

become  a  standard  work;  Dr.  O'Dea,   Bishop  of  Samudrin  (or  Zamorin)  of  Csdicut.    He  laid  sieee  to 

Clonfert,  and  others.     ^                                   ^  the  city,  annihilated  a  fleet  of  twenty-nine  war£ip8, 

Statistics  (1909):  parishpriests,  '29;  administrator,  and  concluded  favourable  treaties  and  alliances  with 

1;  curates,  29;  regulars,  20;  churches,  53;  houses  ot  the  native  princes.    His  commercial  success  was  espe- 

regulars,  4;  convents,  10;  college,  1;  monasteries,  3;  cially  brilliant,  the  value  of  the  merchandise  which  he 

Catholic  population  in  1901, 70,576;  npn-Catholic^  1931.  brought  with  him  amounting  to  more  than  a  million  in 

Hardiman,  H'  '    ^ 

and  ArUiquttua 
Deaeription 

8tux€8aion  (          ,                         .                          •^^  .                                        -  -                                 - 

£.  A.  D'Ai;iON.  and  Villa  dos  Frades,  resigned  by  the  Duke  Dom 

Jayme  of  Braganza,  with  jurisdiction  and  the  title  of 

Oama,  Vasco  da,  the  discoverer  of  the  sea  route  to  count.    Once  ajgain,  in  1524,  he  was  sent  to  India  by 

the  East  Indies;   b.  at  Sines,  Province  of  Alemtejo,  the  CJrown,  uncfer  Jofio  III,  to  supersede  the  Viceroy 

Portugal,  about  1469;  d.  at  Cochin,  India,  24  Dec,  Eduardo  de  Menezes,  who  was  no  longer  master  of  the 

1524.    His  father,  EstevSo  da  Gama,  was  Alcaide  M6r  situation.  He  re-established  order,  but  at  the  end  of 

of  Sines,  and  Commendador  of  Cereal,  and  held  an  the  year  he  was  stricken  by  death  at  Codiin.    In  1539, 

important  office  at  court  under  Alfonso  V.    After  the  his  remains,  which  up  to  that  time  had  lain  in  the 

return  of  Bartolomeu  Dias,  EstevSo  was  chosen  by  Franciscan  church  there,  were  brought  to  Portugal 

Jo§o  II  to  command  the  next  expedition  of  discovery,  and  interred  at  Vidigueira.    To  commemorate  i^e 

but,  as  both  died  before  the  project  could  be  carried  first  voyae^  to  India,  the  celebrated  convent  of  the 

into  execution,  the  commission  was  given  by  Emanuel  Hieronymites  in  Belem  was  erected.    A  large  part  of 

I  to  VascO;  who  had  already  distinguished  himself  at  the  "  Lusiad''  of  Camoens  deals  with  the  voyages  and 

the  beginning  of  the  year  1490  by  defending  the  Portu-  discoveries  of  Vasco  da  Gama. 

guese  colonies  on  the  coast  of  Guinea  against  French  The  oldest  and  moet  reliable  souraee  of  the  history  of  the 

encroachments;    Bartolomeu  Dias  had  proceeded  as  SIf gSJjJjS^^S^ "'*''**  *3?**"  ^'vSlS'^'SiSS ""  *i-5? 

far  as  the  Great  Fish  River  (Rio  do  Infante),  and  had  2nd  ed..  rcvisedTby  HbrcuLang'and  *da  Paxva  (LiSo^i86l); 

in  addition  established  the  fact  that  the  coast  of  Af nca  alao  La  naviaagione  prima  .  .  .  acriUa  f>er  tm  oerUiluomo  FicT' 

on  the  other  side  of  the  Cape  extended  to  the  north-  T^"^  \u'^  Ramubio,  DeOe  Navioaticni  ....  I.  119  »qq. 

"x    ^  J       J    >.      ."""  ^**^/;^'^"^'^  *^  T   j.v  u!wi  Among  the  earliest  are  Castanhsda,  ds  Barbob,  Gobs.  Obo- 

east.     Pedro  de  CovunSo  on  his  way  from  India  nad  bxo.  Maftbt.  and  others.  Corrba  {Lendas  da  India)  giving  poai- 

descended  the  east  coast  of  Africa  as  far  as  the  twen-  tive  information  reoarding  the  third  voyage  only. 

tfeth  de^e  of  «,uth  latitude,  and  had.become  cogd-  g^^'^i,  \^,  &nTO;  VSSoTo.'fe  Sl^^ 

zantof  the  old  Arabic-Indian  commercial  association,  ^rd  ed.,  Llabon.  1808):    Sghbfbr,  Navioation  de  Vasque  de 

The  nautical  problem,  therefore,  to  be  solved  by  Vasco  Oamme  ...  in  BibliolMque  dea  voyama  andena  (Paris,  1888), 


da  Gamawascl^rly  outlined,  and  the  course  for  the  'Ji^^^^'^Si4/iSS^..%^^^ 

sea  route  to  the  East  Indies  designated.     In  January,  mbrich.  Vaaco  da  Oama  unddie  Entdeekuno  dea  Seeweoea  naek 

1497,  the  command  of  the  expedition  was  solemnly  Oatindim  (Munich,  1898);  Tbllbs  da  Gama,  Le  Comte  Amwd 

conferred  upon  Vasco  da  Gama,  and  on  8  July,  1497.  ^««^<>  ^  ^^  <P*^'  1^2).  Otto  Hartio. 

the  fleet  sailed  from  Lisbon  under  the  leadership  oi 

Vasco,  his  brother  Paulo,  and  Nicole  Coelho,  with  a        Ounaliei  (TafiaTuiik,  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 

crew  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  men.    At  the  ^K^Di,  "reward  of  God"). — ^The  name  designates  in 

beginning  of  November,  they  anchored  in  St.  Helena  the  New  Testament  a  Pharisee  and  celebrati^  doctor 

Bay  and,  on  the  25th  of  the  same  month,  in  Mossel  of  the  Law.    Gamaliel  is  represented  in  Acts,  v,  34 

Bay.    On  16  December,  the  fleet  arrived  at  the  fur-  sqq.,  as  advising  his  fellow-members  of  the  Sanhedrin 

thest  landine-point  of  Dias,  gave  its  present  name  to  not  to  put  to  death  St.  Peter  and  the  Apostles,  who,  not- 

the  coast  of  Natal  on  Christmas  Dav,  and  reached  by  withstanding  the  prohibition  of  the  Jewish  authorities, 

the  end  of  January,  1498,  the  moutn  of  the  Zambesi,  had  continued  to  preach  to  the  people.    His  advice, 

which  was  in  the  territory  controlled  by  the  Arabian  however  unwelcome,  was  acted  upon,  so  great  was  his 

maritime  commercial  association.    Menaced  by  the  authority  with  his  contemporanes.    We  learn  from 

Arabs  in  Mozambique  (2  March)  and  Mombasa  (7  Acts,  xxii,  3,  that  he  was  the  teacher  of  St.  Paul ;  but 

April),  who  feared  for  their  commerce,  and,  on  the  con-  we  are  not  told  either  the  nature  or  the  extent  of  the 

trary,  received  in  a  friendlv  manner  at  Melinda,  East  influence  which  he  exercised  upon  the  future  apostle 

Africa  (14  April),  the^  reached  under  the  guidance  of  a  of  the  Gentiles.    Gamaliel  is  rishtlv  identified  with  an 

Silot  on  20  May,  their  journey's  end,  the  harbour  of  illustrious  Jewish  doctor  of  the  Law,  who  bore  the 
ialicut,  India,  which,  from  the  fourteenth  century,  had  same  name  and  died  ei^teen  years  before  the  de- 
been  the  principal  market  for  trade  in  spices,  precious  struction  of  Jerusalem,  in  ihe  Tsdmud,  this  Gamaliel 
stones,  and  pearls.  Here  also,  as  elsewhere,  Gama  bears,  like  his  grandfather  Hillel,  the  surname  of  "the 
skilfully  surmounted  the  difficulties  placed  in  his  way  Elder",  and  is  the  first  to  whom  the  title  "  Rabban", 
by  the  Arabs,  in  league  with  the  Indian  rulers,  and  "our  master",  was  given.  He  appears  therein,  as  in 
won  for  his  country  the  respect  needful  for  the  found-  the  book  of  the  Acts,  as  a  promment  member  of  the 
ing  of  a  new  colony.  ^  hi^est  tribunal  of  the  Jews.  He  is  also  treated  as  the 
On  5  October,  1498,  the  fleet  began  its  homeward  originator  of  many  legal  ordinances;  as  the  father  of  a 
voyage.  Coelho  arrived  in  Portugal  on  10  July,  1499;  son,  whom  he  called  Simeon,  after  his  father's  name, 
Paulo  da  Gama  died  at  Angra;  Vasco  reached  Lisbon  and  of  a  dau^ter  who  married  the  priest  Simon  ben 
in  September,  where  a  brilliant  reception  awaited  him.  Nathanael.  The  Jewish  accounts  make  him  die  a 
He  was  appointed  to  the  newly  created  post  of  Ad-  Pharisee,  and  state  that:  "When  he  died,  the  honour  of 
miral  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  carried  with  it  a  high  the  Torah  (the  law)  ceased,  and  purity  and  pietv  be- 
salary,  and  the  feudal  rights  over  Sines  were  assured  came  extinct."  At  an  early  date,  ecclesiastical  tra« 
to  him.  In  1502  Gama  was  again  sent  out,  with  his  dition  has  supposed  that  Gamaliel  embraced  the  Chris- 
uncle  Vicente  Sodr^  and  his  nephew  EstevSo,  and  a  tian  Faith,  and  remained  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrin 


oabcahs  375  oamblzho 

for  the  purpose  of  helping  secretly  his  feUow-Christians  as  eight  manuscripts  of  the  latter  work  are  known  to 
(cf.  Recognitions  of  Clement,  I.  Ixv,  Ixvi).  Accord-  exist,  but  no  portion  of  it  or  of  the  ''Metropolis 
ins  to  FhotiuB,  he  was  baptized  bv  St.  Peter  and  St.    Moguntina^'  has  been  printed. 


Talmud  of  JenuaUm;  Pbottos,  BiblioUieoa,  Cod.  171;  Tat-  C.  <U  J. 

LOB,  The  8ayino9  cf  the  Jewish  Fathen  (Ciunbridge,  1877);  Ch.  Db  Smbdt. 
FouARD,  8L  Peter  (tr..  New  York,  1803);  Lb  Camus,  L*cnmre 
dee  Ap&tree,  I  (Fftns,  1005). 

Francis  E.  Gigot.  Gambling,  or  Gaming,  is  the  staking  of  money  or 

other  thine  pf  value  on  the  issue  of  a  game  of  chance. 

OamanSf  Jean,  b.  8  July,  1606,  at  Ahrweiler  It  thus  bdon^  to  the  class  of  aleatory  contracts  in 
(according  to  other  sources  at  Neuenahr,  about  two  whidi  the  gam  or  loss  of  the  parties  depends  on  an 
miles  from  AhrweUer;  there  does  not  appear  to  exist  uncertain  event.  It  is  not  gambling,  m  the  strict 
any  documentary  evidence  to  show  that  he  was  bom  sense,  if  a  bet  is  laid  on  the  issue  of  a  game  of  skill  like 
at  the  little  town  of  Eupen,  as  stated  in  the  "  Biblio-  billiards  or  football.  The  issue  must  depend  on 
thdoue  des  ^rivains  de  la  Compagnie  de  J^us") ;  d*  &t  chance,  as  in  dice,  or  partly  on  chance,  partly  on  skill, 
the  College  of  Aschaffenbui^g  near  Frankfort,  25  rf ov..  as  in  wnist.  Moreover,  in  ordinary  parfance,  a  person 
1684.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Trier  on  24  who  plavs  for  small  stakes  to  give  zest  to  the  ^me  is 
April,  1623,  having  studied  the  humanities  for  five  not  said  to  gamble;  gambling  connotes  playmg  for 
years  and  philosophy  for  two  years  at  Cologne,  where  high  stakes.  In  its  moral  aspect,  although  gambling 
he  had  received  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts.  After  usually  has  a  bad  meaning,  yet  we  may  apply  to  it 
making  his  novitiate,  he  devoted  several  months  to  a  what  was  said  about  betting  (see  BinTiNa).  On 
revision  of  his  philosophical  studies,  and  subsequently,  certain  conditions,  and  apart  m>m  excess  or  scandal, 
from  1626,  spent  five  years  teaching  in  the  College  of  it  is  not  sinf lU  to  stake  money  on  the  issue  of  a  game  ot 
WOrzbuig,  conducting  his  pupils  through  the  five  diance  any  more  than  it  is  smful  to  insure  one^  prop- 
classes  which  comprised  the  complete  course  in  hu-  erty  against  risk,  or  deal  in  futures  on  Aie  produce 
manities.  He  then  studied  theology  for  a  year  at  market.  As  I  may  make  a  free  gift  of  my  own  prop- 
Mainz  (1631),  after  which,  the  houses  of  his  province  erty  to  another  if  I  choose,  so  I  may  agree  with  an- 
of  the  Upper  Rhine  being  suppressed  during  the  war  other  to  hand  over  to  him  a  sum  of  money  if  the  issue 
with  Sweden,  he  continued  his  theolosical  studies  for  of  a  game  of  cards  is  other  than  I  expect,  while  he 
three  years  at  l^ouaL  where  he  was  ordained  priest  on  agrees  to  do  the  same  in  my  favour  in  the  contrary 
26  March,  1633.  liiese  studies  having  come  to  an  event.  Theologians  conmionly  require  four  oondi- 
end  in  1634.  and  being  followed  doubtless  bv  the  third  tions  so  that  gaming  may  not  be  lUicit.  What  is 
year  of  prooation,  he  discharged  for  several  years  the  staked  must  belong  to  the  gambler  and  must  be  at  his 
duties  of  chaplain  to  the  land  and  naval  troops  in  free  disposal.  It  is  wron^,  therefore,  for  the  lawyer  to 
Belgium  and  Germany.  We  find  him  mentioned  stake  the  money  of  his  client,  or  for  anyone  to  gamble 
uncfer  this  title  (Castrensis)  in  the  catalogue  of  the  with  what  is  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  his  wife 
Flandro-Belgian  province  for  1641  as  being  attached  and  children.  The  gambler  must  act  freely,  without 
to  the  professed  house  at  Antwerp,  wherd  he  made  his  unjust  compulsion.  There  must  be  no  fraud  in  the 
profession  of  the  four  vows  on  ^  December  of  the  transaction,  although  the  usual  ruses  of  the  game  may 
same  year.  He  lived  here  with  the  first  two  Holland-  be  allowed.  It  is  unlawful,  accordingly,  to  mark  the 
ists,  Jean  Bolland  and  Godefroid  Henschen,  became  cards,  but  it  is  permissible  to  ooncesd  carefully  from  sp. 
inflamed  with  zeal  for  their  work  and  was  henceforth  opponent  the  number  of  trump  cards  one  holds.  Fi- 
their  assiduous  collaborator,  whithersoever  his  duty  nally,  there  must  be  some  sort  of  equality  between  the 
called  him,  but  especially  at  Baden-Baden,  where  he  parties  to  make  the  contract  equitable;  it  would  be 
resided  for  some  tune  in  order  to  direct  the  studies  of  unfair  for  a  combination  of  two  expert  whist  players 
the  young  princes  of  the  House  of  Baden.  He  was  to  take  the  money  of  a  couple  of  mere  novices  at  tiie 
undoubtedly  there  in  1641  and  1649.  At  the  end  of  same.  If  any  oi  these  conditions  be  wanting,  eam- 
this  latter  year  he  resided  in  a  missionary  capsjcity  at  bling  becomes  more  or  less  wrong;  and,  besides,  there 
Ettlingen  near  Karlsruhe.  Here  we  lose  all  sight  of  is  generally  an  element  of  danger  in  it  which  is  quite 
him  until  1681,  when  he  was  attached  to  the  College  of  sufficient  to  account  for  the  bad  name  which  it  nas. 
Aschaffenburg  near  Frankfort,  where  he  died  25  In  most  people  gambling  arouses  keen  excitement,  and 
November,  1684.     ^                 ^  ^              ^  quickly  develops  into  a  passion  which  is  difficult  to 

For  more  than  thirty  years,  it  is  stated  in  the  death  control.  If  indulged  in  to  excess  it  leads  to  loss  of 
notice  inserted  in  the  Annual  letters  of  the  College  of  time,  and  usually  of  money;  to  an  idle  and  useless  life 
Aschafifenburg  for  that  year,  he  was  so  immers^  in  spent  in  the  midst  of  bad  company  and  unwholesome 
the  hs^oeraphical  researches  which  he  had  under-  surroundings;  and  to  scandal  which  is  a  source  of  sin 
taken  m  beluilf  of  his  associates  at  Antwerp  that  he  and  ruin  to  others.  It  panders  to  the  craving  for  ex- 
devoted  to  them  even  the  hours  of  the  night,  taking  citement  and  in  many  countries  it  has  become  so 
only  a  short  rest  on  the  floor  or  a  strip  of  matting,  prevalent  that  it  rivals  drunkeimess  in  its  destructive 
Incleed,  his  name  occurs  very  often  in  the  ''Acta  SS. '  effects  on  iJie  lives  of  the  people.  It  is  obvious  that 
at  the  head  of  docwnents  transcribed  bv  his  hand,  and  the  moral  aspect  of  the  Question  is  not  essentially  dif- 
even  of  commentaries  written  entirely  by  him  (cf .  ferent  if  for  a  game  of  cnance  is  substituted  a  horse- 
**  Bibl.  des  ^riv.  de  la  C.  de  J"^  s.  v.  **  Ganians")*  A  race,  a  football  or  cricket  match,  or  the  price  of  stock 
large  number  of  papers  of ^  this  description  is  to  be  or  produce  at  some  future  date.  Although  the  issue 
found  in  the  vast  manuscript  collection  of  the  early  in  these  cases  seldom  depends  upon  chance,  still  the 
BoUandists  preserved  at  the  Hoyal  Library  of  Brus-  moral  aspect  of  betting  upon  it  is  the  same  in  so  far  as 
sels  and  in  the  modem  BoUandist  library,  although  the  the  issue  is  unknown  or  uncertain  to  the  parties  who 
largest  part  of  his  papers,  dispatched  to  the  Bolland-  make  the  contract.  Time  bargains,  difference  trans- 
ists  after  his  death,  were  ensulfed  in  the  Main,  the  actions,  options,  and  other  speculative  dealings  on  the 
vessel  bearing  the  precious  freight  having  unfortu-  exchanees,  which  are  so  common  nowadays,  add  to 


flensis"  published  by  Hund  in  1582,  and  also  for  a    ducers  and  consumers  of  those  commodities,  and  are 
history  of  the  grand  ducal  House  of  Baden.    As  many    frequently  attended  by  such  unlawful  methods  of  in- 


GAMS                                376  GAMS 

fluencmg  prices  as  the  dissemination  of  false  reports,  the  dergy  were  to  abstain  altogether  from  playins  in 
cornering,  and  the  fierce  contests  of  ''bulls''  and  public  or  in  private  at  dice,  ciuxis,  or  any  other  for- 
ebears", i.  e.  of  the  dealers  who  wish  respectively  to  oidden  and  unbecoming  game.  Tlie  council  held  at 
raise  or  lower  prices.  ^  Aix  in  1585  forbade  them  to  play  at  cards,  dice,  or  any 
Hitherto  we  have  prescinded  from  positive  law  in  other  game  of  the  like  kind,  anci  even  to  look  on  at>i^e 
our  treatment  of  the  question  of  eambline.  It  is,  playinf  of  suchjgames.  Another,  held  at  Naibonne  in 
however,  a  matter  on  which  both  the  civil  and  the  1609,  decreed  that  clerics  were  not  to  play  at  dice, 
canon  law  have  much  to  say.  In  the  United  States  cards,  or  other  unlawful  and  unbecoming  games,  espe- 
the  subject  lies  outside  the  province  of  the  Federal  cially  in  public.  There  was  some  doubt  as  to  wnetner 
Government,  but  many  of  the  States  make  gambling  chess  was  to  be  considered  an  unbecoming,  and  there- 
a  penal  offence  when  the  bet  is  upon  an  election,  a  fore  an  unlawful,  ^ame  for  derics.  In  the  opinion  of 
horse-race,  or  a  game  of  chance.  Betting  contracts  St.  Peter  Damian  it  was  certainly  tmlawful.  On  one 
and  securities  given  upon  a  bet  are  often  made  void,  occasion  he  caught  the  Bishop  of  Florence  playing 
In  England  the  Gammg  Act,  1845,  voids  contracts  chess,  to  whfle  away  the  time  wnen  on  a  journey.  Hie 
made  by  way  of  gaming  and  wagering;  and  the  Gam-  bishop  tried  to  defend  himself  by  saying  that  chess 
ing  Act,  1892,  renders  null  and  void  any  promise,  ex-  was  not  dice.  The  saint,  however,  refui^  to  admit 
press  or  implied,  to  pay  any  person  any  sum  of  money  the  distinction,  especially  as  the  bishop  was  playing  in 
imder,  or  in  respect  of ,  anv  contra^  or  agreement  ren-  public.  Scripture,  he  said,  does  not  make  express 
dered  null  and  void  by  tne  Gaming  Act,  1845,  or  to  mention  of  chess,  but  it  is  comprised  imder  the  term 
pay  any  sum  of  money  by  way  of  commission,  fee,  4ice*  And  Baronius  defends  the  saint's  doctrine, 
reward,  or  otherwise,  in  respect  of  any  such  contract  Some  sciolist,  he  remarks,  niay  say  that  St.  Peter  Da- 
or  agreement,  or  of  any  services  in  relation  thereto  or  mian  was  under  a  delusion  in  classing  chess  under  dice, 
in  connexion  therewith.  From  very  early  times  eam-  since  chess  is  not  a  game  of  chance  but  calls  for  the  ex- 
bling  was  forbidden  by  canon  law.  Two  of  the  oldest  ercise  of  much  skill  and  talent.  Let  that  be  as  it  may, 
(41,  42)  among  the  so-called  canons  of  the  Apostles  he  proceeds,  priests  must  at  amr  rate  be  guided  in  their 
forbade  eames  of  chance  under  pain  of  excommunicar  conduct  by  tne  words  of  St.  Paul,  who  declared  that 
tion  to  clergy  and  laity  alike.  The  79th  canon  of  the  what  is  not  expedient,  what  is  not  edifying,  is  not 
Council  of  Elvira  (306)  decreed  that  one  of  the  faithful  allowed. 

who  had  been  guilty  of  gambling  might  be,  on  amend-  Modem  ecclesiastical  law  is  less  exactinjg  in  this 
ment,  restored  to  communion  arter  the  lapse  of  a  year,  matter.  The  provincial  Councfls  of  Westminster  are 
A  homfly  (the  famous  "De  Aleatoribus")  long  as-  content  with  prescribing  that  clerics  must  abstain 
cribcKl  to  St.  Gyprian,  but  by  modem  scholars  vari-  from  unlawful  games.  The  Plenary  Synod  of  May- 
ously  attributed  to  Popes  Victor  I^  Callistus  I,  and  nooth,  held  in  1900,  says  that  since  not  a  little  time  is 
Melchiades,  and  which  undoubtedly  IS  a  very  early  and  occasionally  lost,  and  idleness  is  fostered  by  playing 
interesting  monument  of  Ghristian  antkiuity.  is  a  cards,  the  priest  should  be  on  his  guard  against  such 
vigorous  denunciation  of  gambling.  The  Fourtn  Lat-  ^unes,  especially  where  money  is  staked,  lest  he  incur 
eran  Council  (1215),  by  a  decree  subsequently  in-  me  reproach  of  being  a  gambler.  He  is  also  exhorted 
serted  in  the  "  Corpus  Juris'',  forbade  clerics  to  play  or  to  deter  the  laity  by  word  and  example  from  betting 
to  be  present  at  games  of  chance.  Some  authorities,  at  horse-races,  especially  when  the  stakes  are  hi^. 
such  as  Aubespine,  have  attempted  to  explain  the  Tlie  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  made  a  dis- 
severity  of  the  ancient  canons  against  gambling  by  tinction  between  g^unes  which  may  not  suitably  be  in- 
supposing  that  idolatry  was  often  connected  with  it  in  dulged  in  by  a  cleric,  even  when  played  in  private,  and 
practice.  The  pieces  that  were  played  with  were  ^mes  like  cards  which  may  be  played  for  the  sake  of 
smsJl-kized  idols,  or  ima^  of  the  gods,  which  were  innocent  recreation.  It  repeated  the  prohibition  of 
invoked  by  the  players  ror  good  luck.  However,  as  the  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  tnat  clerics  are 
Benedict  aIV  remarks,  this  can  hardly  be  true,  as  in  not  to  indulge  in  unlawful  games,  and  only  in  modera- 
that  case  the  penalties  would  have  been  still  more  tion  are  to  use  those  that  are  lawful,  so  as  not  to  cause 
severe.  Profane  writers  of  antiquity  are  almost  as  scandal.  Nowadays,  it  is  commonly  held  that  posi- 
severe  in  their  condemnation  of  gambling  as  are  the  tive  ecclesiastical  law  only  forbids  games  of  chance, 
councils  of  the  Christian  Church.  Tacitus  and  Am-  even  to  the  dergy.  when  in  themselves  or  for  some  ex- 
mianus  Marcellinus  tell  us  that  by  gambling  men  are  trinsic  reason,  sucn  as  loss  of  time  or  scandal,  they  are 
led  into  fraud,  cheating,  lying,  perjury,  theft,  and  other  forbidden  by  the  natural  law. 

enormities;  while  Peter  of  Blois  says  that  dice  is  the  Fbbbarib, Jp^vwpto  BMiotkeoa,  s.  v.  lAidua  (PMis.  1861); 

mother  of  perimv,  theft,  and  sacrilege     The  old  c^-  ?SS5aSiS^(f?^ri[Srif  ISSii'SP'ifSS^ 

onists   and   theologians    remark   that    although    the  MoralTheotom  O^ew  York,  IWSh  I;  Ecdeaiastical  Review  {Sew 

canons  eenerally  mention  only  dice  by  name,  yet  under  York,  1905).  aXXII,  134;  THOMABaiN,  Veiua  Ecd.  DuHiMfu^ 

this  appellation  must  be  liiderstood  all  games  of  JSl.  i  V'^iS^iJSlr'  Dbshaym.  in  Vacant.  DxeLde^Jhid 

chance;  and  even  those  that  require  skill,  if  they  are  '      '              *                                   X.  Sultbb. 
placed  for  money. 

The  Council  of  Trent  contented  itself  with  ordering  OamB,  Pins  BoNiFAcnTs,  ecclesiastical  historian,  b. 
all  the  ancient  canons  on  the  subject  to  be  observed,  at  Mittelbuch,  Wtirtembei]g,  23  January,  1816;  d.  at 
and  in  general  prescribed  that  the  clergy  were  to  ab-  Munich,  11  May,  1892.  His  classical  studies  were 
stain  from  unlawful  games.  As  Benedict  XIV  re-  made  at  Biberach  and  Rottweil  (1826-1834),  he 
marks,  it  was  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  bishops  to  studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  TCkbingen  (1834- 
decide  what  games  should  be  neld  to  be  unlawful  ao-  38),  entered  the  seminaiy  of  Rottenburg  in  1838,  and 
cording  to  the  different  circumstances  of  person,  place,  was  ordained  priest  on  1 1  September,  1839.  He  filled 
and  time.  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  in  the  nrst  Synod  ot  various  posts  as  tutor,  vicar,  parish  priest,  and  pro- 
Milan,  put  the  Tridentine  decree  into  execution,  and  fessor  until  1  May,  1847,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the 
drew  up  a  list  of  games  which  were  forbidden  to  the  chairs  of  philosophy  and  ^neral  history  by  the  theo- 
clergy,  and  another  list  of  those  that  were  allowed,  logical  faculty  of  Hildesheim.  Finally  he  entered  the 
Among  those  which  he  forbade  were  not  only  dicing  in  Abbey  of  St.  Boniface  at  Munich,  which  belonekl  to 
various  forms,  but  also  games  something  like  our  the  Bavarian  congregation  of  the  Order  of  St.  Bene- 
croquet  and  football.  Other  particular  councils  de-  diet,  and  pronounced  the  monastic  vows,  6  October, 
clared  that  plajring  at  dice  and  cards  was  unbecoming  1856,  adding  the  name  of  Pius  to  that  of  Boniface, 
and  forbidden  to  clerics,  and  in  general  they  forbade  Gams  filled  several  monastic  offices,  being  successively 
all  games  which  were  unbecoming  to  the  clencal  state,  master  of  novices,  sub-prior,  and  prior.  He  is  best 
Thus,  a  coimcil  held  at  Bordeaux  in  1583  decreed  that  known  for  his  **  Kirchengeschichte  von  Spanien",  3 


OAND  377  OAMOBA 

vols.  (Ratisbon,  1H62-1879),  and  his  **  Series  episcopo-  His  methods,  however,  were  somewhat  infelicitous, 

rum   Ecclesise   catholicse   quot<^uot   innotuerunt   a  and  speedily  incurred  the  censure  of  his  ordinary, 

beato  Petro  apostolo''  etc.  (Rat|sbon,  1873-86,  with  Bishop   Poynter.    It   appears   that   he   wrote   too 

two    supplements).     The    "Kircheng^schichte    von  rapidly  to  oe  theologically  exact,  but  there  were  cer- 

Spanien^'  is  a  conscientiously  and  methodically  written  taml^r  no  heretical  principles  in  his  mind.    Neverthe^ 

work,  critical,  also,  to  a  certain  extent^  in  dealing  with  less,  it  seems  strange  to  read  of  a  Catholic  manual 

the  earliest  period  of  Spanish  ecclesiastical  history,  entitled  the  ''  Book  of  Common  Prajrer  ....  for  the 

thoufth  the  author  rarely  abandons  the  aid  which  use  of  all  Christians  in  the  United  Kingdom "  which  he 

unreliable   sources  seem   to   furnish.    The    "Series  brought  out  in  1812.    On  account  of  this,  and  of  his 

episcoporum"  has  rendered  useful  service  and  is  yet  "Sermons  in  defence  of  the  Ancient  Faith'',  Bishop 

very  helpful.    It  is  a  collection  of  the  episcopal  lists  Poynter  felt  it  his  duty  to  suspend  him  and  to  de- 

of  all  ancient  and  modem  sees  known  to  the  author,  nounoe  the  offending  works.    Gandolphy  went  to 

Gaps  are  frequent  in  the  lists  of  ancient  sees,  especially  Rome  in  person  to  defend  himself,  and  in  1816  he  ob- 

those  of  the  Eastern  Church.    It  was,  of  course,  im-  tained  official  approbation  of  the  two  censured  works 


Sacia"  and  the  like ;  as  a  rule,  however,  the  author  The  Congregation  of  Propaganda,  being  anxious  for  a 
has  ignored  a  number  of  scattered  dissertations  which  peaceable  settlement  of  this  unfortunate  affair,  re- 
would  have  rectified,  on  a  multitude  of  points,  his  quired  (1  March,  1817)  that  Gandolphy  should  be 
uncertain  chronology.  In  1850  Gams  founded  with  restored  on  his  apologizing  to  Bishop  Poynter  for  any 
his  colleagues  Alzo^,  F.  W.  Koch,  Mattes,  and  G.  J.  unintentional  disrespect  pmich  mijght  have  occurred  in 
Mtiller  a  "Theologische  Monatschrift",  which  lasted  his  address  to  the  public,  of  which  address  also  the 
two  vears  (1850-1851),  and  in  which  he  published  a  bishop  had  complained.  On  15  April  Gandolphy  ao- 
numoer  of  essays.  cording^y  wrote  an  apology,  but  the  oishop  in  a  pastoral 
Works: — "Geschichte  der  Kirche  Jesu  Christi  im  letter  on  24  April  stated  that  the  apology  was  inade- 
neunzehnten  Jahrhunderte  mit  besonderer  RUck-  quate.  so  at  last  on  8  July,  Gandolphy  made  an  unre- 
sichtaufDeutschland",3vols.(Innsbruck.l854-1858);  served  apology;  but  this  long  drawn  out  public 
''Johannes  der  Taufer  im  Gef&ngnisse     (Tubingen,  humiliation  was  too  much  for  him.    He  resigned  his 


chen^chichte  ^  ,  ,  „ 

(Ratisbon.  1862-79);' "Spanische  Bri'efe"  in  *^His-    (London,  1813-14);  "Liturgy,  or  A  Book  of  Common 

torisch-politische  Blfttter'^.  LVI,  134  sq.,  208  sq.,  311  Prayer,  and  Administration  of  Sacraments,  with  other 

§1.,  418  so.;  "Wetterleuchten  auf  der  pyren&ischen  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Church.    For  the  use  of 

albuisel,''  ibid.,  LVI,  67  sq.;  "Series  episcoporum  all  Christians  in  the  United  Kingdom"  (London,  1812; 

Ecclesiffi  catholics  quotquot  innotuerunt  a  beato  Birmingham,  1815);  "  Lessons  of  Morality  and  Piety, 

Petro  apostolo"  (Ratisbon,  1873) ;  Supp.  I:  "Hierar-  extracted  from  the  Sapiental  Books"  (London,  1822); 

ahia  catholica  Pio  IX  Pontifice  Romano"  (Munich,  and  a  number  of  controversial  letters  and  sermons. 

1879) ;  Supp.  II :  "  Series  episcoporum  Ecclesiffi  qui         Db  Backbb.  Bibl.  des  Ecrivaina  delaC.de  J.  (1869),  i,  2029; 

series  qu»  apparuit  1873  completur  et  continuatur  ?:!^^^\H^^^^J^^^^^' ^^^S^  ^^} 

aK  a«.n^  »;.a«>  1 QTA  ^A  OA  i?^K.  1 0QK»»  /Ti^*:«u^^  1 QQAN .  *'";  XCI,  pt.  II,  185,  200;  GiLLow.  Btbl.  Dtct.  Eng.  Cath.  b.  v.; 

ab  anno  circa  1870  ad  20  Febr.  1885   (Ratisbon,  1886) :  coopbb.  in  Did.  liat.  Biog.  s.  ▼.;  Oliver.  CollecUmea  S.  J, 

Das  Jahre  des  Martyrtodes  der  Apostel  Petrus  imd  Folbt,  Reeorda,  S.  J.,  VII. 
Paulus"  (Ratisbon^  1867).  C.  F.  Wemyss  Brown. 

ii^r^^^;^lt^.£tS^f^'^^  Oangwelll,  Lorenzo.    See  Clement  XIV,  Pope. 

tettgeeehielUlichen  Arbeiten  von  P.  P.  B.  Oame  mit  einer  voUe-         OaOg-DayS.     See  RoGATION  DaTS. 

tOndigen  Bibliographie  In  Stud,  und  Mittheil.  aue  dem  Benedict.  n^.Lj-.L    ^  j.**..!   -  •     -il  •  r  -n     i-i 

undCieten.  Orden  (1904);  Gamb  in  AUgemeine  Deuteehe  Biog-  Oailgra,  a  titular  see  m  the  provmce  of  Paphla- 

raphie,  XLIX  (1904).  249-52.  H.  Leclercq.  gonia ;  m  the  native  tongue  the  word  signifies  goat,  and 

-,      -  _,  «     r^  x^  ®ven  now  large  numbers  of  goats  are  seen  in  this 

Oand,  Diocese  of.    See  Ghent,  Diocese  of.  region.    It  belonged  originally  to  Galatia,  and  was 

Gandolphy    (or    Gandolphi),    Peter,    Jesuit  jg^en  the  capit^  of  King  Deiotarus,  the  adve^^ 

preacher;   b.  in  London,  26  July,  1779:   d.  at  East  Mithndates,  and  the  fnend  of  the  Romans.    lAterthe 

Sheen,  Surrey,  9  July,  1821;   sok  of  John  Vincent  "tv  became  the  metropolis  of  Paphlagonia.    It  never 

Gandolphi  of  East  Sheen,  and  grandson  of  Count  ^?rNTI?*^^*!yfJit  .^^.  f^^^^ 
Pietro  Gandolphi,  ""''"  '"""  """"^  «-«--..-«— 

Father  Gandolphi 

Blackiore  and  H^SKy.'   Bia^o^y  son^^i^^  to  ^^^  suppressed' in  the  fourteenth  century  after  the 

the  Blackmore  and  Hinley  estat^  and  assumed  the  conquest  of  the  oountnr  by  the  Trn-ks.    Captured  by 

name  of  Homyold  by  RoyJd  license  in  1859.    Homy-  IT®''^^®'  !?tt^^'  ^*  .w  I?^*P*^'  ^  1^23   ^y 

old  was  an  ancient  (JathoHc  famUy  m  Worcestershii4,  §?^^\^"S^  ^^'  !?^  ^**  A"^®  '^  ?^,  ^"^fff^,^^^ 

and  Blackmore  Park  (recently  pulled  down)  wa^  a  fine  J.^f^^^-.    ,^«  ™^«*  .??u°?5?i^^®  event  of  its  Christian 

example  of  an  old  English  manor  house,  with  numer-  ^^^^  '^^^t'^^'''^  H"^  *^®^'  probably  m  343,  to 

ous  prieste'  hidmg  plices.    The  present  representa-  condemn  Eustathius  of  Armenia  and  his  exaggerated 

tive  of  the  famii^  Alfonso  Otto  Gandolfi  ifomyold,  ff^^V^S^'  ,  ^?^  ^^^^  twenty  canons  of  this  council 

bears  the  title  of  buke  GanJolfi  (a  papal  creation  oi  defend  the  legitunacy  of  Oinstian  marriage  against 

ifiQo\  oa  ™.ii  «o  ♦v,^  ^1^  rL^^^wrwi^  *u\S^'  thc  mdiscretions  of  Eustathius  anc 


1899)  SA  weU  as  the  old  Genoese  titl^  *?«  mdiscretions  of  Eusta^ius  and  especially  of  his 

disciples  (Hefele- Leclercq,  Histoire  des  conciles,  Pans, 
1907;  I,  (2),  1029^5).  It  is  now  known  as  Tchiangre, 
and  IS  a  sandjak  of  the  vilayet  of  Castamouni.    It  is 


Father  G^dolphf'^^^ucatSi  in  the  Jesuit  Col-    ^^i^^^l^i^}^:^}^^:  .histoire  des  concfl^,  Paris, 
lege  at  Li^,  ana  iso  at  Stonyhurat,  where  he  WM    ^^Ji^'^^^'l^^P^i    At  is  now  known  as  Tchiangre, 


appointed  as  teacher  of  humanities  in  180L    He  was  »««  «  »  sanajaK  oi  i.nejmayeii  oi  uasLamoum.     inis 

onioned  priest  about  1804,  and  his  first  charge  was  at  f!^^^  tVH  ^"^^^  ^^"  Olgassus  and  numbere  16^ 

Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,    ke  was  then  transferred  to  ^  inhabitants,  800  of  whom  are  Greeks  and  600 

the  Spanish  chapel  at  Manchester  Square,  London  Armenians,  all  schismatics.    The  ancient  cathedral  of 

(now  tnown  as  St.  James's,  Spanish  Place),  where  he  ^*4.^®V^i^^^?i^?:i^  tJl"'^^!  tv 

soon  attamed  neat  fame  as  a  preacher;   and  as  a  66?™^  ^«-Af»neure.  617;  Cuin.t.  La  Tur^te  d^Aete.  IV. 

worker  among  Protestants  he  raiade  many  converts.  S.  Vailh£. 


_  .„ — ,  —  .  _ ,  ,__._.,,-    r --1  diplomatia 

comprises,  besides  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Gap,  a  large  mtBBioDH  by  FranciB  I,  and  founder  of  the  Coll^  de 
part  of  the  ancient  Diooese  of  Embrua.  The  name  of  Toumon ;  Cardinal  de  Tencin  (1724-40),  who  in  Sep- 
this  last  metropolitan  se«,  however^  has  been  absorbed  temlier,  1727,  caused  the  condemnation  by  the  Council 
in  the  title  of  the  Archbishop  of  Ais.  of  Embrtin  of  the  Janaenist  Soaocn,  Bishop  of  his  auf- 

DiOCESE  or  Gap. — Ancient  traditions  in  litui^ical  fraganSeeofSenet.  St,  Vincent  Ferrer  preached  sev- 
books,  of  which  at  least  one  dates  from  the  fourteenth  enu  missions  against  the  Vaudois  in  the  Diocese  of  Em- 
century,  state  that  the  first  Bishop  of  Gap  was  St.  De-  brun.  Besides  the  tiishops  named  the  following  are 
mctrius,  disciple  of  the  Apostles  and  martyrs.  Father  honouredaasaintsin  the  present  Diocese  of  Gap;  vin- 
Victor  de  Buck  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum  (October,  XI)  cent,  Orontius,  and  Victor,  martyrs  in  Spain  in  the 
finds  nothing  inadmissible  in  these  traditions,  while  fourth  oentiu^,  the  anchorite  Veranus  (sixth  centurr), 
Canon  Albante  defends  them  against  M.  Roman.  Al-  afterwards  Bishop  of  Cavaillon,  and  the  anchorite  St. 
bands  names  as  bishops  of  Gap  the  martyr  St.  Tigris     Donatus  (sixth  century). 

(fourth  century),    then   St.    Remedius   (394-419),        The  Diooese  of  Gap  possesses  two  noted  places  of 
whom  the  Abbe  Duchesne  makes  a  Bishop  of  Antibes    mlgrimage,  Notre-Dame  d'Embrun  at  Eknbrun,  where 
and  who  was  involved  in  the  struggle  between  ^ope     Charlemagne  erected  a  basilica,  visited  by  Fope  Leo 
Zoeimua  and  Bishop  Proculus  of  Marseilles,  finally  St.     Ill  and  Kings  Henir  II  and  Louis  XVIII.    Louis  XI 
Constantinus,  about  439.     Accocding  to  Duchesne  the     was  wont  to  wear  in  his  cap  a  leaden  image  of  Notre- 
firat  historically  known  bishop  ia  Constantinus,  prea-     Damed'Embrun.   Theotberia  that  of  Notre-Dame  du 
Laus,  where  during  fifty-four  yeare  (1664-1718)  the 
blessed  Virgin  appearea  "an  incalculable  number  of 
times"  to  a  shepherdess,  Venerable  Benotte  Rencurel. 
Three  orders  of  women  had  their  origin  in  the  diocese. 
The  Sisters  of  Providence,  a  teaching  and  nursing  or- 
der, established  in  1823  from  the  Sisters  of  Portieux 
(Vowes)  and  after  1837  an  independent  congre^tion; 
the  Sisters  of  Saint  Joseph,   founded  in    1837   for 
teaching  and  nursing;  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  Mary,  founded  in  1835  for  teaching.     The  Diocese 
of  Gap,  numbering  109,510  inhabitants,  had  in  1906 
at  the  cessation  of  the  Concordat,  26  parishes,  218 
missions,  and  15  curacies,  paid  by  the  Bt&te.     During 
the  Middle  Ages  there  were  in  the  mountainous  region 
which  forms  the  present  diocese  more  than  seventy 
hospitals,  maladrerUt,  lazarettoes,  or  houses  of  refuge, 
administered  by  two  congregations  of  the  vicinity,  toe 
Brothers  of  La  Madeleine  and  the  Brothers  of  Holy 
Penitence.    About  half  of  these  asylums  disappeared 
during  the  religious  wars  of  the  sixteenth  ceotuiy. 
Po«!»  *»»  NoBiM  PoMAL.  CAiaMDRAL  o*  Ekbbuh         The oftera  With  the exoBption ot  h^f  a sccto  weresup^ 
pressed  by  royal  command  about  1890,  and  theu- goods 
ent  at  the  Council  of  Enaone  in  517.    The  church  of    given  to  the  'aige  hospitals  of  Gap,  Embrun,  and  Bri- 
Gap  had,  among  other  bishops,  St.  Aregius  (or  Arcy,     ancon.     In  1900,  before  the  Law  of  Associations  was 
579-6107),  who  established  at  Gap  a  celebrated  liter-    enlorced,  there  were  in  the  Diocese  of  Gap  five  ma- 
ary  school  and  was  held  in  great  esteem  by  St.  Gregory    temity  hospitals,  a  school  for  deaf  mutes,  one  orphao- 
the  Great;  also  St.  Amoude  (I06&-1078),  a  monk  of     age  for  boys  and  two  for  girls,  seven  hospitals  or  asy- 
Trinitifi   de  VendOme,   named   bishop   by  Alexander     lums,  two  institutions  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their 
II  to  replace  the  simoniac  Ripert,  and  who  became     homes,  all  under  the  direction  of  religious  orders, 
the  patron  of  the  episcopal  city.  Oailia  Chruliam  {Nova,  1716).  I,  453-473,  Iiulrumcnia,  86- 

Archdiocbsb  of  Embrun.— The  Archdiocese   of  89;  (At™  1725)  iir  iosi-ii07:  M.(ru™mto  177-188  2CB- 

Embnm    had  as  suffragans,    Digne    Antibee    and  g  g^JSKaSpS^^rSS^/S^C'o.lffi 

Grasse,  Vence,  Gland^ves,  Senei,  and  Nice.    Tradi-  FiaguET,  fVnn«P(7ni;;!ciifc(PAriii,  iS6S);(iAiu.AUD.  Hutoind* 

tion  ascribes  the  evangelisation  of  Embnm  to  Sta.  ^'^™  ^o™ '''*,"*™",f,'^*P!,i^2J:  Rohih  SimMaompAw  Ai 

N«,»imi.ndM.»,  ™rtrT.™d.rNe„     Tb.  lint  JS^^-'^  S.'SSSl^'lMlkSKro.JJSrTS 

bishop  was  St.  Marcelhnus  (354-74).     Other  bishops  juPbibt.,  pp.  988,  1206. 

of  Embrun  were  St.  Albinus  (400-37);  St.  PaUadius  Gbohoeb  Gotau. 

(first  half  of  the  sixth  century) ;  St.  Eutherius  (middle 

of  the  seventh  century);  St.  James  (eighth  century);        Oarclti  Anne,  better  known  as  Venerable  Anne  of 

St.  Alphonsus  (eighth  century) ;  St.  Marcellua  (end  of  St.  Bartholomew,  Discalced  Carmelite  nun,  companion 

the  ei^ti  cenluty),  whom  Charlemagne  sent  to  evan-  of  St.  Teresa;  b.  at  Almendral,  Old  Castile,  1   Oct., 

gelize  Saxony;  St.  Bernard   (805-25),  under  whose  1550;  d.  at  Antwerp,  7  June,  1626.     Shewasofhum- 

episcopate  Charlemagne  enriched  the  Diocese  of  Em-  ble  origin  and  spent  her  youth  in  solitude  and  prayer 

brun;  St.  Benedict  (beginning  of  the  tenth  century),  tending  the  flocks.     When  she  first  went  to  Avila  to 

martyred  by  the  Saracen  invaders;  St.  Liberalis  (9^>-  enterthe  Carmelite  convent,  shewas  refused,  being  too 

40);  St.Hismide  (1027—15);  St.  Guillaume  (1120-34),  young;forBeveralyear9after.  she  suffered  much  at  the 

founder  of  the  celebrated  Abbey  of  Boecodon ;  St.  Ber-  nanda  of  her  brothers.    Finally,  overcoming  all  obstai- 

nard  Chabert  (1213-35),  Henry  of  Segusio  (1250-71),  cles,  she  entered  the  convent  as  lay  sister  and  made  her 

known  as  Ostiensis,  i.e.  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Ostia.  an  vowa  on  15  August,  1572.     For  the  next  ten  years  she 

orator  and  canonist  of  renown;  the  Dominican  Rai-  filled  the  post  of  infirmarian;  her  spirit  of  prayer  and 

mond  of  M£volhon  (1289-94),  who  defended  the  doc-  humility  endeared  her  to  St.  Teresa   whose  almost 

trine  of  St.  Thomas  against  the  attacks  of  English  inseparable  companion  and  secretary  ahe  now  became. 

theologians;  Bertrand  of  Deaux  (1323-38).  who  as  the  St.  Teresa  died  in  her  arms  at  Alba  de  Tormes  in  1582. 

legateofClement  Vlat Romedidmuch tobHngabout  Anne  afterwards  returned  to  Avila,  took  part  in  the 

tite  downfall  of  Rienzi ;  Jacques  G61u  (1427-32),  one  of  foundation  of  a  convent  at  OcaOa  (1595),  and  was  ono 


order  into  FisDce  (October,   1604).     The    French  the  severe  penecutioa  to  which  Christianity  was  sub- 

Buperiora,  desirous  of  sending  her  aa  prioress  to  Fon-  jected  in  that  region,  from  about  1730  he  was  gnul- 

toise,  obliged  her  to  pass  from  the  state  of  lay  sister  to  ueJly  entirely  forgotten  until  a  well-known  writer 

that  of  choir  sister.     So  unusual  a  step  met  with  the  lecently  undertooK  to  write  the  history  of  the  place, 

disapproval  of  her  companions,  but  as  St.  Teresa  had  and  drew  the  attention  of  the  public  to  St.  Garcia 

foretold  it  many  years  previously  Anne  offered  no  Gonsalo.    Owing  to  the  praiseworthy  endeavours  of  a 

neistance.     She  had  also  been  forewarned  that  the  secular  priest,  and  the  great  interest  evinced  by  the 

same  step  wonid  cause  her  great  sufferings,  and  indeed  present  Bishop  of  Damaun  in  the  promotion  of  the 

her  priorship  at   Pontoise   (January  to   September,  devotion  towards  the  saint,  the  feast  of  St.  Garcia  is 

1605),  Paris  (October,  1606   to  April,   1608),  Tours  now  annually  celebrated  with  great  soleninity;   and 

Uay,  1608,  to  1611)  brought  her  heavy  trials^  not  the  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  fiassem,  Salaette,  and  Bom- 

least  of  which  were  differences  with  her  supenors.    At  Day  flock  to  the  place  on  that  occasion. 
the  expiration  of  her  last  term  of  office  she  returned  to        The  Bull  of  Cuiouloitkiii;   BibliaOuca  Hitionea  PCipina; 

Paris,  l)ut  warned  by  a  vision,  she  proceeded  to  Bel-  Supplmnent  to  Ribadiheiu,  Hioorgat  Uu  Eatim  Anhiptt- 

gi™  (O.lobe.,  1611)  when  ih.  louocM  ..d  l»am.  S^'SSSi.f'it^JS.fSSi.tS^^l.'iS. 

pnoress   of  a  convent  at  Antwerp    (27   Oct.,  1612),  Oania;    Bombay  CotAotic  Examitur  tor  1003.  1904;    O  Anglo 

which  she  governed  to  the  end  of  herlife.     Twice  she  Luniflno  (or  1903,  leofc 

was  instrumental  in  delivering  the  town  from  the  Manobi.  D^. 

hmdiol  the  enemy.    In  1735  Anneri  SI  Bartholo-        Q|,„i  D(«o,  Fsincuco.    Se.  DiMO  I  Mo.mo, 

mew  was  declared  Venerable ;  her  proceaa  of  beatifica-  Pbancibco 

tioQ  is  not  yet  completed.     Her  writingi  include  a        ^^  fovu- 

number  of  letters  still  preserved,  an  autobiography        Otrelft  Moreno,  Gabribl,  Ecuadorean  patriot  and 

now  at  Antwerp,  edited  by  M.  Bouix  (Paris,  1869-72),  statesman  ib.  at  Guayaquil,  24  December,  1821  ■  asaaH- 

and   several    treatises   on   spiritual   matters,    which  sinated  at  Quito,  6  August,  1875.     His  father,  Gabriel 

appeared  at  Paris  in  1646.  Garcfa  Gomes,  a  native  of  ViUaverde,  in  Old  Cas- 

EHBfauii,  HitUma  dt  la  Vuta  tit.  (Bruanls,  1632.  Vr.  tr.  at  tile,  bad  been  en- 

Pwla,1033);  La  Vit  tt  If  vulrvctioiu  de  la  Vin.  MHt  Amu  dt  -.1^      ;„      „-, 

5.  BarlMUny.  pat  un  tolilairt  dt  Mariaiont  (BniHils.  1708;  B°e^      f  ^, 

■WW  ad.,  V»Sa,  1SB5).  merce    at   Callao 

B.  ZuoiEiuiAJt.  before    removing 

to  Guayaquil, 

Owda,  Gonsalo,  Saint;  b.  of  a  Portuguese  father  where  he  married   ' 

and  a  Canarese  mouier  in  Baaaein,  East  India,  about  Dofia     Mercedes 

the  year  1556  or  1557;   d.  5  Feb.,  1597.     His  early  Uoreno,  the  mo-   | 

training  was  entrusted  to  the  Jesuits,  who  brought  ther  of  the  future 

him  up  m  their  college  in  Bassein  Fort.    At  the  age  of  Ecuadorean 

twenty-four  or  twenty-five  he  went  to  Japan  in  the  martyr  president. 

company  of  some  Jesuit  fathers  who  were  ordered,  in  Gabriel  Garcia 

1580,  to  leave  Bassein,  and  join  their  mission  in  the  Gomez  died  while 

former  country.     He  quickly  acquired  a  knowled^  of  his  son  was  still 

the  language;  and  as  he  was  of  an  amiable  disposition  young,    and    the 

he  won  the  hearts  of  the  people  and  did  great  service  boy's    education 

as  a  catechist  for  eight  years.     He  then  ^ft  this  kind  was   left    to   the 

of  work  and  betook  nimsetf  to  Alacao  for  trading  pur-  care  of  his  mother, 

poses.     His  business  soon   flourished  and  branches  who    appears   to 

were  opened  in  different  places.     During  his  freauent  have  been  a  wo- 

visite  to  Manila  he  mEide  the   acquaintance  of   the  man    of   unusual 


,    ind  being  drawn  more  and  more  to-    ability  for  her  „ „ ,.  „ .„ 

wards  them  he  finally  joined  the  Seraphic  Order  as  a  task;     she     was,               u*wu»i.  Q*»cIa  Mobbno 

lay  brother.    He  saued  from  the  Riilippine  Islands  moreover,  fortunate  in  securing  as  her  son's  tutor 

with  other  companions  in  religion  under  Petrus  Bap-  Fray  Job*  Betancourt  the  famous  Mercedarian,  under 

tista,  26  May,  1592,  on  an  embassy  from  the  Spanish  whose  tuition  young  Garcta  Moreno  made  rapid  prog- 

Govemor  to  the  Emperor  of  Japan.    After  working  ress.    A  great  port  of  his  father's  fortune  having 

sealously  for  the  glory  of  God  for  more  than  four  been  lost,  it  was  not  without  some  considerable  saen- 

yflars,  the  Emperor  Taiko-Sama,  suspecting  the  mis-  fices  that  the  youth  was  able  to  attend  the  university 

.^..^o.:^  _-e  aiming  at  the  overthrow  of  his  throne^  course  at  Quito.    These  material  obstaclee  o: 


^1  J  c  ^  •  *  ■  "'=*~'""  "'  ""  wiiuuc,  wjiuwj  at  ■<uim.  iiieae  roaienai  oDBiacies  once  over- 
ordered  St.  Garcia  and  his  companions  to  be  guarded  come,  he  passed  brilliantly  through  the  schools,  dia- 
in  their  Oanvent  at  Miaco  on  8  December,  1696.  A  tancmg  all  his  contemporaries,  and  on  26  October, 
few  days  afterwards,  when  the^  were  singing  vespen,  1844,  received  his  degree  in  the  faculty  of  law  {Dodar 
they  were  apprehended  and  with  their  hands  tied  be-  en  Junfjtrudenda)  from  the  University  of  Quito. 
hind  their  backs  were  taken  to  prison.  On  3  January,  In  less  than  ayear  after  his  graduation  young  Gattda 
1697,  the  extremities  of  the  left  ears  of  twenty-six  con-  Moreno  had  begun  to  take  an  active  part  in  feuodor- 
fesBOrs,  St.  Garcia  amongst  the  number,  were  cut  off;  ean  politics,  joining  in  the  revolutionary  movement 
but  were  with  mat  respect  collected  by  the  Chris-  which  eventually  replaced  the  Flores  administra- 
Uans.  On  5  Februaiv  of  the  same  year,  the  day  of  tion  bythat  of  Roca  (1846).  He  soon  distinguished 
the  martyrdom,  St.  Garcia  was  the  first  to  be  ex-  himself  as  a  political  satirist  by  contributions  to 
tended  on,  and  nailed  to,  the  cross,  which  was  then  "El  Zurriago' ,  but  what  more  truly  presfued  the 
erected  in  the  middle  of  those  of  his  companions.  Two  achievements  of  his  riper  life  was  his  good  »nd  useful 
lances  piercing  the  body  from  one  side  to  the  other  and  work  as  a  member  of  the  municipal  council  of  Quito. 
jMiasingth  rough  the  heart,  whilst  the  saint  was  singing  At  the  same  time  he  was  studying  legal  practice,  and 
the  praises  of  God  during  the  infliction  of  the  torture,  on  30  March,  1848,  was  admitted  a^ocate.  Imme- 
put  an  end  to  his  suffenngs  and  won  for  Garcia  the  diately  after  this  the  deposed  Flores,  supported  by  the 
martyr's  crown.  In  1627  these  twenty-six  servants  Spanish  government,  made  an  attempt  to  regain  the 
of  God  were  declared  venerable  by  Urban  VIII;  their  presidency  of  Ecuador;  Garcia  Moreno  unhesSatingly 
feast  occurs  on  6  February,  the  anniversary  of  their  came  forward  in  support  of  the  Roca  administration, 
sufferings;  and  in  1629  their  veneration  was  permitted  and  when  that  administration  fell,  in  1849,  he  entered 
throughout  the  Universal  Church.    The  people  of  upon  his  fint  period  of  exile.    After  some  months 


QABOIA 


380 


GABOIA 


spent  in  Europe  he  returned  to  his  native  republic  in 
the  employ  of  a  mercantile  concern,  and  it  was  then 
that  he  took  the  first  decisive  step  which  marked  him 
conspicuously  for  the  enmity  of  the  anti-Catholics,  or, 
as  they  preferred  to  call  themselves,  the  Liberals.  At 
Panama  he  had  fallen  in  with  a  party  of  Jesuits  who 
had  been  expelled  from  the  Repuolic  of  New  Granada 
and  wished  to  find  an  asylum  in  Ecuador.  Garcfa 
Moreno  constituted  himself  the  protector  of  these 
religoous,  and  they  sailed  with  him  for  Guayaquil ;  but 
on  the  same  vessel  that  carried  the  Jesuits  and  their 
champion,  an  envoy  from  New  Granada  also  took 
passage  for  the  express  purpose  of  brin^g  diplomatic 
influence  to  bear  with  the  dictator,  Diego  Noboa,  to 
secure  their  exclusion  from  Ecuadorean  territory.  No 
sooner  had  the  vessel  entered  the  harbour  of  Guaya- 
quil than  Garcfa  Moreno,  slipping  into  a  shore  boat, 
succeeded  in  landing  some  time  before  the  New  Grana- 
dan  envoy;  the  necessary  permission  was  acquired 
from  the  Eeuadorean  government,  and  the  Jesuits 
obtained  a  foothold  in  that  countiy.  How  soon  the 
report  of  this  exploit  spread  among  the  anti-Catho- 
lics of  South  America  was  evidenced  by  the  fact 
that  within  a  year  Jaoobo  S^chez,  a  New  Granadan, 
had  attacked  Garcfa  Moreno  in  the  pamphlet  "Don 
F^lix  Frias  en  Paris  y  los  Jesuitas  en  el  Ecuador",  to 
which  Garcfa  Moreno's  reply  was  an  able  **  Defensa  de 
los  Jesuitas". 

In  1853  he  began  to  publish  **  La  Naci6n",  a  periodi- 
cal which,  accorain^  to  its  prospectus,  was  intended  to 
combat  the  then  existing  tendency  ot  the  government 
to  exploit  the  masses  for  the  material  benefit  of  those 
who  happened  to  be  in  power.  At  the  same  time 
Garcfa  Moreno's  programme  aimed  distinctly  and 
professedlv  to  defend  the  relision  of  the  people.  He 
was  already  known  as  a  friend  of  the  Jesuits;  he  now 
assumed  the  r61e  of  friend  of  the  common  people,  to 
which  he  adhered  sincerely  and  consistently  to  the  day 
of  his  death.  The  Urbina  faction,  then  in  power,  were 
quick  to  recognize  the  importance  of  ''  La  Naci6n". 
which  was  suppressed  before  the  appearance  of  its  third 
number,  and  its  proprietor  was  exiled,  for  the  second 
time.  Having  been,  meanwhile^  elected  senator  by 
his  native  province  of  Guayaquil,  he  was  prevented 
from  taking  his  seat,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  re- 
turned to  Quito  without  a  passport.  After'a  sojourn 
at  Paita,  Garcfa  Moreno  once  more  visited^  Europe. 
He  was  now  thirty-three  years  of  a^e,  and  his  experi- 
ence of  political  life  in  Ecuador  hacf  deeply  convinced 
him  of  his  people's  need  of  enlightenment.  It  was  un- 
doubtedly with  this  conviction  as  his  euide  and  incen- 
tive that  he  spent  a  year  or  more  in  Paris,  foregoing 
every  form  of  pleasure,  a  severe,  indefatigable  student 
not  only  of  political  science,  but  flJso  of  the  higher 
mathematics,  of  chemistry,  and  of  the  French  public- 
school  system.  On  his  return  home,  under  a  general 
amnestjr  in  1856,  he  became  rector  of  the  central 
University  of  Quito,  a  position  of  which  he  availed 
himself  to  commence  lectures  of  his  own  in  physical 
science.  Next  year  he  was  active  in  the  senate  in 
opposition  to  the  Masonic  party,  which  had  gained 
control  of  the  government,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
persistently  and  forcibly,  though  unsuccessfully, 
struggled  for  the  passage  of  a  law  establishing  a  sys- 
tem of  public  educaiion  modelled  on  that  of  France. 
In  1858  he  once  more  established  a  paper,  "  La  Union 
Nacional",  which  became  obnoxious  to  the  govern- 
ment by.  its  fearless  exposure  of  corruption  and  its 
opposition  to  the  arbitrary  employment  of  authority; 
and  once  more  a  political  crisis  ensued. 

Garcfa  Moreno  was  on  principle  an  advocate  of 
orderly  processes  of  government,  and  that  his  pro- 
fessions in  this  regard  were  sincere  his  subsequent 
career  fairly  demonstrated,  but  at  this  juncture  he  was 
obliged  to  realize  that  his  country  was  in  the  grip  of  a 
corrupt  oligarchy,  bent  upon  the  suppression  of  the 
Church  to  which  the  whole  mass  of  his  fellow  country- 


nien  were  devoted,  and  disposed  to  keep  the  masses  m 
Ignorance  so  as  to  sway  tnem  the  more  easily  to  its 
own  ends.  He  had,  years  before,  attacked  *'  the  revo- 
lutionary industry",  a  phrase  probably  first  used  by 
him,  in  the  prospectus  of  *'  La  Naci6n^';  it  now  became 
necessary  for  him  to  descend  to  revolutionary  methods. 
Besides,  the  little  Republic  of  Ecuador  was  at  this  time 
menaced  by  its  more  powerful  nei^bour  on  the  south, 
Peru.  Garcfa  Moreno,  if  he  was  sure  of  opposition  at 
the  hands  of  the  soi-disant  Liberals,  was  also,  by  this 
time,  recognized  by  the  masses  as  a  leader  loyal  to 
both  their  common  Faith  and  their  common  country, 
and  thus  he  was  able  to  organize  the  revolution  which 
made  him  head  of  a  provisional  government  estab- 
lished at  Quito.  The  republic  was  now  divided.  Gen- 
eral Franco  being  at  the  head  of  a  rival  government 
established  at  Guayaquil.  In  vain  did  Garcfa  Moreno 
offer  to  share  his  authority  with  his  rival  for  the  sake 
of  national  unity.  As  a  defensive  measure  against  the 
threat  of  Peruvian  invasion,  Garcfa  Moreno  entered 
into  ne^tiations  with  the  French  envoy  with  a  view 
to  securinj^  the  protection  of  France,  a  political  mis- 
take of  which  his  enemies  knew  how  to  avail  themselves 
to  the  utmost.  He  was  now  obliged  to  assume  the 
character  of  a  military  leader,  for  which  he  possessed 
at  least  the  qualifications  of  personal  courage  and 
decisive  quickness  of  resolution.  While  Garcfa  Mo- 
reno inflicted  one  defeat  after  another  upon  the  par- 
tisans of  Franco,  the  latter,  as  representing  Ecuador, 
had  concluded  with  Peru  the  treaty  of  Mapasingue. 
The  people  of  Ecuador  rose  in  indignation  at  the  con- 
cessions made  in  this  treaty,  and  Franco,  even  his  own 
followers  being  alienated,  was  defeated  at  Babahoya 
(7  August,  1860)  and  again  at  Salado  River,  where  he 
was  driven  to  take  refuge  on  a  Peruvian  vessel.  When 
his  adversary  had  been  forcibly  driven  from  the  coun- 
try, Garcfa  Moreno  showed  his  magnanimity  in  the 
proclamation  in  which  he  sought  to  heal  as  quickly  as 
possible  the  scars  of  this  civil  war:  ''The  republic 
should  regard  itself  as  one  family;  the  old  demarca- 
tions of  districts  must  be  so  obliterated  as  to  render 
sectional  ambitions  impossible."  In  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  which  was  sum- 
moned to  meet  in  January,  1861,  he  insisted  that  the 
suffrage  should  not  be  territorial,  but  **  direct  and  uni- 
versal, imder  the  necessary  guarantees  of  intelligence 
and  morality,  and  the  number  of  representatives 
should  correspond  (proportionally)  to  that  of  the 
electors  represented'^  The  Convention,  which  met 
on  10  January,  elected  Garcfa  Moreno  president;  he 
delivered  his  inaugural  address  on  the  2d  of  April 
following.  Then  began  that  series  of  reforms  among 
which  were  the  restitution  of  the  rights  of  the  Church 
and  a  radical  reconstruction  of  the  fiscal  S3n8tem.  In 
the  immediate  present  he  had  to  deal  with  the  machi- 
nations of  his  old  adversary  Urbina,  who,  from  his 
retirement  in  Peru,  kept  up  incessant  intrigues  wiUi 
the  opposition  at  home,  and  still  more  with  the  govern- 
ments of  neighbouring  republics.  Garcfa  Moreno  soon 
came  to  a  sensible  and  honourable  understanding  with 
the  Peruvian  government. 

A  violation  of  Eksuadorean  territor)^  by  New  Gra- 
nada, though  it  led  to  a  hostile  collision  in  which  Garcfa 
Moreno  himself  took  part,  had  no  serious  consequences 
until  the  Arboledo  administration  ^ve  place  to  that 
of  General  Mosquera,  whose  ambition  it  was  to  make 
New  Granada  the  nucleus  of  a  great  "Colombian  Con- 
federation", in  which  Ecuador  was  to  be  included. 
Urbina  was  not  above  writing  encouraging  letters  to 
Uie  New  Granadan  or  Colombian  dictator  who  was 
scheming  against  the  independence  of  Ecuador.  An 
invitation  to  Garcfa  Moreno  to  confer  with  Mosquera 
elicited  a  very  plain  intimation  that,  so  far  as  the 
national  obliteration  of  Ecuador  was  concerned,  there 
was  nothing  to  confer  about.  But  in  the  meantime 
the  Republic  of  Ecuador  had  ratified  a  concordat  with 
Pope  Pius  IX  (1862),  and  the  discontent  of  the  Regal- 


GAB0ILA88O 


381 


OAB0ILA880 


ista  party  at  home  with  the  provisions  of  that  instni* 
ment  gave  Mosquera  an  excellent  pretext  for  encroach- 
ing upon  his  neighbour's  riefats.  The  Regalistas  were, 
without  knowing  it,  a  kina  of  Erastians^  who  claimed 
the  appointment  to  ecclesiastical  benenoes  as  an  in- 
alienable right  of  the  civil  power.  The  President  of 
Ecuador  was  charged  with  ''casting  Colombia,  mana- 
cled, at  the  feet  of  Rome";  Urbma  issued  "mani- 
festos" from  Peru  in  the  sense  of  "South  America  for 
the  South  Americans";  while  the  proclamation  of 
President  Mosquera  recited,  with  otners  which  seem 
to  have  been  introduced  merely  for  the  sake  of  appear- 
ances, his  three  really  significant  grounds  of  complaint 
against  Garcfa  Moreno:  that  the  latter  had  ratified  the 
concordat;  that  he  maintained  a  representative  of  the 
Holy  See  at  Quito;  that  he  had  brought  Jesuits  into 
Ecuador.  It  may  bd  remarked  here,  m  passing,  that 
if  Mosquera  had  added  to  this  catalogue  of  offences 
those  of  insisting  upon  free  primary  education  for  the 
masses,  upon  strict  auditing  of  the  public  accounts, 
and  a  considerable  bona  fide  outlay  upon  roads  and 
other  public  utilities,  his  proclamation  might  have 
served  adequately  as  the  indictment  upon  which  Gar- 
cfa Moreno  was  condemned  and  eventuallv  put  to 
deatii  by  those  whom  Pius  IX  ironically  caUed  "the 
vidiant  sectaries". 

Mosquera  was  determined  to  have  war,  and  all  the 
efforts  of  the  Ecuadorean  government  were  of  no  avail 
to  prevent  it.  At  the  battle  of  Cuaspud  all  but  two 
battalions  of  the  forces  of  Eksuador  flea  ignominiously. 
It  is  a  matter  for  wonder,  considering  the  grounds  upon 
which  he  had  declared  war,  that  Mosc^uera,  in  the 
Peace  of  Pinsaqui,  which  followed  this  victory,  should 
have  left  the  Concordat  of  1862,  the  delegate  Apoeh 
tolic,  and  the  Jesuits  j  ust  as  they  were.  In  March,  1863. 
Garcfa  Moreno  tendered  his  resignation  to  the  National 
Assembly,  who  insisted  upon  his  remaining  in  office 
until  the  expiration  of  his  term.  Nevertheless  he  had 
to  face,  durm^  the  next  two  years,  repeated  seditions 
and  fiUbustenng  raids.  After  sparing  the  lives  of  the 
leaders  in  one  of  these  movements,  tnough  they  had 
by  all  law  and  custom  incurred  the  penalty  of  death, 
he  was  severely  criticized  for  ordering  the  execution  of 
another  such  when  it  had  become  evident  that  an 
example  was  necessary  for  thepeace  of  the  republic. 
In  a  naval  battle  at  Jambelf  (27  June,  1865)  at  which 
Garcfa  Moreno  was  personally  present,  the  defeat  of 
the  Urbina  forces  was  complete,  and  tranquillitv 
reigned  until  the  presidential  term  expired  on  the  27ta 
of  the  following  August. 

In  the  f ollowmg  year  began  what  ma^  be  considered 
as  a  connected  series  of  attempts  which  terminated, 
nine  years  later,  in  the  assassination  of  Garcfa  Moreno. 
The  dispute  between  Spain  and  Peru  over  the  Chin- 
chas  Islands  had  led  to  a  war  in  which,  following  Gar- 
cfa Moreno's  advice,  his  successor  Jer6nimo  Carri6n 
had  cast  in  the  lot  of  Ecuador  with  that  of  the  sister 
republic  and  its  then  ally,  Chile.  The  ex-presi- 
dent was  sent  as  minister  plenipotentiary  to  Chile, 
with  a  commission  to  transact  business  with  Presi- 
dent Prado  of  Peru  on  his  way.  On  his  arrival  at 
lima  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  him,  but 
it  ended  in  the  death  of  his  assailant.  His  diplo- 
matic mission  resulted  excellently  for  the  friendly 
relations  between  Ecuador  and  its  neighbours;  the  so- 
journ at  Santiago  also  inspired  Garcfa  Moreno  with  a 
hi^  admiration  for  Chile,  and  he  even  made  up  his 
mmd  to  attempt  a  change  of  the  Elcuadorean  constitu- 
tion so  as  to  make  it  more  like  that  of  Chile,  a  project 
which  he  carried  into  effect  in  the  National  Convention 
of  1869.  On  his  return  to  Ecuador  he  found  himself  a 
second  time  in  the  uncongenial  position  of  leader  of  a 
revohition.  To  anticipate  a  plot  which  the  Liberals, 
led  by  one  of  Urbina's  relations,  were  known  to  be 
forming,  the  conservatives  of  Ecuador  had  risen,  de- 
clared Uarri6n  deposed,  and  made  Garcfa  Moreno  nead 
of  the  provisional  government.    The  justice  of  the 


grounds  on  which  this  extreme  action  was  taken  was 
established  by  the  attempt  of  Veintemilla,  at  Guaya- 
quiL  only  two  months  later,  in  March,  1869. 

Having  been  duly  confirmed  as  president  ad  xrUerim 
by  the  National  Convention  of  Mav,  1869,  Garcfa  Mo- 
reno resumed  his  work  for  the  enlightenment,  as  well  as 
the  religious  well-being,  of  his  people.  It  was  in  these 
last  years  of  his  life  that  he  did  so  much  for  the  teach- 
ing of  physical  sciences  in  the  university  by  introduc- 
ing there  the  German  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
The  medical  schools  an4  hospitals  of  the  capital  bene- 
fited vastlv  by  his  intelligent  and  zealous  efforts. 
In  September,  1870,  the  troops  of  Victor  Emmanuel 
occupied  Rome:  and  on  18  January,  1871,  Garcfa 
Moreno,  alone  of  all  the  rulers  of  the  world,  addressed 
a  protest  to  the  King  of  Italy  on  the  spoliation  of  the 
fiolv  See.  The  pope  marked  his  appreciation  of  this 
outburst  of  loyalty  by  conferring  on  the  President  of 
Eksuador  the  decoration  of  the  First  Class  of  the  Order 
of  Pius  IX,  with  a  Brief  of  commendation  dated  27 
March,  1871.  It  was,  on  the  other  hand,  notorious 
that  certain  lodges  had  formally  decreed  the  death  of 
Garcfa  Moreno,  who,  in  a  letter  to  the  pope,  used  about 
tiiiis  time  the  following  almost  prophetic  words : ''  What 
riches  for  me.  Most  Holy  Father,  to  be  hated  and  ca- 
lumniated for  mv  love  for  our  Divine  Redeemer  I 
What  happiness  if  vour  benediction  should  obtain  for 
me  from  Heaven  the  grace  of  shedding  my  blood  for 
Hun,  who  being  God,  was  willing  to  sued.  His  blood 
for  us  upon  the  Cross  1"  The  object  of  numberless 
plots  against  his  life,  Garcfa  Moreno  pursued  his  way 
with  unruffled  confidence  in  the  future — ^his  own  and 
his  country's.  ''The  enemies  of  God  and  the  Church 
can  kill  me",  he  once  said,  ''but  God  does  not  die" 
(Dios  no  muere). 

He  had  been  re-elected  president,  and  would  soon 
have  entered  upon  another  term  of  office,  when,  to- 
wards the  end  of  July,  1875,  the  police  of  Quito  were 
apprised  that  a  party  of  aiwaflsins  had  begun  to  dog 
(&rcfa  Moreno's  footsteps.  When,  however,  the 
chief  of  police  warned  the  intended  victim,  the  latter 
so  discouraged  all  attempts  to  hedge  him  about  with 
precautions,  as  to  almost  excuse  the  carelessness  of  his 
official  guardians.  It  came  out  in  evidence  that  within 
the  fortnight  preceding  the  finally  successful  attempt, 
the  same  assassins  had  at  least  twice  been  foiled  by 
the  president's  failing  to  appear  on  occasions  when 
he  had  been  expected.  .  Finally,  on  the  evening  of  6 
August,  the  assassins  found  their  prey  unprotected, 
leaving  the  house  of  some  very  dear  friends;  they 
followed  him  until  he  had  reached  the  Treasury,  and 
there  Faustino  Rayo,  the  leader  of  the  band,  suddenly 
attacked  him  with  a  machete,  infficting  six  or  seven 
wounds,  while  the  other  three  assisted  in  the  work 
with  their  revolvers. 

On  hearing  of  the  death  of  Garcfa  Moreno,  Pope 
Pius  IX  ordered  a  solemn  Mass  of  Requiem  to  be  cele- 
brated in  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  in  Trastevere. 
The  same  sovereign  pontiff  erected  to  his  memory,  in 
the  Collegio  Pio-Latino,  at  Rome,  a  monument  on 
which  Garcfa  Moreno  is  designated: — 

Religionis  integerrimus  custos 
Auctor  studiorum  optimorum 
Obsec^uentissimus  in  Petri  sedem 
Justiti®  cultor;  scelerum  vindex. 

The  materials  for  this  article  have  been  derived  from  a  biog- 
raphy, now  extranely  rare,  written  by  a  personal  friend  and 
politioal  associate  of  Garcfa  Moreno,  Hbrrera,  Apuntea  8cbr€ 
la  Vida  de  Qareia  Moreno,    See  also:  Bbbthbs.  Oarda  Moreno 


rParis):  Lee  Coniemporaine  (Paris,  s.  d.),  I;  MAXwpLLrScoTT, 
Gobrxd  Garcia  Moreno,  Reqenerator  of 
Seriea  (London  and  New  York,  1908). 


E.  Macpherson. 

Oardlaaso  de  la  Vega,  Spanish  Ijrric  poet;  b.  at 
Toledo,  6  Feb.,  1603;  d.  at  Nice,  14  Oct.,  1536.  A 
noble  and  a  soldier,  he  spent  much  time  in  Italy 
during  the  campaigns  of  Charles  V,  whose  entire  con- 


OABOZLASSO  382  QABDELUNZ 

fidenoe  he  enjoyed.    For  a  biief  space  (1531-2),  he  early  history  of  the  Inoas,  he  finished  in  1604,  and 

lost  the  imperial  favour  in  consequence  of  his  con-  published  at  Lisbon  in  1609.    In  1612,  he  finished  the 

nivanoe  at  the  marriage  of  his  nephew  with  a  ro^al  second  part,  dealing  with  the  conquest  of  Peru  by  the 

ward  contrary  to  the  emperor's  wishes,  and  was  im-  Spaniards,  and  published  it  at  Coraova  in  1616.    As  a 

prisoned  on  an  island  in  the  Danube.  ^  When  liber-  historian  of  Peru  and  its  people,  Garcilasso  enjoyed 

ated.  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Spanish  viceroy  at  singular  advantages,  for  his  mother,  an  Inca  princess, 

Naples,  shared  in  the  expedition  which,  in  1535,  and  her  relations  told  him  eveiythingconoermns  their 

Charles  directed  against  Tunis,  and  in  the  following  ancestors,  omitting  nothing,  as  they  considered  him 

year  met  his  death  while  leading  an  attack  upon  a  one  of  their  race.    On  the  other  hand,  his  father,  who 

castle  in  Southern  Fi'ance  at  the  command  of  his  was  the  Governor  of  Cuzoo,  was  on  intimate  terms 

master.    In  the  history  of  Spanish  literature  Garci-  with  manv  of  the  conquerors,  so  that  from  them  the 

lasso  occupies  a  prominent  place  because  of  the  part  historian  heajxi  tiie  accounts  of  their  deeds.    Gard- 

which  he  played,  along  with  Boscan,  in  naturalizing  lasso,  therefore,  was  in  a  position  to  get  information  at 

the  Italian  verse-forms  in  Spanish.    To  him  is  due  no  first  hand  from  both  the  natives  anatheir  conquerors, 

little  credit  for  the  skill  with  which  he  transplanted.  His  work  is  of  great  historic  vsdue,  as  it  constitutes 

even  excelling  his  older  comrade  Boscan,  the  Italian  practically  the  only  document  we  possess  of  the  an- 

sonnet  with  its  hendecasyllable,  the  canzone,  the  terza  cient  civilization  of  Peru.    The  first  part  was  trans- 


Oardellinly  Aloisio,  b.  at  Rome,  4  Aug.,  1759;  d. 
there,  8  Oct.,  1829.    He  is  famous  chiefly  for  his  col- 


containing  the  first  edition  of  her  husband's  composi-  hausen,  1786).    The  second  part  was  translated  into 

tions,  it  embraces^  besides  some  early  villancicos  in  FVench  by  Ptadelle-Baudoin  (Paris,  1646,  1658,  and 

the  older  and  native  Spanish  manner,  three  eglogas,  1707),  and  into  English  by  Rigault  (London,  16i88). 

two  elegias,  an  epistola  m  blank  verse,  five  canciones,  ^  Phbsoott,  Conquest  of  Peru  (New  York,  1865):  Mamcbam, 

which  are  rather  complicated  in  their  structure,  and  GtorcOaw'a  Roual  Commenianea  (tr..  i/^i^^L^W^^^ 

thirty-seven  or  thirty-eight  sonnets.    Although  he  ybntuka  ruEziTSB. 

passed  his  life  in  the  cam|>,  he  hardly  reflects  at  all  in  Oardar.    See  Ambrxca,  PBa-GoLUMBiAN;  Gbeen- 

his  poetry  the  martial  spirit  that  actuated  him;  the  i^^nd. 
pastoral  note  with  its  gentle  melancholy  is  most  per- 
sistent in  his  strains.    As  he  was  well  acquainted  with 

the  Italian  poets  of  the  Renaissance,  he  does  not  fail  ^              . 

to  echo  here  and  there  some  of  their  best  passages,  and  lection  of  the  decrees  of  the  Congre^tion  of  Rites. 

reminiBoenoes  of  Tansillo,  Sannazzaro,  and  Bernardo  Until  1587,  the  celebration  of  the  Siicnfice  of  the  Mass 

Tasso  are  easily  found  in  his  work.  '  Of  the  ancients,  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  had  been 

Horace  had  much  to  do  with  the  development  of  his  subject  to  regulations  made  by  various  popes.    Neces- 

graceful  poetic  manner.  saruy,  in  the  course  of  time,  these  regulations  became 

Worke  (1544 — ^with  Boscan's  poetry;  lisbon.  1626 — ^reprint-  somewhat  confused  by  reason  of  overlapping,  amplifi- 

1826):  pSiial  traoBlation  in  Walpolb.  Garland  of  Floweri  Sixtus  V,  m  the  Constitution  "ImmenssB  flstenu  Dei  . 

(London,  1806).    See  FbrnAndss  db  Navabbtti,  vida  de  O.  caUed  into  being  a  body  of  cardinals,  bishops,  and 

wJL!!^J%J^Kt!LS!L^^'  ^^'  FrrmAUBicB-KBLLT.  Series,  whose  work  was  to  guard  and  guide  the  de- 

H^eu^ofavan^ehLueraiurt,                  J.  D.  M.  FoED.  ooTOUs  celebration  of  the  church  offices.    AcoUection 

of  papal  r^ulations  and  congregational  decrees  was 

OarcUaBSO  de  la  Vega  (thb  Inca),  historian  of  published  in  1730  by  John  Baptist  Pithonius,  a  Vene- 

Peru ;  b.  at  Cuzoo.  Peru,  12  April,  1539 ;  d.  at  C6rdoba.  tian  priest,  the  title  of  his  book  being; "  Constitutiones 

Spain,  c.  1617.   The  name  Garcilasso  is  a  corruption  of  pontificae  et  Romanorum  Congregationum  decisiones 

Garcia  Laso,  his  real  name.    The  historian's  father  ad  sacros  Ritus  spectantes^'.    This  work  was  some- 


in  Mexico  under  Hemdn  Cortez,  in  Guatemala  under  to  which  was  prefixed  "Sacrorum  rituum  studiosis 
Diego  de  Alvarado,  and  in  Peru  under  Francisco  monitum".  Gardellini  was  a  very  prof  ound  student, 
Pizarro.  In  1548,  he  had  been  named  Governor  of  especially  of  the  liturgT  and  kindred  subjects,  and  in 
Cuzco,  where,  unlike  others  of  the  conquerors,  he  had  diligence,  pietv,  and  leaminjg  was  unexcelled.  His 
done  much  to  better  the  condition  of  the  natives,  collection  of  decrees  gives  evidence  of  most  pains- 
Earlier  in  life,  he  had  married  an  Inca  princess,  the  taking  labour,  and  comprises  all  the  decrees  from 
historian's  mother.  He  died  in  1559  whue  still  Gov-  1602.  Three  further  volumes  were  published  in  1816, 
emor  of  Cuzco,  being  one  of  the  very  few  Spanish  and  a  sixth  volume  was  brought  out  in  1819.  This 
conquerors  of  Peru  who  did  not  die  a  violent  death,  volume  contained  more  recent  decrees  down  to  the 
Tlie  Inca  mother  taught  her  son  the  language  of  the  date  of  publication,  and  also  the  Commentary  on  the 
ancient  inhabitants  ofPeru,  and  Suggest^  to  him  the  Clementme  Instruction  regarding  the  devotion  of  the 
idea  of  writing  a  history  of  these  people.  For  this  Forty  Hours.  There  were  a  few  slight  errora  in  the 
purpose,  Garcilasso  travelled  over  the  entire  empire  of  complete  work,  and  the  exacting  love  of  perfection,  so 
the  Incas,  got  as  much  information  suitable  for  his  characteristic  of  Gardellini,  would  not  allow  him  to 
purpose  as  he  could  gather  from  both  the  natives  and  leave  these  errors  uncorrected.  Accordingly,  a  new 
the  new  colonists,  and  consulted  the  few  remaining  and  corrected  edition  was  published  in  1827.  and  in 
monuments  of  that  race.  Bein^fearful  of  Garcilasso 's  this  edition  he  included  certain  answers  given  between 
growing  influence  with  the  natives  of  Peru,  Philip  II  the  years  1558  and  1599.  In  recognition  of  his  great 
ordered  him  to  proceed  to  Spain,  whither  he  went  in  services,  Gardellini  wa^  appointed  assessor  of  the  Con- 
1 559,  shortly  after  the  death  of  his  father.  He  served  gregation  of  Rites.  Other  editions  of  the  decrees  have 
there  for  some  time  under  John  of  Austria  in  the  lat-  been  issued  subseq^uently,  but  the  collection  of  Gaidel- 
ter's  campaign  against  the  Moors  of  Granada.  About  lini  is  the  foundation  of  them  all ;  the  latest  is  that  of 
1584,  he  wrote  his  "Historiade  la  Florida",  describing  Mflhlbauer  with  the  decrees  in  alphabetical  order 
the  exploits  of  Hernando  de  Soto  in  that  coimtry,  and  (1863-65 ;  with  five  supplementary  volumes,  1876-87). 
published  it  at  Lisbon.  In  1600.  he  began  the  first  The  latest  edition  of  the  ''Decreta  Authentica''  of 
part  of  his  ''Comentarios  Reales' ,  which  is  a  general  the  Congregation  of  Rites  was  published  in  1898. 
history  of  Peru.    This  first  part,  deeding  with  ^  David  DumroBD. 


GABDINEB 


383 


OABDXNSB 


Stbphxn  Gabdinbb 


Otrdiner,  Stephen,  Bishop  of  Winchester;  b.  at 
BU17  St.  Edmund's  between  1483  «Lnd  1490;  d.  at 
Whitehall,  London,  12  Nov.,  1555.  His  father  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  John  Grardiner,  a  cloth  worker,  the 
story  attributing  his  parentage  to  Lionel  Woodville 
being  a  later  invention.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
Hall,  Cambridge,  and  became  doctor  of  civil  law  in 
1520,  and  of  canon  law  in  1521.  He  was  also  elected 
fellow  of  his  college.  In  1524,  he  became  one  of  Sir 
Robert  Rede's  lecturers  in  the  University,  and  the 
Duke  of  Norfolk  chose  him  as  tutor  for  his  son.  It 
was  throujsh  the  duke  that  he  was  introduced  to  the 
notice  of  Cardinal  Wolsey.  who  immediately  appreci- 
ated his  talents  and  scholarship,  and  made  mm  his 
own  private  secretary.  In  1525,  he  was  elected  mas- 
ter of  Trinity  Hall,  and  held  that  office  till  1549.  In 
1527  he  accompanied  Wolsey  to  France,  where  he 
made  the  acquamtance  of  Erasmus.    He  was  selected 

in  the  following 
year  as  ambassador 
to  the  pope  with 
instructions  to 
press  the  matter  of 
the  divorce.  He 
delighted  the  king 
by  his  success  in 
inducingi  the  pope 
to  appomt  a  sec- 
ond commission, 
and  from  this  time 
he  becomes  a  figure 
of  mark  at  court. 
He  was  rewarded 
with  the  Archdea- 
conry of  Norwich 
on  1  March,  1528- 
9,  and  immediately 
afterwards  was 
sent  again  to  Rome, 
but  on  this  occasion  he  was  unsuccessful.  He  be- 
came secretary  to  the  king  on  28  July,  1529,  and 
soon  sained  great  influence,  especially  after  the 
fall  of  Wolsey,  his  former  master,  to  whom  he 
was  now  able  to  be  of  service,  especially  in  the 

S reservation  of  his  foundation  of  Cnnst's  College, 
Ixford. 

HiB  new  power  brought  quick  advancement.  In  1531 
he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Leicester,  while  Oxford 
University  conferred  the  doctorate  of  laws  upon  him, 
and  late  in  the  year  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Winchester. 
He  was  consecrated  on  27  Nov.,  and  from  this  time 
began  to  show  more  independence  of  action,  though 
he  still  remained  high  in  the  royal  favour.  ^  Shortiy 
after  his  consecration  he  spent  two  months  in  France 
as  ambassador,  but  on  his  return  he  began  to  preach  in 
his  diocese  and  to  administer  the  see  with  more  per- 
sonal interest  than  had  been  expected  from  a  courtier- 
prelate.  That  he  was  now  less  at  court  was  thou^t 
to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  he  had  formed  definite  opm- 
ions  against  the  kins  on  the  divorce  question.  Pope 
Gement  certainly  believed  this  (**  Letters  and  Papers 
Henry  VIII  '*,  V,  561),  but  notwithstanding  such  re- 
ports Gardiner  acted  as  assessor  in  the  Court  which 
declared  the  marriage  of  Henry  and  Catherine  null  and 
void,  and  he  also  took  an  active  part  in  the  coronation 
of  Anne  Boleyn. 

By  1534,  in  which  year  he  resigned  the  post  of  secre- 
tary to  the  kinjg,  he  was  in  a  difficult  position.  He 
was  antagonistic  to  Cromwell  and  Cranmer,  both  of 
whom  were  then  hi^h  in  the  royal  counsels,  and  he 
strongly  disapproved  of  the  attack  on  the  religious 
orders  which  was  already  contemplated.  But  his 
attachment  to  the  king  prevented  him  from  taking  up 
the  firm  attitude  which  Fisher  and  More  had  adoptea. 
so  that  early  in  1535  he  not  only  accepted  tlie  royal 
supremacy,  out  he  wrote  his  treatise  "  De  vera  obcKii- 
entia'  '9  in  which  ne  ai|;ued  that  che  pope  had  no  legiti- 


mate power  over  other  churches,  and  that  kings  aie 
entitl^  to  supremacy  in  tneir  respective  churches. 
The  book  was  received  with  delight  oy  the  Protestant 
party,  while  CaUiolics  maintained  that  it  had  been 
written  under  compulsion  and  fear  of  death.  Dr.  S. 
R.  Maitland  C'  Essays  on  Subjects  connected  with  the 
Reformation'',  London^  1849)  shows  some  ground  for 
doubting  the  authenticity  of  this  work  as  we  have  it, 
and  in  particular  he  makes  a  strong  case  against  the 
genuineness  of  the  scandalous  preface  attnbuted  to 
Bonner.  However,  it  succeeded  in  regaining  for  him 
the  confidence  of  the  king,  and  he  was  again  ap- 
pointed ambassador  to  France  (1535),  but,  owing  to 
the  machinations  of  Cromwell,  he  was  recalled  in  1538. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
Germany,  and  on  ms  return  the  celebrated  Six  Articles 
— "the  whip  with  six  strings",  generally  believed  to 
have  been  his  work — was  issued  by  the  kiiLg.  Their 
tendency  was  so  opposed  to  the  policy  of  Cromwell, 
that  a  stru^e  for  me  between  these  two  men  became 
inevitable.  Oomwell  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  dis- 
missal of  Gardiner  from  the  Privy  Council,  but  his  own 
power  was  at  an  end,  and,  when  he  was  executed  in 
1541,  he  left  Gardiner  in  possession  of  supreme  politi- 
cal influence.  This  position  he  retained  imtil  the 
death  of  Henry,  ana,  though  he  was  actually  in 
schism,  he  remained  the  chief  support  of  the  old  reli- 

§ion  and  was  looked  on  by  the  reformers  as  their  most 
angerous  enemy.  During  this  period  his  own  nephew, 
Blessed  German  Gardiner,  underwent  martyrdom 
rather  than  take  the  oath  of  royal  supremacy.  At  the 
funeral  of  Henry  VIII  in  1547,  Gardmer  took  the  chief 
place  and  was  celebrant  at  the  Mass,  but  his  name  had 
been  omitted  from  the  royal  will,  and  he  was  excluded 
from  the  new  Council  of  State.  He  immediately  op- 
posed both  the  protector  and  the  archbishop  in  their 
attempts  at  religious  chances,  whereupon  he  was  com- 
mitted a  prisoner  to  the  Fleet,  where  he  remained  till 
Christmas.  On  his  release  he  returned  to  his  see,  only 
to  be  recalled  in  May,  1548,  to  deliver  a  public  sermon, 
so  as  to  satisfy  the  Council.  He  preached  at  Paul's 
Chross  on  29  June,  maintaining  the  doctrine  of  the  Real 
Presence,  and  was  promptly  sent  to  the  Tower.  Here 
he  was  kept  for  over  three  years  in  spite  of  his  repeated 

J)rotests  a^inst  the  illegality  of  his  detention.  At 
ength,  in  December.  1551,  he  was  brought  to  trial, 
and,  on  18  April  following,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
bi^opric,  into  which  Poynet  was  intruded. 

From  this  time  till  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  he 
remained  a  close  prisoner  in  the  Tower.  She  not  only 
restored  luin  to  liberty,  but  raised  him  to  the  highest 
honours,  and  on  23  Au^.,  1553,  he  was  made  Lord 
High  Chancellor,  and,  bemg  restored  to  his  diocese,  he 
crowned  the  Queen  on  1  Oct.  He  tried  vainly  to  save 
both  Cranmer  and  Northumberland;  and  other  Prot- 
estants, such  as  Peter  Martyr  and  Roger  Ascham, 
experienced  his  kindness.  He  now  made  amends  for 
his  previous  fall  by  taking^  a  leading  part  in  restoring 
En^and  to  communion  with  the  Holy  See.  Another 
ta£  entrusted  to  him  was  the  rehabilitation  of  the 
public  finances,  and  in  this  his  ability  and  known  in- 
tegrity were  successful.  On  the  important  subject  of 
the  queen's  marriage,  Gardiner  boldly  opposed  any 
foreijgn  alHance,  though  by  doing  so  he  courted  the 
enmity  of  both  the  Spanish  and  French  ambassadors 
besides  losing  to  some  extent  the  confidence  of  the 
queen  herself.  His  policy  was  not  followed,  and,  in 
1554,  he  himself  blessed  the  marriage  of  Mary  and 
Philip  in  his  own  cathedral  at  Winchester.  The  un- 
popularity of  the  marriage  in  London  led  to  riotous 
scenes  and  much  religious  controversy,  to  meet  which 
the  statute  "De  hseretico  comburendo"  was  re- 
enacted  in  December,  1554.  About  the  same  time 
Gardiner  obtained  from  the  pope  a  Bull  confirminjg  in 
their  possessions  all  who  held  Church  property  seized 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  and  Edwara  VL  it 
being  felt  that  the  surrender  of  this  property  would  be 


OABESOHi 


384 


OABIN 


a  small  price  to  pay  for  the  restoration  of  the  Faith  in 
England.  Though  Foxe  with  his  customary  men- 
dacity has  represented  Gardiner  as  a  monster  of 
cruelty,  he  haa  but  little  to  do  with  the  "  Marian  per- 
secution", of  which  he  personally  disapproved,  and  he 
onlv  took  part  in  one  tnal  for  heresy — ^tne  Commission 
of  Inquiry  into  the  teaching  of  Hooper,  Rogers,  Saun- 
ders, and  Taylor.  By  the  summer  of  1555,  Gardiner's 
health  was  failing;  he  was  suffering  from  jaundice  and 
dropsy  and  was  terribly  changed  in  appearance,  but  he 
stru^led  on  with  his  duties  and  managed  to  address 
Parliament,  21  October.  The  effort  of  making  his 
speech  was  however  too  much  for  him,  and,  being 
unable  to  return  home,  he  was  carried  to  Whitehall, 
where  he  lay  till  the  end  came  on  12  November.  As 
the  story  of  the  Passion  was  read  aloud  to  him,  when 
St.  Peter's  denial  was  described,  he  cried  out "  Negavi 
cum  Petro,  exivi  cum  Petro,  sed  nondum  flevi  cum 
Petro  " — ^the  dying  expression  of  his  sorrow  for  his  fall. 
Besides  "  De  vera  obedientia",  he  wrote  "Conques- 
tio  ad  M.  Bucerum  de  impudenti  ej  usdem  pseudologia  " 
(Lbuvain,  1544) ;  "  A  Detection  of  the  Devil's  Sophis- 
trie  wherein  he  robbeth  the  unlearned  people  of  the 
true  byleef  in  the  most  blessed  Sacrament  of  the 
Aulter^'  (London,  1546);  "Epistola  ad  M.  Bucerum" 
(Louvain,  1546);  "A  oeclaration  of  suche  true  arti- 
cles as  G.  Joye  hath  gone  about  to  confute  as  false" 
(London,  1546);  ''An  Explication  of  the  true  Gatho- 
Uque Fayth touching  the  olessed  Sacrament"  (Rouen, 
1551):  "Confutatio  cavillationum "  (1551);  "Palmo- 
dia  libri  de  vera  obedientia"  (Paris,  1552);  ''Contra 
convitia  Martini  Buceri"  (Louvain,  1554);  "Exetasis 
testimoniorum  quse  Bucerus  minus  genuine  e  S.  pa- 
tribusnonsancteedidit  de  ccelibatus  dono"  (Louvain, 
1554);  "Epistols  ad  J.  Checum  de  pronuntiatione 
linguse  grsocffi"  (Basle,  1555).  Sermons,  letters,  and 
despatches  are  to  be  found  in  the  State  Papers. 
Collier's  "Ecclesiastical  History",  Foxe's  "Acts  and 
Monuments",  and  elsewhere.  Some  unpublished 
MSS.  are  in  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  and 
one  in  Lambeth  Library.  There  are  portraits  at 
Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  at  Oxford. 

Brbwbr  and  Gairdnsr,  Slate  Papen  of  Henry  VITL  20  vols, 
and  introduotions  (London,  1862-1907);  Linqabo,  History  cf 
Enalandt  Vol.  V  (London,  8.  d.);  Bbbwbb,  Reign  of  Henry  VIU 
to  the  death  of  Wolsey  (London.  1884);  Gillow,  BQA.  Diet.  Eng. 
Cath.  (London,  1886),  a.  v.:  Mulunobb,  Diet.  Nat.  Bioq.  (Lon- 
don, 1889),  fl.  v.;  Stonb,  UiMtory  of  Mary  /,  Queen  of  Snifland 
(London,  1901). 

Edwin  Bubton. 

Oaresehtf ,  Julius  Peter,  soldier;  b.  26  April,  1821, 
near  Havana,  Cuba;  killed  at  the  battle  of  Stone 
River,  Tennessee,  U.  S.  A.,  31  December,  1862.  He 
was  sent  to  Georgetown  CoUege,  Washington,  in  1833, 
and  remained  there  four  years.  Then  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  at  West  Point, 
and  graduated  with  the  class  of  1841,  receiving  his 
commission  as  a  second-lieutenant  in  the  Fourth  Artil- 
lery. The  five  subsequent  years  were  spent  on  the 
frontier  and  in  garrison  dut^r.  During  the  Mexican 
War  he  served  with  distinction,  and  was  appointed 
assistant  adjutant-general,  with  the  rank  of  captain  in 
1855.  Wherever  he  was  stationed,  Garesch^  always 
took  an  active  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  Church.  In 
Washington  he  organized  the  first  local  conference  of 
the  StTvincent  de  Paul  Society,  and  during  his  resi- 
dence at  the  capital  acted  as  its  president.  He  con- 
tributed frequently  on  Catholic,  social  and  political 
questions,  to  the  New  York  "  Freeman's  JounuJ  "  and 
?Brownson's  Quarterly  Review",  and  in  September, 
1861,  in  recognition  of  his  services  to  the  Church,  re- 
ceived from  Plus  IX  the  decoration  of  a  Knight  of  St. 
Sylvester.  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he  declined 
a  commission  as  brigadier-^neral  of  volunteers,  and 
was  made  chief  of  staff,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant^ 
colonel  in  the  regular  army,  to  General  William  S. 
Rosecranz.  In  this  capacity  he  participated  in  the 
operations  of  the  Army  of  tne  CumberUmd.    At  the 


battle  of  Stone  River,  he  was  killed  by  a  cannon-ball, 
while  leading  a  colunm  in  a  gallant  attempt  to  regain 
a  lost  day. 

Louis  (iAHBBCBii,  Biography  of  Lieut.-Col.  JtUiua  P.  OareadU 
(Philadelphia,  1887);  Shba,  Hietory  of  Georgetown  CoUege  (New 
York,  1891);  Cydopcadia  of  Amor.  Biog.  s.  v. 

I^OMAS  F.  Meehan. 

Oareti  Jean,  Benedictine  of  the  Congr^tion  of 
Saint-Maur,  b.  at  Havre  about  1627;  d.  at  Jumi^ses, 

24  September,  1694.  He  was  professed  in  1647  when 
he  was  twenty  years  old,  and  lived  in  the  Abbey  of 
Saint-Ouen  at  Rouen.  While  there  he  prepared  an 
edition  of  Cassiodorus  which  was  published  at  Rouen 
in  1679.  Mommsen's  criticism  on  his  edition  of  the 
''Varis",  which  was  included  in  the  above  work,  is 
very  severe:  "A  work  without  either  skill  or  learning, 
Caret  took  Foumier's  text  (Paris,  1579)  as  a  basis,  and 
inserted  alterations  of  his  own  rather  than  correc- 
tions." (Mon.  Cerm.  Hist.:  Auct.  antiq.,  XII,  czv). 
As  a  preface  to  his  edition  Caret  wrote  a  dissertation 
in  which  he  tried  to  prove  that  Cassiodorus  was  a 
Benedictine.  Migne  followed  the  Caret  edition  in 
P.  L.,  LXIX-LXX,  and  it  remains  the  most  complete 
modem  edition.    Needless  to  say  it  does  not  contain 

the  "Complexiones"  discovered  later  by  Maffei. 

Lb  (Tbrt  db  ul  ViIeviua,  Bibliothiaue  historioue  et  eritigve 
dee  auteurt  de  la  congrigation  de  Saint-Maur  (The  Hague,  1726), 
142. 

Paul  Lejat. 

Oargara,  a  titular  see  in  the  province  of  Asia,  suf- 
fragan of  Ephesus.  The  city  appears  to  have  been 
situated  on  Mt.  Gargaron,  the  highest  peak  (1690  feet) 
of  Mt.  Ida,  celebrated  in  Grecian  m^hology  cmd  the 
Homeric  epic.  It  was  at  first  inhabited  by  a  colony 
from  AsaoB.  who  were  followed  by  people  from  Mile- 
topolis.  Tne  grammarian  Diotimes  conducted  a 
school  here  which  was  poorly  attended  by  the  uncul- 
tured inhabitante  of  Gargara.  Three  of  the  ancient 
bishops  of  Gargara  were  Johp,  518;  Theodore,  553; 
and  Ephrem,  878.  Mt.  Gareara  is  now  known  as 
Dikeli-Dfl^,  forming  part  of  Kas-Dagh,  the  ancient 
Ida.  It  has  been  thought  that  the  city  itself  was  di^ 
covered  in  the  ruins  of  AkriH  in  the  caza  of  Aivadjik 
and  the  saniak  of  Bi^ha.  Gar^gEura  must  not  be  con- 
fused with  the  Jacobite  bishopric  of  Gargar  or  Birta 
of  Gargar,  to-dav  Gerger,  situated  in  the  mountains 
west  of  the  Euphrates  and  south  of  Malatia. 

Smith,  Diet,  cf  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.  (London,  1878), 
I.  976-77;  Lequibn.  Oriene  ChriH.  (17&).  I.  708-04;  11. 
1801-02:  Qams.  Seriee  BpU.  Bed,  Cath,,  444. 

S.  Vailb£. 

Oarin.    See  Erzebum,  Diocese  of. 

Oarin,  Andr£,  an  Oblate  missionary  and  parish 
priest,  b.  7  May,  1822,  at  C6te^aint-Andr6.  Isfere, 
France;  d.  at  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  16  February, 
1895.  He  received  his  education  at  the  lesser  semi- 
nary of  his  native  town,  and  entered  the  Order  of  the 
Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  1  November,  1842;  as 
he  was  still  too  young  to  be  admitted  to  the  priest- 
hood he  was  sent  to  Canada,  where  he  was  ordained 

25  April,  1845,  by  Bishop  Bourget  of  Montreal. 
During  a  period  of  twelve  years  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  Indian  missions  of  Eastern  Canada,  after  which  he 
occupied  the  post  of  superior  successively  at  Platts- 
burg  and  at  Buffalo. 

l^ough  his  services  were  peculiarly  valuable  in  his 
early  fields  of  labour  as  he  had  mastered  both  the 
Monta^ais  and  the  English  languages,  ^et  an  able 
man  being  needed  to  organise  parish  and  mission  work 
among  the  French  Canadians  at  Lowell,  Father  Garin 
was  ordered  thither  and  in  a  short  time  his  remarkable 
good  sense^  courteous  manner,  and  kindly  disposition 
won  for  hmi  a  wonderful  influence  over  his  people. 
During  a  pastorate  of  some  twenty-five  3rears  he  built 
costly  churches  and  commodious  school  edifices;  he 
also  established  several  religious  confraternities  among 


OABLAHD 


385 


QAXUQK 


his  parishionera.  Grateful  for  all  he  had  done  for 
them,  the  members  of  his  parish  erected  a  statue  to 
him  two  years  after  his  death. 

Natieea  fUerologiquM  dm  OblaU  de  MarU  ImmaevU9  (Bar-le- 
Due,  1889).  VII.  A.  G.  MoBICB. 

Cktflandi  a  wreath  of  flowers  or  ever^preens  formerly 
used  in  connexion  with  baptismal,  nupti%l,  and  funeral 
rites,  as  well  as  in  solemn  processions.  The  earliest 
certain  reference  to  the  baptismal  garland,  as  worn  by 
neophytes,  occurs  in  a  seventh-century  description  of 
the  Alexandrine  ritual,  written  by  the  patriarch  Seve- 
ruS|  who  says  that,  after  the  baptism  and  imction 
(L  e.  confirmation),  the  priest  administered  Holv 
Communion,  and  crowned  the  newly-baptized  with 
Buiands.  This  custom  was  still  observed  at  Alexan- 
dria in  the  eighteenth  century.  A  similar  rite  has 
also  been  inferred  from  a  passage  in  the  Galilean 
liturgy  {JxiptixaU  tt  in  Christo  coronati),  but  more  prob- 
ablv  this  expression  is  merely  metaphorical.  ^  The 
briaal  crown  or  wreath  is  said  to  be  of  pre-Christian 
Greek  origin,  adopted  later  by  the  Romaxis.  Tertul- . 
lian  refers  to  it  as  a  sign  of  paganism,  but  this  prejudice 
was  afterwards  set  aside,  and  it  was  in  common  use 
among  Christians  by  the  time  of  St.  John  Chrysostom. 
The  bride  and  bridegroom  were  crowned  to  symbolize 
their  victory  over  the  temptations  of  the  flesh.  (For  the 
continued  use  of  garlands  at  the  marriage  ceremony 
during  the  eariy  medieval  period  at  Rome,  see  Du- 
chesne, ''Christian  Worship",  tr.  London,  1903,  428- 
434.)  The  rite  has  been  retained  by  the  Greek 
Church,  silver  crowns  taking  the  place  of  floral 
wreaths. 

Funeral  garlands  were  used  in  primitive  times,  in 
connexion  with  the  burial  of  virgins,  and  especially  of 
virgin  martyrs,  to  symbolize  their  victory,  and  by 
aniuogy  they  came  also  to  be  used  for  aU  martyrs. 
Hence  they  are  constantly  found  represented  in  paint- 
ing or  sculpture,  on  the  tombs  of  the  early  Christians. 
In  later  times  a  crown,  consisting  of  a  wooden  hoop, 
with  two  half-circles  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles 
and  covered  with  flowers  and  streaming  ribbons,  used 
to  be  canied  before  the  bier  of  an  unmarried  woman, 
and  afterwards  suspended  over  or  near  to  the  grave. 
This  custom  was  continued  in  England  all  throu^  the 
middle  ages  and  Reformation  period,  and  it  survives 
even  now  in  certain  remote  places,  especially  in  Devon 
and  Cornwall.  The  iron  hook  upon  which  such 
wreaths  were  hung,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  may 
still  be  seen  in  the  south  aisle  of  St.  Alban's  Abbey. 
In  medievul  times  the  clei]gy  were  wont  to  wear  flond 
gariands  or  crowns  on  theu*  heads,  on  the  occasions  of 
solemn  processions.  Stow  mentions  one  at  St.  Paul's, 
London,  when  the  dean  and  chapter  "apparelled  in 
copes  and  vestments,  with  garlands  of  roses  on  their 
heads,  issued  out  at  the  west  door"  (Survey  of  Lon- 
don, ed.  1750);  and  in  the  inventories  and  church- 
wardens' accounts  of  many  an  English  church,  items 
of  expenditure  on  similar  ornaments  occur.  The  same 
custom  prevailed  also  in  Germany,  France,  and  Italy. 
Martdne  (De  Ant.  Eccl.  Rit.,  Ill,  iv)  menti3ns  an 
illuminated  missal  belonging  to  a  church  at  Melun,  in 
which  such  floral  garlands  are  pictured  in  a  Corpus 
Christi  procession,  and  the  same  is  recorded  at  Angers, 
Laon^  and  elsewhere.  According  to  Martdne  also,  in 
certam  places  in  France,  a  priest  celebrating  his  fi'^t 
Mass  was  similarly  decked,  which  custom  stiu  survives 
in  certain  parts  of  Germany  and  Bavaria.  The  term 
gadand  was  also  technically  used  to  signify  a  crown 
of  precious  metal,  often  adorned  with  gems,  made  for 
the  arrangement  of  natural  or  artificial  flowers  before 
the  altar  or  sacred  image  at  festival  times. 

Rock,  Churdt  of  our  Faihera  (London,  1849):  Waloott, 
SacTod  Arch^Folofry  (London.  1S6S):  MABaiorr  in  uieL  Chriat. 
AfUiq.fB.  y.  Baptism:  Plumptrb,  t&id.,  s.  v.  Crowru  for  Bridm; 
Lbs,  uloMory  of  LiturmetU  and  Eerleauutical  Terma  (London, 
1877):  BcANifBLL  (ed.),  Catholic  Dictionary  (London,  1905). 
■.  ▼.  Marriao9;  Lbclbboq,  Manud  dT  ArcMolof/ie  ChrHienne 

(Fwii.  1907).  G.  Ctprian  Aubton. 

VI.— 26 


Cktflmnd,  John,  an  English  fioet  and  grammarian^ 
who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  He 
tells  us  he  was  bom  in  England  and  studied  at  Oxford 
with  John  of  London,  one  of  Roger  Bacon's  masters. 
He  goes  on  to  add  that  he  was  "fostered"  in  France 
and  cherished  that  land  above  the  land  of  his  birth. 
The  greater  portion  of  his  life  was  spent  there.  At 
one  time  he  studied  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
then  taught  grammar  and  belles-lettres  at  Toulouse, 
and  later  at  Paris.  He  went  to  Toulouse  at  the  time 
of  the  close  of  the  Albigensian  war.  Hence  it  was 
about  1229  that  he  composed  the  "  Epithalamium 
Beats  Virginia  Maris",  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Ro- 
mano Bonaventura,  Cardinal-Deacon  of  Sant'  An- 
gelo,  who,  as  legate,  was  trying  to  win  back  the 
people  of  Languedoc  to  the  orUiodox  Faith.  His 
"  De  triumphis  Ecdesiffi"  belongs  to  this  period  also. 
It  is  an  epic  poem  in  distichs,  celebrating  the  victories 
of  the  crusades,  the  crushing  of  heresy,  and  the  glories 
of  the  Faith.  In  1234  he  was  back  in  Paris  and  wrote 
his  ''Accentuarium",  a  poem  in  1426  hexameter 
verses  on  the  laws  of  accent.  A  little  later,  at  Paris 
also,  he  composed  his  "Carmen  de  Ecclesia",  a  poem 
on  Uie  lituri^,  dedicated  to  Fulk,  Bishop  of  London 
(1244-^59).  In  it  the  poet  laments  the  recent  death 
of  his  fellow-countryman,  Alexander  of  Hales,  who 
died  on  21  August^  1245.  After  the  manner  of  the 
schoolmasters  of  bis  day,  he  wrote  a  jglossary  of  this 
poem.  For  his  own  use  as  a  tutor  he  wrote  a  "  Dis- 
tigium"  or  "Comutus"  in  forty-two  hexameter 
verses,  grou{)ed  in  pairs,  to  assist  in  remembering 
unusual  Latin  words  or  latinized  Greek  words:  a 
'' Dictionarius  cum  commento",  or  glossary;  a  com- 
pendium of  grammar,  in  verse;  an  ".^uivoca".  oi 
list  of  homonyms,  also  in  verse ;  a  treatise  on  rhet- 
oric with  the  odd  title  "Moral  Examples"  (Exempla 
honestSB  vitse);  a  "Commentarius  curiatium",  m- 
tended  to  explain  to  the  children  of  nobles  the  mean- 
ing of  such  Latin  words  as  might  interest  them;  a 
"Poetria",  or  collection  of  examples  in  every  style  of 
versification. 

In  the  "  Exempla''  he  tells  us  he  mi  his  name  from 
the  Rue  Garlanae  (now  the  Rue  Ualande),  a  main 
thoroughfare  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  university 
where  he  taught.  It  was  for  his  pupils  in  Paris  that 
he  penned  the  "Miracula  Beats  Maris  Vireinis", 
wherein  he  tells  us  that  he  worked  at  it  in  the  library 
of  Ste-Genevi^ve,  which  eoes  to  prove  that  it  was 
open  to  the  public.  It  is  the  earliest  reference  to  this 
library.  Otner  works  are  attributed  to  John  Garland, 
some  of  them  erroneously,  as  the  various  poema 
entitled "Facetus";  "De  contemptii  mundi";  "Flore- 
tus";  "Comutus  novus";  a  treatise  on  chemistry;  a 
treatise  on  interest.  Many  of  the  above  have  never 
been  edited.  John  Garland's  verses  are  verv  faulty, 
being  merely  bad  prose  versified.  The  style  is  de- 
sign^ly  obscure  and  absurdly  pedantic.  The  sar- 
casms of  Erasmus  with  reference  to  the  pedagomcal 
methods  of  medieval  teachers  are  often  supported  by 

S notations  from  Garland's  writings.    For  men  of  the 
^naissance,  he  was  held  up  as  a  type  of  the  scholastic 

turning  to  literature. 

On  his  TUious  works  and  editions  thereof  n^  HaurAau, 
Notices  el  extraiU  dee  manuecrite  (1870),  XXVII,  ii,  1-86;  La 
Clbbo.  Hiaioire  litUraire  de  la  France  (1847-52),  XXII,  11,  77. 

Paul  Lejat. 

Oarlick,  Nicholas,  Venerable,  priest  and  nuirtyr, 
b.  at  Dinting,  Derbyshire,  c.  1555;  d.  at  Derby,  24 
July,  1588.  He  studied  at  Gloucester  Hall,  now 
Worcester  College,  Oxford,  matriculating  in  1575,  but 
did  not  take  a  degree,  perhaps  because  of  the  Oath  of 
Supremacv  thereto  annexed.  He  next  became  master 
of  the  high  school  at  Tideswell  in  the  Peak,  where  he 
exercisea  such  a  holy  influence  over  his  pupibthat 
three  of  them  eventually  went  with  him  to  Reims  and 
one  at  least,  Christopher  Buxton  (q.  v.),  became  a 
martyr.    He  went  to  Reims  in  June,  1581,  waa  or* 


OAENKAtr 


386 


OABNIT 


dained,  and  returned  to  England  in  January,  1583. 
After  a  year  of  labour,  probably  in  the  Midlands,  he 
was  arrested,  and  in  1585  sent  into  exile,  with  the 
knowledge  that  he  would  find  no  mercy  if  he  returned. 
Nevertheless  he  was  soon  back  at  work  in  the  same 
neighbourhood.  He  was  arrested  by  the  infamous 
Topcliffe  at  Padlev,  the  home  of  John  Fitzherbert,  a 
member  of  a  family  still  surviving  and  still  Cathouc. 
the  arrest  being  made  through  the  treachery  of  a  son  ot 
the  house.  Topcliffe  obtamed  the  house  and  lived 
there  till  he  died  in  1604.  With  Garlick  was  arrested 
another  priest,  Robert  Ludlam,  or  Ludham,  who  had, 
like  Garhck,  been  at  Oxford  and  had  engaged  in  teach- 
ing before  his  ordination  in  May,  1581.  In  Derby 
Gaol,  a  small  and  pestiferous  prison,  they  found  a 
third  priest,  Robert  Svmpson,  who  was  of  Garlick's 
college  at  Oxford.  There  he  had  taken  Protestant 
orders,  but  was  soon  after  reconciled  to  the  Church, 
for  which  he  suffered  long  imprisonment  in  York 
Castle.  In  this  trial  his  faith  had  grown  stronger,  but 
having  been  ordained  and  passed  through  many  la- 
bours, including  exile,  he  was  again  in  durance  and  in 
danger  of  his  fife,  and  this  time  he  was  wavering. 
Garfick  and  Ludlam  cheered,  reconciled,  and  com- 
forted their  fellow-captive,  and  all  three  were  tried 
and  suffered  together. 

Kino,  Life  cf  iV.  Garlick  (1904);  Challonbr,  Miutonaru 
Prieata  (London,  1741),  I,  203;  Boabb,  Oxford  Register,  II,  ii, 
59;  FoLBT,  Records  S.J,  (London,  1877-83).  III.  224-29. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Oameau,  Fran^ois-Xavier,  a  French  Canadian 
historian,  b.  at  Quebec,  15  June,  1809,  of  Franyois- 
Xavier  Gameau  and  Gertrude  Amiot;  d.  2  February, 
1866.  After  a  short  elementary  course,  he  studied  law, 
having  succeeded  by  private  effort  in  supplying  the 
lack  of  classical  instruction.  He  held  the  omce  of  city 
clerk  from  1844  till  his  death.  In  1845  appeared  the 
first  volume  of  his  ''Histoire  du  Canada  ,  an  heroic 
venture,  considering  the  restoration  to  France  after 
the  Conquest  of  nearly  all  the  civil  and  military  ar- 
chives. When,  through  Dr.  O'Callag^an,  the  United 
States  Government  had  secured  copies  of  the  corre- 
spondence of  the  French  colonial  governors,  Gameau 
went  to  Albany^  to  study  these  documents  and  gather 
materials  for  his  future  volumes,  which  appeared  suc- 
cessively in  1846  and  1848,  the  third  volume  recordine 
events  as  late  as  the  Constitution  of  1792.  The  work 
was  favourably  received  by  both  English  and  French. 
A  second  edition  includes  the  period  from  1792  to  the 
Union  (1840).  A  third  edition,  1859,  had  an  English 
translation,  which,*  however,  is  not  reliable. 

Gameau  s  history  must  be  judged  according  to  the 
spirit  of  his  time.  Its  first  pages  were  written  shortly 
alter  the  troubles  of  1837  and  1838,  at  the  dawn  of  the 
Union  of  the  Canadas,  which  was  the  outcome  and 
penalty  of  the  Rebellion.  The  prospect  was  eloomy 
tor  Lower  Canada,  and  a  patriot  like  Gameau,  nowso- 
ever  impartial,  could  not  easily^  repress  his  feelings. 
More  reprehensible  are  his  opinions  on  certain  points 
of  doctrme,  and  his  unjust  criticism  of  church  author- 
ity and  influence.  These  may  be  explained  by  the 
nature  of  the  books  he  had  studied  without  proper 
guidance  and  the  antidote  of  a  sound  philosophical 
training.  These  blemishes  are  not  found  in  the  last 
edition,  revised  at  his  request  by  a  competent  eccle- 
siastic. In  fact,  Gameau  was  ever  a  practical  Catho- 
lic and  died  a  most  edifying  death.  The  title  of  "  na- 
tional historian  "  rightly  belongs  to  this  pioneer  in  the 
field  of  Canadian  history,  who  spent  twenty-five  years 
of  patient  research  and  patriotic  devotedness  on  a 
work  destined  to  draw  the  attention  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States  to  the  glories  of  his  country. 

MoHOAN,  Btblvotheca  Canadmsia  (Ottawa,  1867);  Caborain, 
(Euvrea  eampl^tee  (Quebec,  1873);  Crauveau,  Notice  hiogra- 

'mte  de  F.-X.  Cfameau  (Montreal,  1883);  Gaonon,  Eemi  de 

Itoffraphie  Canadienne  (Quebec,  1895).  198-09. 

Lionel  Lindbat. 


Gftmet  (Gabnbtt),  Henbt.  English  martyr,  b. 
1553-4;  d.  1606,  son  of  Brian  Garnet,  Master  of  Not- 
tingham School.  Henry  was  elected  on  24  Aug.,  1567, 
to  a  scholarship  at  Winchester  School,  then  noted  for 
its  Catholic  tendencies.  He  was,  however,  presum- 
ably a  conformist  until  his  twentieth  year,  when  he 
courageously  broke  with  all  ties,  retired  abroad,  and 
became  a  Jesuit  in  Rome  11  Sept.,  1575.  Here  he 
enjoyed  the  company  of  Persons,  Weston,  Southwell, 
and  manv  others,  with  whom  in  future  he  was  to  be  so 
closely  allied,  and  made  a  brilliant  university  course 
under  the  celebrated  professors  of  those  days — Bellar- 
mine,  Suarez,  Clavius,  etc.  He  subsequently  taught 
for  some  time  Hebrew  and  mathematics;  a  treatise  on 

Ehysics  in  his 
and  is  still  pre* 
served  at  Stony- 
hurst,  and  he  had 
the  honour,  whilst 
Clavius  was  sick, 
of  filling  his  chair. 
He  was  then  sum- 
moned to  Eng- 
land, where  Fa- 
ther Weston  was 
the  only  Jesuit 
out  of  prison, 
and  he  left  Rome, 
8  May,  1586,  in 
company  with 
Robert  South- 
well. Next  year 
Weston  himself 
was  arrested, 
whereupon  Gar- 
net became  supe- 
rior and  remained 
in  office  till  his 
death. 
As  an   indica- 


&S, 


Hbnry  Garnbt 

Sketch  of  a  portrait  now  lost,  Stony- 

nurat  CoUoge 

tion  of  his  prudent  management  it  may  be  men- 
tioned, that  under  his  care  the  Jesuits  on  the  Eng- 
lish mission  increased  from  one  to  forty,  and  that 
not  a  single  letter  of  complaint,  it  is  said,  was  sent 
to  headquarters  against  him.  Though  he  generally 
lived  in  lK)ndon,  the  hotbed  of  persecution,  neither  he 
nor  any  of  his  subordinates,  who  often  came  to  see  him, 
were  captured  in  his  lodgings,  though  perilous  adven- 
tures were  numerous.  He  was  a  prolific  correspondent, 
and  his  extant  letters  show  him  to  have  been  in  sym- 

githetic  touch  with  Catholics  all  over  the  country, 
e  was  also  a  generous  distributer  of  alms,  and  sent  to 
Rome  relics  and  curiosities,  amongst  others  the  letters 
of  Henry  VIII  to  Anne  Boleyn,  now  in  the  Vatican 
Library.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  of  Christian  Renun- 
ciation ".  and  he  translated,  or  caused  to  be  translated, 
Canisius  s  "  Catechism  ",  to  which  he  added  interest- 
ing appendixes  on  "  Pilgrimages  *\  "  Indulgences  ",  etc. 
These  books,  now  extremely  rare,  were  perhape 
secretly  printed  imder  his  care  in  London.  "A 
Treatise  of  Equivocation ''^  believed  to  have  been 
composed  by  Garnet,  was  edited  by  D.  Jardine  in  1851. 
In  1595  and  1598,  Garnet  became  involved  in 
unpleasant  clerical  troubles.  Some  thirty-three  En^ 
lish  Catholics,  almost  all  priests,  had  been  shut  up  m 
Wisbech  Castle.  Of  this  number  eighteen,  besides  two 
Jesuits,  Father  Weston  and  Brother  Pounde,  desired 
in  the  winter  of  1594-5  to  separate  themselves  from 
the  rest  and  adopt  a  regular  collegiate  life.  But  it 
was  impossible  to  do  this  without  appearing  at  least  to 
reflect  unfavourably  on  those  who  did  not  care  for  the 
change.  Furthermore,  the  number  of  the  latter  was 
considerable,  and  the  prison  was  so  small  that  any 
division  of  chambers  and  tables  was  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. The  minority  certainly  had  a  right  to  protest, 
but  they  did  so  in  such  a  rough,  unruly  way,  tluit  they 
seemed  to  justify  the  separation,  which  was  in  fact 


QABHKT  387  OA&HET 

esrried  out  with  Father  Garnet's  approvftl  in  Feb-  beea  discovered,  and  Garnet  had  been  arrested,  ha 

niary,  1696.  An  earnest  attempt  to  settle  the  difFer-  thought  it  beat  in  hia  peculiar  circumBtancea  to  con- 

encee  that  ensued  was  made  in  October,  and,  though  fess  the  whole  truth  about  bis  knowledge,  and  for  this 

it  was  not  immediately  successful,  the  diviaion  wae  he  was  tried  and  executed  at  the  west  end  of  old  St. 

given  up  in  November,  and  a  reconciliation  effected  so  Paul's,  3  May,  1606. 

warm  Emd  so  hearty  that,  had  it  not  been  for  a  sub-        Garnet  is  wus  described  in  the  proelamatioa  iasued 

sequent  quarrel  on  a  different  matter,  the  "Wisbech  for  his  arrest — "Henry  Garnet,  aliaa  Walley,  olwi* 

Btira"  nught  have  been  chiefly  remembered  tLsa  felix  Darcv,  aliaa  Farmer,  of  a  middling  stature,  full  faced, 

culpa,    lae  letters  to  and  from  Garnet  over  the  happy  fat  oi  body,  of  complexion  fair,  his  f orehe^  high  on 

settlement  do  him  the  greatest  credit  (Dodd-Tiemey,  each  side,  with  a  little  thin  Kair  coming  down  upon  the 

Church  History  of  England,  III,  App.  pp.  civ-cxvii).  middest  of  the  fore  part  of  his  head:  the  hair  of  his 

The  subsequent  trouble,  with  which  Garnet  was  head  and  beard  griseled.     Of  age  betweene  fifty  and 
also  concerned,  was  that  of  the  "Appellant  Priests"  three  score.    His  beard  on  his  cheeks  cut  close,  and 
of  159S-1602.     To  understand  it  one  must  remember  hia  chin  very  thinne  and  somewhat  short.     His  gait 
that  Elizabeth's  govermnent  had  rendered  the  pres-  upright,  and  comely  for  a  feeble  man." 
ence  of  a  bishop  in  England  impoeaible.    Cardinal        The  execution  was  watched  so  closely  that  very  few 
Allen  (see  Allen,  Williau,  Cardinal)  had  governed  icUcsof  the  martyrdom  were  secured  by  Catholics,  but 
the  misaionaiT  prieata  first  from  Douai,  then   from  a  head  of  straw  stained  with  his  blood  fell  into  the 
Rome,  but  after  his  death  in  1594,  a  new  form  of  hands  of  a  young  Catholic,  John  Wilkinson.    Some 
government  had  to  be  essayed.     As  usual  in  mission-  months  later  he  showed  it  to  a  Catholic  gentleman, 
ary  countries  the  firat  be^nning  was  made  with  a  who  noticed  that  the  blood  bad  congealed  upon  one  01 
sacerdotal  hierarehy.    Pr^ects  of  the  Mission  were  the  husks  in  the 
appointed  for  the  clergy  in  Belgium,  in  Spain,  and  in  fonn  irf  a  minute 
Rome,  while  those  in  England  wer«  put  under  an  face,  resembling, 
archpriest,  and  this  arrangement  lastea  till  the  pres-  as  they  thought, 
ence  of  a  Catholic  Queen,  Henrietta  Maria,  allowed  of  Garnet's  own  por- 
a  Ushop  being  sent  to  Emjjland  without  seriously  trait.     The  mat- 
endangering  the  flock  (see  Bisbof,  William).     But  ter    was    much 
George  Blackwell,  the  man  selected  for  the  post  of  talked  of,  and  the 
archpriest,  proved  a  failure,  and  had  eventually  to  be  Protestant  Arch- 
deposed.    On  paper  his  qualifications  seemed  excel-  bishop  of  Canter- 
lent;  in  OTactice  hie  successes  were  tew,  his  miatakea  bury     personally 
manjr.    DifSculties  arose  with  his  cler^,  over  whose  conducted  an  ex- 
missionary  faculties  he  exereised  a  somewhat  brusque  amination  of  sev- 
control.     Hence  aneer,  sharp  letters  on  both  sides,  eral  witnesses, 
and  two  appeals  to  Rome.     In  the  end  his  authority  who  had  seen  the 
was  roaintamed  and  even  strengthened,  but  his  man-  strangephenome- 
ner  of  govermnent  was  reprehended.    Part  of  the  non.     Their  evi- 
ccnaure  for  this  should  perhaps  fall  on  Garnet,  with  dence  abundantly 
whom  Blackwell  sometimes  took  counsel.     As  to  this  proves  the  reality 
a  serious  misunderatanding  needs  correction.     It  has  of  the  lineaments 
been  alleged  that  the  arehprieat  received  "  aecref  orders  which    might    be 

to  loUow  the  advice  of  the  Superior  of  the  Jesuits  in  discerned   m   the       „     ^    Si^"'!  ^^j**^  ^„ 

the  affairs  of  the  clergy  on  oH  pointo  of  special  import-  husk.      But   to       "^*  •"  ™"'*-  Stonyhunt  Colkn 

ance     [The  italiciied  words,  which  are  erroneous  or  what  extent  the  imaginations  of  the  onlookers  {which 

misleaoing.witlbefound  in  Dodd-Tiemey,  III,  51;  Lin-  were  undoubtedly  excited)  contributed  to  the  reciw- 

rard  (1SS3),  VI,  610;  or  Taunton.  "Black  Monks",  nition  of  Garnet's  features  in  particular,  can  hardly  be 

(Lonaon,  1901),  I,  250].     One  of  the  appellant  clergy  decided  now,  for  the  straw,  though  carefully  preserved 

wrote  in  still  stronger  terms,  which  roent  quotation  as  by  the  Enelish  Jesuits  at  Li6ge,  was  lost  during  the 

an  example  of  the  extremes  to  which  controversy  was  troubles  of  the  French  Revolution  (J.  Morris,     Life 

sometimes  carried:   "  All  Catholics  must  hereafter  de-  of  Father  John  Gerard  ".London,  IS81,  393-407). 
pend  upon  Blackwell,  and  he  upon  Garnet,  and  Garnet         As  the   Gunpowder  Plot   marked   a   new  era  of 

upon  Persona,  and  Persons  on  the  Devil,  who  is  the  cruelty  in  the  Protestant  persecution  of  Catholics,  so 

ftuthorotaIlrebelUons,treasonB,murders, disobedience  Protestant  efforts  to  excuse  their  fault  by  blaniing 

and  all  such  designmeate  as  this  wicked  ieauit  hath  Garnet  were  at  one  time  untiring,  and  even  to  the 

hitherto  contrived"  ("Sparing  Discoverie     70;  Wat-  present  day  his  case  is  discussed  in  an  unfriendly  spirit 

son  in  Iaw's  "Jesuits  and  Seculars",  London,  1889,  p.  by  non-Catholic  writers  (e.  g.  Jardine  and  Gardiner). 

Ixv).    All  that  Cardinal  Cajetan's"  Instruction"  r^ly  Ontheotherhand,  the  great  Cathohc  theologians,  who 

said  was,  "The  arehpriest  will  take  care  to  leam  the  oppoeed  King  James  in  the  matter  of  the  Oath  of 

opinion  and  advice  of  the  Jesuit  auperiors  in  matt«rB  Allegiance  have  spoken  in  Garnet's  defence  (especially 

of  greater  importance."  Bellarmine  "Apologia"  XIII,  mil,  186,  and  Suares 

Considering  the  diffieultv  of  finding  adviaera  of  any  "Defensio  Fidei  Catholicae",  VI,  \i,  |6) — a  matter  of 

sort  in  that  time  of  paral}^g  persecution,  the  ob-  eoodomen,  considering  the  theological  intricacies  that 

vious  meaning  of  the  words  is  surely  perfectly  honour-  Beset  his  case.    It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  we  have 

able,  and  becomii^  both  to  the  caidinal  and  to  the  as  yet  nothing  like  an  authoritative  pronouncement 

arehpriest.    After  they  had  been  objected  to,  how-  from  Rome  on  the  subject  of  Garnet's  martyrdom, 

ever,  they  were  withdrawn  by  a  papal  brief,  which  His  name  was  indeed  propoeed  with  that  of  the  other 

added  that  "  the  Jesuits  themselves  thought  this  was  English  Martyrs  and  Confeasors  in  1874,  and  his  cause 

necessary"  under  the  changed  cireumstances.  was  then  based  upon  the  testimonies  of  Bellarmine 

The  conclusion  of  Garnet's  life  is  closely  connected  and  the  older  Catholic  writers,  which  was  the  correct 
with  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  under  which  heading  will  plea  for  the  proof  of  Fama  Martyni,  then  to  be  de- 
be  found  an  account  of  his  having  heard  from  Calesby  monatrated  (see  Beatification  and  Canoniiation), 
in  general  terms  that  trouble  waa  intended,  and  from  But  these  ancient  authors  were  not  acquainted  with 
Father  Gieenway,  with  Cateaby'a  consent,  the  full  de-  Garnet's  actual  confessiona,  which  were  not  known  or 
tails  of  the  plot  on  the  distinct  understanding  that,  if  published  in  their  time.  The  consequence  was  tha^ 
the  plot  were  otherwise  discovered,  he  was  to  be  at  as  the  discussion  proceeded,  their  evidence  was  found 
liberty  to  disclose  the  whole  truth.    After  the  plot  had  to  be  inconcluuve,  and  an  open  verdict  was  returned; 


OABim 


388 


OABNZXB 


thus  his  martmlom  was  held  to  be  neither  proved  nor 
disproved.  This  of  course  led  to  his  case  being ''  put 
off"  (dikUus)  for  further  inquiry,  which  invohres  in 
Rome  a  delay  of  many  years. 

Gbbaro,  Contributiona  to  a  life  cf  Fr.  H.  GcmH  (London, 
1808 — ^reprinted  from  The  Month  of  aarae  year;  see  alao  June  ana 
July,  1901):  FoLBT,  Recorda  (London,  1878),  IV,  1-192.  The 
formal  contemporary  defence  was  by  a  Cretan  Jesuit,  Eudobmon- 
JoANNis.  Apoiogia  pro  R,  P,  H.  Oameto  (1610),  and  much  will 
be  found  in  the  Jesuit  historians,  Babtoli,  Mobb,  etc.;  Morris, 
Life  of  Father  John  Oerard  (London,  1881).  See  also  Gxluow, 
Bud.  Diet  Bng.  Caih,,  II,  892;  Stanton.  Menolooy  (London, 
1802).    See  also  literature  under  Gunpowpbr  Plot. 

J.  H.  PoLUSN. 

Oamety  Thomas,  Venerable,  protomartyr  of  St. 
Omer  ana  therefore  of  Stonyhurst  College;  b.  at 
Southwark.  c.  1575;'  executed  at  TVbum,  23  June, 
1608.  Richard  Garnet,  Thomas's  father,  was  at  Bal- 
liol  College,  Oxford,  at  the  time  when  greater  severity 
began  to  do  used  against  Catholics,  in  1569,  and  by  his 
constancy  g&ve  great  edification  to  the  ^neration  of  Ox- 
ford men  which  was  to  produce  Campion,  Persons  and 
so  many  other  champions  of  Catholicism.  Thomas 
attended  the  Horsham  grammar  school  and  was  after- 
wards a  page  to  one  of  the  half-brothers  of  the  Yen. 
Philip  Howard,  Earl  of  Arundel,  who  were,  however, 
conformists.  At  the  opening  of  St.  Omer's  College  in 
1592,  Thomas  was  sent  there.  By  1595  he  was  con- 
sidered fit  for  the  new  English  theological  seminary  at 
Valladolid.  and  started  in  January,  with  five  others, 
John  Copley,  William  Worthington,  John  Ivreson, 
James  Thomson,  and  Henry  Mompesson,  from  Calais. 
They  were  lucky  in  finding,  as  a  travelling  companion, 
a  Jesuit  Father,  William  Baldwin,  who  was  going  to 
Spain  in  disguise  under  the  alias  Ottavio  Fuscinelli, 
but  misfortunes  soon  began.  After  severe  weather  in 
the  Channel,  they  found  themselves  obliged  to  run  for 
shelter  to  the  Downs,  where  their  vessel  was  searched 
by  some  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  ships,  and  they  were  dis- 
covered hidmg  in  the  hold.  They  were  immediately 
made  prisoners  and  treated  very  roughly.  They  were 
sent  round  the  Nore  up  to  London,  and  were  examined 
by  Charles,  second  Lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  the 
lord  admiral.  After  this  Father  Baldwin  was  sent  to 
Bridewell  prison,  where  he  helped  the  confessor  James 
Atkinson  (q.  v.)  to  obtain  his  crown.  Meantime  his 
young  companions  had  been  handed  over  to  Whitgift, 
the  .A^hbishop  of  Canterbury, who,  having  found  tnat 
they  encouraged  one  another,  sent  them  one  by  one  to 
different  Protestant  bishops  or  doctors.  Only  the 
youngest,  Mompesson,  conformed ;  the  rest  eventually 
escap^  and  returned  to  their  colleges  beyond  seas  after 
many  adventures.  We  are  not  told  specifically  what 
befell  young  Garnet,  but  it  seems  likely  that  ne  was 
the  youth  confined  to  the  house  of  Dr.  Richard  Edes 
(Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  XVI,  364) .  He  fell  ill  and  was  sent 
home  under  bond  to  return  to  custody  at  Oxford  by  a 
certain  day.  But  his  jailer  not  appearing  in  time,  the 
boy  escaped,  and  to  avoid  trouble  had  then  to  keep 
away  even  from  his  own  father.  At  last  he  reached 
St-Omer  again,  and  thence  went  to  Valladolid.  7 
March,  1596,  having  started  on  that  journey  no  less 
than  ten  times. 

After  ordination  in  1599,  ''returning  to  England  I 
wandered",  he  says,  "from  place  to  place,  to  reduce 
soub  which  went  astray  ana  were  in  error  as  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  true  Catholic  Church  ".  During  the 
excitement  caused  by  the  Gunpowder  Plot  in  1605  he 
was  arrested  near  Warwick,  going  under  the  name 
Thomas  Rokewood,  which  he  had  no  doubt  assumed 
from  Ambrose  Rokewood  of  Coldham  Hall,  whose 
chaplain  he  then  was,  and  who  had  unfortunately  been 
implioated  in  the  plot.  Father  Garnet  was  now  im- 
prisoned first  in  tne  Gatehouse,  then  in  the  Tower, 
where  he  was  very  severely  handled  in  order  to  make 
him  fldve  evidence  against  Henry  Garnet,  his  imcle. 
supenor  of  the  English  Jesuits,  who  had  lately  admitted 
him  into  the  Society.    Though  no  connexion  with  the 


conspiracy  could  be  proved,  he  was  kept  in  the  Tower 
for  seven  months,  at  the  end  of  which  time  he  was 
suddenly  put  on  board  ship  with  fortynsix  other  priests, 
and  a  royal  proclamation,  dated  10  July,  1606,  was 
read  to  them,  threatening  death  if  they  returned. 
They  were  then  carried  across  the  Channel  and  set 
ashore  in  Flanders. 

Father  Garnet  now  went  to  his  old  school  at  St- 
Omer,  thence  to  Brussels  to  see  the  superior  <A  the 
Jesuits,  Father  Baldwin,  his  companion  m  the  adven- 
tures of  1595,  who  sent  him  to  the  Endish  Jesuit  novi- 
tiate, St.  John's,  Lou  vain,  in  which  ne  was  the  first 
novice  received.  In  September,  1607,  he  was  sent 
back  to  England,  but  was  arrested  six  weeks  later  by 
an  apostate  priest  called  Rouse.  This  was  the  time  of 
Kins  James  s  controversy  with  Bellarmine  about  the 
Oath  of  Allegiance.  Garnet  was  offered  his  life  if  he 
would  take  it,  but  steadfastly  refused,  and  was  exe- 
cuted at  Tyburn,  protesting  that  he  was  "  the  happi- 
est man  this  day  alive".  His  relics,  which  were 
preserved  at  St-Omer,  were  lost  during  the  French 
Kevolution. 

PoLLfliN.  Protomartt/r  of  Stonyhunt  CoUege  in  Stonyhwnt  Moq^ 


1509)1  820-30;*  Folbt,  iSecorda  8,J„  II.  47&-505. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Gamier,  Charles,  a  Jesuit  Blissionaiy,  b.  at  Paris, 
1606,  of  Jean  G.  and  Anne  de  Garault;  d.  7  December, 
1649.  He  studied  classics,  philosophy,  and  theolo^ 
at  the  Jesuit  college  of  Clermont,  joimng  the  order  m 
1624.  He  begged  to  be  sent  to  the  Canadian  mission, 
and  sailed  in  1636  on  the  same  fleet  as  Governor  Montr- 
magny.  He  was  sent  forthwith  to  the  Huron  country, 
where  he  was  to  spend  the  fourteen  years  of  his  heroic 
apostolate  without  once  returning  to  Quebec.  In  six 
months  he  mastered  the  difficult  language,  and  b^;an 
a  career  of  unceasinp;  charity  which  was  to  be  crowned 
by  mart3rrdom.  His  seal  for  the  conversion  of  infidels 
brooked  no  hindrance  nor  delav.  Neither  distance 
nor  weather,  nor  danger  of  death  could  prevent  him 
from  hastening  to  the  stake  to  baptise  and  exhort 
captives  of  war.  Filth,  vermin,  fetid  and  loathsome 
disease  could  not  deter  nim  from  tending  and  redeem- 
ing dying  sinners.  His  frail  frame  miraculously  re- 
sisted the  intense  strain.  His  angelic  patience  amidst 
endless  trials  won  him  the  title  of ''lamb"  of  the  mis- 
sion, whereof  Br^beuf  was  styled  the  ''lion".  Sev- 
eral times — ^first  in  1637,  then  in  1639  with  Jogues, 
and  later  with  Pijart — ^he  strove  to  convert  the  To- 
bacco nation.  His  constancy  finally  overcame  their 
obstinacy.  They  asked  for  the  black  robes  (1646), 
and  Gamier  went  to  dwell  with  them  until  death. 
After  the  martjrrdom  of  Fathers  Daniel  (1648),  Br^ 
beuf,  and  Lalemant  (March  1649),  he  calmly  awaited 
his  turn.  After  decimating  the  Hurons,  the  Iroquois 
attacked  the  Tobacco  nation.  During  the  massacre 
of  St.  John's  village,  Gamier  went  about  exhorting  his 
neoph3rtes  to  be  faithful.  Mortally  woundecT  he 
dragged  himself  towards  a  dying  Indian  to  absolve 
him,  and  received  the  final  blow  in  the  very  act  of 
charity  (1649)  on  the  eve  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion, a  dogma  he  had  vowed  to  defend.  His  letters  to 
his  brother,  a  Carmelite,  reveal  his  sanctitv.  Rague- 
neau  testifies  to  his  heroic  spirit  of  sacrince.  Park- 
man  compares  his  life  to  Uiat  of  St.  Peter  Claver 
among  the  blacks  and  styles  it  a  voluntary  mart3rr- 
dom. 

RocHCMONTBrx,  Let  JieuiUe  et  la  NouwiU  France  (Paris, 
1806);  Sbba.  The  Catholic  Church  in  colonial  daye  (New  York, 
1886);  Bbsssani.  Lee  Jieuiiee  martyre  du  Canada  (MontnSal, 
1877);  Mabtxn,  Vie  manueeriu  et  LtUree  du  Ptre  Gamier. 

Lionel  Lindsay. 

Oarnier,  Jean,  church  historian,  patristic  scholar, 
and  moral  theologian;  b.  at  Paris,  11  Nov.,  1612;  d. 
at  Bologna,  26  Nov.,  1681.   He  entered  the  Society  o! 


OABNIBB 


389 


OABBirCNSX 


Jesus  at  the  sab  of  sixteen,  and,  after  a  distinguished 
course  of  stu(fy,  taught  at  first  the  humanities,  then 
philosophy,  at  Clermont-Ferrand  (1643-1653),  and 
theology  at  Bourses  (1653-1681).  In  1681.  he  was 
sent  to  Rome  on  business  of  his  order,  fell  ill  on  the 
way,  and  died  at  Bologna.  Gamier  was  considered  one 
of  we  most  learned  Jesuits  of  his  day,  was  well  versed 
in  Christian  antiquity,  and  much  consulted  in  difficult 
cases  of  conscience.  In  1648,  he  published  for  the  first 
time  the  "  libellus  fidei ",  sent  to  the  Holy  See  during 
the  Pelagian  controversy  bv  Julian,  Bishop  of  Ecla- 
num  in  Apulia.  Gamier  adaed  notes  and  an  historical 
commentary.  The  Libellus  also  found  a  place  in  Gar- 
nier's  later  work  on  Mercator. 

In  1655,  he  wrote  "  Regube  fidei  catholicsB  de  gratia 
Dei  per  Jesum  Christimi  ,  and  published  the  work  at 
Bourges.  In  1673.  he  edited  at  Paris  all  the  works  of 
Marius  Mercator  (a.  at  Constantinople  after  451).  The 
edition  contains  two  parts.  The  mrst  gives  the  writ- 
ingis  of  Mercator  against  the  Pelagians,  and  to  these 
Gamier  adds  seven  dissertations:  (1)  "Deprimisaucto- 
ribus  et  prsBcipuiB  defensoribus  hieresis  que  a  Pelagio 
nomen  accepit";  (2)  "De  synodis  habitis  in  causa 
Pelagianorum";  (3)  ''De  constitutionibus  impera- 
torum  in  eadem  causa  418-430";  (4)  "De  subecrip^ 
tione  in  causa  Pelagianorum'[;  (5)  '  De  libellis  fioei 
scriptis  ab  auctoribus  et  prscipuis  defensoribus  hser- 
esis  Pelagians  " ;  OS)  "  De  lis  qu®  soripta  sunt  a  defen- 
soribus fidei  catbolicse  adversus  hseresun  Pelagianorum 
ante  obitum  S.  Augustini";  (7)  "De  ortu  et  incre- 
mentis  hseresis  Pelagian®  seu  potius  Coelestianse". 
Cardinal  Noris  (op.  3, 1176)  considered  these  disserta- 
tions of  great  value,  and  says  that,  if  he  had  seen  them 
in  time,  he  would  have  put  aside  his  own  writings  on 
the  subject.  In  the  second  part,  Gamier  gives  a  good 
historical  sketch  of  Nestorianism  from  428  to  433,  then 
of  the  writings  of  Mercator  on  this  heresy,  and  adds 
two  treatises  on  the  heresy  and  writings  of  Nestorius, 
and  on  the  synods  held  in  the  matter  between  429  and 
433.  Much  praise  is  bestowed  on  Gamier  by  later 
leamed  writers  for  the  great  amount  of  historical 
knowledge  displaved  in  his  dissertations,  but  he  is  also 
severely  olamed  for  his  arbitrary  arrangement  of  the 
writi^ps  of  Mercator  and  for  his  criticism  of  the  orig- 
inal Cnilemont, "  M^moires  eccl^.",  XV,  142;  Cotelier, 
"  Monum.  eccl.  gjsec.".  Ill,  602). 

Gamier  edited  in  ]r675  at  Paris  the  "Breviarium 
causffi  Nestorianorum  et  Eutychianorum"  (composed 
before  566  by  Liberatus,  an  archdeacon  of  Carthage), 
correcting  many  mistakes  and  adding  notes  and  a  dis- 
sertation on  the  Fifth  General  Council.  In  1678  he 
wrote  "Systema  bibliothecse  coUegii  Parisiensis  S.  J.", 
a  work  considered  veiy  valuable  for  those  arraneing 
the  books  in  a  library.  In  1680,  he  edited  the  "  Liber 
diumus  Romanorum  Pontificum"  from  an  ancient 
manuscript,  and  added  three  essays:  ^1)  "  De  indiculo 
scribendffi  epistols";  (2)  "De  ordinatione  summi 
pontificis";  (3)  "  De  usu  pallii"  (see  Liber  Ditjrntjs). 
in  the  second  essay  he  treats  the  case  of  Pope  Hono- 
rius,  whom  he  considers  free  of  guilt.  In  1642,  Sir- 
mond  had  published  in  four  volumes  the  works  of 
Theodoret,  Bishop  of  Cyrus  (d.  455);  Gamier  added 
an  "  Auctarium",  which,  however,  was  not  published 
until  1684.  It  consists  of  five  essays:  (1)  ^'De  ejus 
vita  " ;  (2)  "  De  libris  Theodoreti " ;  (3)  "  De  fide  Theo- 
doreti";  (4)  "De  quinta  synodo  generali";  (5)  "De 
Theodoreti  et  orientalium  causa''.  In  these  he  is 
rather  severe  on  Theodoret  and  condemns  him  unde- 
servedly. Another  posthumous  work  of  Gamier's, 
"Tractatus  de  officiis  confessarii  erga  singula  poeniten- 
tium  genera-',  was  published  at  Paris  in  1689. 

HuBiBB,  Nomendator;  Bauuoabtnbb  in  Kirchenler.,  s.  ▼. 

Francis  Mershman. 

« 

Oamier,  Juubn,  Jesuit  missionary,  b.  at  Connerai, 
France.  6  Janimry,  1643;  d.  in  Quebec,  1730.  He 
enterea  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1660,  and,  in  October, 


1662,  sailed  for  Canada.  He  was  the  first  Jesuit  to 
be  ordained  there,  and  after  his  ordhiation  in  1668, 
he  prepared  himself  for  missionary  work  among  the 
Indians.  He  went  "first  to  the  Oneida,  but  within  a 
few  months  changed  the  field  of  his  labours  to  the 
Onondaga  mission.  ^  Garaconthi^,  the  Ononda^ 
chief,  received  him  with  every  evidence  of  friendship, 
and,  at  his  request,  rebuilt  the  chapel  of  St.  Mary.  So 
successful  was  his  ministry  among  me  Onondagas,  that, 
on  the  arrival  of  other  missionaries  in  1671,  Gamier  set 
out  with  Father  Fr^min  for  the  Seneca  country,  where 
he  found  a  bare  handful  of  Christian  Indians  at  the 
Gandachioragou  mission.  He  immediately  began  to 
preach  and  baptize,  and  persevered  in  his  work  even 
after  his  chapel  was  destroyed  by  a  fire  which  wiped 
out  the  entire  village. 

When  trouble  arose  in  1683  between  the  French 
and  the  Senecas,  Gamier  went  with  de  Lamberville 
to  Governor  de  la  Barre  to  urge  compromise  and 
moderation.  He  was  unable,  however,  to  dissuade 
the  latter  from  his  policy  of  repression,  and  de  la 
Barre  set  out  upon  tne  ill-starred  expedition  which 
was  to  prevent  priests  from  venturing  among  the 
northern  tribes  for  over  thirteen  years.  Every 
missionary  was  recalled  at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities 
and  Gamier  was  sent  in  turn  to  the  settiements  of 
Lorette  and  Caiughnawaga.  His  adventurous  spirit, 
naturally,  chafed  under  the  inactivity  of  these  more 
tranquil  labours,  and  when  access  to  the  Indians  was 
made  possible  by  the  Treaty  of  Montreal,  in  1701, 
Father  Gamier  hastened  back  to  his  mission  among 
the  Senecas,  where  he  remained  till  1709,  when  Schuy- 
ler's expedition  once  more  made  it  necessary  for  him 
to  return  to  Canada.  His  departure  marked  the  end 
of  missionary  work  among  the  Senecas,  and  he  paaaed 
his  remaining  years  among  the  various  settlements 
along  the  St.  Lawrence,  retiring  from  active  life  in 
1728. 

Both  his  extraordinary  missionary  zeal  and  the 
length  of  time  over  which  his  labours  extended  have 
marked  Father  Gamier  as  the  Apostle  of  the  Senecas. 
His  intimacy  with  this  tribe  was  much  more  close 
than  that  of  any  other  of  the  eariy  Jesuits,  and  the 
notes  and  letters  he  has  left  still  remain  one  of  the 
principal  and  most  accurate  sources  of  information  on 
this  division  of  the  Iroquois. 

Campbell,  Pioneer  PrieBte  of  North  America  (New  York, 
1006);  Jesuit  Relaticne;  Handbook  of  American  Bthndoay 
(Waflhington.  1007). 

Stanley  J.  Quinn. 
Oarofalo.    See  Tisio. 

Oarrigsn,  Philip  Joseph.  See  Sionx  Crrr,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

Oarraccii  Raffasle,  historian  of  Christian  art^  b. 
at  Naples,  23  January,  1812;  d.  at  Rome,  5  May, 
1885.  He  belonged  to  a  wealthy  family,  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  was  pro- 
fessed on  19  March,  1853.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  Christian  Fathers,  also  to  profane  and 
Christian  antiauities;  both  he  and  the  celebrated  De 
Rossi  became  the  principal  disciples  of  Father  Marchi. 
On  his  many  journeys  through  Italy,  France,  Ger- 
many, andSpain^  he  collected  much  valuable  material 
for  his  archseological  publications.  In  1854  he  wrote  for 
Father  Cahier's  "  Melanges  d'Arch6ologie"  a  study  on 
Phrygian  syncretism.  Soon  after  he  ^ted  the  notes 
of  Jean  L'Heureux  on  the  Roman  catacombs  (in  manu- 
script since  1605) ;  later  an  essay  on  the  glUed  classes 
of  tne  catacombs  (1858),  and  another  on  the  Jewish 
cemetery  at  the  Villa  Randanini.  In  1872  he  began 
the  publication  of  a  monumental  historv  of  early 
Christian  antiquities^  entitled  "Storia  dell  arte  cris- 
tiana  *'.  ^  It  was  destined  to  include  all  works  of  sculp- 
ture, paintingj  and  the  minor  and  industrial  arts,  dur- 
ing the  first  eight  centuries  of  the  Christian  Era.  It 
is,  in  fact,  a  general  histoiy  of  early  Christian  art,  and 
contains  five  hundred  findy  engraved  plates  and  ex* 


QABVSY 


390 


OASPABB 


planatory  text.  Five  of  the  six  volumes  contain^ 
respectively,  the  catacomb-frescoes — ^and  paintings 
from  other  quarters — gilded  glasses,  mosaics,  sarcoph- 
agi, and  non-sepulchral  sculptures.  The  first  vol- 
ume is  devoted  to  the  theoretical  part  of  the  work,  i.  e. 
to  a  history  of  Christian  art  properly  so  called. 

In  this  vast  collection  Garrucci  re-edited  to  some 
extent  materials  taken  from  earlier  works.  For 
hitherto  unedited  materials  he  used  photographs  or 
reproductions  of  some  other  kind.  His  engravings 
are  not  always  verv  accurate,  and  in  point  of  finish  are 
inferior  to  those  obtained  by  more  modem  processes. 
His  reproductions  of  catacomb-frescoes,  in  particular, 
have  lost  much  of  their  value  since  the  publication  oi 
tiie  accurate  work  of  Mgr.  Wilpert  (Pitture  delle  cata- 
combe  romane,  Rome.  1903).  On  the  whole,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  said  tnat  the  "Storia  dell'  arte  cris- 
tiana  **  is  yet  far  from  being  superseded  by  any  similar 
work.  Father  Garrucci  had  more  erudition  than  criti- 
cal judgment;  in  this  respect  his  fellow-student  De 
Rossi  was  far  superior  to  him.  Hence  the  text  of 
Gamicci's  publications  is  now  of  doubtful  authority. 
The  list  of  his  publications  covers  118  numbers  m 
Sommervogel,  *  Bibhothdque  de  la  compagnie  de 
J^sus"  (Brussels,  1902),  III.  Among  them  are  the 
aforementioned  ''Storia  dell'  arte  cristiana  nei  primi 
otto  secoli  della  chiesa"  (6  vols.,  Prato,  1872-^1); 
"  Diss^rtazioni  archeologiche  di  vario  argomento"  (2 
vols.,  Rome,  1864-65) ;  "  Le  monete  dell' Italia  antica, 
Raccolta  generale"  (Rome,  1885). 

Pbocaccinz  dz  MoNTBBCAOUoeo.  Commemomione  del  P. 
RaffaeU  Qarrucci  (Naples,  1885);  Baumoartner,  PaUr  Oar- 
rueci'9  Geschiehle  der  ehrimichen  Kunat  dea  AUertuma  in  Slimmen 
au»  Maria-Leutehj  X  (1876).  pp.  158-180;  Oarrucci  on  Christian 
AH  in  The  Month,  XXVIII  (1876),  pp.  47-60,  a  short  account 
of  the  preceding  article. 

R.  Maebe. 

Oarrey,  Eugene  A.    See  Altoona,  Diocese  of. 

Oanon,  Diocese  of  (Garzonensis),  su£Fragan  of 
Popaydn  in  the  Republic  of  (Colombia.  It  comprises  the 

firovinces  of  Neiva  and  Sur,  and  lies  east  of  ropaydn. 
t  is  about  140  miles  in  length,  and  its  breadth  varies 
from  40  to  1(X)  miles.  It  extends  from  1}^  to  4° 
north  latitude,  and  lies  between  the  75^  and  77°  west 
loncitude.  Tne  episcopal  see  is  at  Neiva^  a  town  of 
11,000  inhabitants,  situated  150  miles  S.W  .of  Bogotd, 
at  a  height  of  1500  feet  above  sea^level,  on  the  river 
Magdalena,  which  is  navigable  to  this  point.  The 
diocese  originally  formedpart  of  that  of  Tolima,  which 
lay  in  the  midst  of  the  Cordilleras.  As  the  territory 
was  so  extensive,  the  population  very  numerous,  and 
the  difficulties  of  visitation  too  great,  the  bishop 
petitioned  the  Holy  See  to  divide  we  diocese.  This 
was  done  by  a  decree  of  Leo  XIII,  20  June,  1900. 
The  northern  half  was  erected  into  a  new  diocese — 
Ibagu^,  suffra^n  of  Bogotd — and  the  southern  half 
formed  the  Diocese  of  Garzon.  Mgr.  Est^ban  Rojas, 
bom  at  Hato  in  the  Diocese  of  Popaydn,  15  Januarv, 
1850,  had  been  raised  to  the  See  of  Tolima,  18  March, 
1895.  He  was  transferred  to  Neiva  as  first  Bishop  of 
Garzon.  The  cathedral  is  dedicated  to  the  Immacu- 
late Conception  of  Our  Lady.^  The  population,  of 
which  a  large  part  is  of  mixed  origin,  is  almost  entirely 
CaUiolic.  Till  recent  years  the  public  authorities 
neglected  education  and  threw  the  whole  burden  on 
the  clergy,  but  of  late  government  schools  are  being 
establishea.    (See  Colombia,  Republic  of.) 

Pbtrb,  The  Republic  of  Colombia  (London,  1906);  ScRUOos, 
The  Colombian  and  Venezudan  Kepublica  (Boston.  1902); 
Stubbl,  Z>te  Vulkanberae  wm  Colombia  (Dresden,  1906);  Hum- 
boldt, Kites  dea  Cordiu^ea,  et  monumenta  dea  peuplea  tndighiea 


deCAmMque  (Paris,  1816). 


A.  A.  MacErlean. 


Oascoigne,  Sir  Thobcas.    See  Popish  Plot. 

Gaspare  del  Bnfalo,  Blessed,  founder  of  the 
Missionaries  of  the  most  Precious  Blood  ( C.P.P.S.) ; 
b.  at  Rome  on  the  feast  of  the  Epiphanv,  1786;  d. 
28  December,  1837.    His  parents  were  Antonio  del 


Bufaio,  chief  cook  of  the  princely  family  of  Altieri, 
and  his  wife  Annunziata  Quartieroni.  Because  of  his 
delicate  health,  his  pious  mother  had  him  confirmed 
at  the  tender  a^  of  one  and  a  half  years  (1787). 
As  he  was  suffermg  from  an  incurable  malady  of  ^e 
eyes,  which  threatened  to  leave  him  blind,  prayers 
were  offered  to  St.  Francis  Xavier  for  his  reoove^. 
In  1787,  he  was  miraculously  cured,  wherefore  he 
cherished  in  later  life  a  special  devotion  to  the  great 
Apostle  of  India,  and  selected  him  as  the  special  patron 
of  the  congregation  which  he  foundedf.  From  his 
earliest  years  he  had  a  great  horror  of  even  venial  sins, 
and  showed  deep  piety,  a  spirit  of  mortification,  re- 
markable control  over  his  evil  inclinations  (especially 
his  innate  irascibility  and  strong  self-will),  and  also 
heroic  love  for  the  poor  and  the  miserable.  Having 
entered  the  Collegium  Romanum  at  the  age  of  twelve, 
he  received  in  18^  first  tonsure,  and  one  year  later  the 
four  minor  orders.  As  catechetical  instructor  at  St. 
Mark's,  his  zeal  won  for  him  the  name  '"The  Little 
Apostle  of  Rome",  and  when  but  nineteen  years  old, 
be  was  appointed  president  of  the  newly  instituted 
catechetical  school  of  Santa  Maria  del  Pianto. 

After  his  ordination  (31  July,  1808),  he  obtained  a 
canonry  at  St.  Mark's,  and  soon  instituted  with  Gae- 
tano  Bonani  a  nocturnal  oratory.  He  assisted  Fran- 
cesco Albertini  in  founding  the  Archconfratemity  of 
the  Most  Precious  Blood,  and  worked  with  great  zeal 
in  the  poorer  districts  of  Rome,  preaching  frequently 
in  the  market-places.  In  1810  he  was  summoned 
before  General  Miollis  to  swear  allegiance  to  Napoleon. 
But  neither  threats  nor  promises  could  induce  nim  to 
do  so,  because  Pius  VII  nad  forbidden  it.  Tlie  words 
with  which  he  announced  his  final  decision  have  be- 
come famous:  "Non  posso,  non  debbo,  non  voglio" 
(I  cannot;  I  oujght  not;  I  will  not).  In  consequence 
he  suffered  banishment,  and  later  on  imprisonment  in 
the  foul  dungeons  of  Imola  and  Rocca  (1810-1814). 
After  Napoleon's  fall  he  returned  to  Rome,  intending 
to  enter  the  re-established  Jesuit  Order.  But  obey- 
ing his  spiritual  adviser,  Albertini,  he  founded  a 
congregation  of  secular  priests  to  give  missions  and 
spread  devotion  to  the  M!ost  Precious  Blood.  Through 
Cardinal  Cristaldi  he  obtained  the  pope's  sanction  and, 
as  a  motheivhouse,  the  former  convent  of  San  Felice 
in  Giano.  Of  this  he  took  solemn  possession,  11 
August,1815.  The  Bull  of  beatification  says,  '*  Through 
Umbria,  Emilia,  Picenum,  Tuscanv,  Campania, 
Samnium,  in  short  all  the  provinces  of  Middle  Italy, 
he  wandered,  giving  missions".  The  very  titles 
accorded  to  him  by  his  contemporaries  speak  volumes: 
"II  Santo",  "Apostle  of  Rome",  "II  martello  del 
Carbonari"  (Hammer  of  Italian  Freemasonry). 

How  arduous  some  of  his  missions  were  mav  be 
gleaned  from  the  fact  that  he  frequently  preach^  five 
times  daily,  sometimes  even  oftener.  At  Sanseverino 
fifty  priests  were  not  sufiScient  to  hear  confessions 
after  nis  sermons.  Though  idolized  by  the  people,  he 
was  not  without  enemies.  His  activity  in  converting; 
the  "bri^nti",  who  came  in  crowds  and  laid  their 
guns  at  his  feet  after  he  had  preached  to  them  in  their 
mountain  hiding-places,  excited  the  ire  of  tiie  officials 
who  profited  from  brigandage  through  bribes  and  in 
other  ways.  These  enemies  almost  mduced  Leo  XII 
to  suspend  del  Bufaio.  But  after  a  personal  con- 
ference, the  pope  dismissed  him,  remarking  to  his 
courtiers,  "Del  Bufaio  is  an  angel".  His  enemies 
next  tried  to  remove  him  from  his  post  by  procuring 
his  promotion  as  "internuncio  to  Brazil".  In  vain, 
however^  for  his  humility  triumphed.  A  last  attempt 
under  Pius  VIII  (1830)  met  with  temporary  success. 
Del  Bufaio  was  deprived  of  faculties  for  a  short  time, 
and  his  coneresation  threatened  with  extinction. 
But  his  wondernil  humility  again  manifested  itself, 
and,  though  himself  misjud^d  find  his  life-work 
menaced  by  the  very  authority;  that  should  have 
supported  him,  he  showed  no  signs  of  resentment. 


OA8PX  391  QASBEHDI 

forgave  bia  enemiea,  and  excused  hu  luunerited  con-  ceived  in  a  friendly  mftmer  st  the  ChfLleau  de  Hon- 
demnation.  He  Htortn  soon  passed,  Qaspaie  was  mort,  wher«  a  year  later  he  fell  seriously  fll  with 
restored  to  honour,  and  resumed  his  work  with  te-  intermittent  fever.  He  was  bled  nine  times,  and, 
newed  seal.  In  1836  his  atrencth  began  to  fail.  AI-  although  he  declared  himself  too  weak  for  aootiier 
though  fatally  ill,  he  hastened  to  Itome,  where  the  bleeding,  he  sabmitted  to  the  decision  of  the  best  doc- 
cholera  wBsragin^,toadminister  to  the  spiritual  wants  tors  in  Paris.  He  underwent  the  same  operation  five 
of  the  plague-stricken.  It  proved  too  much  for  him,  times  more,  after  which  his'  speech  became  mere 
and  he  succumbed  in  the  midst  of  his  labours  on  28  whispering,  and  he  expired  quietly  at  the  ajge  of  63. 
Dec.,  1837.  He  waa  beatified  by  Pius  X  on  29  Aug.,  Gassendi,  "the  Bacon  of  France",  is  specially  nole- 
1904.  worthy  for  his  opposition  to  the  Ariatotelean  philtw- 
EoHKADi  AMD  Jn«s«L,  L^^  da  id.  Katjutrt  dtl  BufaU;  ophy,  and  for  his  revival  of  the  Epicurean  system. 

°™'"""""~~'^""'''' rKSTF.MSS..  S"""?  "»  >P™~«»  m.lho<U  tU  pnvJmg  i, 
the  schools  replaced  by  experimental  proofs.    His  co»- 

aaBp«,  PHiLippE-Aira.aT  n.,  a  Fiench  Canadian  TI?^: n^l°F,Cfji^'^T,^tf^^i.V'^^^t 

writer,  b!  at  Quebec,  30  Oct.,  1786,  of  a  family  en-  ^*  ff  °"»^t^  the  doctrme  of  the  Creator  and  of 

nobIedbyLoui8XlVinl693;d.  29Jan..  1871.    His  evidence     and 

grandfather  fought  under  Montcalm  at  CariUon  (Ti-  ^\    .spintua  ity 

conderoga).     He  studied  at  Quebec  Seminary,  and  a?a    "ninortalrty 

aftera  brief  practice  of  the  Uw,  was  appointed  sheriff,  ri  we  soui.    m 

Forced  by  misfortune  to  retire  to  his  ancestral  home  at  PV?,  "tempts  to 

Saint-Jean-Port-Joli,  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  he  there  ?""'*  "?  .?  ^''^^ 

spent  thirty  years  in  study.    At  the  ripe  age  of  sev-  \^^  t^T^^L 

eSty-five.  fie  produced  a  Vork,  "Les  AnciSis  Cana-  "P°?  Epicuru»- 

dieis"  (Quebec,  1861),  which  is  a  household  word  *^-'?'^°*^°t''£i 

throughout  Canada.     This  historical  novel,    ahnost  "'>'<^  '•J''*f.'=™ 

entirely  based  on  fact,  illustrates  Canadian  national  "y  non-Lbristian, 

tradition,  character,  and  manners.     The  author  has  ??  "Bll  as  unns- 

interwoven  the  events  of  his  own  chequered  Ufe  with  ™nfPP"™opne"- 

the  tragic  tele  of  the  struggles  and  fall  of  New  France,  ""  X?T?  *"'  ""^ 

and  of  the  change  of  regime,  the  eyewitnesses  of  which  co'^«''"on      ot 

he  had  personally  known.     In  1866,  Gaspf  pubUshed  ^^™^  .  ^^^    His 

his"Mftnoirea",whiehcontinueandftmplifythe  pre-  f*     jJl  ^^4- 

cious  historical  notes  contained  in  his  othw  works,  to  modem  kmetio 

Leas  brilUant  atad  attractive  than  his  novel,  the  "  M6-  ",  ■  "P.      ^  ~I" 

moirea"are  an  excellent  specimen  of  anecdotal  his-  P.,    ™™?".'p™" 

tory.    Theauthor's  standing  and  experience,  the  lat-  ""J",    i*"*  .^"»- 

ter  embracing  directly  or  indirectly  the  space  of  a  ^^'  waa  neither  p,^ 

century  dating  from  the  Conquest,  constitute  him  an  „"Jl„- If^ .,  „„,  .  .«„,:„  ,-„  ,i,„  „^«,  _„^  ;. 

au^enUcehronicler  of  an  obscure  yet  eventful  period  ^^^^^^^JL  tSlZi^  of  ^^^loT^^. 

Uoan!S,fliN.  Can.  {Ottaw.  iM7)i  C*»oa««.  (Bum,  ««..  cprroponded  with  Hobbes,  Mersenne,  Christina  of 

rUUt  (Quibac,  1873).  Sweden,  and  engaged  m  controversy  with  Fludd,  Her- 

LiONEL  LiNDBAT.  bert,  and  Descartes. 

That  as  an  amateur  astronomer,  Gassendi  waa  a 

Ouiendl  (GASSEiniT,  Gasssnd),  Pierre,  French  persevering,  attentive,  and  intelligent  observer,  is 

phUoaopher  and  scientist;  b.  at  Champtercier,  a  coun-  evident  from  his  notebook  carefully  kept  from  1618 

tiy  place  near  Digne  in  Provence,  22  January,  1592  until  1652  and  filling  over  400  p^ea.     mthaOalilean 

(tombstone  says  IX  cal.  Feb.,  i,  e.  24  Jan.) ;  d.  at  telescope  he  observed  the  transit  of  Mercury  in  1631, 

Paris,  24  October,  1665.     He  studied  latin  and  rhet^  predicted  by  Kepler,  by  projecting  the  sun's  image  on 

oric  at  Digne,   and  philosophy  at  Aix,   whence  his  a  screen  of  paper.     His  instrument  was  not  strong 

father,  Antoine,  called  him  back  to  take  charge  of  enough,  however,  to  disclose  the  occultetions  and 

domestic  affairs.     However,  he  was  appointed  to  sue-  transits  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  or  the  true  shape  of 

oeed  his  former  teacher  of  rhetoric  at  Digue  at  the  Saturn's  ring.     The  results  of  his  astronomical  work 

^e  of  16,  and  his  teacher  of  philosophy  at  Aix  at  the  are  analysea  in  Deiambre'a  "Histotiedel'Astronomis 

age  of  19,     His  friends  and  patrons  at  Aix,  Prior  Modeme"  (Paris,  1821,  II).     Other  works  of  minor 

Gautier  and  Councillor  Peiresc,  recognized  his  char-  importance  refer  to  biographies,  nhysics,  and  anat- 

acter  and  talents  from  his  first  publicatkin  and  helped  omy.    Gassendi  was  in  correspondence  with  Cassini. 

him  to  enter  the  ecclesiBati(»l  state.     He  became  Galilei,  Hevel,  Kepler,  Kircher,  Scheiner,  Vallia,  ana 

doctor  of  theology  at  Aix  and  attained  proficiency  in  other  scientists.     As  to  the  Copemican  system,  he 

Greek  and  Hebrew  literature.     To  allow  him  leisure  maintained  that  it  rested  on  probabilities,  but  was  not 

for  his  studies,  he  was  appointed  a  canon  (c.  1623)  and  demonstrated,  although  he  ably  refuted  all  obieotiona 

provost  (c.  1625)  at  the  cathedral  of  Digne.      Until  against  it.     To  those  whose  conscience  forbade  them 

164fi,  his  studies  weie  interrupted  only  by  a  journey  to  accept  Copemicanism,  he  said  that  the  Tychonion 

to  the  Netherlands  in  1628-— his  only  trip  outside  system  recommended  itself  as  the  most  probable  of 

of  Prance.    In  1645,  on  the  recommendation  of  Car-  all  (Op.  V,  De  Rebus  Cielestibus,  V). 
dinal  Richelieu,  he  was  appointed  by  the  king  to  a         In  character,  Gassendi  was  retiring  and  unpreten- 

profesaorship  of  mathematics  at  the  Coll^  Royal  of  tioua.  With  friends,  he  would  give  way  to  a  humorous 

France,  which  he  reluctantly  accepted,  being  granted  and  ironical   vein;  in  controversy,  he  observed  the 

the  rare  privilege  of  returning  to  his  native  sou  when-  Socratic  method.     On  Sundays  and  feast  days  he 

ever  his  nealth  required  it.    On  23  November,  he  de-  never  omitted  celebrating  Mass ;  and  when  in  Paris,  he 

Itvered  his  inaugural  address  in  presence   of  the  went  to  the  church  of  bis  friend,  F£re  Mersenne.    Id 

cardinal.     His  lectures  before  a  numerous  and  learned  his  last  illness  he  asked  tor  the  Viaticum  three  times, 

audience  were  astronomical  rather  than  mathematical,  and  for  extreme  unction,  and  his  aspirationB  were 

and  resulted,  two  years  later,  in  the  publication  of  his  words  from  the  Psalms.    Gassendi  waa  esteemed  by 

"Institutio  Astronomiea".     Meanwhile  an  inflanuna-  alt,  and  loved  bv  the  poor,  for  whom  he  provided  in 

tion  of  the  lungs  had  obli^d  him  to  return  to  Pro-  lifetime  and  in  nis  last  will.    He  founded  two  anni- 

venoe.    In  1663,  he  wentl)ack  to  Paris  and  was  re-  versary  Masses  for  himself,  one  to  be  said  in  the 


0A8SBB                                392  OATZAHUS 

cathedral  of  Digne,  and  one  ixf  the  chapel  of  his  friend,  firmities  were  not  the  result  of  natural  agencies,  but 

Monmort,  at  St-Nlcolas-des-Champs,  Paris,  where  he  were  caused  by  the  Devil.    Only  cases  m  the  latter 

was  buried.    The  accompanying  picture  represents  kind  were  taken  up;  he  applied  the  exorcisms  of  the 

his  marble  bust  in  that  mausoleum.    The  assertion  Church,  and  commanded  the  evil  one  to  depart  from 

that  he  was  a  Minorite  is  without  foundation.  the  afflicted,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus.    To  find 

Gassendi's  ''Opera  Omnia"  were  edited  in  6  vols.,  out  whether  the  disease  was  caused  naturally  or  not, 

Lyons,  1658,  and  Florence,  1727.  he  applied  the  "probative  exorcism",  i.  e.  he  com- 

Baldwin.  Did.  of  Fhxipa.and  i^fyML.  (New  York.  London,  manded  the  spirit  to  indicate  by  some  sign  his  presence 

190.>),  lil,  <S^o\    Archio  f.  Oatch.  d,  Fhtloa.,  11  (1889),  459;   X  :„  au**  VxnA^       A«/1  /x^Iv  4Yia*.  U^  ^orl^Tf.^  ^f  Tk^  ««• 

(1  v^7).  2JS;  biooraphie  Univ.,  s.  v.;  LAMwiii.  Oeachichie  d,  ^  f*}®  ^^^^^^  .  ^^^  ^™X  ^^^^  he  made  use  of  the    ex- 

AiomisUk  (Hamburg.  Leipst^,  1890),  U.  126;  Noak,  Hiatar.-  pulsive  exorcism''.    His  proceedmgs  were  not  secret ; 

Bioor.  Handiv6HeH>.  (Leipaig.  ^1879);   RirrBR.  Ge»chiehte  d.  anyone  of  good  standfaig,  Catholic  or  Protestant,  was 

f&.  iWf^ii?^6T1f»S^S^;»^SfrV.tu^Ji?^'S:  admitted.    People  of  aff  elates  nobles.  eccl«iia8ti«, 

Ofimdrut  d.  Oe§e/L  d.  PhUoa.  (Berlin,  1901),  101.  physicians,  and  others  often  gathered  around  hun  to 

J.  G.  Hagen.  see  the  marvels  they  had  heard  of.    O^cial  records 

were  made;  competent  witnesses  testified  to  the  ex- 
Oasser  yon  Valhom,  Joseph,  an  Austrian  sculp-  traordinary  happenines.  The  character  of  the  work 
tor,  b.  22  Nov.,  1816^  at  Prftgraten.  Tyrol;  d.  28  Oct.,  made  many  enemies  for  him,  but  also  many  stanch 
19()0.  He  was  first  instructed  by  his  father,  a  wood-  friends  and  supporters.  One  of  his  bitterest  oppo- 
carver,  and  later  studied  at  the  Academy,  Vienna,  nents  was  the  rationalistic  professor  Johannes  Semler 
In  1846  he  went  to  Rome,  where  a  government  stipend  of  Halle.  Also  the  physician  Mesnaer  pretended  that 
enabled  him  to  remain  several  years.  On  his  return  the  cures  were  performed  by  the  animal  magnetism  of 
he  settled  in  Vienna  (1852),  and  executed  five  heroic  his  invention,  but  he  was  afraid  of  confronting  Gassner 
figures  for  the  portal  of  the  cathedral  at  Speyer:  Our  Among  his  friends  were  the  Calvinistic  minister,  Lava- 
Lady,  the  Archangel  St.  Michael,  St.  John  the  Baptist,  ter  of  Zurich,  and  especially  Count  Fugger,  the  Prinoe- 
St.  Stephen,  and  St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  completea  Bishop  of  Ratisbon. 

in  1856.    Also  in  Speyer  he  carved  seven  reliefs  for  the  Official  investigations  were  made  by  the  ecclesiasti- 

Kaiserhalle.    The  marble  statue  of  Rudolph  IV  on  cal  authorities;  and  all  were  favourable  to  Gassner, 

the  Elizabeth  bridge  over  the  Danube  Canal,  Vienna,  except  that  they  recommended  more  privacy  and 

is  by  him.    Other  worl»  are  the  statues  of  Maximilian  decorum.    The  University  of  Ingolstadt  appointed  a 

I,  Frederick  the  Warlike,  and  Leopold  of  Hapsburg  commission,  and  so  did  the  Imperial  Government; 

for  the  Museum  of  the  Arsenal ;  the  marble  statues  of  they  ended  with  the  approval  of  Gassner's  procedure, 

the  Seven  Liberal  Arts  in  the  staircase  of  the  Opera  In  fact,  he  never  departed  from  the  Church's  teaching 

House ;  twenty-four  figures  for  the  Cathedral  oi  St.  or  instructions  concerning  exorcism,  and  always  dis- 

Stephen;  the  relief  of  l3uke  Rudolph  the  Founder  for  claimed  the  name  of  wonder-worker.    He  was  an  ex- 

the  New  Townhall ;  the  **  Prometheus"  and  the  "  Gen-  emplary  priest,  full  of  faith  and  zeal,  and  altogether 

evidve"  for  the  Court  Theatre ;  a  number  of  statues  for  unselfish  m  his  works  of  mercy, 

the  Altlerchenf elder  Church;  busts  of  Herodotus  and  Zimmbrmann,  Johann  Joseph  GoMnv,  det  bvUhmU  BxonUt 

Aristarchus   for   the   university;    and   portraits   of  (Kempten,  1878);  Maw  in  iC»rcfc«ni«.,  a.  v. 

Maximilian  of  Mexico  and  of  his  wife  the  Empress  Francis  J.  Schaefeb. 

Charlotte.    He  also  n^de  a  bust  ^  tiie  Emperor  Oaston,  William,  jurist;  b.  at  Newbem,  North 

FrancB  Joseph  for  the  H6tel  de  Ville,  Pans  and  sculp-  Carolina,  U.  S.  A.,  19  Sept.,  1778 :  d.  at  Raleigh,  North 

tures  for  the  new  cathedral,  Lms     Most  important  Carolina   23  Jandary,  1844.    His  father.  Dr.  Alex- 

amone  ha  works  are  ^e  subjects  for  the  Votive  ^nder  Oiston,  a  Pr^byterian  native  of  Ireland,' for- 

ChurcL  Vienna,  modelled  around  the  year  1873;  the  n^^rly  a  surg^n  in  the  British  Navy,  was  killed  at 

a)ronation  of  Mary,  the  group  of  the  Trmity,  a  figure  Newbem  by  British  soldiers  during  tde  Revolution, 

of  Christ  the  Redeemer  statues  for  the  hi^h  and  side  ^nd  his  education  devolved  on  his  mother  Mai^ret 

altars,  nine  angels,  and  the  tymoan  reliefs  for  the  three  gh^rpe,  a  Catholic  En^ishwoman.    She  sent  hmi  to 

mamportols.    Gawer  wm  professor  at  the  Academy  Qeoreetown  College  in  1791,  his  name  being  the  first 

from  1865  to  1873,  and  was  inscnbed  among  the  inscn^d  on  the  roll  of  the  students  of  that  iSrtitution. 

nobUity  m  1879.    In  spite  of  his  long  life  and  much  ^fter  staying  there  four  yeare  he  entered  Princeton 

good  work,  he  had  but  small  influence  on  the  develop-  College,  New  Jersey,  where  he  graduated  with  firet 

ment  of  modem  8cuh)ture  in  Austria.  hono^  in  1796.    He  then  studwd  law,  and  was  ad- 

Auatrtan  Neu>  Art  in  Summer  Number  of  Studio  (New  York,  _»7r  j  1     ..u     u       •     i  titTo     «y"**«^'^  •*    '*  oTvl   rTLI^ 

1900);    Babdbctcicr.  Guidebook  for  Auntria  (Leipaig,  1900);  mitted  to  the  bar  m  1798.     In  August,  1800,  Uaston 

Bbockhaub  in  Konvertationa-Lexieon  (LeiDxis,  1908).  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  his  native  state,  although 

M.  L.  Handlet.  its  constitution  at  the  time  conteined  a  clause  exclud- 
_  _  ,  1  ,  X  J  ing  Catholics  from  oflSce.  Elected  to  Congress  in  1813 
GaBsner,  Johann  Joseph  a  celebrated  exorcist;  and  1815,  his  career  in  Washington  was  active  and 
^-  ^M  ^^Ia'  ^l^li  ^\  ^**'  Vorarlberg  Austria;  d.  4  brilliant,  as  one  of  the  influential  leaders  of  the 
April,  1779,  at  Pondorf,  on  the  Danube  (Diocese  of  Federal  party.  Resuming  the  practice  of  law,  he  was 
Ratisbon) ;  studied  at  Prague  and  Innsbruck;  ordained  elevated  in  1833  to  the  bench  of  the  Supreme  Court 
pnest,  1750,  and  after  serving  various  missions,  be-  of  North  Carolina,  an  oflice  which  he  held  for  the  re- 
came  parish  pnest  and  dean  of  Pondorf  Mav,  1776.  mainder  of  his  life.  In  the  convention  of  1836  he  was 
A  few  years  after  his  appointment  to  Kl68terle  m  the  mainly  instrumental  in  securing  the  repeal  of  the 
Diocese  of  Chur,  Switzerland  (1758)  hw  health  be^n  article  of  the  North  Carolina  State  Constitution  that 
to  fail,  so  that  he  was  scarcely  able  to  fulfil  the  duties  practically  disfranchised  Catholics.  He  was  one  of 
of  his  mimstry;  he  consulted  various  physicians  in  the  moat  intimate  friends  of  Bishop  England,  and  his 
yam;  suddenly  he  conceived  the  idea  that  his  infirm-  splendid  gifts  of  intellect  were  always  (fevoted  to  the 
ities  mi-5ht  be  due  to  the  influence  of  the  evil  spirit  and  promotion  of  the  Faith  and  the  welfare  of  his  fellow- 
mig'it  be  cured  by  spiritual  means.     His  experiment  Catholics. 

was  successful.    Heannlied  this  method  also  to  others,  Rmfa.  HiMnry  of  Oeoroelmim  Univennty  (Washincton,  1891); 

and  soon  thousands  came  to  him  to  be  healed.     The  FiNom.  Bibliooraphia  Calholiea  Americana  (Sew  York,  1872); 

fa-ne  of  these  cures  spread  far  and  wide;  he  was  in-  liStJL'''^!S:!i^JTZriS^'^i^i^.  ""'•'  """"'' 

vite.i  to  the  Dio/»pse  of  Constance,  to  Ellwangen,  Thomas  F.  Mebhan. 
Ratisbon,  and  other  places;  everywhere  he  had  the 

same  success.  Oatianas,  Saint,  founder  and  first  Bishop  of  Tours; 

He  was  convinced  that  the  evil  spirit  could  harm  b.  probably  at  Rome;  d.  at  Tours,  20  December,  301. 

the  body  as  well  as  the  soid;  and  hence  that  some  in-  He  came  to  Gaul  during  the  consulate  of  Decius  and 


OAV                                  393  OAUDUTiUB 

Gratus  (250  or  251),  devoted  half  a  oentiuy  to  the  History"  (Shochking),  edited  by  De  QuigDee  (Fteis, 

evaDgelisation  of  the  third  Ljroanaise  province  amid  1770)^ 

innumerable  difficulties,  which  the  pagans  raised  GaubU  left  a  great  number  of  manuscripts  now  kept 
a^inst  him.  But  he  overcame  all  obstacles,  and  at  in  the  Observatory  and  the  Naval  Depot  (Paris),  and  m 
his  death  the  Church  of  Tours  was  securely  established,  the  British  Museum  (London).  From  three  manuscript 
The  **  traditional  school ",  relying  on  legends  tliat  volumes  kept  formerly  at  the  Ecole  Sainte-Genevi^ve 
have  hitherto  not  been  traced  back  beyond  the  (Paris)  the  present  writer  published:  ''Situation  de 
twelfth  century,  have  claimed  that  St.  Gatianus  was  Holin  en  Tartaric"  (T'oung  Pao,  March,  1893),  and 
one  of  the  seventy-two  disciples  of  Christ,  and  was  ''Situation  du  Japon  et  de  la  Corte"  (T'oung  Pao, 
sent  into  Gaul  during  the  first  century  by  St.  Peter  May,  1898).  Abel  Rdmusat,  in  "Nouveaux  Ll^ianges 
himself.  This  assertion,  which  has  been  refuted  by  Asiatiques"  (II,  p.  289),  wrote  of  Gaubil:  "More  pro- 
learned  and  devout  writers,  is  untenable  in  the  face  of  ductive  than  Parennin  and  GerbiUon,  less  systematical 
the  testimony  of  Gregory  of  Tours.  To  this  bishop,  than  Pr^mare  and  Foucquet.  more  conscientious  than 
who  lived  in  the  sixth  century,  we  are  indebted  for  the  Amiot,  less  light-headed  and  enthusiastic  tiian  Cibot, 
only  details  we  possess  concerning  his  holy  predecea-  he  treated  thoroughly,  scientifically,  and  critically, 
8or.  every  question  he  handled."  His  style  is  rather 
a  Cotvaubb.  OrwMSf  de  rEolife  ^Toun  and  Smaw  d«  fatiguing,  as  Gaubil,  in  studying  the  Chinese  and  Man- 

OAiST-CiJiynM,  SatntOalien,  premier  iviqu€  d0  Toun  in  Mim,  *u,,    i«-^,««-w.     i«aJi    fir.-«w%/fl^  «n,.^i.    **f   u:.   ««»4-:«»^ 

dfte5oc.afeWii.  <ferottmiW(Tour8. 1871),  XVI;  D'EspiNAT.  fhu  languages,  had  forgotten  much  of  his  native 

La  eontroverae  eur  Fipoque  tie  la  miaeion  tie  SairU  Gatien  dana  tongue.                                                       HENRI  CORDIBR. 
Ue  Qaulee  in  Mim,  de  la  See.  d^ttffrie,,  eeieneee  H  ttrte  tTAngere 

(A-,«.  1873).  37«M44.  0»nd«ntluB.  Sahjt,  Biahop  of  Breecia  from  about 

387  until  about  410;  he  was  the  successor  of  the 

Qhto.  Franz  Chrwiiak,  arehitect  and  arch»oIogiBt,  JP^i^' "•^.^^'S  rk-SlK  ™  m.Wna**? *nif 

b.  at  Cologne,  16  June,  f790;  d.  at  Paris,  JaniSry  **»?*  *»"?**  ^^^  GaudBntius  was  makmg  a  pil- 

1864.    In  Tm  he  ente^  the  Acad&nie  ies  Beaui^  8™«>«8f  *^  ''^f™*!^*";,,  ^!,P?2P^  l.^lTSi^^'^^ 

Arts,  Paris,  and  in  1815  visited  Italy  and  Sicily.    In  %'»«?IT  *'X."'/?**^  *^**  ^^a  S*°"1**  t^^*'  "2 

1817  he  went  to  Nubia,  and  whUe  there  he  made  «J^"  bishopthan  Gaudentius;  and  St.  Ambrose  and 

diawings  and  measuremekte  of  all  the  more  important  »*«'  neighlwunng  prelates  m  consequence,  obliged 

monuments  of  that  country,  bis  ambition  bSng  to  ^H?'  »<>  return,  thou^apunst  his  wul..    The  Eastern 

produce  a  work  which  shoid  supplement  the^t  ^,1^°5!.»'«'  threatemwT  to  refuse  hun  Communion 

work  of  the  French  expedition  in  !^t.    The  touH  ?  •»«  *^i^  ?i*,  "'^Xl    We  possess  ttie  ducourse  which 

of  his  laboure  appeared  in  a  folio  volume  (Stuttgart  ^«  made  before  St.  Ambrose  and  otiier  bishops  on 

and  Paris,  1822),  ^titled  "  Antiquitds  de  la  Nubie,  the  «>(!ca«»n  of  his  consecration,  m  which  he  excuses, 
ou  monuments  m^its  des  bords 


premidre  et  la  seconde  cataracte^ 

m  1819".    It  consists  of  sixty-eight  uiawjo,  w  uiauo,  _     ^.  .        j     *  .,       *    -_ri  j  •  n       t  ax. 

sections,  and  views,  and  hu  b^n  received  u  an  g*P*»\^*°,^  ^^  V^  Apostles,  and  espwially  of  the 

authority.    His  next  publication  was  the  completion  Forty  Martyrs  of  Sebaste,  relics  of  whom  he  had 

of  Mazow's  work  on  ike  ruins  of  Pompeii.    In  1825  S<*i^®^  »*  Sf^^*  ?  C^appadocia  from  some  nieces  of 

Gau  was  naturaliied  as  a  French  citizen,  and  later  St-  Basil.    These  and  other  relics  from  MUan  and  else- 

became  architect  to  the  city  of  Paris.    He  directed  ^P®"*  ^S  deposited  in  a  basilica  which  he  named  Corir 

the  restoration  of  the  churches  of  Saint-Julien-le-  cUium  5afu:<(>rum.    His  sermon  on  its  dedication  is 

Pauvre,  and  Saint-S^verm,  and  built  the  great  prison  ?*^*\  ^f?"^  ?:  letter  of  St.  arysostom  (Ep.  dxxxiy) 

of  La  Coquette,  etc.    With  his  name,  also,  is  asso-  ^  Gaudentius  it  may  be  gathered  that  the  two  samts 

elated  the  revival  of  Gothic  architecture  in  Paris— he  bad  met  at  Antioch.    When  St.  Chnrspetom  had  been 

having  designed  and  commenced,  in  1846,  the  erection  condemned  to  exile  and  had  appealed  to  Pope  Inno- 

of  thi  church  of  Sainte-Clotilde,  the  firet  modem  cent  and  the  West  m  405,  Gaudentiiw  warmly  took  his 

church  erected  in  the  capital  in  that  style.    Illness  part-   .An  embasgr  to  the  Eastern  Emperor  Ajcadius 

compelled  him  to  relinquish  the  care  of  supervising  the  }^^  ^^  brother  Honorius  and  from  the  pope,  beannc 

work,  and  he  died  before  its  completion.  letters  from  both  and  from  Italian  bishoM,  consisted 

Imperial  Diet.  Univ,  Biog., ».  v.;  Michadd,  Bio/.  Univ.,  s.  ▼.  of  Gaudentius  and  two  other  bishops.     The  envoys 

Thomas  H.  Poole.  were  seized  at  Athens  and  sent  to  Constantinople,  be- 

inK  three  days  on  a  ship  without  food.    They  were  not 

Oaabili  Antoike,  a  French  Jesuit  and  missionary  aomitted  into  the  city,  but  were  shut  up  in  a  fortress 

to  China,  b.  at  Gaillac  f  Aveyron),  14  July,  1689;  d.  at  called  Athyra,  on  the  coast  of  Thrace.    Their  creden- 

Peking,  24  July,  1759.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  tials  were  seized  by  force,  so  that  the  thumb  of  one  of 

13  Sept.,  1704,  was  sent  to  China,  where  he  arrived  the  bishops  was  broken,  and  they  were  ofTered  a  lar^ 

28  June,  1722,  and  thenceforth  resided  continuously  sum  of  money  if  they  would  communicate  with  Atti- 

at  Peking  until  his  death.    His  Chinese  name  was  cus,  who  had  suoplanted  St.  Clirysostom.    Thev  were 

Suns  Kiun-yung.    He  had  taken  Parennin's  place  as  consoled  by  Goa,  and  St.  Paul  appeared  to  a  deacon 

heaa  of  the  school  in  which  Manchus  were  taught  amongst  them.    They  were  eventually  put  on  board 

Latin,  to  act  as  interpreters  in  Russian  affairs.  Gaubil,  an  unseaworthy  vessel,  and  it  was  said  that  the  cap- 

the  best  astronomer  and  historian  among  the  French  tain  had  orders  to  wreck  them.    However,  they  ar- 

Jesuits  in  China  during  the  eighteenth  century,  carried  rived  safe  at  Lampsacus,  where  they  took  ship  for 

on  an  extensive  correspondence  with  the  savants  of  Italy,  and  arrived  in  twenty  days  at  Otranto.    Their 

his  day,  among  them  Fr^ret  and  Delisle.    His  works  own  account  of  their  four  months'  adventures  has  been 

are  numerous  and  are  even  yet  highlv  prized.  Among  preserved  to  us  by  Palladius  (Dialoeus,  4).    St.Chrys- 

them  is  "Traits  de  T Astronomic  Uhmoise".  in  the  ostom  wrote  them  several  grateful  letters. 
*' Observations  math^matiques",  published  oy  P^re        We  possess  twenty-one  genuine  tractates  by  Gau- 

Souciet  (Paris,  1729-1732).    From  Chinese  sources  dentins.    The  first  ten  are  a  series  of  Easter  sermons, 

Gaubil  translated  the  history  of  Jenehiz  Khan  (His-  written  down  after  delivery  at  the  request  of  Beni- 

toire  de  Gentehiscan,  Paris,  1739)  and  part  of  the  an-  vol  us,  the  chief  of  the  Brescian  jiobility.  who  had  b€«n 

nals  of  the  T'ang  Dvnasty  (in  ''M^moires  concemant  prevented  by  ill  health  from  hearing  tnem  delivered. 

lesChinois",  vols.  XV  and  XVI):  he  also  wrote  a  treaty  In  the  preface  Gaudentius  takes  occasion  to  disown 

on  Chinese  chronology  (Traits  ae  la  Chronologic  Chi-  all  unauthorized  copies  of  his  sermons  published  by 

noise,  Paris,  1814)  and  executed  a  good  translation  shorthand  writers.    These  pirated  editions  seem  to 

of  the  second  of  the  Chinese  classics,  the  ''Book  of  have  been  known  to  Rufinus,  who,  in  the  dedication  to 


OAUDENTinS 


394 


OAUDIBB 


St.  Gaudentius  of  his  translation  of  the  pseudo-Clemen- 
tine "Recognitions",  praises  the  intellectual  gifts  of 
the  Bishop  of  Brescia^  saying  that  even  his  extempore 
speaking  is  worthy  ot  publication  and  of  preservation 
by  posterity.  The  st^e  of  Gaudentius  is  simple,  and 
his  matter  is  good.  His  body  lies  at  Brescia  in  the 
Church  of  St.  John  Baptist,  on  the  site  of  the  Concil- 
ium Sanctorum.  His  figure  is  frequently  seen  in  the 
altar-pieces  of  the  great  Brescian  painters,  Moretto, 
Savoldo,  and  Romanino.  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  by  Galeardi  (Padua.  1720,  and  in  P.  L.,  XX). 

The  editions  are  enumerated  by  Schobnbmann.  I,  who  is 
quoted  by  Mionb;  Bobsub  in  Ada  SS.,  25  Oct.;  Tillbmont, 
Mimoirea,  X;  Cbilubr,  Hut.  de»  auteuTB  eecL  (Paris,  1858-60), 
Z,  zii,  sq.;  Nxbscbl,  Lehrb,  der  Patrol,^  II. 

John  Chapman. 

OaadentiuB  of  Brescia  (GAUDENnus  Brixiensis 
or  BoNTEMPs),  theologian  of  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor 
Capuchins;  b.  at  Brescia  in  1612;  d.  at  Oriano,  25 
March,  1672;  descended  from  the  noble  Brescian 
family  of  Bontempi;  having  entered  the  Capuchin 
Order,  was  assigned  to  the  duties  of  lector  of  theology. 
In  this  capacity  he  visited  the  several  convents  of  his 
own  provmce  of  Brescia,  as  well  as  other  houses  of 
study  of  the  different  Capuchin  provinces  of  Italy. 
He  was  taken  suddenly  ill  at  Oriano,  and  died  there 
while  engaged  in  preachins  a  course  of  Lenten  ser- 
mons. Bis  remains  were  later  removed  to  the  Ca- 
puchin church  at  Verola,  where  they  now  rest.  His 
fame  as  a  theologian  rests  mainly  on  his  |'  Palladium 
Theologicum  seu  tuta  theologia  scholastica  ad  inti- 
mam  mentem  d.  Bonaventune  Seraph.  Doc.  cujus 
eximise  doctrinse  raptse  restituuntur,  sententisB  impug- 
natse  propugnantur",  a  work  in  which  elegance  of 
stvle,  depth  of  thought,  and  soundness  of  doctrine  are 
admirabiv  combing,  and  which  ranks  the  author 
among  tne  foremost  exponents  of  the  Franciscan 
school.  Gaudentius's  pupil  and  countryman,  Gian- 
francesco  Durantio,  undertook  the  publication  of  the 
work  after  the  death  of  the  author:  and  under  the 
patrona^  of  Louis  XIV  of  France,  wno  subjected  the 
manuscnpt  to  the  examination  of  a  special  commis- 
sion of  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne,  it  was  published  at 
Lyons,  in  seven  folio  volumes,  in  1676. 

1>A  FoBxl,  Annali  delV  Ordine  aei  Frati  Minori  Cappueeini 
(Milan,  1882-85),  III.  188-89;  Bbrnabo  of  Bologna,  BibHo- 
theoa  ScripUfrum  Ord.  Min.  S.  Franc.  Cap.  (Venice,  1797),  109; 
BoNARl,  /  eanventi  ed  %  Cappueeini  Breactani  ^Milan,  1891), 
zxviii,  667;  Hurtbr,  Nomendator;  Eberl  in  Kvrthenlex.,  s.  v. 
Kapuginerordent  VII,  131;  Sghbbbbn,  Doomatik  (Freiburg  im 
Br.,  1873),  I.  451. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Oaadete  Sunday,  the  third  Sundav  of  Advent,  so 
called  from  the  first  word  of  the  Introit  at  Mass 
(Gaudete,  L  e.  Rejoice).  The  season  of  Advent  orig- 
inated as  a  fast  of  forty  days  in  preparation  for  Christ- 
mas, commencing  on  the  day  after  the  feast  of  St. 
Martin  (12  November),  whence  it  was  often  called 
"St.  Martin's  Lent" — a  name  by  which  it  was  known 
as  early  as  the  fifth  century.  The  introduction  of  the 
Advent  fast  cannot  be  placed  much  earlier,  because 
there  is  no  evidence  of  Christmas  being  kept  on  25  De- 
cember before  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  (Duchesne, 
"Origines  du  culte  chrStien",  Paris,  1889),  and  the 

§  reparation  for  the  feast  could  not  have  been  of  earlier 
ate  than  the  feast  itself.  In  the  ninth  century,  the 
duration  of  Advent  was  reduced  to  four  weeks,  the 
first  aJlusion  to  the  shortened  season  being  in  a  letter 
of  St.  Nicholas  I  (858-867)  to  the  Bulgarians,  and  by 
the  twelfth  century  the  fast  had  been  replaced  by  sim- 

§le  abstinence.  St.  Gregory  the  Great  was  the  nrst  to 
raw  up  an  Office  for  the  Advent  season,  and  the  Gre- 
florian  Sacramentary  is  the  earliest  to  provide  Masses 
for  the  Sundays  of  Advent.  In  both  Office  and  Mass 
provision  is  made  for  five  Sundays,  but  by  the  tenth 
century  four  was  the  usual  number,  though  some 
churches  of  France  observed  five  as  late  as  the  thir- 
teenth century.    Notwithstanding  all  these  modifica- 


tions, however.  Advent  still  preserved  most  of  the 
characteristics  of  a  penitential  season,  which  made  it  a 
kind  of  counterpart  to  Lent,  the  middle  (or  third) 
Simday  corresponding  with  Lsetare  or  Mid-Lent  Sun- 
day. On  it,  as  on  Lstare  Sundav,  the  organ  and 
flowers,  forbidden  during  the  rest  of  the  season,  were 
permitted  to  be  used;  rose-coloured  vestments  were 
allowed  instead  of  purple  (or  black,  as  formerly) ;  the 
deacon  and  subdeacon  reassumed  the  dalmatic  and 
timide  at  the  chief  Mass,  and  cardinals  wore  rose- 
colour  instead  of  purple.  All  these  distinguishing 
marks  have  continuecf  in  use,  and  are  the  present 
discipline  of  the  Latin  Church.  Gaudete  Sunday, 
therefore,  makes  a  break,  like  Lsetare  Sunday,  about 
midway  through  a  season  which  is  otherwise  of  a  peni- 
tential character,  and  signifies  the  nearness  of  the 
Lord's  coming.  Of  the  ''stations"  kept  in  Rome  on 
the  four  Sundays  of  Advent,  that  at  the  Vatican  basil- 
ica is  assigned  to  Gaudete,  as  being  the  most  important 
and  imposing  of  the  four.  In  both  Office  and  Mass 
throughout  Advent,  continual  reference  is  made  to  our 
Lord's  second  coming,  and  this  is  emphasized  on  the 
third  Sunday  bv  the  additional  sighs  of  gladness  per- 
mitted on  that  aay.  Gaudete  Sunday  is  further  marked 
b3r  a  new  Invitatoiy,  the  Church  no  longer  inviting  the 
faithful  to  adore  merely  "The  Lord  who  is  to  come", 
but  calling  upon  them  to  worship  and  hail  with  joy 
"  The  Lord  who  is  now  nigh  and  close  at  hand  ".  'The 
Noctum  lessons  from  the  Prophecy  of  Isaias  describe 
the  Lord's  coming  and  the  blessings  that  will  result 
from  it,  and  the  antiphons  at  Vespers  re-echo  the  same 
prophetic  promises.  The  joy  of  expectation  is  empha- 
sis^ by  tne  constant  Alleluias,  which  occur  in  ooth 
Office  and  Mass  throughout  the  entire  season.  In  the 
Mass,  the  Introit "  Gaudete  in  Domino  semper  "  strikes 
the  same  note^  and  gives  its  name  to  the  day.  The 
Epistle  again  mcites  us  to  rejoicing,  and  bids  us  pre- 
pare to  meet  the  coming  Saviour  with  praters  and 
supplication  and  thanksgiving,  whilst  the  (jospel,  in 
the  words  of  St.  John  Baptist,  warns  us  that  the  Lamb 
of  God  is  even  now  in  our  midst,  though  we  appear  to 
know  Him  not.  The  spirit  of  the  Office  and  Liturgy  all 
through  Advent  is  one  of  expectation  and  preparation 
for  the  Christmas  feast  as  well  as  for  the  second  coming 
d  Christ,  and  the  penitential  exercises  suitable  to  that 
spirit  are  thus  on  Gaudete  Sunday  suspended,  as  it 
were,  for  a  while  in  order  to  symbolise  that  jov  and 
gladness  in  the  promised  Redemption  which  snould 
never  be  absent  trom  the  hearts  of  the  faithful. 

Gu^BANacR,  L* Annie  Liturgiquet  tr.  Srbphbro  (Dublin, 
1867):  Batxitou  HiaL  du  Brtviaire  Remain  (Parifl,  1803); 
MartIinb,  De  ArUiquia  BccUaiat  Ritibua  (Rouen.  1700):  Du- 
BAND,  Ratumala  Diifini  Officii  (Venice.  1568);  Lbbosbt,  HiaL  H 
SymMiame  de  la  Liturgie  (Pftns,  188Q). 

G.  Ctpbian  Alston. 

Oaadier,  Antoinb  le,  writer  on  ascetic  theology; 
b.  at  Ch&teau-Thierry,  France,  7  January,  1672;  d. 
at  Paris,  14  April,  1622.  Abolit  the  age  of  twenty 
he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Toumay.  Later  on 
he  was  rector  at  Li^ge,  professor  of  Holy  Scripture  at 
Pont-^Mousson,  and  of  moral  theology  at  La  Fldche. 
In  these  two  last-named  posts  he  was  also  chai^ged 
with  Uie  spiritual  direction  of  his  brethren,  and 
showed  such  an  aptitude  for  this  branch  of  the  minis- 
try that  he  was  named  master  of  novices  and  tertians. 
His  appointment  to  these  offices  shows  that  Gaudier, 
since  ne  died  at  the  age  of  fifty,  must  have  evinced  an 
early  intellectual  maturity  and  an  exceptional  talent 
for  the  guidance  of  souls.  In  the  discharge  of  his 
various  functions,  he  found  an  opportunity  of  develop- 
ing before  a  domestic  audience  the  principal  matter  of 
asceticism,  which  he  elaborated  little  by  little  into  a 
complete  treatise.  The. eagerness  shown  to  possess 
his  spiritual  writings  led  him  at  last  to  publish  them. 
There  then  appearra  successively  in  Latin:  ''De  sano- 
tissimo  Christi  Jesu  amore  opusculum"  (Pont-&- 
Mousson,  1619),  translated  into  English  by  G.  Tickell, 


OAUDIOSUS 


395 


OAUL 


6J.  ("The  Love  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ",  Derby. 
1864);  "De  ver&  Christi  Jesu  imitatione";  "De  Dei 
pr8BseQti&";  **  Praxis  meditandi  a  B.P.  Ignatio  tradits 
explicatio"  (Paris,  1620).  There  are  French  transla- 
tions of  tiiese  four  works.  After  the  death  of  Father 
Gaudier  all  his  spiritual  works,  both  printed  and  un- 
edited, were  collected  in  one  folio  vcflume  under  the 
title  "De  natur&  et  statibus  perfectionis"  (Paris, 
1643),  a  better  edition  in  three  o(;tavo  volumes  being 
later  supplied  by  Father  J.  Martinow,  S.J.  (Paris, 
1856-8).  While  this  great  treatise  is  of  special  in- 
terest to  Jesuits,  since  it  is  primarily  intended  for  their 
institute,  it  is  regarded  by  enlightened  judges  as  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  solid  monuments  of  Catholic 
asceticism.  The  whole  of  the  speculative  part  is  of 
general  interest,  and  the  practical  part,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  rare  passages,  is  equally  sq.  It  contains  a 
thirty  days'  retreat  according  to  the  Spiritual  Exer- 
dses  of  St.  Ignatius,  which  has  been  separately  edited 
several  times  since  1643.  The  great  value  of  the  work 
is  heightened  by  the  fact  that  Gaudier  had  personal 
intercourse  with  the  immediate  disciples  of  the  saint. 
SoMMSBVOGBL,  BtblwIhiQue  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jena,  III, 
eoL  1266. 

Paul  Debuchy. 

OaadiosaSt  Bishop  of  Tarazona  (Turiasso),  Spain, 
d.  about  540.  Our  information  concerning  the  life  of 
tiiis  holy  bishop  is  scant,  aiid  rests  on  comparatively 
late  sources.  On  the  occasion  of  the  translation  of  his 
remains  in  1573,  a  sketch  of  his  life  was  discovered  in 
the  ^ve,  written  on  parchment;  apart  from  the 
Breviary  lessons  of  the  Church  6f  Tarazona,  this 
document  contains  the  only  written  details  wepossess 
concerning  the  life  of  Gaudiosus.  His  father,  Cfuntha, 
was  a  military  official  {sjioihaTius)  at  the  court  of  the 
Visisothic  King  Theodoric  (510-25).  The  education 
of  the  boy  was  entrusted  to  St.  Victorianus,  abbot  of 
a  monastery  near  Buroos  (Oca),  who  trained  him  for 
the  service  of  the  church.  Later  (c.  530)  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Tarazona.  Nothine  more  is 
known  of  his  activities.  Even  the  year  of  his  death 
has  not  been  exactly  determined.  After  his  death 
he  was  venerated  as  a  saint.  According  to  the  MS. 
life  found  in  his  grave  he  died  on  29  October,  but  the 
Church  of  Tarazona  celebrates  his  feast  on  3  Novem- 
ber. He  was  first  entombed  in  the  church  of  St. 
Martin  (dedicated  later  to  St.  Victorianus),  attached 
to  the  monastery  where  he  had  spent  his  youtjiful 
years.  In  1573  his  remains  were  disinterred  and 
translated  to  the  cathedral  of  Tarazona. 

Ada  SS.,  I.  Nov.,  664-65;  db  jjl  Fubnte,  La  Santa  Igletia  de 
Tarazona  en  etu  Etiadot  ArUiffuoa  y  Modemoe  (Madrid,  1865). 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Oanghrttn,  Laurence.    See  Mbath,  Diocebb  of. 

Oaill,  Christian. — ^The  Church  of  Gaul  first  ap- 
peared m  history  in  connexion  with  the  persecution  at 
Lyons  under  Marcus  Aurelius  (177).  The  pa«an  in- 
habitants rose  up  against  the  Christians,  ana  forty- 
eight  martyrs  suffered  death  under  various  tortures. 
Amon^s  them  there  were  children,  like  the  slave 
Blandma  and  Ponticus,  a  youth  of  fifteen.  Every 
rank  of  life  had  members  among  the  first  martyrs  of 
the  Chureh  of  Gaul:  the  aristocracy  were  represented 
by  Vettius  Epagathus;  the  professional  class  by 
Attains  of  Pergamus,  a  physician;  a  neophyte. 
Maturus,  died  b^ide  Pothinus,  Bishop  of  Lyons,  ana 
Sanctus,  deacon^f  Vienne.  Tlie  Christians  of  Lyons 
and  Vienne  in  a  letter  to  their  brethren  of  Smyrna 
give  an  account  of  this  persecution,  and  the  letter, 
preserved  by  Eusebius  (Hist,  EccL,  V,  i-iv),  is  one  of 
the  g^ins  of  Christian  literature.  In  this  document 
the  Church  of  Lyons  seems  to  be  the  only  church 
oiganized  at  the  time  in  Gaul.  That  of  Vienne 
appears  to  have  been  dependent  on  it  and,  to  judge 
from  simflar  cases,  was  probably  administered  by 
ft  deacon.    How  or  where  Christianity  first  gained  a 


foothold  in  Gaul  is  purely  a  matter  of  oonjecture. 
Most  likely  the  first  missionaries  came  by  sea,  touched 
at  Marseifies.  and  progressed  up  the  lUione  till  they 
established  tne  religion  at  Lyons,  the  metropolis  and 
centre  of  communication  for  the  whole  country.  The 
firm  establishment  of  Christianity  in  Gaul  was  un- 
doubtedly due  to  missionaries'  from  Asia.  Pothinus 
was  a  disciple  of  St.  Polycarp,  Bishop  of  Smyrna,  as 
was  also  his  successor,  IrensBus.  InthetimeoflrensBus 
Lyons  was  still  the  centre  of  the  Church  in  Gaul. 
Eusebius  speaks  of  letters  written  by  the  Churches  of 
Gaul  of  which  Irenseus  is  bishop  (Hist.  EccL,  V,  xxiii). 
These  letters  were  written  on  the  occasion  of  the  second 
event  which  brought  the  Church  of  Gaul  into  promi- 
nence. Easter  was  not  celebrated  on  the  same  day  in 
all  Christian  Communities;  towards  the  end  of  ih» 
second  century  Pope  Victor  wished  to  universalize 
the  Roman  usage  and  excommimicated  the  Churches 
of  Asia.  Irenseus  intervened  to  restore  peace.  About 
the  same  time,  in  a  mistical  inscription  found  at 
Autun,  a  certain  Pectorius  celebrated  in  Greek  verse 
the  Ichthus  or  fish,  symbol  of  the  Eucharist.  A  third 
event  in  which  the  bishops  of  Gaul  appear  is  the 
Novatian  controversy.  Faustinus,  Bishop  of  Lyons, 
and  other  colleagues  m  Gaul  are  mentioned  in  2o4  by 
St.  Cyprian  (Ep.  Ixviii)  as  opposed  to  Novatian, 
whereas  Marcianus  of  Aries  was  favourable  to  him. 

No  other  positive  information  concerning  the  Church 
of  Gaul  is  available  until  the  fourth  century.    Two 

St)ups  of  narratives,  however,  aim  to  fill  in  the  gaps, 
n  the  one  hand  a  series  of  local  legends  trace  back  the 
foundation  of  the  principal  sees  to  the  Apostles.  Early 
in  the  sixth  century  we  find  St.  Caesarius.  Bishop  of 
Aries,  crediting  these  stories  *  regardless  of  tne  anacnro- 
nism,  hew  makes  the  first  Bishop  of  Vaison,  Daphnus, 
whose  signature  appears  at  the  Council  of  Aries  (314), 
a  disciple  of  the  Apostles  (Lejay,  Le  r6le  th^ologique 
de  C^saire  d'Arles,  p.  5).  One  nundred  years  earlier 
one  of  his  predecessors,  Patrocles,  based  various  claims 
of  his  Church  on  the  fact  that  St.  Trophimus,  founder 
of  the  Church  of  Aries,  was  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles. 
Such  claims  were  no  doubt  flattermg  to  local  vanity; 
durine  the  Middle  Ages  and  in  more  recent  times  many 
legends  grew  up  in  support  of  them.  The  evangeliza- 
tion of  Uaul  has  often  been  attributed  to  missionaries 
sent  from  Rome  by  St.  Clement — ^a  theory,  which  has 
inspired  a  whole  series  of  fallacious  narratives  and 
forgeries,  with  which  history  is  encumbered.  More 
faitn  can  be  placed  in  a  statement  of  Gregory  of  Toure 
in  his  "  Historia  Francorum"  (I,  xxviii),  on  which  was 
based  the  second  group  of  narratives  concerning  the 
evangelization  of  uaul .  According  to  him.  in  the  year 
250  ^me  sent  seven  bishops,  who  founded  as  many 
churches  in  Gaul:  Gatianus  the  Church  of  Tours, 
Trophimus  that  of  Aries,  Paul  that  of  Narbonne, 
Saturninus  that  of  Toulouse,  Denis  that  of  Paris, 
Stremonius  (Austremonius)  that  of  Auvergne  (Cler- 
mont), and  Martialis  that  of  Limoges.  Gregory's 
statement  has  been  accepted  with  more  or  less  reser- 
vation by  serious  historians.  Nevertheless  even 
though  Gregory,  a  late  successor  of  Gatianus,  may 
have  nad  access  to  information  on  the  beginnings  of 
his  church,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  an  interval 
of  three  hundred  years  separates  him  from  the  events 
he  chronicles;  moreover,  tnis  statement  of  his  involves 
some  serious  chronological  difficulties,  of  which  he  was 
himself  aware,  e.  g.  in  the  case  of  the  bishops  of  Paris. 
The  most  we  can  say  for  him  is  that  he  echoes  a  con- 
temporary tradition,  which  represents  the  general 
point  of  view  of  the  sixth  century  rather  than  the 
actual  facts.  It  is  impossible  to  say  how  much  legend 
is  mingled  with  the  reality. 

By  tne  middle  of  the  third  century,  as  St.  Cyprian 
bears  witness,  there  were  several  churches  organized  in 
Gaul.  They  suffered  little  from  the  great  persecution. 
Constantius  Chlorus,  the  father  of  Gonstantine,  was 
not  hostile  to  Christianity,  and  soon  after  the  cessation 


OAUL                               396  OAUL 

of  peneouiioii  the  biahopa  of  the  Latin  worldassembled  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  centuiy.  there  took  place 
at  Aries  (314).  Their  signatures,  which  are  stili  ex-  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Autun  tne  procession  of 
tant,  prove  that  the  following  sees  were  then  in  exist-  Qrbele's  chariot  to  bless  the  harvest.  In  the  sixth 
ence:  Vienne,  Marseilles.  Aries,  Orange,  Vaison,  Apt,  century,  in  the  city  of  Aries,  one  ot  the  regions  where 
Nio^  Lyons.  Autun,  Cologne,  Trier.  Keims,  Rouen,  Christianity  had  gained  its  earliest  and  strongest  foot- 
Bordeaux,  Gabali,  and  Eauze.  We  must  also  admit  hold.  Bishop  Csesarius  was  still  struggling  against 
the  existence  of  the  Sees  of  Toulouse,  Narbonne,  Qer-  popular  superstitions,  and  some  of  his  sermons  are  yet 
mont,  Bouiges,  and  Paris.  This  date  marks  the  begin-  among  our  important  sources  of  information  on  folk- 
ning  of  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  Church  of  Gaul.  lore. 

The  towns  had  been  early  won  over  to  the  new  Faitib ;  The  Christianisation  of  the  lower  classes  of  the  peo- 

the  work  of  evangelization  was  now  extended  and  con-  pie  was  Q'eatly  aided  by  the  newly  established  monas- 

tinued  during  the  f oiirth  and  fifth  centuries.    The  teries.    in  Gaul  as  elsewhere  the  first  Christian  ascet- 

cultured  classes,  however,  long  remained  faithful  to  ics  lived  in  the  world  and  kept  their  personal  freedom, 

the  old  traditions.    Ausonius  was  a  Christian,  but  Thepractice  of  religious  life  m  common  was  introduced 

gives  so  little  evidence  of  it  that  the  fact  has  been  by  St.  Martin  (died  c.  397)  and  Cassian  (died  c.  435). 

questioned.    Teacher  and  humanist,  he  lived  in  the  Martin  established  near  Tours  the  ''grand  monast^re". 

memories  of  the  past.    His  pupil  Paulinus  entered  i.e.  Marmoutier,  where  in  the  banning  the  monks  lived 

the  religious  life,  at  which,  however,  the  world  of  in  separate  grottoes  or  wooden  huts.    A  little  later 

letters  was  deeply  scandalized;  so  much  so^  indeed,  Cassian  founded  two  monasteries  at  Marseilles  (415). 

that  Paulinus  had  to  write  to  Ausonius  to  justify  He  had  previously  visited  the  monks  of  the  East,  and 

himself.    At  the  same  period  there  were  pagan  rheto-  especially  Egypt,  and  had  brought  back  their  methods, 

ricians  who  oelebrated  in  the  schools,  as  at  Autun,  which  he  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  GaUo-Roman 

the  virtues  and  deeds  of  the  Christian  emperors,  life.    Through  two  of  his  works, ''Deinstitutis  cosno- 

By  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  however,  the  ma-  biorum"  and  Uie  ''Collationes  aXIV",  he  became  the 

jority  of  scholars  in  Gaul  were  Cftiristians.    Genera-  doctor  of  Gallic  asceticism.    About  the  same  time 

tion  by  generation  the  change  came  about.    Sal-  Honoratus  founded  a  famous  monastery  on  the  little 

vianus,  the  fiery  apologist  (di^  c.  492),  was  the  son  vale  of  L^rins  (Lerinum)  near  Marseilles,  destined  to 

of  pa^n  parents.  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Sulpicius  Severus  become  a  centre  of  Christian  life  and  ecclesiastical  in- 

(the  Christian  Sallust),  Paulinus  of  Nola,  and  Sidonius  fluence.    Episcopal  sees  of  Gaul  were  often  objects  of 

ApoUinaris  strove  1x>  r^ncile  the  Church  and  the  competition  and  ^reed^  and  were  rapidly  becoming  the 

world  of  letters.    Sidonius  himself  is  not  altogether  property  of  certam  aristocratic  families,  all  of  mose 

free  from  suggestions  of  pfuganism  handed  down  by  representatives  in  the  episcopate  were  not  as  wise  and 

tradition.   In  Gaul  as  elsewhere  the  Question  arose  as  upright  as  Germanus  of  Auxerre  or  Sidonius  Apollina- 

to  whether  the  Gospel  could  really  adapt  itself  to  lit-  ns.    lArma  took  up  the  work  of  reforming  the  episco- 

erary  culture.   With  the  inroads  of  the  oarbarians  the  pate,  and  placed  many  of  its  own  sons  at  the  head  of 

discussbn  came  to  an  end.                             '         ^  dioceses:  Honoratus,  Hilary,  and  Cssarius  at  Aries; 

It  is  none  the  less  true  that  throughout  the  Empire  Eucherius  at  Lvons,  and  his  sons  Salonius  and  Veranius 

the  progress  of  Christianity  had  been  made  chieflv  in  at  Geneva  and  Vence  respectively;  Lupus  at  Troyes; 

the  cities.   The  country-places  were  yet  strongholds  of  Maximus  and  Faustus  at  JEtiez.    L^rins  too  became  a 

idolatry,  which  in  Gam  was  upheld  dv  a  twofold  tra-  school  of  mysticism  and  theology  and  spread  its  relig- 

dition.     The  old  Gallic  religion,  and  Grseco-Roman  ious  ideas  far  and  wide  by  useful  works  on  dogma, 

paganism,  still  had  ardent  supporters.     More  than  polemics,  and  hagiography.    Other  monasteries  were 

that,  among  the  Gallo-Roman  population  the  use  of  founded  in  Gaul,  e.  g.  Grigny  near  Vienne,  He  Barbe  at 

spells  and  oiarms  for  the  cure  of  sickness,  or  on  the  Lvons,  R4om^  (later  known  as  Moutier-SaintJean), 

occasion  of  a  death,  was  much  in  vogue:  the  people  Morvan,  Saint-Claude  in  the  Jura,  Cbinon,  Loches, 

worshipped  springs   and   trees,  believed  in  fairies,  etc.    It  is  possible,  however,  that  some  of  these 

on  certam  days  clothed  themselves  in  skins  of  animals,  foundations  belong  to  the  succeeding  period.    The 

and  resorted  to  magic  and  the  practice  of  divination,  monks  had  not  yet  begun  to  live  according  to  any 

Some  of  these  customs  were  survivals  of  verv  ancient  fixed  and  codified  rule.    For  such  written  constitu- 

traditions;  they  had  come  down  through  tne  Celtic  tions  we  must  await  the  time  of  Csesarius  of  Aries, 

and  the  Roman  period,  and  had  no  doubt  at  times  re-  Monasticism  was  not  established  without  opposi- 

ceived  the  imprmt  of  the  Gallic  and  Graeco-Roman  tion.    Rutilius  Namatianus,  a  pagan,  denounced  the 

beliefs.    Their  real  origin  must,  of  course,  be  sou^t  monks  of  Ldrins  as  a  brood  of  night-owls;  even  the 

further  back  in  the  same  obscurity  in  which  the  begm-  effort  to  make  chastity  the  central  virtue  of  Christian- 

nin^  of  folk-lore  are  shrouded.   This  mass  of  popular  ity^  met  with  much  resistance,  and  the  adveraaries  of 

beliefs,  fancies,  and  superstitions  stOl  lives.   It  was  the  Priscillian  in  particular  were  imbued  with  this  hostil- 

principal  obstacle  encountered  by  the  missionaries  in  ity  to  a  certam  degree.    It  was  also  one  of  the  objeo- 

the  rural  places.    St.  Martin,  a  native  of  Pannonia,  tions  raised  by  Viralantius  of  Calagurris,  the  Spanish 

Bishop  of  Tours,  and  founder  of  monasteries,  under-  priest  whom  St.  Jerome  denounced  so  vigorously, 

took  especially  in  Central  Gaul  a  crusade  agamst  this  Vigilantius  had  spent  much  time  in  Gaul  and  seems  to 

rural  idolatry.   On  one  occasion,  when  he  was  felling  a  have  died  there.    The  law  of  ecclesiastical  celibacy 

sacred  tree  m  the  neu;hbourhooa  of  Autun,  a  peasant  was  less  stringent,  less  ^nerally  enforced  than  in 

attacked  him,  and  he  had  an  almost  miraculous  escape.  Italy,  especially  Rome.    The  series  of  Gallic  ooundls 

Besides  St.  Martin  other  popular  preachers  traversed  before  the  Merovingian  epoch  bear  witness  at  once  to 

the  rural  districts,  e.  e.  Victricius,  Bi^op  of  Rouen,  the  undecided  state  of  discipline  at  the  time,  and 

another  converted  soloier,  also  Martin's  disciples,  espe-  also  to  the  continual  striving  after  some  fixed  dis- 

cially  St.  Martin  of  Brives.    But  their  scattered  and  ciplinary  code. 

intermittent  efforts  made  no  lasting  effect  on  the  The  Church  of  Gaul  passed  throu^  three  dogmatic 

minds  of  the  peasants.   About  395  a  Gallic  rhetorician  crises.    Its  bishops  seem  to  have  been  greatly  preoo- 

depicts  a  scene  in  which  peasants  discuss  the  mortality  cupied  with  Arianism;  as  a  rule  they  clung  to  the 

among  their  flocks.   One  of  them  boasts  the  virtue  of  teaching  of  Nicssa,  in  spite  of  a  few  temporary  or  par- 

the  sign  of  the  cross,  "the  sien  of  that  God  Who  alone  tial  defections.    Athanasius,  who  had  been  exiled  to 

is  worshipped  in  the  large  cities"  (Riese,  Anthologia  Trier  (336-^),  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  the 

Latina,  no.  893,  V.  105).   This  expression,  however,  is  episcopate  of  Gaul;  one  of  the  great  champions  of 

too  strong;,  for  at  that  very  perioa  a  sinele  church  suf-  orthodoxy  in  the  West  was  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  who 

ficed  for  the  Christian  population  of  Tner.   Neverthe-  also  suffered  exile  for  his  constancy.    Priscillianism 

less  Uie  rural  parts  continued  the  more  refractory,  had  a  greater  hold  on  the  masses  of  the  faithfuL 


akuhu.                     397  OAULU 

It  was  Above  all  a  method,  an  ideal  of  Christian  life,  Visigothic  king,  for  his  Gallo-Roman  subieota — and 

which  appealed  to  all,  even  to  women.    It  was  con-  met  with  the  approval  of  the  Catholic  liiBhope  of 

demned  (380)  at  the  Synod  of  Saragoaga  where  the  his  Idngdom.    Between  410  and  413  the  Bu^uif 

Bishop*  of  Bordeaux  and  Agen  were  present;  none  dians  luid  settled  near  Mainz;  in  476  they  had  oomo 

the  lesH  it  spread  rapidly  in  Central  Gaul,  Eause  in  farther  south  alone  the  Rhone,  and  about  this  Ume 

parUcular  b^ng  a  stron^old.    When  in  385   the  became  Arians.    The  Franks,  soon  to  be  mast«TB  of 

usurper  Haximus  put  FnsciUian  and  his  friends  to  all  Gaul,  left  the  neighbourhood  of  Toumai,  defeated 

deatn,  St.  Martin  was  in  doubt  bow  to  act,  but  lepudi-  Syagrius  in  486,  and  established  their  power  as  far 

ated  wiUi  horror  communion  with  tbe  bishops  who  as  tne  Loire.    In  507  they  destroyed  toe  Visigoth 

had   condemned    the   unfortunates.    Priscilhanism,  Kinsdom,  and  in  534  that  of  the  Burgundians;  in 

indeed,  was  more  or  less  bound  up  with  the  cause  of  636  by  the  conquest  of  Arlee  they  succeeded  to  the 

asceticism  in  Renenj.    finally  the  bishops  and  monks  remnants  of  the  great  stat«  created  by  the  genius  <rf 

of  Gaut  were  long  divided  over  Pelaeianiflm.     Rt>eu-  King  Tbeodoric;  with  them  began  a  new  era  (see 

lui.  Bishop  of  HarseiUes,  had  obliged  Leporiua,  a  dia-  Franks). 

ciple  of  Feli^us,  to  l^ve  Gaul,  but  it  was  not  long  The  transition  from  one  re^me  to  anotlier  was 
until  Hsiseillea  and  L^rins,  led  by  Caasian,  Vincent,  roade  possible  by  the  bishops  of  Gaul.  The  bishona 
and  Faustus,  became  hotbeds  of  a  teaching  opposed  had  frequently  played  a  beneficent  rOle  as  int«nneal- 
to  St.  Aueuatine's  and  known  as  Semipelaguui ism,  ariee  wilb  the  Roman  authorities.  Before  the  bar- 
Prosper  of  Aquitaine  wrote  against  it,  tmd  was  barian  invasions  they  were  the  true  chammona  of 
obliged  to  take  refuge  at  Some.  It  was  not  until  the  the  people.  Indeed  it  was  long  beUeved  that  thev  had 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century  that  the  teaching  of  been  invested  with  spe^al  powers  and  the  official  title 
Augustine  triumphed,  when  a  monk  of  hiritm,  Cnsa-  of  (fa/enaorMcii'iealuni  (defenders  of  the  States).  While 
rius  of  Aries,  an  almost  servile  disciple  of  Augustine,  this  title  was  never  officially  borne  by  them,  Uie  popu- 
Oausedittobeadoptedby tfaeCouncilofOmngB(529).  lar  error  was  only  formal  and  superficial.  Bishops 
In  the  final  strug^  Rome  Interfered.  We  do  not  like  Sidonius  Apollinaris,  Avitus,  Gennanus  of  Au- 
know  much  concerning  the  earlier  relations  between  serre,  CtMarius  of  Aries,  were  trul^  the  defenders 
the  bishops  of  Gaul  and  the  pope.  The  position  of  of  their  fatherland.  While  the  old  civic  institutions 
IreuBus  in  the  Easter  Controveray  shows  a  consider'  were  tottering  to  their  fall,  they  upheld  the  social 
able  degree  of  independence;  yet  Irenaius  proclaimed  fabric.  Through  their  efiorts  the  barbarians  became 
the  primacy  of  the  See  of  Rome.  About  the  middle  amalsunated  with  the  native  population,  intrdducing 
of  the  third  century  the  pope  was  appealed  to  for  the  into  It  the  germs  of  a  new  ana  vigorous  life.  Lastly 
purpose  of  settling  difficulties  in  the  Church  of  Gaul  the  bishops  were  the  guardians  oi  the  olassical  tntdi- 


purpoee  of  settling  difficulties  in  the  Church  of  Gaul  the  bishops  were  the  guardians  <A 

and  to  remove  an  erring  bishop  (Cyprian,  Epist.  ttons  of  Latin  literature  and  Rombuv^^n-w,  w~  •■'•^ 

bcviii).    At  the  Council  of  Arlee  (314)  the  bishops  of  before  the  appearance  of  monasticiam  had  been  the 

GaulwerepresentwithtboseorBrittany.Spain,  Africa,  mainstay  of  learning.    Throu^out  the  sixth  and 


even  Italy;  Pope  Sylvester  sent  delegates  to  represent  seventh  centuries  manuscripts  of  the  Bible  and  the 

him.     It  was  in  a  way  a  Council  of  the  West,     During  Fathers  were  copied  to  meet  the  needs  of  public  woi^ 

all  that  centurv,  however,  the  episcopate  of  Oaul  had  ship,  eoclesiaatiral  teaching,  and  Catholic  life.    The 

no  head,  and  tne  bishops  grouped  themselves  accord'  only  contemporary  buildings  that  exhibit  traces  of 

ingto  the  ties  of  friendship  or  locality.    Metropolitans  classical  er  Byzantine  styles  are  rel^ous  edifices, 

did  not  exist  as  yet,  and  when  advice  was  needed  For  all  this,  and  for  much  more,  the  bishops  of  Gaul 

Milan  was  consulted.    "The  traditional  authority",  duerve  the  title  erf  "Makers  of  France". 

says  Duchesne,  "in  all  matters  of  discipline  remuned  Afur  the  wriUs^  of  EnsssniB  or  CMaxaxi.,  Buincnn  8a- 

always  the  ancient  Church  of  Rome ;  in  practice,  how-  »f"o*  P*ot"Ds  «  Nolj,  ,^i««SJ, .S?;^!'' "t-?'"'"^ 

ever.  theCouncUofMilan.decided  in  case  of  conflict."  ^^•;Sb£SSd^S!'S^!i!S^^''c&HS^^^'^a 

The  popes  then  took  the  situation  m  hand,  and  m  417  anOniuTm  au  riW  titd*  (Fuia,  IBIO'aS),  with  a  aapplem — 

Pope  Zoejmos  made  Patroclea,  Bishop  of  Arlm,  his  1^):  J"""-  '^  -reopiofw.  ekrt«««  rf.  la  OmJ.  (^rii. 

vkS;  or  defepte  in  Gaul,  and  'provided  that  all'dia-  feeS^^riiSSi^ia^J^^^iSirSm^iJ^iL:^ 

putee  should  be  referred  to  him.      Moreover,  no  Gallia  bi  many  diooemt  mad  ediUd  by  Dmiolm  in  HUloinblUnindt 

eederiaatic  could  have  access  to  the  pope  without  tee-    ''X™^^^^^j ._■ .  .i.  i.i- _     j-j  ^n.d^i.__ 

timonialtotteia  from  the  Bishop  of  ^les.    This  prf-  •- <'?°^^!^-^^'^>~'^"Al^'SISl!''SSoW  rtSSJS; 

maey  of  Arlee  waxed  and  waned  under  the  succeed-  ux  d*  roncumu  Oauit,  I 

ing  popes.    It  enjoyed  a  final  period  of  brilliancy,  ^xJTl'lJS.W!^^^!^- 

under  Caeaarius,  but  after  his  time  it  conferred  on  ,^  s^t^^J^liii 

the  occupant  merely  an  honorary   title.     In  conse-  ds  anHvairm  ttt  Fnaiet, 

quence,  however,  of  the  extensive  authority  of  Arlee  ^"f'^l-YlU^'yitiS" 

in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  canonical  discipline  "cll^trSlS^^JiS^ 

was  more  rapidly  developed  there,  and  the  "Libri  mu dfkiiain  tt  di lUUn- 

canonum"  that  were  soon  in  vogue  in  Southern,  Gaul  ;i  A""*"?!  ite'2".S"fC 

were  modeUed  on  those  of  tEe   Church  of  Arlee  "^-^i,;:;;^;;:^;;:;;;^ 

Towards  the  end  of  this  period  Cssanus  assisted  at  Alcuin  ('Paiit,i90&)i  IitB*STiiaL*Toua,L<apar«uwirumIa 

aseries of  councils,thii8 obtaining aeertainreccwnition  du  iVa^Xl*  tUcU  (Fwia.  I»no>:  BiBor.  PritaiHii  M  U 

■B  legislator  for  the  Merovingian  Church.  SJS^ISSrta^JlJS  jJ^oSTSart^W^^wiSnu 

'Hiebarbarians,  however,  were  on  the  march.    The  (Paris,  1907);    Ddchbshb,  Originm  du  eJtedMcioi  (P^ 

r,t  invasion  of  407  made  the  Goths  masters  of  all  1389).  32.  M;    loan,  La  prtmiira  aOectim  nxnoBi*  tUi  dfcrt- 

Bountry  to  the  south  of  the  Loire,  with  the  excep-  J^J"  {^.  ^"^^^^  i^^'^^^T^^^ 

tion  of  Bourges  and  Clermont,  which  did  not  fall  into  Kirdi*  innV  Ztit  (Leipili,  I8»4)i  Hauiobt.  Citavt.  Maut 

their  hands  until  475;  Aries  succumbed  in  480.    Then  ir-*rtoi(P»ri«,  1894i;  CBtHon.U'Detrn^arCivHatu-inNm. 

u,,v«»ihkMom,,.o™m..rf,Ari«,m,.iigion,  s!!^2riiSSrpS.'i«s?trL.t"»4a^'Js5Si 

and  at  first  hostile  to  Cattiohcism.     Gradually  the  frM^in.  I  (Wm.  ie02).   For  ■  mora eiUnuilTe  lEUmtunns 

necessities  of  life  imposed  a  poLcy  of  moderation.   The  Mosqd,  BMioenpttit  it  rhuunre  de  Frma  iPanih  isssy, 

tou«MAed.,r^^mtio,,j<„™uotv»i8oihi.  ^Si^t^SS^-HciSSSJ: pl^A"  "^ 

Gaul  (606),  and  m  which  Cffisanus  was  dominant,  IS  an  ^....t-..^ 
evidence  of  the  new  temper  on  both  sides.    The  Acts 
of  this  council  follow  very  closely  the  principles  laid 

down  in  the  "Breviarium  Alarici" — a  summary  ot , , , , ,    

the  Theododan  Code  drawn  up  by  Alarie  II,  the  He  first  studied  in  Qeno*  under  BonoDe,irtioinatnicted 


ij^kOLtiXk 


m 


Qkmm 


him  in  desi^  and  colouring;  Early  in  life  he  went  to 
Rome  and  became  a  pupil  of  Bernini  and  Mario  Nuzzi 
da  Fiori,  whose  assistance  and  recommendation  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  fortune  and  reputation.  A 
considerable  part  of  his  life  was  given  over  to  portrait 
painting.  H^  is  said  to  have  executed  painting  of 
seven  pontiffs — ^from  Alexandria  VII  to  Clement  XI — 
and  of  all  the  cardimds  of  his  time.  His  paintings  of 
children  show  much  grace  and  vivacity.  His  greatest 
merit,  however,  lies  in  his  historical  compositions, 
which  show  good  arranesment,  agreeable  colouring, 
and  a  spirited  touch,  sometimes  his  work  was  in- 
correct and  heavy,  and  his  draperies  too  stiff.  He 
understood  the  art  of  foreshortening  his  figures  in  a 
marked  degree,  as  shown  by  his  work  in  the  angles  of 
the  dome  of  S.  Agnte,  in  we  Palazzo  Navona.  His 
chief  work  is  the  painting  of  the  "Assumption  of  St. 
Francis  Xavier|\  in  the  vault  of  the  church  of  the 
GesOi,  Rome.  Tnis  picture  is  celebrated  for  the  bold- 
ness and  truth  of  the  foreshortening,  and  the  brilliancy 
of  the  colouring.  Another  celebrated  work  is  the 
''Virgin  and  Child,  surrounded  by  angels,  with  St. 
Anne  kneeling  in  front";  it  is  in  the  church  of  S. 
Francesco  a  Ripaj  and  in  the  church  of  Sant'  Andrea 
there  is  an  altsupiece  by  Gaulli  of  the  "  Death  of  St. 
Francis  Xavier".  Gamli's  facility  of  composition, 
rapidity  of  hand,  and  clear  bright  style  rendered  his 
mural  paintines  very  attractive  to  his  contemporaries; 
but  these  works  are  now  considered  sis  belonging  to  an 
essentially  superficial  style  of  art.  He  is  one  of  the 
painters  called  by  his  countrymen  Macchinisti,  His 
faults  are  less  obtrusive  in  his  easel  pictiuies,  and  his 

manner  more  varied. 

PiLKZNGTON,  EHct.  cf  PoinUn  (London,  MDCCCLII);  Mao- 
KBNZXB,  Imperial  Diet,  Univ.  Biog.  (London,  Qlaseow,  Edin- 
burgh); Bbtam,  Diet,  Painien  ana  Engraven  (New  York, 
I/>ndon,  1903).  ThomAS  H.  PoolE. 

Oaultler,  Axoisins-EDonARn-CAMiLLE,  priest  and 
schoolmaster;  b.  at  Asti,  Piedmont,  about  1745,  of 
French  i)arents;  d.  at  Paris,  18  Sept.,  1818;  be^n  his 
studies  in  France,  and  completed  them  in  Rome, 
where  he  was  ordained :  upon  his  return  to  France 
(1780)  he  devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  education  and 
in  1786  opened  a  sdiool  in  Paris,  wherein  he  applied 
his  principle  of  instructing  children  while  amusing 
them.  The  French  Revolution  obliged  him  to  seek 
TfBfufSd  in  England,  and,  finding  in  London  a  number 
of  his  former  pupils  of  the  French  nobility,  he  opened 
a  course  for  the  education  of  French  refugees.  His 
principles  were  greatly  admired  and  his  methods  com- 
mended by  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
He  came  back  to  France  in  1801,  and  continued  to 
teach  and  publish  his  educational  works.  Later  an- 
other journey  to  London  was  undertaken  for  the  pur- 
pose of  studying  the  monitorial  system  of  teaching, 
practised  by  BeU  and  Lancaster,  a  system  which  he 
wanted  to  introduce  into  the  French  schools.  During 
the  Hundred  Days,  Camot  appointed  him  a  member 
of  the  commission  for  the  reorganization  of  public 
instruction,  and  later  Gaultier  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  ''Soci4t<S  pour  I'enseignement  614mentaire". 

To  give  a  complete  list  of  Gaultier's  works  is  impos- 
sible here.  They  include  text-books  for  every  branch 
of  primary  instruction,  readins,  writing,  anthmetic, 
geometry,  geography,  history,  logical  and  grammati- 
cal ansdysis,  composition,  politeness,  etc.,  and  they  ap- 
ply his  method  of  instructive  plays,  that  is,  a  system 
of  questions  and  answera  in  which,  according  to  the 
correctness  or  incorrectness  of  the  answers,  a  scheme 
of  loss  and  gain  in  credits  constantly  stimulates  the  in- 
terest of  the  pupils.  While,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
modem  pedagogy,  this  metnod  has  many  obvious  de- 
fects, especiaUy  that  of  being  too  mechanical  and  of 
insisting  too  much  on  mere  memory,  it  was  neverthe- 
less an  advance  on  methods  previously  used,  and  it 


It  must  be  supplemented  by  the  application  of  th« 

psycholo^cal  principles  of  adaptation,  reflection,  and 

assimilation. 

NowodU  hioorapKxe  afniraU  (Paris,  1858).  XIX.  676;  Bui»- 
N,  Dictyonnavredepidaoooie  (Parifl,  1887).  I,  i.  1146. 

C.  A.   DUBRAT. 


SON 


Oaume,  Jean-Jobeph,  French  theologian  and 
author,  b.  at  Fuans  (Franche-Comt^)  in  1802;  d.  in 
1879.  While  attached  to  the  Diocese  of  Nevers,  he 
was  successively  professor  of  theology,  director  of 
the  petU  aiminaire,  canon,  and  vicar-general  of  the 
diocese,  and  had  already  published  several  works, 
when  he  left  for  Rome  in  1841.  Gregory  XVI  made 
him  a  knight  of  the  Reformed  Order  of  St.  Sylvester. 
A  doctor  of  theolosy  of  the  University  of  league,  a 
member  of  severai  societies  of  scholars,  honorary 
vicar-general  of  several  dioceses,  he  received  from 
Pius  lA  in  1854  the  title  of  prowonotanr  apostolic. 

Abb4  Gaume  is  the  author  of  numerous  dooks  treat- 
ing of  theology,  history,  educatbn.  Those  of  the 
first  category  are  still  esteemed,  those  of  the  second 
have  fallen  mto  oblivion,  and  those  of  the  third  save 
rise  to  the  famous  question  of  the  classics,  l^ese 
last  writing  are  all  inspired  by  one  and  the  same 
thought;  vividly  struck  by  the  religious  and  moral 
detenoration  of  his  age,  the  author  seeks  its  remote 
cause,  and  believes  he  finds  it  in  the  Renaissance, 
which  was  for  society  a  resurrection  of  the  paganism 
of  antiquity,  prepared  the  way  for  the  Revolution,  and 
was,  in  fine,  the  primal  source  of  all  the  evil.  Sudi  is 
the  dominating  idea  of  the  works  "La  Revolution" 
(8  vols.,  1^56)  and  "  Histoire  de  la  society  domestique" 
(2  vols.,  1854).  It  is  again  met  with  in  ''Les  Trois 
Rome"  (1857).  But  to  cure  the  ills  of  society  it  was 
necessary  to  devise  a  new  method  of  moulding  child- 
hood and  youth ;  this  was^  to  consist  in  catechetical 
instruction  and  the  exclusion  of  pagan  authors  from 
classical  studies.  In  support  of  this  method  he 
composed  his  "Cat^hisme  de  Perseverance,  ou  Ex- 


series  of  works  belong  his  "Manuel  du  Confesseur 
(1854)  and  "THorloge  de  la  Passion"  (1857),  which 
he  translated  from  St.  Alphonsus  Li^ori. 

The  reform,  or  rather  the  revolution — the  word  is 
his — which  he  deemed  necessary  in  classic  instruction 
he  had  indicated  as  early  as  1835  in  his  book  "Le 
Catholicisme  dans  I'education",  without  arousing 
much  comment.  He  returned  to  the  subject  in  185l 
in  a  work  entitled  "  Le  Ver  rongeur  des  societds  mo- 
demes  ou  le  Paganisme  dans  I'Education".  The  renown 
of  the  author,  still  more  the  patrona^  of  two  influ- 
ential prelates-^Mgr.  Gousset,  Archbishop  of  Reims, 
and  Mgr.  Parisis^  Bishop  of  Arras — and  above  all  the 
articles  of  Louis  Veuillot  in  "LlJnivers".  which 
supported  Abbe  Gaume  from  the  first,  gained  for  his 
views  a  hearing  which  they  had  previously  failed  to 
secure,  and  provoked  a  lively  controversy  amons 
Catholics.  After  having  shown  that  the  intellectuu 
formation  of  youth  dunng  the  first  centuries  of  the 
Church  and  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  was  accom- 
plished through  the  study  of  Christian  authors  (di.  i- 
vi),  Gaume  proceeds  to  prove  that  the  Renaissance 
of  the  sixteenth  centunr  perverted  education  throu£^- 
out  Europe  by  the  substitution  of  paean  writers  Tor 
Christian  authors.  In  support  of  his  thesis,  he  brings 
forward  the  testimony  or  men  (viii-ix)  and  of  facts 
(x-xxv),  indicating  the  influence  of  classical  pajganism 
on  literature,  speecn,  the  arts,  philosophy,  religion,  the 
family,  and  society.  Despite  a  proportion  of  truth, 
tiie  exaggeration  of  his  thesis  was  evident.  It  was 
tiie  con(temnation  of  the  method  held  in  honour  in  the 
Church  for  three  centuries;  Benedictines,  Jesuits, 


acknowledged,  though  canyins  it  to  excess,  the  great    Oratorians^  the  secular  cler^  themselves  had,  with- 
importance  ot  the  principle  of  interest  in  education,    out  opposition  from  the  Holy  See,  made  the  pagai 


OAUTABCA 


399 


QAZA 


authors  the  basis  of  the  curriculum  in  their  colleges. 
Gaume  did  not  go  so  far  as  to  exclude  the  pagan  texts  ; 
he  allowed  them  some  place  in  the  three  hi^est 
classes  (the  course  comprised  eight),  but  banished 
Uiem  from  the  first  five  years. 

Consulted  by  the  professors  of  his  petU  aiminaire 
as  to  the  course  to  pursue,  the  Bishop  of  Orl^ns,  Mgr. 
Dupanloup,  addressed  them  a  letter  on  classical 
teaching,  m  which  he  boldly  declared  himself  in  favour 
of  the  existing  regulations  and  methods,  thus  pre- 
serving for  the  ancient  authors  the  rank  they  nad 
hitherto  held,  but  at  the  same  time  assigned  an  im- 
portant place  to  Holy  Scripture,  the  Others,  and 
modem  authors.  Sharply  attacked  by  VeuiUot  in 
''  L'Univers",  the  bishop  retorted  by  issumg  a  pastoral 
on  the  classics  and  especially  on  the  interference  of 
lay  journalism  in  episcopal  administration,  and  con- 
cluded by  enjoining  on  the  professors  of  his  P^t^ 
sHninaires  to  receive  no  longer  "  L'Univers".  Then 
the  Question  became  even  more  bumine;  newspaper 
articles,  brochures^  pamphlets,  even  books  succeeded 
one  another  on  this  question  which  created  a  general 
commotion  among  educationists.  Gaume  published 
in  support  of  his  tiiesis  the  "  Lettre  sur  le  paganisme 
dans  r^ucation".  For  a  time  it  seemed  as  though 
the  diocese  were  on  the  point  of  division.  At  tliis 
juncture  M^r.  Dupanloup  drew  up  a  declaration 
which  was  signed  by  forty-six  prelates.  It  contained 
four  articles,  two  of  which  dealt  with  journalism  in  its 
relations  with  episcopal  authority,  and  two  with  the 
use  of  the  classics.  It  was  therein  stated :  (1)  that  the 
employment  of  the  ancient  classics  in  secondary 
schools,  when  properly  chosen,  carefully  expurgated, 
and  explained  from  a  Christian  point  of  view,  was 
neither  evil  nor  dangerous;  (2)  that,  however,  the  use 
of  these  ancient  classics  should  not  be  exclusive,  but 
that  it  was  useful  to  join  to  it  in  becoming  measure, 
as  is  generally  done  in  all  houses  directed  by  the 
clergy,  the  study  and  explanation  of  Christian  authors. 
Abl^  Gaume  and  his  partisans  lost  no  time  in  reducing 
their  claims  to  the  three  following  points:  (1)  the  more 
comprehensive  expurgation  of  pagan  writers;  (2^  the 
more  extensive  mtroduction  of  Christian  authors; 
(3)  the  Christian  teaching  of  pagan  authors.  Never- 
theless it  required  instructions  mm  Rome  to  put  an 
end  to  this  controversy.  The  Abb4  Gaume  published 
further:  "  Bibliothdque  des  classiques  chnStiens, 
latins  et  grecs"  (30  vols.,  1852-55);  <' Pontes  et  Pro- 
sateurs  profanes  compldtement  expurg^"  (1857). 

Laqbanob,  Vie  de  Mar.  DuparUoup^  II,  vi,  vii;  E.  Vbuillot, 
ViedeLouia  VeuiUot^  II,  xviii;  L.  VBunJiOT,  MUangeit  Series  I, 
▼ol.  VI;  Series  II,  vol.  I;  Le  CorreepondarU  (1852),  Tarioas 
articles.  A.  FOURNBT. 

Qautama.    See  Bxtddhism. 

Qauthier,  Charles  Hugh.  See  Kingston,  Arch- 
diocese OF. 

OayantUB  (Gavanto),  Bartolommeo,  liturgist,  a 
member  of  the  Bamabite  Order;  b.  at  Monza,  lSd9j  d. 
at  Milan,  14  August,  1638.^  Gavantus  devoted  him- 
self early  to  liturgical  studies,  and  with  such  success 
that  his  fame  soon  spread  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
recognized  as  having  a  most  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
sacred  rites.  His  cnief  work  is  entitled  "Thesaurus 
sacrorum  rituum  seu  commentaria  in  rubricas  Missalis 
et  Breviarii  Romani"  (Milan,  1628;  revised  ed.  by 
Merati,  Rome,  1736-38).  In  this  work  the  author 
traces  the  historical  origin  of  the  sacred  rites  them- 
selves, treats  of  their  mystical  «i^ificance,  gives  rules 
as  to  the  observance  ana  obligation  of  the  rubrics,  and 
adds  decrees  and  brief  explanations  bearing  on  the 
subject-matter  of  the  work.  The  book  was  examined 
and  approved  by  Cardinals  Millino,  Muto,  and  Cajetan, 
and  was  dedicated  to  Pope  Urban  VIII.  Gavantus 
was  general  of  his  order,  and,  in  recognition  of  his 
mat  services,  was  named  perpetual  consultor  to  the 
Congregation  of  Rites  by  Fbpe  Urban  VIII 1623-1644. 

David  Duntord. 


Qayan:6,  Charles  Etiennb  Arthur,  American 
historian  and  writer  of  fiction,  grandson  of  Etienne  de 
Bor^,  the  first  successful  sugar-planter  of  Louisiana; 
b.  in  New  Orleans,  January,  1805;  d.  II  February, 
1895.  Pdre  Antoine  (Antonio  de  Sedella),  famed  m 
Louisiana  history,  baptized  him  in  St.  Louis  cathe- 
dral, where  also,  ninety  years  later,  the  funeral  rites 
were  performed  over  his  remains.  Having  received 
his  earlv  education  in  his  native  city,  he  went  to 
Philadelphia  in  1826  to  study  law,  was  admitted  to  the 
Pennsylvania  Bar  in  1828^  and  to  that  of  Louisiana  in 
1829.  Enterine  the  political  arena,  he  was  elected  to 
the  State  legislature  in  the  same  year,  and  subse- 
quently, in  1835,  was  sent  to  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States.  However,  ill-health  prevented  him  from  ever 
performing  his  duties  as  senator,  and  the  dictate  of  his 
physician  Kept  him  in  France  for  ei^ht  years.  The 
natund  bent  of  his  mind,  the  historical  environment 
of  his  youth  (Louisiana  having  just  emerged  from  her 
colonial  existence  into  American  stateho^),  and  per- 
sonal acquaintance  with  many  of  the  men  who  were 
chief  actors  on  the  historical  stage,  all  combined  to 
determine  the  character  of  his  life-work,  which  later 
secured  for  him  the  title,  "Historian  of  Louisiana". 
Having  obtained  material  from  public  and  private 
archives  in  France^  he  published  (1846-47)  the  result 
of  his  researches  m  "Histoire  de  la  Louisiane" — a 
work  which,  based  as  it  is  on  original  documents,  can- 
not but  be  of  great  value  to  the  student  of  history. 
This  "  Histoire  de  la  Louisiane"  is  the  foundation  and 
substance  of  the  later  and  more  comprehensive  **  His- 
tory of  Louisiana",  which  is  the  great  work  of  his  life 
(4th  ed.,  4  vols.  New  Orleans,  1903). 

In  the  "History  of  Louisiana",  the  author  in- 
cludes an  earlier  work,  "  Poetry  ana  Romance  of  the 
History  of  Louisiana ' ',  in  which,  he  explicitly  states,  he 
intends  to  weave  "  the  legendary,  the  romantic,  the 
traditional,  and  historical  elements"  into  one  narra- 
tive, and  which  contains  such  flights  of  imagination  as 
to  leave  it  devoid  of  critical  value.  ^  Tlie  other  parts 
of  the  work  are  more  strictly  historical  in  scope  and 
valine;  yet  the  vivid  style  coupled  with  much  personal 
observation  precludes  the  analytical,  dispassionate 
method,  whicn  the  modem  writer  is  wont  to  apply  to 
the  treatment  of  historical  subjects.  However,  inas- 
much as  Gavarr^'s  book  represents  an  intellijgent  and 
systematical  compilation  of  documentary  evidence,  it 
is  a  remarkable  achievement  for  his  time,  and  is  even 
yet  an  indispensable  source  of  information  concerning 
the  history  of  Louisiana.  Other  works  of  his  are: 
"Fernando  de  Lemos"  (1872);  "Aubert  Dubayet,  or 
the  Two  Sister  Republics"  (1882),  a  historical  ro- 
mance ;  both  works  are  of  local  interest.  He  also  oon- 
tributeid  a  number  of  historical  articles  to  various 
magazines. 

Kino.  Charlee  OayarrL  "PntaLce  to  Hietory  of  Louieiana 
(New  Orleans,  1003);  Publieationa  of  Louiaiana  HiaUmeal  8oci- 

SV  (New  Orleans.  1006).  vol.  III.  pt.  IV;   CoUeetiane  in  the 
oward  Memorial  Library,  New  Orleans. 

Anthont  F.  Isenbbrq. 

Qaia  (Heb.  'Azzdhj  the  strong),  a  titular  see  of 
PalsBstina  Prima,  in  the  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem. 
Gaza  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world.  Its  first 
inhabitants  were  the  Hevites  (E^ut.  ii,  23).  Tlie 
Rephalm  and  the  Enacim,  expelled  later  by  Josue,  in- 
habited the  surrounding  mountains  (Josue  xi,  22). 
The  Hevites  were  driven  forth  by  the  Philistines  who 
came  from  Caphtor  (D.  V.,  Gappadocia:  Deut.,  ii,  23; 
Amos,  ix,  7 ;  Jer.,  xlvii,  4).  Little  else  is  known  as  to 
the  orisin  of  this  warlike  people,  who  occupied  the 
whole  Mediterranean  coast  between  Phoenicia  and 
Eayptf  and  whom  the  Hebrews  could  never  wholly 
subdue.  It  is  agreed,  however,  that  they  came  from 
the  southern  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  islands  of  the 
JBgean.  Jeremias  (xlvii,  4)  speaks  of  the  island  of 
Caphtor,  the  isle  of  Gappadocia  in  D.  V.  According 
to  Stephen  of  Byzantium  ("  De  Urbibus",  s.  w.  Oaza. 


OAZA 


400 


OAZA 


Minoa)  the  city  of  Gaza  was  a  colony  from  Crete  (cf. 
Soph. J  ii,  5).  ThiB  statement  is  in  accordance  with 
the  Biblical  narrative  which  tells  of  reprisals  made  by 
the  ''Cerethi"  (Cretans),  a  Philistine  tribe.  Philis- 
tines were  established  in  the  vicinity  of  Gaza  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Abraham;  their  leader,  Abimelech,  who 
bore  the  title  of  king^  resided  at  Gerara  (Gen.,  xxi,  33 : 
zxvi,  1).  Some  critics,  however,  hold  that  the  title  or 
'*  King  of  the  Philistines"  was  ^ven  to  Abimelech,  not 
because  he  was  himself  a  Philistine,  but  because  he 
dwelt  in  the  country  afterwards  inhabited  by  that 
people.  In  anv  case  the  Philistines  certainly  possessed 
CSaza  when  Moses  and  the  Hebrews  arrived  in  the 
Holy  Land.  Though  it  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of 
Juda,  the  city  could  never  be  conquered  by  Josue  on 
account  of  its  high  wall  (Gen.,  xv,  18;  Jos.  xv,  47; 
Amos,  i,  7)./  The  tribe  of  Juda  possessed  the  city  by 
right  but  not  in  fact. 

Gaza  appears  to  have  been  the  metropolis  of  the  five 
satrapies  which  formed  the  territory  of  the  Philistines; 
and  like  the  four  other  cities,  Ascalon,  Accaron,  Azotus, 
and  Geth,  it  had  a  king  whose  power  extended  to  aU 
the  cities  and  villages  of  the  re^on.  Samson,  to 
escape  from  the  hands  of  the  Philistines,  bore  the 
gates  of  the  city  awa^  on  his  shoulders  during  the 
night  to  the  neighbouring  mountain  (Judges  xvi,  3); 
it  was  at  Gaza  that,  blindand  a  prisoner  ofthe  Philis- 
tines, he  pulled  down  the  temple  of  Dagon  on  himself 
and  his  enemies  (Judges  xvi,  21-30).  Dagon  was  not 
the  special  deity  of  Uaza.  He  is  to  be  met  with  also 
at  Ascalon,  Azotus,  and  the  other  Philistine  cities  to 
which  the  term  "Beth-dagon"  is  applied.  To  a  cer- 
tain extent  the  Philistines  had  transformed  into  a 
national  deity  this  gocj  of  Assyrian  origin,  a  monster 
having  in  part  the  shape  of  a  fish,  in  part  also  the  form 
of  a  man.  The  Israelites,  who  had  captured  Gaza 
shortly  before  the  time  of  Samson  (Judges  i,  18),  were 
still  in  possession  of  it  in  the  time  of  Solomon  (III 
Kings,  iv,  24).  It  is  probable,  however,  that  at  this 
later  date  the  city  merely  paid  tribute,  retaining  its 
autonomy. 

The  people  of  Gaza  continued  to  manifest  their 
hatred  lor  the  Jews,  and  carried  on  a  brisk  commerce 
in  Jewish  slaves  (Amos,  i,  6),  whic^  drew  upon  them 
the  terrible  maledictions  of  the  prophets  of  Israel 
(Amos,  i,  6-7;  Zach.,  ix,  5;  Jer.,  xxv,  20;  xlvii,  5). 
The  evils  foretold  be^in  when  the  rulers  of  Egypt  and 
those  of  Assyria  or  Cnaldea  engaged  in  their  long  and 
eventful  struggle  for  the  domination  of  Asia  and 
world-supremacy.  Being  on  the  great  highwajr  of  the 
conquering  armies,  Gaza  was  destined  to  special  suf- 
fering. About  734  B.  c,  Theglathphalasar  III  num- 
berea  among  his  vassals  Hanon,  the  Kine  of  Gaza, 
who  had  joined  Rasin  and  Phacee,  Kings  ofSyria  and 
Israel,  in  revolt  against  the  Assyrian  monarch.  On 
the  approach  of  tne  Assyrian  army  Hanon  fled  to 
"Epypi  and  the  city  was  taken  and  sacked.  But  the 
victors  had  scarcely  departed  when  Hanon  returned  to 
Gaza;  and  in  720  we  find  him  on  the  battlefield  of 
Raphia.  among  the  allies  of  Pharao  Shabaka,  where  he 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner.  Shortly  after  this 
the  Philistines  of  Gaza  were  defeated  by  Ezechias, 
Kins  of  Juda  (IV  Kings,  xviii,  8),  and  were  forced  to 
revolt  with  him  against  the  Aasyrians;  the  latter, 
however,  returned  and  again  compelled  the  Philis- 
tines to  submit.  Asarhaddon  and  Assurbanipal  num- 
bered among  their  tributaries  Tsilbel,  King  of  Gaza. 
When  the  Assyrian  empire  had  been  destroyed  Egypt 
sousht  to  ennch  itself  from  the  ^ils,  and  Pharao 
Nectio  II  captured  Gaza  (Jer.,  xlvii,  1 ;  Herodotus  II, 
clix)  on  his  way  towards  Carehemish,  where  he  was 
defeated  bv  the  Babylonians,  who,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Nabuchodonosor  (Nebuchadnezzar),  took  the 
offensive  and  recaptured  Gaza.  The  city  was  espe- 
cially ill-treated,  and  had  afterwards  to  pay  tribute  to 
Kin^  Nabonides  for  the  building  of  the  great  temple 
of  Sm  at  Haran.    Later  the  Babylonians  gave  way  to 


the  Persians.  Cambyses,  on  the  oocasion  of  his  ex* 
pedition  to  Egypt  in  526,  besieged  Gaza,  which  alone 
dared  to  resist  nis  mardi  (Polybius,  XVI,  40).  It 
submitted,  nevertheless,  and  under  the  Persian  do- 
minion, according  to  Herodotus  (III,  xv),  who  com- 
pares it  to  Sardis,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  of 
Asia,  it  enjoyed  great  prosperity.  The  people  of  Gaza, 
who  seem  to  have  been  ve^  courageous  and  very  loyal 
to  their  masters,  whoever  they  might  be,  refused  to 
open  the  gates  to  the  army  of  Alexander  the  Great 
(332).  He  was  forced  to  begin  a  regular  siege,  which 
lasted  two  months  and  cost  him  many  men.  After 
storming  the  city,  Alexander  laid  waste  to  Gaza,  put 
the  men  to  the  sword,  and  sold  the  women  and  chilaren 
into  slavery.  He  afterwards  allowed  the  place  to  be 
re- colonized ;  but  the  new-comers  were  of  a  different 
stock  from  the  old  inhabitants.  The  Philistine  strong- 
hold made  way  for  an  Hellenic  city  (Diodorus  Siculus, 
XVII,  xlviii,  7 ;  Arrian,  II,  xxxvi ;  Quintus  Curtius,  IV, 
xxxiii).  Henceforth  there  is  little  peace  for  Gaza. 
For  several  centuries  it  was  the  battlefield  for  Egyp- 
tian, Syrian,  and  Jewish  armies.  It  was  taken  three 
times  by  Ptolemy  I,  King  of  Egypt  (320,  312,  and 
302  B.  c),  and  twice  by  Antigonus  (315  and  306). 
Finally  it  fell  to  the  Lagidae,  who  retained  it  for  al- 
most a  century.  In  219  Antiochus  of  Syria  took 
possession  of  it,  and  organized  there  the  invasion  of 
Egypt;  but  he  was  defeated  at  Raphia  in  217,  and 
compelled  to  abandon  his  conquest  to  the  Egyptians. 
In  198  he  again  took  Gaza,  routed  the  Egyptians  in 
the  following  year,  and  this  time  was  able  to  retain  his 
conquest  Jonathan  Machabeus  appeared  with  his 
army  before  Gaza,  which  refused  to  open  its  gates,  so 
the  suburbs  were  burnt,  and  the  inhabitants  com- 
pelled to  give  hostages,  145-143  b.  c.  (I  Mach.,  xi, 
60-62). 

Alexander  Jannseus  besieged  the  city  for  a  whole 
year  (98)  and  finally  captured  it  through  treacheiy, 
sacked  it  and  slew  a  large  number  of  the  inhabitants 
( Josephus, "  Ant.  Jud.",  XIII,  xiii,  3 ;  "  Bel.  Jud.",  I.  iv, 
2).  it  was  rebuilt  later  by  Pompey  and  by  Gabinius 
(Josephus.  "Ant.  Jud.",  XIV,  iv,  4;  Appian,  "Syr.", 
51).  Anthony  ceded  to  Cleopatra  the  whole  of  the 
Mediterranean  coast  between  Egypt  and  Phcenicia, 
and  Augustus  gave  Gaza  to  Heroothe  Great  (30  b.  c). 
At  Herod's  death  it  became  subject  to  the  governor  of 
Syria.  In  a.  d.  66  the  revolted  Jews  sacked  the  city, 
which  was  of  course  soon  recaptured  by  the  Romans 
(Josephus^ "  Bel.  Jud.",  II,  xviu,  1).  The  era  of  Gaza, 
found  on  its  coins  and  on  numerous  pagan  and  Chris- 
tian inscriptions,  dates  from  a  journey  of  Pompey 
through  Palestine,  28^  October,  61  B.  c.  Gaza  is 
mentioned  only  once  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts, 
viii,  26),  in  connexion  with  the  route  followed  by  the 
eunuch  of  Queen  Candace.  The  Hellenistic  city  had 
transformed  its  Oriental  deities  into  Graeco-Roman 
sods,  and  was  long  hostile  to  Christianity,  which  as 
late  as  the  first  quarter  of  the  fourth  century  had 
scarcely  secured  a  foothold  there.  It  is  true  that 
Philemon,  to  whom  St.  Pkul  addressed  an  epistle,  is 
spoken  ot  as  its  first  bishop:  but  this  is  merely  an 
unreliable  tradition.  St.  Sylvanus,  its  first  bishop, 
martyred  (310)  at  the  mines  of  Phsno,  is  called 
"bishop  of  the  churches  about  Gaza"  (Eusebius, 
"  Hist.  Eccl.",  VIII,  xui ; "  De  Mart.  Palsest.",  xiii.  iv) ; 
Asclepas,  his  successor,  is  also  called  "bishop  ot  the 
churenes  about  Gaza".  He  assisted  at  the  Council  of 
Nicflea  in  325,  and  was  one  of  the  Catholic  bishops  most 
feared  by  the  Arians.  He  is  always  found  among 
those  who  suffered  the  most  severely  in  the  Arian 
conflict,  with  men  like  St.  Athanasius,  Maroellus  of 
Ancyra,  and  others  of  that  type. 

Constantine  the  Great  forcibly  introduced  Chris- 
tianity into  Gaza,  but  such  was  the  hostility  of  the 
pagan  population  that  Bishop  Asdepaa  deemed  it 
prudent  to  build  the  church  outside  the  city.  Near 
uie  church,  but  likewise  without  the  walls,  arose  later 


OAZZAlflOA 


401 


OEBHABD 


the  oratory  of  the  mart3rr  St.  Timothv:  in  the  same 
place  were  relics  of  the  martyrs  St.  Mapr  and  St. 
lliea.  Christianity,  however,  spread  rapidly  in  Ma- 
luma,  the  port  of  Gaza,  between  two  and  three  mUes 
irom  the  city  and  owing  dependence  to  it.  The  citi- 
zens of  the  port  obtained  from  Constantine  the  privi- 
lege of  mumcipal  independence  for  their  city,  under  the 
name  of  Constantia,  with  the  right  to  have  its  own 
bi^ops.  When,  later,  Julian  the  Apostate  withdrew 
its  civic  rights  from  Majuma,  it  still  retained  its 
bishops,  the  most  famous  ef  whom  were  Peter  the 
Iberian,  a  Monophysite  ascetic,  and  St.  Cosmas,  foster 
brother  and  friend  of  St.  John  Damascene.  In  the 
nei^bourin^  cities,  e.  g.  Anthedon,  Bethelia,  and 
Menois,  Christianity  was  also  introduced  with  diffi- 
culty. Under  Julian  tiie  Apostate  three  brothers, 
Eusebius,  Nestabos,  and  Zeno,  were  put  to  death  at 
Gaza  by  the  populace.  St.  Hilarion,  bom  in  the 
neighbouring  Thabatha,  a  small  village,  was  com- 
pelled to  flee  to  Sicily  to  escape  persecution  by  the 
pagans  (Sozom..  "Hist.  EccL  ,  V,  ix;  Greg,  waz., 
**  Invect.  I  in  Jul.",  66-67).  The  first  church  built  in 
Gaza  itself  was  the  work  of  St.  Irenion  (d.  393)  whose 
feast  is  16  December.  He  was  succeeded  by  JBneas, 
and  later  by  St.  Porphyry  (395-420),  the  true  restorer 
of  Christianity  in  Gaza.  This  holy  bishop  first  sent 
Marcus,  his  deacon  and  historian,  to  Constantinople 
to  obtain  an  order  to  close  the  pagan  temples.  The 
Christians  then  scarcely  numbered  200  in  Gaza; 
thou^  the  rest  of  the  empire  was  gradually  abandon- 
ing its  idols,  Gaza  was  stubborn  m  its  opposition  to 
Cmristianity.    The  decree  was  eranted  oy  the  em- 

Eiror,  and  the  temples  clo8e<|,  with  the  exception  of  the 
ameion,  the  temple  sacred  to  Zeus  Mamas,  which 
had  replaced  that  of  Dagon.  There  was  no  great 
chance,  however,  in  the  sentiments  of  the  people;  so 
St.  iroiphyry  decided  to  strike  a  decisive  blow.  He 
went  himself  to  Constantinople  during  the  winter  of 
401-402  and  obtained  from  Arcadius  a  decree  for  the 
destruction  of  the  pagan  temples^  which  Cynegius,  a 
special  imperial  envoy,  executed  m  May,  402.  Eight 
temples,  tnose  of  Aphrodite,  Hecate,  the  Sun,  Apollo, 
Core,  Fortune,  the  Heroeion,  and  even  the  Mameion, 
were  either  pulled  down  or  burnt.  Simultaneously 
soldiers  visited  every  house,  seizing  and  buminc  the 
idols  and  books  of  magic.  On  the  ruins  of  the  liar- 
neion  was  erected,  at  the  expense  of  the  empress,  a 
larse  church  called  the  Eudoxiana  in  her  honour,  and 
deaicated  14  April,  407.  Paganism  had  thus  ceased  to 
exist  officially. 

Gaza,  now  a  Christian  city,  became  rich  an^  pros- 
perous; and  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  was 
the  seat  of  a  famous  school  of  Christian  rhetoricians. 
Monasticism  also  flourished  there;  and  the  Church 
recognizes  as  saints  many  religious  of  Gaza.  e.g.  Doro- 
theus,  Dositheus,  Barsanuphius,  and  John  the  Prophet; 
the  Monophysite  monks  were  also,  for  a  time,  actively 
engaged  in  its  environs.  At  the  Arab  invasion,  about 
637,  the  city  fell  before  General  Amr.  The  Eudoxiana 
was  converted  into  a  mosque,  and  the  Roman  garri- 
son, consisting  of  sixty  soldiers  under  the  command  of 
Callinicus,  having  refusi^  to  apostatize,  was  slain  at 
Eleutheropolis  and  Jerusalem  ("Analecta  Bollandi- 
ana",  XXIII,  289-307;  "Echos  d'  Orient",  VIII, 
1905,  40-43).  The  Arabs  venerate  the  citv  as  the 
burial-place  of  Hachem,  the  grandfather  of  Mahomet. 
When  the  Crusaders  came,  Gaza  was  almost  in  ruins; 
owing,  however^  to  its  situation  on  the  way  from 
^sprpt  to  Syria,  it  soon  regained  prosperitv.  Baldwin 
III  built  a  fortress  there  (1149)  and  confided  it  to  the 
Templars.  Saladin  pOla^  the  city  in  1170,  but  the 
fortress  did  not  fall  until  1187.  Richard  the  Lion- 
hearted  held  it  for  a  brief  time.  In  1244  the  combined 
forces  of  Christians  and  Saracens  were  defeated  by 
the  Kharezmians.  The  Turks  finally  took  Gaza 
in  1516;  and  in  1799  Bonaparte  held  it  for  a  few 
days.  It  is  now  known  as  Gnaszeh,  and  is  a  kaimak- 
VI^26 


amat  in  the  sandjak  of  Jerusalem.  It  numbers  over 
40.000  inhabitants,  nearl^r  all  Mussulmans.  There  are 
only  1000  Greek  sdiismatics,  150  Jews,  50  Protestants, 
and  150  Catholics.  The  latter  have  a  Catholic  pastor 
under  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  The  Greek  Church 
contains  the  tomb  of  St.  Porphyry.  Mosques  are  very 
numerous,  among^the  most  remarkable  being  Djamia- 
el-Kebir,  the  ancient  cathedral  of  the  crusaaers,  dedi- 
cated to  St.  John  the  Baptist;  also  Nebi-Hachem,  in 
which  is  the  tomb  of  the  grandfather  of  Mahomet. 
The  city  is  unclean,  and  its  streets  narrow  and  crooked. 
But  seen  from  a  distance,  amid  its  surrounding  ve^ta- 
tion,  it  appears  magnificent.  The  entire  distnct  is 
well  irrigated  and  cultivated;  the  soil  is  extremely 
rich,  and  the  trade  of  the  city  rather  prosperous. 

Mabcub  Diaconub,  Vita  Porphjfrii  epiacom  Gatennt  (Leipslipt 
1895);  SxBBB,  De  Gaga  PaUattncB  oppiao  ejtugue  epUeopa 
(Leipiiff,  1716);  Lb  Quibn.  OrieiM  Christians,  III,  flib3-622; 
&TARK.  Gam  und  die  phUist&iache  KUtate  (Jena,  1852):  Sbits. 
Die  Schule  von  Gam  (Heidelberg,  1892);  Roubsos,  Trme  Go- 
ziena  (Greek;  Constaiitmople,  1893);  SchObbb,  Der  Kalender 
und  die  Aem  von  Gam  (Beilin,  1896);  Qatt  in  Via.,  Did.  de  la 
Bible,  8.  y.  S.  Vailh£. 

QaBianlga,  Pn^rRO  Maria,  theologian,  b.  at  Ber- 
gamo, Italy,  3  Mareh,  1722;  d.  at  Vicenza,  11  Dec.,  ' 
1799.  At  a  veiy  eariy  a^  he  entered  the  Order  of  St. 
Dominic,  and  aiter  a  brilliant  course  in  the  various 
branches  of  ecclesiastical  sciences,  especially  philoso- 
phy and  theology,  he  was,  despite  his  youth,  ap- 
pomted  to  teach  pnilosophy  and  chureh  history,  first 
m  the  various  houses  of  his  order  and  later  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bologna.  His  genius,  however,  his  untiring 
labours,  and  above  all,  his  faculty  for  communicating 
knowledge  did  not  lob^  remain  concealed  within  the 
walls  of  Bologna.  Owing  to  the  changes  introduced 
into  the  theological  faculty  of  the  University  of  Vienna 
in  1760,  the  chair  of  dogmatic  theology,  which  had 
been  assigned  exclusively  to  members  m  the  Domini- 
can Order,  was  vacant.  It  was  but  natural  then  that 
the  empress,  Maria  Theresa,  should  appeal  to  his  supe- 
riors to  have  him  transferred  to  her  cnerished  seat  of 
leamine.  His  fame  aocomi)anied  him.  Students 
from  aU  Quarters  flocked  to  him.  At  his  feet  sat  the 
empress  herself;  Cardinal  Mi^azzi,  the  renowned 
Garampi,  and  even  Pius  VI.  during  his  sojourn  in  Vi- 
enna, never  failed  to  attend  nb  lectures.  After  twenty 
years  of  active  work  he  returned  to  Italy,  where  he 
continued  to  lecture  in  various  places  until  his  death. 

In  theology  Gazzaniga  is  ranked  as  one  of  the  fore- 
most defenaera  and  exponents  of  the  Thomistic  school 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth,  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eijghteenth,  century.  By  strict  adher- 
ence to  the  traditional  teaching  of  his  school,  he  set 
himself  against  the  spirit  of  his  age,  which  sought  to 
modernize  and  to  conduct  all  theological  schools  of 
Austria  on  plans  designed  to  render  them  more  inde- 
pendent of  ecclesiastical  and  royal  authority.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  winning  over  to  his  cause  Simon  Rock,  tfll 
then  the  faithful  associate  of  Van  Swieten,  the  invet- 
erate promoter  of  the  Jansenistic  spirit  in  Austria,  and 
with  his  assistance  finally  restored  Thomism  in  the 
schools  of  that  country.  His  fidelity  to  St.  Thomas 
lUcewise  rendered  him  very  bitter  against  Molinism; 
so  much  so,  in  fact,  that  he  succeeded  in  persuading 
the  party  of  Father  Gomar,  as  a^inst  that  of  Armin- 
ius,  to  subscribe  to  the  Thomistic  doctrine  of  predes- 
tination and  reprobation  (ad  sanam  Thomistarum  de 
prsedestinatione  et  reprobatione  doctrinam  descende- 
runt,  Prodlect.,  vol.  li,  diss.  6,  n.  242).  His  principal 
work,  the  "  Pnelectiones  theologies  habits  m  vindo- 
bonensi  universitate,  nunc  vero  alio  methodo  disposi- 
tse,  emendatse  et  auctae",  has  gone  through  many  edi- 
tions (9  vols.,  Bologna,  1788-1793;  Bassani,  1831). 

Wbbnbr,  GeechichU  der  Kath,  Thedogie,  198;  Hubtbb, 
Nomenelator.  JOSEPH  ScHHOEDER. 

Oebal.    Bee  Giblians. 

Oebhard,  Archbishop  of  CouoGusm.    See  Truch- 

8X88  VON  WaLDBURG. 


QEBHABD 


402 


OEDXON 


Oebhard  (SXL)  of  Oonatance,  bishop  of  that  city, 
and  strenuous  defender  of  papal  rights  against  impe- 
rial encroachments  during  ttie  Investitures  conflict;  b. 
about  1040;  d.  12  November,  1110.  He  was  a  son  of 
Duke  Bertold  I  and  a  brother  of  Bertold  II,  of  Z&hrin- 
gen.  For  some  time  he  was  provost  at  Xanten,  then 
entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Hirschau  and 
on  22  December,  1084,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Constance  by  the  cardinal-legate.  Otto  of  Ostia,  the 
future  Urban  II.  The  see  of  Constance  was  then  oc- 
cupied by  the  imperial  anti-Bishop  Otto  I,  who,  thou^ 
excommunicated  and  deposed  by  Gregory  VII  in  1080, 
retained  his  see  by  force  of  arms.  At  an  imperial 
synod  held  at  Mainz,  in  April,  1085,  Gebhard  and  four- 
teen other  German  bishops  who  remained  faithful  to 
Gregory  VII  were  deposed,  and  Otto  I  was  declared 
tiie  hiwful  Bishop  of  Constance.  Luckily,  Otto  I  died 
in  the  beginning  of  1086,  and  Gebhard  was  able  to  take 
possession  of  his  see.  One  of  his  first  acts  as  bishop 
was  the  reform  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Peters- 
hausen  near  Constance,  which  he  recruited  with  monks 
from  Hirschau.  In  1089  he  consecrated  the  new  cath- 
edral of  Constance,  to  replace  the  old  one  which  had 
fallen  into  ruins  in  1052. 

On  18  April,  1089,  Pope  Urban  U  appointed  him 
and  Bishop  Altmann  of  Passau,  Apostouc-vicars  for 
German]^.  Arnold,  a  monk  of  St.  Gall,  whom  Heniy 
IV  appointed  anti-Bishop  of  Constance  on  28  March. 
1092,  tried  in  vain  to  eject  Gebhard  from  the  See  of 
Constance.  The  latter  had  powerful  friends  in  his 
brother  Bertold  II,  Duke  Welf  IV,  the  monks  of 
'  Hirschau  and  Petershausen,  and  the  citizens  of  Con- 
stance. In  1094  Gebhard  held  a  svnod  of  reform  at 
Constance,  and  in  1095  he  attended  the  Synod  of 
Piacenza.  Soon,  however,  the  influence  of  Henry  IV 
bejgan  to  increase  in  Germany.  In  1103  Gebhard  was 
driven  from  his  see,  and  the  imperial  anti-bishop, 
Arnold,  usiu*ped  the  bishopric.  With  the  assistance 
of  Henry  V,  Gebhard  regamed  his  see  in  1105,  freed 
the  kin^  from  the  ban  by  order  of  Paschal  II,  and  ac- 
compamed  him  on  his  ioiuney  to  Saxony.  Gebhard 
attended  the  Synod  of  Nordhausen  on  27  May,  1105, 
the  diet  at  Mainz  on  Christmas,  1105,  was  sent  as  im- 
perial legate  to  Rome  in  the  spring  of  1106,  and  was 
present  at  the  Council  of  Guastalla  in  October  of  the 
same  year.  In  the  fresh  dispute  that  arose  between 
Paschal  II  and  Henry  V,  Gebhard  seemed  to  side  with 
the  emperor^  but,  after  being  severely  reprimanded  bj 
the  pope,  withdrew  from  public  life  and  devoted  his 
whole  attention  to  the  welfare  of  his  diocese. 

Henkino,  Qehhard  111,  Biachof  von  Constant  (Stuttgart, 
1880);  ZkiAj.  Qebhard  von  Z&hringen  in  Fretburger  Dideeaan' 
Arehiv  (Freiburg  im  Br..  1805),  I.  305-^04;  Meter  von 
Knonau  in  Sehriften  des  VereinaJHr  die  GeaehidUe  des  Bodenaeea 
(lindau,  1896),  XXV,  18  sqq.;  Idem  in  Alia.  DeuUche  Biogr.; 
Neuqart,  Epiacopatua  CoMtantiennt  (St.  Blasien,  1803),  I, 
467-502. 

Michael  Ott. 

Oebharti  Emile,  a  French  professor  and  writer,  b. 
19  July,  1839,  at  Nancy;  d.  22  April,  1908,  in  Paris. 
He  was  the  grand-nephew  of  General  Drouot,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  soldiers  of  the  First  Empire. 
Having  finished  his  studies  in  the  Lyc6e  of  Nancy,  he 
was  aomitted  to  the  Ecole  Franyaise  of  Athens,  where 
he  imbibed  the  Hellenic  spirit  and  ^thered  a  rich 
harvest  of  facts  and  anecdotes  for  his  future  works. 
When  he  returned  to  France  he  was  sent  to  the  Lyo^e 
of  Nice  and  soon  after  appointed  professor  of  foreign 
literatures  in  the  University  of  Nancy.  He  was  so 
successful  that  a  chair  of  Southern  European  litera- 
tures was  instituted  specially  for  him  at  the  SorbonnCi 
in  1880.  For  the  twenty-six  years  during  which  he 
retained  that  position,  he  was  the  most  popular  pro- 
fessor in  the  Sorbonne,  his  course  of  lectures  being  at- 
tended by  enthusiastic  audiences  both  of  students  and 
of  men  and  women  of  the  world.  In  1895  he  was 
elected  to  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sci- 
ences, and  in  1905  to  the  French  Academy.    He  waa 


fond  of  travelling,  and  every  summer,  for  twenty-fivt 
years,  he  spent  three  months  in  Italy,  visiting  Rome, 
Milan,  Florence,  Venice,  seeking  rare  and  antique 
books  in  libraries,  stayins  in  monasteries  and  talking 
with  the  monks,  and  gathering  information  concern- 
ing popular  legends  from  the  common  people  on  the 
streets  and  in  the  cottages  of  the  poor.  All  the  mate- 
rials so  collected  were  afterwards  used  in  his  books. 
His  favourite  subjects  were  Greek  antiquity  and  the 
Italian  Renaissance.  He  treated  them  in  a  masterly 
manner,  showing  a  thorough  but  impretentious 
knowledge.  His  style  is  Clear,  slightly  sarcastic  at 
times,  but  extremely  agreeable,  ma  principal  works 
are:  ''Praxit^le"  (1864),  "La  Renaissance  et  la  R^ 
forme"  (1877),  "Les  Origines  de  la  Renaissance  en 
Italic"  (1879),  "L'ltaUe  mystiaue"  (1890),  "Le  son 
des  Cloches,  contes  et  l^gendes"  (1898),  "Moines  et 
Papes"  (1896),  "Autour  d'une  tiare"  (1894), 
"CJloches  de  No^  et  de  PAques"  (1900),  "Conteurs 
florentins  au  moyen-ftge"  (1901),  '^  Jules  II"  (1904), 
"Florence"  (1906).  The  last  days  of  his  Kfe  were 
dimmed  by  sadness.  As  he  had  always  been  fond  of 
mysticism,  which  he  had  so  well  described  in  his  lives 
of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  and  St.  Catherine  of  Siena,  and 
as  he  disliked  the  rationalistic  doctrines  of  the  time, 
the  attacks  of  the  Radicals  on  his  religious  and  patri- 
otic ideals  wounded  him  deeply. 


ActueUea  (30  May 


Louis  N.  Delamarre. 


Oedeon  [Gideon  (Heb.  p^H^  ''hewer")]>  also  called 
Jerobaal  (Judges,  vi,  32;  vii,  1;  etc.),  and  Jerubb- 
BHBTH  (II  Kings,  xi,  21,  in  the  Hebrew  text),  was  one 
of  the  Greater  Judges  of  Israel.  He  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Manasses,  and  to  the  family  of  Abieser  (Judges, 
vi,  34).  Gedeon's  father  was  Joas,  and  Uved  in  Eph- 
ra  (Judges,  vi,  11).  The  following  is  in  substance  the 
account  of  Gedeon's  judgeship  as  related  in  Judges. vi- 
viii:  Israel,  having  forsaken  Yahweh's  worship,  nad 
been  for  seven  years  exceedingly  humbled  by  uie  in- 
cursions of  the  Madianites  and  ot  other  Eastern  tribes. 
At  len^h,  they  turned  to  God  who  sent  them  a  de- 
liverer in  the  person  of  Gedeon.  In  a  first  theophany, 
mmted  him  oy  day  while  he  was  threshing  wheat, 
Uedeon  received  the  difficult  mission  of  freeins  his 
people;  whereupon  he  built  an  altar  to  the  Lord 
(Judges,  vi,  24).  In  a  second  theophany  durine  the 
foUowingnight,  he  was  directed  to  destroy  the  village- 
altar  to  Baal,  and  to  erect  one  to  Yahweh.  This  ne 
did  with  the  result  that  the  people  clamoured  for  his 
death  to  avenee  his  insult  to  their  false  god.  Joas, 
however,  saved  his  son's  life  by  the  witty  taunt,  which 
secured  for  the  latter  the  name  of  Jerobaal:  "  Let  Baal 
revenge  himself!''  (vi,  25-32).  Thus  divinely  com- 
missioned, Gedeon  naturally  took  the  lead  against 
Madian,  and  Amalec,  and  other  Eastern  tribes  who 
had  crossed  the  Jordan,  and  encamped  in  the  valley  of 
Jezrael.  Comforted  by  the  famous  signs  of  the  fleece 
(vi,  36-40),  and  accompanied  by  warriors  from  Manas- 
ses, Aser,Zabulon,  and  riephthali,  he  took  up  his  posi- 
tion not  far  from  the  enemy.  But  it  was  God's  inten- 
tion to  show  that  it  was  His  power  which  delivered 
Israel,  and  hence  He  reduced  Gedeon's  army  from 
32,000  to  300  (vU,  1-8).  According  to  a  divine  direc- 
tion, the  Hebrew  commander  paid  a  night  visit  to  the 
enemy's  camp  and  overheard  the  telling  of  a  dream 
which  prompted  him  to  act  at  once,  certain  of  victory 
(vii,  9-15).  He  then  supplied  his  men  with  trumpets 
and  with  torches  enclosea  in  jars,  which,  after  his  exam- 
ple, thev  broke,  crying  out:  "The  sword  of  Yahweh 
and  Gedeon. "  Panic-stricken  at  the  sudden  attack, 
Israel's  enemies  turned  their  arms  against  one  an- 
other, and  broke  up  in  flight  towards  the  fords  of  the 
Jordan  (vii,  16-23).  But,  summoned  by  Gedeon,  the 
Ephraimites  cut  off  the  Madianites  at  the  fords,  and 


OXDOYN 


403 


QBLIB 


captured  and  slew  two  of  their  princes,  Oreb  and  Zeb, 
whose  heads  they  sent  to  the  Hebrew  leader,  rebuking 
him  at  the  same  time  for  not  having  called  earlier  upon 
their  assistance.  Gedeon  appeased  them  by  an  East- 
em  proverb,  and  pursued  the  enemy  beyond  the  Jor- 
dan river  (vii,  24;  viii,  3).  Passine  by  Soccoth  and 
Phanuel,  he  met  with  their  refusal  of  provisions  for  his 
fainting  soldiers,  and  threatened  both  places  with  ven- 
geance on  his  return  (viii,  4-9).  At  length,  he  over- 
took and  defeated  the  enemies  of  Israel,  captured  their 
kings,  Zebee  and  Salmana,  returned  in  tnumph,  pun- 
ishing the  men  of  Soccoth  and  Phanuel  on  his  way,  and 
finally  put  to  death  Zebee  and  Salmana  (viii,  10-21). 
Grateful  for  this  glorious  deliverance,  Gedeon's  coun- 
trvmen  offered  him  the  dignity  of  an  hereditary  king, 
which  he  declined  with  these  noble  words:  " I  will  not 
*  rule  over  vou,  neither  shall  my  son  rule  over  you,  but 
Yahweh  shall  rule  over  you"  (viii,  22-23).  lie  never- 
theless asked  and  obtained  from  his  soldiers  the  golden 
rings  and  other  ornaments  which  they  had  taken  from 
the  enemy;  and  out  of  this  spoil  he  made  what  seems 
to  have  soon  become  an  object  of  idolatrous  wonship 
in  Israel.  Gedeon's  peaceful  judgeship  lasted  forty 
years.  He  had  seventy  sons,  and  **  diea  in  a  good  old 
age,  and  was  buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  his  rather  in 
Ephra"  (viii,  24-32).  His  victory  is  alluded  to  in 
Isaias,  x,  26,  and  in  Ps.,  Ixxxii,  12  (Heb.  Ixxxiii,  11), 
where  the  four  kings  mentioned  in  Judges,  vii,  viii,  are 
distinctly  named — a  fact  which  shows  that,  at  the 
time  when  this  psalm  was  composed,  the  narrative  of 
Gedeon's  exploits  was  conmionly  known  in  its  present 
form.  The  various  literary  features  exhibited  by  the 
text  of  Judges,  vi-viii,  have  been  minutelv  examined 
and  differently  appreciated  by  recent  scholais.  Seve- 
ral commentators  look  upon  these  features — such  for 
instance  as  the  two  names,  Gedeon  and  Jerobaal;  the 
two  theophanies  bearing  on  Gedeon's  call ;  the  appar- 
ently twofold  narrative  of  Gedeon's  pursuit  of  the 
routed  enemies,  etc. — as  proving  conclusively  the 
composite  origin  of  the  sacred  record  of  Gedeon's 
judgeship.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  see  their  way  to 
reconcile  all  such  features  of  the  text  with  the  literary 
luuty  of  Judges,  vi-viii.  However  this  may  be,  one 
thing  remains  perfectly  sure,  to  wit,  that  whatever 
may  be  the  documents  which  have  been  utilized  in 
framing  the  narrative  of  Gedeon's  exploits,  they  agree 
substantially  in  their  description  ot  the  words  and 
deeds  of  this  Greater  Judge  of  Israel. 

Catholic  oommentaries  on  the  book  of  Judges  by  Claib  (Pftria, 
1880);.  TON  HuMMBLAXTKB  (Paris,  1888);  Laqranob  iParis, 
1903);  Non-CatboUo,  by  Moobb  (New  York.  1895);  Buddb 
(Freibuig  im  Breissao,  1897);  Nowack  (GOttingen,  19(X)). 

Francis  £.  Gigot. 

Mdoyn,  Nicolas,  a  French  translator  and  literary 
critic;  b.  at  Orleans,  17  June,  1667;  d.  10  August, 
1744,  at  Port-Pertuis,  near  Beaugency.  After  study- 
ing in  the  Ck>llege  of  the  Jesuits,  he  entered  their  novi- 
tiate in  1684,  becoming  later  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
Blois.  Ill-health,  afterwards,  obliged  him  to  resign 
this  position,  and  leave  the  Society  of  Jesus,  for  which, 
however,  he  alwa3rs  retained  his  affection.  A  canoni- 
cate  at  the  Sainte-Chapelle  (Paris)  and  two  abbeys 
^ve  him  the  means  oi  devoting  himself  to  educa- 
tional works.  In  1711,  he  was  elected  to  membership 
in  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres, 
and  in  1718  his  free  translation  and  adaptation  of 
Quintilian,  containing  many  allusions  to  contempora- 
nes,  was  the  occasion  of  his  election  to  the  French 
Academy.  He  also  translated  Pausanias  (1731),  and 
wrote  ''Reflexions  sur  le  goAt",  published  by  d'Olivet 
in  ''Recueil  d'opuscules  litt^raires''  (Amsterdam, 
1767).  Several  other  memoirs  and  essays  were  col- 
lected by  d'Olivet,  and  published  under  the  title  of 
''(Euvres  diverses  de  M.  rabb^  G^oyn".  They  con- 
tain a  life  of  Epaminondas.  an  apology  for  translations, 
eBsa3rs  on  the  education  ot  chilaraiirHoman  urbanity, 
the  ancients  and  the  modems,  etc.    In  education, 


Gr^oyn  is  an  advocate  of  progress,  and  deplores  the 
routine  and  the  tradition  which  make  parents  and  edu- 
cators conform  blindly  to  received  methods  and  usages 
without  realizing  that  circumstances  change  and  that 
methods  of  education  should  be  adapted  and  modified 
in  consequence.  Three  things  are  necessary  to  a  com- 
plete education:  knowledge,  virtue  and  good  manners; 
the  constant  endeavour  of  the  master  should  be  to 
develop  these  in  his  pupils.  Since  money  spent  by 
parents  for  the  education  of  their  children  is  an  in- 
vested capital  of  the  greatest  importance,  great  care 
should  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  tutors. 

NouvdU  Biooraphie  OinimU  (Paris.  1858}.  XIX,  802; 
d'Olivst.  Vm  as  Oidoun  (1762);  Maibs  in  Buwson's  Dietioi^ 
noire  de  ptdaoof/ie  {Vm,  1887),  I,  i.  1149. 

C.  A.  DUBRAT. 

Oegenbauer,  Josef  Anton  von,  an  accomplished 
German  historical  and  portrait  pamter,  b.  6  March, 
1800,  at  Wangen,  Wtirtemberg;  d.  31  Januarv,  1876, 
at  Rome.  He  studied  first  at  the  Royal  Academy  in 
Munich  under  Robert  von  Langer^  remaining  in  that 
city  from  1815  to  1823.  Among  his  productions  there 
were  two  idyllic  works  which  were  much  admired,  a 
"Saint  Sebastian"  and  a  ''Madonna  and  Child", 
altai^piece  for  his  native  town.  In  1823  the  painter 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  remained  until  1826,  studying 
especially  the  works  of  Raphael.  He  becsone  notably 
successful  as  a  fresco  painter,  and,  on  his  return  to 
WOrtemberg,  the  king  made  him  court  painter  and 
commissioned  him  to  decorate  the  Royal  Villa  of 
Rosenstein.  In  1829  Gegenbauer  went  again  to 
Rome  and  worked  on  frescoes.  During  his  Later  resi- 
dence at  Stutteart  he  was  employed  from  1836  to  1854 
in  decorating  tne  Royal  Palace  with  sixteen  scenes  in 
fresco  from  the  history  of  WOrtembeig.  These  in- 
clude incidents  in  the  life  of  Count  Eberiiard  II  of 
Wtirtemberg.  In  the  same  buildine  are  many  of  his 
oil  paintings,  among  them  being  "Two  Shepherds", 
"Adam  and  Eve  after  their  Expulsion  from  Eden", 
and  "  Moses  Striking  the  Rock ' '.  In  the  Stuttgart  Gal- 
lery is  also  his  "Hercules  and  Omphale".  His  other 
paintings  in  oil,  ranging  in  date  from  1829  to  1860  in- 
clude many  on  mythological  subjects:  "Sleeping 
Venus  and  Two  Satyrs",  "Leda  and  the  Swan  , 
"Apollo  and  the  Muses"  "Bacchus  and  Ariadne", 
"Venus  and  Cupid'',  "Ceres  and  Jason",  "iSolus 
iEola",  "Pluto  and  Proseipine",  "Neptune  and  The- 
tis", several  Genii  and  Amorettes,  and  some  por- 
traits. Among  Ge^nbauer's  frescoes,  in  addition  to 
those  already  mentioned,  are  "Jupiter  giving  Immor- 
tality to  Psyche",  "The  Marriage  of  Cupid  and 
Psyche",  four  scenes  from  the  life  of  Psyche,  "The 
Four  Seasons",  an  "Aurora"— all  at  the  Villa  Rosen- 
stein. In  addition  to  these  works,  we  may  mention ,  as 
well  as  various  Madonnas,  "The  Ascension  of  the 
Virgin",  "The  Crucifixion"  the  "Hercules  and  Om- 

Shale",  the  last  in  the  Thorwalds^m  Museum  at 
bpenhagen. 

C^HAMPLiN  AND  PiRKiNB.  Cycloptdin  cf  PawUers  and  PaiiUmo9 
(New  York,  1886) ;  Bictan.  Dtctionary  ofPainiere  and  Engraven, 

AUQUSTUS  VAN  ClbEF. 

Oehenna.    See  Hell. 

Oeiler  yon.  KayserBberg,  Johann,  a  celebrated 
German  pulpit  orator,  b.  at  Schaffhausen,  Switzerland, 
16  March,  1445 ;  d.  at  Strasburs,  10  March,  1510.  Un- 
til a  scientific  presentation  of  the  history  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Catholic  sermon  appears,  an  appre- 
ciation of  even  the  most  distinguished  pulpit  orator, 
althou^  based  on  careful  investigation,  can  only  be  a 
preliminary  labour,  for  the  picture,  however  elaborate, 
will  lack  the  proper  background.  This  is  true  in  the 
case  of  the  celebrated  medieval  preacher  to  the  common 
people,  Berthold  of  Ratisbon,  and  it  applies  no  less  to 
the  great  pulpit  orator  of  the  early  sixteenth  century, 
Geiler  von  Kaysersberg.^  More  fortunate  is  the  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  in  its  relations  to  purely  literaiy 
histoiy,  for  the  importance  of  Geiler  in  literature  can 


be  cxaotlv  determined.    AccoTdiiu  to  this  hiatoiy  he  above  all,  owing  to  lome  friction  between  the  mendl- 

was  doeeljr  connected  with  thoee  numanistA  of  Stra»-  cants  and  the  paruh  prieets,  tlie  cathedntl  chapter, 

burg  of  whom  the  leader  was  the  weU-known  Jacob  of  together  with  the  bishop  and  the  city  authorities,  de- 

Wimpheling   (14S0-1528},   called   "the   educator   of  sired  to  have  a  secular  priest  appointed  to  fill  Uie  office 

Germanv".     Like  Wimpheling,  Geiler  was  a  secular  permanently.    Coosequentlv  a  special  position  as 

priest;   Doth  fought  the  ecclesiastical  abuses  of  the  preacher  was  made  for  Geiler,  and  be  filfed  this  &p- 

age,  but  not  in  the  spirit  of  Luther  and  his  adherents,  pointment  with  apostolic  courage  and  intense  seal  for 

They  looked,  instead,  for  salvation  and  picservation  souls  for  over  thirty  years.     He  not  only  preached,  aa 

onlv  in  the  restoration  of  Christian  morals  in  Church  required,  every  Sunday  and  feast  day  in  the  cathedisl, 

ana  State  throi^h  the  faithful  maintenance  of  the  and  even  daily  during  fasts,  but  also,  on  special  occa- 

dootrines  of  the  Church.     The  scene  of  Wimphsling's  sions,  in  the  monasteries  of  the  city  and  ollen  outside 

fruitful  labours  was  the  school,  that  of  Geiier's  the  of  the  city.    His  daily  life,  passed  in  this  simple 

pulpit.  round  of  duties,  was  omy  broken  by  occasional  short 

TheBumame"vonKayBeraberg",giventoGeilerby  ioumeya  tor  which  he  apparently  used  his  monthly 

his  contemporaries,  was  taken  from  the  name  of  the  nbliday.    Thus  he  frequently  visited  Frederick  of 

Blace  where  his  grandfather,  who  brought  him  up,  Zollem,BiBhopofAuKsburg,  who  was  very  friendly  to 
ved.  The  father  was  killed  by  a  hunting-accident  him;  once  he  was  called  to  FQBsen  on  the  River  Lech 
when  Geiler  was  three  years  old;  and  the  excellent  byhisspecialpatron  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  who  de- 
erandfather,  who  BU«d  his  advice.  He  seems  to  have  taken  his  short 
lived  in  Kavsers-  intervals  of  rest,  when  possible,  for  making  pious  pH- 
beig,  took  coaige  grimages,  generally  in  tno  vicinity  of  his  home,  some- 
of  (he  educatbn  times  to  distant  spots.  At  Einaiedeln  in  Switieriand 
of  the  child,  send-  he  met  the  Blessed  Nikolaus  of  FlQe,  who  was  even 
ing  him  to  the  then  well  known;  another  time  he  journeyed  to 
school  at  Ammer-  Sainte-Bsume,  near  Marseilles,  in  order  to  pray  in  the 
sweiher,  near  Kay-  grotto  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen.  At  home  he  lived  very 
sersberg  in  Alsace,  plainly,  even  austerely.  It  was  only  natursl  that  a 
where  nis  mother  life  of  such  incesBant  labour,  one  in  which  the  powers 
lived.  When  the  were  constantly  exerted  to  the  utmost  and  none  of  the 
talented  boy  was  comforts  of  ease  were  enjoyed,  should  soon  wear  out 
fifteen  years  old  he  the  bodily  frame.  A  kidney  trouble  developed,  to  re- 
went  to  the  Uni-  lieve  which  he  was  obliged  to  visit' annual! v  the  hot 
versity  of  Freiburg  spring  of.  Baden;  dropsy  finally  appeared,  and  he 
in  the  Breis^U,  psased  away  on  Lstare  Sunday  of  the  year  above  men- 
which  had  just  tioned.  The  next  day,  in  the  presence  of  an  immense 
been  opened;  two  multitude  of  people,  tie  was  buried  at  the  foot  of  the 
years  later  he  re-  pulpit  which  hod  been  especially  built  for  him.  and  of 
ceived  the  bao-  which  he  had  been  for  so  many  years  the  greatest  oma- 
calaureate,  and  ment. 

after    two     more  The  numerous  volumes  of  Geiier's  aermons  and 

oea  innn  ncumer     iooii«  ■     yesjs    Was    made  writings  which  have  been  published  do  not  give  a 

(Stnsbkns,  1687)'                     master    of    arts,  complete  picture  of  the  characteristic  qualities  of  the 

He  now  gave  lec-  preacher.    God's  grace  had  made  Geiler  an  orator, 

turee  on  various  writings  of  Aristotle  in  the  next  semes-  and  the  aim  Geiler  sought,  without  regard  to  other 

ter,  and  in  the  following  half-year  filled  the  ofiice  of  considerations,   was  to  produce   the  most  powerful 

dean  of  the  philosophical  faculty  for  a  brief  period.   In  effect  on  his  hearers.     He  prepared  himself  with  great 

May,  1471,  nc  went  to  the  University  of  Baale,  also  care  for  the  pulpit,  writing  out  his  sermons  betore- 

founded  but  a  short  time  before,  in  order  to  study  hand,  as  his  contemporary  Beatus  Rhenanus  reports; 

theology,  and  obtain«I  the  doctorate  in   1475.     At  these  preparatory  compositions,  however,  were  drawn 

Basle  ne  became  acquainted  with  Sebastian  Brant,  up,  not  in  German,  but  in  Latin.     Only  a  very  small 

with  whom  he  formea  a  lasting  friendship.     While  at  part  of  the  sermons  that  have  been  issued  under  his 

Basle,  Geiler  preached  his  first  sermons  m  the  cathe-  name  are  directly  his.    At  a  veiy  early  date  his  ad- 

dral  and  greatly  enjoyed  his  pulpit  labours;  the  con-  dresses  were  taken  down  by  others  and  published, 

fessional,  nowever,  caused  him  many  difficulties  of  The   beat  critic  of   Geiier's  works,   the  well-known 

conscience.     Basle,  nevertheless,  was  not  to  be  the  writer  on  hterary  history,  Prof.  E.Martin  of  Strasburg, 

place  where  his  powers  were  to  find  their  permanent  has  made  the  attempt,  in  the  "Allgemeine  deutsche 

employment.     At  the  entreaty  of  the  students  of  Frei-  Biographie",  to  give  a  aummary  of^Geiler'a  genuine 

burg,  tiie  magistracy  and  citizena  of  that  city  ob-  writings;  according  to  him  the  authenticated  writings 

tained  his  appointment  to  the  Freiburg  University,  of  number  thirty-five.    Notwithstanding  this  rich  ma- 

which  he  was  elected  rector  the  next  year.    But  leo-  terial.  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  extraordinary 

turing  to  students  was  not  congenial  to  him ;  his  in-  preacher  is  very  difficult,  because  it  is  not  certain  that 

clinatton  was  always  for  preaching,  and  in  this  latter  any  of  the  extant  works  give  exactly  what  Geiler  said, 

office  his  talents  found  a  life-work  suited  to  them.  One  thing,  however,  is  evident  from  them,  that  the 

For  a  time  he  preached  in  the  cathedral  of  WUrzburg,  Strasburg  preacher  was  a  widely  read  man  not  only  in 

in  which  city  ne  thought  of  making  his  permanent  theolo^,  but  also  in  the  secular  literature  of  the  day, 

home,  but  a  fortunate  accident  changed  his  plans.  This  is  shown  by  the  sermons  having  Sebastian 

Peter  Schott,  senator  of  Strasburg,  an  important  and  Brant's  "Ship  of  Fools",  which  appeared  in  1494,  for 

influential  citizen  who  had  charge  of  the  property  of  their   theme;   these   sermons   attamed   the   greatest 

the  cathedral,  urged  stron^y  upon  Geiler,  now  a  well-  popularity.   Geiler  displayed,  also,  exceptional  facility 

known  preacher,  that  his  first  duty  was  to  the  people  of  u  umng  public  events  to  attract  and  hold  the  attention 

Alsace;  accordingly  Geiler  resolved,  notwithstanding  of  his  hearers.    In  originality  of  speech  Geiler  is  in 

the  entreaties  of  tne  citisens  of  WOnbuK,  to  settle  in  form,  as  in  time,  between  Berthold  of  Ratisbon  and 

Strasburg,  and  pursuant  to  this  decision  ne  remained  Abraham  a  Sancta  Clam,  and  perhaps  the  shortest  and 

tiiere  the  rest  of  his  life.  best  characterisation  of  the  great^  preach»  of  the 

Before  this  date  the  mendicant  orders  had  supplied  early  Reformation  period  is  mdicateil  by  this  inter- 

thepulpitof  the  cathedral  of  Strasburg.   Onaccount,  metuate  position;  Berthold's  homeliness  of  address 

bowever,  of  the  frequent  change  of  preachers  and,  showed  only  occasional  lapses  from  the  proprieties  ot 


JOHAMH  QSIUB  TON    KlT 

Raproduoed  trom  RcunieT, 


OII88EL  405 

speeeh.  Geiler  yielded  of  tener  to  the  coaneness  of  his  one  of  the  f  oremoet  German  bishops  of  the  oiDeteenth 
age,  Aondiam  exceeded  his  contemporaries  in  unf or-  '  century.  His  services  in  behalf  of  the  Catholic  Church 
tunate  errors  as  to  form  and  content.  in  Prussia  and  throughout  Germany  are  of  permanent 
According  to  the  testimony  of  contemporaries,  the  value.  Discretion  and  a  sense  of  justice  on  the  part 
effect  <^  Goner's  forcible  and  unusual  sermons  was  at  of  the  government  of  Frederick  William  IV  made  it 
times  very  marked;  but  the  decay  of  morals  was  by  possible  for  the  cardinal  to  regulate  and  ameliorate  the 
now  too  great  for  them  to  have  a  permanent  effect,  conditions  of  the  archdiocese  in  harmony  with  the 
Geiler  himself  complained  bitteriy  that  neither  clergy  l>olicy  of  the  State.  He  ended  the  heretical  dissen- 
nor  laity  were  willing  to  join  in  a  common  reform.  A  sions  created  by  the  Hermesian  School  by  suspending 
man  of  austere  morality,  he  never  failed  to  show  an  the  refractory  Hermesian  professors  Braun  and  Ach- 
apostolic  courage  towards  both  high  and  low,  and  terfeldt  of  Bonn;  and  he  reorganized  the  theological 
exhibited  an  extraordinary  daring  in  fighting  vice  and  .  faculty  of  that  university  by  calling  in  as  professors 
degeneracy  of  morals.  Hence  his  works  are  an  im-  Dieringer  and  Martin,  men  of  unsuspected  orthodoxy, 
portant  source  for  the  history  of  the  civilisation  of  He  was  also  solicitous  for  the  education  of  the  clergy, 
these  degenerate  times.  There  are  no  distinct  state-  and  established  two  seminaries  for  boys  at  Neuss  and 
ments  regarding  what  he  effected  by  his  personal  influ-  MQnstereifel.  To  instill  new  zeal  into  the  spiritual 
ence  among  his  intimate  friends,  especially  by  his  life  of  his  people  he  encouraged  popular  misuons,  in- 
influence  on  the  pious  family  of  the  senator,  Schott,  troduced  reli^ous  orders  and  congregations  into  the 
upon  Wimpheling  and  Brant,  who  were,  like  Geiler,  re-  archdiocese,  instituted  the  Perpetual  Adoration,  and 
formers  in  the  best  sense  of  tne  word,  as  well  as,  by  his  stimulated  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  by  celebrat- 
counsels,  upon  the  Emperor  Maximilian.  Another  ing  with  unusual  splendour  the  declaration  of  the  dog« 
striking  merit  of  Geiler's  oratory  was  that  his  thoughts  ma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  Of  still  greater 
were  expressed  in  the  language  of  ordinary  Uf e,  which  importance  for  the  Church  in  Germany  was  his  con- 
he  used  with  unequalled  skilC  In  this  way  posterity  vocation  of  the  German  episcopate^  to  a  meeting  at 
possesses,  in  GeUer's  writings,  an  enduring  source  for  WQrzburg,  1848.  The  result  of  this  meeting  of  the 
the  knowledge  of  the  speeeh,  customs,  and  beliefs  of  hierarchy  was  a  number  of  momentous  deliberations 
the  common  people  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  for  the  future  prosperity  of  the  Church.  In  1860  he 
century.  It  is  no  loneer  necessary  to  take  up  a  ques-  held  a  provincial  council  at  Cologne.  Another  matter 
tion  warmly  discuss^,  even  in  modem  times,  as  to  which  the  cardinal  had  at  heart  during  his  life,  was 
how  a  work  of  Geiler's  came  to  be  on  the  Index  (cf .  the  completion  of  Cologne  cathedral,  the  preparations 
Reusch,  "  Der  Index  *',  I,  370),  as  in  the  last  issue  of  for  whicn  had  commenced  in  1842.  Geissel  uved  lone 
the  Index  Geiler's  name  does  not  appear.  enough  to  see  the  edifice  completed  and  dedicated 

Chief  aouroes:  Bbatub  Rhbnanus,  Vita  Oeileri  (Strasburs,  in  October,  1863. 

1513);  Daorbux.  Die  iUteaien  Sdtriftm  Oeilen  von  Kayaenberg  r^  ft.^  voAra  nrnnAHino  fiia  AlAVnf inn  fn  fTiA  Anifl^vmal 

(FrSbuMf.  1882);  db  Lobbno.  Auagabe  der  Sehnften  OeOen  in  ™  ypm  preceOlM  nw  elevation  to  l^e  epi^ 

(Trier.  1881-83).  See  also  ton  Ammon.  (7ei<«r  mm  Xauar«6«ra.  digpty,  Geissel  also  displayed  notable  hterary  ao- 

M>en^  Lehren  und  Predigen  (Eriangen.  1826);  Dachbux.  Un  tivity.     During  the  first  two  decades  of  its  existence 

rifcrmateur  oathol%qu«  h  la  fin  du  XV*  atide  (Paris,  1876).  oon-  /-i  qoi    07\  kA^*mif riVMif^H  nuTnAmna  annnvmnna  MMoim 

densed  in  German  te.  by  Lindbmann  in  Samndunfi  hiatoriacher  4^ -f^      ^     •  COntriDUteO  numerous  anonymous  essays 

BUdniase  (Freiburg.  1876);  Kbbkbb.  OeiUra  kitMieha  HdUxmo  of  either  senous  or  humorouslynsatuical  character  on 

\nHiaUT.-p<A.  fitoiter  (1861-62);  ^^m:A  m  AttqameiM  dmOadia  questions  and  occurrences  of  the  day  to  the ''Katholik", 

Sf?2^i'^:SJS&'5;f^5S2lL^f5K^.^hfe^  «id  tocame  one  «rf  the  foremort  contributors  to  that 

OaachiehU  daa  Ptadiiftwaaena  m  Straaaburg  vor  OeiUr  (Strasburg,  penodical.     His  imusual  poetical  talent  IS  shown  by  a 

IWT)»                                                      N.  ScHBiD.  number  of  poems,  mostly  of  a  reliaous  character,  and 

published  partly  in  that  periomcal,  partly  issued 

0«i88el,  JoHANNBB  YON,  Cardinal,  Archbishop  of  singly,  as  the  occasion  ofiFered.    After  his  death  there 

Colore,  b.  5  February,  1796,  at  Gimmeldingen,  in  the  appeared  a  special  edition  of  his  "  Fes^edicht  auf  die 

Palatinate;  d.  8  September,  1864,  at  Cologne.    After  Cfrundsteinlegung  sum  Fortbau  des  Solner  Doms" 

completine  his  classical  studies  at  Neustadt-on-the-  (Cologne^  1865).    However,  his  most  marked  effort  as 

Hardt,  and  at  Edesheim,  he  was  received  into  the  then  a  writer  is  his  mstorical  work,  "  Der  Kaicer — Dom  su 

imperial  Lyceum  of  Mainz  in  1813,  and  studied  theol-  Speyer.  E^ine  topographisch-historische  Monographic" 

ogy  in  the  diocesan  seminary  of  the  same  city,  under  (3  vols..  Mains.  1828);  2nd  ed.  in  one  volume,  as 

Prof.  Liebermann,  from  1815  to  18.    He  was  ordained  vol.  IV  of  his  "  Schriften  und  Reden  "  ^Cologne,  1876). 

priest,  22  August,  1818.    For  a  short  time  he  became  Other  historical  writings  of  less  significance  are: 

assistant  in  the  parish  of  Hambach.    On  1  February.  "Der  Kirchensprengel  des  alten  Bisthums  Speyer" 

1819,  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  Gymnasium  or  (Speyer,  1832) ;  "  Die  Schlacht  am  HasenbOhl  ima  das 

Speyer;  on  24  June,  1822,  canon  of  the  cathedral  KOnigskreuz  zu  G6llheim"  (Speyer,  1835).    Of  other 

chapter  of  Speyer;  and  on  25  May,  1836,  dean  of  that  separate  writings  are  to  be  mentioned  "Sammluns 

body.  ^  Nominated  Bishop  of  Speyer  by  the  Kins  of  alter  Gesetze  una  Verordnungen  QberdasKirchen-ima 

Bavaria,  he  was  preconized  by  GregoiyAVI,  20  Buiy,  Schulwesen  im  bayerischen  Rheinkreise  vom  Jahre 

1837,  and  consecrated  in  Augsburg  cathedral  the  1796-1830"  (Speyer,  1830);  "Die  religi6se  Erziehung 

following  13  August.  der  Kinder  aus  gemischten  Ehen.    £ine  geschicht- 

The  new  bishop  displa3red  such  zeal  and  efficiency  lichen-rechtliche  £r6rterung"  (Speyer,  1837);  first 


was  to  be  settled  amicably  by  an  agreement  between  mind  and  heart.    They  have  been  collected  with  other 

Church  and  State,  to  the  effect  that  Archbishop  Clem-  dispersed  and  minor  writings  of  earlier  days,  and 

ens  August  von  Droste-Vischering  would  relinquish  the  various  poems,  in  "  Schriften  und  Reden  von  Johannes 

personal  direction  of  the  archdiocese,  which  should  pass  Cardinal  von  Geissel,  Erzbischof  von  KOln,  herausge- 

over  to  a  coadjutor  with  the  ri^t  of  succession.    On  geben  von  Karl  Theodor  Dumont"  (Vols.  I-III,  Co- 

24  September,  1841,  Gregory  AVI  appointed  Geissel  logne,  1869-70);  later  on  vol.  IV  was  added,  "Der 

coadjutor  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne;  and  on  4  Kaiserdom  zu  Speyer",  2nd  ed.  (1876). 

March,  1842,  he  entered  upon  the  administration  of  RciiLiNa,  Cardinal  von  Oeiaad,  Biathaf  tu  Speyar  und  Bnti' 

^J^^'^SS^-nJ^r  SS^  August  died  (19  tiis^'^t^js^nZ'^^^b'SS^Jisr.^^s 

October,  1845),  Geissel  succeeded  him,  and  was  en-  (Oolojsne.  I88I);  Prfiur,  Cardinal  wm  Geiaad,  Aua  aainam  hand- 

throned  as  archbishop,  11  January,  1846.      Finally,  aehrifaichanNaehlaaageachUdart  {2  ro\B.FTaAbuTgiai  Br.,  1895- 

^-^lE.^^  "°  T*^''  30  s<vteniber  1860.  S'aa'^y.j^ir^sir^eiSjnsra^s:  $%?^SSi^ 

Geusel  was  a  man  of  many  gifts  and  great  eneigy,  BrMtdu^*  CUmm*  Augui  FnOUim  von  Dntu  t»  viidttnno 


GKLA8IU8 


406 


OSLASIUS 


_  KOln  (FrelburR  im  Br.,  1880):  Conventua  epiBeoporwn  Her' 
HpdUnna  (1848)  in  Ada  et  Decrda  Saerorum  ConcOiorum  r»- 
emiiorum,  CMaetio  Laeenns,  V  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1879),  ool. 
00(^-1144.  Acta  et  Decrela  Coneuii  Provineia  CoUmieneie  anno 
ISSOeeUbrati  (Cologne,  1862),  also  in  Ada  d  Decrela  e.  Cone,  rec 
CM,  Laeeneie,  V.  ooL  231^382. 

Fbibdbich  Lauchbbt. 

QaUaioB  I,  Saint,  Pops;  d.  at  Rome,  19  Nov.,  496. 
GelafiiiiB,  as  he  himself  states  in  his  letter  to  the  Em- 
peror Anastasius  (£p.  xii,  n.  1),  was  Romanus  natus, 
liie  assertion  of  the  "Liber  Pontificalis  "  that  he  was 
naiione  Afer  is  consequently  taken  by  many  to  mean 
that  he  was  of  African  origin,  though  Roman  born. 
Others,  however,  interpreting  naiione  Afer  as  "Afri- 
can by  birth",  explain  Romanus  n(Uu8  as  "bom  a 
Roman  citizen".  Before  his  election  as  pope,  1 
March,  492,  Gelasius  had  been  much  emploved  by 
his  predecessor,  Felix  II  (or  III),  especially  m  drawing 
up  ecclesiastical  documents^  which  has  led  some 
scholars  to  confuse  the  writings  of  the  two  pontiffs. 

On  his  election  to  the  papacy,  Gelasius  at  once 
showed  his  strength  of  character  and  his  lofty  concep- 
tion of  his  position  by  his  firmness  in  dealing  with  the 
adherents  of  Acacius  (see  Acacius,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople).  Despite  all  the  efforts  of  the 
otherwise  orthodox  patriarch,  Euphemius  of  Constan- 
tinople (q.  v.),  and  the  threats  and  wiles  by  which  the 
Emperor  Anastasius  tried  to  obtain  recognition  from 
the  Apostolic  See,  Gelasius,  though  haro-pressed  by 
difficulties  at  home,  would  make  no  peace  that  com- 
promised in  the  slightest  degree  the  nghts  and  honour 
of  the  C^ir  of  Peter.  The  constancv  with  which  he 
combated  the  pretensions,  lay  and  ecclesiastical,  of  the 
New  Rome;  the  resoluteness  with  which  he  refused  to 
allow  the  civil  or  temporal  pre-eminence  of  a  city  to 
determine  its  ecclesiastical  rank;  the  unfailing  cour- 
age with  which  he  defended  the  rights  of  the  "  second  " 
and  the  "third"  sees,  Alexandria  and  Antioch,  are 
some  of  the  most  striking  features  of  his  pontificate. 
It  has  been  well  said  that  nowhere  at  this  period  can  be 
found  stronger  arguments  for  the  primacy  of  Peter's 
See  than  in  the  works  and  writings  of  Gelasius.  He  is 
'never  tired  of  repeating  that  Rome  owes  its  ecclesias- 
tical princedom  not  to  an  oecumenical  synod  nor  to  any 
'  temporal  importance  it  may  have  possessed,  but  to  the 
Divme  institution  of  Christ  Himself,  Who  conferred 
the  primacy  over  the  whole  Church  upon  Peter  and  his 
successors.  (Cf.  especially  his  letters  to  Eastern 
bishops  and  the  decretal  on  the  canonical  and  apoc- 
ryphal books.)  In  his  dealing  with  the  emperor  he  is 
at  one  with  the  great  medieval  pontiffs.  ^  ''There  are 
two  powers  by  which  chiefly  this  world  is  ruled:  the 
sacred  authority  of  the  priesthood  and  the  authority  of 
kings.  And  of  these  the  authority  of  the  priests  is  so 
much  the  weightier,  as  they  must  render  before  the 
tribunal  of  God  an  account  even  for  the  kings  of 
men."  Gelasius's  pontificate  was  too  short  to  effect 
the  complete  submission  and  reconciliation  of  the 
ambitious  Church  of  Byzantium.  Not  until  Hormis- 
das  (514-23)  did  the  contest  end  in  the  return  of 
the  East  to  its  old  allegiance.  Troubles  abroad 
were  not  the  onlv  occasions  to  draw  out  the  energy 
and  strength  of  Gelasius.  The  Lupercalia,  a  supersti- 
tious and  somewhat  licentious  vestige  of  pajganism  at 
Rome,  was  finally  abolished  by  the  pope  after  a  long 
contest.  Gelasius  [s  letter  to  Andromachus,  the  sena- 
tor, covers  the  main  lines  of  the  controversy. 

A  stanch  upholder  of  the  old  traditions,  Gelasius 
neverUieless  knew  when  to  make  exceptions  or  modifi- 
cations, such  as  his  decree  obli^ine  the  reception  of 
the  Holy  Eucharist  under  both  kmds.  This  was  done 
as  the  only  effective  way  of  detecting  the  Manichse- 
ans,  who,  though  present  in  Rome  in  laree  numbers, 
souffht  to  divert  attention  from  their  hidden  propa- 
ganda by  feigning  Catholicism.  As  they  held  wine  to 
be  impure  and  essentially  sinful,  they  would  refuse  the 
chalice  and  thus  be  recosnized.  Later,  with  the  change 
of  conditions,  the  old  nonnal  method  of  receiving 


Holy  Communion  under  the  form  of  bread  alone  ib> 
turned  into  vogue.  To  Gelasius  we  owe  the  ordina- 
tions on  the  ember  davs  (Ep.  xv),  as  well  as  the 
enforcement  of  the  fourfold  division  of  all  ecclesiasti- 
cal revenues,  whether  income  from  estates  or  volun- 
tary donations  of  the  faithful,  one  portion  for  tiie  poor, 
another  for  the  support  of  the  churches  and  the  splen- 
dour of  Divine  service,  a  third  for  the  bishop,  and  the 
fourth  for  the  minor  clergy.  Though  some  writers 
ascribe  the  origin  of  this  aivision  of  church  funds  to 
Gelasius,  still  the  pontiff  speaks  of  it  (Ep.  xiv,  n.  27) 
as  dudum  rationabUUer  aecretum,  havmg  been  for 
some  time  in  force.  Indeed.  Pope  Simmicius  (475, 
Ep.  i,  n.  2)  imposed  the  obligation  of  restitutioD 
to  the  poor  and  the  Church  upon  a  certain  bishop  who 
had  failed  in  this  dutv;  consequently  it  must  have 
been  already  regarded  as  at  least  a  custom  of  the 
Church.  Not  content  with  one  enunciation  of  this 
charitable  obligation,  Gelasius  frequently  inculcates 
it  in  his  writings  to  bishops.  For  a  long  time  the 
fixing  of  the  Canon  of  the  Scriptures  was  attributed  to 
Gelasius,  but  it  seems  now  more  probably  the  work  of 
Damasus  (367-85).  As  Gelasius,  however,  in  a  Ro- 
man synod  (494),  published  his  celebrated  catalo^e 
of  the  authentic  wntines  of  the  Fathers,  together  with 
a  list  of  apocryphal  ana  interpolated  works,  as  well  as 
tiie  proscribed  books  of  the  heretics  (Ep.  xlii),  it  was 
but  natural  to  prefix  to  this  catalogue  the  Canon  of  the 
Scriptures  as  determined  by  the  earlier  pontiff,  and 
thus  in  the  course  of  time  the  Canon  itself  came  to  be 
ascribed  to  Gelasius.  In  his  zeal^  for  the  beauty  and 
majesty  of  Divine  service,  Gelasius  composed  many 
hymns,  prefaces,  and  collects,  and  arranged  a  stand- 
ard Mass-book,  though  the  Missal  that  has  commonly 
ffone  by  his  name,  the ' '  Sacramentarium  Gelasianum  ", 
belones  properly  to  the  next  century.  How  much  of 
it  is  tne  work  of  Gelasius  is  still  a  moot  question. 
Though  pope  but  for  four  years  and  a  half,  he  exerted 
a  deep  influence  on  the  development  of  church  polity/ 
of  the  liturey  and  ecclesiastical  discipline.  A  large 
number  of  his  decrees  have  been  incoiporated  into 
the  Canon  Law. 

In  his  private  life  Gelasius  was  above  all  conspicu- 
ous for  his  spirit  of  prayer,  penance,  and  study.  He 
took  fipeat  delight  in  the  company  of  monks,  and  was  a 
true  father  to  the  poor,  dyin^  empty-handed  as  a 
result  of  his  lavish  charitv.  Dionysius  Exiguus  in  a 
letter  to  his  friend,  the  priest  Julian  (P.  L.,  LXVII, 
231),  raves  a  glowing  account  of  Gelasius  as  he  ap- 
peared to  his  contemporaries. 

As  a  writer  Gelasius  takes  high  rank  for  his  period. 
His  style  is  vigorous  and  elegant,  though  occasionally 
obscure.  Comparatively  little  of  his  literary  work 
has  come  down  to  us,  though  he  is  said  to  have  been  the 
most  prolific  writer  of  all  the  pontiffs  of  the  first  five 
centuries.  There  are  extant  forty-two  letters  and 
f ra^ents  of  forty-nine  others,  besiaes  six  treatises,  of 
which  three  are  concerned  with  the  Acacian  schism, 
one  with  the  heresy  of  the  Pelaeians,  another  with  the 
errors  of  Nestorius  And  Eutycnes,  while  the  sixth  is 
directed  against  the  senator  Andromachus  and  the 
advocates  of  the  Lupercalia.  The  best  edition  b  that 
of  Thiel. 

The  feast  of  St.  Gelasius  is  kept  on  21  Nov.,  the  anni- 
versary of  his  interment,  though  many  writers  give 
this  as  the  day  of  his  death. 

P.  L..  LIX.  9-191;  CXXVIII.  439;  CXXIX.  1210;  Th«l, 
EpistoloB  Romanorum  Pontificum  Genuinct  (BrauiiBberg,  1868), 
I,  285-613,  21-82;  Jait<:,  Regeeta  Pontificum  Romanorum 
(Berlin),  I.  53-60;  Duchbbnb.  Le  Liber  Pontificalia  (Ptiria, 
1886),  I,  254-257;  Griaar,  Oeechichte  Roma  und  der  POpat  eim 
MittdaUer,  1.  452-457.  passim;  Thobn^b.  De  Odaaio  I  Pava 
(Wiesbaden.  1873);  Roux.  Le  Papa  GHaae  (Bordeaux-Pans, 
1880).  For  the  Sacramentary  of  Gelasius  see  Probot.  Die 
Alteaten  rdmiachen  Sacramentarten  und  Ordinea  (MOnstei,  1892): 
Bishop.  The  Earliest  Roman  Maaa-book  in  DiMin  Review  (Octo- 
ber. 1894);  Wilson.  The  Gdaaian  Sacramentary  (Oxford,  1894); 
Wilson.  A  Claaaified  Index  to  the  Leonine^  Giiaaum  and  Greqorim 
Sacramenlariea  (C^ambridce.  1890) ;  also  P.  L.,  LXXIV.  1049. 

John  F.  X.  Murpht. 


GELASIUS 


407 


aEBSBLOUBS 


OelaflioB  U,  Pope,  b.  at  Gaeta,  year  unknown; 
elected  24  Jan.,  1118;  d.  at  Cluny,  29  Jan.,  1119.  No 
sooner  had  Paschal  II  ended  his  stormy  pontificate, 
than  the  cardinals,  knowing  that  the  emperor,  Henry 
V,  had  concerted  measures  with  a  faction  of  the  Ro- 
man nobUity  to  force  the  selection  of  a  pliant  imperial 
candidate,  met  secretly  in  a  Benedictine  monastery  on 
the  Palatine.  Having  dispatched  a  messenger  to 
Monte  Cassino,  to  summon  the  aged  chancellor,  Car- 
dinal John  of  Gaeta,  thev  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  hb  en- 
treaties and  unanimously  declared  him  pope. 

John  was  of  a  noble  family,  probably  the  Gaetani. 
Early  in  life  he  entered  the  monastery  of  Monte  Cas- 
sino, where  he  made  such  progress  m  learning  and 
became  so  proficient  in  Liatin,  that,  under  successive 
pontiffs,  he  held  the  office  of  chancellor  of  the  Holv 
See.  He  was  the  trusted  adviser  of  Paschal  II; 
shared  his  captivity  and  shielded  him  against  the  zeal- 
ots who  charged  the  pope  with  heresy  for  having,  under 
dire  compulsion,  signed  the  **  Privilegium  ".  which  con- 
stituted the  emperor  lord  and  master  ot  papal  and 
episcopal  elections  (see  Pabchal  II  and  Investi- 
tures). When  the  news  spread  that  the  cardinals 
had  elected  a  pope  without  consulting  the  emperor, 
the  imperialist  party  broke  down  the  doors  of  the 
monastery;  and  their  leader,  Cenzio  Frangipani, 
seized  the  new  pontiff  by  the  throat,  cast  him  to  the 
ground,  stamped  on  him  with  spurred  feet,  dragged 
nim  by  the  hair  to  his  nei^bounng  castle,  and  threw 
him,  loaded  with  chains,  into  a  dungeon.  Indicant 
at  this  brutal  deed,  the  Romans  rose  in  their  might; 
and,  surrounding  the  robber's  den,  demanded  the  in- 
stant liberation  of  the  pontiff.  Frangipani,  intimi- 
dated, released  the  pope,  threw  himself  at  his  feet,  and 
begged  and  obtained  absolution.  A  procession  was 
formed,  and  amidst  shouts  of  joy  Gelasius  II  (so  he 
termed  himself)  was  conducted  to  the  Lateran  and 
enthroned. 

The  triumph  was  of  short  duration;  for,  2  March, 
the  formidable  figure  of  Henry  V  was  seen  in  St.  Pe- 
ter's. As  soon  as  he  had  heard  of  the  proceedings  at 
Rome,  he  left  his  army  in  Lombardy  and  hastened  to 
the  capital.  Gelasius  immediately  determined  upon 
flight.  On  a  stormy  night,  the  pope  and  his  court  pro- 
ceeded in  two  galleys  down  the  Tiber,  pelted  by  the 
imperialists  with  stones  and  arrows.  After  several 
mishaps  Gelasius  at  length  reached  Gaeta,  where  he 
was  received  by  the  Normans  with  open  arms.  Beinjg 
only  a  deacon,  ne  received  successivelv  priestly  ordi- 
nation and  episcopal  consecration.  Meanwhile,  the 
emperor,  ignoring  the  action  of  the  cardinals,  placed 
on  the  throne  of  St.  Peter  a  senile  creature  of  the  royal 
power,  Maurice  Burdinus,  Archbishop  of  Braga  in 
Portugal,  who  had  the  audacity  to  take  the  venerated 
name  of  Gregoiy  (see  Gregory  VIII,  Akttpope). 
Gelasius  pronounced  a  solemn  excommunication 
against  both  of  them;  and  as  soon  as  the  emperor, 
frustrated  of  his  prey,  left  Rome,  he  returned  secretly; 
but  soon  took  the  resolution  of  taking  refuge  in  France. 
He  went  by  way  of  Pisa,  where  he  consecrated  its 
splendid  marble  cathedral,  and  Genoa.  He  was  re- 
ceived by  the  French  with  the  utmost  reverence.  The 
powerful  minister  of  Louis  VI,  the  Abbot  Suger,  con- 
ducted him  to  the  monastery  of  Cluny.  Gelasius  was 
perfecting  plans  for  the  convocation  of  a  great  council 
at  Reims,  when  he  succumbed  to  pleurisy,  leaving 
the  consummation  of  the  fifty  years'  war  for  freedom 
to  his  successor,  Callistus  II  (q.  v.). 

Baronius  and  Reumont  agree  in  pronouncing  that 
no  historical  personage  ever  compressed  so  many  mis- 
fortunes into  the  short  space  of  a  year  and  five  days. 
There  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  the  Benedictine 
rwiAfi  afiould  not  take  up  his  case  for  canonization. 
XIV  tells  us  ("De  Beat,  et  Canon.",  I,  xli,  n. 
his  time  the  question  was  mooted ;  but  for 
>r  another,  it  was  overlooked.    The  life  of 
8  written  by  his  intimate  friend,  Pandul- 


phus  of  Pisa,  an  eye-witness  to  what  he  narrates;  it  ii 
m  Muratori,  ''Rer.  ital.  Scr.",  Ill,  1  sqq. 

Liber  PotUifiealis,  ed.  Ducbbsnb,  II,  311-12.  376;  Wattb- 
RiCB,  PorUificum  Romancrum  Vila  (1862),  II,  91-114;  Babo- 
MIU8,  Ann,  Bed,  ad  ann.  1118. 1119;  Qabtanx,  Vita  ddponUfies 
QdoMio  II  (Rome.  1802,  1811);  histories  of  medieral  Rome  by 
Gbbogboyxub;  yon  Rbumont. 

James  F.  Louohlin. 

OelasiiiB  of  Oyiieiui,  ecclesiastical  writer.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  priest  of  Gyzicus,  and  wrote  in  Bithy- 
nia,  about  475,  to  prove  agamst  the  Eutychians,  that 
the  Nicene  Fathers  did  not  teach  Monophvsitism. 
These  details  he  gives  us  in  his  preface  (Labbe,  II, 
117).  Beyond  that  nothing  is  known  about  his  per- 
sonality. His  "Syntagma  or  collection  of  Acts  of 
the  Nicene  Council,  has  hitherto  been  looked  upon  as 
the  work  of  a  sorry  compiler;  recent  investigations, 
however,  point  to  its  being  of  some  importance.  It  is 
divided  into  three  books  (Labbe,  II,  117-296):  bk.  I 
treats  of  the  Life  of  Constantine  down  to  323;  bk.  II 
of  History  of  the  Council  in  thirty-six  chapters;  of 
bk.  Ill  only  frannents  have  been  published.  The 
whole  of  book  III  was  discovered  by  Cardinal  Mai  in 
the  Ambrosian  Library,  and  its  contents  are  fully  de- 
scribed by  Oehler.  The  serious  study  of  the  sources  of 
Gelasius  may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  Turner's 
identification  of  the  long  passages  taken  from  Rufinus 
(X,  1-5)  in  bk.  II.  A  complete  analysis  of  the 
sources  [the  Hist.  Eccl.  of  Eusebius,  Runnus  (in  the 
Greek  version  of  Gelasius  of  Cssarea  d.  395),  Socrates, 
Theodoret,  "John",  and  Dalmatius],  will  be  found  in 
LOschcke,  whose  efforts  it  would  appear,  have  restored 
to  Gelasius  a  place  among  serious  Chureh  historians, 
of  which  he  has  been  wrongly  deprived,  and  have  also 
lent  weight  to  the  hitherto  eenerally  rejected  idea  that 
tiiere  was  an  official  recordof  the  Acts  of  the  Council 
of  Nicsa ;  and  further  that  it  was  from  this  record  that 
Dcdmatius  derived  the  opening  discourse  of  Constan- 
tine, the  confession  of  Hosius,  the  dialogue  with 
Fhaedo,  and  the  nine  dogmatic  constitutions,  which 
Hefele  had  pronounced  ^'most  certainly  spurious". 
The  "John"  to  whom  Gelasius  refers  as  a  forenmner 
of  Theodoret,  is  still  unidentified :  from  him  were  de- 
rived the  published  portions  of  bk.  Ill,  the  letters  of 
Constantine  to  Arius,  to  the  Chureh  of  Nicomedia,  and 
to  Theodotus,  all  of  which  Ldschcke  contends  are 
authentic.  He  also  proves  that  a  comparison  of  Con- 
stantine's  letter  to  the  Synod  of  Tyre  (335),  as  given 
by  Gelasius  and  Athanasius  (Apolog.,  n.  86),  snows 
Gelasius  to  give  the  original,  Atnanasius  an  abbrevi- 
ated version. 

Text  of  Gelasius  in  Labbe-Colbti.  Cone,  II,  117-206; 
Oerlbr  in  ZeiUchr.  f.  vnaaenaehafUiehe  Theol,  (1861),  IV.  430- 
442;  Turner,  On  Gdasitu  of  Cyxieua  in  Journal  of  Theotoffieai 
Studies  (1800),  1, 126-7;  LObchcke,  Doa  Syntagma  des  OtUuim 
Cvxicenus  (Bonn,  1006);  Lbjat  in  Remie  d^Hist.  et  de  LiU. 
Rdig.  (1006),  XI,  270;  Hefele.  Hieloirt  dee  ConeUee,  new  Fr. 
tr.,  Leclercq  (Paris,  1007),  I,  301  sqq. 

Edward  Mtbrs. 
OeU66,  Claude.    See  Lorrain,  Claude. 
Oemara.    See  Talmud. 

Oemblourg  (Gembloux,  Gehblacum),  a  suppressed 
Benedictine  monastery  about  nine  miles  north-west 
of  Namur  on  the  river  Omeau  in  Belgium,  founded 
c.  945  by  St.  Guibert  (Wibert)  and  dedicated  to  St. 
Peter  the  Apostle  and  the  holy  martyr  Exuperius. 
St.  Guibert  was  assisted  in  the  erection  of  the  monas- 
tery and  the  selection  of  its  monks  by  Erluin,  who  had 
resigned  a  canonry  to  become  a  monk.  Some  of 
Guibert 's  relatives  impugned  the  legality  of  the  monas- 
tic foundation  on  the  plea  that  toe  monastery  was 
built  on  fiscal  land  which  had  been  given  in  fief  to 
Guibert 's  ancestors  and  could  not  be  alienated  with- 
out imperial  authority.  Emperor  Otto  I  summoned 
Guibert  and  Erluin  to  his  court,  but  was  so  favourably 
impressed  with  the  manner  in  which  they  defended 
their  pious  undertaking  that  on  20  September,  946,  he 


OXMIST08 


408 


onriALooT 


inued  an  imperial  diploma  approving  the  foundation 
of  Gembloun  and  granting  it  various  privileges. 
Guibert  appointed  his  friend  Eh'luin  first  Abbot  of 
Gemblours,  while  he  himself  became  a  monk  at  the 
monastery  of  Gorze  near  Metz.  Twice  he  returned  to 
the  Gemblours;  once  in  954,  when  the  Hungarians 
threatened  to  pillage  the  monastery,  on  which  occa- 
sion he  not  onlv  preserved  it  from  injury,  but  also  con- 
verted some  Hungarians  to  the  true  Faith;  and  a 
second  time  in  957,  when  his  brother-in-law  Heribrand 
of  Mawolt  had  seized  the  revenues  of  the  monastery. 
He  persuad^  Heribrand  to  leave  the  possessions  of 
the  monastery  unmolested  in  the  future.  On  23  May, 
962,  St.  GuiMrt  died  at  Gorze  and  his  remains  were 
brou^t  to  Gemblours.  When  monastic  discipline 
was  well  established  at  Gemblours,  Erluin  attempted, 
at  the  suggestion  of  Count  Regnier  of  Hainaut,  to  re- 
form the  monastery  of  Lobb^  in  955.  But  on  the 
night  of  20  October,  958,  three  of  the  monks  of  Lobbes. 
who  hated  reform,  assaulted  Erluin  in  his  cell,  dra^Ked 
him  outside  of  the  monasterjr,  and  inflicted  on  nim 
serious  bodily  injuries.  Erliun  died  at  Gemblours  on 
10  August,  986,  after  Pope  Benedict  VII  had  granted 
his  monastery  exemption  and  papal  protection. 

During  the  short  reign  of  nis  successor  Heriward 
(987-990),  the  monks  voluntarilv  relinquished  their 
rifl^t  of  exemption  in  favour  of  Bishop  Notger  of  Li^ge, 
who  was  friendly  disposed  towards  the  monastery. 
Heriward  was  succeeded  by  Erluin  II  (990-1012), 
under  whose  weak  administration  monastic  discipline 
greatly  relaxed.  His  successor  Olbert  (1012-1048), 
a  pious  and  learned  abbot,  restored  discipline,  built  a 
new  abbey  church  in  1022,  organized  a  rich  library, 
and  by  enooiuraging  sacred  and  profane  learning  gave 
the  first  impulse  to  the  subsequent  flourishing  con- 
dition of  Gemblours.  During  the  period  of  its  greatest 
intellectual  activity  Gemblours  was  ruled  over  by 
Mysach  (1048-1071);  Thietmar  (1071-1092):  Lie- 
thard  (1092-1115),  and  Anselm  (1115-1136).  Under 
Thietmar  flourished  the  famous  chronicler  Sigebert 
(1030-1112),  who  in  a  neat  Latin  style  wrote  a  cnron- 
ide  of  the  world  from  381-1 1 1 1 ,  a  history  of  the  Abbots 
of  Gemblours,  and  other  historical  works  of  great  value. 
His  chronicle  was  continued  by  Abbot  Anselm  till 
1 136,  and  his  history  of  the  Abbots  of  Gemblours  by  the 
monk  Gottschalk,  a  disciple  of  Sigebert.  The  learned 
Prior  Guerin,  who  was  a  famous  teacher  at  the  school 
of  Gemblours,  was  a  contemporary  of  Sigebert.  In 
1157  and  again  in  1185  the  monastery  was  destro^red 
by  fire,  and,  though  rebuilt,  it  began  from  this  period 
to  decline  in  importance.  In  1505,  under  Abbot 
Arnold  Ilof  Solbrecg  (1501-1511),  it  became  afl^liated 
with  the  Bursfeld  Imion  (see  Bursfeld,  Abbet  of). 
It  was  pillaged  by  the  Calvinists  in  1598,  and  was 
partly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1678  and  aeain  in  1712.  It 
was  just  beginning  to  recover  from  these  heavy  mis- 
fortunes when  in  1793  the  Government  suppressed  it. 
The  buildings  are  now  used  for  a  state  agricultural 
college. 

TouasAiNT.  Hiatoire  de  Vaibhaye  de  Oembloux  (Namur,  1884); 
BsELiiiRB,  MofuuHeon  Bdoe  (BrugM,  1890),  1, 15-20:  Idbm  in 
Revus  Bhtidietine  (Maredsous,  1887),  IV,  303-315;  OaUia  Chria^ 
tiona,  II,  554-509;  Siobbbbt-Gottbchalx,  Geata  Altbatum 
Oemblacennum  (till  1136),  in  P.  L.,  CLX.  591-058;  Mabillon, 
Vita  S.  Ouibtrti  in  Acta  SS.  O.S.B.,  mm.  V,  299-314;  Idbm. 
Vita  Olberti  in  Ada  8S.  O.8.B.,  sso.  VI,  596-006. 

Michael  Ott. 
QomiBtOB  of  Plethon.    See  Plbthon. 

Oenealogy  (in  the  Bible). — ^The  word  genealogy 
occurs  onljr  twice  in  the  New  Testament:  I  Tim.,  i,  4, 
and  Tit.,  hi,  9.  In  these  passages  commentators  ex- 
plain tiie  word  as  referring  to  the  Gentile  theogonies, 
or  to  the  Essene  generation  of  anpels,  or  to  the  emana- 
tion of  spirits  and  aeons  as  conceived  by  the  Gnostics, 
or  to  the  genealogies  of  Jesus  Christ,  or  finallv  to  the 
genealogies  of  the  Old  Testament  construed  into  a 
source  of  an  occult  doctrine.  Some  even  appeal  to 
Fliilo  in  Older  to  refer  St.  Paul's  expression  to  the 


various  stories  and  fables  told  about  Mpses  and  tht 
Patriarchs.  In  the  Old  Testament  the  term  ytPtaXpytm 
occurs  only  in  a  few  manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint,  in  I 
Par.,  iv,  33;  V,  7,  17;  ix,  22;  1  Esd.,  viii,  1,  where  the 
commonly  received  text  reads  KaraKoyiff/iAt  or  raro- 
\oxi9tiM,  In  the  present  article,  therefore,  we  shall 
not  dwell  upon  the  term  genealogy,  but  consider  the 
parts,  usually  genealogical  lists,  introduced  by  the 
phrase  "these  are  the  generations"  or  *'this  is  the 
book  of  the  generation" ;  we  shall  investigate  the  mean- 
ing of  the  introductory  phrase,  enumerate  the  princi- 
pal  genealogical  lists,  indicate  their  sources,  draw 
attention  to  their  importance^  and  point  out  their 
deficiencies.  Special  g^ealoocal  lists,  for  instance 
those  of  Christ,  found  in  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Luke,  must  be  studied  separately. 

I.  Introductory  Phrase. — The  introductoi-y  for- 
mula, "these  are  the  generations"  or  "this  is  the 
book  of  the  generation",  is  the  heading  to  the  ten  parts 
of  the  Book  of  Genesis.  It  occurs  also  in  Num.,  lii,  1 ; 
Ruth,  iv,  18;  I  Par.,  i,  29.  Similar  expressions  are 
found  frequently,  especially  in  the  Books  of  ParaJi- 

Somenon.  TV  hat  is  their  meanins?  They  do  not 
enote  any  genealogy  or  genealogical  table  in  our  sense 
of  these  words.  There  can  be  no  question  of  poster- 
ity in  Gen.,  ii,  4:  "these  are  the  generations  of  the 
heaven  and  the  earth",  as  UUedhM,  the  Hebrew  equi- 
valent of  "  generations",  seems  to  imply.  In  Gen.,  vi, 
9,  the  introauctory  formula  is  followed  by  the  history 
of  the  Flood ;  hence  it  cannot  point  forward  to  a  genea- 
logical table.  If  we  keep  in  mind,  on  the  other  nand. 
that  primitive  history  was  onl^  genealogy  adomea 
with  various  anecdotes  and  stones  of  incidents,  we  be- 

gn  to  realise  that  the  genealogical  portions  of  the 
ook  of  Genesis  are  abDreviated  and  rudimentaiy 
biographies.  The  proper  meaning  of  our  introductory 
formula  is,  therefore,  simply,  "this  is  the  history". 

II.  Genealogical  Lists. — The  peculiar  character 
of  primitive  history  accounts  for  the  numerous  genea- 
logical lists  found  in  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
We  shall  enumerate  only  the  principal  ones:  Gen.,  v, 
1-31, gives  the  Patriarchs  from  Adam  to  Noe,  Gen.,x, 
1-32,  the  ethnography  of  the  sons  of  Noe;  Gen.,  xi, 
10-26,  the  Patriarcns  from  Sem  to  Abraham;  Gen., 
xi,  27-32,  the  posterity  of  Thare;  Gen.,  xxii,  20-24, 
the  posterity  of  Nachor;  Gen.,  xxv,  1-4,  the  descend- 
ants of  Abraham  bv  Cetura;  Gen.,  xxv,  12-18, 
the  posterity  of  Ismael;  Gen.,  xxv,  23-29,  the  sons  of 
Jacob;  Gen.,  xxxvi,  l-<43,  the  posterity  of  Esau  and 
the  princes  of  Edom;  Gen.,  xlvi,  8-27,  the  family  of 
Jacob  going  into  Egypt;  Num.,  iii.  14-39,  the  list  of 
the  Levites ;  Num.,  xxvi,  1-51,  the  heads  of  the  tribes; 
Ruth,  iv,  18-22,  the  genealo^  of  David;  I  Esd.,  vii, 
1-5,  the  genealogy  of  fsdras ;  II  Esd.,  xi-xii,  the  geneal- 
o^  of  a  number  of  persons.  I  Par.,  i-ix,  is  replete 
with  genealogical  lists  which  either  repeat,  or  abbre- 
viate, or  again  develop  the  foregoing  genealogies,  add- 
ing at  times  other  documents  of  an  unknown  origin. 
For  instance,  there  is  a  brief  genealogy  of  Benjamin  in 
I  Par.,  vii,  5-12,  a  longer  one  in  I  Par.,  viii,  1-40; 
similarly  a  brief  genealogv  of  Juda  in  I  Par.,  iv,  1-23, 
a  more  complete  one  in  I  Par.,  ii,  3;  iii,  24.  The  in- 
spired historian  makes  no  effort  to  harmonise  these 
striking  differences,  but  seems  to  be  only  careful  to 
repnxiuce  his  sources. 

In  order  to  appreciate  the  foregoing  lists  properly, 
four  of  their  peculiarities  must  be  kept  in  mina:  (1) 
In  the  primitive  languages  each  word  had  a  certain 
meaning.  Foreign  names  had  to  be  translated  or 
replaced  by  other  names.  As  the  Semitic  language 
developed  out  of  the  primitive,  the  proper  names  too 
underwent  a  similar  change,  so  as  to  assume  a  Semitic, 
and  at  times  even  a  Hebrew,  colouring.  This  does  not 
destroy  the  historical  character  of  the  men  known 
under  these  changed  appellations;  the  martyr  St. 
Adauctus  does  not  become  a  mere  fiction  simply  be^ 
cause  his  real  name  is  unknown.    Lenormant  has  left 


OXNEALOOY 


409 


OXNEALOOY 


usaoompariBon  between  the  antediluvian  Patriarchs 
of  the  Bible  and  the  antediluvian  heroes  of  Chaldee 
tradition  (Origines  de  I'histoire,  I,  Paris,  1880,  pp. 
214-90),  and  Vi^uroux  has  given  us  a  study  on  the 
mythological  ongin  of  the  antediluvian  Patriarchs 
(IJvres  saints  et  critique  ration.,  1891,  IV,  liv.  I,  c.  vii, 
pp.  191-217).  All  this  goes  to  show  that  the  names 
aotualiy  found  in  the  Biblical  genealogies  denote  the 
same  subject,  but  do  not  present  the  same  form  as  the 
original  names.  (2)  The  names  found  in  the  Biblical 
genealogies  do  not  always  denote  persons,  but  may 
signif]^  &  familv,  a  tribe  or  nation,  or  even  the  countiy 
in  which  the  Beareis  of  the  respective  names  dwelt. 
For  instance,  Jos.,  vii,  1,  speaks  of  ''Achan  the  son  of 
Charmi,  the  son  of  Zaboi,  the  son  of  Zare  of  the  tribe 
of  Juda",  while  the  context  (cf.  16  sqq.)  shows  that 
Zabdi  stands  for  the  "  house  of  Zabdi''  and  Zare  for  the 
'' family  of  Zare".  Again,  throughout  Gen.,  x,  the 
genealogy  serves  an  ethnographic  purpose,  so  that  its 
names  represent  nations  or  countries.  Tne  name  of 
the  country  can  be  identified  with  that  of  its  inhabit^ 
ants,  because  the  country  stands  for  its  people  by  way 
of  a  metaphor  which  has  almost  ceased  to  be  so  on 
account  ot  its  frequent  use.  The  same  proper  name 
denotes  an  individual,  a  family,  a  house,  a  tribe,  or  a 
nation,  on  account  of  the  idea  of  solidarity  of  the 
whole  community  in  the  merits  and  demerits  of  the 
individual  member.  This  width  of  meaning  of  the 
genealogical  names  does  not  detract  from  their  his- 
toricity, since  the  obscurity  of  one's  grandfather  or 
great-pandfather  does  not  prevent  one  from  being  a 
real  offspring  of  his  tribe  or  nation.  (3)  When  the 
names  in  the  Biblical  genealogies  denote  particular 
persons,  their  connexion  may  be  only  a  legal  one.  A 
woman  whose  husband  died  without  issue  was  bound 
by  law  to  be  married  to  her  husband's  brother,  and 
the  first-born  son  of  such  a  so-called  levirate  nuurriage 
was  reckoned  and  registered  as  the  son  of  the  deceas^ 
brother  (Deut.,  xxv,  5  sqq.).  The  question  pro- 
posed to  Christ  by  tiie  Sadducees  (Matt.,  xxii,  24; 
Mark,  xii,  19;  Luke,  xx,  28)  shows  that  this  law  was 
observed  down  to  the  time  of  Christ.  Such  a  sub- 
stitution of  legal  for  phjrsical  parentage  in  the  Bibli- 
cal genealogies  does  not  remove  the  offspring  from 
his  proper  family  or  tribe.  (4)  Finally,  the  strangers 
incorporated  into  a  tribe  or  a  family  are  reckoned 
among  the  descendants  of  the  respective  eponym. 
This  cystom  explains  the  words  of  Jacob  spoken  on 
his  death-bed  (Gen.,  xlviii,  5-6) ;  he  ordains  tiiat  the 
sons  of  Joseph,  excepting  Ephraim  and  Manasses, 
"shall  be  called  by  the  name  of  their  brethren  in  their 
possessions". 

III.  Sources  of  the  Genealogies. — Generally 
speaking,  the  later  genealogies  were  derived  from 
written  sources,  either  inspired  or  profane.  For  in- 
stance, the  genealogy  of  Benjamin  in  I  Par.,  vii,  6-12. 
is  based  on  the  data  given  in  the  Books  of  Genesis  and 
Numbers;  a  more  extensive  genealogy  of  the  same 
patriaich  found  in  I  Par.,  viii,  1-40.  is  based,  no  doubt, 
on  written  sources  too,  which  are,  nowever,  unknown 
to  us.  As  to  the  earlier  genealogies,  their  veracity 
cannot  be  directly  proved  independently  of  inspira- 
tion. Written  documents  were  used  much  earlier 
than  the  archsologists  of  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century  believed.  Moreover,  very  little  writing  was 
rec^uired  to  preserve  the  earliest  genealogical  lists, 
which  are  both  rare  and  brief.  We  mav  grant  freely 
that  the  art  of  writing  was  not  known  /rom  Adam  to 
the  Flood,  and  for  centuries  after  Noe.  But  keeping 
in  mind  the  following  facts,  we  find  no  difficulty  in  ad- 
mitting oral  tradition  and  memoir  as  sufficient  sources 
for  these  periods.  (1)  It  has  been  found  that  the 
power  of  memory  is  much  greater  among  peoples  who 
nave  not  learnt  the  art  of  writing.  (2)  Eacn  of  the 
^nealogical  lists  belonging  to  the  two  periods  in  ques- 
tion contains  only  ten  generations,  so  that  only  twenty 
names  required  to  be  transmitted  by  tradition.    (3) 


Before  the  introduction  of  writing,  two  devices  were 
employed  to  aid  the  memoir;  either  history  was  versi- 
fieo,  or  the  facts  were  reduced  to  certam  standard 
numbers.  This  second  form  was  in  use  among  the 
Scriptural  nations.  There  were  ten  antediluvian 
Patriarchs,  ten  postdiluvian;  seventy  descendants  of 
Jacob  are  named  on  the  occasion  of  Israel's  going  into 
Egypt,  though  some  of  them  were  dead  at  that  time, 
others  had  not  yet  been  bom;  the  ethnographical  list 
of  Genesis  enumerates  seventy  nations,  though  it  gives 
some  names  of  little  importance  and  omits  others  of 
great  importance;  I  Par.,  ii,  3-55,  gives  seventy  de- 
scendants of  Juda;  I  Par.,  viii,  1-28,  seventy  descend- 
ants of  Benjamin.  This  device  guarded  also  against 
arbitrary  insertion  or  omission  of  any  name,  thou^ 
it  did  not  fully  exclude  the  substitution  of  one  name 
for  another.  A  possible  exception  against  such  an 
arrangement  will  oe  considered  in  the  last  section. 

IV.  Importance  of  the  Genealogies. — ^The 
Hebrews  i^ared  the  predilection  for  genealogies  which 
prevsdled  among  all  the  Semitic  races.  Among  the 
Arabs,  for  instance,  no  biography  b  complete  without 
a  lon^  list  of  the  hero's  ancestors.  They  re^;ister  even 
the  Imeage  of  their  horses,  esteemins  their  nobility 
according  to  their  extraction  (Cf.  "Kevue  des  deux 
mondes' ,  15  May,  1865,  pp.  1775-77 ;  Gaussin  de  Perce- 
val, "Essai  sur  I'histoire  des  Araoes  avant  I'lslam- 
isme".  Paris.  1844-48).  Among  the  Hebrews  such 
genealogical  lists  were  of  still  higher  importance  for  the 
following  reasons:  (1)  According  to  the  Mosaic  enact- 
ments, the  Palestinian  soil  was  given  over  to  definite 
tribes  and  families.  In  order  to  recover,  in  the  year 
of  the  jubilee,  these  family  possessions,  the  claimant 
ha^  to  prove  his  legal  descent.  (2)  The  nearest  kin- 
ship conferred  among  the  Hebrews  the  rights  of  the 
so-called  Goel,  Lev.,  xxv^  25,  and  Ruth^  iv^  1-6,  show 
some  of  the  advanta^  unplied  in  this  right.  The 
term  Ood  is  rendered  m  the  Latin  Vul^te  propinmiua 
or  proximus;  in  the  English  versbn  it  is  translateci  by 
**  kinsman".  (8)  Again,  the  priests  and  Levites  had  to 
prove  their  le^  descent  in  oider  to  fulfil  the  honour- 
able and  remunerative  functions  of  their  respective 
offices.  On  retumins  from  the  Babylonian  Captivity 
several  were  excluded  from  the  priestly  class  because 
they  could  not  prove  their  Levitical  peai£;ree  (I  Esd., 
ii,  62;  II  Esd.,  vii,  64).  Josephus  (Vit.,  I)  appeals  to 
the  priestlv  registers  and  is  proud  of  the  royal  descent 
of  his  mother  :ne  shows  that  even  the  priests  residing 
in  Egypt  had  their  sons  registered  authentically  in 
Jerusalem,  so  as  to  safeguard  their  priestly  prerogar 
tives  (C.  Apion.,  I,  vii).  (4)  Finally,  the  prophecy 
that  the  Messias  was  to  be  bom  of  tne  tribe  of  Juda 
and  the  house  of  David  rendered  the  genealogy  of  this 
family  most  important.  Eusebius  (Hist.  tZcl,,  III, 
xix,  20)  relates  on  the  authoritv  of  Hegesippus  that 
Domitian  (a.  d.  81-96)  put  to  death  all  the  descend- 
ants of  David^  excepting  the  relatives  of  Ghrist  on 
account  of  their  lowly  condition. 

y.  Deficiencies  of  the  GENEALoanBS.-^It  can- 
not be  denied  that  some  of  the  genealogical  links  are 
omitted  in  the  Biblical  lists;  even  St.  Matthew  had  to 
employ  this  device  in  order  to  arrange  the  ancestors 
of  Christ  in  three  series  of  fourteen  each.  At  Gist 
sight  such  omissions  may  seem  to  be  at  variance  with 
Biblical  inerrancy,  because  the  single  members  of  the 
genealoeical  lists  are  connected  by  the  noun  son  or 
tne  verb  beget.  But  neither  of  these  links  creates  a 
real  difficulty:  (1)  The  wide  meaning  of  the  noun  9on 
in  the  genealogies  is  shown  in  Matt.,  i,  1 :  "  Jesus  Christ, 
the  son  of  David,  the  son  of  Abraham".  This  phrase 
prepares  the  reader  for  the*  view  that  the  noun  son  may 
connect  a  person  with  any  one  of  his  ancestors,  how- 
ever remote.  (2)  As  to  the  verb  beget,  some  writers 
maintain  that  the  HiphU  form  of  its  Hebrew  equivalent 
refers  to  the  immediate  offspring,  while  its  Oal  form 
may  denote  a  more  remote  generation.  But  this  con- 
tention does  not  rest  on  any  solid  foundation.    It  is 


OENEALOOY 


410 


OENEALOOY 


true  that  the  Hiphil  form  occurs  in  Gen.,  v  and  xij  it  is 
also  true  that  the  successive  links  of  the  genealogies  in 
these  two  chapters  appear  to  exclude  any  intermedi- 
ate generation.  But  this  is  only  apparent.  Unless  it 
be  certain  from  other  sources  that  the  Hebrew  word  in 
qu^ion  signifies  the  begetting  of  an  immediate  off- 
spring. Gen.,  V,  15,  for  instance,  may  just  as  well  mean 
.that  Malaleel  at  the  age  of  sixty-five  begot  the  grand- 
father of  Jared  as  that  he  begot  Jared  immediately. 
The  same  holds  true  of  the  other  Patriarchs  men- 
tioned in  the  above  two  chapters.  Nor  can  it  be 
urged  that  such  an  interpretation  would  destroy  the 
chronology  of  the  Patrisu^s;  for  the  inspired  writer 
did  not  intend  to  transmit  a  chronolo^. 

Prat  in  Diet,  de  la  Bible;  Knabbmbauer  m  Haobn,  Lexicon 
BiJblieum  (Paris,  1005) ;  Pannier,  Oenealogia  btblica  cum  monU' 
meiUia  ^mfpUorum  el  Chaldacrum  eollatcB  (Lille,  1886); 
Bruckbe,  La  Chronologie  dee  premiers  dgea  de  VhumanitS  in  La 
Controveree,  15  March,  15  May,  1886,  pp.  375-03.  5-27;  ton 
HuMMBLAUER,  Comment,  in  Gen.  (Freiburff,  1805),  572;  Idem, 
Da»  vcrmoeaitche  Prieaterthum  in  Jerad  (fxeiburg,  1800). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Oenealogy  of  Ohrist. — ^It  is  ^nted  on  all  sides 
that  the  Biblical  ^nealogy  of  Chnst  implies  a  number 
of  exegetical  difficulties;  but  rationalists  have  no 
solid  reason  for  refusing  to  admit  any  of  the  attempted 
solutions,  nor  can  we  agree  with  those  recent  wnters 
who  have  given  up  all  hope  of  harmonizing  the  gene- 
alogies of  Christ  found  in  the  First  and  Third  Gospels. 
The  true  state  of  the  question  will  become  plain  by 
studying  the  Biblical  genealogies  of  Christ  first  separ- 
ately, then  in  juxtaposition,  and  finally  in  their  re- 
lation to  certain  exceptions  to  their  harmony. 

(1)  SL  Matthew's  Genealogy  of  Christ, — -The  gene- 
alogy of  Christ  according  to  the  First  Evangelist  de- 
scends from  Abraham  through  three  series  of  fourteen 
members  each;  the  first  fourteen  belong  to  the  patriar- 
chal order^  the  second  to  the  rojral,  and  the  third  to 
that  of  private  citizens.  Matt.,  i,  17,  shows  that  this 
arrangement  was  intended ;  for  the  writer  expressly 
states:  "So  all  the  generations,  from  Abraham  to 
David,  are  fourteen  generations.  And  from  David 
to  the  transmigration  of  Babylon,  are  fourteen  genera- 
tions: and  from  the  transmigration  of  Babylon  to 
Christ  are  fourteen  generations. " 


be  supposed  that  they  were  omitted  by  transcribers, 
for  this  conjecture  would  destroy  the  Evan^list's 
computation  of  fourteen  kings.  (4)  According  to 
I  Par.,  iii,  15,  Joakim  intervenes  between  Josias 
and  Jechonias.  We  mav  waive  the  miestion  whether 
St.  Matthew  speaks  of  only  one  Jechonias  or  of 
two  persons  bearing  that  name;  nor  need  we  state 
here  all  the  doubts  and  difficulties  connected  with 
either  answ^.  (5)  St.  Matthew  places  only  nine  links 
between  Zorobabei  and  St.  Joseph  for  a  period  cover- 
ing some  530  years,  so  that  each  generation  must  have 
lasted  more  than  50  years.  The  genealo^  as  given  in 
St.  Luke  enumerates  eighteen  generations  for  the 
same  period,  a  number  which  harmonizes  better  with 
the  ordinary  course  of  events.  As  to  the  omission 
of  members  in  genealogical  lists  see  Genealogy. 

(2)  St.  Lvke's  Genealogy  of  Christ. — ^The  genealogy 
in  Luke,  iii,  23-38,  ascends  trom  Joseph  to  Adam  or 
rather  to  God;  this  is  the  first  striking  difference  be- 
tween the  genealogies  as  presented  in  the  First  and 
Third  Gospel.  Another  aifference  is  foimd  in  their 
collocation:  St.  Matthew  places  his  Ust  at  ibe  begin- 
ning of  his  Gospel;  St.  Liuce,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Eublic  life  of  Christ.  The  artificial  character  of  St. 
lUke's  genealogy  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table : — 


First  Series 


1.  Jesus 

2.  Joseph 
8.  Heli 

4.  Mathat 
6.  Leri 

6.  Melchi 

7.  Janne 

8.  Joseph 

9.  Mathathias 

10.  Amos 

11.  Nahum 

12.  Hesli 

13.  Nasge 

14.  MaSath 

15.  Mathathias 

16.  Semei 

17.  Joseph 

18.  Juda 

19.  Joanna 

20.  Reza 

21.  Zorobabei 


First  Series 

Second  Series 

Third  Series 

1.  Abraham 

1.  Solomon 

1.  Jechonias 

2.  Isaac 

2.  Roboam 

2.  Salathiel 

8.  Jacob 

3.  Abta 

3.  Zorobabei 

4.  Judas 

4.  Asa 

4.  Abiud 

6.  Phares 

5.  Josaphat 

5.  Eliaoim 

0.  Esron 

6.  Joram 

6.  Asor 

7.  Aram 

7.  Osias 

7.  Sadoo 

8.  Aminadab 

8.  Joatham 

8.  Achim 

9.  Naasson 

9.  Achas 

9.  EUud 

10.  Sahnon 

10.  Ezechias 

10.  Eleaser 

11.  Boos 

11.  Manasses 

11.  Mathan 

12.  Obed 

12.  Amon 

12.  Jacob 

13.  Jesse 

13.  Josias 

13.  Joseph 

14.  David 

14.  Jechonias 

14.  Jesus 

Second  Series 


22.  Salathiel 

23.  Neri 

24.  Melchi 

25.  Addi 

26.  Cosan 

27.  llelmadan 

28.  Her 

29.  Jesus 

30.  Eliexer 

31.  Jorim 

32.  Mathat 

33.  Levi 

34.  Simeon 

35.  Judas 
36.-  Joseph 

37.  Jona 

38.  Eliakim 

39.  Melea 

40.  Menna 

41.  Mathatha 

42.  Nathan 


Third  Series 


43.  David 

44.  Jesse 

45.  Obed 

46.  Boos 

47.  Salmon 

48.  Naasson 

49.  Aminadab 

50.  Aram 

51.  E^ron 

52.  Phares 

53.  Judas 

54.  Jacob 

55.  Isaac 

56.  Abraham 


Fourth  Series 


57.  Thare 

58.  Nachor 

59.  Sams 

60.  Ragau 

61.  Phaleg 

62.  Heber 

63.  Sale 

64.  Cainan 

65.  Arphaxad 

66.  Sem 

67.  Noe 

68.  Lamech 

69.  Mathusalo 

70.  Henoch 

71.  Jared 

72.  Malaleel 

73.  Ounan 

74.  Henos 

75.  Seth 

76.  Adam 

77.  God 


The  list  of  the  First  Evangelist  omits  certain  mem- 
bers in  Christ's  Renealogy:  (1)  The  writer  gives  only 
three  names  for  the  time  of  the  Egyptian  exue  (Esron, 
Aram,  and  Aminadab),  though  the  period  lasted  215 
or  430  years*  this  agrees  with  Gen.,  xv,  16,  where  God 
promises  to  lead  Israel  back  in  the  foiirth  generation. 
But  according  to  Gen.,  xv,  13,  the  stranger  shall 
affict  Israel  for  four  hundred  years.  (2)  The  three 
names  Boos,  Obed,  and  Jesse  cover  a  period  of  366 
years.  Omitting  a  number  of  other  less  probable 
explanations,  the  difficulty  is  solved  most  easily  by  the 
admission  of  a  lacuna  between  Obed  and  Jesse.  (3) 
According  to  I  Par.,  iii,  11-12,  Ochozias,  Joas,  and 
Amasias  intervene  between  Joram  and  Azarias 
(the  Ozias  of  St.  Matthew) ;  these  three  names  can- 
not have  b€«n  unknown  to  the  Evangelist,  nor  can  it 


The  artificial  structure  of  this  list  may  be  inferred 
from  the  following  pecuUarities:  it  contains  eleven 
septenaries  of  names;  three  septenaries  brin^  us  from 
Jesus  to  the  Captivity;  three,  from  the  captivity  to  the 
time  of  David;  two,  from  David  to  Abraham;  three 
again  from  the  time  of  Abraham  to  the  creation  of 
man.  St.  Luke  does  not  explicitly  draw  attention  to 
the  artificial  construction  of  his  list,  but  this  silence 
does  not  prove  that  its  recurring  number  of  names 
was  not  intended,  at  least  in  the  Evangelist's  source. 
In  St.  Luke's  genealo^,  too,  the  names  Jesse,  Obed, 
Booz,  cover  a  period  of  366  years;  Aminadab,  Aram, 
E^sron  fill  a. gap  of  430  (or  215)  years,  so  that  here 
several  names  must  have  been  omitted.  In  the  fourth 
series,  which  gives  the  names  of  the  antediluvian  and 
postdiluvian  patriarchs,  Cainan  has  been  inserted 
according  to  tne  Septuagint  reading;  the  Hebrew  text 
does  not  contain  this  name. 

(3)  Harmony  between  St.  MaUhew's  and  St.  Luke^s 
Genealogy  of  Christ. — ^The  fourth  series  of  St.  Luke's 
list  covers  the  period  between  Abraham  and  the 
creation  of  man;  St.  Matthew  does  not  touch  upon 
this  time,  so  that  there  ctan  be  no  Question  of  any 
harmony.  The  third  series  of  St.  Luke  agrees  nam^ 
for  name  with  the  first  of  St.  Matthew;  only  the  order 
of  names  is  inverted.  In  this  section  the  genealogies  are 
rather  identical  than  merely  harmonious.  In  the  first 
and  second  series,  St.  Luke  gives  David's  descendants 
through  Ms  son  Nathan,  while  St.  Matthew  enumer- 
ates in  his  second  and  third  series  David's  descendants 


OERSALOOY 


411 


OINXALOOY 


through  Solomon.  It  is  true  that  the  First  Gospel 
gives  only  twenty-eight  names  for  this  period,  against 
the  forty-two  names  of  the  Third  Gospel ;  but  it  cannot 
be  expected  that  two  different  lines  of  descendants 
shoula  exhibit  the  same  number  of  links  for  the  period 
of  a  thousand  years.  Abstracting  from  the  inspired 
character  of  the  sources,  one  is  disposed  to  regard  the 
number  given  by  the  Third  Evangelist  as  more  in 
harmony  with  the  length  of  time  than  the  number  of 
the  First  Gospel;  but  we  have  pointed  out  that  St. 
Matthew  consciously  omitted  a  number  of  names  in  his 
geneiJEdogical  list,  in  order  to  reduce  them  to  the  re- 
quired multiple  of  seven. 

(4)  Exceptions  to  ike  Preceding  Explanaiion. — ^Three 
main  difficulties  are  advanced  a^mst  the  foregoi|ig 
harmony  of  the  genealogies:  Fu^,  how  can  they 
converge  in  St.  Joseph,  if  they  give  different  lineages 
from  David  downward?  Secondly,  how  can  we  ac- 
count for  their  convergence  in  Salathiel  and  Zoroba- 
bel?  Thirdly,  what  do  we  know  about  the  genealogy 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin? 

(1)  The  convergence  of  the  two  distinct  genealogical 
lines  in  the  person  of  St.  Joseph,  has  been  explamed 
in  two  ways:  (a)  St.  Matthew^s  genealogy  is  that  of 
St.  Joseph:  St.  Luke's,  that  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 
This  contention  implies  that  St.  Luke's  genealogy 
only  seemingly  includes  the  name  of  Joseph.  It  is 
based  on  the  received  Greek  text,  &y  (Cjs  ipo/d^rro  vl^s 
lucijip)  ToO  *HX/,  "  being  the  son  (as  it  was  supposed, 
of  Joseph,  btU  really)  of  Heli".  This  parenthesis 
really  eliminates  the  name  of  Joseph  from  St.  Luke's 
eencAlogy,  and  makes  Christ,  by  means  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  directly  a  son  of  Heli.  This  view  is  supported 
by  a  tradition  which  names  the  father  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  "Joachim'',  a  variant  form  of  Eliacim  or  its 
abbreviation  Eli,  a  variant  of  Heli,  which  latter  is 
the  form  found  in  the  Third  Evangelist's  genealogy. 
But  these  two  considerations,  viz.  the  received  text 
and  the  traditional  name  of  the  father  of  Mary,  which 
favour  the  view  that  St.  Luke  gives  the  genealogy  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  are  offset  by  two  similar  considera- 
tions, which  make  St.  Luke's  list  terminate  with  the 
name  of  Joseph.  First,  the  Greek  text  preferred  by 
the  textual  critics  reads,  &p  vlbt,  (vt  ipo/d^ero^  'Iont^^ 
roO  'HXer  "  being  the  son,  as  it  was  supposed,  of  Joseph, 
Mm  of  Heli",  so  that  the  above  parenthesis  is  rendered 
less  probable.  Secondly,  according  to  Patrizi,  the 
view  that  St.  Luke  gives  the  genealogy  of  Mary  be- 
gan to  be  advocated  only  towards  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century  by  Annius  of  Viterbo,  and  acquired 
adherents  in  the  sixteenth.  St.  Hilary  mentions  the 
opinion  as  adopted  by  many,  but  he  himself  rejects  it 
(Mai,  "  Nov.  Bibl.  Patr.",  1. 1, 477).  It  may  be  safely 
said  that  patristic  tradition  does  not  regard  St.  Luke's 
list  as  representing  the  genealogy  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin. 

(b)  Both  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  give  the  gene- 
alogy of  St.  Joseph,  the  one  through  the  lineage  of 
Solomon,  the  other  throu^  that  of  Nathan.  But 
how  can  the  lines  converge  m  St.  Joseph?  St.  Augus- 
tine suggested  that  Joseph,  the  son  of  Jacob  and  the 
descendant  of  David  through  Solomon,  might  have 
been  adopted  by  Heli,  thus  becoming  the  adoptive 
descendant  of  David  through  Nathan.  But  Augus- 
tine was  the  first  to  abandon  this  theory  after  learning 
the  explanation  offered  by  Julius  Africanus.  Accord- 
ing to  the  latter,  Elstha  married  Mathan,  a  descen- 
dant of  David  through  Solomon,  and  became  the 
mother  of  Jacob;  after  Mathan^s  death  she  took 
for  her  second  husband  Mathat.  a  descendant 
of  David  throu^  Nathan,  and  by  him  became  the 
mother  of  Heli.  Jacob  and  Heu  were,  therefore, 
uterine  brothers.  Heli  married,  but  died  without 
offspring;  his  widow,  therefore,  became  the  levirate 
wife  of  Jacob,  and  gave  birth  to  Joseph,  who  was  the 
carnal  son  of  Jacob,  but  the  legal  son  of  Heli,  thus 
combining  in  his  person  two  lineages  of  David's  de- 


scendants.   The  explanation  will  appear  clearer  lo 
the  following  diagram: 

Mathat    2nd  husband  of  E^tha  widow  of  Mathan 


Heli    left  a  childless  widow    ^^'^^^    Jacob 


Joseph  (levirate  son) 


Joseph 


(2)  The  second  difficulty  urged  against  the  harmony 
between  the  two  genealo^es  is  oased  on  the  occurrence 
of  the  two  names  Zorobabel  and  Salathiel  in  both  lists; 
here  again  the  two  distinct  lineages  of  David's  descend-* 
ants  appear  to  converge.  And  again,  two  answers  are 
possible:  (a)  It  is  more  commonly  admitted  that  the 
two  names  in  St.  Matthew's  list  are  identical  with  the 
two  in  St.  Luke's  series;  for  they  must  have  lived  about 
the  same  time^  and  the  names  are  so  rare,  that  it  would 
be  strange  to  find  them  occurring  at  the  same  time^  in 
the  same  order,  in  two  different  genealogical  series. 
But  two  levirate  marriages  will  explain  the  difficulty. 
Melchi,  t)avid's  descendant  through  Nathan,  may 
have  be^tten  Neri  by  a  widow  of  the  father  of  Jecho- 
nias;  this  made  Neri  and  Jechonias  uterine  brothers. 
Jechonias  may  then  have  contracted  a  levirate  mar- 
riage with  the  widow  of  the  childless  Neri,  and  be- 
gotten Salathiel,  who  was  therefore  the  leviratical 
son  of  Neri.  Salathiel 's  son  Zorobabel  b^Eit  Abiud; 
but  he  also  may  have  been  obliged  to  contract  a 
levirate  marria^  with  the  widow  of  a  childless  legal 
relative  belon^mg  to  David's  descendants  through 
Nathan,  thus  begetting  Reza,  who  lewdly  continued 
Nathan's  lineage,  (b)  A  more  simple  solution  of 
the  difficulty  is  obtained,  if  we  do  not  admit  that 
the  Salathiel  and  Zorobabel  occurring  in  St.  Mat- 
thew's genealogy  are  identical  with  those  in  St. 
Luke's.  The  above  proofs  for  their  identity  are  not 
cogent.  If  Salathiel  and  Zorobabel  distinguished 
themselves  at  all  among  the  descendants  of  Solo- 
mon, it  is  not  astonishing  that  about  the  same  time 
two  members  of  Nathan's  descendants  should  be 
called  after  them.  The  reader  will  observe  that  we 
suggest  only  possible  answers  to  the  difficulty;  as  long 
as  such  possibilities  can  be  pointed  out,  our  opponents 
have  no  ri^t  to  deny  that  the  genealogies  which 
are  found  m  the  First  and  Third  Gospel  can  be 
harmonized. 

(3)  How  can  Jesus  Christ  be  called  "son  of  David", 


reason  be  called  "son  of  David"  (Aug.,  De  cons, 
evang.,  II,  i,  2).  (b)  Tradition  tells  us  that  Mary  too 
was  a  descendant  of  David.  According  to  Num., 
xxxvi,  6-12,  an  only  daughter  had  to  marry  within 
her  own  family  so  as  to  secure  the  right  of  inheritance. 
After  St.  Justin  (Adv.  Tryph.  C.)  and  St.  Ignatius 
(Eph.  XVIII),  the  Fathers  generally  agree  in  main- 
taining Mary's  Davidic  descent,  whether  they  knew 
this  from  an  oral  tradition  or  inferred  it  from  Scripture, 
e.  g.  Rom.,  i,  3;  II  Tim.,  ii,  8.  St.  John  Damascene 
(De  fid.  orth.,  IV,  14)  states  that  Mary's  great-grand- 
father. Panther,  was  a  brother  of  Mathat;  her  grand- 
father^ Barpanther,  was  Heli's  cousin;  and  her  lather, 
Joachim,  was  a  cousin  of  Joseph,  Heli's  levirate  son. 
Here  Mathat  has  been  substituted  for  Melchi,  since 
the  text  used  by  St.  John  Damascene,  Julius  Afri- 
canus, St.  Irenffius,  St.  Ambrose,  and  St.  Gregoiy  of 
Nazianus  omitted  the  two  generations  separating 
Heli  from  Melchi.  At  any  rate,  tradition  presents 
the  Blessed  Virgin  as  descending  from  David  through 
Nathan. 

Knabbnbauxb  in  Haobn,  Lexicon  Biblieum  (Paria,  1907), 
II.  389  8q.:  Prat  in  Dietionnaire  de  la  BMe  (Paris,  1908),  III. 
166  sqq.  The  question  is  also  treated  in  the  recent  Lives  of 
Christ  by  Fouard.  Dxdon,  Ganai .  etc.  The  reader  wiU  find 
the  subject  treated  also  in  the  commentaries  on  the  Go^)el  of 
St.  Matthew  or  St.  Luke,e.g.  Knabcnbaubb,  Sgbans,  Fiuon, 


ciiCnbbrabd 


412 


OENKRATION 


IfAdEtTZiXTt  etc  Danko,  HitUnia  reveUUicnit  dMnm  Novi 
TeatammH  (Vienna,  1807),  180-192,  nvM  all  the  prinoipal 
pabBoatfens  on  the  question  up  to  1865. 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Mnebrardi  Gilbbrt,  a  learned  Benedictine  exe- 
ISete  and  Orientalist,  b.  12  December,  1535,  at  Riom, 
in  the  department  of  Puy-de-Ddme;  d.  16  Feb.,  1597, 
at  Semur,  department  of  Cdte-d'Or.  In  his  early 
youth  he  entered  the  Cluniac  monastery  of  Mausac 
near  Riom,  later  continued  his  studies  at  the  monas- 
tery of  Saint- Allyre  in  Clermont,  and  completed  them 
at  the  College  de  Navarre  in  Paris,  where  ne  obtained 
the  doctorate  in  theology  in  1562.  A  year  later  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and  exegesis  at  the 
College  Royal  and  at  the  same  time  held  the  office  of 
prior  at  Samt-Denis  de  La  Chartre  in  Paris.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  learned  professors  at  the  university, 
and  through  his  numerous  and  erudite  exegetical 
works  became  famous  throughout  Europe.  Among 
his  scholars  at  the  Coll^  Ro^l  was  St.  Francis  de 
Sales,  who  in  his  later  life  considered  it  an  honour  to 
have  had  G^nebrard  as  professor  (Traits  de  TAmour 
de  Dieu,  XI,  11).  About  1578  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  honourably  received  by  Sixtus  V  and 
stood  in  close  relation  to  Allen,  Baronius,  Bosio,  and 
other  ecclesiastical  celebrities.  Upon  his  return,  in 
1588,  he  became  one  of  the  chief  supporters  of  the 
Holy  League  in  France.  On  10  May,  1591,  he  was 
appointed  Archbishop  of  Aix  by  Gregory  XIII,  but 
accepted  this  dienity  only  after  the  express  conmiand 
of  tne  pope.  Be  was  consecrated  by  Archbishop 
Beaton  of  Glasgow  on  10  April,  1592.  As  archbishop 
he  remained  a  zealous  leaguer,  even  after  Henry  IV 
became  reconciled  with  the  Church  in  July,  1593.  The 
new  king,  however,  became  daily  more  popular  and 
gained  over  to  his  side  most  of  the  Catholics.  G^ne- 
brard  saw  that  further  opposition  would  be  useless 
and,  on  15  Nov.,  1593,  sent  nis  submission  to  the  king 
("Revue  des  questions  historiques",  Paris,  1866,  I, 
616,  note).  This,  however,  did  not  prevent  the  Pro- 
vencal Parliament  from  bajiishing  him  on  26  Sept., 
1596.  For  a  short  time  he  stayed  at  Avignon,  but, 
being  allowed  by  the  king  to  return,  he  retired  to 
the  priory  of  Semur,  which  he  held  in  cammendam. 
G^nebnurd  translated  many  rabbinic  writings  into 
Latin;  wrote  one  of  the  best  commentaries  on  the 
Psalms:  "  Psalmi  Davidis  vulgatd  editione,  calendario 
hebrseo,  syro,  grseco,  latino^  nymnis,  argumentis,  et 
eommentariis,  etc.  instructi"  (Paris,  1577);  is  the 
author  of  "De  Sanctft  Trinitate"  (Paris,  1569);  "Joel 
Propheta  cum  chaldsei  paraphrasi  et  eommentariis", 
etc.  (Paris,  1563);  "  Chronographi»  libri  IV"  (Paris, 
1580) ,  and  numerous  other  works.  He  also  edited  the 
works  of  Origen  (Paris,  1574). 

DuvoTB,  Elude  hiatarique  wr  Gilbert  Ohubrard  in  Revue  de 
ManeiUe  et  de  Provence  (Aupfust,  1885),  327^53.  and  lepa- 
rately;  CrUique  on  the  preoeding  m  Studien  und  MUtheilunaen 
0.  S.  B.  und  O.  Cist.  (RaiflBra,  1886),  VII.  484  sq.;  Hubtbr, 
Nomenetator  (InnBbnick.  1907),  III,  260-274:  Gidlia  Christiana, 


I.  834;  ZiEasLBAUER,  kiet,  lit.  0.  S.  B.,  lit.  361-366;   Hbur- 
TBBUB  in  ViooUBOux,  Diet,  de  la  Btble,  8.  v. 

Michael  Ott. 

General  Ohapter  (Lat.  capihdum,  a  chapter). — 
The  daily  assembling  of  a  community  for  purposes  of 
discipline  and  administration  of  monastic  affairs  has 
always  included  the  reading  of  a  chapter  of  the  rule, 
and  thus  the  assembly  itself  came  to  be  called  the 
chapter  and  the  place  of  meeting  the  chapter-house. 
The  c^ualifving  word  eonverUiud,  provincial,  or  general. 
explains  tnd  nature  of  the  meeting,  and  a  general 
chapter,  therefore,  is  one  composed  oi  representatives 
of  a  whole  order  or  congregation  or  other  group  of 
monasteries.    Historically,  general  chapters,  or  the 

germ  from  which  they  developed,  can  be  traced  back  to 
t.  Benedict  of  Aniane  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century.  Although  his  scheme  of  ooniederation  did 
not  outlive  its  originator,  the  idea  was  revived  a  oen- 
tuiy  later  at  Quny.    The  example  of  duny  produced 


imitators,  and  abbevs  like  Fleury,  Dijon,  Marmoutier, 
St^Denis,  Quse,  Fulda,  and  Hirsau  (or  Hirschau),  be- 
came centres  of  groups  of  monasteries  in  which  a  more 
or  less  embryonic  system  of  general  chapters  was  intro- 
duced. Later  on,  Ctteaux,  Camaldoli,  Monte  Vergiue, 
Savigny,  and  other  reforms,  elaborated  the  idea,  which 
resulted  eventually  in  the  congre^tional  system  in- 
augurated by  the  Fourth  Lateran  Coimcil  in  1215,  and 
since  that  date  it  has  been  the  almost  invariable 
custom  of  eveiy  order  or  congregation.  The  constitu- 
tion, times  of  meeting,  and  powers  of  a  general  chap- 
ter, however,  vary  so  much  in  the  different  religious 
orders  that  it  is  impossible  to  generalize  on  these 
points.  At  Ctteaux,  for  instance,  the  chapter  met  at 
the  mother-house  every  year,  and  was,  in  theory, 
attended  by  all  the  abbots  of  the  order.  In  other 
orders  the  meeting  of  chapters  was  held  every  three  or 
four  years,  and  this  has  remained  the  more  ceneral 
usage  till  the  present  day.  In  those  that  are  divided 
into  provinces,  the  provincial  superiors,  and  some- 
times some  other  officials  as  well,  presided  over  by  the 
general,  if  there  be  one,  form  the  chapter;  in  others, 
the  superiors  of  all  the  houses.  Amongst  Benedic- 
tines, each  congregation  has  its  own  separate  chapter, 
whicti  is  composedusually  of  the  abbot  and  an  elected 
delegate  from  each  monastery,  with  the  president  of 
the  congregation  at  their  head.  A  general  chapter 
usually  elects  the  general  or  president  of  the  order  or 
congregation,  sometimes  apx>oint8  the  various  supe- 
riors and  other  officials,  settles  matters  of  business  and 
discipline,  hears  appeals  from  its  subjects,  and  in  some 
cases  also  has  the  right  to  draw  up  or  sanction  changes 
in  its  constitutions.  Subject  oi  course  to  the  Holy 
See,  it  represents  the  highest  authority  in  its  own  par- 
ticular order  or  federation.  For  more  detailed  de- 
scriptions as  to  the  composition  and  powers  of  general 
chapters,  the  separate  articles  on  the  various  religious 
orders  must  be  consulted. 

G.  Ctprian  Alston. 

Generation  (Lat.  Vulgate,  generatio). — This  word, 
of  very  varied  meaning,  corresponds  to  the  two  He- 
brew terms:  ddr,  tdled^th.  As  a  rendering  of  the  lat- 
ter, the  Vulgate  plural  form,  generationeSf  is  treated  in 
the  article  Genealogt.  As  a  rendering  of  the  former, 
the  word  generation  is  used  in  the  following  principal 
senses.  (1^  It  designates  a  definite  period  of  time, 
with  a  special  reference  to  the  average  length  of  man's 
life.  It  is  in  this  sense,  for  example,  that,  durins  the 
lon^-lived  patriarchal  age,  a  "generation"  is  ratea  as  a 
period  of  100  years  (Gen.,  xv,  16,  compared  with  Gen., 
XV,  13,  and  Ex.,  xii,  40),  and  that,  at  a  later  date,  it  is 
represented  as  a  period  of  only  30  to  40  years.  (2) 
The  word  generation  la  used  to  mean  an  indefinite 
period  of  tune:  of  time  past,  as  in  Deut.,  xxxii,^  7, 
where  we  read:  "Remember  the  days  of  old,  think 
upon  every  generation",  and  inlsaias,  Iviii,  12,  etc.;  of 
time  future,  as  in  Ps.  xliv  (Heb.  xlv),  18,  etc.  (3)  In  a 
concrete  sense,  generation  designates  the  men  who 
lived  in  the  same  period  of  time,  who  were  contem- 
poraries, as  for  instance  in  Gen.,  vi,  9:  "Noe  was  a 
lust  ana  perfect  man  in  his  generations";  see  also: 
Num.,  xxxii.  13;  Deut.,  i,  35;  Matt.,  xxiv,  34;  etc. 
(4)  Independently  of  the  idea  of  time,  generation  is  em- 
ployed to  mean  a  rsfse  or  class  of  men  as  diaracterized 
By  the  same  recurrins  condition  or  quality.  In  this 
sense,  the  Bible  speaks  of  a  "just  generation"^  liter- 
ally "generation  of  the  just"  [Ps.  xiii  (Heb.,  xiv),  6; 
etc.]^  a  "perverse  generation",  equivalent  to:  "gen- 
eration of  the  wicked"  [Deut.,  xxxii,  5;  Mark,  ix,  18 
(Gr.,  verse  19);  etc.].  (5)  Lastly,  in  Is.,  xxxviii,  12, 
the  word  generation  is  used  to  designate  a  dwelling- 
plaoe  or  habitation,  probably  from  the  circular  form 
of  the  nomad  tent.  Whence  it  can  be  readily  seen 
that,  in  its  various  princmal  acceptations,  the  word 
generation  (usually  in  the  Septuagint  and  in  the  Greek 
New  Testament:  y€ptd)  preserves  sometiiing  of  the 


OEnRATIOmSM  413  OEN17IEVX 

grimitive  meaning  of  "  circuit ' ',  "  period '  %  conveyed  vent  at  Chantoin.    He  was  buried  in  the  church  which 

y  the  Hebrew  term  in*  d&r.  he  had  built  at  Clermont  in  honour  of  St.  S3rmphorian. 

GBflBNiuci,  Th^tawnu  (Leipsig,  1829);   FesflT,  Hebrew  and  and  which  later  took  his  own  name.    In  the  life  ot 

S^iS^il'S&JfJ^.i'^X  Swf"""*  ^"""•'  f*-  ^  (P««iectu8).  Ge«««u8  fa  mentioiwd  ^  one  of 

Frakcis  E.  Gioot.  the  protectors  of  hiachfldhood. 

DucHBSNB,  Fmfot  <2i£mq|mu«  (PariB,  1907),  11,  37;  OaU%a 

Oenerationism.    See  Tbaducianism.  ^^''•>  ii>  ^^- 

Oenesareth  (Fci^i^tf'ap^). — ^This  is  the  name  given        (4)  Genesius,  Count  of  Qermont.  d.  725.    Feast.  5 

to  the  Lake  of  Tiberias  in  Luke,  v,  1 ;  called  Ttpvntrdp  June.    According  to  the  lessons  of  the  Breviary  of  the 

in  I  Mach.,  xi,  67.    (See  Tibbbias,  Lake  of.)  Chapter  of  Camaleria  (Acta  SS.,  June,  1, 497),  he  was  of 

A^.^>i-  *u  #  .1     /.    .  «     1     t  A.I.    -D    J.  nobfe  birth;  his  father's  name  is  given  as  Audastrius, 

Qenesis,  the  name  of  the  first  book  of  the  Penta-  ^nd  his  mother's  as  TranquiUa.    Even  in  his  youth  he 

teucn  v<l«v.;.  |g  gg^  ^  have  wrought  miracles — ^to  have  given  sight 

OenesiiUy  (1)  a  comedian  at  Rome,  martyred  under  ^  ^®  blind  and  cur^  the  lame.  He  built  and  richly 
Diocletian  in  286  or  303.  Feast,  26  August.  He  is  endowed  several  churches  and  religious  houses.  He 
invoked  against  epilepsy,  and  is  honoured  as  patron  of  ^^  *  friend  of  St.  Bonitus,  Bishop  of  Clermont,  and  of 
theatrical  performers  and  of  musicians.  The  legend  St.  Meneleus,  Abbot  of  Menat.  He  was  buried  at 
(Acta  SS.,  Aug.,  V,  119)  relates:  Genesius,  the  leader  Combronde  by  St.  Savinian,  successor  of  Meneleus. 
of  a  theatrical  troupe  in  Rome,  performing  one  day  (5)  Genesius  (or  Genestus),  thirty-seventh  Arch- 
before  the  Emperor  Diocletian,  and  wishing  to  expose  bishop  of  Lyons,  d.  679.  Feast,  1  November.  He  was 
Christian  rites  to  the  ridicule  of  his  aucSence,  pre-  *  native  of  France,  not  of  Arabia  or  Armenia  as  is 
tended  to  receive  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism,  wlben  sometimes  stated,  and  became  a  religious  and  abbot 
the  water  had  been  poured  upon  him  he  proclaimed  (^^^  ^^  Fontenelle,  but)  attached  to  the  court  and 
himself  a  Christian.  Diocletian  at  first  enjoyed  the  ^^^^P  of  Clovis  II,  where  he  acted  as  chief  almoner  to 
realistic  play,  but,  finding  Genesius  to  be  in  earnest,  ^^e  queen,  St.  Bathildis.  He  succeeded  St.  Chamond 
ordered  him  to  be  tortured  and  then  beheaded.  He  (Annemundus)  in  the  See  of  Lyons,  and  was  conse- 
was  buried  on  the  Via  Tiburtina.  His  relics  are  said  to  crated  in  667  or  658.  His  name  is  found  for  the  first 
be  partly  in  San  Giovanni  della  Pigna,  partly  in  S.  ^^^  ^  bishop  in  a  signature  of  6  Sept.,  664,  attached 
Susanna  di  Termini  and  in  the  chapelof  St.  LaWrence.  ^  ^  charter  drawn  up  by  Bertefred,  Bishop  of  Amiens, 
The  legend  was  dramatized  in  the  fifteenth  century:  ^or  the  Abbey  of  Corbie.  On  26  June,  667,  he  sub- 
embod^  in  later  years  in  the  oratorio  "  Polus  Atella ''  scribed  another  charter  framed  by  Drauscius,  Bishop 
of  L6we  (d.  1869),  and  still  more  recently  in  a  work  of  Soissons,  for  a  convent  of  the  Blessed  Vir^n 
by  Weingartner  (Berlin,  1892).  The  historic  value  of  founded  by  Ebroin,  mayor  of  the  palace,  and  his  wife 
the  Acts,  dating  from  the  seventh  century,  is  very  Leutrude.  In  the  conflict  between  Ebroin  and  St. 
doubtful,  thoiigh  defended  by  TiUemont  (M^moires,  Leger  (Leodegarius),  Bishop  of  Autun,  Genesius  (676- 
IV,  8.  V.  GenesSs) .  The  very  existence  of  Genesius  is  76)  took  the  part  of  the  bishop  and  was  in  consequence 
called  into  question,  and  he  is  held  to  be  a  Roman  attacked  bv  an  armed  band  sent  bv  Ebroin  to  expel 
counterpart  of  St.  Gelasius  (or  Gelasinus)  of  Hierapo-  ^^  from  Lyons;  but  Genesius  collected  a  force  and 
lis  (d.  297).  He  was  venerated,  however,  at  Rome  in  successfully  defended  his  city.  In  Seotember,  677,  he 
the  fourth  century;  a  church  was  built  in  his  honour  assisted  at  an  assembly  held  at  Masl^.  He  was 
very  early,  and  was  repaired  and  beautified  by  Greg-  succeeded  at  Lyons  by  Landebertus.  His  body  re- 
oiy  III  in  741.  mained  in  the  chureh  of  St.  Nicetius  tfll  the  beginning 

Lbclbrcq,  Lta  Martyn,  II,  428;  Anal.  BoUand.,  XVIII,  of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  it  was  transferred  to 

186.  Chelles. 

(2)  Genesius  of  Arlbs,  a  notary  martyred  under  and  for  eaeh  o{  the  saints.  Smttr  and  Wact.  ZjS.  o/  Chriaii 
Kaximianus  in  303  or  308.   Feast^  25  Au«;.   Heishon-  Buv.  (London,  1880),  II,  627-28. 

oured  as  patron  of  notaries,  and  mvoked  against  chil-  Francis  Mershman. 

blains  and  scurf.    The  Acts  (Acta  SS.,  Aug.,  V,  123,        i«^«^«.     a^x  .^«.* ^.^n-  Tk 

and  Ruinart,  559),  attributed  to  St.  Paidin^  of  Nola)        <»«n6Va.   See  Lausanne  and  Geneva,  Diocese  of. 

state:  Genesius,  native  of  Aries,  at  first  a  soldier,  be-  Genevieve,  Saint,  patroness  of  Paris,  b.  at  Nan- 
came  known  for  his  proficiency  in  writing,  and  was  terre,  c.  419  or  422 ;  d.  at  Paris,  512.  Her  feast  is  kept 
made  secretary  to  the  magistrate  of  Aries.  While  on  3  January.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Severus  and 
performing  the  duties  of  his  office  the  decree  of  perse-  Gerontia;  popular  tradition  represents  her  parents  as 
cution  against  the  Christians  was  read  in  his  presence,  poor  peasants,  though  it  seems  more  likely  that  they 
Outra(^  in  his  ideas  of  justice,  the  young  catechumen  were  wealthy  and  respectable  townspeople.  In  429 
cast  his  tablets  at  the  feet  of  the  magistrate  and  fled.  St.  Gennain  of  Auxerre  and  St.  Lupus  of  Troyea 
He  was  captured  and  executed,  and  thus  received  were  sent  across  from  Gaul  to  Britain  to  combat 
baptism  in  his  own  blood.  His  veneration  must  be  very  Pelagianism.  On  their  way  they  stopped  at  Nan- 
old,  as  his  name  is  found  in  the  ancient  martyrology  terre.  a  small  village  about  eight  miles  from  Paris, 
ascribed  to  St.  Jerome.  A  chureh  and  altar  dedicated  The  inhabitants  flocked  out  to  welcome  them,  and  St. 
to  him  at  Aries  were  known  in  the  fourth  century.  Germain  preached  to  the  assembled  multitude.    It 

(3)  Genesius,  twenty-first  Bishop  of  Clermont,  d.  chanced  that  the  pious  demeanour  and  thoughtfulness 
662.  Feast,  3  June.  The  legend,  which  is  of  a  ramer  of  a  young-  girl  among  his  hearers  attracted  his  atten- 
late  date  (Acta  SS.,  June,  IT  315),  says  that  he  was  tion.  After  the  sermon  he  caused  the  child  to  be 
descended  from  a  senatorial  family  of  Auveigne.  brought  to  him,  spoke  to  her  with  interest,  and  en- 
Having  received  a  liberal  education  he  renounoedhis  couraged  herto  persevere  in  the  path  of  virtue.  Leam- 
woridly  prospects  for  the  service  of  the  Chureh,  be-  ing  that  she  was  anxious  to- devote  herself  to  the 
came  archdeacon  of  Clermont  under  Bishop  Proculus,  service  of  God,  he  interviewed  her  parents,  and  fore- 
and  succeeded  him  in  the  episcopacy  in  656.  He  la-  told  them  that  their  child  would  lead  a  life  of  sanctity 
boured  earnestly  for  the  maintenance  of  Christian  and  by  her  example  and  instruction  bring  many  vir- 
moralitv,  and  founded  a  hospital  at  Qermont  and  also  gins  to  consecrate  themselves  to  God.  Before  parting 
the  Abbey  of  Manlieu.  After  five  years,  fearing  for  next  morning  he  saw  her  again,  and  on  her  renewing 
his  own  soul,  he  left  Clermont  secretly  and  went  to  her  consecration  he  blessed  ner  and  jgave  her  a  medu 
Rome  in  the  garb  of  a  pilgrim.  The  bereaved  flock  engraved  with  a  cross,  telling  her  to  keep  it  in  remem- 
sent  a  deputation  to  the  Holy  See.  Genesius  was  brance  of  her  dedication  to  Christ.  He  exhorted  her 
found  and  induced  to  return.    He  then  built  a  con-  likewise  to  be  content  with  the  medal,  and  wear  it 


instead  of  her  pearia  and  golden  ornaments.    There 
aeem  to  have  been  no  convents  near  her  village;  and 
Genevieve,  like  bo  man;  others  who  wished  to  practise 
leligioua  virtue,  remained  at  home,  leading  an  inno- 
cent, prayerful  life.     It  is  uncertain  when  she  formally 
looei^d  the  religious  veil.     Some  writers  assert  that 
it  was  on  the  occasion  of  St.  Gregory's  return  from  his 
mission  to  Britain;  others  say  she  received  it  about 
her  sixteenth  year,  along  with  two  companions,  from 
the  hands  of  the  Bishop  of  Paris.    On  the  death  of  her 
parents  she  went  to  Paris,  and  lived  with  her  god- 
mo^er.    She  devoted  herself  to  works  of  charity  and 
practised  aevere  corporal  austeritias,  abstaining  com- 
pletely from  flesh  meat  and 
breaking  her  fast  only  twice 
in  the  week.     These  mortifi- 
cations she  continued  for  over 
thirty  years,  till  her  ecclesias- 
tical superiors  thought  it  their 
duty  to   make  her   diminish 
her  austerities. 

Many  of  her  neighbours, 
filled  with  jealousy  and  envy, 
accused  Genevieve  of  being  an 
impostor  and  a  hypocrite. 
Like  Bleaaed  Joan  of  Arc,  in 
later  times,  she  had  frequent 
communion  with  the  other 
world,   but   her  visions    and 

firophecies    were    treated   as 
rauda  and  deceits.    Her 
enemies  conspired   to  drown 
ber;  but,  through  the  interven- 
tion of  Germain  of  Auxerre, 
their  animosity  was   finally 
overcome.    The  bi^op  of  the 
city  appointed    her  to  look 
after  the  welfare  o(  the  virmna 
dedicated  to  God,  and  by  ner 
instruction  and  example  she 
led  them  to  a  high  degree  of 
sanctity.     In  451  Attila  and 
bis  Huns  were  sweeping  over 
Gaul;   and  the  inhabitants  of 
Paris  prepared  to  flee.    Gene- 
vieve   encouraged    them   to 
hope  and  trust  in  God;  she 
urged  them  to  do  works  of 
penance,  and  added  that  if 
they  did  so  the  town  would 
be  spared.    Her  exhortations 
prevailed ;  the  citizens  recov- 
ered their  calm,  and  Attila's 
hordes   turned    off    towards 
Orleans,    leaving  Paris   un- 
touched.    Some  years  later 
Herow^  (tiitovie)  took  Paris;  during  the  siege  Gene- 
vieve distinguished  herself  by  her  charity  and  self- 
sacrifice.     Through  her  influence  Merowiaand  hia  suc- 
cessors,  Childeric  and  Clovis,   displayed    unwonted 
clemency  towards  the  citizens.     It  was  she,  too,  who 
first  formed  the  plan  of  erecting  a  churoh  in  Paris  in 
honour  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul.     It  was  begun  by 
Clovis  at  Mont-ISs-Paris,  rfiortly  before  hisdeath  in  51 1. 
Genevieve  died  the  following  year,  and  when  thechureh 
was  completed  her  body  was  interred  within  it.    This 
(act,  and  the  numerous  miracles  wrought  at  her  tomb, 
caused  the  name  of  Sainte-Genevi&ve  to  be  given  to  it. 
Kings,  princes,  and  people  enriched  it  with  their  gifts. 
In  347  it  was  plundered  by  the  Normans  and  was 
partially  rebuilt,  but  was  completed  only  in   1177. 
This  church  havmg  fallen  into  decay  once  more,  Louis 
XV  began  the  construction  of  a  new  chureh  in  1764. 
The  Revolution  broke  out  before  it  was  dedicated,  and 
it  was  taken  over  in  1791,  under  the  name  of  the  Pan- 
theon, by  the  Constituent  Assembly,  to  be  a  burial 
place  (or  distinguished  Frenchmen.     It  was  restored 


Fuvia  d«  ChaviuiDa, 


to  Catholic  purposes  in  1821  and  1852,  having  been 
secularized  as  a  national  mausoleum  in   1831   and, 
finally,  in  1885.    St.  Genevieve's  relics  were  preserved 
in  her  church,  with  great  devotion,  for  centuriea,  and 
Paris  received  striking  proof  of  the  efficacy  of  ber 
intercession.    She   saved    the   city   from   complete 
inundation  in  834.     In  1129  a  violent  plague,  known 
as  the  TTuil  tfes  ardenls,  carried  off  over  14,000  victims, 
but  it  ceased  suddenly  during  a  procession  in  her 
honour.     Innocent  II,  who  had  come  to  Paris  to  im- 
plore the  kind's  help  against  the  Antipope  Anadetus 
m  1130,  examined  personally  into  the  miracle  and  was 
so  convinced  of  its  authenticity  that  he  ordered  a  feast 
to  be  kept  annually  in  honour 
of  the  event  on  26  November. 
A  small  chureh,  called  Sainte- 
Genevifive  des  Ardents.  com- 
memorated  the   miracle    till 
1747,  when  it  was  pulled  down 
to  make  room  for  the  Found- 
hag   Hospital.     The  saint's 
relics  were  carried  in  proces- 
sion yearly  to  the  catnedral, 
and  Mme  de  S^vigni^  gives  a 
description  of  the  pageant  in 
one  of  her  tetters. 

The  revolutionaries  of  1793 
destroyed  most  of  the  relics 
preserved  in  St.  Genevieve's 
church,  and  the  rest  were  cast 
to  the  winds  by  the  mob  in 
1871.  Fortunately,  however, 
a  large  relic  had  been  kept  at 
Vemeuil,  Oise,  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  and  is  still 
extant.  The  chureh  built  by 
Clovis  was  entrusted  to  the 
Benedictines.  In  the  ninth 
century  they  were  repbced 
by  secular  canons.  In  1148, 
under  Eugene  III  and  Louis 
VII,  canons  from  St.  Victor's 
Abbey  at  Seolis  were  intro- 
duced. About  1619  Louis 
XIII  named  Cardinal  Fran- 
9ois  de  La  Rochefoucauld 
Abbot  of  St.  Genevieve's.  The 
canons  had  been  lax  and 
the  cardinal  selected  Charles 
Faure  to  reform  them.  This 
holy  man  was  bom  in  1594, 
and  entered  the  canons  regu- 
lar at  Senlis.  He  was  remark- 
Bina  able  for  his  piety,  and,  when 

us  fknthion.  Paria  ordained,  succeeded  siter  a 

hard  stru^le  in  reforming 
the  abbey.  Many  of  the  houses  ctf  the  canons  regu- 
lar adopted  his  reform.  He  and  a  dozen  companions 
took  cbarae  of  Sainte-Genevi*ve-du-Mont,  at  Paris, 
in  1634.  This  bwame  the  mother-house  of  a  new 
congregation,  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Genevieve, 
which  spread  widely  over  France.  Another  in- 
stitute called  after  the  saint  was  the  DaughterB  of 
St.  Genevieve,  (ounded  at  Paris,  in  1636,  by  Fran- 
ceaca  de  Blosaet,  with  the  object  of  nursing  the  sick 
and  teaching  young  girls.  A  somewhat  similar  in- 
stitute, popularly  known  as  the  Miramiones,  had  been 
founded  under  the  invocation  of  the  Holy  'Trinity,  in 
1611,  by  Marie  Bonneau  de  Rubella  Beauhamais  de 
Miramion.  "These  two  institutes  were  united  in  1665, 
and  the  associates  called  the  Canonesaes  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve. "The  members  took  no  vows,  but  merely  prom- 
ised obedience  to  the  rules  as  long  as  they  remained 
in  the  institute.  Suppressed  during  the  Revolution,  it 
was  revived  in  1806  by  Jeanne-Claude  Jacoulet  under 
the  name  of  the  Sistere  of  the  Holy  Family.  They 
now  have  charge  o(  over  150  schoda  and  orphanages. 


GENEVIEVE 


.     415 


a£HI0OT 


Vie  de  SainU  Geneviive,  ed.  Crabpbntzsr  (PRriB,   169?/; 
Acta  SS.j  Jan.,  I,  137-8,  725:   Tuxbmont,  Mtmoirea  (Psrb,^ 
1712),  XVI,  621  and  802;  GoUui  CAristiona,  VII,  700;  Butlkb, 
JAo€B  of  the  SainU,  I,  17^20;   Bbnnbtt  in  Diet.  Christ.  Bipg., 
8.  v.^      DsuiLAiN,    Ligendet   kiatoriquea   de  Sainte  Oeneviive 

iParu,  1872);  Tbianon  in  Revue  du  Monde  eatholique  (Paria, 
872).  XXXIV,  470-82:  Park  in  Dublin  University  Magatine 
(DubUn,  1876),  LXXXVII,  102;  Gu^rin,  Vie  dee  Saints 
(Paris,  1880),  I,  92-104:  Vioixn,  Sainte  Oenevih>e  et  eon  infill 
mce  eur  lee  deetiniee  de  la  France  (Paris,  1896);  Flburt,  JiieL 
xcUe,,  LXIX,  22,  LXXIV,  39. 

A.  A.  MacEblean. 


obliterated  all  this  richness  and  luxuriance;  and  at 
present,  except  a  few  scattered  palms  and  wild  fig- 
trees,  the  slopes  of  the  land  of  Genezareth  are  barren 
and  Uf eless  as  are  most  of  the  other  regiops  of  Pales- 
tine. 

HxiDBTin  Vio.,  Did.  de  la  BibUt  s.  v.  04nSeareUi;  MbbriUi 
in  Hast/. Diet,  cfftne BtbUja.  v.  Gtfnnemiret:  Josbphus, Bd.  Jud., 
Ill,  z;  Victor  QuiRXN,  ueeeriptian  de  la  Paleeiine^  I,  pp.  208-9, 
214-15,  224-6. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 


Genevieve,  Daughters  of  Saint.     See  Holy  Oenga,GiROLAMo,  painter,  born  at  Urbmo  in  1476  j 

Family,  Religious  Congregations  of.  died  at  the  same  pla<»,  1551.    This  talented  craftsman 

was  apprenticed  m  his  fifteenth  jrear  to  Luca  Si^oreUi, 

Genesareth,  Land  of. — ^By  this  name  is  desig-  whom  he  assisted  in  many  of  his  works,  especially  at 

nated  in  Mark,  vi.  53,  a  district  of  Palestine  bordering  Orvieto.    He  then  attached  himself  to  Perugino,  in 

on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  which  in  the  parallel  passage  whose  school  he  was  for  three  years,  becoming  the  in- 

of  Matthew  (xiv,  34)  is  called  ''the  country  of  Gen-  timate  friend  of  Raphael.    After  a  residence  in  Flor- 

esar".   Tlie  two  forms  of  the  name  are  obviously  cog-  ence  and  Siena,  he  returned  to  Urbino  to  carry  out 

nate,  but  their  origin  and  signification  are  dispute  some  work  for  the  duke,  Guidobaldo  II.    Later  on  he 

points  among  Biblical  scholars,  nor  is  there  unanimity  resided  at  Rome,  where  he  painted  an  altar-piece  for 

of  opinion  as  to  whether  the  name  was  given  first  to  the  church  of  St.  Catherine  of  Siena,  but,  in  1512,  re- 

the  land  and  afterwards  to  the  lake  or  vice  versa.   The  turned  to  Urbino  at  the  request  of  the  then  duke, 

tiaditional  signification: ''  Garden  of  the  Princes"  (as  Francesco  Maria,  with  whom  eventuallv  he  went  into 

tf  derived  from  D^KH^*  Gansarim)  goes  back  to  St.  banishment  at  Cesena,  and  lot  whom  nejpainted  his 


Jerome  and  the  Talmud.  Several  modem  scholars, 
however,  prefer  the  derivation  of  the  name  from  the 
Hebrew  word  n"^33,  kinnerdh;  or  from  the  plural  form 
^inn^otA,  cognate  with  kinncTj  signifying  a  harp  or 
zither.  This  name,  according  to  them,  would  have 
been  originally  given  to  the  lake  on  account  of  the  sup- 
posed harp-lilce  shape  of  its  contour;  but  it  seems  more 
probable  that  the  name  was  first  used  to  designate  the 
district,  and  was  derived  from  the  ancient  fortified 
city  within  the  borders  of  Nephtali,  mentioned  in  the 
Book  of  Josue  as  Cenerotk  in  xi,  2,  and  as  Cenereth  in 
xix,  35.  According  to  the  Gospel  narrative  (cf .  Matt., 
xiv,  13-36;  Mark,  vi,  31-56;  Luke,  ix^  10-17).  which  is 
confirmed  by  the  description  found  m  Josepnus  (Bel. 
Jud.,  HI,  x),  the  land  of  Genezareth  lay  to  the  west, 
and  partly  to  the  north,  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name, 
and  Dordered  thereon.  These  sources  do  not  deter- 
mine the  exact  boundaries,  of  the  district,  but  it  is 
probable  from  other  incidental  indications  that  it  com- 
prised the  entire  west  coast  of  the  lake,  extending 
westward  as  far  as  the  boundary  separating  Nephtal 


chief  altai^piece,  ''God  the  Father,  the  Vimn,  and 
Four  Fathers  of  the  Church",  now  in  the  Srera  at 
Milan.  He  was  not  only  a  painter  and  sculptor,  but  a 
modeller  in  wax,  clay,  and  terra-cotta,  and  some  of 
the  drinking-cups  he  executed  in  wax  were  used  as 
models  for  finished  works  in  silver.  He  designed 
vestments  and  musical  instruments,  and  was  an  ex- 
pert musician  himself.  Vasari  speaks  of  him  as  "  an 
admirable  inventor"  and  again  as  "a  man  of  the 
most  upright  character,  insomuch  that  a  bad  action 
committed  by  him  was  never  heard  of".  In  the 
Fitti  Palace  at  Florence  there  is  a  ''Holy  Fainily'' 
which  was  painted  by  Genga. 

Vababi,  Le  VUe  dei  Piitori^  ed.  Milanbsi  (Florence,  187ft« 
1885);  CicoGNARA,  SUnia  ddla  ScuUura  (Prato,  1823);  Kuqlbr, 
Handbook  of  Paintinp  (London,  1846);  Bryan's  Diet,  of  Paint' 
ere  and  Engraveret  ed.  Williamson  (London.  1903) . 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Mnicot,  Edward,  moral  theolo^an,  b.  at  Ant- 
werp, Belgitun,  18  June,  1856;  d.  at  Louvain,  21 
February,  1900.    After  making  a  brilliant  course  of 


and  Zabulon  from  Aser,  and  northward  probably  as  studies  at  the  Jesuit  college  in  nis  native  city,  he  en- 
far  as  the  plain  of  Huleh  and  the  mountams  of  Safed.  tered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  27  September,  1872.  He 
Physically  the  district  resembles  somewhat  a  section  was  successively  professor  of  humanities  and  of  rhet- 
of  a  vast  amphitheatre,  sloping,  gently  on  the  northern  oric  at  Ghent  ana  Antwerp,  and  after  beine  ordained 
side  and  more  abruptly  on  the  west^  toward  the  low  priest  and  sustaining  a  public  defence  in  all  theology, 
basin  of  the  lake,  and  terminating  m  the  plain  now  tau^t  first  canon  law  and  then  moral  theoloe^  at  the 
called  Ghueir.  Jesuit  college  in  Louvain  from  1889  until  Ms  com- 
From  the  historical  and  religious  standpoint  the  paratively  early  and  unexpected  death.  Father  G^- 
land  of  Genesareth  is  one  of  the  most  interestmg  locaU-  cot  was  a  professor  well  liked  hy  all  his  classes  because 
ties  in  all  Palestine,  chiefly  because  of  its  connection  of  the  solidity  and  clearness  of  his  teaching.  In  1896 
with  the  public  mmistry  of  Our  Lord.  Within  its  he  published  nis  "Ilieolo^MoralisInstitutiones",  of 
boundaries  were  located  Caphamaum,  Corozain,  Ar-  which  the  sixth  edition,  m  harmony  with  recent  de- 
bela,  Magdala,  and  Tiberias,  as  well  as  the  mor^  an-  crees  of  the  Holv  See,  appealed  in  1909  (Brussels), 
cient  Cenereth.  Of  these  once  famous  towns  nothing  Father  G^cot  drew  his  inspiration  chiefly  from  the 
remains  at  present  except  a  few  ruins,  and  the  two  large  work  of  Ballerini-Palmieri.  His  own  work  is 
wretched  little  villages  occupying  the  site  of  Tiberias  characterized  by  a  great  clearness  of  exposition,  firm 


affirmed  by  Josephus  (loc.  cit.),  who  describes  it  as  principles  to  their  utmost  conclusions  and  set  down  the 
"wonderful  in  fertility  as  well  as  in  beauty".  He  conduct  confessors  may  legitimately  follow  in  the 
adds:  "Its  soil  is  so  fruitful  that  all  sorts  of  trees  can  confessional.  Confessors  have  no  reason  to  fear  the 
prow  upon  it  .  .  ,  for  the  air  is  so  well  tempered  that  broadness  of  his  conclusions,  if  they  do  not  actually 
it  agrees  with  all  sorts.  Thus  the  palm-tree,  which  re-  pass  beyond  the  limits  prescribed  by  the  author.  An- 
quires  a  warm  atmosphere,  flourishes  equally  well  with  other  work,  "  Casus  Conscientise ' ',  was  published  after 
the  walnut,  which  thrives  best  in  a  cold  climate. .  , .  the  author's  death.  The  third  edition  (1906)  ap- 
One  may  say  that  this  place  accomplishes  a  marvel  of  peared  with  additions  and  corrections  in  1909  (Lou- 
nature,  forcmg  those  plants  which  are  naturally  ene-  vain).  These  Casus,  gathered  in  large  part  from 
mies  of  one  another  to  agree  toother.''  It  was  noted  actual  experience,  are  remarkable  for  their  presenta- 
for  its  delicious  fruits  of  all  varieties,  and  the  climate  tion  of  real  life  and  are  something  more  than  a  mere 
was  such  that  they  flourished  in  nearly  all  the  seasons  repetition  of  theory, 
of  the  year.    Centuries  of  neglect  have  completely  J.  Sausmans. 


OEMHADinS                            416     .  OEMHADIUB 

Gomadins  Z,  Saint,  Patriaich  of  Constantinople  A  much  from  the  earlier  conciliatory  ones  that  Alb* 

f45&-471),  has  left  scaroely  any  writings.    Facunaus  tius  tiioudit  there  must  be  two  people  of  the  same 

(Defensio,  II,  iv)  states  that  he  wrote  against  St.  Cyril  name  ("Diatriba  de  Georgiis"  in  Fabriciue-HarieSy 

of  Alexandria,  probably  in  431-2,  and  quotes  a  passage  ''  Bibliotheca  Greca ",  X,  760-786) ;  to  whom  Gib- 

to  show  that  his  work  was  more  violent  even  tnan  the  bon:  "  Renaudot  has  restored  the  identity  of  his  per- 

letter  of  Ibas.    If  St.  Cvril's  letter  of  434  (£p.  Ivi)  is  to  son.  and  the  duplicity  of  his  character  "  ("Decline  and 

the  same  Gennadius.  they  were  friends  in  that  year.  Fall".  Izviii,  note  41.    For  Renaudot's  work  see  bibli- 

Gennadius  succeedea  Anatolius  as  Bishop  of  Constan-  ograpny  below).    Scholarius  entered  the  monastery 

tinople  in  458.    On  17  June,  460,  St.  Leo  wrote  to  ''of  the  Almignty"  (roG  UarroKpdropas)  under  Con- 

him  (E^.  dzx)  waminc  him  against  Timothy  ^urus,  st^tine  XI  (1448-1453)  and  took,  according  to  the 

the  Monophysite  who  nad  made  himself  Patriarch  of  invariable  custom,  a  new  name— Gennadius.    Before. 

Alexandria.    Not  later,  it  seems,  than  459  St.  Genna-  the  fall  of  the  city  he  was  already  well  known  as  a 

dius  celebrated  a  great  council  of  eighty-one  bishops,  bitter  opponent  of  the  union.    He  and  Marcus  Eugen- 

many  of  whom  were  from  the  East  and  even  from  icus  were  the  leaders  of  the  anti-Latin  party.    In 

Egsrptt  including  those  who  had  been  dispossessed  of  1447,  Marcus  on  his  death-bed  praised  Gennadius's  ir- 

their  sees  by  ^urus.   The  letter  of  this  council  against  reconcilable  attitude  towards  the  Latins  and  the  union 

simony  is  still  preserved  (Mansi,  VII,  912).    About  (P.  G/,  CLX,  529).    It  was  to  Gennadius  that  the  an* 

the  same  time  St.  Daniel  the  Stylite  began  to  live  on  gry  people  went  after  seeing  the  Uniat  services  in  the 

a  column  near  Constantinople,  apparently  without  great  church  of  Santa  Sophia.    It  is  said  that  he 

the  patriarch's  leave,  and  certainly  without  the  per-  hid  himself,  but  left  a  notice  on  the  door  of  his  cell: 

in 


peror  Leo  protected  tne  tne  itauansr    m  losmg  your  taitn  you  wui  lose  your 

ascetic,  and  some  time  later  sent  St.  Gennadius  to  city'',  and  so  on  (quoted,  by  Gibbon,  ibid.,  ed.  Bury, 

ordain  him  priest,  which  he  is  said  to  have  done  stand-  VII,  176). 

in^  at  the  foot  of  the  coliunn,  since  St.  Daniel  objected  As  soon  as  the  massacre  of  29  May,  1453,  was  over, 

to  oeine  ordained,  and  refused  to  let  the  bishop  mount  when  Mohammed  the  conqueror  thoi^t  of  reorgania- 

the  ladder.    At  the  end  of  the  rite,  however,  the  ing  the  now  subject  Christians,  he  was  naturally  anx- 

patriarch  ascended  to  give  Holy  Communion  to  the  ious  to  put  an  end  to  any  sort  of  alliance  between  them 

stylite  and  to  receive  it  from  him.    Whether  he  then  and  the  Western  princes.    So  he  sent  for  this  Genna- 

imposed  his  hands  on  him  is  not  said.    Possibly  he  dius  because  he  was  one  of  the  chief  enemies  of  the 

considered  it  sufficient  to  extend  them  from  below  union,  add  told  him  to  be  patriarch.    The  see  had  been 

towards  the  saint.    According  to  Theodorus  Lector,  vacant  three  years,  since  the  resignation  of  Athana- 

Gennadius  would  allow  no  one  to  become  a  cleric  unless  sius  II  j[1450).    On  1  June,  1453,  the  new  patriarch's 

he  had  learned  the  Psalter  by  heart.    He  made  St.  procession  passed  through  the  streets  that  were  still 

Marcian  cecanomtts  of  the  Church  of  Constantinople.  reeking  with  blood;  Mohammed  received  Gennadius 

St.  Gennadius  is  said  by  Joannes  Moschus  to  have  graciously  and  himself  invested  him  with  the  signs  of 

been  very  mild  and  of  great  purity.    We  are  told  by  his  office — ^the  crosier  (ducaplKWp)  and  mantle.    This 

Gennadius  of  Marseilles  that  he  was  lingiM  nitidus  el  degrading  ceremony  has  continued  ever  since^  ez- 

ingenio  acer,  and  so  rich  in  knowledge  of  the  ancients  cept  that  now  (since  the  Turks  hanged  Parthenius 

that  he  composed  a  commentary  on  Uie  whole  Book  of  III  in  1657)  the  sultan  thinks  it  beneath  his  di^ty^  so 

Daniel.    The  continuation  of  St.  Jerome's  Chronicle  that  it  is  performed  by  the  grand  vizier  (Pitzipios, 

by  Maroellinus  Comes  tells  us  (according  to  some  ''L'Eglise  Orientale",  Rome,  1855, 111,83).    Mohsmd- 

manuscripts)  that  Gennadius  commented  on  all  St.  med  also  arrang^  with  Gennadius  the  condition 

Paul's  Epistles.    Some  fragments  are  collected  in  of  Orthodox  Chnstians  (the  so-called  "Roman  na- 

Migne,  P.  G.,  LXXXV,  chie^  from  the  two  catens  of  tion")  in  the  Turkish  Empire,  made  the  patriarch 

Cramer  on  Romans;  a  few  passages  are  found  in  the  their  aclmowledged  civil  head  before  the  Forte  and 

catena  of  (Ecmnenius,  and  a  few  in  the  Vienna  MS.  g^ve  him  a  diploma  (called  herat)  exactly  defining  his 

gr.  166  (46).    Some  fragments  in  the  catense  of  Nice-  rights  and  duties.    This  berat  is  still  given  to  every 

phorus  show  that  Gennadius  also  commented  on  patriarch  before  his  consecration  (or  enthronement). 

Genesis.    He  is  seen  to  have  been  a  learned  writer,  Gennadius,  who  was  not  in  Holv  orders,  was  then  or- 

who  followed  the  Antiochene  school  of  literal  exegesis,  dained  to  each  grade.   Although  he  so  disliked  Latins, 

He  is  celebrated  in  the  Greek  Mensea  on  25  Aug.  and  17  he  seems  to  have  kept  good  relations  with  the  sultan. 

Nov. ;  and  on  the  former  day  in  the  Roman  Martyiv  One  of  the  symbolic  books  of  the  Orthodox  Church  is 

ology.  the  Confession  ('OfioXoyta)  made  by  him  to  Moham- 

Ada  55.,  25  Aug.;  Txllbmont.  MSmoirea,  XVI;  Tubnbb  in  med,  by  which  he  is  said  to  have  secured  a  certain 

Hast.,  DicL  of  ih*  BibU,  extra  volume*  517.  measure  of  tolerance  for  his  people  (see  below).    As 

John  Chapman.  the  Santa  Sophia  had  been  macle  into  a  mosque,  he 

used  as  his  patriarchal  church,  first  that  of  the  Apoe- 

Oennadiiu  n,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (1454-  ties  (where  the  emperors  were  buried),  then  that 

1456). — ^His  original  name  was  George  Scholarius  of  the  All-Blessed  (r^  TafAftoKoplrrov^sihe  Blessed 

(Ttiipyutt  Kovpri^ioff  2xoXdp«of).    He  was  bom  about  Virgin).    But  after  two  years,  in  1456  (Gedeon  in 

1400,  was  first  a  teacher  of  philosophy  and  then  his  UarfMopj^ucol  n/yaicet,  Constantinople,  1890;  others 

judge  in  the  civil  courts  under  the  Emperor  John  say  it  was  m  1459),  he  resigned.    It  is  difficult  to 

Yin  (1425-1448).    In  this  <»pacity  he  accompanied  give  the  full  reason  for  this  step.    It  is  commonly 

his  master  to  the  Council  of  Ferrara^Florence  (1438-  attributed  to  his  disappointment  at  the  sultan's  treat- 

1439)  and  was  at  that  time  in  favour  of  the  union,  ment  of  Christians.    Un  the  other  hand,  Mohammed 

He  made  four  speeches  at  the  council,  all  exceedingly  seems  to  have  kept  the  fairly  tolerant  conditions  he 

conciliatory,  and  wrote  a  refutation  of  the  first  ei^ht-  had  allowed  to  them;  various  writers  hint  darkly  at 

een  of  Marcus  Eugenicus's  syllogistic  chapters  against  other  motives  (see  Michalceacu,  op.  cit.  infra,  13). 

the  Latins.    But  when  he  came  back  to  Constanti-  Gennadius  then,  like  so  many  of  his  successors,  ended 

nople,  like  most  of  his  countrymen,  he  changed  his  his  days  as  an  ex-patriarch  and  a  monk.    He  lived  in 

mind.    Marcus  Eugenicus  converted  him  completely  the  monastery  of  St.  John  Baptist  at  Seres  in  Mace- 

to  anti-Latin  Orthodox3r,  and  from  this  time  till  his  donia  (north-east  of  Saloniki),  and  wrote  books  till  his 

death  he  was  known  (with  Marcus)  as  the  most  un-  death  in  1468  (Paoageorgiu  in  the  ''  Byzantinische 

compromising  enemy  of  the  union.    He  then  wrote  Zeitschrift",  III,  315).    Gennadius  Scholarius  fills  an 

many  works  to  defend  hb  new  convictions,  which  differ  important  place  in  Byzantine  history.    Ht  was  the 


GENNADIXTS  417  aBHVADIXTS 


last  of  the  old  school  of  polemical  writers  and  one  of  how  many  Gods  are  there?"  and  so  on)  and  Gennadiw 

the  greatest.   Unlike  most  of  his  fellows  he  had  an  in-  gives  suitable  answers.    This  is  called  variously  Gen- 

timate  acquaintance  with  Latin  controversial  litera-  nadius's  ''Dialo^e"  (dtdKt^is)^  or  "Confessio  prior", 

ture,  especially  with  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  the  or"De  Viasalut]shumanse"(ncy>{r^6doCr9f  tf^vrifptat 

Schoolmen.    He  was  as  skilful  an  opponent  of  Catho-  dwOfM&wwp),    Kimmel   prints   it   first,   in  Latin  only 

lie  theology  as  Marcus  Eu^nicus,  and  a  more  learned  (op.  cit.,  1-10),  and  tninks  it  was  tne  source  of  the 

one.    His  writings  show  him  to  be  a  student  not  only  Confession  (ibid.,  iii).    It  is  more  probably  a  later 

of  Western  philosophy  but  of  controversy  with  Jews  compilation  made  from  the  Confession  by  some  one 

and  Mohammedans,  of  the  great  Hesvchast  question  else  (Otto,  op.  cit.  infra).    It  should  be  noticed  that 

(he  attacked  Barlaam  and  defended  the  monks;  nat-  (xennadius's  (q^uasi-Platonic)  philosophy  is  in  evidence 

turaUy,    the    Barlaamites    were    \aT€tv6^powes),    in  in  his  Confession  (Ciod  cannot   be  interpreted,  0€ift 

short,  of  all  the  questions  that  were  important  in  his  from  Ohip^  etc.; cf.  Kimmel,  op.  cit.,  viii-xvi).   Either 

time.    He  has  another  kind  of  importance  as  the  first  for  the  same  reason  or  to  spare  Moslem  susceptibility 

Patriarch  of  Constantinople  under  the  Turk.    From  he  avoids  the  word  llp6ataira  in  explaining  the  Trinity, 

this  point  of  view  he  stands  at  the  head  of  a  new  period  speakine  of  the  three  Persons  as   tdtdfukra  ''which 

in  the  history  of  his  Church;  the  principles  that  still  we  call  Hypostases"  (Conf.,  3). 

regulate  the  condition  of  Orthodox  Christians  in  the  During  the  third  period,  from  his  resignation  to  his 

Turkish  Empire  are  the  result  of  Mohammed  II's  ar-  death  (1459-1468),  he  continued  writing  theological 

rangement  with  him.  and  polemical  works.    An  Encyclical  Tetter  to  all 

WORKS. — Gennadius  was  a  prolific  writer  during  all  (]^istians  "  In  defence  of  his  resignation  "  is  unedited, 
the  periods  of  his  life.  He  is  said  to  have  left  from  1(X)  as  are  also  a  ''  Dialogue  with  two  Turks  about  the 
to  120  works  (Michalcescu,  op.  cit.  infra,  13).  Of  divinitvof  Christ",  and  a  work  about  the  "Adoration 
these  a  great  number  are  still  unedited.  P.  G.,  CLX,  of  God".  Jahn  (Anecdota  grasca)  has  published  a 
320-773,  contains  the  chief  collection  of  what  has  been  ''  Dialogue  between  a  Christian  and  a  Jew  ",  and  a  col- 
published.  To  this  must  be  added  the  works  in  Si-  lection  of  ''Prophecies  about  Chnst**  gathered  from 
monides,  'Op$,  'EXKtiv.  BeoXoytKal  ypa^  (London,  the  Old  Testament.  A  treatise.  "About  our  Crod,  one 
1859),  42-72;  Jahn,  "Anecdota  grseca  theologica"  in  three,  against  Atheists  ana  Polytheists"  (P.O., 
(Leipzig,  1893),  1-68,  and  others  mentioned  below.  CLX,  567  sqa.),  is  chieflv  directed  against  the  theory 

First  Period  (while  he  was  in  favour  of  the  union,  tiiat  the  world  mayhave  been  formed  by  chance.   Five 

1438-c.  1445). — ^The  chief  works  of  this  time  are  the  books,  "About  the  Foreknowledge  and  Providence  of 

"  speeches"  made  at  the  Council  of  Florence  (printed  God  ",  and  a  "Treatise  on  the  manhood  of  Christ ",  are 

in  Hardouin,  IX,  and  P.  G.,  CLX,  386  sqq.),  also  a  also  in  P.  G.,  CLX.    Lastly,  there  are  many  homilies 

number  of  letters  addressed  to  various  friends,  bishops,  by  (jiennadius,  most  of  which  exist  only  in  manuscript 

and  statesmen,  mostly  unedited.    An  "Apology  tor  at  Athos  ("Codd.  Athous",  Paris,  128^1298).    A 

five  chapters  of  the  Coimcil  of  Florence'',  edited  first  critical   edition  of  Gennadius's  collected  works  Is 

(in  Latin)  at  Rome  in  1577,  and  again  in  1628,  is  doubt-  badly  needed. 

ful  (in  P.  G.,  CLIX,  it  is  attributed  to  Joseph  of  Me-  For  the  question  of  the  supposed  two  persons,  both  named 

thone).    A  "History  of  the  Council  of  Florence"  Geow  Schoianiw.  see  Au^tixjb.  Z)« Georj^is  eomm^^ 

J     V.             M^»av^Aj    x/»    vu^  Y^^*^^^   y*    *  ;^*7"*C^,  m  De  Ecel.  occid.  atque  onerU.    perp.  eonaenaume    (Cologne, 

under  his  name  (m  manuscnpt)  is  really  identical  with  i648),  III,  5,  6.    His  theory  has  been  taken  up  again  by  Kiu- 

that  of  Syropulos  (ed.  Creighton,  The  Hague,  1660).  iml.  op.  at.,  U-vii,  but  was  confuted  long  ago  by  Rbnaudot, 

Second  Pmod  (as  opponent  of  the  union,  to  his  «««-  §S^tT'<^S^^:^TS^^^^^'°!lX^"i^ 

nation  of  the  patriarchal  see,  c.  1445-1456  or  1459).  m,  248l;  Fabriciub-Harubs,  BM.  Oraca  (Hamburg.  1790). 

A  great  number  of  polemical  works  against  Latins  XI,  349;  and  everyone  since  maintain  the  identity  of  Oenna- 

yen*  written  m  this  time     IVp  books  about  the  ftSS);ll™°»=J.^;;^"°^i,';S:»^^5* 

"Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  (one  m  Simonides,  Byzantiniache  ZeiUchriftj  IV  (1895),  8  soq.;  Gbdbon,  narpiap. 

loc.  cit.,  the  other  in  P.  G.,  CLX,  665);    another  one  X*«oi  niV«€«  (Constantinople,  s.  d.),  47}  sqq.;  Cbusius.  Tur^ 

**  Acminflt  thp  inM>rtion  of  thft  Filinniip  in  thp  CrtH^l "  eogracui,  I,  2;   Otto,   De»  Pair.  Gmnadiua  Confeano  krxttach 

agamst  tne  mseruon  Ol  ine  J5U10que  m  tne  V^reea  unUrauctU  (Vienna,  1864);  Kbumbachbb.  Byzantiniaehe  Litter- 

(ibid.,  713);  two  books  and  a  letter  about  "Purga-  atur  (2nded..  Munich,  1897),  119-121. 
toiy";  various  sermons  and  speeches;  a  ''Panegyric  Adrian  Fortescue. 
of  Marcus  Eugenicus"  (in  1447),  etc.  Some  transla- 
tions of  works  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  polemical  OemUMUuB  of  MarseilleB  (Gennadius^  Scholas- 
treatises  against  hi&  theology  by  (jennadius  are  still  ticus),  a  priest  whose  chief  title  to  fame  is  his  continu- 
unedited,  as  is  also  his  work  aeainst  the  Barlaamites.  ation  of  St.  Jerome's  catalogue  ''  De  Viris  illustribus". 
There  are  also  various  philosopnical  treatises  of  which  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life,  save  what  he  tells  us  him- 
the  chief  is  a  ''Defence  of  Aristotle"  (dyriX^ecf  ^ip  self  in  tne  last  (xcvii)  of  the  biographies  in  question: 
' Aptarorikovt)  against  the  Platonist,  Gemistus  Pletho  "I,  Gennadius,  presbyter  of  Massilia,  wrote  eight 
(P.  G.,  CLX,  743  sqq.).  ^  books  against  all  heresies,  five  books  against  Nesto- 
His  most  important  work  is  easily  his  "Confession"  rius,  ten  books  against  Eutyches,  three  books  against 
CBxOtffts  rijt  wlffrtw  tup  6p6o96^up  xp^^^*^^^*i  generally  Pelsigius,  a  treatise  on  the  thousand  years  of  the  Apoca- 
known  as  ^Oiuikoyla,  rod  Twva^iov)  addressed  to  Moham-  lypse  of  John,  this  work,  and  a  letter  about  my 
medll.  Itcontainstwentyarticles,  of  which  however  mith  sent  to  blessed  Gelasius,  bishop  of  the  city  of 
only  the  first  twelve  are  authentic.  It  was  written  in  Rome"  (ed.  Bernoulli,  95).  This  nxes  his  period 
Greek;  Achmed,  Kadi  of  BerrhcBa,  translated  it  into  more  or  less;  Gelasius  reigned  from  492-496,  so 
Turkish.  This  is  the  first  (in  date)  of  the  Orthodox Sym-  Gennadius  must  have  lived  at  the  end  of  the  fifth 
bolic  books.   It  was  published  first  (in  Greek  and  Latin)  century 

by  Brassicanus  (Vienna,  1530),  again  by  C^ytrseus  Internal  evidence  shows  that  he  was  a  Semipelagian, 

(Frankfort,  1582) .    Crusius  printed  it  in  Greek,  Latin,  as  indeed  the  name  of  his  city  would  make  one  suspect, 

and  Turkish  (in  Greek  and  Latin  letters)  in  his  "  Turco-  Of  all  the  works  to  which  he  refers,  onlv  the  "  De  Viris 

GrsBcia"  (Basle,  1584,  reprinted  in  P.  G.,  CLX^  333,  illustribus" — "this  work" — is  certainly  extant.    He 

sqq.).     Kimmel  has  repnnted  it  (Greek  and  Latin)  in  tells  us  further  that  he  translated  and  restored  to  their 

his  "Monumenta  fidei  Eccl.  Orient."  (Jena,  1850),  I,  authentic  form  Evagrius  Ponticus's  works  (xi,  65), 

1-10;  and  Michalcescu  in  Greek  only  [Die  Bekennt-  and  those  of  Timothy  ^lurus   (Ixxii,  86).    These 

nisse    und   die   wichtigsten   Glaubenszeugnisse   der  translations  are  also  lost.    He  twice  mentions  a"  cata- 

.  griech. -orient.  Kirche  (Leipzig,  1904),  17-21].    There  logue  of  heretics"  that  he  means  to  write  (xxv,  74, 

existe  an  arran^ment  of  this  Confession  in  the  form  and  liii,  79).     Presumably  this  is  the  work  "against 

of  a  dialogue  in  which  Mohammed  asks  Questions  all  heresies"  referred  te  above.    There  is  a  pseudo- 

("What  is  God?" — "Why  is  he  called  Ms?'' — "And  Augustinian  treatise,  "De  ecclesiasticis  dogmatibus" 
VI.— 27 


GENNDrOS 


418 


GENNIMG8 


(P.  L.,  LVIII,  979-1064),  that  is  now  universally  at- 
tributed to  Gennadius.  The  only  question  is  with 
which  of  the  works  he  speaks  of  havinff  written  the 
last-mentioned  should  be  identified.  It  has  often 
been  thought  to  be  the  letter  to  Gelasius.  Caspari 
(op.  cit.  infra),  Bardenhewer,  Czapla,  and  others  have 
pointed  out  that  the  treatise  has  nothing  of  the  nature 
of  a  letter  or  of  a  personal  profession  of  faith.  Only 
once,  in  chap,  xxiii,  does  the  author  write  in  the 
first  person  (lat^io,  m^upero,  etc.).  They  think  there- 
fore that  it  is  more  probably  a  fra^ent  of  Genna- 
dius's  eight  books  *' against  all  heresies",  apparently 
the  last  part,  in  which,  having  confuted  the  heretics, 
he  builds  up  a  positive  system. 

There  are  many  indications  that  the  author  was 
a  Semipelagian  in  Qennadius's  chapters  ''De  Viris 
illustribus".  Semipelagians  are  warmly  praised 
(Fastidiosus,  Ivi.  p.  80;  Cassian,  Ixi,  81;  Faustus, 
Ixxxv,  89);  full  Pelagians  (Pelagius  himself,  xlii, 
77;  Julian  of  Eclanum^  xlv,  77)  are  heretics;  Catho- 
lics are  treated  shabbily  (Augustine,  xxxviii,  75; 
Prosper  of  Aquitahia,  Ixxxiv,  89);  even  popes  are 
called  heretics  (Julius  I,  in  i^  61).  The  same  tend- 
ency is  confirmed  by  the  treatise  "  De  eccles.  dogmati- 
bus'',  which  is  full  of  Semipelagianism,  either  open  or 
implied  (original  sin  carefully  evaded,  great  insistence 
on  free  will  and  denial  of  predestination,  grace  as  an 
adjutorium  in  the  mildest  form,  etc. ;  cf .  Wiggers,  op. 
cit.  infra,  353  sqq.).  Perhaps  the  most  reprehensi- 
ble effect  of  Gennadius's  opinions  on  this  pomt  is  his 
sneering  remark  about  St.  Augustine's  prolific  genius: 
"  He  wrote  so  much  that  it  cannot  all  be  found.  For 
who  shall  boast  of  possessing  all  his  works,  or  who 
shall  read  with  as  much  care  as  he  used  in  writing?'' 
And  at  the  end  he  tempers  his  faint  praise  by  saying 
that  Augustine  "  caused  doubts  about  the  question  of 
unborn  children  to  the  simple"  and  that  he  ''re- 
mained a  Catholic"  (xxxviii,  75).  To  say  of  Augus- 
tine merely  that  he  remained  a  Catholic,  shows  prej- 
udice, if  anything  can. 

We  have  said  tnat  (xennadius's  chief,  if  not  his  only, 
title  to  fame  is  his  continuation  of  St.  Jerome's  **  De 
Viris  illustribus".  In  that  work  Jerome  had  for  the 
first  time  drawn  up  a  series  of  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  short  biograpnies  of  famous  Christians,  with  lists 
of  their  chief  works.  It  was  the  first  patrology  and 
dictionary  of  Christian  biography.  So  useful  a  book 
of  reference  naturally  became  popular,  and  while  no 
one  thought  of  controlling  or  correcting  it,  many  peo- 
ple wrote  continuations  after  the  same  method.  We 
near  of  such  a  continuation  by  one  Paterius,  a  disciple 
of  Jerome,  and  of  a  Greek  translation  by  Sophronius. 
But  it  was  Gennadius's  continuation  that  won  most 
favour,  that  was  accepted  everywhere  as  a  second  part 
of  the  same  work,  ana  was  always  written  (eventually 
printed)  together  with  St.  Jerome's  work,  (xenna- 
dius's  part  contains  about  one  hundred  lives  (vari- 
ously numbered:  by  Bernoulli,  i  to  xcvii,  with  some 
marked  as  xciib,  etc.,  originally  cxxxvi-ccxxxii), 
modelled  strictly  on  those  of  Jerome.  In  xc,  92,  he 
says  (in  one  version)  that  Theodore  of  Ccelesyria 
(llieodulus)  ''died  three  years  ago,  in  the  reign 
of  Zeno".  From  this  Czapla  deduces  that  Gen- 
nadius wrote  between  491  and  494.  The  series  is 
arranged  more  or  less  in  chronological  order,  but  there 
are  frequent  exceptions.  Tlie  text  is  in  a  bad  state. 
Other  people  have  modified  it  and  added  to  it  without 
noting  the  fact — as  is  usual  among  medievd  writers. 
Richsuxison  (op.  cit.  infra)  and  Czapla  consider,  ap- 
parently with  reason,  that  chapters  xxx  (John  of 
Jerusalem),  Ixxxvii  (Victorinus),  xciii  (Cserealis  of 
Africa),  and  ail  the  end  portion  (xcv-ci),  are  not 
authentic.  There  is  doubt  about  parts  of  the  others. 
Gennadius  was  on  the  whole  an  honourable  and 
scrupulous  writer.  In  one  place  (Ixxxv,  90)  he  says: 
"There  are  other  works  by  him  (Faustus)  which  I 
will  not  name  because  I  have  not  yet  read  them."  He 


uses  the  name  "Scholasticus"  as  an  honourable  epi- 
thet repeatedly  (bdii,  82,  Ixvii,  84,  Ixxix,  87,  Uxxiv, 
89).  It  is  generally,  and  very  justly,  given  to  him  by 
others. 

De  Viri$  tUustritnUt  ed.  Andrbas  (Jerome  and  Gennadius 
tof^ether,  aa  nearly  always;  Rome,  1468).  This  is  the  editio 
pnnoeps:  the  work  had  a  long  historv  in  manuscript  before  (cf . 
Bernoulli,  op.  cit..  xvi-lvi),  and  has  been  reprinted  con- 
stantly  since.  FASUCina,  Bibliotheoa  eedesiaatica  (Hamburs* 
1718).  II.  1-43;  this  b  the  edition  reproduced  m  P.  L..  LVIII. 
1059-1120;  the  most  practical  modem  ed.  is  Bbrnouixi,  Hier- 
onumut  und  OennadtuB  De  Virie  iUiutribua  (Freiburg  im  Br., 
1895,  vol.  II  of  KrOqbb,  Sarnmlung  auagewAnUer  Kirdun  una 
dogmenotKhiehUichen  Ouellensehriften)^  with  apparatus  and 
notes.  All  references  aoove  are  to  this  edition.  The  work  De 
eeduituHeU  dogmatibua  was  published  by  Elmknhobst  (Ham- 
burg,  1614),  rer^rinted  in  P,  L.,  LVIII,  979-1054;  Csapla, 
Oennadius  tUe  Lilterarhietoriker  (Mflnster,  1898).  Richarooon 
edited  Gbnnadius  in  the  TexUund  UrUenuchungen,  XIV  (1895); 
JuNOMANN,  Quaeltonee  Gennadiana  <Leipsig,  1881);  Caspari, 
Kirdienhiehnache  Aneodota  (Christiania,  1883);  Dibkaiip, 
Wann  hat  Oennadiua  eeinen  RchrifUidlerkataloo  verfaeett  in 
Rihniaehe  QuariaUchrift  (1898).  411-420;  Bardbnhbwbr. 
PatrUoa%€,  tr.  Shahan  (Freiburg  un  Br.,  1908),  608;  WiaoBRs. 
Venuai  emer  jfragm,  DareteUung  dee  Auffuetiniemita  und  Pda- 
gianiamue  (Hamburg.  1833),  350-356. 

^Adrian  Fortescue. 

Oensings,  Edmxtnd  and  John,  the  first,  a  martyr 
for  the  CathoUc  Faith,  and  the  second,  the  restorer 
of  the  English  province  of  Franciscan  friars,  were 
brothers  and  converts  to  the  Church.  Edmund  Gen- 
nines  was  bom  at  Lichfield  in  1567;  died  in  London, 
10  Dec.,  1591.  John  was  b.  about  1570;  d.  at  Douai, 
12  Nov.,  1660. 

Edmund,  even  in  his  boyhood,  exhibited  an  unusual 
gravity  of  manners  and  a  mystical  turn  of  mind; 
when  about  sixteen  years  of  age,  he  was  converted  to 
the  Catholic  Faith,  and  immediately  afterwards  en- 
tered the  English  Cc^lege  at  Reims.  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  1590,  being  then  only  twenty-three  years 
of  age,  and  at  once  returned  to  England  under  the 
assumed  name  of  Ironmonger.  But  his  missionary 
career  was  of  short  duration,  for  he  was  seised  whilst 
saying  Mass  in  London  on  7  Nov.,  1591,  and  executed 
at  Gray's  Inn  Fields  on  10  Dec.  His  martyrdom  was 
the  occasion  of  several  remarkable  incidents,  chief  of 
which  was  the  conversion  of  his  younger  brother  John. 
On  his  return  to  Ebgland,  Edmund  Gennings  had  at 
once  gone  to  Lichfield  to  seek  out  his  kindred  in  the 
hope  of  bringing  them  to  the  true  faith,  but  he  found 
that  all  his  relatives  were  dead  except  this  one  brother, 
who  had,  however,  left  his  native  city  and  gone  to 
London.  Thither  Edmund  proceeded  and  for  a 
whole  month  searched  the  city,  visiting  every  place 
where  he  thought  his  brother  might  be  found.  Event- 
ually, when  he  was  about  to  give  up  the  search,  he 
achieved  his  purpose,  but  the  younger  brother,  far 
from  being  won  over  to  Edmund's  faith,  only  be- 
sought him  to  go  away,  lest  he  himself  should  become 
suspect;  and  when  after  awhile  Edmimd  was  seized 
ana  condemned  John  "  rejoiced  rather  than  bewailed 
the  untimely  and  bloody  end  of  his  nearest  kinsman, 
hoping  thereby  to  be  rid  of  all  persuasions  which  he 
suspected  he  should  receive  from  him  touching;  the 
Catnolic  Religion".  So  wrote  John  Gennings  m  his 
life  of  his  brother,  published  in  1614.  at  St^Omer. 

Undoubtedly  at  this  time  John  Gennings  was  bent 
on  pleasure,  but  one  must  make  allowances  for  the 
spint  of  remorse  with  which  he  looked  back  on  those 
days  in  after  years^  and  not  accept  his  own  estimate  of 
his  vouth  too  readily.  However,  about  ten  days  after 
his  brother's  execution,  a  chan^  came  over  him.  He 
began  one  night  to  think  of  his  brother's  death  and 
contempt  of  the  world,  and  to  compare  his  own  life 
with  that  of  the  martyr.  He  was  struck  with  remorse 
and  wept  bitterly,  and  next  prayed  for  light.  In- 
stantly ne  felt  an  exceeding  ^"eat  reverence  for  the 
saints  and,  above  all,  our  Blessed  Lady,  and  it  seemed  , 
to  him  that  he  saw  his  brother  in  glory.  He  thereupon 
made  a  vow  to  forsake  friends  and  country  and  seek  a 
true  knowledge  of  his  brother's  faith.    Being  received 


GENOA 


419 


GENOA 


into  the  Church,  he  entered  Douai  College,  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1607,  and  the  following  year  was  sent 
upon  the  English  mission.  Here  he  conceived  a  de- 
sire for  the  restoration  of  the  English  province  of 
Franciscaxis,  and  sou^t  out  Father  William  Staney, 
the  commissary  of  the  English  friars,  and  from  him 
received  the  habit,  either  in  1610  or  1614  (the  date  is 
uncertain).  After  this,  he  went  for  a  time  to  a  con- 
vent of  the  order  at  Ypres,  in  Flanders,  where  he  was 
joined  b^r  several  English  companions,  amongst  whom 
was  Christopher  Davenport,  known  in  religion  as 
FranciscuB  k  Sancta  Clara,  afterwards  a  famous  con- 
troversialist. Thus  was  the  foundation  of  a  new 
English  province  laid,  and  Father  William  Staney, 
recognising  the  zeal  of  John  Gennings,  now  gave  into 
his  j^ds  the  seal  of  the  old  province  of  the  English 
Observants. 

Gennin^  next  proceeded  to  procure  a  house  for  the 
English  fnars  at  Gravelines,  but  in  1618  he  obtained 
leave  from  the  minister  general  to  establish  a  settle- 
ment at  Douai.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  most  of  the 
friars  who  had  joined  Gennings  were  alumni  of  Douai 
College,  and  in  transferring  their  residence  to  that 
town  he  hoped  to  obtain  a  continuous  supply  of  re- 
cruits. The  work  of  restoring  the  English  province 
was  definitely  confided  to  him  by  the  general  chapter 
of  1618,  and  he  was  nominated  "  Vicar  of  England '''. 
'  To  assist  him  in  the  work  of  restoration,  the  commis- 
sary general  of  the  Belgian  nation  was  empowered  to 
gather  toother  all  the  English  and  Scotch  friars  from 
any  provmce  in  the  order.  A  decree  of  the  same  gen- 
eral chapter  placed  the  English  Poor  Clares  of  Grave- 
lines  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  English  friars.  In 
1625,  the  number  of  English  friars  having  greatly  in- 
creased, Gennings  sent  Father  Franciscus  k  Sancta 
Clara  to  Rome  to  plead  that  the  English  province  be 
canonicalljr  estabhshed.  The  request  was  granted 
with  the  simple  restriction  that  tne  superior  of  the 
province  should  not  assume  the  title  of  provincial,  but 
that  of  custoe;  but,  in  1629,  this  restriction  was  taken 
awajr  and  Friar  John  Gennings  was  appointed  minister 
provincial.  The  first  chapter  of  the  new  province 
was  held  at  Brussels  in  Advent  of  the  same  year,  in  the 
convent  of  the  English  sisters  of  the  third  order,  which 
Gennings  had  himself  founded  in  1619.  This  com- 
munity of  tertiary  sisters  has  continued  to  the  present 
time,  and  is  now  established  at  Taunton,  in  England, 
with  a  branch  house  at  Woodchester.  Father  Jc^n 
Gennings  was  re-elected  provincial  in  1634,  and  again 
in  1643. 

Mason,  Cerlomen  Sertmhicum  Provincia  Anglim  (Douai, 
1649;  Quaracchi.  1885);  Challonbb,  Memoirs  of  Missionary 
Priests;  A.P..  CcUsekmea  Anglo- Minoritica  (London,  1726); 
I^ADDBUS,  The  Franciscans  in  England  (London,  1898). 

Fatheb  Cuthbbrt. 

Ctonoa,  Abchdiocese  of  (Januensis),  in  Liguria, 
Northern  Italy.  The  city  is  situated  on  the  gulf  of  the 
same  name,  extends  along  the  lowest  ridges  of  the 
Ligurian  Apennines,  which  sweep  around  the  gulf ,  be- 
tween the  mouths  of  the  Polcevera  and  the  Bisagno, 
and  is  protected  from  the  inroads  of  these  waters  by 
the  Punta  della  Lantema  and  the  Punta  del  Carignano. 
The  bav  forms  a  natural  harbour  secured  against 
storms  by  the  promontory  of  Portofino,  which  acts  as 
a  breakwater.  Two  piers  (the  smaller  one  begun  in 
1133)  were  necessary  to  break  the  force  of  the  tide 
during  storms.  Its  favourable  position  has  made 
Genoa  the  largest  trade  centre  on  the  Mediterranean. 
It  is  also  a  naval  fortress  with  a  chain  of  defences 
about  ten  miles  in  length. 

In  205  B.  c,  Mago  the  Carthaginian  landed  there 
with  a  large  army,  and  sacked  the  town  for  its  sym- 
pathy with  Rome,  the  rest  of  Liguria  supporting  the 
Carthaginians.  From  the  end  of  the  Second  Punic 
War,  Genoa  belonged  to  Rome.  After  the  Lombard 
invasion,  it  remaineid  subject  to  Byzantium,  like  nearly 
all  the  maritime  towns  of  Italy.    In  a.  d.  641  King 


Rotari,  in.  his  expedition  along  the  coast  of  Liguna, 
sacked  Genoa,  and  carried  off  immense  booty.  It  was 
later  incorporated  in  the  Lombard  kingdom,  probably 
under  Charlemagne,  becoming  part  of  the  March  of 
Obertenga.  In  935,  it  was  surprised  and  sacked  by 
the  Saracens,  but  the  Genoese  fleet  followed  up  the 
enemy  and  defeated  them  near  the  island  of  Asmara. 
In  1008,  the  Saracens  came  for  the  third  time.  Mean- 
while the  trade  and  enterprise  of  Genoa  had  steadily 
increased,  and  now  rivalled  that  of  Pisa,  in  those  early 
times  its  friendly  neighbour.  In  1016,  they  drove  the 
Arab  chief  Mo^lied  from  Sardinia.  In  1052,  the 
town  organized  itself  into  a  commune,  and  was  gov- 
erned by  consuls  and  a  podest^  (mayor) ;  in  1258,  how- 
ever, the  control  was  divided  between  the  podest^  and 
a  "captain  of  the  people",  a  condition  which  lasted 
till  1310.  From  1339  to  1797,  except  when  the  rule 
was  in  the  hands  of  foreigners,  the  cit}r  was  governed 
by  doges  chosen  from  the  principal  families,  at  first  for 
life,  but  after  1528  for  periods  of  two  years. 

In  1087,  the  Genoese  and  Pisans  captured  Almadia 
and  Subeila  in  Africa.  In  the  First  Crusade  their 
fleet  transported  the  crusading  armies  to  the  Holy 
Land,  secured  many  ports  in  Syria  and  Palestine  for 
the  Christians^  and,  in  return  for  their  services,  they 
were  granted  im[)ortant  commercial  privileges  among 
the  Christian  principalities  of  the  East.  Together 
with  the  Pisans  they  aided  Innocent  II  to  put  down 
the  schism  of  Anacletus,  and,  as  a  reward,  the  pope 
divided  between  the  two  municipalities  the  islands  of 
Sardinia  and  Corsica,  retaining,  however,  his  own 
overlordship.  In  1147,  they  took  Almeria  and  Tor- 
tosa,  in  Spain,  from  the  Moors.  The  threatening  atti- 
tude of  Genoa  forced  Frederick  Barbarossa  to  recogzuse 
all  its  liberties  and  possessions;  hence,  until  the  rei^ 
of  Frederick  II,  it  remained  friendly  to  the  imperial 
cause,  and  even  assisted  in  the  attack  on  Sicily.  In 
1240,  however,  the  Genoese  refused  to  do  homage  to 
Frederick  II,  and,  in  1241,  they  lent  their  fleet  to  trans- 
port the  northern  prelates  to  the  council  convened  by 
Gregory  IX,  but  were  pursued  and  defeated  between 
the  islands  of  II  Giglio  and  Monte  Cristo  by  the  Pisans, 
the  allies  of  the  emperor.  In  1244,  Innocent  IV  took 
refuge  in  Genoa.  The  commercial  favour  shown  by 
the  Latki  Empire  of  Constantinople  (1204-60)  to- 
wards the  Venetians  enabled  the  latter  to  defeat  the 
Genoese  at  SWean  d'Acre  and  on  the  high  seas,  in 
1257  and  1258  respectivel^r.  In  1261,  the  Genoese 
took  their  revenge  by  assisting  Michael  Pakeologus  to 
reconquer  Constantmople,  and  obtained  from  him 
Smyrzia  and  Pent,  and  the  monopoly  of  trade  in  the 
Black  Sea.  They  developed  markets  rapidly  on  the 
shores  of  this  sea,  the  principal  one  being  Caffa,  and 
carried  on  a  brisk  trade,  exporting  mainly  wine,  oil, 
woollens,  and  silks,  and  importing  .skins,  furs,  com, 
Persian  stuffs,  etc.  For  the  government  of  these  colo- 
nies, a  general  consulate  of  the  empire  of  Gazaria 
was  established. 

A  bitter  war  now  began  between  the  rival  cities  of 
Genoa  and  Pisa.  From  1262  to  1267,  five  naval  bat- 
tles (Settepozzi,  Durazzo,  Trapani,  Tyre,  and  St-Jean 
d'Acre)  were  fought,  in  which  Genoa  was  generallv 
the  loser.  St.  Louis  IX  of  France  sought  to  establish 
peace  on  a  firm  footing  (Cremona,  1270) ;  but  a  revolt 
m  Corsica,  stirred  up  by  the  Pisans,  soon  led  to  another 
war  (1282-1284),  which  ended  in  the  utter  defeat  of 
the  Pisans  near  the  island  of  Meloria.  Soon  the  old 
rivalry  with  Venice  was  renewed,  and  the  scene  of  the 
conflict  shifted  to  the  East.  At  Laiazzo,  on  the  coast 
of  Armenia,  the  Genoese  were  victorious  (1294);  the 
Venetians  retaliated  by  destroying  the  Genoese  quar- 
ter of  Galato  (1296),  but  in  1298  Lamba  Doria 
(founder  of  the  Doria  family,  famous  in  the  annals  of 
Genoa)  totally  destroyed  the  Venetian  fleet  at  Curzola. 
Both  rivals  being  now  weakened,  Henry  VII  (1311) 
easily  obtained  from  the  Genoese  the  right  to  govern 
them  for  twenty  years,  and  a  promise  of  help  against 


GEXOA  4^ 

Naples.  A  little  later,  Robert  a(  Anjou  (1318-1336) 
Has  called  in  bj  the  Guelphs  in  oppositioD  to  the  Via- 
conti  of  Milan,  Eavoured  by  the  Ghibellinea.  When 
the  Venetians,  together  with  the  Greelra  and  Cata- 
lonianfl.wiHhed,  in  1342,to  occupy  the  island  of  Scio  as 
an  outpost  against  the  Turks,  toe  Genoese,  profiting 
by  a.  quarrel  among  the  allies,  forestalled  them.  This, 
amongst  other  causes,  led  to  a  fresh  outbreak  of  war  in 
1350.  In  the  IJ(»phorua  (1362),  a  fierce  but  indecisive 
battle  was  fought;  while  at  Alghera  in  Sardinia  (1363) 
the  Genoese  were  defeated  by  the  Venetians  and  their 
allies.  Genoa  then  chose  Giovanni  Visconti,  Arch- 
bishop ot  Milan,  as  its  ruler  or  "Signore".    In  1354, 


0  aXNOA 

year  following  Andrea  succeeded  in  ridding  himself  of 
nis  French  fJlies.  The  "Signoria"  was  offered  him, 
but  he  prudently  refused  the  title,  though  in  reality  he 
exercised  its  powers.  This  brought  about  the  Fieschi 
Plot  (1646),  which  proved  abortive  owing  to  the  death 
of.  its  leader.  Noteworthy  events  in  the  subsequent 
history  ot  Genoa  are  the  attempts  of  Corsica  to  shake 
off  Genoese  authority  (1553;  1737,  King  Theodore), 
its  annexation  by  France  in  1768,  and  the  two  oon- 
spiracies  for  the  annexation  of  Genoa  by  Savoy  (Va- 
chero,  1G28;  Delia  Torre.  1672).  In  1684,  Louis  XIV, 
without  any  just  cause,  had  the  town  bombarded.  A 
hundred  years  later  (1797)  the  French  set  up  there  a 
democratic  republic.  In  1800,  Mass^na  sustained  a 
famous  siege  and  blockade  on  the  part  of  the  Austrians 
and  Engli^.  In  1805,  the  ducny  was  annexed  to 
France,  out  in  1814  was  provisional ly,  and  in  I81S 
dehnitely,  annexed  to  the  Kingdom  of  Sardinia. 

Genoa  owes  to  the  magnificence  of  its  architecture 
its  title  of  "  La  Superba  (the  Proud).  Among  its 
best-known  churches  are;  San  Lorenzo,  rebuilt  in  the 
twelfth  century,  the  lower  part  of  the  facade  dating 
from  1100,  the  remainder  from  1623.  The  spandrils 
over  the  door  are  decorated  with  baa-reliefs  of^vajious 
periods.  The  cupola  dates  from  1667.  There  are 
paintings  by  Barrocci,  Ferrari,  Cambiaso,  and  sculp- 
tures by  MoQtoisoli,  Sansovino,  Guglielmo  della  Porta 
and  others.    Near  by  is  the  little  chureh  of  St.  John  * 


FAfADB,    CatHKDBAI,  Or  GlHOA    (XUI    CaNTUBT) 

Fagaoino  Doria  routed  the  Venetian  forces  in  the 
Adriatic  and  at  Porto  Longone  in  the  Morea  (Greece). 
Driven  out  of  the  Black  Sea,   the   Venetians  took 


nve  the  Venetians  the  island  of  Tenedoe,  the  Genoese, 
fearing  lest  the  former  should  thereby  have  access  to 
the  Black  Sea,  espoused  the  cause  of  Andronicus;  in 
this  way  broke  out  the  conflict  known  as  the  War  of 
Chioggia.  The  Genoese,  defeated  at  Aniio  (1378), 
were  victorious  at  Pola  (1379)  and  blockaded  Venice, 
but  were  obliged  to  surrender  when  the  blockade  was 
broken  by  Vettor  Pisani.  The  great  rivals  were  now 
exhausted. 

During  the  fifteenth  century,  Genoa  constantly 
called  on  outsideiB  to  rule  her,  but  as  constantly  re- 
belled against  their  rule  (1396-1409,  France;  1409- 
1413,  Teodoro  II  Paleologo  di  Monferrato;  1422-1435, 
Filippo  Maria  Visconti;  1468-1461,  France;  1464- 
1478,  1487-1499,  the  Sforea  of  Milan;  1499-1512, 
1516-1522,  France).  Meanwhile  her  colonies  in  the 
East  were  slippmg  away  (Pera,  1453;  CaiTa,  1475). 
In  1431.  at  Portofino,  the  fleet  in  the  service  of  Visconti 
was  defeated  by  the  Venetian  and  Florentine  allies. 
Genoa  was  involved  in  the  conflict  between  Francis  I 
and  Charles  V,  and  in  1622  was  sacked  bv  the  Span- 
iards. In  1627,  the  Spanish  were  expelled  by  the 
celebrated  Andrea  Doria  with  French  aid,  and  in  the 


inga  by  Gviido  Reni  and  Rubens.  Santisaima  Annun- 
liata  lias  beautiful  (tomposite  columns,  and  a  famous 
Last  Supper  by  Procaccino.  In  the  chureh  _of  St. 
Catherine  of  Genoa  (with  the  saint's  room  adjoining) 
may  be  seen  her  body  preserved  in  a  silver  urn.  Tm. 
chureh  of  Saints  (^smas  and  Damian  antedates  the 
year  1000;  that  of  St.  Donatus,  consecrated  in  1189,  is 
built  ot  old  Roman  materials.  St.  Philip  Neri  dates 
from  1694 ;  the  Gesfl  Maria  from  1487.  The  latter  has 
paintings  by  Faggi,  Cambiaso,  and  Salimbeni.  St. 
George's  has  two  bronze  doors,  a  part  of  the  booty  of 
Almeria  (1148).  The  altar  of  St.  John's  was  erected 
after  the  victory  at  Pola.  On  the  fafode  of  St,  Mark's 
(1 173)  is  a  marble  lion  captured  from  the  Venetians  at 
Pola,  Other  churehes  are:  Santa  Maria  in  Castello 
(columns  of  oriental  granite) ;  Santa  Maria  del  Carmine 
(rich  tabernacle);  San  Siro  (the  cathedral  till  985); 
San  Stefano,  which  existed  in  493,  and  has  a  painting 
by  Giulio  Romano,  San  Matteo,  containing  the  war- 
trophies  of  the  Dorias,  was  founded  in  1125by  Martino 
Doria,  and  restored  by  Andrea  Doria  from  plana  by 
Fra  Giovanni  Angela  Montorsoli;  on  the  fa^aae  is  the 
sarcophagus  of  l^mba  Doria,  the  victor  at  Curzola; 
under  the  high  altar  is  the  tomb  of  Andrea  Doria  by 
Montorsoli,  and  several  inscriptions  recall  the  triumphs 
of  this  noble  family  of  seamen  and  rulers,  Santa 
Maria  in  Carignano  (sixteenth  century),  one  of  the 
handsomest  churehes  in  the  worid,  is  in  the  form  of  a 
Greek  cross;  its  cupola  is  the  work  of  Galeaszo  Aleasi 
(q,  V,)  of  Perugia.  The  Campo  Santo,  or  public  ceme- 
tery, is  also  greatly  admired  lor  its  beautiful  statuary. 
Amonp  Genoa's  public  edifices  are  the  Albergo  del 
Poven,  or  home  for  the  poor  (1655),  with  a  cnurch 
attached;  the  Loggia  deiBanchi,  or  exchange,  built 
by  Galeaizo  Alessi.  The  Palazeo  Ducale  (1291)  is 
crowned  with  a  row  of  stucco  statues  of  the  various 

Srinces  and  kings  defeated  by  the  Genoese ;  its  ^cious 
alls  were  horned  by  famous  artiste.  The  Palaiio 
S.  Giorgio  (1260),  restored  in  1368,  has  many  statues 
of  the  doges  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Worthy  of 
notice  also  are  the  university,  founded  in  1471  by 
Bartolomeo  Bianco,  the  Palazzo  Reale,  and  the  Muni- 
cipio  or  Town  Hall.     Genoa  has  many  famous  private 

Silaces.  e.  g,  the  Adomo,  with  paintmgs  by  Rubens, 
uido  Item,  Titian,  and  Giulio  Romano;  the  Doria, 
with  a  representation  of  St.  Creorge  and  the  Dragpn 
over  the  doorway.    Besides  the  uni\-ersity,  there  is  a 


OEMTILE  42: 

merchaat-marine  ecbool,  a  Catholic  high  school;  an 

academy  of  fine  arts  and  other  institutbna  of  a  Bimi-  _  ,. .  . 

lar  nature.  1437.     The  history  of  this  artist  has  for  a  long  time 

Hie  line  of  bishops  is  usually  dated  from  St.  Solo-  been  involved  in  mystery,  and  even  Vaaari'a  state- 

mon  or  Salonius,  said  to  have  been  martyred  in  2li9.  ments  concemiag  him  have  to  be  accepted  with  cau- 

Other  bishops  are  mentioned  in  the  thini  und  fourth  tion.     Of  his  cariy  life  we  still  know  nothing,  but 

centuries,  toe  first  known  with  any  certainty  being  thanks  to  the  investigations  of  Milanesi,  Amieo  Kicci, 

Diogenes,  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Acjuileia  in  381.  and  later  on  of  Venturi  and  Corrado  Kicci,  we  have 

Blened  Jacobus  a  Voragine.  author  of  the  Leeend»  a  few  definite  facts  concerning  him.    The  earliest 

Auiea  (Golden  L^end)  and  Bishop  of  Genoa  (1292-  mention  of  him  is  concerned  with  the  decoration  of 

1298),  tells  us  that  tDl  the  tenth  century  he  found  no  the  large  council  hall  in  the  doges'  palace  at  Venice, 

mentionof  a  Bishop  of  Genoa,  thus  proving  that  in  his  which,,  it  seems  clear,  must  have  t>een  carried  ou'v 

time  nothing  was  known  of  the  legendary  martyred  between  1411  and  1414,  probably  in  the  former  year, 

bishops.     The  St.  Syrua  I  assigned  to  the  beginning  of  as  the  theory  set  up  by  WickhofT,  placing  the  work  at 

the  fourth  century  may  therefore  be  a  double  of  St.  a  much  later  date,  has  now  been  proved  t<   ' 


SyruBn(1139-1163).  When  the  Lombard.s  captured  able.  In  1408,  however,  Gentile  is  known  to  have 
Milan  (568),  its  bishop,  laurenlius,  and  many  of  his  painted  a  larae  altar-piece  in  Venice  tor  Francesco 
clergy   took   refuge  in   Genoa;   five   other   Milanese     Amadi,  and  this  date  implies  that  he  must  have  been 


bishops  took  up  their  residence  there.     It  was  this     resident  in  the  citv  for  some  years  previously,  h 

.same  Laurentius  who  dedicated  the  church  of  St.     it  was  not  possible  for  an  artist,  who  had  not  beeo 


■  Baptist,  and  St.  CaoaoB 

Ambrose  built  for  the  Milanese  refugees.    About  617,  bom  in  Venice,  to  be  accepted  as  a  member  of  its 

Bishop  Appellin us  became  involved  in  the  schism  of  school  or  guild,  unless  resident  in  the  city  for  some 

Agrestiua.      In  634,  Bishop   Asterius   ordained    St.  considerable   time  before   he  made   his   application. 

Byrsinua,  who  was  to  be  one  of  the  apostles  of  North-  Between  April,  1414,  and  September,  141<J,  we  know 

umbria.  that  he  was  painting  in  Brescia,  decorating  a  chapel 

Councils  were  held  at  Genoa  in  773  (7),  1216,  and  for  Pandolfo  Malatesta,  and  it  was  on  the  occasion  of 

1202.     Innocent  IV  and  Adrian  V  were  natives  of  the  the  visit  which  Pope  Martin  V  ma<le  l«  Malatesta, 

city.    It  was  originally  a  suffragan  of  Milan,  but,  in  when  he  was  received  at  Chiari,  that  the  pope  invited 

1133,  Innocent  II  made  it  a  metropolitan  see.     Its  Gentile  to  pav  him  a  visit  in  Rome,     We  have  evi- 

first  archbishop  was  the  St.  Syrus  mentioned  above,  dence  of  the  date  on  which  he  set  out,  because  on  the 

Ita  suffragan  sees  are  Albenga,  Bobbio,  Brugnate  and  18  September,   1419,  he  applied  for  a  s^e-conduct. 

Luni-Saransa,  Chiavari,  Savona  and  Noli,  Tortona,  There  were  serious  diflicuJties,  however,  connected 

Ventimiglia.     It  has  200  parishes  and  470,000  souls  with  the  early  days  of  the  pontificate  of  Martin  V, 

(161,000  in  the  city) ;  there  are  33  religious  houses  for  and  Gentile  only  got  as  far  as  Florence,  and  could  not 

men  in  the  city,  and  19  throu^out  the  diocese;  also  proceed  to  Rome. 

62  convents  for  women  in  the  city,  and  82  throughout  Of  Gentile's  residence  in  Florence  we  have  evidence 

the   diocese.     The   archdiocese   supports   2  Catholic  from  the  two  applications  he  made,  dated  23  March, 

daily  newspapers,  3  weekly  papers,  and  13  other  peri-  and    6    April,    1420,    that    he    might    be    relieved 

odicals.  from   the   payment  of  tribut«.  Inasmuch  as  he  was 

dmi^Lrm.  Lt  chim  ^Italia  (Venioe,  1857).  XIIl,  Z8B-  Only  temporarily  soiouming  in   Florence,   and  was 

.,A.a .   Oi~ia^«amj(™po(i  diCmoMflSWl^CANAii.  on  his  way  to  his  native  city;  but  be  could  not  have 

»7i8M-i8«)nSil^™"Si.oiiS;;7D^«.iS32^  remained  verylonginFabnano  because  on2I  Novem- 

•-  ^--- 1  ItttnriadeiiaLievria  (1900— ).  ber,   1422,  he  figures  in  the  deeds  of  matnculation 

U.  BcNiaNi.  connected  with  the  doctors  and  painters  of  Florence, 


OiartuUn 


GENTILES 


422 


GEMTILI 


and  in  the  following  year  he  signs  and  dates  his  picture 
executed  to  the  oraer  of  Palla  Strozsi  for  the  church 
of  Santa  Trinity  in  that  city.  The  evidence  that  he 
continued  in  Florence  in  i423  is  found  in  some  deeds 
relating  to  a  curious  cjuarrel  which  took  place  between 
one  of  Gentile's  pupils  and  a  certain  Bernardo,  who 
threw  some  stones  into  the  courtyani  of  the  house 
where  Gentile  was,  breaking  some  small  pieces  of  sculp- 
ture which  happened  to  be  of  great  value  to  the  artist. 

Gentile's  work  in  Siena  has  usually  been  assigned 
to  the  year  1426,  but  closer  investigation  shows  that  it 
was  carried  out  in  1425,  and  a  lease  of  a  house  in  Siena 
taken  for  a  month  by  the  artist  in  that  year  is  still  in 
existence,  and  proves  the  date  of  the  residence  of 
Gentile  in  Siena,  and  the  time  that  he  took  to  paint 
the  picture.  It  is  dated  22  July,  and  at  the  end  of 
August  of  the  same '  year  Gentile  was  in  Orvieto, 
painting  in  the  Duomo,  as  the  archives  of  the  cathe- 
dral prove.  That  work  completed,  he  was  at  length 
able  to  leave  for  Rome,  and  in  1427  was  at  work  in  the 
church  of  San  Giovanni  in  Laterano,  and  the  records 
of  his  ei^agement  and  stipend  have  been  printed. 
By  22  November,  1428,  he  was  dead,  because  on 
that  day,  according  to  the  evidence  of  the  commune 
of  Fabriano,  his  niece  Maddalena  took  possession  of 
the  property  of  her  uncle,  who  was  declared  to  have 
died  in  Rome  intestate.  Further  evidence  of  this 
date  is  given  by  a  deed  dated  October,  1427,  in  which 
the  master  is  spoken  of  as  deceased,  and  these  docu- 
ments prove  the  inaccuracy  of  the  statements  of 
Vasari  both  as  regards  the  date  of  Gentile's  decease 
and  the  place  where  Vasari  says  he  died,  Citt&  di 
Castello.  Amico  Ricci  and  Milanesi  were  inaccurate 
in  stating  that  Gentile  died  after  1450,  as  they  were 
misled  by  a  phrase  '^autore  requisito"  which  occurs  in 
a  document  representing  the  visit  of  R<^r  van  der 
Weyden  to  Rome,  when  he  visited  San  Giovanni  in 
Laterano,  and  saw  the  paintings  of  Gentile.  He  ex- 
pressed the  greatest  aamiration  for  the  work,  and 
according  to  Ricci  and  Milanesi  called  the  author  of 
the  p^ntings  before  him.  Inasmuch  as  the  visit  took 
place  in  1450,  these  two  authors  placed  Gentile's 
decease  after  that  date,  but  the  phrase  refers  to  the 
author  having  died,  and  this  is  proved  by  the  two 
documents  just  cited. 

These  few  facts  practically  embrace  all  that  we 
definitely  know  respecting  this  artist.  He  is  said  to 
have  learned  his  art  under  Allegretto  Nuzzi.  His 
family  name  is  by  some  writers  given  as  Maso  or  Massi , 
and  his  burial  is  said  to  have  taken  place  in  Santa 
Francesca  Romana  in  the  Campo  Vaccino,  but  all 
these  statements  are  for  the  present  matters  of  con- 
jecture. He  was  probably  bom  at  Fabriano  in  the 
March  of  Ancona,  according  to  the  evidence  of  his 
name,  but  Nuzzi  is  believed  to  have  died  when  Gentile 
was  fifteen  years  old,  and  therefore  he  could  have 
derived  very  little  instruction  from  Nuzzi.  Two  of  his 
pictures  are  dated,  the  '^  Adoration  of  the  Kings"  in  the 
Academy  at  Florence,  1423 ;  and  the  group  ofsaints  in 
San  Nicol6  in  the  same  city,  1425.  His  best  work  in 
Rome  and  Venice  has  perished,  but  he  is  well  repre- 
sented in  the  Brera  Gallery  in  Milan,  the  galleries  of 
Peruma,  Paris,  and  Berlin ;  and  important  pictures  in 
the  Heugel  collection  in  Paris  and  the  Stroganoff 
collection  in  St.  Petersburg  are  now  accepted  as  being 
from  his  hand.  Of  his  work  in  Rome  there  is  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  miracle  of  St.  Nicholas  to  be  seen  in 
the  Vatican  Gallery,  and  part  of  his  work  in  Orvieto 
still  remains.  A  picture  in  the  royal  collection  at 
Buckingham  Palace  is  attributed  to  him,  with  con- 
siderable evidence  in  its  favour;  and  his  paintings  are 
also  to  be  seen  at  Settignano,  in  the  mumcipal  gallery 
at  Pisa,  and  in  the  Jarves  collection  at  Newhaven  in 
the  United  States,  but  his  most  important  work  is  the 
large  picture  in  the  Academy  in  Florence,  a  painting 
of  remarkable  excellence  and  extraordinary  beauty. 
In  his  birthplace  there  is  one  picture  representing  St. 


Francis,  which  is  probably  a  genuine  work.  His 
paintings  are  distinguished  by  great  magnificence  of 
colour  and  marked  by  his  pecuUar  method  of  hieh 
relief  in  gesso  work,  and  by  the  remarkable  use  be 
made  of  small  portions  of  the  most  brilliant  colour, 
applied  in  conjunction  with  masses  of  gold.  He  may 
be  accepted  as  one  of  the  greatest  masters  of  his 
period,  and  as  a  man  exceedingly  skilful  in  composi- 
tion, and  full  of  grand  ideas  as  regards  colouring  and 
effect,  for  in  the  combination  of  rich  colour  with  gold 
he  has  seldom  if  ever  been  equalled  amongst  decora- 
tive painters. 

Arodino  Colasanti,  GerUtU  da  Fabriano  (BerjKuno,  1909); 
Amico  Ricci.  Memoru  Sioriche  ddle  Arix  e  detUt  Artiati  dwa 
Marca  di  Ancona  (Maoerata,  1834);  Giulio  Cantalaicbbsa, 
Vecchi  affreschi  a  S.  Vittoria  in  Matenano  in  Nuova  BeviHa 
Misena,  III,  1;  A.  and  A.  Longhi,  L'anno  delta  morU  di  OenHU 
da  Fabriano  (Fano.  1887):  Vasari,  Vite  de*  piii  ooedmH 
jnUori  (Florence,  1550):  also  edited  by  Milanssi  (Florence, 
1878-85);  Bryan's  Dictionary  of  Paintera  and  Bneravera,  ed. 
WiLUAMBON,  III  (London  and  New  York,  1904),  s.  v.  Masai. 

George  Charles  Williaubon.    * 

Gentiles  (Heb.  G&yim;  Gr.  (IOpti,  iSpucot,  'EXXiym; 
Vulg.  GerUeSf  GentUes.  Graci),  a  word  of  Latin  origin 
and  usually  employed  in  the  plural.  In  the  English 
versions  of  both  Testaments  it  collectively  designates 
the  nations  distinct  from  the  Jewish  people.  The 
basis  of  this  distinction  is  that,  as  descendants  of 
Abraham,  the  Jews  considered  themselves,  and  were 
in  fact,  before  the  coming  of  Christ,  the  chosen  people 
of  God.  As  the  non-Jewish  nations  did  not  worship 
the  true  God  and  generally  indulged  in  immor^ 
practices,  the  term  G^im  **  Gentiles"  has  oftentimes  in 
the  Sacred  Writings,  m  the  Talmud,  etc.,  a  disparag- 
ing meaning.  Since  the  spread  of  Christianity,  tlie 
word  Gentiles  designates,  in  theological  parlance,  those 
who  are  neither  .Jews  nor  Christians.  In  the  united 
States,  the  Mormons  use  it  of  persons  not  belonging  to 
their  sect.    See  Proselytes. 

(Catholic  autiiors  are  marked  with  an  asterisk.)  BchOrbr, 
Hialory  of  the  Jewiah  People,  second  division,  voL  I  (New 
York,  1801):  SisLBiB  in  Hast.,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.;  Lx- 
sftTiUB*  in  Via.,  Dirt,  de  la  Bible,  a.  v.  Oantila;  Hirsch  in  Jew- 
ish Eneycl.,  s.  v.  (New  York,  1903);  Bbown,  Bbiqos,  and 
Dbivsb,  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon,  s.  v.  ^U  (New  York, 
1906);  DdLLiNOBB*.  The  OentHe  and  the  Jew  (tr.  London, 
1906). 

Francis  E.  Gigot. 

Oentili,  Alotsius,  b.  14  July,  1801,  at  Rome;  d.  26 
September,  1848,  at  Dublin.  He  was  proficient  in 
poetry,  displayed  considerable  musical  aptitude,  had 
a  taste  for  mechanical  and  electrical  science,  and 
was  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  modem  languages, 
applying  himself  more  particularly  to  the  study 
of  English.  His  early  me  was  that  of  a  brilliant 
young  man  of  the  world,  full  of  ambition  of  a  nobler 
kind,  a  pet  of  society,  and  an  evident  favourite  of 
fortune.  He  sought  admission  into  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  and  would  have  been  accepted,  but  his  health 
seemed  broken,  and  the  Society  did  not  venture  to 
receive  him.  He  became  more  and  more  impressed 
with  the  conviction  that  God  called  him  to  the  priest- 
hood and  to  labour  for  the  conversion  of  England.  He 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Father  Rosmini,  who,  at  his 
earnest  entreaty,  accepted  him  as  a  postulant  of  the 
newly-founded  Institute  of  Charity.  He  remained  in 
Rome,  attending  theological  lectures,  whilst  residing 
at  the  Irish  College,  in  order,  at  the  same  time,  to  im- 
prove his  English,  and  after  his  ordination  to  the 
priesthood,  in  1830,  proceeded  to  Domo  d'Ossola  to 
msJse  his  novitiate. 

Whilst  Gentili  was  living  at  the  Irish  College,  a 
young  English  gentleman,  who  had  been  converted 
whilst  a  student  at  Cambridge,  arrived  in  Rome. 
This  was  Mr.  Ambrose  Phillipps  de  Lisle  (q.  v.).  This 
zealous  convert  applied  to  tne  rector  of  the  Irish  Col- 
lege, to  obtain  for  nim  a  priest  to  preach  the  Catholic 
Faith  in  the  neighbourhood  of  his  ancestral  home. 
The  rector  suggested  the  Abate  Gentili  as  in  every  way 


aSNTIU 


423 


GENUFLEXION 


suited  to  the  purpose.  This  led  to  a  p^eat  friendship 
between  the  young  priest  and^r.  de  Lisle,  the  submis- 
sion of  the  whole  project  to  Kosmini,  and  eventually 
to  the  coming  of  Gentili  and  other  fathers  to  England  in 
1835.  It  was  not  merely  the  invitation  of  Mr.  Phil- 
lips de  Lisle  that  brought  the  RoSminians  to  England. 
In  the  meantime,  one  of  the  vicars  Apostolic,  Bishop 
Baines,  who  then  ruled  over  the  Western  District, 
having  his  residence  at  Bath,  had  sought  to  obtain  the 
services  of  the  fathers  for  his  college  of  Prior  Park. 
Though  Rosmini  gave  his  consent  as  early  as  1831,  the 
period  of  preparation  for  the  English  Mission  was  a 
long  one;  for  the  little  band  did  not  sail  from  Civit& 
Vecchia  till  22  May,  1835.  They  set  forth  with  a  more 
personal  blessing  and  mission  from  the  Holy  See  than 
even  St.  Augustine  and  his  companions  received  from 
St.  Gregory  the  Great;  for  Pope  Gregory  XVI  actu- 
aUy  came  on  board  the  vessel  and  blessed  the  three 
"Italian  missioners"  just  before  they  sailed,  probably 
a  unique  event  in  missionary  history.  Gentili  and  his 
companions  arrived  in  London  on  15  June,  and  no 
time  was  lost  in  getting  to  work.  A  few  days  later 
Gentili  preached  his  first  sermon  in  En^and,  at 
Trelawney  House,  in  Cornwall,  whither  they  nad  been 
invited  by  Sir  Henry  Trelawney,  Bart.,  a  zealous  con- 
vert. He  took  for  ms  text, "  Thou  art  Peter,  and  upon 
this  rock  I  will  build  my  church",  and  his  discourse 
made  a  remarkable  impression  upon  the  many  Protec- 
tants who  came  to  hear  it.  Soon  after,  the  mission- 
aries were  settled  at  Prior  Park,  where  earlv  in  the 
following  year  (1836)  Gentili  gave  a  retreat  to  the  whole 
colle^;  and  this  was  one  of  the  first,  if  not  the  first 
pubhc  retreat  according  to  the  method  of  St.  Ignatius 
ever  gjven  in  a  secular  college  in  En^and.  ror  this 
reason  it  excited  among  some  no  litQe  criticism  and 
opposition  as  a  "novelty". 

For  two  years  Gentili  was  made  president  of  Prior 
Park;  but  Bishop  Baines'  plan  of  oombinins  secular 
and  regular  professors  on  his  staff  was  an  ilf  advised 
one,  and  eventually  led  to  the  only  possible  result,  vis. 
the  entire  withdrawal  of  the  fathers  from  Prior  JPark 
College.  This  step  left  them  free  to  devote  their  ener- 
gies and  their  increasing  numbers  to  the  real  work  for 
which  they  came — preaching  the  Faith  to  the  English 
people.  In  1840  was  opened  the  missionary  settle- 
ment at  Grace-Dieu,  the  seat  of  Mr.  Phillips  de  Idsle, 
from  which  as  a  centre  they  evangelised  much  of  the 
surrounding  country,  the  total  population  of  which 
region  was  reckoned  at  6000,  of  whom  only  twenty- 
seven  were  Catholics.  Notwithstanding  the  unprom- 
ising surroundings,  the  bitter  hostility  of  the  neigh- 
bouring ministers  and  Gentili's  being  publicly  burnt  in 
effigy,  his  ceaseless  labours  were  rewarded  m  a  space 
of  some  two  years,  by  the  reception  of  sixty-one  skdult 
converts,  the  baptism  of  sixty-six  children  under 
seven  years  of  age  and  of  twenty  other  children  condi- 
tionally, and  the  conversion  of  an  Andean  clergyman. 
Rev.  Francis  Wackerbarth.  These  consoling  fruits 
were  secured  by  incessant  toil,  dailv  instructions,  vis- 
its, and  relieious  services  of  every  kind,  sometimes  in 
inns  or  hired  rooms,  sometimes  in  a  poor  cottage,  or 
even  in  the  open  air.  In  the  meantime  the  numbers 
of  the  Fathers  had  much  fipx)wn.  Among  the  Italians 
are  now  to  be  mentioned  Fathers  Pagani,  Rinolfi,  and 
Si|;nini;  whilst  some  Englishmen  and  Irishmen  had 
lomed  their  ranks,  notably  the  afterwards  celebrated 
Fathers  Furlong  and  Hutton.  In  1842  Gentili  visited 
Oxford,  where  it  is  probable,  but  not  certain,  that  he 
met  Newman.  At  any  rate  the  visit  had  important 
consequences.  For  Gentili  did  meet  one  of  Newman's 
chief  and  best-beloved  followers,  William  Locldiart,  a 
young  Scotch  graduate.  The  result  was  that  during 
August  of  thetoUowin^  year,  "Mr.  Lockhart,  feeling 
it  impossible  to  resist  his  conviction  that  the  Anglican 
Church  had  fallen  into  fatal  schism  in  separating  from 
the  Holy  See.  came  to  visit  Father  Gentili  at  ^ueh- 
borough.    After  making  a  few  days  retreat  under  him 


in  the  chapel  house  at  Loughborough,  he  waa  received 
into  the  Catholic  Church,  and  a  little  later,' entered  as 
a  postuliuit  of  the  Order  "••  This  conversion  was  the 
very  first-fruit  of  the  Oxford  Movement,  preceding  the 
reception  of  Newman  himself  by  no  less  than  two 

yeai^s. 

The  fii8t  public  mission  was  given  at  Loughborough 
by  Fathers  Gentili  and  Furlong,  and  had  an  extraor- 
dinary success.  Six^-three  converts  were  instructed 
and  received  at  it.  From  this  time  forward,  the  work 
of  the  fathers  takes  a  new  and  far  wider  development. 
Great  public  missions  all  over  the  country  alternate 
with  innumerable  spiritual  retreats  to  colleges  and 
communities  for  the  next  five  years.  It  was  a  stir- 
ring-up  of  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  Catholics  of 
Ekigland,  and  a  gathering  into  the  net  of  converts  from 
Protestantism,  on  a  scale  which  astonishes  us  as  we 
read  of  it  at  this  distance  of  time.    Some  idea  may  be 

given  of  the  labours  and  zeal  of  the  fathers  from  what 
as  been  recorded  of  various  great  public  missions. 
They  usually  gave  four  or  five  discourses  daily,  at 
fixed  intervals,  taking  the  sermons  alternately,  treat- 
ing both  dogniatic  and  moral  Gospel  doctrines,  espe- 
ciallythe  great  truths,  the  mystery  of  the  Redemption, 
the  Divine  precepts,  the  Life  of  Christ.  And  the 
whole  of  the  time  intervening  between  the  discourses 
waa  devoted  to  the  arduous  work  of  the  confessional. 
So  great  usually  was  the  concourse  of  penitents,  that 
the  fathers  were  kept  occupied  for  eight  or  ten  hours 
a  day.  Sometimes  they  even  remained  in  church  all 
night  long,  hearing  concessions,  and  had  absolutely  no 
time  either  to  say  Mass,  or  recite  the  Divine  Office, 
much  less  take  any  sleep,  or  any  nourishment^  except 
in  a  hasty  manner.  Such  wearisome  labours  were  not 
interrupted,  but  only  varied,  for  weeks  and  even 
months  together.  Tney  had  to  prepare  children  for 
their  First  Communion,  instruct  converts^  restore 
peace  in  families,  see  to  the  restitution  of  ill-gotten 
goods.  They  also  introduced  processions,  evening 
Benedictions,  and  other  solemn  functions  at  the  close 
of  missions. 

The  years  1844  to  1848  were  fully  occupied  with  an 
incredible  number  of  popular  missions  and  retreats 
all  over  England.  At  Newcastle  250  adult  Protestants 
were  received  into  the  Church;  at  Manchester  mis- 
sions in  three  of  the  principal  churches  produced  no 
less  than  378  converts.  It  was  in  1848  that  Gentili 
gave  his  great  mission  in  Dublin,  where,  in  spite  of  the 
political  excitement  of  that  year,  the  confessionals 
were  so  crowded,  that  the  Fathers  often  sat  there 
without  a  break  from  the  last  instruction  at  night  till 
the  Mass  on  the  following  morning.  But  a  sad  and 
altogether  unex{)ected  blow  brought  to  a  sudden  end 
the  labours  of  this  great  mission.  Father  Gentili,  the 
pioneer  missioner,  was  suddenly  seized  with  a  fatal 
fever,  and  died  after  only  a  few  days' illness.  His 
mortal  remains  still  repose  in  Glasnevin  Cemetery. 

Pagani,  Life  of  the  Rev.  Aloyeius  OerUHi,  LL.D.  (London, 
1851);  Q.  B.  Pagani,  La  Vita  di  Luigi  OeniUi  (Rome,  1904); 
Idem,  The  Life  of  Antonio  Roemini^Serbati  (tr.  and  abridged. 


L.  C.  Casabtblu. 


Gentili,  Charles  Joseph.  See  Agra,  Archdio- 
cese OF. 

Oannflezlon. — ^To  genuflect  [Lat.  genu  fledere, 
geniculare  (post-classic),  to  bend  tiie  Imee;  Ur.  y6yv 
kUimp  or  KdfiTTUp]  expresses  (1)  an  attitude  (2)  a  ges- 
ture: involving,  like  prostration,  a  profession  of  de- 
pendence or  helplessness,  and  therefore  very  naturally 
adopted  for  prayine  and  for  worship  in  general .  "  The 
knee  is  made  flexible  by  which  the  offence  of  the  Lord 
is  mitigated,  wrath  appeased,  grace  called  forth"  (St. 
Ambrose,  Hexaem.,  Vl,  ix).  "By  such  posture  of  the 
body  we  show  forth  our  humbleness  of  heart"  (Alcuin, 
De  rarasceve).  "  The  bending  of  the  knee  is  an  expres> 


aENTrruxioH                  424  aBmjruxioR 

■km  of  penitence  and  sorrow  for  sins  committed"  the  same  in  all.    IliiB,  then,  is  the  attitude  symbolical, 

(RabBDUB Maurua,  Delnatit.Cler.,  II,  xli).  among  the  ancients,  of  prayer.    In  reality,  however, 

I.  ANATnTUOEORPosTPRBATPRATBR. — To  kneel  suppluuita  have,  aa  a  matter  of  course,  very  generally 
while  praying  is  now  uaual  among  Christians.  Under  knelt.  Hence  such  classical  phrases  as:  "Genu  poo- 
theOld  liwthe  practice  was  otherwise.  In  the  Jew-  erealicui"  (Curtiusl;  "Inflexo  genu  adorare"  (Seneca); 
iah  Church  it  was  the  rule  to  pray  standittg,  except  in  "Nixigenibus"  (Livy);  "Gembus  minor"  (Horace), 
timeof mouiTiing(Scudamore,Notit.Euehariirt.,  182).  On  the  other  hand,  examples  are  not  wanting  of 
Of  Anna,  the  mother  of  Samuel,  we  read  that  she  said  Christians  who  pray  standing.  The  "  Stans  in  medio 
lo  Heti:  I  am  that  woman  who  stood  before  thee  here  carceris,  expansis  manibua  orabat",  which  the 
praying  to  the  Lord"  (I  Kinga,  i,  20;see  also  II  £sd.,  Church  has  adopted  as  her  memory  of  the  holy 
IX,  3-6).  Of  both  the  Pharisee  and  the  publican  it  is  martyr,  St.  Aeatha,  is  an  illustration.  And  as  late 
stated  in  the  parable  that  they  stood  to  pray,  the  as  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  St.  Gr^ry  the 
attitude  being  emphasized  in  the  case  of  the  former  Great  describes  St.  Benedict  as  uttering  his  dying 
(Luke,  xviii,  11,  13).  Christ  assumes  that  standing  prayer  "stans,  erectis  in  ctelum  manibus  (Dial.,  II, 
would  be  the  ordinarv  posture  in  prayerof  those  whom  c,  xxxvii).  Nor  is  it  unlikely  that  since  standing  has 
He  addressed:  "And  when  you  shall  stand  to  pray",  always  been  a  posture  recognized,  and  even  enjomed, 
etc.  (Mark,  xi,  25) .  "  And  when  ye  pray,  you  shall  not  in  public  and  liturgical  prayer,  it  may  have  survived 
be  as  the  hypocrites,  that  love  to  stand  and  pray  in  the  well  into  the  MiciJie  Ages  as  one  suitable,  at  least  in 
synagogues  ,  etc.  (Matt.,  vi,  5).  But  when  the  occa-  some  circumstances,  for  even  private  devotion.  Vet, 
eion  wasoneof  special  solemnity,  or  tlie  petition  very  from  thefourthcenturyonwards,  to  kneel  hascertainly 
urgent,  or  the  prayer  made  with  exceptional  fervour,  been  the  rule  for  private  prayer.  Eusebius  (Vita 
the  Jewish  suppliant  knelt.  Besides  the  many  pictor-  Constant.,  IV,  xxii)  declares  kneeling  to  have  been  the 
lal  representations  of  kneeling  prisoners,  and  the  like,  customary  posture  of  the  Emperor  Constantine  when 
left  us  by  ancient  art.  Gen.,  xli,  43  and  Esth.,  iii,  2  at  his  devotions  in  his  oratory.  At  the  end  of  the 
may  be  quoted  to  show  how  universally  in  the  East  century,  St.  Augustine  tells  us:  "They  who  pray  do 
kneelingwas  accepted  as  the  proper  attitude  of  Buppli-  with  themembersof  their  body  that  which  befits  sup- 
ants  and  dependents.  Thus  Solomon  dedicating  his  plianta;they  fix  their  knees,  stretch  forth  their  hands, 
temple  "  kneeling  down  in  the  presence  of  all  the  mul-  or  even  prostrate  themselves  on  the  ground"  (Do  curft 
titude  of  Israel,  and  lifting  up  his  hands  towards  pro  mortuis,  v).  Even  for  the  ante-Nicene  period. 
Heaven",  etc.  (II  Par.,  vi,  13;  cf.  Ill  Kings,  viii,  64).  the  conclusion  arrived  at  by  Warren  is  probablvaub- 
Esdrastoo:  "I  fell  upon  my  knees,  and  spread  out  my  stantially  cortect; — "The  recognized  attitude  for 
hands  to  the  Lord  my  (jod  (lEsd.,  ix,  5);and  Daniel:  prayer,  litut^cally  speaking,  was  standing,  but  kne«l- 
"opening  the  windows  in  his  upper  chamber  towards  mg  was  early  introduced  for  penitential  and  perhaps 
Jerusalem,  he  knelt  down  three  times  a  dav,  and  ordinary  fenal  seasons,  and  was  frequently,  though 
adored,  and  gave  thanks  before  his  God,  as  he  had  not  necessarily,  adopted  in  private  prayer  (Liturgy 
beenaccustomed  todo before"  (Dan.,  vi,  10),  illustrate  of  the  ante-Nicene  Church,  145) 

this  practice.     Of  Christ's  great  prayer  for  His  disci-  It  is  noteworthy  that,  early  in  the  sixth  century,  St. 

pies  and  for  His  Church  we  are  only  told  that  "lifting  Benedict  (Beg.,  c.l)  enjoins  upon  his  monks  that  when 

up  his  eyes  to  heaven,  he  said",  etc.  (John,  xvii,  1);  absent  from  choir,  ana  therefore  compelled  to  recite 

but  of  His  Agony  in  the  Garden  ol  Gethsemani : "  kneel-  the  Divine  Office  as  a  private  prayer,  they  should  not 

ing  down,  he  prayed"  (Luke,  xxii,  41).     The  lepers,  stand  as  when  in  choir,  but  kneel  throughout.     That, 

breeching  the  Saviour  to  have  mercy  on  them,  kneel  in  our  time,  the  Church  accepts  kneeling  as  the  more 

(Mark,  i,  40;cf.  x,  17),  fitting  attitude  for  private  prayer  is  evmced  by  such 

Coming  to  the  first  Christians,  of  St.  Stephen  we  rules  as  the  Missal  rubric  airecting  that,  save  for  a 
read:  "And  falling  on  his  knees,  he  cried  witli  a  loud  momentary  rising  while  the  Gospel  is  being  read,  all 
voice,  sayinK*',  etc.  (Acta,  vii.  59) ;  of  the  Prince  of  the  present  kneel  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  a  low 
Apostles:  "Peter  kneeling  down  prayed"  (Acts,  ix.  Mass;  and  by  the  recent  decrees  requiring  that  the 
40);  of  St.  Paul:  "kneelmg  down,  he  prayed  with  celebrant  recite  kneeling  the  prayers  (though  they  in- 
them  all"  (Acts,  xx,  3G;  cf.  xxi,  5).  It  would  seem  elude  collects  which,  liturgicolly,  postulate  a  standing 
that  the  kneeling  posture  for  pr^er  speedily  became  posture)  prescribed  by  Leo  Xlfl  to  be  said  after  Mass. 
habitual  among  the  faithful.  Of  St.  James,  the  bro-  It  is  well,  however,  to  bear  in  mind  that  there  is  no 
ther  of  the  Lonl,  tradition  relates  that  from  his  coa-  real  obligation  to  kneel  during  private  prayer.  Thus, 
tinual  kneeling  his  knees  had  become  callous  as  those  unless  conditioned  on  that  particular  posture  being 
of  a  camel  (Euseb^Hist.  Eccl.,  II,  ixiii;Brev.  Rom  taken,  the  indulgence  attached  to  a  prayer  isgainedj 
1  May).  For  St.  Paul  the  expressions  "  to  pray"  and  whether,  while  reciting  it,  one  kneel  or  not  (8.  Cong,  of 
"to  bow  the  knee"  to  God  are  oomplemenUry  (cf.  the  Index,  18  Sept.,  18G2,  n.  398).  The  "Sacro- 
Phil.,  ii,  10;Eph.,  iii,  14,  etc.).  Tertullian  (Ad  Scap.,  san cite",  recited  by  the  clergy  after  saying  the  Divine 
iv)  trea1«  kneeling  and  praying  as  practically  synony-  Office,  is  one  of  the  exceptions.  It  raustbesaulkneel- 
moua.  And  when  forgiveness  of  onences  has  to  be  bfr-  ing,  cxce 
sought,  Orken  (De  Orat.,  31)  goeS  so  far  as  to  main-  imposaib 
tain  that  a  kneeling  posture  is  necessary.  the  Chris 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  "oranles"  (praying  fig-  not  knee 

ures)  of  early  Christian  art  are  in  the  catacomb  fres-  part  in  it 

coes  invariably  depicted  as  standing  with  arms  ex-  mg  at  M 

tended.    Some  remarks  of  Leclercq  (Manuel  d'Arch-  wul  be  i 

fologie  chr^tienne,  I,  153  sqq.)  suggest  that  a  probable  .  also,  and 

explanation  may  be  found  in  the  view  that  these  assumed 

"  oranlee"  are  merely  conventional  representations  of  ignates 

prayer  and  of  suppliants  in  the  abstract.    They  are  luieeling 

symbols,  not  pictures  of  the  actual.     NoWj  conven-  ing  the  5 

tional  representations  are  inspired  as  a  rule  in  respect  tion  whi< 

of  detail,  not  so  much  by  manners  and  customs  prev-  directing 

alent  at  the  date  of  their  execution,  as  by  an  ideal  con-  recite  thi 

served  by  tradition  and  at  the  place  and  time  accepted  those  pn 

as  fitting.     Ancient  art  has  left  us  examjiles  of  pagan  mere  rei 

as  well  asof  Christian  "orantes".   The  attitude  (stand-  tory  dev 

ing  with  anna  extended  or  upraised)  is  substantially  paration 


GENUFLEXION 


425 


GENUFLEXION 


called.  It  must  not,  in  this  connexion,  escape  atten- 
tion that,  in  proportion  as  the  faithful  have  ceased  to 
follow  the  liturgy,  replacing  its  formulae  by  private 
devotions,  the  standing  attitude  has  fallen  more  and 
more  into  disuse  among  them.  ^  In  our  own  time  it  is 
quite  usual  for  the  congregation  at  a  high  Mass  to 
stand  for  the  Gospel  and  Cr^ ;  and,  at  all  other  times 
either  to  remain  seated  (when  this  is  peitilitted)  or  to 
kneel.  There  are,  nevertheless,  certain  liturgical 
prayers  to  kneel  during  which  is  obligator^r,  the  reason 
being  that  kneeling  is  the  posture  especially  appro- 
priate to  the  supplications  of  penitents,  and  is  a  charac- 
teristic attitude  of  humble  entreaty  in  general.  Hence, 
litanies  are  chanted,  kneeling,  unless  (wnich  in  ancient 
times  was  deemed  even  more  fitting)  thev  can  be  gone 
through  by  a  procession  of  mourners.  So,  too,  public 
penitents  knelt  during  such  portions  of  the  liturgy  as 
they  were  allowed  to  assist  at.  The  modem  practice 
of  solemn  Exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  for 
public  adoration  has  naturally  led  to  more  frequent 
and  more  continuous  kneeling  in  church  than  formerly. 
Thus,  at  a  Benediction  service  it  is  obligatory  to  kneel 
from  beginning  to  end  of  the  function,  except  during 
the  chant  of  the  Te  Deum  and  like  hymns  of  praise. 

It  hajs  been  remarked  that  penitents  knelt  during 
public  prayer,  the  rest  of  the  faithful  standing.  A 
corollary  easily  drawn  from  this  was  that  in  Lent  and 
other  penitential  seasons,  when  all  Christians  without 
distinction  professed  themselves  to  be ''  penitents",  the 
whole  congrep;ation  should  kneel  during  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Divine  Mysteries  and  during  other  liturgi- 
cal prayers.  This  has  given  occasion  to  the  Missal 
rubnc,  requiring  the  clergy  and  by  implication  the 
laity,  to  kneel  in  Lent,  on  vigils,  ember-days,  etc., 
while  the  celebrant  recites  the  collects  and  postrKK)m- 
munions  of  the  Mass,  and  during  the  whole  of  the 
Canon,  that  is,  from  the  Sanctus  to  the  Agnus  Dei. 
In  early  times  an  attempt  was  made  to  insist  yet  more 
emphatically  on  the  character  of  penitents  as  that 
most  befitting  ordinary  Christians.  A  practice  crept 
in  of  posing  in  church  as  penitents,  that  is,  of  kneeling, 
on  all  days  aJike.  It  was  a  principle  akin  to  that  which 
deemed  it  a  aest  virtue  to  fast  even  on  Sundays  and 
feast  days,  in  both  cases  the  exa^ration  was  con- 
demned and  severely  repressed,  in  the  twentieth 
canon  of  the  Council  of  Nicsea  (a.d.  325)  the  fathers 
lay  down  (the  canon,  though  passed  over  by  Rufinus, 
is  undoubtedly  genuine): — ''Because  there  are  some 
who  kneel  on  the  Lord's  Day  and  in  the  days  of  Pente- 
cost [the  fifty  days  between  Easter  and  Whit-Sunday] : 
that  all  things  may  be  uniformly  performed  in  every 
parish  or  diocese,  it  seems  good  to  tne  Holy  Synod  that 


the 
ing 


prayers  [rdt  cdx&f]  be  by  all  made  to  God,  stand- 
J,  The  canon  thus  forbids  kneeling  on  Sundays; 
but  (and  this  is  carefully  to  be  noted)  does  not  enjoin 
kneeling  on  other  days.  The  distinction  indicated  of 
days  and  seasons  is  very  probably  of  Apostolic  origin. 
Tertullian,  long  before  Nicsea,  had  declared  kneenng 
on  the  Lord's  Day  to  be  nefas  (De  Cor.  Mil.,  c.  iii). 
See' also  pseudo- Justin  (Quaest.  et  Resp.  ad  Orthodox., 
Q.  115) ;  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  VII) ;  Peter  of 
Alexandria  (can.  xv);  with  others.  For  post-Nicene 
times,  see  St.  Hilary  (Prolog,  in  Psalm.) ;  St.  Jerome 
(Dial,  contra  Lucif.,  c.  iv);  St.  Epiphanius  (Expos. 
Fidei,  22  and  24) ;  St.  Basil  (De  Spir.  Sanct.,  c.  xxvii)  ; 
St.  Maximus  (Hom.  iii,  De  Pentec.) ;  etc.  Note,  how- 
ever, with  Hefele  (Councils,  II,  ii,  sect.  42)  that  St. 
Paul  is  expressly  stated  to  have  prayed  kneeling,  dur- 
ing paschal  time  (Acts,  xx,  36;  xxi,  5).  Moreover  St. 
Augustine,  more  than  fifty  years  after  the  Council  of 
Nicffia,  writes:  "Ut  autem  stantes  in  illis  diebus  et 
omnibus  dominicis  oremus  utrum  ubique  servetur 
nescio"  (i.e.  but  I  do  not  know  whether  there  is  still 
observed  everywhere  the  custom  of  standing,  whilst 
praying,  on  those  days  and  on  all  Sundays).  Ep.  cxix 
•  ad  Januar.  By  canon  law  (II  Decretal.,  bk.,  IX,  ch. 
ii)  the  prohibition  to  kneel  is  extended  to  all  principal 


festivals,  but  it  is  limited  to  pubUc  prayer,  ''nisi  all- 
quis  ex  devotione  illud  facere  velit  in  secreto",  i.  e. 
(unless  anyone,  from  devotion,  should  wish  to  do  that 
in  private).  In  any  case,  to  have  the  right  to  stand 
during  public  prayer  was  looked  upon  as  a  sort  of 
privilege — ^an  *'immunitas"  (Tertull.,  loc.  cit.). 

On  the  other  hand,  to  be  degraded  into  the  class  of 
the  "genuflectentes",  or  "prostrati",  who  (Fourth 
Council  of  Carthage,  can.  bandl)  were  oblig^  to  kneel 
during  public  services  even  on  Sundays  and  in  paschal 
time,  was  deemed  a  severe  punishment.  St.  Basil  calls 
kneeling  the  lesser  penance  (fierdwta  fUKpd)  as  opposed 
to  prostration,  the  greater  penance  (furdwoui  fieydXri), 
Standing,  on  the  contrary,  was  the  attitude  of  praise 
and  thanskgiving.  St.  Augustine  (loc.  cit.)  considers 
it  to  signify  joy,  and  therefore  to  be  the  fitting  pos- 
ture for  the  weekly  commemoration  by  Christians  of 
the  Lord's  Resurrection,  on  the  first  day.  of  the  week 
(See  also  Cassian,  Coll. ,  XXI).  Hence,  on  all  days  alike, 
the  faithful  stood  during  the  chant  of  psalms,  hymns, 
and  canticles,  and  more  particularly  during  the  solemn 
Eucharistic  or  Thanksgiving  prayer  (our  Preface)  pre- 
liminary to  the  Consecration  in  the  Divine  Mysteries. 
The  diaconal  invitation  (Srw/icy  KoKi^j  jr.  r.  X;  6p&oti 
Arab.  Urthi;  Armen.  Chrtht)  is  frequent  at  this  point 
of  the  liturgy.  Nor  have  we  any  grounds  for  believing, 
against  the  tradition  of  the  Roman  Church,  that  dur- 
ing the  Canon  of  the  Mass  the  faithful  knelt  on  week- 
days, and  stood  only  on  Sundays  and  in  paschal  time. 
It  is  far  more  likely  that  the  Imeeling  was  limited  tcf 
Lent  and  other  seasons  of  penance.  What  precisely^ 
were  the  prayers  which  the  Fathers  of  Nicsea  had  iii 
view  when  insisting  on  the  distinction  of  days  is  not 
at  once  evident.  In  our  time  the  decree  is  observed 
to  the  letter  in  regard  to  the  Salve  Repina  or  other, 
antiphon  to  Our  Lady  with  which  the  Divine  Office  is. 
concluded,  and  also  m  the  recitation  of  the  Angelus. 
But  both  these  devotions  are  of  comparatively  recent 
origin.  The  term  prayer  («*x^)  usea  at  Nicaea,  has  in 
this  connection  always  been  taken  in  its  strict  signifi- 
cation as  meaning  supplication  (Probst,  Drei  ersten 
Jahrhund.,  I,  art.  2,  en.  xlix).  The  diaconal  litany, 
general  in  the  East,  in  which  all  conditions  of  men  are 
prayed  for,  preparatory  to  the  offering  of  the  Holy 
Sacrifice,  comes  under  this  head.  And  in  fact  in  the 
Clementine  Liturgy  (Brightman,  9;  Funk,  Didascalia, 
489)  there  is  a  rubric  enjoining  that  the  deacon,  before 
beginning  the  litany,  invite  all  to  kneel  down,  ajid  te^^; 
minate  by  bidding  all  to  rise  up  again.  It  remains 
however  unexplained  why  the  exception  for  Sundays 
and  paschal  time  is  not  expressly  recalled.  In  tne 
Western  or  Roman  Rite,  traces  of  a  distinction  of  days 
still  exist.  For  instance  at  the  end  of  the  Complin  of 
Holy  Saturday  there  is  the  rubric:  "Et  non  llectuntur 
genua  toto  tempore  Paschali",  which  is  the  Nicene 
rule  to  the  letter.  The  defcree  has  likewise  (though 
sli^tly  varied  in  wording)  been  incorporated  into  the 
canon  law  of  the  Church  (Dist.  iii,  De  consecrat.,  c.  x). 
It  may  be  added  that,  both  in  the  East  and  in  the 
West,  certain  extensions  of  the  exemption  from  the 
penitential  practice  of  kneeling  appear  to  have  been 
gradually  insisted  upon.  "  The  29tn  Arabic  Cknon  of ' 
Nicsea  extends  the  rule  of  not  kneeling,  but  only  bend- 
ing forward,  to  all  great  festivals  of  Our  Lord"  (BH^ht, 
Canons  of  Nicsea,  86).  Consult  Mansi,  xiv,  89,  for  a 
similar  modification  made  by  the  Third  Council  of 
Tours,  A.D.  813.  See  also  the  c.  Quoniam  (II  Decretal., 
bk.  9,  c.  2)  cited  above. 

To  fix  with  some  precision  the  import  of  the  Nicene 
canon,  as  it  was  understood  and  reduced  to  practice  by 
the  ancients,  the  supplications,  to  which  the  name 
^'bidding  prayers"  has  sometimes  been  given,  merit 
careful  notice.  They  are  the  Western  analogues  of 
the  Eastern  diaconal  litanies,  and  recur  with  great  fre- 
auency  in  the  old  Gallican  and  Mozarabic  uses.  In 
their  full  form  they  seem  peculiar  to  the  Roman  Rite. 
The  officiating  bishop  or  priest  invites  the  faithful 


OENUFLEXION 


426 


GENXTFLEXION 


present,  who  are  supposed  to  be  standing,  to  pray  for 
some  intention  whicn  he  specifies.  Thereupon,  the 
deacon  in  attendance  subjoins:  ''Flectamus  genua" 
(Let  us  kneel  down).  He  is  obeyed.  Anciently  a 
pause  more  or  less  long,  spent  by  each  one  in  private 
and  silent  prayer,  ensued.  This  ended  at  a  sign  ^ven 
by  the  celebrant,  or  for  him  by  some  inferior  minister, 
who,  turning  to  the  people  with  the  word  "levate", 
bade  liiem  stand  up  again.  They  having  done  so,  the 
celebrant  summed  up,  as  it  were,  or  collected  their 
silent  petitions  in  a  short  prayer,  hence  called  a  collect. 
''Cum  is  qui orationem  collecturus  est  e  terra  surrexe- 
rit,  omnes  pariter  surgunt"  (Cassian,  Instit.,  II,  vii). 
The  stress  put  in  the  early  Church  upon  the  due  per- 
formance of  this  ceremonial  explams  why,  before 
receiving  baptism,  a  catechumen  was  required  to 
rehearse  it  puolicly.  He  is  standing  before  tne  bishop 
who  addresses  him:  "Ora,  electe,  necte  genua,  et  die 
Pater  noster".  This  is  the  "  Oremus,  flectamus  genua" 
of  the  liturgy.  The  direction  to  say  the  Lord's  I*rayer 
in  preference  to  any  other,  or  at  least  previously  to 
any  other,  is  very  natural.  A  glance  at  the  Roman 
liturgical  books  will  show  what  other  preces  were 
usually  added — K3rrie  eleison  (repeated  several  times) 
and  certain  Psalm  verses  concluding,  as  a  rule,  with 
"Domine  exaudi  orationem  meam.  Et  clamor  mens 
ad  te  veniat"  (Ps.,  ci,  1).  Then  the  catechumen  is 
told:  "Leva,  comple  orationem  tuam,  et  die  Amen". 
The  words  of  the  prayer  in  which  the  officiating  priest 
will  collect  his  supplications  and  those  of  the  rest  of  ^e 
faithful  are  omitted,  as  it  is  only  the  catechmnen's 
part  in  the  common  prayer  which  is  being  dealt  with. 
The  catechumen  rises  and  savs  "Amen".  This  is 
gone  through  three  times  and  tne  catechumen  having 
shown  that  he  has  learned  how  to  comport  himself 
during  the  "oratio  fidelimn"  of  the  liturgv  in  which 
he  will  henceforth  take  part,  the  baptismal  ceremony 
is  proceeded  with  (See  Koman  Ritual,  De  Baptismo 
Adultorum;  and  Van  der  Stappen,  IV,  Q.  cxvii). 

Of  silent  kneeling  prayer  tne  characteristic  example 
is  the  group  of  prayers  for  all  conditions  of  men  in  our 
€rOod  Friday  liturgy.  They  have  retained  the  name 
"Orationes  solemnes"  (usual  prayers)  because,  in 

Primitive  ages,  ^one  through  in  every  public  Mass. 
hey  are  the  Latm  "Oratio  Fidelium",  and  their  place 
in  the  daily  Uturgy  is  still  marked  by  the  "Oremus" 
invitation  at  the  Offertory  (Duchesne,  Origines  du 
culte  Chretien,  ch.  vi,  art.  5).  The  same  form  of 
prayer  obtains  at  ordinations  and  in  some  few  other 
rites.  But  it  has  long  since  been  shorn  of  its  most 
striking  featiure.  The  faithful  are  indeed  bidden  to 
kneel  down ;  but  straightway  follows  the  order  to  stand 
up  again,  the  impressive  pause  being  suppressed. 
Again,  nowadays,  the  object  of  the  prayer  is  mostiv 
no  longer  announced.  The  single  word  "Oremus'* 
uttered  by  the  celebrant  is  followed  immediately  by 
"Flectamus  genua",  with  its  momentarv  genuflexion, 
"Levate",  and  the  collect  (see,  in  the  Koman  Missal, 
the  ember-day  Masses,  etc.)*  The  learned  Bishop 
Van  der  Stappen  (Sacra  Liturg.,  II,  Q.  Ixv)  is  of 
opinion  that  anciently  on  all  days  alike,  there  was  a 

Sause  for  silent  prayer  after  every  "Oremus"  intro- 
ucing  a  collect;  and  that  on  Sundays  and  other  non- 
penitential  days  this  same  silent  prayer  was  made  by 
all  standing  and  with  hands  raised  to  Heaven.  The 
invitation  FlectamiLs  genua  merely  reminded  the  faith- 
ful that  the  day  was  one  of  those  on  which,  by  the 
custom  of  the  Church,  they  had  to  pray  kneeling.  The 
rubrics  for  the  Pentecost  ember-aays  which  occur  in 
paschal  time,  and  that  prefixed  to  the  last  collect  in 
the  blessing  of  candles  on  the  feast  of  the  Purification, 
strengthen  this  view.    Another  instance  of  kneeling 

grayer  (probably  replaced  by  one  said  standing,  on 
undays  and  in  paschal  time)  is  that  of  the  benedic- 
tions or  short  collects  which,  in  early  ages,  it  was  usual 
to  add  after  the  recitation  of  each  psalm,  in  public,  and 
often  in  private,  worship.    The  short  prayers  called 


"absolutions"  in  the  Office  of  Matins  are  a  survival 
of  this  discipline.  (For  a  complete  set  of  these  prayers 
see  Mozarabic  Breviary  in  P.L.,  LXXXV).  These 
collects  were  said  kneeung,  or  at  least  Were  preceded 
by  a  brief  prayer  gone  through  in  that  attitude.  They 
are  probably  uie  "  genuflectiones",  the  multiplicity  of 
which  in  the  daily  life  of  some  of  the  earlier  saints 
astonishes  us  (see  for  instance  the  Life  of  St.  Patrick 
in  the  Roman  Breviary,  17  March).  The  kneeling 
posture  is  that  at  present  enjoined  for  the  receiving  of 
the  sacraments,  or  at  least  confirmation.  Holy  Eu- 
charist, penance  and  Holy  orders.  Certain  exceptions, 
however,  seem  to  show  that  this  was  not  always  the 
case.  Thus,  the  supreme  pontiff,  when  solemnly 
celebrating,  receives  Holy  Communion  in  both  kinds, 
seated;  and,  remaining  seated,  administers  it  to  his 
deacons  who  are  standing.  In  like  manner,  should  a 
cardinal  who  is  only  a  priest  or  deacon  be  elected  pope ; 
he  is  ordained  priest  (if  he  has  not  yet  taken  the  step) 
and  consecrated  bishop,  while  sitting  on  his  faldstool 
before  the  altar.  It  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
at  the  Last  Supper  the  Apostles  were  seated  round  the 
table  when  Christ  gave  them  His  sacred  Body  and 
Blood.  That,  in  the  early  Church,  the  faithful  stood 
when  receiving  into  their  hands  the  consecrated 
particle  can  hardly  be  questioned.  Cardinal  Bona 
mdeed  (Rer.  Liturg.,  II,  xvii,  8)  hesitates  somewhat 
as  to  Roman  usage;  but  declares  that  in  regard  to  the 
East  there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever.  He  inclines 
moreover  to  the  view  that  at  the  outset  the  same 
practice  obtained  in  the  West  (cf.  Bingham,  XVI,  v). 
St.  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  writing  to  one  of  the 
popes  of  his  time,  speaks  emphatically  of  "one  who 
has  stood  by  the  table  and  has  extended  his  hand  to 
receive  the  Holy  Food"  (Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl.,  VII,  ix). 
The  custom  of  placing  the  Sacred  Particle  in  the 
mouth,  rather  than  in  the  hand  of  the  communicant, 
dates  in  Rome  from  the  sixth,  and  in  Gaul  from  the 
ninth  century  (Van  der  Stappen,  IV,  227 ;  cf .  St.  Greg., 
Dial.,  I,  III,  c.  iii).  The  cnange  of  attitude  in  the 
communicant  may  perhaps  have  come  about  nearly* 
simultaneously  with  this.  Greater  reverence  was 
being  insisted  upon ;  and  if  it  be  true  that  in  some 
places  each  communicant  mounted  the  altar-steps, 
and  took  for  himself  a  portion  of  the  consecrated 
Eucharist  (Clenx,  Alex.,  Strom.,  I,  i)  some  reform  was 
sorely  needed. 

II.  A  Gesture  of  Reverence. — This  is  peculiar 
to  the  Roman  Rite,  and  consists  in  the  momentary 
bending  of  one  or  both  knees  so  as  to  touch  the  earth. 
Genuflecting,  understood  in  this  sense,  has  now  al- 
most everywhere  in  the  Western  Church  been  sub- 
stituted for  the  profound  bowing  down  of  head  and 
body  that  formerly  obtained,  and  that  is  still  main- 
tained in  the  East  as  the  supreme  act  of  liturgical 
reverence.  It  is  laid  down  by  modem  authorities  that 
a  genuflexion  includes  every  sort  of  inclination,  so  that 
any  bowing  while  kneeling  is,  as  a  rule,  superfluous 
(Martinucci,  Man.  Sacr.  Cserem.,  I,  i,  nn.  5  and  6). 
There  are  certain  exceptions,  however,  to  thiis  rule,  in 
the  liturgical  cultus  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  The 
practice  of  genuflecting  has  no  claim  to  antiquity  of 
origin.  It  appears  to  have  been  introduced  and 
enidually  to  have  spread  in  the  West  during  the  later 
Middle  Ages,  and  scarcely  to  have  been  generally 
looked  upon  as  obligatory  before  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  The  older  Roman  Missab  make  no 
mention  of  it.  Father  Thurston  gives  a.d.  1502  as  the 
date  of  the  formal  and  semi-oincial  recognition  of 
these  genuflexions.  Even  after  it  became  usual  to 
raise  the  consecrated  Host  and  Chalice  for  the  adora^ 
tion  of  the  Faithful  after  the  Consecration,  it  was  long 
before  the  priest's  preceding  and  following  genu- 
flexions were  insisted  upon  (see  Thurston  in  "The 
Month",  Oct.,  1897).  The  genuflexions  now  indi- 
cated at  such  words  as  "Et  incamatua  est",  "Et 
Verbum  caro  factum  est",  and  the  like,  are  likewise 


GEOFFRET 


427 


GEOFFRET 


of  oomparatively  recent  introduction,  though  in  some 
cases  they  replace  a  prostration  that  was  usual,  in 
ancient  times,  when  the  same  sacred  words  were 
solemnly  uttered  (see,  for  instance,  in  regard  to  the 
**  Et  incamatus",  the  curious  passage  in  the  work  of 
Radulphus  Tongrensis  (De  can.  observ.)-  The  Car- 
thusian custonv  of  bendmg  the  knee,  yet  so  as  not  to 
touch  the  ground,  is  curious;  and  has  interest  from 
the  historical  point  of  view  as  te8tif3ring  to  the  reluc- 
tance formerly  felt  bv  many  to  the  modem  practice  of 
senuflecting.  See  also  the  Decree  of  the  8.  Cong,  of 
Rites  (n.  3402)  of  7  July,  1876,  insisting  that  women 
as  well  as  men  must  genuflect  before  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment. The  simple  Dending  of  the  knee,  unlike  pros- 
tration, cannot  be  traced  to  sources  outside  Christian 
worship.  Thus,  the  pagan  and  classical  gesture  of 
'  adoration  consisted  in  the  standing  before  the  being 
or  thing  to  be  worshipped,  in  puttmg  the  rieht  hand 
to  the  mouth  (ad  ora),  and  in  turning  the  body  to  the 
right.  The  act  of  fsJling  down,  or  prostration,  was 
introduced  in  Rome  when  the  Caesars  brought  from 
the  East  the  Oriental  custom  of  worshipping  the  em- 
perors in  this  manner  as  gods.  "Caium  Caesarem 
adorari  ut  deum  constituit  cum  reversus  ex  Syria  non 
aliter  adire  ausus  esset  quam  capite  velato  circum- 
vertensque  se,  deinde  procumbens"  (Suet.,  Vit.,  ii). 
The  liturgical  rules  for  genuflecting  are  now  very  defi- 
nite. (1)  All  genuflect  (bending  both  knees)  when 
adoring  the  Blessed  Sacrament  unveiled,  as  at  Ex- 
positions. (2)  All  genuflect  (bending  the  right  knee 
onlv)  when  doine  reverence  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
enclosed  in  the  Tabernacle,  or  l3ring  upon  the  corporal 
during  the  Mass.  Mass-servers  are  not  to  genuflect, 
save  when  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  at  the  altar 
where  Mass  is  being  said  (cf .  Wapelhorst,  infra).  The 
same  honour  is  paid  to  a  relic  or  the  True  Cross  when 
exposed  for  public  veneration.  (3)  The  clergy  in  lit- 
urgical functions  genuflect  on  one  knee  to  the  cross 
over  the  high  altar,  and  likewise  in  passing  before  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese  when  he  presides  at  a  ceremony. 
From  these  genuflexions,  however,  an  officiating 
priest,  as  also  all  prelates,  canons,  etc.,  are  dispensed, 
bowing  of  the 'head  and  shoulders  being  substituted 
for  the  genuflexion.  (4)  On  Godd  Frioay,  after  the 
ceremony  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Cross,  and  until  Holy 
Saturday,  all,  clergy  and  laity  alike,  genuflect  in  pass- 
ing before  the  unveiled  cross  upon  the  high  altar. 

HBrBLB,  Hit.  d€»  CcnciUa,  I  (Paris.  1007),  618;  Bona,  Re- 
rum  Lituraicarum  libri  duo;  Martbnb.  De  Antupiis  EccUaice 
Ritibua  (Rouen.  1700-02);  Van  dbb  Stappbn,  Saan  Lituraia 
(Mechlin.  lOOl);  Mbrati,  Commentar.  in  Gavantum^  I,  bk.  XV, 
ete.):  Thurston  in  The  Month  (Oct.,  1897);  Bphemeridea  Lxtur- 
giem,  II,  583:  XVI,  82:  XIX,  16:  Binqhau,  Ecdeaiaslieal 
AniiauUim,  XIII,  viii,  sect.  3  (London,  1875);  Hook,  Church 
Dietumary,  424  sqa.  (ed.  1850):  Scodamobb  in  DicL  Christ. 
i4nit^..  s.  V.  (Ix>naon,  1803);  Riddlb,  Chriatian  Antiquities, 
IV,  1,  4;  Warrbn,  Anie-Nicene  Church,  ch.  ii,  17  (Tx>ndon. 
1807);Lbclbrcq,  Man.^ArchioLChriL  (Paris,  1907);  Wapbi^- 
HOBflT.  Comp.  eac.  liturg.  (New  York,  1904) ;  BaUimore  Cere- 
monial. F.  Thomas  Bergh. 

OeoiZrey  of  Olairvauz,  a  disciple  of  St.  Bernard, 
was  b.  between  the  years  1115  and  1120,  at  Auxerre; 
d.  some  time  after  the  year  1 188,  probably  at  the  abbey 
of  Haute  Combe,  Savoy.  At  an  early  age  he  entered 
the  ranks  of  the  clergy,  and  followed  for  some  time  the 
course  of  lectures  given  by  Abelard.  In  1140  St.  Ber- 
nard of  Clairvaux  came  to  Paris,  and  before  the  as- 
sembled scholars  preached  a  sermon  "  De  conversione 
ad  clericos"  (P.  L.,  CLXXXII,  832  sqq.),  in  which  he 
dwelt  on  the  vanities  of  a  life  in  the  world,  on  the  ne- 
oessitv  of  a  sincere  conversion,  and  on  the  peace  to  be 
found  in  the  monastic  profession.  Geoff  rev  was  so 
struck  by  this  forcible  discourse  that,  witn  several 
others,  he  followed  St.  Bernard  and  joined  the  monas- 
tic community  of  Clairvaux.  Soon  he  won  the  special 
confidence  of  the  saintly  abbot,  became  his  notarius, 
or  secretary,  and  his  permanent  companion.  In  1145 
he  accompanied  him  to  Toulouse  and  other  cities  of 
Southern  France,  where  the  saint  preached  against 


the  Manichasan  or  Albigensian  heresy  of  a  certain 
Henry  and  his  partisans.  Durine  the  vears  1146-47 
he  travelled  with  St.  Bernard  through  France  and 
Germany,  where  the  saint  aroused  the  people  for  a 
crusade  to  the  Holy  Land.  At  the  council  held  at 
Reims  in  1148  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  discussion 
concerning  the  errors  of  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^.  In  1 159 
he  was  made  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Igny  in  the 
Diocese  of  Reims,  and  in  1162  he  became  the  fourth 
Abbot  of  Clairvaux.  Owing  to  difficulties  with  the 
monks,  he  was  forced  to  resign  in  1 165 ;  but  in  1170  he 
was  appointed  to  the  abbey  of  Fossa  Nuova  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Terracina,  Italy,  and  in  1176  to  that  of  Haute 
Combe,  Savoy.  In  the  political  events  of  the  time  he 
had  only  a  small  share;  thus,  in  1167  and  1168,  he 
took  part  in  the  negotiations  tending  towards  the 
reconciliation  of  Alexander  III  (1159-81)  with  the 
Emperor  Frederic  Barbarossa  (1152-90)  and  King 
Henry  II  of  England  (1154-89). 

Most  of  the  literary  activity  of  Geofifreyhas  refer- 
ence to  the  life  and  work  of  St.  Bernard.  Thus,  while 
still  notariiis  of  the  saint,  he  collected  the  letters  of  his 
abbot,  variously  estimated  at  243  or  310  (P.  L., 
CLXXXII,  67  sqq.).  He  was  the  chief  author  of  a 
life  of  St.  Bernard  in  five  books,  furnishing  materials 
for  the  first  two  books,  revising  them,  and  adding  three 
of  his  own  (P.  L.,  CLXXXV,  225  sqq.).  He  also 
wrote  fragments  of  a  life  of  St.  Bernard, probablyused 
in  the  first  books  of  the  complete  life  (P.  L.,  CLXXX V, 
523  sqg.) ;  an  account  of  the  saint's  journey  to  Tou- 
louse, in  a  letter  to  his  teacher  Archenfredus  (P.  L., 
CLXXXV,  410  sqq.);  an  account  of  the  saint's  jour- 
ney through  Germany,  the  third  part  of  the  sixth  book 
of  St.  Bernard's  life  in  P.  L.,  CLXXXV,  395  sqq. 
(this  description  and  the  parts  in  the  life  of  St.  Ber- 
nard relating  to  Germany  were  edited  also  by  Waitz, 
in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist. :  Script.,  XXVI,  109-20, 133-37) ;  a 
panegyric  delivered  in  1163  on  the  anniversary  of  St. 
Bernard's  death  (in  P.  L.,  CLXXXV,  573  soq.); 
"  Declamationes  de  colloquio  Simonis  cum  Jesu'  (in 
P.  L.,  CLXXXIV,  437  sqq.),  an  ascetical  work  com- 
piled from  the  sermons  of  St.  Bernard;  "Libellus 
contra  capitula  Gilberti  Pictaviensis  Episcopi"  (in 
P.  L.,  CLaXXV,  595  sqq.),  a  refutation  of  the  errors 
of  Gilbert  de  la  Porx^;  a  letter  to  Albinus,  Cardinal 
Bishop  of  Albano,  on  ^e  same  subject  (in  P.  L., 
CLXXXV,  587  sqq.);  a  life  of  St.  Peter,  Archbishop 
of  Tarentaise  (1175),  published  in  Acta  Sanctorum 
Boll.,  May,  II,  330  sqq. ;  a  letter  to  the  above-named 
Cardinal  of  Albano,  as  to  whether  the  water  added  to 
the  wine  in  the  chalice  is  changed  into  the  blood  of 
Our  Lord  (Baronius,  Ann.  Eccl.,  ad  an.  1188,  n.  27); 
sermons  and  commentaries  on  books  of  Scripture, 
partly  in  print  and  partly  manuscript. 

HOffbb.  Der  hi.  Bernard  von  Clairvaux  (MOnster,  18S6); 
Vacandaro.  Vie  de  SL  Bernard,  I  (3rd  ed.,  Parifl,  1902); 
Strbbbb  in  Kirchenlex.,  b.  v.  Gottfried  von  Clairvaux;  Dbutbch 
in  Realencyklopddie,  b.  v.  Oottfried  von  Clairvaux. 

Francis  J.  Schaefer. 

OeoiZrey  of  Dtmstable,  also  known  as  Geof- 
frey OF  GoRHAM,  Abbot  of  St.  Alban's,  d.  at  St.  Al- 
ban's,  26  Feb.,  1146.  He  was  a  scholar  from  the 
province  of  Maine,  then  annexed  to  the  Dukedom 
of  Normandy,  who  was  invited  by  Richard,  Abbot 
of  St.  Alban's,  to  become  master  of  the  ajsbe^ 
school.  On  his  arrival,  he  found  that  owing  to  his 
long  delay  another  had  been  appointed,  whereupon  he 
opened  a  school  at  Dunstable.  Having  borrowed 
some  copes  from  St.  Alban's  Abbev  for  a  miracle  play 
to  be  acted  by  his  scholars,  he  had  the  misfortune  to 
lose  his  house  and  all  its  contents  by  fire  on  the  evening 
after  the  performance.  To  make  up  to  God  and  the 
saint  for  the  loss  of  the  copes,  he  determined  to  become 
a  monk  of  St.  Alban's  Abbey.  Here  he  rose  to  be 
prior,  and  finally  was  fleeted  abbot  on  the  death  of 
Kichard,  in  1119.  He  ruled  firmly  for  twenty-six 
years,  and  the  abbey  prospered  under  his  wise  admin- 


OEOFFBET 


428 


GEOOBAPHY 


isiration.  He  added  to  the  buildines  a  guest  hall  and 
an  infirmary  with  chapel  attached,  and  spent  large 
sums  on  a  new  shrine  to  which  he  translated  the  body 
of  St.  Alban,  2  Aug.,  1129.  Geoffrey  endowed  the 
nunnery  at  Sopwell,  and  founded  another  at  Markyate, 
in  Bedfordshire,  for  his  friend  and  counsellor,  Christina 
the  recluse.  He  also  opened  a  leper  hospital  near  St. 
AJban's.  Finally,  he  succeeded  m  saving  the  abbey 
when  it  was  threatened  with  destruction  during  the 
Civil  War  in  the  reign  of  Stephen. 

Oesia  Abbatum  8.  Albani  in  RoUa  Series,  I,  72-105  (London, 
1807);  WaioHT.  Biog.  Brit.  Lit.  (London.  1844).  II,  109;  Hunt 
in  Diet.  Nat.  BioQ.  (London,  1800).  8.  v.  Geoffrey  of  Cforham, 
with  refereooes  to  medieval  eouroes. 

Edwin  Burton. 

OeoiZrey  of  Mozimoath  (Gaufridus  Arturus, 
Galfridub  Monemutenbib,  Galffrai  or  Gruffyd 
AB  Arthur),  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph  and  chronicler;  b.  at 
Monmouth  about  1 100 ;  d.  at  Llandaff,  1 154.  He  was 
the  son  of  Arthur,  a  priest,  and  was  educated  by  his 
uncle  Uchtryd ,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Llandaff.  It  has 
been  surmised  that  he  became  a  Benedictine  monk,  but 
this  is  uncertain.  At  Oxford  he  met  Walter  the  Arch- 
deacon, who  suazested  to  him  the  idea  of  his  great 
work, "  Historia  Regum  Britanni®  ".  About  1 140  he 
accompanied  Uchtryd  to  Llandaff,  where  he  became 
archdeacon  of  St.  Teilo's,  and  opened  schools  in  which 
many  clerics  and  chieftains  were  educated.  The  "  His- 
toria" had  appeared  before  1139,  but  Geoffrey  con- 
tinued to  woric  at  it,  and  in  1147  he  completed  it  in  its 
final  form.  In  1151-2  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  St. 
Asaph  and  was  consecrated  at  Lambeth  by  Theobald, 
Arcnbishop  of  Canterbury,  on  24  Feb.,  having  been 
ordained  priest  a  week  before;  but  he  died  without 
having  entered  his  diocese.  Geoffrey's  **  H istory ' '  has 
been  one  of  the  great  influences  in  English  literature, 
making  itself  especially  felt  in  the  national  romance 
from  Layamon  to  Tennyson.  Shakespeare,  Milton, 
Dryden,  Pope,  and  Wordsworth  have  all  used  his 
legends,  while  many  of  the  earlier  chroniclers  followed 
him  as  an  historian.  But  the  twelve  books  of  his 
"History",  recounting  how  Brut,  great-grandson  of 
iEneas,  founded  the  kingdom,  and  narrating  the  ad- 
ventures of  subsequent  kings,  are  in  truth  not  history 
at  all  but  the  be^ning  of  English  story-telling. 
Among  his  legends  is  that  of  King  Arthur,  which  be- 
came tne  most  famous  of  the  great  cvcles  of  romance 
so  popular  in  the  Middle  Ages,  ueoffrey's  legend 
havmg  received  a  new  form  from  Sir  Thomas  Malonr 
in  the  fifteenth  century  has  again  been  given  fresh  lite 
bv  Tennyson  in  the  **IdyUs  of  the  King".  Geoffrey 
claimed  that  his  work  was  founded  on  a  "most  ancient 
book" — probably  a  collection  of  British  legends  no 
longer  extant.  Geoffrey  also  wrote  a  Latin  version  of 
tie  Cymric  "  Prophecies  of  Merlin"  and  a  life  of  Mer- 
lin is  attributed  to  him.  His  stories  exercised  a  wide 
influence  in  Germany,  France,  and  Italy,  while  in 
England  they  furthered  the  unification  of  the  English 
people  by  spreading  belief  in  a  common  origin  of 
Briton,  Saxon,  and  Norman.  The  "Historia  Brit- 
onum"  was  first  printed  at  Paris,  1508;  the  latest 
editions  being  those  of  Giles  (London,  1844)  and 
Schuls  (Halle,  1854). 

Wright,  Biographia  Brit.  Lit.,  Ani^o-Norman  period  (Lon- 
don, 1846),  143-50;  Idbu.  Literary  History  of  Oeoffreu  of  Mon- 
mouth's History  of  the  Britons  in  Archctolooia,  XXXII  (1847), 
335-49;  Hardy.  Descriptivs  Cataloffue,  giving  list  of  MSS. 
(1862-71);  Ward,  Catalogus  of  Romances  m  the  MSS.  Departs 
ment  BriL  Museum  (1883);  Zimmbr,  Zeitschr.  neufransds. 
SpracheundLU.  (1890),  XII.  i.  231-256;  Tedder  in  DieL  NaL 
BioQ.,  8.  v.;  Duchesne,  L' Historia  Britonum  in  Revue  CeUique, 
XVII  (1896).  1-5;  Chevauer,  Bio-Bibt.  (Paris,  1905).  p.  1707. 

Edwin  Burton. 

OeoiKrey  of  Venddme,  (Goffridus  abbas  Yin- 
DOCiNENSis),  cardinal,  b.  in  the  second  half  of  the 
eleventh  century  of  a  noble  family, at  Angers, France; 
d.  there,  26  March,  1132.  At  an  earlv  age  he  entered 
the  Benedictine  community  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  at 


Vend6me  in  the  diocese  of  Chartres;  and  in  1093,  whfle 
still  very  youn^  and  only  a  deacon,  was  chosen  abbot 
of  the  community.  Durine  all  his  lifetime  he  showed 
a  great  attachment  to  the  Holy  See.  Thus,  in  1094,  he 
went  to  Rome  in  order  to  help  Pope  Urban  II  (1088- 
99)  to  take  possession  of  the  Lateran  still  held  by  the 
faction  of  the  antipope  Clement  III  (1080-1100);  the 
money  which  he  offered  to  the  custodian  brought 
about  the  surrender.  In  compensation  he  was  created 
a  cardinal-priest  by  Urban  II,  with  the  titular  church 
of  St.  Prisca  on  the  Aventine.'  No  less  than  twelve 
times  did  he  make  the  journey  to  Italy  in  the  interest 
of  the  Church  of  Rome  during  the  pontificates  of  Urban 
II,  Paschal  II  (1099-1118),  and Cailistus II  (1119-24); 
and  on  three  different  occasions  he  was  made  a  cap- 
tive. In  1096  and  1 107  he  extended  the  hospitality  of 
his  monastery  to  Popes  Urban  and  Paschal.  He  took 
part  in  the  councils  held  at  Clermont,  in  1095,  by  Pope 
Urban;  at  Saintes,  in  1096,  by  the  Apostolic  Legate 
Amatus  of  Bordeaux ;  and  at  Reims,  in  1131,  by  Inno- 
cent II  (1130-43).  He  also  strenuously  defended  the 
ecclesiastical  principles  in  the  question  of  investitures, 
which  he  qualified  in  several  small  tracts  as  heresv  and 
simony;  he  wrote  in  the  same  spirit  to  Pope  Paschal  II 
when  the  latter  made  concessions  (1111)  to  Emperor 
Henry  V  (1106-25).  Finally,  he  always  defended 
firmly  the  prerogatives,  the  rights,  and  the  property 
of  his  abbey  at  Vend6me  a^inst  the  encroachments  of 
either  bishops  or  secular  pnnoes.  Geoffrey  was  one  of 
the  distinguished  men  of  his  age,  and  was  in  corres- 
pondence with  many  eminent  personalities  of  that 
time.  His  writings  consist  of  a  number  of  letters;  of 
a  series  of  iracts  on  the  investitures  of  ecclesiastics  by 
laymen,  on  the  Sacraments  of  the  Holy  Eucharist, 
Baptism,  Confirmation,  and  Extreme  Unction,  on  as- 
cetic and  pastoral  subjects;  hymns  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  St.  Mary  Magdalene ;  sermons  on  the  feasts 
of  Our  Lord,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Mary  Magdalene,  and 
St.  Benedict. 

The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Sirmond 
(Paris,  1610),  reprinted  in  P.  L.,  CLVII.  The  tracts 
on  the  investitures  are  found  also  in  "  Mon.  Germ. 
Hist.:  Libelli  de  Lite'',  II,  680  sqq. 

CoMPAiN.  Etude  surGeoffroide  Venddme  (Paria,  1801):  Nolitia 
historica  lilleraria  in  P.  L.,  CLVII,  9  sqq.;  Sackcr  in  Mon. 
Germ.  Hist.:  Lib.  de  LUe,  II.  676  sqq.;  Idem  in  Neues  Arekiv, 
XVII  (1892).  329  sqq.;  XVIII  7l893).  666  aqq.;  Hibbt  in 
Realencykl.  f&r  prot.  Tkeol.,  b.  v.  Cfottfried  von  VendAme;  Chb- 
VALIBR,  Bio-Bibl.t  s.  v.  Geoffrey  d^ Angers. 

Francis  J.  Schaefer. 

Geography,  Bibucal. — With  the  exception  of  the 
didactic  literature,  there  is  no  book  in  the  Bible  which, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  does  not  contain  mention  of, 
or  allusions  to,  the  geography  and  topography  of  the 
Holy  Land.  In  early  times,  when  the  perusal  of 
the  Sacred  Books  was  confined  within  the  limits  of  the 
country  in  which  they  had  come  to  light,  there  was 
little  need  of  any  special  attention  to  geographical 
details.  Palestine  has  a  small  area,  and  every  one  of 
its  inhabitants  was  acquainted  with  almost  every  by- 
comer  and  nook  in  it.  Not  so,  however,  the  outside 
reader — the  Jew  of  the  Diaspora,  for  instance.  But 
little  did  he  care,  in  many  cases,  for  such  trifles  as 
topographical  niceties;  God's  message  was  all  he 
was  looking  for  in  Holy  Writ;  as  to  those  who  longed 
for  a  fuller  knowledge  of  the  land  of  their  forefathers, 
an  occasional  pil^mage  thither,  at  a  time  when  local 
traditions  were  still  alive,  afforded  ample  opportunities. 
.  After  a.d.  70,  Jewish  pilgrims  ceased  to  flock  to  Pales- 
tine; on  the  other  hand,  zealous  Christians,  whilst  at 
times  casting  a  glance  towards  the  land  whence  the 
light  of  the  Gospel  had  come,  would  rather  ''stretch 
forth  themselves  to  the  things  thj^t  are  before",  and 
direct  their  conquering  steps  to  new  shores.  It  thus 
happened  that  when  the  Church  obtained  her  long- 
demyed  freedom  from  the  throes  of  persecution,  and 
her  scholars  turned  their  minds  to  a  searching  study  of 


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the  Bible,  they  realized  that  much  of  the  book  would 
remain  sealed  to  them  unless  they  were  acquainted 
with  the  Holy  Land.  To  this  deeply-felt  need  Bibli- 
cal geography,  as  a  help  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures, 
owes  its  birth  (cf.  St.  Aug.,  De  Doctr.Chr.,  II,  xvi,24; 
Ca8siod.,Deinstitut.div.utt.,xxv;  St.  Jer.,  AdDomn. 
et  Rogat.  in  I  Paralip.,  Pr»f.).  Its  necessity  has 
never  since  been  (questioned,  and  its  growth  has  kept 
abreast  of  the  stnvings  after  a  better  knowledge  of 
the  literal  and  historical  sense  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
study  of  Biblical  ^eogn^hy  is  pursued  more  than  ever 
in  our  time,  and  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  mention  here 
the  principal  sources  and  means  at  its  disposal. 

First  of  all,  of  course,  stands  the  Bible,  some  parts  of 
which,  however,  must  be  singled  out,  owing  to  their 
importance  from  the  present  point  of  view.  The 
ethnographical  list  in  Gen.,  x,  is  a  valuable  contri- 
bution to  the  knowledge  of  the  old  general  geography 
of  liie  East,  and  its  importance  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated. The  catalo^es  of  stations  of  the  Hebrew 
people  in  their  journeying  from  E^rpt  to  the  bank 
of  tne  Jordan  supply  us  with  ample  information  con- 
cerning the  topography  of  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  the 
southern  and  eastern  borders  of  the  Dead  Sea.  In  the 
Book  of  Josue  is  to  be  found  a  well-nigh  complete  sur- 
vey of  Palestine  (especially  of  Southern  Palestine) 
and  the  territory  allotted  to  Juda  in  particular.  Later 
books  add  little  to  the  wealth  of  top^raphical  details 
given  there,  but  rather  give  a  casual  glimpse  of  an 
ever-growing  acquaintance  with  places  abroad — ^in 
Egypt,  Assjrria,  and  Babylonia.  The  centuries  fol- 
lowing the  Exile  were  for  the  adventurous  Israel- 
ites a  period  of  expansion.  Ck)lonies  of  thrifty  mer- 
chants multiplied  wonderfully  East  and  West,  above 
all  throughout  the  Greek  and  Roman  world,  and 
Palestinian  folks  had  to  train  their  ears  to  many  new, 
"  barbarous"  names  of  places  where  their  kinsmen  had 
settled.  The  Church  at  Jerusalem,  therefore,  was  well 
prepared  to  listen  with  interest  to  the  accounts  of 
Bamabas's  and  Paul's  missions  abroad  (Acts,  xv,  12; 
xxi,  19). 

While  the  authors  of  the  English  Authorized  Ver- 
sion (A.V.)  have  made  efforts  to  preserve  proper 
names  in  their  old  Hebrew  mould,  our  Douay  Version 
(p.  V.)  adheres,  as  a  rule,  to  the  Latin  transuteration. 
This  imperfection  is,  however,  by  no  means  to  be  com- 
pared with  that  which  arises  from  the  astounding 
transcriptions  of  the  (3odex  Vaticanus  from  which  the 
Greek  textus  receptus  was  printed.  To  cite  at  random 
a  few  instances,  Bahurim  has  become  Bapaxlfi;  Deb- 
baseth,  Heb.  Doi)basheth,  Baiddpapa ;  Eglon,  *OSoXKifi  or 
AlXdft]  Gethremmon,  'lefiaOd,  etc.,  not  to  speak  of  the 
frequent  confusion  of  the  sounds  d  and  r  or  of  the 
proper  names  wrongly  translated,  as  *En  Shemesh  by 
^  Tiiyii  roO  ifKlov,  etc.  Thanks  to  a  systematic  correc- 
tion of  the  whole  text,  such  divergences  are  not  to  be 
found  in  t^e  Codex  Alexandrinus.  Biblical  information 
is  in  a  good  many  instances  paralleled,  and  not  unfre- 
quentlv  supplemented,  by  the  indications  gathered 
from  the  documents  unearthed  in  Egypt  and  Assyria. 
No  fewer  than  1 19  towns  of  Palestine  are  mentioned  in 
the  lists  of  Thothmes  III  (about  1600  b.c.)  ;  the  names 
of  some  70  Canaanite  cities  occur  in  the  famous  Tell-el- 
Amama  letters  (about  1450  B.C.)  ;on  the  walls  of  Kamak 
the  boastful  records  of  the  conquests  of  Sheshonk  I 
(Sesac)  exhibit  a  list  of  156  names  of  places,  all  in  Ontral 
and  Southern  Palestine  (935  b.c);  the  inscriptions  of 
the  Assyrian  kings  Tukalti  Pal-Esarra  III  (Teglath- 
phalasar,  745-27),  Sarru-kinu  (Sargon,  722-05),  and 
Sin-akhi-erba  (Sennacherib,  705-681)  add  a  few  new 
names.  From  the  comparison  of  all  these  lists,  it 
appears  that  some  hundred  of  the  Palestinian  cities 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  are  also  recorded  in  documents 
ranang  from  the  sixteenth  to  the  eighth  centuries  b.c. 

"The  immovable  East"  still  preserves  under  the 
present  Arabic  garb  &  goodly   proportion   (three- 


tourths,  according  to  Col. 


Conder)  of  the  old 


geographieal  vocables  of  the  Bible;  in  most  instanoei 
the  name  still  cleaves  either  to  the  modem  city  which 
has  suppbmted  the  old  one  (e.g.  BeitnLahm  for  Bethle- 
hem), or  to  the  ruins  of  the  latter  (e.g.  Khirbet*  Almtth), 
or  the  site  it  occupied  (e.g.  Tell  Jezer  for  Jszer;  TeU 
Ta  *annak  for  Taanach)  ;^ometimes  it  has  shifted  to  the 
neighbouring  dale,  spring,  well,  or  hill  (as  Wddy  Yabta), 
The  history  of  the  Palestinian  cities  and  of  the  chan^ 
which  some  local  names  have  undergone  in  the  in- 
tervening centuries  is  traced,  and  the  identification 
helped,  by  the  information  supplied  by  geographers, 
historians,  and  travellers.  In  this  regard,  parts  or 
the  works  of  classical  geographers,  such  as  Strabo  and 
Ptolemy,  are  consult^  with  profit;  but  thev  cannot 
compete  with  Eusebius's  "Onomasticon",  the  worth 
of  which  was  already  recognized  by  St.  Jerome,  any 
more  than  the  Peutinger  Table,  however  useful,  can 
rival  the  Madaba  Mosaic  Map  (dating  probably  from 
Justinian's  time)  discovered  in  the  autumn  of  1897. 
The  "Peregrinatio  Silvi»**  (whatever  the  true  name  of 
the  authoress),  the  descriptions  of  the  Bordeaux  pil- 

Sim,  the  accounts  of  those  whom  the  piety  of  the 
iddle  Ages  brought  to  the  Holy  Land,  the  histories 
of  the  Crusades  and  of  the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jeru- 
salem, and,  lastly,  the  Arab  geographers  afford  valu- 
able material  to  the  student  of  Biblical  geography. 

The  topography,  as  well  as  the  history,  oiPsdestine 
is  a  favourite  study  of  the  present  day.  Governments 
commission  to  the  East  diplomatic  agents  who  are 
masters  of  archsology;  schools  have  been  founded  at 
Jerusalem  and  elsewhere  to  enable  Biblical  students, 
as  St.  Jerome  recommended  (in  lib.  Paralip.,  Prsef.), 
to  acquire  a  personal  acquaintance  with  the  sites  and 
the  natural  conditions  of  the  country;  and  all — diplo- 
mats, scholars,  masters,  and  students — scour  the  land, 
survey  it,  search  its  innermost  recesses,  copy  inscrip- 
tions, make  excavations,  sift  on  the  spot  the  evidences 
furnished  by  the  Bible  and  all  available  authorities. 
The  results  of  their  labours  are  published  in  periodi- 
cals founded  for  that  particular  purpose  (such  as  the 
"Palestine  Exploration  Fund  Quarterly  Statement", 
the  "Zeitschritt'',  and  the  ''Mittheilungen  und  Nach- 
richten  des  deutschen  Palfistinar-Vereins",  the  "Palft»- 
tinajahrbuch")  or  appear  as  important  contributions 
in  reviews  of  a  wider  scope  (like  the  "Revue  Biblique", 
the  "  Melanges  d'Arch^logie  orientate"  or  the  "Ameri- 
can Joumsu  of  Archseology").  In  the  bibliography 
given  at  the  end  of  this  article  the  reader  will  find  a 
list  of  the  works  of  scholars  who,  especially  in  the  last 
fifty  years,  have  earned  fame  in  the  field  of  Biblical 
geography,  and  a  right  to  the  gratitude  of  all  students 
of  Sacred  Scripture. 

The  name  I^alestinef  first  used  to  designate  the 
territory  of  the  Philistines,  was,  after  the  Roman 
period^  gradually  extended  to  the  whole  southern 
portion  of  S3Tia.  It  applies  to  the  country  stretching 
from  the  Lebanon  ana  Anti- Lebanon  to  the  Sinaitic 
Desert,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Arabian 
Desert.  Politically,  the  limits  varied  in  the  course  of 
Biblical  times.  The  old  Land  of  Canaan  was  relatively 
small:  it  included  the  region  west  of  the  Jordan  be- 
tween a  line  running  from  the  foot  of  the  Hermon 
Range  to  Sidon,  and  another  line  from  the  southern 
end  of  the  Dead  Sea  to  Gaza.  David's  and  Solomon's 
possessions  were  considerably  larger;  they  probably 
extended  north-eastward  to  the  Syrian,  and  eastward 
to  the  Arabian  Desert.  Two  classical  expressions 
occur  frequently  in  the  Bible  to  designate  the  whole 
length  of  the  land  in  historical  times:  "from  the 
entrance  of  Emath  [i.e.,  probably,  the  Merj  AyHn] 
to  the  river  of  Egypt  [Wady  d-AriahTy  or  "to  the  Sea 
of  the  Wilderness  [Dead  Sea|"  and  "from  Dan  to 
Bersabee".  This  represents,  m  the  estimate  of  St. 
Jerome,  about  160  Roman  miles  (141  Engl.  m.).  As 
to  the  breadth  of  the  country,  the  same  Father  de- 
clared himself  ashamed  to  state  it,  lest  heathens  might 
take  occasion  from  his  assertions  to  blaspheme  (Ep 


OEOQ&APBT 


430 


OEOQRAPHT 


ad  Dardan.,  129).  According  to  the  measurements  of 
the  English  surveyors,  the  area  of  the  Uolv  Land  is 
about  0700  square  miles,  a  trifle  over  that  of  the  State 
of  Vermont.  These  fibres  are  humble  indeed  com- 
pared to  those  found  m  the  Talmud,  where  (Talm. 
babyl.,  ^'Sotah/'  49»)  Palestine  is  given  an  area  of 
2,250,000  Roman  square  miles — ^more  than  half  the 
area  of  the  United  states. 

The  Land  of  Israel  is  a  "land  of  hills  and  plains" 
(Deut.,  xi,  11).  To  the  north,  two  great  ranges  of 
mountains,  the  Lebanon  and  the  Anti-Lebanon,  or 
Hermon,  separated  by  the  deep  valle^r  of  Ckelesyria 
(El-Beqa  a),  raise  their  summits  to  a  hei^t  of  9000  or 
10,000  teet.  The  Lebanon  was  never  within  the  bor- 
ders of  Israel ;  it  remained  the  possession  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians and  of  their  Syrian  successors;  but  the  Hebrews 
liked  to  speak  about  its  majestic  grandeur,  its  slopes 
covered  with  oaks,  firs,  and  cedars,  its  peaks  capped 
with  nearly  perennial  snow.  Glistening  closer  on  the 
northern  frontier,  Mt.  Hermon — SirUm  of  the  Sido- 
nians,  Sanir  of  the  Amorrhites,  Jebel  eshr-Sheikhr—wBa 
perhaps  more  familiar.  On  both  sides  of  the  Jordan 
the  mountains  of  Palestine  prolong  these  two  ranges. 
West  of  the  upper  course  of  the  river,  the  mountains 
of  Galilee  gradually  decrease  towards  the  plain  of 
Esdrelon  wnich  alone  divides  the  highland.  Only  a 
few  hills,  among  which  Thabor  (A.V.  Tabor;  J,  ep- 
T^)y  Moreh  {N3f(rDaht,  "Little  Hermon"),  and  the 
heights  of  Gelboe  (A.V.  Gilboa;  J.FuqU^a),  borderinjg 
the  plain  to  the  east,  connect  the  lesser  ranges  of  Gali- 
lee with  the  mountains  of  Ephraim.  The  country 
then  rises  steadily,  studded  with  rounded  hills — 
among  them  £bal  and  Garizim  (A.V.  Gerizim)-^riven 
east  and  west  Iw  torrents,  and  is  continued  in  the 
"Mountains  of  Juda"  (3O0iO  ft.),  to  decrease  farther 
south  (Bersabee,  700  ft.)  and  be  connected  through 
the  "Motmtains  of  Seir"  {Jebel  Madera,  J.  Maqra,  J, 
*Arilif)  and  the  J,  et-Tih,  with  the  first  approacnes  of 
Sinai.  The  mountains  of  Ephraim  and  tnose  of  Juda 
decline  gradually  towards  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  the 
last  western  hillocks  bordering  on  the  rich  plain  of 
Saron  (A.V.  Sharon),  south  of  Mount  Carmel.  and  on 
the  Sephelah  (A.V.  Shephelah).  As  the  Jordan  Val- 
ley sinks  while  the  plateau  rises,  the  eastern  ravines 
are  the  deeper  (the  Cedron  falls  4000  ft.  between  Jeru- 
salem and  tne  Dead  Sea),  and  west  of  the  Dead  Sea,  the 
wilderness  of  Juda  becomes  a  labyrinth  of  rugeed  and 
precipitous  gorges,  the  favourite  haunt  of  outlawB  at 
all  times  (cf.  I  Sam.,  D.V.I  Kings,  xxii,  xxiii,  xxiv), 
the  last  stronghold  of  Jewish  independence  (Masada, 
April,  A.D.  73),  and  the  time-lK>noured  retreat  of  the 
Essenes  and  of  the  early  Christian  hermits. 

East  of  the  Jordan,  the  Hermon  range  is  prolonged 
by  the  "mountains  of  Basan"  [A.V.  Bashan]  (Jdlan), 
to  the  north  of  the  Yarm{lk  {SherCai  el-Menadhireh), 
the  "mountains  of  Galaad"  [A.V.  GileadJ  from  the 
YarmOk  to  the  Amon  {J,  'Ajliin  and  J.  Juad)^  north 
and  south  respectively  to  the  Jaboc,  or  WAdy  Zerkd, 
the  Abarim  Mountains,  and  the  highlands  of  Moab, 
east  of  the  Dead  Sea;  farther  south  this  oro^phic 
system  is  continued  by  the  ranges  east  of  the  Araba 
(JeM,  J.  esh^Sherd),  the  J.  Tduran  and  the  mountains 
of  Western  Arabia  (HedjaZj  etc.).  Tumbling  down 
abruptly  towards  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,  the 
mountains  of  Basan,  of  Galaad,  and  of  Moab  buttress 
the  plateaux  of  the  desert,  where  from  time  immemo- 
rial the  nomad  tribes  of  Bedouin  have  roamed.  Only 
east  of  the  watershed  of  the  Yarmiik,  some  fifty  miles 
from  the  Jordan,  does  the  plateau  rise  to  an  altitude 
of  3500  feet  in  the  volcanic  region  of  the  Hauran, 
where  some  peaks  tower  to  a  height  of  over  5000  feet, 
and  north-east  of  which  stretches,  25  miles  lone  and  20 
miles  wide,  and  with  the  average  depth  of  500  feet,  the 
broken  sea  of  lava  of  the  Tracnon  (Lejdh),  With  the 
exception  of  the  Trachon,  and  the  mountains  of 
Hauran — which  lie  beyond  the  limits  of  classical 
Palestine — and  of  a  small  volcanic  section  in  the 


north-east,  which  lies  between  Mount  Hermon  and  the 
river  YarmClk,  and  extends  westwards  to  Mount  Tha- 
bor, the  surface  rock  of  Palestine  is  a  soft  limestone 
containing  many  fossils;  it  is  hollowed  by  numberless 
caverns,  some  of  which  are  mentioned  m  Scripture, 
once,  probably,  the  dwellin^places  of  the  eany  in- 
habitants of  tne  country;  in  later  times  the  favourite 
cells  of  anchorites. 

The  most  wonderful  geo^phical  and  ^^losical 
feature  of  Palestine  is  the  gigantic  depression  which 
divides  the  country  into  two  hidves.  tt  is  the  natural 
continuation  of  the  ravine  through  which  the  Orontes 
(Nahr  el-'Asf)  and  the  Leontes  (N,  el-LUdni)  have  fur- 
rowed their  beds.  From  "the  entrance  of  Emath", 
the  GhdTf  as  this  depression  is  called  by  the  Arabs,  runs 
directly  south,  falling  persistently  with  an  averace 
gradient  of  15  feet  per  mile,  and  passes  at  an  altituae 
of  1285  feet  below  tne  sea  level,  under  the  blue  waters 
of  the  Bahr  Ldt,  the  bed  of  which  reaches  a  depth  of 
more  than  1300  feet  below  the  water  level,  this  being 
the  lowest  point  of  this  unparalleled  depression.  To- 
wards the  south  the  bed  of  the  Salt  Sea  rises,  but  the 
furrow  is  continued  through  the  *  Araba,  which, 
although  in  some  places  it  goes  to  a  hei^t  of  781  feet 
above  the  Red  Sea,  remains  much  lower  than  the  bor- 
dering regions,  and  finally  plunoes  into  the  Gulf  of 
*Aqaba.  From  the  "waters  of  Merom"  {Bahrai  el- 
HiUeh)  to  the  Lake  of  Tiberias  {Bahr  Tabariyeh)  the 
Ghdr  is  scarcely  more  than  a  narrow  gap ;  it  broadens 
to  about  four  miles  south  of  the  lake,  then  narrows  to 
a  mile  and  a  half  before  reaching  the  plain  of  Beisan, 
where  it  spreads  to  a  breadth  of  eight  miles.  South  of 
*Ain  es-Sa^f  down  to  the  confluence  of  the  Jaboc,  the 
valley  is  only  two  miles  wide;  but  it  soon  expands 
again  and  north  of  the  Dead  Sea  measures  twelve  to 
fourteen  miles. 

Inside  the  Gh6r  the  Jordan  has  ploughed  its  double 
bed.  The  Isurser  bed,  the  Z6r,  is  an  alluvial  plain,  the 
width  of  which  varies  from  1200  feet  to  a  mile  and  a 
half;  it  is  sunken  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  in  the  upper 
course  of  the  river,  forty  to  ninety  feet  in  the  middle 
course,  and  about  one  hundred  and  eigh^  feet  at 
some  aistance  north  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  Z6r  is  very 
fertile  except  in  its  few  last  miles  (the  'Arabah  or 
"desert^  of^Scripture),  where  the  salt-saturated  soil  is 
barren  and  desolate.  Sunken  within  the  Zdr,  and 
hidden  behind  a  dense  screen  of  oleanders,  acacias, 
thorns,  and  similar  shrubbery,  the  Jordan  {esh-Sheri- 
*at  el-keb^,  ''the  Great  Trough'')  follows  its  serpen- 
tine course,  swiftly  rolling  its  cream-coloured  waters 
through  a  succession  of  rapids  which  render  it  prac- 
tically unnavigable.  "The  Great  Trough"  of  Pales- 
tine IS  much  narrower  than  its  celebrity  might  lead 
one  to  suppose.  A  few  miles  below  Lake  QOleh,  its 
width  is  only  75  feet;  about  twenty  miles,  as  the  crow 
flies,  north  of  the  Dead  Sea,  it  measures  some  115  feet; 
but  as  it  goes  down  towards  the  Sea,  the  river  broadens 
to  225  feet.  Before  the  Roman  period  no  bridges  ex- 
isted over  the  Jordan;  communications  were  active, 
nevertheless,  between  both  banks,  thanks  to  the  shal- 
lowness of  the  water,  which  is  fordable  in  five  or  six 
places  (Jos.,  ii,  7;  Judges,  iii,  28;  yii,  24;  xii,  5,  6, 
etc.).  Early  in  the  spring,  however,  this  is  utteriy 
impossible,  for  the  river,  swollen  bv  tne  melting  snow 
of  Mount  Hermon,  overflows  its  banks  and  spreads 
over  the  whole  area  of  the  Zdr  (Jos.,  iii,  15;  1  Par., 
xii,  15;  Ecclus..  xxiv,  36).  The  Jordan  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  tnree  sprines,  respectively  known  as 
Nahr  el-Hasb&ni,  N.  el-LeodAn,  and  N.  Banlyas.  which 
meet  nine  miles  north  of  Lake  QOleh.  On  Dotn  sides 
it  receives  many  tributaries,  very  few  of  which  are 
explicitly  mentioned  in  Scripture.  We  may  mention, 
on  the  west  side,  the  N.  el-Btreh,  which  comes  down 
from  Mount  Thabor,  the  N.  el-Jal<ki.  bringing  down 
from  Nebt  Daht  the  waters  of  *Ain-JaI<k],  possibly  the 
site  of  the  trial  of  Gideon's  companions  (Judges,  vii, 
4.  6).  the  WAdy  Far'ah,  which  originates  near  Mount 


GEOaaAPHY 


431 


GEOaaAPHY 


Hebal  and  Mount  Garizim,  the  W.  Nawaimeh,  the 
pass  to  the  heights  of  Bethel  (Beitin;  cf.  Jos.,  xvi,  1), 
and.  below  Jericho,  the  W.  el-Kelt,  the  "torrent  of 
Carith  (A.V.  Cherith)"  mentioned  in  III  (A.V.  I) 
Kings,  xvii,  3,  according  to  many  Biblical  geogra- 
phers. On  the  east,  besiaes  many  brooks  drainms  the 
hill  country  of  Galaad,  the  Jordan  receives,  souUi  of 
the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  the  Shert  *at  el-Menadhtreh,  not 
spoken  of  in  the  Bible  (Yarmilk  of  the  Talmud, 
Hieromax  of  the  Greek  writers),  the  W.  Yabts,  the 
name  of  which  recalls  that  of  the  city  of  Jabes-Galaad 
W.(I  Kings,  xi  ;xxxi,  ll-13),the  Jaboc(iV.e2-Z«rj^o),the 
Nimrin  (cf.  Bethemra,  Num.,  xxxii,  36;  Jes.,  xui,  27), 
and,  a  few  miles  from  the  Dead  Sea,  the  united  waters 
of  the  W.  Kefrein  and  W.  Hesb&n  (cf.  Hesebon,  A.V. 
Heshbon,  Num.,  xxi,  26;  Jos.,  xxi.  39,  etc.). 

Among  the  rivers  and  torrents  ctebouching  into  the 
Dead  Sea  from  the  mountains  of  Juda,  only  one  de- 
serves notice,  viz.,  the  WAdy  en-N&r,  made  up  of  the 
often  dry  Cedron  (WAdy  Sitti  Manram),  eaat  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  the  ''Valley  of  Ennon'^^CW.  er-Rab&bi)  to 
the  south  of  the  Holy  City.  Many  torrents  stream 
from  the  highlands  of  Moab;  among  these  may  be 
mentioned  the  WAdy  *Ay<in  Miis&,  the  name  of  which 
preserves  the  memor^r  of  the  ace&t  leader  of  Israel, 
the  Amon  (W.  el-Mojlb),  the  W&dy  of  Kerak,  prob- 
ably the  Biblical  Zared,  the  ''waters  of  Nemrim 
[A.V.  Nimrimj''  (Is.,  xv,  6;  Jer.,  xlviii,  34.— W. 
Nemeira),  and  finally  the  W.  el-Qurfthi,  very  likely 
the  "torrent  of  the  willows"  of  Is.,  xv,  7. 

In  the  Mediterranean  watershed,  from  the  extreme 
north  of  Phcenicia,  the  most  famous  rivers  are  the 
Eleutherus  (I  Mach.,  xi,  7;  xii,  30. — Nahr  el-Keblr), 
the  N.  el  Qasimiyeh  fLeontes  of  the  Greeks),  the  N. 
el-MuqattA  fd^ison;  A.V.  Kishon),  the  N.  ez-ZercjA, 
very  likely  the  "flumen  Crocodilon"  of  Pliny  (Hist. 
Nat.,  V,  xvii)  and  the  Sichor  Labanah  of  the  Bible 
(Jos.,  xix,  26.— A.V.  ShihAr-Ubnath),  the  N.  el- 
Fal^,  possibly  the  Nahal  Qanah  (D.V.  "valley  of 
reeds^';  A.V.  Kanah)  of  Jos.,  xvi,  8  and  xvii,  9,  the 
N.  Rabin,  one  of  the  confluents  of  which,  the  W.  e»- 
Sar&r,  runs  through  the  famous  "  vallev  of  Sorec"  (A. 
V.  Sorek.— Judges,  xvi,  4,  etc.),  the  N.  Sukreir,  into 
which  opens  the  "valley  of  the  terebinth"  (A.V. 
"viUley  of  Elah". — I  Kines,  xvii,  2, 19;  xxi,  9 — ^prob- 
ably the  W.  e»-Sunt),  the  W.  el-Hasv,  the  main  branch 
of  which  passes  at  the  foot  of  Lachis  (Tell  el-Hasy), 
while  another  originates  near  Khirbet  Zuheillqa,  not 
unlikely  the  site  of  Siceleg  (A.V.  Ziklae. — Jos.,  xv, 
31,  etc.);  the  W.  Ghazzeh,  into  which  flows  the  W. 
esh-Sherfa,  perhaps^ the  "torrent  Besor"  (I  Kings, 
XXX,  9,  etc.),  and  tne  W.  es-Seba*,  which  recalls  to  the 
mind  the  city  of  Bersabee  (Beer-Sheba),  both  being 
the  natural  outlets  of  all  the  hvdrc^raphic  system  m 
the  Negeb;  finally,  the  W.  el-^Artsh,  or  "torrent  of 
E^pt",  Shib^r  of  the  Hebrews  and  Rhinocolurus  of 
the  Greeks,  which  drsuns  all  the  northern  and  north- 
eastern portions  of  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula.  The 
Scriptures  mention  likewise  a  few  inland  rivers,  partic- 
ularly two  in  the  territory  of  Damascus:  the  Abana 
(N.  Bar&da),  which,  after  watering  the  city  of  Damas- 
cus, loses  itself  some  twenty  miles  east  in  the  Bahrat 
el- Ateibeh,  and  the  Pharphar,  which  feeds  the  Bah- 
rat el-Hij&neh. 

Besides  the  two  lakes  just  mentioned,  which  are 
outside  of  Palestine  proper,  and  the  Lakes  HiUeh  and 
Tiberias,  in  the  course  of  the  Jordan,  the  Holy  Land 
possesses  no  other  lakes  of  any  extent  except  the 
Birket  er-Ram  (the  Lake  Phiala  of  Josephus — Bell. 
Jud.,  Ill,  X,  7)  to  the  south  of  Bantyas;  but  ponds 
and  marshes  are  numerous  in  certain  parts  of  the 
land.  Marshes  near  the  lower  Jordan,  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  Dead  Sea,  are  mentioned  in  I  Mach., 
ix,  46. 

Deut.,  viii,  7,  describes  Palestine  as  "a  land  of 
brooks  and  of  waters  and  of  fountains".  Many 
springps  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  and  nearly  aU 


belong  to  Western  Palestine.  Going  from  north  to 
south,  and  leaving  aside  those  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
cities  to  which  they  gave  their  names  (Engannim, 
Enhasor,  etc.)  we  may  mention  here:  the  "fountain  of 
Daphnis"  (Num.,  xxxiv,  11,  in  the  Vulgate  only: 
other  texts  have  merely:  "the  fountain")  identified 
by  Robinson  with  'Ain  el-'Asy,  the  main  spring  of  the 
(Jrontes  in  Gcelesyria;  the  "fountain  which  is  in  Jez- 
rahel"  (I  Kings,  xxix,  1)  generally  recognised  in  the 
'Ain  Jal<id,  near  the  Little  Hermon;  the  "fountain 
that  is  called  Harad"  (Judges,  yii,  1),  possibly  the 
same,  or  'Ain  d-Meivtehy  180  feet  below  *Ain  Jal<id; 
the  "fountain  of  Taphua"  (Jos.,  xvii,  7),  near  the  city 
of  that  name;  the  "fountain  of  Jericho"  or  "of  Eh- 
seus"  (D.V.  EUsha.— IV  Kings,  ii,  19,  22),  'Ain  e»- 
Stdt&n,  to  the  north  of  Jericho;  the  "fountain  of  the 
Sun"  (Jos.,  XV,  7),  'Ain  el-Ha<id,  or  Apostles'  Foun- 
tain, on  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho;  the 
"fountain  of  the  water  of  Nephtoa"  (Jos.,  xv,  9),  near 
Lifta,  north-west  of  Jerusalem;  the  "source  of  the 
waters  of  Gihon"  (II  Par.,  xxxii,  30),  'Ain  Cmm  ed- 
Derej,  or,  as  the  Christians  call  it,  'Ain  Sitti  Maryam, 
on  the  south-east  slope  of  the  Temple  hill  at  Jerusa- 
lem; the  "fountain  Koeel"  (Jos.,  xv,  7),  Btr  Eiy^b  in 
the  W.  en-Nftr,  south  of  Jerusalem;  the  "dragon-foun- 
tain" (Neh.,  D.V.  II  Esdras,  ii,  13),  somewhere  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Holv  C^ty,  unidentified;  "The 
Spring  of  him  that  invoked  from  the  jawbone"  (so  D.V. ; 
A.V.  Enhakkore — Judges, xv,  19 — rather, "the  Spring 
of  the  partridge,  which  is  in  Le^y"),  identified  by  (>>n- 
der  with  some  'Aydn  (2&rei  north-west  of  Sora;  the 
"water"  where  Philip  baptized  the  eunuch  of  Can- 
dace  rActs,  viii,  36)  Ain  ^-Dirweh,  near  the  high- 
road from  Jerusalem  to  Hebron;  "the  foimtain  of 
Misphat  that  is  Cades"  (A.V.  "Enmishpat,  which  is 
Kaaesh" — Gen.,  xiv,  7)  'Ain  Kedeis  in  the  desert. 

In  places  where  the  supply  of  water  was  scanty  the 
ancient  inhabitants  constructed  pools,  either  by 
damming  up  the  neighbouring  valley  or  by  excavation. 
Gf  the  former  description  were  very  likely  the  pools  of 
Gabaon  [A.V.  Gibeon. — II  Kings  (A.V.  II  Samuel), 
ii,  13],  Hebron  (II  Kings,  iv,  12),  Samaria  (III  King?, 
xxii,  38),  Hesebon  (Cant.,  vii,  4),  and  certainly  the 
lower  pool  of  Siloe  near  Jerusalem  (Is.,  xxii,  9,  11);  of 
the  iJEitter  description  are  the  "upper  pool"  of  Siloe 
(IV  Kings,  XX,  20)  and  the  famous  "  pools  of  Solomon", 
probably  alluded  to  in  EccL,  ii,  6,  near  Bethlehem. 
These  pools,  frequent  in  the  East,  are  supplied  either 
by  natural  drainage,  or  by  springs,  or  by  aqueducts 
bringing  water  from  a  distance. 

In  its  dimate,  as  well  as  in  everything  else,  Palestine 
is  a  land  of  contrasts.  At  Jerusalem,  which  is  2500 
feet  above  the  sea  level,  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
whole  year  is  about  63®  F. ;  during  the  winter  months, 
although  the  mean  temperature  is  about  50®,  the 
mercury  occasionally  plays  around  the  freezine-point; 
whereas  in  June,  July,  August,  and  September,  the 
avera^  being  between  70®  and  75®,  the  thermometer 
sometimes  rises  to  100®  or  higher.  For  six  or  seven 
months  there  is  no  rain;  the  dry  wind  from  the  desert 
and  the  scorching  sun  parch  the  land,  especially  on 
the  plateaux.  The  first  rains  generally  fall  about  the 
beginning  of  November;  the  "latter  rain",  in  the 
month  of  April.  Plenty  or  famine  depend  particu- 
larly on  the  April  rains.  On  clear  nights,  all  the 
year  round,  there  falls  a  copious  dew;  but  in  summer 
time  there  will  be  no  dew  if  no  westerly  brecae,  bring- 
ing moisture  from  the  sea,  springs  up  towards  the 
evening.  Snowfalls  are  only  occasional  during  the 
winter,  and  usually  they  are  light,  and  the  snow  soon 
melts;  not  seldom  does  the  whole  winter  pass  without 
snow  (as  an  average,  one  winter  in  three).  Owing  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  Lebanon  and  Hermon,  the 
Upper  Gatilee  enjoys  a  more  temperate  climate;  but 
in  tne  lowlands  the  mean  temperature  is  much  higher. 
Alon^  the  coast,  however,  it  is  relieved  almost  every 
evemng  by  the  breeze  from  the  sea.    In  the  Ghdr,  the 


QBOQRAPHT 


432 


QB0GRAPH7 


climate  is  tropical;  harvesting,  indeed,  begins  there 
in  the  first  days  of  April.  During  the  winter  months, 
the  temperature  is  warm  in  the  davtime,  and  may 
fall  at  mght  to  40°;  in  summer  the  thermometer  may 
rise  in  the  day  to  120°  or  140°,  and  little  relief  may  be 
expected  from  the  night.  '"The  valley  concentrates 
the  full  radiance  of  an  eastern  sun  rarelv  mitigated 
by  any  cloud,  though  chilled  at  times  by  the  icy  north 
winds  off  the  snows  of  Lebanon  and  Hermon;  ib  is 
parched  by  the  south  wind  from  the  deserts  of  the 
South,  yet  sheltered  from  the  moist  sea  breezes  from 
the  West  that  elsewhere  so  greatly  temper  the  climate 
of  the  Holy  Land"  (Aids  to  the  Bible  Student).  The 
flora  and  fauna  of  the  lowest  portions  are  accordingly 
similar  to  those  of  India  and  Ethiopia.  The  coast  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  sunken  deeper  than  the  Gh6r,  has  a 
deadly  equatorial  climate,  perhaps  the  hottest  in  the. 
worid. 

These  orographic,  hydrographic  and  climatic  con- 
ditions of  the  Holy  Land  explain  the  variety — ^won- 
derful, if  we  consider  the  size  of  the  country — of  its 
fauna  and  flora.  It  is ''a  good  land.  .  .  .  A  land  of 
wheat,  and  barley,  and  vineyards,  wherein  fig  trees, 
and  pomegranates,  and  oliveyards  grow:  a  land  of  oil 
and  honev.  Where  without  any  want  thou  shalt  eat 
thy  bread,  and  enjoy  abundance  of  all  things"  (Deut., 
viii,  7-9).  Palestine,  indeed,  even  now,  but  much 
more  so  in  Biblical  times,  may  be  said  fairly  to  repav 
the  labour  of  its  inhabitants.  The  north,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Jordan,  is  a  most  fertile  region;  the  plains 
of  Esdrelon  and  of  Saron  (A.V.  Sharon,  except  in 
Acts,  ix,  35),  the  Sephelah  and  the  Gb6r  were  at  all 
times  considered  the  granaries  of  the  country.  Even 
the  land  of  Juda  contains  rich  and  pleasant  dales,  an 
ideal  home  for  gardens,  olive-groves,  vineyards,  and 
fig  trees;  and  the  high  country,  with  the  exception  of 
the   sun-baked   and    wind-parched    desert,    affords 

foodly  pastures.     (See  Animals  in  the  "Bible; 
^LANTS  IN  THE  BiBLE.) 

Palestine  seems  to  have  been  inhabited  about  the 
fourth  millennimn  b.  c.  by  a  population  which  may  be 
called,  without  insisting  upon  the  meaning  of  the 
word,  aboriginal.  This  population  is  designated  in 
the  Bible  by  the  general  name  of  NephUimj  a  word 
which,  for  the  Hebrews,  conveyed  the  iaea  of  dreadful, 
monstrous  sants  (Num.,  xiii,  33,  34).  We  hear  oc- 
casionally (H  them  also  as  Rephaim,  Enacim,  Emimf 
Ztugim,  Zamzommim,  and  HorUea,  these  last,  whose 
name  means  ''cave-dweUers",  being  confined  to  the 
deserts  of  Idumsa.  But  what  were  the  ethnological 
relations  of  these  various  peoples,  we  are  not  able  to 
state.  At  any  rate,  the  land  must  have  been  thinly 
inhabited  in  those  eariy  times,  for  about  3000  b.c.  it 
was  styled  by  the  Egyptians  "an  empty  land''.  To- 
wards the  third millenmum  b.c,  a  first  Semitic  Canaan- 
ite  element  invaded  Palestine,  followed,  about  the 
twenty-fifth  century,  by  a  great  Semitic  miction  of 
peoples  coming  from  the  marshes  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  which  were  to  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Canaan  before  the  occupation  of  the  land  by 
the  Hebrews.  From  the  twentieth  century  b.c.  on- 
wards, Aram  continued  to  pour  on  the  land  some  of  its 
peoples.  Palestine  had  thus,  at  the  time  of  Abraham, 
become  thickly  inhabited;  its  many  cities,  united  by 
no  bond  of  pohtical  cohesion,  were  then  moving  in  the 
wake  of  the  rulers  of  Babylon  or  Susa,  although  the 
influence  of  Eg3rpt,  fostered  bv  active  commercial 
communications,  is  manifest  in  the  Canaanite  civilizan 
tion  of  that  period.  As  a  result  of  the  battle  of 
Meffiddo,  the  Land  of  Canaan  was  lost  to  Babylon  and 
ad^  to  the  possessions  of  Egypt;  but  this  change 
had  little  effect  on  the  internal  conditions  of  the  coun- 
try; administrative  reports  continued  to  be  written, 
and  business  transacted,  in  the  Cananso-Assyrian 
dialect,  as  is  shown  from  the  Tell  el-Amama  and  the 
Ta'annak  discoveries.  About  the  same  epoch  the 
Hethites  came  in  from  the  North  and  some  of  their 


settlements  were  established  as  far  south  as  the 
valley  of  Juda,  while  the  Amorrhites  were  tcddng  hold 
of  the  trans-Jordanic  highland.  Speaking  eenerally, 
when  the  Hebrews  appeared  on  the  banks  ol  the  Jor- 
dan and  the  Philistines  on  the  Mediterranean  shore 
(c.  1200  B.C.),  the  Amalecites  held  the  Negeb,  the 
Amorrhites  the  highlands  east  of  the  river,  theCanaan- 
ites  dwelt  in  the  valleys  and  plains  of  the  west,  and 
some  places  here  and  there  were  still  in  possession  of 
the  aborigines.  The  Philistines  drove  the  Canaanites 
from  the  coast  and  occupied  the  Sephela,  whereas  the 
Zakkala  settled  on  the  coast  near  Mount  Carmel.  We 
know  in  detail  from  the  Bible  the  progress  of  the 
Hebrew  conquest  of  the  rest  of  the  land:  the  remnant 
of  the  former  settlers  were  absorbed  little  by  little  into 
the  new  race. 

Needless  to  tell  here  how  the  different  tribes,  at  first 
without  any  other  bond  of  unity  than  that  of  a  com- 
mon origin  and  faith,  gradually  were  led  by  circum- 
stances to  join  under  a  common  head.  This  political 
unity,  however,  was  ephemeral  and  split  into  two  rival 
kin^oms — that  of  Israel  in  the  north,  and  that  of 
Juda  in  the  south.  The  vicissitudes  of  these  two  tiny 
kingdoms  fill  several  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
But  they  were  doomed  to  be  merged  into  the  mighty 
empires  of  the  Euphrates  and  to  share  their  fate.  A 
Baoylonian  province  in  588,  a  Persian  satrapy  after 
Cyrus's  victories,  Palestine  became  for  a  few  years 
part  of  Alexander's  vast  dominion.  At  the  division 
of  his  empire  the  Land  of  Israel  was  allotted  to  Seleu- 
cus,  but  for  fifteen  years  was  a  bone  of  contention  be- 
tween Syria  and  E^ypt,  the  latter  finally  annexing  it, 
until,  in  198  B.C.,  it  passed  by  rieht  of  conquest  to 
Kine  Antiochus  III  of  Syria.  A  short  period  of  inde- 
pendence followed  the  rebellion  of  the  Machabees,  but 
finally  Rome  assumed  over  Palestine  a  protectorate 
which  in  time  became  more  and  more  effectual  and  in- 
trusive. Josephus  narrates  how  Pdestine  was  di- 
vided at  the  death  of  Herod;  St.  Luke  (iii,  1)  likewise 
describes  the  political  conditions  of  the  country  at  the 
beginning  of  Christ's  public  life.  West  of  tlie  Jordan 
and  the  Dead  Sea,  Palestine  included  Galilee,  Sa- 
maria, Judea,  and  Idumsea  (Edom);  east  of  that  river, 
Gaulanitis  corresponded  to  the  modem  Jolan ;  Aura- 
nitis  was  the  administrative  name  of  the  plateau  of 
JebelrHauran;  north-west  of  it,  the  Lejah  formed  the 
main  part  of  Trachonitis;  Iturea  must  have  been  the 
country  south-east  of  Hermon;  north  of  Iturea,  on  the 
banks  of  the  upper  BarddOf  at  the  foot  of  the  Anti- 
Lebanon,  was  situated  the  small,  but  rich,  tetrarehy  of 
Abilene ;  south  of  Iturea,  between  Gaulanitis  and  Au- 
ranitis  extended  Batanea;  finally,  under  the  name  of 
Perea  was  designated  the  land  across  the  Jordan  from 
Pella  to  Moab,  and  westwards  to  the  limits  of  Arabia, 
determined  by  the  cities  of  Gerasa  (Jerash),  Philadel- 
phia (Amm&n),  and  Hesebon. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Palestine,  so  conflicting  are  the  indications 
supplied  by  the  Bible.  We  are  told  in  II  Kings,  xxiv, 
9,  that  in  tne  census  undertaken  at  David's  command, 
there  were  found  1,300,000  fighting  men.  These  fig- 
ures, which  may  represent  a  total  population  of  from 
4,000,000  to  5,000,000,  undoubtedly  overshoot  the 
mark.  From  what  may  be  gathered  in  various  places 
of  Holy  Writ,  the  figures  given  in  II  Kings  might 
fairly  represent  the  whole  population  at  the  l^t 
epochs. 

In  the  foregoing  portions  of  this  article  Palestine 
alone  has  been  spoken  of  and  described.  However, 
as  has  been  intimated  above.  Genesis,  Exodus.  Daniel, 
Esther,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  Acts,  the  Epistles, 
and  the  first  chapters  of  the  Apocalyp>8e,  in  the  New, 
contain  geograpnical  indications  of  a  much  wider 
range.  To  attempt  a  description  of  all  the  countries 
mentioned  would  be  to  en^ge  in  the  whole  geomiphy 
of  the  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  El^yptian,  and  Koman 
empires,  a  task  whicn  the  allusions  made — with  the 


^ 


a 


Id 

u.  £ 
O 


GEOGRAPHY 


433 


GEOGRAPHY 


exception  of  the  detailed  description  of  the  Israelites' 
journey  from  Ek^ypt  to  the  Jordan — would  hardier  jus- 
tify. On  the  omer  hand,  it  is  certain  that  Palestine  is 
the  theatre  where  most,  and  those  the  most  vital,  of  the 
events  of  sacred  history  took  place .  The  following  list, 
which  eives  the  names  of  most  places^  within  and  with- 
out Palestine,  mentioned  in  Holy  Wntjbriefljjr  supplies 
the  indications  needed .  From  the  variety  of  countries 
to  which  these  places  belonged  the  reader  may  form  an 
idea  of  the  ranee  of  geographical  knowledge  possessed 
by  the  Biblical  writers,  and  acauired  by  wem,  either 
from  personal  experience  or  bv  nearsay. 

Geographical  Names  in  EfoLT  Scripture. — Many 
of  the  more  imi>ortant  places  mentioned  below  are 
subjects  of  special  articles  in  The  Cathouc  Ency- 
clopedia ;  where  the  title  of  such  an  article  is  identical 
with  the  local  name  ^iven  in  the  list,  the  reader  will 
be  referred  to  that  article  simply  by  the  letters  "q^.  v." 
(quod  vide) ;  where  the  special  article  is  headed  with  a 
diflferent  name  or  a  modified  form  of  the  same  name, 
the  croes-reference  eives  that  name  in  (Iapitals  and 
Small  Capitals.  Cross-references  to  other  titles  in 
the  list  itself  are  eiven  in  the  ordinary  type. 

Abana:  river  of  Damascus.    See  Lebanon. 

Abarim  (q.  v.):  mountains  in  N.  Moab. 

Abdon  (Jos.,  xxi,  30,  etc.) :  Khirbet  *Abdeh,  N.  of  the 
Wady  el-Kam. 

AM  (the  great:  I  Kings,  vi,  18)  is  a  common  name, 
''stone",  as  the  D.V.  suggests  in  the  parenthesis. — 
Abel  (Judges,  xi,  33 ;  Heb/Ab^l  Keramiin),—Abela  (IV 
Kings,  XX,  14) — Aoeldomum  Maacha  (III  Kings,  xv, 
20;  IV  Kings,  xv,  29)  \—Abdmaim  (II  Par.,  xvi,  4)  ;— 
Abdmekula  (Judges,  vii,  23,  etc.);  Abelsatim  (Num.. 
xxxiii.  49),  the  place  where  the  Israelites  were  enticed 
into  the  impure  worship  of  Beelphegor;  in  the  Ghdr. 
E.  of  the  Jordan,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  Dead 
Sea. 

Aben-Boen  (Jos.,  xviii,  18),  also  "the  stone  of  Boen" 
(Jos.,  XV,  6):  a  conspicuous  rock  markine  the  limit 
of  Juda  and  Benjamm  between  Beth  Hagla  and  the 
Ascent  of  Adommim. 

Abes  (Jos.,  xix^  20;  Issachar):  prob.  Kh.  eb-BeidA, 
in  the  plain  of  Esdrelon,  between  Nazareth  and  Mt. 
Carmel. 

Abila  (not  mentioned  in  the  Bible),  after  which 
Abiline  was  named:  SUk  WAdy  Bar&da,  S.  of  Anti- 
Lebanon. 

Abran  (Jos.,  xix,  28;  Aser):  peihaps  a  mistake  for 
Abdon.    Unknown. 

Aecad  (Achad;  Akkad).    See  Babtlonia. 

Accain  (Jos.,  xv,  57):  mtn.  of  Juda,  Kh.  YAqln. 

Accaron  (q.  v.). 

Accho,    See  Acre. 

Achazibf  1  (Jos.,  xix,  21 ;  Aser) :  Es-Zib,  betw.  Accho 
and  Tyre. — 2  (Jos.,  xv,  44;  Mich.,  i,  14;  W.  Juda): 
*Ain  el-Kezbeh. 

Achor:  a  valley  near  Jericho,  possibly  WAdy  el  Qelt. 

Achsaph  (Jos.,  xi,  1,  etc.;  Aser):  prob.  Kefr  YAstf, 
N.E.  of  Acre. 

Achzib,    See  Achazib  2. 

Acrabatane:  1.  Toparchy  of  Judea,  including 
region  betw.  Neapolis  (NaplCte)  and  Jericho. — 2  (I 
Mach.,  V,  3),  region  of  the  Ascent  of  Acrabim. 

Acrabim  (Ascentof ;  D.  V.: "  Ascentof  the  Scorpion"; 
Jos.,  XV,  3;  S.  limit  of  Juda):  most  prob.  Naqb  e^ 
9&f&,  S.W.  of  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  road  from  Hebron 
to  Petra. 

Aaron  (Jos.,  xix,  43).    See  Accaron. 

Adada  (Jos.,  xv,  22;  S.  limit  of  JuBa):  'Ad'ada,  E. 
of  Bersabee. 

Adadremmon  (Zach.,  xii,  11):  in  the  plain  of  Esdre- 
Ion;  in  later  times,  Maximianopolis  (St.  Jerome): 
ROmm&neh,  S.  of  LejOn. 

Adcrnia  (Deut.,  xxix,  23):  city  of  the  Pentapolis. 

Adami  (Jos^  xix,  33):  also  Adam:  Damteh,  S.W. 
of  the  L.  of  Tiberias.  The  Jordan  may  be  forded 
there. 

VI.— 28 


Adar  (Num.,  xxxiv,  4 ;  Jos.,  xv,  3),  also  Addar  and 
Adder:  S.  limit  of  Juda,  N.w.  of  Cades.  There  is  in 
that  region  a  Jebel  Hadhlreh. 

Adarsa  (I  Mach.,  vii.  40),  also  Adazer  (I  Mach.,  vii, 
45):  Kh.  *Adaseh,  N.  of  Jerusalem  and  E.  of  El-Jib. 

Adiada  (I  Mach.,  xii,  38),  also  Addus^  in  the  Sep- 
hela:  Ha^iteh,  E.  of  Lvdda. 

Adtthaitn  (Jos.,  xv,  36}— text  perhaps  oorruptj  as  it 
stands,  designates  a  nlace,  hitherto  umdentified,  m  the 
neighbourhood  of  Gaia. 

Adorn  (Jos.,  iii,  16):  Tell-Damleh,  a  little  S.  of  the 
confluence  of  the  Jaboc  and  the  Jordan.  ^  ^ 

Adommim:  (Ascent  of;  Jos.,  xv,  7;  xviii,  18),  limit 
of  Benjamin  and  Judtf;  seems  to  correspond  to  Tal- 
*at  ed-DOmm,  on  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho, 
a  place  notorious  for  the  thieves  who  lurked  round 
about  (Luke,  x,  30-35). 

Adon  (I  Esd.,  ii,  59),  also  Addon  (II  Esd.,  vii,  61):  a 
city  of  Chaldea,  the  same  as  Eden  in  Is.,  xxxvii,  12; 
Ezech.,  xxvii,  23. 

Adrumeium  (Acts,  xxvii,  2):  city  and  seaport  in 
Mysia,  over  against  the  island  of  Lesbos;  mod.  Adra- 
miti  or  Edremid,  also  Ydremid. 

AduUam  (q.v.). 

Aduram (IlPar., xi, 9,  S.  Juda), also  Ador  (I Mach., 
xiii  20):  D<hu.  W.  of  Hebron. 

mnon  (O-v.). 

Avar's  Well  (Gen.,  xvi,  14),  "between  Cades  and 
Barad'':  Btr  M&ytn. 

A?udab  (Judges,  i,  31  *  Aser) :  poss.  the  same  as  Mehe- 
bd  (Jos.,  xix.  29;  D.V.  ''from  the  portions")^  the 
Makhalliba  oi  the  third  campaign  of  Sennacherib. 
Unknown. 

Ahofoa:  stream,  or  perhaps  canal,  in  Babylonia, 
possibly  not  far  W.  of  Babylon. 

Ahion  (III  Kings,  xv,  20,  etc.).  also  Axon  (IV  Kings^ 
XV,  29):  the  name  seems  to  be  preserved  in  Meri 
*Ayiln,  between  the  valley  of  the  Leontes  and  that  ot 
the  Upper  Jordan .  The  site  was  possibly  Tell-Dibbtn, 
or  Khiam,  a  neai^by  place. 

Aialon,  1  (Jos.,  x,  12,  etc.)  town  and  vidlev:  Ydld, 
W.N.W.  of  Jeru»Edem,  £.  of  AmwAs. — 2  (Judges,  xii, 
12;  Zabulon):  Kh.  Jaltm,  E.  of  Acre. 

At:  D.V.  for  Hai. 

Aiath  (Is.,  X,  28) :  the  same  as  Hai. 

Alia,  Ailaih:  the  same  as  Elath. 

Ain  (Jos.,  xix,  7;  Juda),  also  called  En-Rimmon: 
Kh.  Tjmm  er-ROmmAnlm,  N.  of  Bersabee,  on  the  road 
to  Beit^Jibrtn. 

Alexandria  (a.v.). 

Alima  (I  Macn.,  v^  26):  poss.  Kh.  'lima. 

Almath  (I  Par.,  vi,  60:  Heb.  45)  also  Ahnon  (Jos., 
xxi,  18),  in  Benjamin:  Kh.  'Almith,  N.E.  of  Jerusalem, 
between  Jeb&'  and  'AnAt&. 

Alus  (Num.,  xxxiii,  13),  encampment  of  the  Israel- 
ites on  their  way  to  Sinai:  poss.  wAdy  el-*Ech,  N.W. 
of  Jebel  Mtoi. 

Amaad  (Jos.,  xix,  26;  Aser):  Kh.  el-*Amud,  N.  of 
Acre,  or  tTmm  el-*Amed,  W.  of  Bethlehem  of  Zabulon. 

Amam  (Jos.,  xvj  26;  S.  Juda).    Unidentified. 

Amana  (Cant.,  iv,  8):  poss.  the  same  as  Mt.  Hor 
of  the  N. 

Amma  (Jos.,  xix,  30;  Aser):  perhaps  *Alma  esh- 
Sh&*{kb,  W.  of  the  Scala  Tyriorum  (BAb  en-NAqOra). 

Amona  (Ezech.,  xxxix,  6):  if  we  should  see  m  it  the 
name  of  a  town,  might  stand  for  Legio-Mageddo,  mod. 
El-LejOn. 

Amosa  (Jos.,  xviii,  26;  Beniamin):  either  Qolonieh  • 
(so  Talmud),  or  Beit^Mizzeh,  N.  of  Qolonieh. 

AmiMpolis  (Acts,  xviii,  1):  in  Macedonia,  30  m. 
from  Philippi;  mod.  Jenikoei. 

Amthar  (Jos.,  xix,  13;  Zabulon):  prob.  not  a  proper 
name,  seems  to  mean  "turns  towaras'\ 

Awi:  a  town  in.  Babylonia,  on  the  Euphiatee,  poesl- 
bly  'Anah. 


Anab  (Jos.,  xi,  21):  mount,  of  Juda,  onoe  belonging 
to  the  Enacim;  Kh.  Anab,  S.  Qf  Beit-Jibrfn. 


OEOOftAl^HT 


434 


OEOOftAPHT 


h. 


Anahafath  (Jos.,  xix.  19);  Issachar);  Egypt.:  AnG- 
bertu:  En-Na  (ira,  N.E.  of  Zer&'ln. 

Anania  (II  Esd.,  ii,  32;  Benjamin):  Beit-Hantna, 
N.  of  Jerusalem. 

Anaihoth  (q.  v.)- 

Anem  (I  Par.,  vi,  73,  Heb.,  58:  Issachar),  perhaps 
a  contraction  for  Eneannim,  which  stands  in  tne  same 
place,  Jos.,  xix,  21.    However,  poss.  *Antm,  S.  of  Lej<in. 

Aner  (I  Par.,  vi,  70 ;  Heb.  55 ;  W.  Manasses),  perhaps 
a  corruption  for  Thanach  of  Jos.,  xxi,  25;  poss.  also 
'Ellar,  N.W.  of  Sebastiyeh. 

Anqe  (Judith;  ii,  12),  a  mount,  in  Cappadocia:  Erjias. 

Anim  (Jos.,  xv,  50;  mount,  of  Juda):  Kh.  Ghuwein. 

ArUioeh:  1.  Of  Pisidia.— 2.  Of  Syria  (q.  v.). 

AfUipatris  (q.v.). 

Apadno  (Dan.,  xi^  45) ;  doubtful  as  a  proper  name. 

Apamea  (Judith,  lii,  14),  country  and  city  of  Syria: 
Qal  at  el-MQdhia. 

Aphaerema  (I  Mach.,  xi,  34*  not  in  the  Vulg.),  one 
of  tlie  toparchies  of  Juda:  see  Ephraim. 

Aphara  (Jos^  xviii,  23;  Benjamin),  commonly 
identified  with  Tell  el-F&rah,  S.E.  of'Beittn. 

Aphec  1  (Jos.,  xii.  18;  N.W.  Juda):  poss.  Merj- 
Fikieh  (Condcr). — 2  (Jos.,  xix,  30,  etc.;  Aser).  Un- 
known.—^ (I  Kings,  iv,  1 ;  Benjamin) :  perhaps  QastiU. 
—4  (I  Kings,  xxix  1;  Issachar):  El-'AfiUch.  N.W.  of 
Zerfi.  *ln. — 5  (III  Kings,  xx^  26,  etc.)  Assyr.:  Apqu: 
prob.  Fiq,  E.  of  the  L.  of  Tiberias. 

Apheca,  1  (Jos.,  xiii,  4) :  AfkA,  N.E.  of  Beiri^t. — 2 
(Jos.,  XV,  53;  mount,  of  Juda),  Egypt.:  ApQken:  prob. 
F(iqtn,  W.  of  Bethlehem. 

ApoUonia  (Acts,  xvii,  1),  in  Mygdonia,  a  prov.  of 
Macedonia:  mod.  Pollina. 

Appiifarum  (Acts,  xxviii,  15),  43  m.  S.E.  of  Rome,  on 
the  Appian  Way,  on  the  edge  of  the  Pontine  Marshes. 

Ar,  Ar  Moab  (Num.,  xxi,  15,  etc.)  N.  of  Moab,  and 

of  the  river  Amon;  some  su^^est  Rabba;  others 

mm  er-Re9&9;  others  MdJi&tet  el-Haj. 

Ara6  (Jos.,  xv,  52;  mount,  of  Juda),  also  Ar&t  (II 
Kin^,  xxiii,  25):  Kh.  er-RAbtyeh,  W.  of  Ziph. 

Arach.  1  (Gen.,x,  10),cuneif.  ArkUy  a  town  in  Baby- 
lonia. Warka,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Euphrates, 
125  m.  S.E.  of  Babylon. — 2.  See  Archi. 

Arad  (q.v.). 

Arada,  a  station  of  the  Israelites  in  their  journey 
between  Sinai  and  Cades.    Unknown. 

Arama,  1  (Jos.,  xix,  36;  Nephtali):  Rameh,  N.W. 
of  the  L.  of  Tioerias. — 2  (I  Kings,  xxx,  30) .  See  Horma. 

Ararat,    See  Ark. 

Arbatis  (I  Mach.,  v,  23) ;  doubtful  whether  it  is  a 
district  or  a  city.     Unknown. 

Arbee,    See  Hebron. 

ArbeUa  (I  Mach.^  ix,  2),  according  to  Josephus,  in 
Galilee,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sepphoris;  prob. 
Kh.  'Irbid,  W.  of  the  L.  of  Tiberias. 

Archi  seems  rather  a  ^ntile  name,  derived  from 
Arach,  Erek,  or  Erech,  *Am  *Artk,  between  Beitln  and 
Beit  Ur. 

Arebba  (Jos.,  xv,  60;  moimt.  of  Juda):  Kh.  Rebba 
S.W.  of  Jerusalem,  near  Beit  Nettff(7). 

Arecan  (Jos.,  xix,  46;  Dan):  Tell  er-Raqqeit,  N.  of 
Jaffa. 

AreopoliSf  Greek  name  of  Ar  Moab. 

Arief  (Is.,  xxix,  1, 2),  symbolical  name  of  Jerusalem: 
"city  of  God". 

Arimathea.    See  Rama. 

Amarif  river  of  Moab:  WAdy  el-MAjib. 

Aroer,  1  (Deut.,  ii,  36,  etc. ;  Moab.  S.,  1.  26) :  'Ari'ir, 
N.  of  the  Amon  river. — 2  (Judges,  xi,  33),  "over 
against  Rabba",  i.e.  E.  of  Amm&n,  Unknown. — 3 
(I  Kings,  xxx,  28;  S.  Juda),  Egypt.:  Har-horar: 
'Ar'Arah,  E.S.E.  of  Bersabee. 

Arpad  A.  V.  for  Arphad. 

Arphad  (IV  Kings,  xviii,  34,  etc.),  Asgyr.:  Arpaddik 
Tell  'ErfAd,  12  m.  N.  of  Aleppo. 

Amboth  (III  Kings,  iv,  10),  poas.  Wady  *ArrOb,  near 
Bersabee. 


^ArUmah  (Judges,  ix,  31;  D.V.:  "privately"),  a 
proper  name:  perhaps  El- Orme,  S.  of  Naples. 

*A^dZ  (Zach.,  xiv,  5;  D.V.:  "the  next").  A  proper 
name  is  demanded  by  the  context:  perhaps  the  Wady 
'AsOl,  S.  of  Jerusalem. 

Asan  (Jos.,  xv,  42,  etc.;  Juda):  poss.  *Aseileh  (?) 
between  Bersabee  and  Hebron. 

Asaramd  (I  Mach.,  xiv,  27);  wron^y  given  as  a 
proper  name;  either  some  court,  or  a  title  of  Simon: 
"  prince  of  the  people  of  God". 

Asasonthamar,    See  Enoaodi. 

A8calon.    See  Phiustines. 

Asem  (Jos.,  xv,  29,  etc.;  S.  Juda),  also  Atom  (^Par., 
iv,  29).     Unknown. 

Aserruma  (Num.,  xxxiv,  4;  Jos.,  xv,  14;  S.  Juda): 
poss.  *Ain  Qaseimeh,  W.  of  Cades. 

Asena  (Jos.,  xv,  33,  plain  of  Juda):  perhaps  *Aslln; 
perh.  Kefr  Hfisan. 

Aser  (q.v.)  1  (Jos.,  xvii,  7;  W.  Manasses). — 2 
(Tob.,  i,  2;  Nephtali)  poss.  the  same  as  Asor  1. 

Asergadda  (Jos.,  xv,  27;  S.  Juda).    Unidentified. 

Ashdodf  A.V.  for  Azotus. 

Asiongaber  (q.v.). 

Aaor,  1  (Jos.,  xi,  1,  etc.;  Nephtali),  also  Hasar, 
^eaer,  Egypt. :  ffUzar:  the  site  seems  to  have  been  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  L.  Qtileh,  but  its  exact  location 
is  the  object  of  great  discussions. — 2  (Jos.,  xv,  23;  S. 
Juda).  Unknown;  perhaps  connected  with  Jebel 
Hftdhtreh,  N.E.  of  Cades.— 3  (Jos.,  xv,  25;  S.  Juda). 
Unknown.— 4  (II  Esd.,  xi,  33,  Benjamin),  poss.  Kh. 
Hasztir,  N.  of  Jerusalem. 

Asphar  (I  Mach.,  ix,  33),  a  pool  in  the  desert  of 
Thecue,  perh.  Blr  ez-Z&'fer&neh. 

Aasedim  (Jos.,  xix,  35;  Nephtali).  Some:  Hattin  el- 
Kedim;  others:  E^-^atttyen;  perhaps  not  a  proper 
name. 

Assort,  1  (Acts,  xx,  13,  14),  seaport  in  Mysia: 
Behram  Kalessi. — 2  (Acts,  xxvii,  13);  not  a  proper 
name,  but  compar.  of  dyx^t  "  near". 

AsUxroth  (Deut.,  i,  4,  etc.),  capital  of  Og,  king  of 
Basan:  Tell  AQtAra,  m  Hauran. 

AHarothcamaim  (Gen.,  xiv,  5),  prob.  Tell  A8*&ri, 
in  Hauran. 

Ataroth.  1  (Num.,  xxxii,  1,  etc^  Moab.  S.,  1.  10; 
Moab) :  Khirbet  'Atfarus,  S.  of  the  Wady  ZeroA  Ma*tn. 
— 2  (Jos.,  xvi,  2;  S.  Ephraim),  also  Ataroth  Adaar  (Jos., 
xvi,  5;  xviii,  13);  some:  'AtAra,  S.  of  El-Blreh;  others: 
Kh.  ed-Darieh.  near  Lower  Bethoron. — 3  (Joe.,  xvi, 
7;  E.  Ephraim),  poss.  Tell  et-Tr(lny  (Conder). 

Athach  (I  Kings,  xxx,  30),  possibly  the  same  as  Ether. 

Athar,    See  Etner. 

Athens  (q.v.). 

Athmatha  (Jos.,  xv,  54;  mount,  of  Juda).  Uniden- 
tified. 

'Athrdth  bHh  Y^db  (I  Par.,ii,  54;  D.V.:  "the  crowns 
of  the  house  of  Joab") ,  name  of  a  place.  Site  unknown. 

AUalia  (q.v.). 

Ava  (IV  £jngs,xvii,  24,  etc.),  also  A voA,  a  Babylon- 
ian city  conquered  by  the  Assyrians.  Possibly  Hit, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Euphrates. 

Avim  (Jos^  xviii,  23,  Benjamin).  Some  identify  it 
with  Hal.    Otherwise  unknown. 

Avith  ((jen..  xxxvi,  35;  Edom),  perhaps  in  the 
neighbourhooa  of  the  Jebel  el-Ghtlweiteh,  £.  of  the 
Dead  Sea. 

Avoth  Jair  (III  Kings,  iv,  13).    See  Hayoth  Jair. 

Axaph.    See  Aehsaph. 

'Ayephim  (II  Kings,  xvi,  14;  D.V.:  "weaiy").  pos- 
sibly, rather,  a  place  E.  of  Bahurim. 

Aza  (I  Par.,  vii,  28;  N.W.  of  Ephraim).    Unknown. 

AzanoUhahor  (Jos.,  xix,  34;  Nephtali),  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Mt.  Thabor.    Unknown. 

Ateca  (Jos.,  x,  10,  etc.;  plain  of  Juda),  in  the  en- 
virons of  Tell  Zakartyah.  No  agreement  as  to  the 
exact  identification. 

Atmaveth  (I  Esd.,  ii,  24):  Qizmeh,  N.  of  *AnAta. 

Atolus  (q.v.). 


OEOORAPHT 


435 


aSOOKAPHT 


Baal  (I  Par.,  iv,  33^,  probably  identical  with  Baalaih 
Beer  Ramath  (Jos.,  xix,  8;  Simeon),  poss.  BUr  M&ytn, 
or  Tell  el-Lekiyeh,  N.  of  Bersabee. 

Btuda,  1  (Jos.,  XV,  9,  etc. ;  Juda)  old  name  of  Cariath- 
iarim. — 2  (Jo6.|  xv,  29.  etc.f  S.  Juda),  also  Bala; 
perhaps  Kh.  tTmm-Bagnle,  N.E.  of  Beraabee. 

Baalam  (I  Par.,  vi,  70;  Heb.  55;  W.  Manasses),  also 
Balaam;  possibly  Jeklaam  (Jos.,  xvii,  11):  Bir  Bel- 
aroeh,  S.  of  Jenln. 

Baalaih  (Jos.,  xix,  44;  N.  Dan),  also  Balaaih  (II 
Par.,  viii,  6),  prob.  Befain,  N.W.  of  Beit  tTr. 

Baalaih  Beer  Ramath,    See  Baal. 

BaaVbek  (q.v.). 

Baalgad  (Jos.,  xi,  17,  etc.),  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Her- 
mon:  Banlyas. 

Baal  Hamon  (Cant.,  viii,  11 ;  D.V.  "that  which  hath 
people"))  poss.  identical  with  Balamon  (Judith,  viii, 
3);  perh.  Kh.  Berameh,  S.  of  Jenln. 

Baalhaaor  (II  Kings,  xiii,23),  poss.  Tell  'A9i!lr,  N.E. 
of  Beittn. 

Baal  Herman  (Jud^.  iii.  3,  etc.).  Whether  it  is  a 
city  or  a  mountain  is  doubtful;  supposed  to  be  the 
same  as  Baalgad. 

Baalmeon  (Jos.,  xvii,  17,  etc.),  also  Baalmaon,  Bed- 
mean,  Belhmaon:  Tell  M&*tn,  S.  W.  of  Mad&ba. 

Btud  PeoTf  A.y.  for  Beelphegor. 

Baal  Pharanm  (II  Kings,  v,  20),  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Vallev  of  Raphaim,  S.  of  Jerusalem. 

Baal  SalUa  (I  V  Kings,  iv,  42) :  prob.  Kh.  Sartsia, 
15  m.  N.E.  of  Lvdda. 

Baalthamar  (Judjges,  xx,  33;  Benjamin),  N.W.  of 
Gabaa,  about  Kh.  Adase. 

Babylon.    See  Babylonia. 

Bahurim  (II  Kings,  iii,  16.  etc.),  on  the  slope  of 
Mt.  Olivet,  poss.  Kh.  es-Zambi,  or  Kh.  BOqei'dan. 

Bala,  1  (Gen.,  xiv,  2).  See  Segor.--2.  See  Baala  2. 

Balaam.    See  Baalam. 

Balaaih.    See  Baalath. 

Baloth  (Jos.,  XV,  24;  S.  Juda),  poss.  identical  with 
Baalath  Beer  Ramath.     Otherwise  unknown. 

Bamoth  (Num.,  xxi,  19;  Moab).  Site  unknown, 
between  DlbAn  and  MA'tn. 

Bamothbaal  (Joe.,  xiii,  17),  prob.  the  same. 

Bane  (Jos.,  xix,  45;  Dan),  also  Bane  Barach;  Aaayr.: 
Banaatbarqa;  prob.  *Ihn-*lbrdk,  E.  of  Jaffa. 

BanioB.    See  CiBSARSA  Phiupfi. 

Barach.    See  Bane. 

Barad  (Gen.,  xvi):  Umm  el-B&red,  S.E.  of  Cades. 

Barasa  (I  Mach.,  v,  26) :  Bo^ra,  in  the  Hauran. 

Basan  (Deut.,  iii,  4),  a  region  S.  of  the  Plain  of 
Damascus;  at  first  the  Kingdom  of  Og,  then  given  to 
the  tribe  of  Manasses. 

Baaeama  (I  Mach.,  xiii,23)  .perh.  Tell-B&zCdc,  in  Jolan. 

Baecath  f  Jos.,  xv,  39;  plain  of  Juda),  somewhere 
around  Lacnis.    Unknown. 

Bashan,  AJV.  for  Basan. 

Bathud  (I  Par.,  iv,  30;  Simeon).    See  Bethul. 

Baziothia  (Jos.,  xv,  28;  S.  Juda),  an  unidentified 
city  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bersabee — imless  the 
text  is  corrupt. 

Bedmeon.    See  Baalmeon. 

Bedpheaar  (clv.). 

Bedsephon  (Ex.,  xiv,  2);  Eg3rpt.:  Bali  ^^pCUia. 
If  a  mountain,  poss.  Jebel '  Att&ka,  S.W.  of  Sues. 

Beer  (Num.,  xxi,  16;  D.V.:  "the  well"),  prob.  in 
the  WAdy  Themed,  S.S.E.  of  MadAba. 

Beer  Elim  (Is.,  xv,  8;  D.V. : "  the  well  of  Elim") ;  the 
same  as  Beer. 

Bdaman.    See  Baal  Hamon. 

Bdma.    See  Baal  Hamon. 

Bdmen  (Judith^  iv,  4  omitt.  in  Vulg.),  between 
Bethoron  and  Jencho. 

Benejaacan  (Num.,  xxxiii,  31),  Btrein,  north  of 
Cades. 

Benennom  (11  Par.,  xxviii,  3),  valley  S.  of  Jerusalem. 
See  JxRuaAiiEM. 

Bean  (Num.,  zzxii,  3).    See  Baalmeon. 


Bera  (Judges,  ix,  21),  prob.  El-Bireh,  N.  of  Jerusalem. 

Berdan  (Gcn^  xxi,  32;  D.V.:  "well  of  oath"),  Tell 
el-Qady,  W.S.W.  of  Bersabee. 

Berea  (I  Mach.,  ix,  4),  commonly  identified  with 
El-Btreh. 

Bercea  (q.v.). 

Beromi  (II  Kings,  xxiii,  31),  the  same  as  Bahurim. 

Beroth  (q.v.) 

Beroiha  (II  Kings,  viii,  8),  Bereit&n,  S.  of  Baalbek 

Bereabee  (q.v.). 

Besecath  (Iv  Kinfi;s,  xxii,  1).    See  Bascath. 

BewTf  a  river  S.W.  of  Gaza,  prob.  WAdy esh-Sherfa. 

Beeeur  (Jos.^  xv,  58).    See  Bethsur. 

Betane  (Judith,  i,  9;  omitt.  in  Vulg.),  a  name  poss. 
misspelled,  points  to  a  place  S.  of  Jerusalem. 

Bete  (II  Kings,  viii ,  8;  I  Par.,  xviii,  8,  has  Thebath), 
possibly  T&yibeh,  on  the  road  from  Hamath  to  Aleppo ; 
or  more  prob.  T&yibeh,  S.  of  Baalbek. 

Beten  (Jos.,  xix,  25 ;  Aser) :  El-B&neh,  E.  of  Acre. 

Bethabara.    See  Bethany  Beyond  the  Jordan. 

Beihacad  (IVKin^,  x,12;D.y.:  "shepherd 'scabin"), 
more  prob.  a  proper  name:  Beit  Qftd,  betw.  Mt.  Gelboe 
and  Jenln. 

Bethacarem  (Jer.,  vi,  1;  II  Esd.,  iii,  14;  Juda),  also 
Bethacharam.  Unknown;  supposed  to  be  some  place 
on  the  Jebel  el-Fflreidis^  S.E.  of  Bethlehem. 

BeUianan  (III  Kings,  iv,  9;  Benjamin),  perhaps  Beit 
*An&n.  W.  of  Nebi  Samwll. 

Bethanath  (Jos.,  xix,  38;  Nephtali),  prob.  'Ainita, 
near  Cades  of  Nephtali. 

Bethany  (q.v.). 

Bethanoth  (Jos^  xv,  59;  mount,  of  Juda),  Kh.  Beit- 
*An<hi,  N.E.  of  Hebron. 

Betharaba  (Jos.,  xv,  6,  etc.;  E.  of  Juda),  unknown; 
must  have  been  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jericho. 

Bdharam  (Jos.,  xiii,  27).    See  Bbtharan. 

Betharan  (q.v.). 

Beth  Arbel  (Osee,  x,  14 ;  D.V. "  the  house  of  him  that 
judgeth  Baal"),  prob.  the  same  place  as  Arbella. 

Sethaven  (Gen.,  xii^  8):  poss.  Kh.  ^aiy&n,  also 
called  El-Jfr,  E.  of  Beitln. — I  Kings,  xiii,  5,  Beihoron 
should  probably  be  read  instead  of  Bethaven. 

Bethazmoth  (I  £«d.,  ii.  24).    See  Azmaveth. 

Beth  Baal  Mean  (Moabite  Stone,  line  30).  See 
Baalmeon. 

Bethbera  (Judges,  vii,  24),  a  ford  of  the  Jordan, 
either  N.  of  the  confluence  of  the  W.  JalOd,  or  in  ihe 
nei^bourhood  of  Jericho. 

Bethberai  (I  Par.,  iv,  31;  Simeon),  poss.  Btrein, 
betw.  Cades  and  Khalasa. 

Bethbes9en  (I  Mach.,  ix,  62),  prob.  the  same  place 
as  Beth  Hasla. 

BethcharXl  ^ngs,  xvii,  11),  an  unknown  place  in 
the  neighbourhoocTof  Maspha  of  Benjamin. 

Bethdagon  (q.v.). 

Beth  Dehlathaim  (Jer.,  xlviii,  22;  D.V.:  "the  house 
of  Deblathaim";  Moabite  Stone,  line  30).  See 
Deblathaim. 

Beth  Eden  (Amos,  i,  5;  Lebanon).  Some:  Jdsieh  el- 
Kadimeh ;  others:  Beit  el-Jaune,  between  Bantyas  and 
Damascus. 

Bethelf  1  see  s.v. — 2  (Jos.,  xii,  16;  Simeon)  an- 
other name  for  Bethul. 

Bethemec  (Jos.,  xix,  27;  Aser),  prob.  'Amq&,  N.E. 
of  Acre. 

Bdher  (Cant.,  ii,  17;  mount,  of  Juda),  Kh.  Betttr, 
S.W.  of  Jerusalem,  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Jewish 
rebels  in  the  second  century. 

Beth  E9d  (Mich  ,  i,  1 1 :  D. V. "  the  house  adjoinmg": , 
perhaps  the  same  j)Iace  as  A^al  (Zach.,  xiv.  5) ;  some 
place  it  E.  of  Mt.()livet;  some  others  S.of  Jerusalem; 
some,  finally,  in  the  Sephela. 

Bethgader  (I  Par.,  ii.  51).    See  €^er. 

Btihiamvl  (Jer.,  xlviii,  23;  Moab),  Kh.  JemAil.  N.E. 
of  Dibln. 

BethrHaggan  (IV  IGngi,  ix,  27;  D.V.:  *'gaideiH 
house''))  prob.  the  same  as  Engannim.  i.e.  Jenln. 


QSOOftAPHT 


436 


OSOORAPHT 


Beth  Hagla  (Jos.,  xv,  6,  etc.;  Benjamin):  Qasr 
HajlA.  S.E.  of  Jencno. 

Beth  Hammerhaa  (II  Kings,  xv,  17;  D.V.  "afar  off 
from  the  house'')  likely  the  name  of  some  place  in  the 
Cddron  Valley. 

Bethjennum  (Jos.,  ziii,  30),  Bethnmoth  (Num., 
xxxiii,  49).  Kh.  SQweimeh.  in  the  Gh6r,  1}  m.  N.  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  2  m.  E.  of  the  Jordan. 

Beth  Le  'Ophrah  (Mich.,  1,  10;  D.V.:  "the  house  of 
Dust"),  el-Thaiyebeh,  N.E.  of  Beitln. 

Beth  LebSi'dth  (Jos.,  xv,  32),  perhaps  the  same  as 
Bethberai. 

Bethlehem  (q.v.). 

Bethtnaacha.    See  Abel. 

Bethmaon.    See  Baalmeon. 

Bethmarchaboth  (Jos.,  xix,  5;  S.  Simeon;  Joe^  xv, 
31,  has  Medemena).  If  we  should  distineiush,  Beth- 
marchaboth mifi^t  poss.  be  El-Merqeb,  S.W.  of  the  S. 
end  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Beth  MiUo  ( Judees,  ix,  6) ,  probably  some  stronghold 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sichem,  perhaps  Kh.  ed- 
DO&rah,  S.  of  Nftpliis. 

Bethnemra  (Num.,  xxxii,  36,  etc.),  Tell-Nimiin,  on 
the  W&dy  Nunrtn. 

Bethoron,  two  cities  of  Ephraim,  about  12  m.  N.W. 
of  Jerusalem:  Upper  Bethoron,  Beit'Cr  el-F6q&,  to 
the  E. ;  and  Lower  Bethoron,  Beit  'Cr  el-Taht&,  to 
the  W. — ^In  I  Mach.,  iv,  29,  Bethsur  should  be  read 
instead  of  Bethoron. 

Bethphage  (Matt.,  xxi,  1;  Luke,  xix,  29).  on  Mt. 
Olivet,  near  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericno ;  poss. 
Habalat  el-'Amtrft,  or  Kehf  AbQ  Lai&n. 

Bethphalet  (Jos.,  xv,  27;  II  Esd.,  xi,  26;  S.  Juda). 
Also  aethphelet.    Unknown. 

Bethpheeee  (Jos.,  xix,  21 ;  Issachar),  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Jenln.    Unknown. 

Bethphogar  (Deut..  iii,  29,  D.V. "  temple  of  Phogor"; 
A.V.  Bethpeor),  prob.  an  abbreviation  for  Beth  Beel- 
ph^gor.    see  Bbelphegor. 

Betheaida  (q.v.). 

Betheames,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  10,  etc. ;  Dan) ;  also  Betheemes 
(I  Par.,  vij  69):  Ain-Shems,  15  m.  W.  of  Jerusalem. — 
2  (Jos^  XIX,  22;  Issachar),  possibly  'Ain  esh-Shem- 
sijnsh,  S.  of  Beis&n;  or  Kh.  Shemsin,  S.  of  the  L.  of 
Tiberias.—^  (Joe.,  xix,  38;  Nephtali),  perhaps  Kh. 
Shem*A  (7),  W.  of  Sftfed. 

Bethean  (q.v.). 

Betheetta  (Judges,  vii,  23),  possibly  Shattah,  N.W. 
of  Beis&n. 

Bethsimoth.    See  Bethjesimoth. 

Bethsur.  Betheura  (Jos.,  xv,  58,  etc.;  mount,  of 
Juda).  Beit-SOr.  N.  of  Hebron. 

Bdhthajjhua  (Jos.,  xv,  53;  mount,  of  Juda),  Taffah> 
W.  of  Hebron. 

Bethul  (Jos.,  xix,  4,  etc.;  Simeon),  perhaps  Beit- 
•Cl&,  N.W.  of  Hebron  (doubtful). 

Bethtdia  (q.v.). 

Bethzachara  (I  Mach.,  vi,  32,  33):  Beit-SkArIa,  S.W. 
of  Bethlehem.  ^ 

Bethzecha  (I  Mach.,  vii^  19),  a  much  controverted 
site.  Some  think  that  it  is  the  hill  of  Bezetha,  which 
was  enclosed  within  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  by  Herod 
Agrippa. 

Betomesthaim  (Judith,  iv,  6;  omitt.  in  Vulg.):  Kh. 
Umm  el-Bothmeh,  S.  of  Jenln. 

Bdantm  (Jos.,  xiii,  26;  Gad):  Batneh,  4  m.  S.  of 
Es-Salt. 

Bezee,  1  (Judges,  i,  4),  possibly  BezqAh,  S.E.  of 
Lydda;  some,  however,  think  the  text  corrupt,  and 
would  read  Aseca. — 2  (I  Kings,  xi,  18;  Issachar):  Kh. 
Ibztq,  on  the  road  from  Naplds  to  Beis&n. 

Bdnm  (Judges,  ii,  1,  5),  unknown  place  near  or  at 
Bethel. 

Boeor.  1  (Deut.,  iv,  43,  etc. ;  Moab.  S.,  1.  27),  prob. 
QesAr  el-Besheir,  S.W.  of  Dib&n.— 2  (I  Mach..  v,  26. 
36).  very  Hkelv  Buer  el-Qartrf,  in  the  Ledjah.— 3 
(I  iladi.»  ▼»  28):  Bo^ra  m  Hauran.    See  Bostra 


Bosphorus  (Abd.,  20).  So  Vulg.  and  the  versionfl 
thereof,  for  Sepharad. 

Boera,  1  (Is.,  Ixiii,  1;  Edom):  BOseireh,  S.  of  the 
Dead  Sea. — 2  (Jos.,  xxi,  27),  mistranslation  for 
Astaroth. — 3  (Jer.,  xlviii,  24):  Bosor,  1. 

Bvbastua  ^Izech.,  xxx,  17),  Eferpt.:  Pi-Beaet;  Tell 
el-Basta,  N.E.  of  Cairo. 

Cabeeel  (Jos.,  xv,  21 ;  S.  Juda).    Unknown. 

Cabul  (Jos.,  xix,  27;  Aser):  KabAl,  S.E.  of  Acre. 

Cademoth  (Deut.,  ii,  26,  etc.),  also  tedimoth.  Seems 
to  have  been  N.  of  the  Arnon;  poss.  fTmm  Re99^. 

Cades  (3  .v.). 

Cadumim  Uudges,  v,  21),  peihaps  not  a  proper 
name;  possibly  also  a  corrupt,  of  the  text  for  Cades: 
"torrent  of  Cades"  (of  Nephtali),  another  name  for 
the  Cison, 

Casarea,    See  Cj&sarea  'Pauesftdum^  C.  Philippi. 

Calano  (Gen.,  x,  10;  Is.,  x.  9:  Amos,  vi,  2),  in  S. 
Babylonia,  perhaps  mod.  Zergnm. 

Caleb  Ephrata  (II  Par.,  iiT  24).  So  Heb.;  most 
probably  Sept.  and  Vulg.  are  right  in  translating: 
''Caleb  went  to  Ephrata^'. 

Camon  (Judges,  x.  5).  a  town  E.  of  the  Jordan,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Pella:  Qimeim  or  Tabekat-Faktl. 

Cana  (q.v.). 

Canath  (Num.,  xxxii,  42).    See  Canatha. 

Caphara  {Joa.,  ix,  17,  etc. ;  Benjamin),  also  Caphira, 
Cephira:  Kh.  Keftreh,  W.  of  Nebi  Samwll. 

Ca^hamaum  (Matt.,  iv,  13,  etc.),  on  the  L.  of 
Tiberias;  identified  by  some  with  Tell  ^0m,  on  the 
W.  shore;  by  others  with  Minleh,  S.W.  of  Tell  Htm. 

Capharsalama  (I  Mach.,  vii,  31)  was  likdy  near 
Jerusalem.    Unknown. 

Carcaa  (Jos.,  xv,  3;  S.  Juda);  W.  of  Cades.  Un- 
known. 

^  Carehtm  (I  Par.,  xii,  6)  is  not,  as  would  seem  at  first 
sight,  a  place-name,  but  a  gentile  name. 

Carem  (q.v.). 

Cariaih  (Jos.,  xviii,  28;  Benjamin),  prob.  for  Cftria- 
thiarim. 

Cariathaim,  1  (Gen.,  xiv,  5,  etc.):  Qreiyat,  10  m. 
S.W.  of  Madaba.— 2  (I  Par^^  vi,  76;  Nephtali).  Un- 
known. Jos.,  xxi,  32,  has  Carthan,  instead  of  Caria- 
thaim. 

Cariatharbe.    See  Hebron. 

Cariathbaal.    See  Cariathiarim. 

Cariath  Chutoth  (Num.,  xxii,  39),  a  place  between 
the  Arnon  and  Bamothbaal.    Unidentified. 

Cariathiarim  (N.W.  Juda),  also  called  Cariathbaai, 
Cariath:  Qaryet  el-*En&b,  or  AbQ-Gosh,  W.  of  Jerusa- 
lem. 

Cariathsenna,    (Joe.,  xv,  49).     See  Dabir  1. 

Cariathsepher  (Joe.,  xv,  15;  Judges,  i,  12).  See 
Dabir  1. 

Carioth,  1  (Joe.,  xv,  25;  S.  Juda),  rather  Cariath 
HesTon,  the  birthplace  of  Judas,  'Hhe  man  of  Carioth": 
Kh.  el-QQreitein,  S.  of  Hebron. — 2  (Amos,  ii,  2;  Jer. 
xlviii,  24,  41;  Moabite  Stone,  1.  13;  Moab):  prob. 
Er-RabbAh. 

Carmd  (Joe.,  xv,  55;  I  Kings,  xv,  12,  etc.;  8.  Juda): 
El-Kermel,  S.  of  Hebron. 

Camaim  (I  Mach.,  v,  26,  etc.;  Transjord.),  the 
same,  according  to  some,  as  Astarothcaraaim;  others 
identify  it  with  Sheikh-Sft'Ad,  near  Astarotiacamaim. 

Camion  (II  Mach.,  xii,  21,  26^.  Many  identify  it 
with  Camaim;  some  with  Qrein,  in  the  Ledjah. 

Cartha  (Jos.,  xxi,  34;  Zabulon),  poss.  Kh.  Qhieh. 

Carthan  (Jos.,  xxi,  32),  perhaps  another  name  for 
Cariathaim  2. 

Casaloth  (Jos.,  xix,  8;  IsAichar),  most  probably  the 
same  as  Ceseleth-Thabor. 

Cashon  (I  Mach.,  v,  36),  very  likely  identical  with 
Casphin  ril Mach.,  xii,  13):  Khlsfrn,N.of  the  YarmOk, 
and  E.  of  the  L.  of  Tiberias. 

Casphin.    See  Casbon. 

Casphor  (I  Mach.,  v,  26),  the  same  as  Caabon. 


OSOOftAPHT 


437 


QSOORAPHT 


Cateih  (Jos.,  xix,  15;  Zabulon),  also  Cathed,  prob- 
ably to  be  identified  with  Cartha. 

Cauda  (Acts,  zxvii,  16;  A.V.  Clauda),  a  small  island 
where  St.  Paul  landed  after  leaving  Oete;  most 
probably  the  island  of  (jaudo,  S.  of  Crete,  although 
some,  though  with  little  reason,  would  have  it  to  be 
the  isdand  of  Gk»o,  near  Malta. 

Cedes  (a. v.). 

Cedimotk  (Jos.,  xiii,  18).    See  Cademoth. 

Cedran,  1  (I  Mach.,  xv,  39;  xvi,  9),  prob.  Qatra, 
S.E.  of  YebnA  and  S.W.  of  'Aqfr.— 2  A  torrent  E.  of 
Jerusalem:  W^y  Sitti  Maiyam.    See  Jerusalem. 

Ceelaiha  (Num.,  xxxiii,  22),  station  of  the  Israelites 
on  their  journey  from  Sinai  to  Cades;  prob.  Contellet 
Qdreyeh. 

Cetla  (Jos.,  XV,  44,  etc.;  middle  of  Juda):  Eh.  QUA, 
N.W.  of  Hebron. 

Celesyria  (or  Ccele-Syria. — I  Mach.,  x,  69,  etc.),  the 
valley  between  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon:  El- 
Bc^A'a. 

CeUon  (Judges,  ii,  13),  perhaps  the  country  watered 
by  the  Chalos  river  (Nahr  KO&ik),  which  flows  through 
Aleppo. 

CenehrcB  (Acts,  xviii,  18;  A.  V.  Cenchrea),  seaport 
of  Corinth. 

Cenereth,  Ceneroth.    See  Genesareth. 

CeneziUSy  a  clan  named  among  the  inhabitants  of 
Palestine  in  patriarchal  times  ^jen.,  xv,  19);  their 
original  settlements  were  probably  in  Mt.  Seir  (Edom). 

Cenneroih.    See  Genesareth. 

CepAim(IEsd.,ii,25;IIEsd.,vii,29).  SesCbphaia. 

Cerethi  (I  Kings,  xxx,  14,  etc.) ;  a  tribe  settled  on 
the  S.  border  of  Canaan,  and  closely  associated  with 
the  Philistines.    Some  think  it  originated  in  Crete. 

Cudeih-thabor  (Jos.,  xix,  12):  'Iks&l,  W.  of  Mt. 
Thabor. 

CesU  (Jos.,  XV,  30),  a  mistaken  form  for  Bethul. 

Cesion  (Jos.,  xix.  20;  xxi,  28),  Sec  Cedes. 

Cethlis  (Jos.,  xv,  40 ;  plain  of  Juda).    Unknown. 

Chabul  (III  Kings,  ix,  13),  name  which  seems  to  be 
ironical:  "thorn  land",  given  by  Hiram,  King  of  T3rre, 
to  the  twenty  cities  of  Galilee  handed  over  to  him  by 
Solomon ;  these  cities  veiy  likely  belonged  to  N.  Aser 
and  NephtaU. 

Chalane  (Gen.,  x,  10,  etc.).    See  Calano. 

Chaldee.    See  Babylonia. 

Chale  fGen.,  x,  11, 12),  city  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Ninive;  Assyr.:  Kalhil  or  Kalah:  Nimr(!ld,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Tigris  and  the  Upper  Zab. 

Chali  (Jos.,  M,  25;  Aser):  prob.  Kh.  'Alya,  N.E. 
of  Acre. 

Chamaam  (Jer.,  xli,  17),  name  of  a  caravanserai  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Bethlehem.    Site  unidentified. 

Chaniuh  (Num.,  xxxii,  42).    See  Canatha. 

Characa  (II  Mach.,  xii,  17;  Transjord.).  Some: 
El-Qar&k,  N.W.  of  Bo^ra;  others:  Ar^  el- Emir,  also 
£1-Kerak.    Perhaps  not  a  proper  name. 

Charon,  1  (Judges,  v,  9;  Acts,  vii,  2,  4).  See 
Haran.— 2  (Tob.,  xi,  1).    The  Greek  Textua  Recej^ 

S'ves  here  no  place-name.    Impossible  to  determine 
le  true  reading. 

Charcamis,    See  Hbthitbs. 

Chaapkia  (I  Esd.,  viii,  17),  town  or  region  inhabited 
by  an  important  colony  of  exiled  Jews.    Unknown. 

ChMan  (Joe.,  xv,  40;  Juda):  El-QQbeibeh,  S.W.  of 
Eleutheropolis. 

Chihran  (I  Mach.,  v,  65),  for  Hebron. 
,    CheUua  (Judith,  i, 9 ;  omitt. in  Vulg.),  prob. 
S.W.  of  Bersabee  and  N.  of  Cades. 

Chdmad  (Etedi.,  xxvii,  23) ;  poss.  a  town ;  in  that  case 
might  be  Chelmadeh,  near  Bagdad;  or  a  region — 
Carmania;  possibly  also  might  l>e  translated  ''as  a 
disciple." 

Chdmon  (Judith,  vii,  3,  in  Greek  only),  a  town  near 
Bethulia,  likely  Tell-Qaimiin,  E.  of  Mt.  Carmel;  or 
Kflmieh,  between  the  Little  Hermon  and  Mount 
Gelboe. 


Khalasah, 


Chene  (Ezech.,  xxvii,  23).  The  Heb,  has  KahyOi, 
See  Calano. 

Chervb  (I  Esd.,  ii,  59;  II  Esd.,  vii,  61);  the  com- 
plete name  was  Cherub  Addanrlmmer,    Unknown. 

Chedon  (Jos.,  xv,  10;  N.W.  Juda).    KesU. 

Chobar,  a  river  in  "the  land  of  the  Chaldeans'', 
commonly  identified  with  the  mod.  ChabtU';  but  tiie 
names  have  roots  absolutely  different,  and  Uie  position 
seems  unsatisfactory.  Perhaps  we  should  see  here 
one  of  the  canals  with  which  Babylonia  was  seamed, 
poss.  the  Nahr  Bialcha,  or  King's  Canal,  of  Nabucho- 
donosor. 

Chorassin,  A.V.  for  Corozain. 

Chvb  (Ezech.,  xxx,  5).  Great  divergences  exist  as 
to  its  identification.  Some  suggest  Cobe,  near  the 
Indian  Ocean  ;  others  Chobat,  in  Mauretania,  or  Co- 
bion,  in  Mareotica ;  both  these  opinions  are  most  un- 
likely. It  has  also  been  proposed  to  correct  the  text 
and  read  Ldb  (Libya) ;  not  probable.  One  Heb.  MS. 
has  Keniih  (Egypt.  Kenehy  i.e.  S.  Egypt).  Nothing 
can  be  said  with  certainty. 

Chun  (I  Par.,  xviii,  8).  In  the  parallel  text  of  II 
Kings,  viii,  8,  instead  of  Chun,  we  nnd  Berothai.  If 
Chun  was  a  distinct  city,  it  might  be  recomized  in 
KAnA,  S.W.  of  Baalbek. 

Chus  (Judith,  vii,  8;  omitt.  in  Vulg.):  poss.  Qfiak, 
5  m.  S.  of  NapliLs. 

Cibsaim  (Jos.,  xxi,  22;  Ephraim),  perhaps  the  same 
as  Jecmaam  (I  Pai:.,  vi,  68).  Tell  el-Qabans,  near 
Bethel,  has  also  been  suggested,  but  the  identification 
is  very  doubtful. 

Ctna  (Jos.,  XV,  22;  S.  Juda).    Unknown. 

Cineans  (Gen.,  xv,  19,  etc.),  a  clan  closely  allied  to 
Israel,  perhaps  also  to  the  Madianites.  Its  home  seems 
to  have  been  in  the  S.  of  Juda;  however,  we  see  in 
Judges,  iv,  11,  that  Heber  the  Cinean  dwelt  in  the  plain 
of  Esdrelon. 

Claudaf  A.V.  for  Cauda.'' 

Coa  (Ezech.,  xxiii,  23) ;  Ass3rr. :  KU  (tQ)  or  Gn  (<fl)jper- 
haps  the  same  word  as  rendered  in  Hebrew OSyinif  Gen. 
xi V,  1 .  A  countrv  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Babylonia 
and  Elam.    Unidentified. 

Cdossae  (q.v.). 

Corinth  (q.v.). 

Corozain  (Matt,  xi,  21;  Luke,  x,  13),  prob.  Kh. 
Kerdzeh,  N.  of  the  L.  of  Tiberias. 

Cos  (I  Mach.,  XV,  23;  Acts,  xxi,  1),  an  island  in  the 
Meean  Sea:  mod.  Stanko. 

Cvlon  (Jos.,  XV,  59,  in  Greek;  omitt.  in  Heb.  and 
Vi3g.;  Juda)  prob.  Qoloniyeh. 

CiUha  (IV  Kings,  xvii,  24) ;  cuneif .  GadUa,  GadU, 
KiUU;  identif .  with  Tell  Ibrahim,  N.E.  of  Babylon. 

Cyprus  (q.v.). 

Cyrene  (q.v.). 

Dabereth  (Jos.,  xix,  21,  etc.;  Zabulon),  Debtbrtyen, 
W.,  and  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Thabor. 

Dabir,  1  (Jos.,  xi,  22,  etc.;  S.  Juda)  the  same  as 
Cariathsenna  and  Cariathsepher ;  most  prob.  Dar- 
heriyeh,  S.S.W.  of  Hebron. — 2  (Jos.,  xv,  7;  N.  Juda): 
poss.  Toghret  ed-Debr. 

Dalmanutha  (Mark,  viii,  10):  perhaps  EI-Delbamt- 
yeh,  S.  of  the  L.  of  Tiberias,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Jordan. 

Damascus  (q.v.). 

Damna  (Jos.,  xxi,  35;  Zabulon;  in  the  parallel 
passage,  I  Par.,  vi,  77,  Heb.  62,  Remmono).  The  true 
name  is  doubtful;  poss.  Rtbnm&neh,  N.  of  Nazareth. 

Dan  (q.v.). 

Danna  (Jos.,  xv,  49;  mount,  of  Juda).    Unknown. 

Daphca  (Num.,  xxxiii,  12, 13.)  station  of  the  Israel- 
ites on  their  jouroev  from  the  Red  Sea  to  Sinai:  poss. 
Tabacca,  near  the  WAdy  Lebweh. 

Daphne  (II  Mach.,  iv,  33),  a  sacred  grove  and  shrine 
near  Antioch  of  Syria. 

Dathema  (I  Mach.,  v,  9;  Transjord.),  dther  Ep- 
Remtheh,  or  Eigosn,  S.W.  of  the  YarmCtk. 


GXOORAPHT 


438 


OSOORAPHT 


Detba9eth  (Jos.,  zix,  11;  Zabulon).  Some:  Jeb&ta, 
S.W.  of  Nasareth;  others:  Kh.  ed-Dabsheh,  or  Zeb- 
dAh. 

Debera  (Jos.,  xv,  7).    See  Dabir  2. 

DeUatha  (Esech.,  vi,  14),  in  the  land  of  Emath ;  prob. 
the  same  as  Reblatha  (Jer.,  zxxix,  5,  6). 

DOilathaiM  (Jer.,  xlviii,  22;  D.V.:  "house  of  Debla- 
thaim";  Moabite  Stone,  1.  30:  Dmathan):  Ed-DleUet 
el-Gharbiyeh  (Musil),  doubtful. 

Decapciis  (q.v.). 

Ddean  (Jos.,  xv,  38;  Plain  of  Juda).    Unknown. 

Delos  (I  Mach.,  xv,  23),  an  island  in  the  i£gean  Sea. 

Denaba  (Gten.,  xxxvi,  32;  I  Par.,  i,  43;  Edom). 
Unidentified. 

Derbe  (Acts,xiv,  6,  etc.),  a  town  in  Lycaonia;  not 
identified. 

Dessau  (II  Mach.,  xiv,  16;  Judea).    Unknown. 

Dibon  (q.v.). 

Dimona  (Jos.,  xv,  22;  S.  Juda;  the  same  is  called, 
prob.  by  a  copjrist's  mistake,  Dibon,  in  II  £sd.,  xi, 
25):  Kh.  et-Teibeh. 

Diospolis,  Greek  name  of  Lod.  See  Sebaste, 
Diocese  of. 

Disahab  (Deut.,  i,  1;  D.V.  "where  there  is  very 
much  gold")*  The  name  of  a  station  of  the  Israel- 
ites: poss.  Ed-Dhejbeh. 

Dock  (I  Mach.,  xvi,  16):  'Ain-Diik,  N.W.  of  Jericho. 

Dommim.    See  Phesdommim. 

Dor  (Jos.j  xi,  2,  etc.;  Aser),  Assyr.  Dflrfl:  Tantdbra, 
on  the  Mediterranean  shore,  S.  of  Mt.  Caimd. 

Dora  (I  Mach.,  xv,  11). '  See  Dor. 

Dothain,  Dothan  (Gen.,  xxxvii,  17,  etc.),  Tell  Do- 
th&n,  betw.  Sebastlyeh  and  Jentn. 

Duma  (Jos.,  xv,  52;  S.  Juda):  Kh.  D6meh,  S.W.  of 
Hebron. 

Dura  (Dan.,  iii,  1),  plain  S.E.  of  Babylon;  the  name 
is  preserved  in  the  Telul  (hiUs)  Dika,  and  NiUlir  Dtkra. 

EAataruif  1  (I  Esd.,  vi^  2),  capital  of  Major  Media: 
Takti  Soleiman. — 2.  Capital  of  the  kingdom  of  C^rus: 
Hamadan. 

Edema  (Deut..  ix,  23;  Nephtali),  prob.  Kh.  'AdmAh, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jordan,  bdow  the  confluence 
of  the  Yarm(!lk.  Some,  however,  identify  it  with 
Damtyeh,  W.  of  the  L.  of  Tiberias. 

Eder  (Jos.,  xv,  21 ;  S.  Juda),  either  Eh.  el-'Adar,  or 
Kh.  Cmm  'Adreh. 

Edom.    See  Idumea. 

Edrai,  1  (Num.,  xxi,  33;  E.  Manasses):  Der'at. — 
2  (Jos.,  xix,  37;  Nephtali):  Y&*ter,  haif  way  between 
Tyre  and  L.  QOleh. 

Eglon  (Jos.,  x,  3,  etc.;  plain  of  Juda):  Kh.  'Ajlan, 
W.  of  Beitr-Jibrin. 

Ekron,  A.V.  for  Accaron. 

Elam  (q.v.). 

Elaih  (Detit.,  ii,  8,  etc.),  seaport  on  the  'Aq&ba  Gulf: 
mod.  *Aq&ba. 

Elcesif  or  rather  Elqosh,  birthplace  of  the  prophet 
Nahum.  Some  deem  it  to  be  El-Kauze,  in  Nephtali; 
others,  Qesstyeh,  S.E.  of  Beit-Jibrfn,  in  the  Sephda. 

Eleale  (Is.,  xv,  4,  etc. ;  Moab) :  E1-' Al,  N.  of  Hesb&n. 

Eleph  (Jos.,  xviii,  18;  Benjamin).     Unknown. 

Eleutheropolis  (q.v.)^  Greek  name  of  Beit-Jibrtn. 

Eleutherus,  river  dividing  Syria  from  Phoenicia: 
Nahr  el-Kebir. 

Elim  (Ex.,  xvi,  1,  etc.),  station  of  the  Israelites 
on  their  journey  irom  the  Red  Sea  to  Sinai:  some- 
where about  the  W&dy  Gharandel. 

EUasar  (Gen.,  xiv,  19):  prob.  Larsa,  Larissa  of  the 
Greeks,  on  the  left  oank  of  the  Euphrates,  in  Lower 
Babvlonia. 

ElmeUch  (Jos.,  xix.  26;  Aser);  Eevpt.  Retemaraka 
probably  in  the  neighbourhood  of  WAdy  el-Mftlek,  a 
tributarv  of  the  Gison  (A.V.  Kishon). 

EUm  (Jos.,  xix,  43;  Dan):  either  Beit-*Ello,  or  more 
prob.  'Elltn. 

SlUcon  (Jos.,  XV,  59;  mount,  of  Juda),  Thecue, 


birthplace  of  Amos,  according  to  St.  Jerome  (little 
prob.}.    Unidentified. 

Elihece  (Jos.,  xix,  44,  etc. ;  Dan) ;  also  EUheeo:  Assvr. : 
AUaqHHf  m  the  neighbourhood  of  Accaron.  Not 
identified. 

EUholad  (Jos.,  xv,  30;  S.W.  Juda).    Unknown. 

Elymais  (II  Mach.,  ix,  2),  not  a  town,  but  the  prOv. 
Elymais  is  meant;  although  a  city,  poss.  Susa,  is 
alluded  to  in  the  context. 

Emath,  1.  £Wpt.:  Hamt{u);  Aasvr,:  AmaaUt; 
Epiphania  of  the  (Greeks:  Hamah,*  on  the  Orontes. — 
2  (Jos.,  xix,  35;  Nephtali):  prob.  El-Hamm&n,  S.  of 
Tiberias. 

Emath  Suba  (II  Par.,  viii,  3),  possibly  the  countiy 
of  Emath  1. 

Emer.    See  Cherub. 

Emmaus  (q.v.). 

i?mni«r(IE8d.,ii^59;nEsd.,vii,61).    See  Cherub. 

Emona  (Jos.,  xviii,  24;  Benjamin),  poss.  Kh.  Kefr 
*An&,  N.  of  Beitin. 

Enaim  (Gen.,  xxxviii,  14,  etc. ;  plain  of  Juda),  near 
Odollam;  but  unknown. 

Enan,  rather  Hasar  Enarif  "the  village  of  Enan'' 
(D.V.,  Num.,  xxxiv,  9,  etc.).  Some :  Qiryatein,  on  the 
road  from  Damascus  to  Palmyra;  otherB,  and  more 
prob.:  Haz(ireh,  near  Banfas. 

Endor  (I  Kings,  xxviii,  7;  Issachar):  *Endor,  S.  of 
Mt.  Thabor. 

Engaddi  (a  .v.),  W.  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  towards 
the  middle:  Ain  Jldt. 

EngaUim  (Ezech.,  xlvii,  10):  poss.  *Ain  el-FeshkhAh, 
N.W.  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea;  or  Ain  Hail  Ah. 

Engannim,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  34;  plain  of  Juda):  perh. 
Beit  el-Jemal. — 2  (Jos.,  xix,  31;  xxi,  29;  Issacnar): 
Jentn.  S.  of  Zer&'tn. 

Enkadda  (Jos.,  xix,  21 ;  Issachar) :  prob.  Kefr 'Adan, 
N.W.  of  Jentn. 

Enhasor  (Jos.,  xix,  37;  Nephtali):  Kh.  Qaztreh,  W. 
of  L.  Qtkleh. 

Ennom  (Valley  of).    See  Jerubalbm. 

Ennon.    See  %non. 

Enon.    See  Enan. 

Ensemes  (Jos.,  xv,  7;  xviii,  7),  jgenerallv  reco^iced 
in  *  Ain  el-Q&(!l<},  or ''  Apostles'  Sprme'^of  tne  Christians 
on  the  road  from  Jericho  to  Jerusalem. 

Epha  (Is.,  Ix,  6)^  a  branch  of  the  Madianites,  prob. 
settled  in  N.  Arabia. 

Ephes  Dammim  (I  Kings,  xvii,  1).  See  Phesdommim. 

Ephesus  (q.v.). 

Epkra,  1  (Judges,  vi,  11,  etc. ;  W.  Manasses),  birth- 
place of  Gedeon:  perhaps  Et^-Ta^ebeh,  between  Mt. 
Thabor  and  Beis&n. — 2  (Jos.,  xviii,  23;  I  Kinra,  xiii, 
17,  etc.;  Benjamin):  Et^Tayebeh,  N.E.  of  Beittn. 

Ephrata  ((jcn.,  xxxv,  16,  etc.),  surname  of  Bethle- 
hem, poss.  the  name  of  the  surrounding  region. 

Epnrem,    See  Ephra  2. 

Ephron,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  9).  A  mountain  district  on 
the  N.  border  of  Juda,  between  the  spring  of  j^ephtoa 
and  Cariathiarim. — 2  (II  Par.,  xiii,  19).  See  Ephra 
2—3.  (I  Mach.,  v,  46;  II  Mach.,  xii,  27;  Transjord.),  a 
city  perhaps  identical  with  Gephrus  of  Polyb.  (V.  Ixx, 
12} .  The  site  is  unknown,  but  was  likel v  in  the  Wady 
el-  Arab,  or  the  straits  of  the  Sheri  'at  ef-Mand-h(ir. 

Erek,    See  Archi. 

Esaan  (Jos.,  xv,  22;  mount,  of  Juda).  The  text  is 
perhaps  corrupt  and  should  be  read  Samma^  as  I  Par., 
li,  43:  Es-Samtv&h  seems  to  be  intended. 

EscoL  A  valley  with  vineyards  and  pomemnates 
near  Hebron,  prob.  the  Wady  Beit  Iskahtl,  N.W.  of 
the  city. 

Eadrelon:  large  plain  in  the  watershed  of  the  Cison 
(A.V.  Kishon). 

Eaem.    See  Asem. 

Esna  (Jos.^  xv,  43;  plain  of  Juda):  'IdhnAh,  be- 
tween Beit-Jibrin  and  Hebron. 

Esora  (Judith,  iv,  4 ;  omitt.  in  Vulg.)  seems  to  be 
identical  with  Hasar  of  Nephtali. 


6S0ORAPHT 


439 


GEOORAPHT 


Estaol,    See  Esthaol. 

Eahamo  (I  Kings,  xxx.  28  etc. ;  mount,  of  Juda), 
also  Esthemo,  I^emo:  Es-semti'a,  S.  of  Hebron. 

Esthaol  (Judses,  xiii,  25,  etc.;  plain  of  Juda): 
*E8h(l*a,  W.  of  Jerusalem,  and  S.  of  Amwas. 

Etam,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  60,  etc.;  mount,  of  Juda):  prob. 
near  'Ain  'Et&n,  S.W.  of  Bethlehem,  perhaps  Kh,  el- 
Kh(!ikh. — 2  Cave  of  Etam  (Judges,  xv,  8),  very  likely 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jerrah,  poss.  the  cave  of 
Marmita,  near  Deir  Aban.  3  (I  Par.,  iv,  32 ;  Simeon), 
Kh.  'Aitan,  S.  of  BeiWibrtn. 

Etham  (Ex.,  xiii,  20;  Nimi.,  xxxiii,  6),  station  of 
the  Israelites  on  their  journey  from  Egypt  to  Sinai: 
somewhere  E.  of  El-Gisr. 

EUian  ("rivers  of",  Pb.  Ixxiii  [Hebr.  Ixxiv],  15), 
probabl^r  not  a  proper  name,  but  the  equivalent  for 
"perennial". 

Ether  (Jos.,  xv,  42,  etc. ;  plain  of  Juda),  also  Athar, 
In  I  Par.,  iv,  32,  instead  of  Ether  wc  read  Thoken, 
Possibly  Kh.  el-'Atr,  N.W.  of  BeitJibrtn. 

Eihroih  (Num.,  xxxii,  35;  Transjord.),  prob.  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Jebel  AfiarOs,  S.  of  the  W.  Zerq& 
Mam,  in  Moab. 

Euphrates.    See  PERATiS. 

Ezel  (I  Kings,  xx,  19).  An  unknown  conspicuous 
rock; perhaps  the  text  is  corrupt. 

Fair  Havens,  A.V.  for  Good-havens. 

Gaas  (Jos.,  ii,  9;  Ephraim),  a  mountain  N.  of  which 
was  Josue's  tomb:  Jebel  el-Crhass&neh. 

Gabaa^  also  Qaba,  Gabae.  Gabee.  Geba,  1  (Jos., 
xviii,  24,  etc. ;  Benjamin) :  Jeoa*,  N.E.  of  Jerusalem. — 
2  (Jos.,  XV,  57,  etc.;  mount,  of  Juda):  poss.  Jeba'a, 
S.W.  of  Bethlehem. — 3  (Judges,  xix,  20,  etc.;  Ben- 
jamin) :  poss.  Tell  el-FAl,  or  Kh.  es-Sikkeh.— 4  (Judith, 
lii,  14;  Samaria):  perh.  Jeba*,  S.  of  Tell  Dothan. 

Gabaa  of  Benjamin,    Gabaa  3. 

Gabaa  of  Said.    Gabaa  3. 

Gabaa  of  Phinees  (Jos.,  xxiv,  33;  Ephraim),  burial 

5 lace  of  Eleazaf,  Aaron's  son:  perh.  Jibf a,  N.W.  of 
ifneh. 

Gabae  (Jos.,  xxi,  17).    See  Gabaa  3. 

GcAaon  (Jos.,  ix,  3,  etc.; Benjamin):  El-Jib,  N.N.W. 
of  Jerusalem. 

Gabathon  (Jos.,  xxi,  23,  etc. ;  Dan),  also  GMethon: 
poss.  Qibbtyeh,  E.  of  Lydda. 

Gabee  (Jos.,  xviii,  24;  I  Par.,  vi,  60).    See  Gabaa  3. 

Gabim  (Is.,  x,  31),  wrongly  interpreted  as  a  proper 
name:  seems  to  mean  houses  scattered  in  the  country, 
outside  of  villages. 

Gad  (q.  v.). 

Gadara.  A  city  of  the  Decapolis:  Unmi  Keis,  S.  of 
the  Yarmtik. 

Gader  (Jos.,  xii^  13;  S.  Palestine),  identical  with 
Bethgader,  I  Par.,  li,  51 :  also  identified  by  some  with 
Gedor;  by  others  with  Gedera.    Otherwise  unknown. 

Gaderoth  (Jos.,  xv,  41;  II  Par.,  xxviii,  18;  plain  of 
Juda),  poss.  Qatrah,  S.E.  of  Yebna  (doubtful). 

Gadgad  (Num.,  xxxiii,  32;  D.V.:  Mount  Gadgad),  is 
not  a  mountain;  the  W^y  Ghfidh&ghydh,  S.  of 
QOrelyeh,  on  the  road  from  *Ain  Kedeis  to  the  *Aqftba 
Gulf,  has  been  proposed,  and  the  identification  does 
not  lack  probability. 

Gador  (Jos.,  xv,  58;  mount,  of  Juda):  Jed(ir. 

Galaad,  1.  Country  on  the  E.  of  the  Jordan — 2 
(Judges,  xii,  7)  should  probably  be  completed,  accord- 
ing to  several  Gr.  MSS.:  Maspha  of  Galaad. 

Galgalf  Galgaittf  1.  Place  of  the  encampment  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  Gh6r,  commonly  recomized  in  Tell 
Jeljiil,  E.  of  Jericho. — 2  (Jos.,  xii,  23;  I  Mach.,  ix,  2), 
a  Canaanite  royal  city:  JiljQltyeh,  N.E.  of  Jaffa,  or 
^alqiltyeh,  a  little  to  the  N. — 3  (IV  Kings,  ii,  1,  etc.) 
Jiljiftya,  between  Beittn  and  Napltis. 

Gciilee  (q.v.). 

Gcdlim,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  59;  omitt.  in  Heb.  and  Vulg.) 
Beit  J&1&,  between  Betttr  and  Bethlehem. — 2  (I  K., 
zxv,  44;  Is.,  X,  30;  Benjamin)  Kh.  el- AdAse,  or  Beit 


L6j&,  N.  of  Jerusalem. — 3  (Is.,  xv,  8:  Moab)  Unknown; 
located  by  Uie  Otiomasticon  8  m.  S.  of  Areopolis. 

Garmo  (II  Par.,  xxviii,  18) :  Jimzii,  S.E.  of  Lydda. 

Gareb  (Jer.,  xxxi,  39),  a  Mil  in  or  near  Jerusalem. 
From  ihe  text  it  would  seem  the  Jebel  Neby  Dafid  is 
intended ;  many,  however,  identifv  it  with  J.  Ab(!l  Jdr. 

Garizimf  mountain  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sichem: 
J.  et-Xdr,  S.  of  Naples. 

Gaidon  (Jos.,  xx,  8,  etc.;  E.  Manasses), also  Golan: 
probably  Sfthem  el-J61&n,  N.  of  the  W&dy  el-Ehreir. 

Gaza  (q.v.). 

Gazara  (I  Mach.,  vii,  45  etc.),  later  name  for  Gazer  L 

Gazer,  1.  Tell  Jezer,  S.  of  Lydda. — 2.  See  Jazer. 

Gazera  (I  Par.,  xiv,  16).    See  Gazer  1. 

Geba.    See  Gabaa  1. 

Gebcd.    See  Btblos. 

Gebbar  (I  Esd.,  ii,  20),  for  Gkibaon 

Gebbethon.    See  uabathon. 

Gedera  (Jos.,  xv.  36;  Sephela):  poss.  Kh.  Jedlreh, 
S.E.  of  Lydda,  or  Qatr&,  S.I2.  of  Jabneh. 

GederoUunm  (Jos.,  xv,  36),  poss.  another  reading 
for  Gedera. 

Gedor,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  58;  mount,  of  Juda)  Kh.  JedOr, 
between  Bethlehem  and  Hebron. — 2  (I  Par.,  xii,  7) 
Perhaps  Gedor  1. — 3  (I  Par.,  iv.  39)  Unknown.  Some 
think  Gerara  is  intended.— -4  (l  Mach.,  xv,  39).  See 
Cedron  1. 

Genesar.    See  Genesarbth. 

Genesareth  (q.v.). 

Gerara  (Gen.,  'x,  19,  etc.).  A  citjr  on  the  S.W. 
border  of  Palestine,  conmionly  identified  with  Kh. 
tTmm  Jerftr,  S.  of  Gaza. 

GerasOf  1  (Transjord.),  Jerash.  See  Gehasa. — 2 
A  city  supposed  bv  Matt.,  viii,  28,  etc.  (original 
text  soraewnat  doubtful) :  poss.  KQren  Jerfideh,  N. 
of  the  WAdy  Ftk,  E.  of  the  L.  of  Tiberias. 

Gerisim,  A.V.  for  Garizim. 

Gessen.  Region  in  Lower  Egypt,  between  the 
Pelusian  arm  of  the  Nile  and  the  wudemess. 

Gessur  (I  Kings,  xxvii,  8,  etc.),  a  region  the  location  of 
which  is  much  disputed.  Some  think  it  to  have  been 
in  the  S.  of  Palestme  (Cheyne) ;  others  locate  it  in  the 
N.  Jdl&n,  even  in  the  Ledj&h. 

Gethaim  (II  Kings,  iv,  3;  II  Esd.,  xi,  33;  in  or  near 
Benjamin),  identified  by  some  with  Ramleh. 

Gethhepher  (Jos.,  xix,  13,  etc.;  Zabulon):  El-Mesh- 
had,  N.E.  of  Nazareth. 

Gethremmonf  1  (Jos.,  xix,  45,  etc. ;  Dan)  possibly 
identical  with  Gethaim. — 2  (Jos.,  xxi,  25 ;  W.  Manasses ; 
— I  Par.,  vi,  70,  Heb.  55,  Balaam).  If  the  text  of 
Jos.  be  preferred^Gethremmon  might  possibly  be 
Kefr  Rnmmdn,  N.W.  of  Sebasliyeh. 

Gethsemani  (q.v.). 

Gezer,  Gezeron.    See  Gazer. 

Gibeon,  A.V.  for  Gabaon. 

Gideroih,    See  Gaderoth. 

Gihon.    See  Jerusalem. 

GUo  (Jos.,  xv^  51 ;  mount,  of  Juda),  birthplace  ot 
Achitophel;  unlikely  supposed  by  some  to  be  Kh. 
J&1&,  or  Beit  J&14,  near  Bethlehem ;  really  unknown. 

Gnidus  (I  Mach.,  xv,  23;  Acts,  xxvii,  7),  a  city  in 
Caria. 

Gcib  (II  Kings,  xxi,  18,  19).  Unknown.  Perhaps 
the  text  is  corrupt. 

Golan.    See  Gaulon. 

Golgotha.    See  Jerusalem. 

Gomorrha  (Gen.,  xiv,  2,  etc.),  a  city  of  the  Pen- 
tapolis.    Site  unknown. 

Good-havens  (Acts,  xxvii,  8),  Kalo  Limniones,  E.  of 
C.  Matala,  on  the  S.  coast  of  Crete. 

Gortyne  (I  Mach.,  xv,  23),  a  ciW  in  Crete. 

Goaen  (Jos.,  xv,  61;  mount,  of  Juda).    Unknown 

GuUath  (Judges,  i.  15;  D.V.  "the  Upper  and  the 
Nether  watery  ground");  proper  names,  poss.  re- 
ferring to  Sell  ed-bilbeh. 

Gvri}aal  (II  Par.,  xxvi,  7):  Tell  el-Gh(ir,  N.  of  Ber- 
sabee. 


OSOOKAPHT 


440 


aSOGKAPHT 


Habor  (q.v.). 

Haoddoma,    See  Jerusalem. 

Hachila  (I  Kinm,  xxiii,  19,  etc.),  a  hill  on  the  S.  of 
the  wilderness  of  Ziph  (Juda):  might  be  Dahr  el;K6l&, 
althoiugh  the  identincation  is  by  no  means  certain. 

HcuGisBa  (Jos.,  XV,  37;  plain  of  Juda),  perh.  'Ebdis, 
or  'Eddis,  £.  of  Ascalon. 

Hadid  (I  Esd.,  ii,  33),  identical  with  Adiada. 

Hadr<uh  (Zach.,  xi,  1) ;  Assyr.:  ffatarUca,  ^alaraka, 
a  town  in  Syria;  imlmown. 

Hat,  1  (A.  V.  Gen.,  xii,  8,  etc.),.prob.  Kh.  HaiyAn, 
£.  of  Beitin. — 2  iJer.,  xlix,  3),  prob.  an  Anmionite 
city.    Unknown. 

Hala  (IV  Kings,  xvii,  6;  xviii,  11),  a  place  of  exile  of 
the  Israelites  in  Assyria;  Assyr.:  Halahhii:  perh.  Gla 
or  Kalah.  near  the  source  of  {he  Khabur. 

Halcaih  (Joe.,  xix ;  25 ;  xxi,  31) :  Yerkd,  N.E.  of  Acre. 

Halhul  (Jos.,  XV,  58;  moimt.  of  Juda):  Halbill,  N. 
of  Hebron,  near  Beit  S&r. 

Halicamasaus  (a  .v.). 

Hammoth  Dor  (Jos.,  xxi,  32).    See  Hamon  1. 

Hamon,  1  (I  Par.,  vi.  76,  Heb.  61;  Nephtali):  El- 
Hamm&m,  on  the  W.  snore  of  tiie  L.  of  Tiberias. — 2 
(Jos.,  xix,  28;  Aser),  poss.  Kh.  el- Aw&mtd,  S.  of  Tyre. 

^ana</um(Jos.,xix,14  ;N.  Zabulon) :  perh . Kef r'An&n. 

Hams  (Is.,  xxx,  4),  Egypt.  ffininaU;  Assyr.:  ^iniiiv- 
ski:  a  city  in  the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  prob.  Heracleopolis 
Parva  of  the  classics:  A^n^  el-Medtneh. 

Hapharaim  (Jos.,  xix,  19;  Issachar),  Egypt.  HafUr- 
ama;  Kh.  el-Farrfyeh,  between  Mt.  Carm^  and  LejOn. 

Haran.  A  town  in  Mesopotamia:  Assyr. :  ffarranU,, 
on  the  river  Belikh,  a  confluent  of  the  Eui)hrates. 

Hares  (Judges,  i^  35).  The  exact  name  is  doubtful ; 
moreover  ^ares  is  equivalent  to  Shemesh  (Sun); 
hence  Har  Qeres,  *Ir  Shamesh,  and  Beth  Shameidi 
might  be  three  forms  of  one  name,  After  all,  the 
name  mig^t  not  indicate  a  hill,  but  a  village :  *  Ain  Shems. 

Harma,    See  Horma  1. 

Haroaeth  (Judges,  iv,  2):  El-Harittyeh,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Cison,  between  Qaifa  and  Nazareth. 

Hasarsuhal  (Jos./xv,  28  etc.;  S.  Juda).  Unknown. 

Hamxrsusim  (Jos.,  xix,  5;  S.  Simeon);  mifiht  be 
Sdain  or  Beit  SOstn,  on  the  road  from  Gaza  to  Egrpt. 

Haserim  (Deut.,  ii,  23),  a  common  name  meamng 
"the  villages":  Arab.  Dwar. 

Haaeroth  (Num.,  xi,  35),  a  station  of  the  Israelites 
in  their  journey  from  Mt.  Sinai  to  Cades:  'Ain  ^a4r&, 
about  eighteen  hours  N.E.  of  Mt.  Sinai. 

Hasargual,    See  Hasarsuhal. 

Hctsersusa,    See  Hasarsusim.. 

Haaaemon  (Jos.,.xv,  27;  S.  Juda).    Unknown. 

HavathJatr,  A  group  of  cities  £.  of  the  Jordan  in 
Galaad,  Argob,  ancTBasan. 

Hebal,  a  mountain  in  the  Ephraim  range,  N.  of 
NapliLs,  over  against  Mt.  Garizim:  Jebel  Sltm^. 

nebron  (a. v.). 

Hebrona  (Num.,  xxxiii,  34),  a  station  of  the  Israel- 
ites on  their  journey  from  Egypt  to  the  Holy  Land: 
near  AsioxiMkber. 

HeUxm  (U  Kings,  x,  16,  17),  an  unknown  Anmion- 
ite city. 

HeWa  (Judges,  i,  31).    See  Ahalab. 

Helbon  (Ezech.,  xxvii,  18),  a  town  in  Syria  renowned 
for  its  wine:  Qelbdn,  on  the  E.  slope  of  Anti-Lebanon, 
12  m.  N.W.  of  Damascus. 

Heleath,    See  Halcath. 

Heieph  (Jos.,  xix,  33 ;  Nephtali),  poss.  Beit  Ltf,  half- 
way between  L.  QOleh  and  the  sea. 

Hdiopolia.    See  Baalbek. 

HdmondebkUhatm.    See  Deblathaim. 

Helony  1  (I  Par.,  vi,  58,  Heb.  43,  Gr.  57).  See 
Holon.— 2  (I  Par.,  vi,  69,  Heb.  54),  for  Aialon.— 3 
(Jer.,  xlviii,  21;  Ruben).    Unknown. 

Hemath  (I  Par.,  xviii,  3,  9).    See  Emath. 

Henoch  (Gen.,  iy,  17),  the  first  city  built  by  Cain 
and  called  after  his  first-bom  son ;  of  course,  entirely 
unknown. 


Herma.    See  Horma  1. 

Hermon.  Mountain  ranjge  on  the  N.  border  of 
Israel:  Jebel  el-Sheikh,  or  jTet-Telj. 

Heaebon  (Num.,  xxi,  26,  etc. ;  Moid>).    HeebAn. 

Heaer  (III  Kinm,  ix,  15),  the  same  as  Asor  1. 

Heahbon,  A.V.  for  Hesebon. 

Heamona  (Num.,  xxxiii,  29;  xxxiv,  4),  station  of 
the  Israelites  on  their  way  from  Cades  to  Asiongaber: 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ain  K6emeh. 

Hearon,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  3;  S.  Juda),  prob.  some  Hasar. 
Unidentined. — 2  (Jos.,  xv,  25).    See  Asor  3. 

Hethakm  (Ezech.,  xlvii,  15;  xlviii,  1):  either  Heitela, 
N.  of  Tripoli  of  Syria;  or  more  prob.  Adl(in,  N.  of  the 
Leontes,  on  the  road  from  Tyre  to  Sidon. 

Hetkitea  (q.v.). 

Hevitea,  One  of  the  petty  clans  of  Canaanites  dis- 
possessed by  Israel  and  the  Philistines.  The  Gabaon- 
ites  were  Hcvites. 

HevUahy  HeviUUh,  Country  watered  by  the  Phison. 
Unknown.  > 

Hierapolia  (q.v.). 

Hieromax^  Cfreek  name  of  the  Sherf  at  el-Menad- 
hireh,  or  Yarmiik. 

Hiraemea.    See  Bethsames. 

Hoba  (Gen.,  xiv,  15),  N.  of  Damascus;  the  identifi- 
cations proposed  are  very  unsatisfactory. 

Hodai  (II  Kings,  xxiv,  6),  probably  a  copyist's  mis- 
take for  Cedes. 

Holon  (Jos.,  XV,  51 ;  xxi,  15;  mount,  of  Juda).  Un- 
known. 

Hot,  1.  A  mountain  by  which  Israel  had  their 
encampment  in  the  desert,  and  the  place  of  Aaron's 
death;  commonly  identified  with  Jebel  Nebt  Harihi, 
S.W.  of  Petra,  a  most  unlikely  location;  must  be 
looked  for  in  the  neiehbourhood  of  Cades,  possibly 
Jebel  MQeileh,  N.W.  of  Cades. — 2.  According  to  com- 
mon interpretation,  another  mountain  at  the  N.  limit 
of  the  Promised  Land,  and  variously  identified,  al- 
though the  Jebel  esh-Shdqtf  seems  to  be  the  most 
suitable  location ; — perhaps  not  a  propter  name,  but  an 
expression  to  be  translated:  "the  rising  up  of  the 
mountain",  i.e.  S.  Lebanon. 

Horeb  (a. v.). 

Harem  (Jos.,  xix,  38;  Nephtali),  Kh.  el-9<irAh,W.of 
L.  QiUeh. 

Harmat  1  (Num.,  xiv,  45  etc.),  formeriy  called 
l^phath:  prob.  Sbaite,  N.N.E.  of  Cades.— 2  (Jos., 
xix,  29;  Aser)  R&meh,  S.E.  of  Tyre. 

Hoaa  (Jos.,  xix,  29;  Aser.  text  doubtful),  poss. 
Ezziyat,  S.  of  Tjrre. 

Hucac,    See  fialcath. 

Hucuca  (Jos.,  xix,  34;  Nephtali):  Yaqik],  W.  of 
Caphamaum,  S.S.W.  of  S&fed. 

Htta  (Job.  i.  1 ;  Jer.^  xxv.  20;  Lam.,  iv,  21 ;  perhaps 
different  regions  are  intenaed).  From  what  may  be 
^thered  concerning  the  ''  land  of  Hus"  in  Job,  it  was 
m  Arabia,  N.  of  Saba,  W.  of  Clialdea,  N.  of  Edom. 
See  Job. 

Icanium  (q.v.),  in  Lycaonia:  Konieh. 

Idumea  (q.v.). 

Ijeabarim  (Num.,  xxi,  11;  xxxiii,  44),  station  of 
the  Israelites  in  Moab:  Kh.  *Ai,  S.E.  of  Kerak. 

IndiOf  I.  (Esth.,  i,  1)  the  region  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Indus. — 2.  The  text  (I  Mach.,  viii,  8)  seems  to  be 
at  fault,  and  should  perhaps  be  read  Ionia. 

laLanda,  refers  to  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea. 

Iturea  (Luke,  iii,  1),  originallv  the  country  of  Jetur 
(I  Par.,  i,  51 ;  v,  19),  on  the  E.  slope  of  Anti-Lebanon, 
N.  of  Damascus. 

Jabea  CI  Par.,  ii,  55  j  Juda).    Unknown. 

Jabea  Galaad  (I  Kings,  xi,  1  etc.),  poss.  Ed-Deir 
near  which  there  is  a  W&dy  Y4bts. 

Jabnia  (II  Par.,  xxvi,  6).    See  Jamnia. 

Jaboc:  Nahr  es-ZeroA,  between  the  regions  called 
Belq&  and  'AjlAn,  E.  of  the  Jordan. 


0100RAPH7 


441 


QEOQRAPHT 


Jacan.    See  Benejaacan. 

Jachanan  (Jos.,  xii,  22),  an  unknown  place  about 
Mt.  Carmel. 

Joffur  (Jos.,  XV,  21 ;  S.  Juda).    Unknown. 

Jamnia  (I  Mach.,  xiv,  15,  etc.),  a  town  of  the 
Sephela:  Yebn&. 

Janoe,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  6;  xvi,  7;  Ephraim) :  Y&n<in,  S.E. 
of  Napliis.— 2  (IV  KingB,  xv,  29;  Nephtali):  YAniih, 
E.  of  Tyre,  according  to  some;  more  prob.  Hi^nOn,  S. 
of  the  Merj  *AiyAn. 

Jaman  (Jos.,  xv,  53;  mount,  of  Juda),  poss.  Beni 
Naim,  E.  of  Hebron. 

Japhie  (Jos.,  xix,  12;  Zabulon):  YftfA,  S.W.  of 
Nazareth. 

Jaramoth  (Jos.,  xxi,  29 ;  Issachar),  called  RamUh 
in  I  Par.,  vi,  73,  Heb.  68).    Unidentified. 

Jarepnel  (Jos.,  xviii,  27;  Benjamin):  RAphAt,  N.  of 
El-Jib. 

Jata  (Num.,  xxi,  23;  Jer.,  xlviii,  21 ;  Moab.  S.,  1. 19); 
Onomasticon:  ''between  Madaba  and  Dibon":  0mm 
el-W&ltd  (7  Musii). 

Jaaer  (Jos.,  xxi,  36).    See  Jasa. — 2.  See  Jazer. 

Jassa,    See  Jasa.  ^ 

Jcaer  (Num.,  xxxii,  1,  etc.;  Transjord.),  prob.  Kh. 
S&r,  W.  of  AmmAn. 

Jeabarim  (Num.,  xxi,  11,  etc.).     See  Ijeabarim. 

JMaam  (Jos.,  xvii,  11 ;  Issachar) ;  E^ypt. :  ibra^amU  : 
Kh.  Bel'ameh,  S.  of  Jenln. 

Jebnael  (Jos.,  xix,  33;  Nephtali):  YemmA,  between 
Thabor  and  the  S.  end  of  the  L.  of  Tiberias. 

Jebned,    See  Jamnia. 

Jeboc:  the  same  as  Jaboc. 

Jehus.    See  Jerusalem. 

Jecmaam  (I  Par.,  vi,  68,  Heb.  63),  also  Jecmaan 
(III  King^,  iv,  12).  In  the  parallel  list  of  Jos.,  xxi,. 
22,  Cibsaim  is  to  be  found.    Text  doubtful. 

Jecnam  (Jos.,  xxi,  34;  Zabulon) :  prob.  Tell  Qaimtin, 
E.  of  Mt.  Carmel. 

Jecanam  (Jos.,  xix,  11).    See  Jecnam. 

JecUhel  (IV  Kings,  xiv,  7),  name  given  to  Petra  by 
Amasias.  King  of  Juda.    See  Petra. 

Jecthel  (Jos.,  xv,  38;  Sephela).,   Unknown. 

Jedala  (Jos.,  xix,  16;  Zabulon)':  Jeid&,  S.  of  Bethle- 
hem of  Zabulon. 

Jegbaa  (Judges,  viii,  11;  Transjord.):  Ajeblh&t,  E. 
of  Es-Salt. 

Jehoskaphat,  A.V.  for  Josaphat. 

Jemnaa.    See  Jamnia. 

Jephtha  (Jos.,  xv,  43 ;  plain  of  Juda) .  An  unidenti- 
fied place,  S.E.  of  Beit  Jibrtn. 

Jericho  (q.v.). 

Jerimoth  (Jos.,  x,  23,  36;  Sephela):  Kh.  YarmiHk,  6 
m.N.N.E.ofBeitJibHn. 

JerimtUh  (II  Esd.,  xi,  29).    See  Jerimoth. 

Jeran  (Jos.,  xix,  38;  Nephtali):  YArftn,  W.  of  L. 
QCileh. 

Jerusalem  (q.v.). 

Jesania  (III  Kings,  xv,  17) :  * Ain  Sintya,  N.  of  Beittn. 
Perhaps  should  be  read  also  instead  of  Sen,  I  Kings, 
vii,  12. 

Jetimon,  1  (Num.,  xxi,  20;  xxiii,  28;  Moab)  desert 
N.  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  E.  of  the  lower  Jordan. — 2 
(I  Kings,  xxiii,  16  etc.)  country  between  the  deserts  of 
Ziph  and  of  Maon,  and  Eneaddi. 

Jesse  (Judith,  i,  9),  for  (%ssen. 

Jesue  ril  Esd.,  xi,  26;  S.  Juda):  Kh.  Sft'weh,  E. 
of  Bersabee. 

Jela  (Jos.,  xxi,  16;  Juda-Simeon) :  YOtt&,  S.  of 
Hebron. 

Jeteba  (IV  IGn|^,  xxi,  19),  birthplace  of  Messale- 
meth,  Manasses'  wife,  prob.  in  Juda,  but  unknown. 

JeUbatiuj,  (Deut.,  x,  7),  station  of  the  Israelites  be- 
tween Cades  and  Asiongaber.    Unknown. 

Jethela  (Joe.,  xix,  42;  Dan):  Beit  TAl,  S.E.  of  Yal6. 

JeOier  (Jos.,  xv,  48;  mount,  of  Juda):  'Attfr,  be- 
tween Hebron  and  Bersabee. 

Jethnam  (Jos.,  xv,  23;  S.  Juda).    Unknown. 


Jeihson  (Jos.,  xxi,  36) .  So  Vulg.,  prob.  by  mistake ; 
in  other  texts,  Cademotk, 

Jezer,    See  Jazer. 

Jezraelf  1  (Jos.,  xvii,  16,  etc.;  Issachar):  Zer&*tn, 
S.W.  of  Jebel  Neb!  Daht  (Little  Hermon).— 2  (Jos.. 
XV,  66 ;  I  Kings,  xxvii,  3 ;  Juda),  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Carmel  and  Ziph.    Unknown. 

Jim  (Jer.,  xxvi,  18;  S.  Juda):  peih.  Beit  *Aww&, 
not  far  from  Bersabee. 

Jopve.    See  Jaffa. 

Jaraan  (q.v.). 

Josaphai  (Joel,  iii,  2. 12),T>rob.an  allegorical  name: 
"the  valley  wherein  Yahwen  shall  judge". 

Jata  (Jos.,  XV,  66).    See  Jeta. 

Jucadam  (Jos.,  xv,  66;  mount,  of  Juda):  apparently 
S.E.  of  Hebron.     Unidentified. 

Jud  (Jos,  xix,  46;  Dan):  El-YehOdtyeh.  N.  of 
Lydda. 

Juda  (q.v.). 

Judea  (q.v.). 

Laban  (Deut.,  i,  1),  statbn  of  the  Israelites  in  their 
journey  from  Sinai  to  Cades.    Unknown. 

Labanath  (Jos.,  xix,  26),  is  separated  in  Vulg.  from 
preceding  word,  to  which  it  should  be  joined:  Sihor 
Labanatn.    See  Sihor. 

Lacedeman  (II  Mach.,  v,  9).    See  Sparta. 

Lahela  (I  Par.,  v,  26),  a  mistake  for  "to  Hala",  a 
re^on  of  As^ia. 

iMhem  (I  Par.,  iv,  22;  the  text  is  not  clear).  Un- 
known. 

TjfVLg      S^Af^  Dan 

Laisa  (Is.,  x,  30*;  I  Mach.,  ix,  6):  Kh.  Q'AqOl,  W.  of 
*An&ta 

Lampsacus  (I  Mach.,  xv,  23),  a  city  of  Mysia,  on  the 
Hellespont,  possiblv  a  mistake  for  Samjasame :  Sam- 
siln,  a  little  seaport  oetween  Sinope  and  Trebizond,  on 
the  Black  Sea. 

Laodicea,     (Cd.,  ii,  1,  etc.;  q.v.). 

Lebaoih  (Jos.,  xv,  32).    See  Beth  Leba'6th. 

J/etnuif  1  (Num.,  xxxiii,  20}  a  station  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  journey  from  Sinai  to  Cades.  Unknown. — 
2  (Jos..  X,  31;  Sephela):  poss.  Kh.  el-Ben&wy,  10  m. 
S.E.*  of  Lachis. 

Lebona  (Judges,  xxi,  19) :  El-LAbb&n,  S.  of  Napltis. 

Lehi  (Judges,  xv,  17;  D.V,  "jawbone"):  Kh.  'Ain 
el-Lebt  has  been  proposed,  but  is  very  doubtful ;  the 
above  Arab,  name  seems  to  be  rather  'Ain  *Allek. 

Lecum  (Jos.,  xiX,  33 ;  Nephtali),  site  unknown,  prob- 
ably in  the  neighbourhood  of  L.  Qoleh. 

Leheman  (Joe.,  xv,  40;  plain  of  Juda),  Kh.  el-Labm, 
S.  of  Beit  Jibrtn. 

Lesa  (Cen.,  x,  19),  poss.  Callirrhoe  (St.  Jerome): 
Hamm&m  es-Zenj&,  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Lesem  (Jos.,  xix,  47).    See  Dan. 

Lohna  (Jos.,  xxi,  13),  the  same  as  Lebna  2. 

Lod  (I  Par.,  viii,  12,  etc.):  El-Lddd.    See  Sebaste. 

Lodabar  (II  Kings,  ix,  4,  etc.;  Transjord.)  Greek 
has  Daibon:  text  unsettled. 

Luith  (Is.,  XV,  6;  Jer.,  xlviii,  6;  Moab):  Kh.  FAs 
(Musil) ;  NOchtn  (de  Saulcy) ;  hardly  identified. 

LuzOf  1  (Gen.,  xxviii,  19,  etc.),  an  old  name  for 
Bethel. — 2  ( J  lodges,  i,  26)  A  city  of  the  Hethites,perh. 
Laweizfyeh,  N.W.  of  TeU  el-QAdt. 

Lyda  (I  Mach.,xi,  34),  Lydda  (Acts,  ix,  32,  etc.).  Lod. 

Lystra^  1  (Acts,  xiv,  8,  etc.),  a  city  of  Lycaonia: 
Khatyn  Serai. — 2  (Acts,  xxvu,  6),  in  some  MSS.,  a 
mistake  for  Myra  in  Lycia. 

Maara  of  the  Sidonians  (Jos.,  xiii,  4):  possibly  "the 
cave"  of  Jezztn,  about  9  m.  E.  of  Sidon;  but  the  text 
seems  corrupt  and  should  perhaps  be  read:  ''from 
Gaza  to  Sidon". 

Macces  (III  Kings,  iv,  9;  Dan).    Unknown. 

Maceda  (Jos.,  x,  10,  etc.),  poss.  El-MOgh&r,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Accaron. 

Maceloth  (Num.,  xxxiii,  26),  station  of  the  Israelites 
on  the  journey  from  Sinai  to  Cades:  prob.  Maqehelat. 


GSOORAPHT 


442 


aSOORAPHT 


Machbena  (II  Par.,  ii,  49),  prob.  the  same  as  Cheb- 
bon. 

Machmas  (I  Kings,  xiii,  2,  etc. ;  Benjamin) :  Mikhm&s 
N.  of  Jerusalem. 

MachmethcUh  (Jos.,  xvi,  7,  etc.,  limit  of  Ephraim 
and  W.  Manasses),  perhaps  not  a  city,  but  a  region, 
poss.  the  Plain  of  £1-Makhn^  (Guthe). 

Machte8h  (Soph.,  i,  11;  D.V.:  *'the  Mortar"),  a 
place  near  Jerusalem,  ''  the  Valley  of  Siloe"  (St.  Je- 
rome). 

Madmena  (I  Par.,  ii,  49).    See  Medemena. 

Madon  (Jos.,  xi,  1,  etc.)perh.  should  be  read  Moron; 
poss.  Kh.  MiBultn,  W.  of  Tiberias,  or  Meiron,  N.W.  of 

Maaala  (I  Kings,  xvii,  20;  xxvi,  57),  wrongly  inter- 
preted by  Vulg.  as  a  proper  name;  means  a  fenced 
encampment. 

Magdal,  1  (Ex.,  xiv,  2,  etc.):  perh.  Serapeum. — 2 
(Jer.,  xliv,  1,  etc.)  perh.  the  same;  poss.  Tell  es-SemOt, 
near  Pelusium. 

Magdala  (Matt.,  xv,  39;  Mark,  viii,  10;  text  not 
certain):  El-Mejdel;  on  the  W.  shore  of  the  L.  of 
Tiberias. 

Maadalel  (Jos.,  xix,  38;  Nephtali):  poss.  El-Mejdel; 
accordine  to  the  Onomasticon,  Athlit. 

Magdmgal  (Jos.,  xv,  37;  Sephela),  Assyr.:  MagdUH; 
either  El-Mejdel,  near  Ascalon,  or  £1-Mejeleh,  S.  of 
Beit  Jibrtn. 

Magedan  (Matt.,  xv,  39).  See  Magdala,  Dalmanu- 
tha. 

Mageddo.Mageddon,    See  Maqeddo. 

Mageth  (I  Mach.,  v,  26,  36;  Transiord.):  prob.  Kh. 
el-MOkattyeh,  W.  of  the  confluence  of  the  Ruqq&d  and 
the  Yarmiik. 

Magrorij  1  (I  Kings,  xiv,  2),  prob.  a  common  name 
indicating  the  top  of  the  hiU  on  the  slope  of  which 
Jeba*  is  built. — 2  (Is.,  x,  28):  poss.  Makran,  N.W.  of 
Mikhm4s. 

Mahanaim:  Kh.  Mabneh,  S.W.  of  Hauran,  in  the 
Jebel  *AjlAn,  N.  of  the  Jaboc. 

MahaneDan  (Judges,  xiii,  25;  xviii,  12),  a  place  W. 
of  Cariathiarim. 

Mallos  (II  Mach.,  iv,  30),  a  city  of  Cilicia. 

Malta  (q.v.). 

Mambre,    See  Hebron. 

Manaim  (Jos.,  xiii,  26,  etc.).    See  Mahanaim. 

Manassea  (q.v.). 

Maon,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  55;  S.^  JuSa):  Kh.  Ma'tn. — 2 
(Judges,  X,  12),  perhaps  Ma'&n,  E.  of  Petra;  text 
poss.  corrupt. 

Mara  (Elx.,  xv.  23),  station  of  the  Israelites  be- 
tween Egypt  ana  Mt.  Sinai,  perh.  *Ain  Haw4ra,  or 
Wady  Mereira. 

Mareaa,  a  city  in  the  Sephela ;  the  name  is  preserved  in 
Kh.  Maresh,  near  Beit  Jibrtn ;  the  site  was  prob.  in  Tell 
Sandahanna,  a  little  S.E.  of  Kh.  Maresh. 

McmUh  {Job.,  xv,  59:  mount,  of  Juda),  poss.  Beit 
©mm&r,  S.S.W.  of  Bethlehem. 

Maroth  (Mich.,  i^  12).  Unknown,  although  some 
deem  it  to  be  identical  with  Mareth. 

Masai  (Jos.,  xix,  26  etc.;  Aser):  perh.  Khan  Mit- 
hillya,  S.W.  of  Mt.  Carmel. 

Mcaaloth  (I  Mach..  ix,  2).  prob.  a  common  name 
meaning  '*  the  steps'' — ^i.e.  tne  steps  of  the  caves  of 
Arbella. 

Masepha  (Jos.,  xv,  38;  Sephela):  Tell  es-Saftyeh,  7 
m.  N.W.  of  Beit  Jibrtn. 

Maaerephoth  (Jos.,  xi,  8;  xiii,  6).  Unknown.  Per- 
haps *Ain  MOsherfi,  on  the  Mediterranean  shore,  S.  of 
R&s  en-N^<ira. 

Maspha,  Masphaih,  1.  Of  Benjamin:  site  much  dis- 
puted: Sh&'fat,  Nebt  Samwtl,  El-Btreh,  and  Tell  Nas- 
beh,  all  N.  of  Jerusalem,  have  been  proposed  with 
more  or  less  probability. — ^2.  Of  Galaaa:  see  Ramoth 
Galaad.— 3.  Of  Juda:  prob.  Tell  e8-Saflyeh.-~4.  Of 
Moab  (I  Kings,  xxxii,  3,  4).    Unknown. 

Maajphe,    »ee  Maspha  of  Galaad. 


Masreca  (Gen.,  xxxvi,  36;  I  Par.,  i,  47),  N.  ot 
Idumea. 

MaUhana.  •  Station  of  the  Israelites  in  their  journey 
through  Moab ;  possibly  Mechatta. 

Meadin  (Jos.,  xv,  61 ;  wilderness  of  Juda).  Unknown. 

Medemena^  1  (Jos.,  xv,  31;  S.  Juda).  Unknown. — 
2  (Is.,  X,  31;  Benjamin):  Kh.  el-Qar&mi,  N.  of 
Jerusalem. 

Megiddo.    See  Maqeddo. 

Meiarcan  (Jos.,  xix,  46;  Dan),  poss.  the  Nahr  ei- 
'Aujen^  betw.  Joppe  and  Arecon. 

Mdda,  A.V.  for  Malta  (q.v.). 

Mdothi  (Judith,  ii,  3,  Vulg.  only),  perhaps  Melitine 
of  Cappadocia. 

Memphis  (q.v.). 

Mennith  (Judges,  xi,  33).  Onomasticon:  at  a  short 
distance  from  Hesebon;  poss.  t^mm  el-Qen&ftd. 

Mephaath  (Jos.,  xiii,  18) :  NefA,  S.S.E.  of  AmmAn. 

Merala  (Jos.,  xi,  19,  Zabulon):  prob.  Maim,  S.W. 
of  Nazareth. 

Merom  (Waters  of).    Lake  Q(Ueh. 

Meroz  (Judces,  v,  23):  poss.  £l-MahrAneh,  between 
Doth&n  and  iChbattyeh;  or  M-Mika^^as,  near  BeisAn. 

Merrha  (Bar.,  iii,  23).  Unknown.  Perhaps  we 
should  read  Maaian. 

Mesopotamia  (q.v.). 

Mesphe  (Jos.,  xviii,  26),  for  Maspha  of  Benjamin. 

Messa  (Gen.,  x,  30),  in  Arabia.     Unknown. 

Messal  (Jos.,  xix,  2i6).    See  Masai. 

Methca  (Num.,  xxxiii^  28),  station  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  journey  from  Sinai  to  Uades.    Unknown. 

Miletus  (q.v.).^ 

MisoT  (Jos.,  xxi,  36),  not  found  in  the  Hebr.;  poss. 
a  mistake. 

Mitylene  (Acts,  xx,  14),  in  the  island  of  Lesbos: 
Metelin. 

Mochona  (II  Esd.,  xi,  28;  Juda):  Kh.  el-Moqenna. 

Modin,  the  birthplace  of  the  Machabees;  generally 
admitted  to  be  El-Medieh,  £.  of  Lydda. 

Molada  (Jos.,  xv,  26;  S.  Juda)  perh.  Tell  el-Milh, 
between  Bersabee  and  the  Dead  sea. 

Moresheth  Goth  (Mich.,  i^  1,  etc.),  birthplace  of 
Micheas,  E.  of  Eleutheropolis.    Unidentified. 

Mortar  (Soph.,  i,  11).    See  Machtesh. 

Mosel  (Ezech.,  xvii,  19).  As  such,  not  a  proper 
name;  should  be  understood:  "from  Uzal". 

Mosera  (Deut.,  x,  6).    See  Moseroth. 

Moseroth  (Num.,  xxxiii,  30),  station  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  journey  from  Cades  to  Asiongaber.  Un- 
identified. 

Myndus  (I  Mach.,  xv,  23),  a  city  in  Carta,  between 
Miletus  and  Halicamassus. 

Myra  (Acts,  xxvii,  5),  not  in  the  Vulg.,  but  should 
be  read  instead  of  Lystra. 

Naalol  (Jos.,  xix,  15,  etc.;  Zabulon),  prob.  Ma*l(U, 
E.  of  Nazareth. 

Naama,  1  (Jos^  xv,  41 ;  Sephela) :  perti.  Na'ameh, 
S.  of  Lydda  and  E.  of  Jabneh. — 2  (Job,  ii,  11);  there 
was  prob.  a  city  of  that  name  in  Nabathea.  Un- 
known. 

Naaratha  (Jos.,  xvi,  7;  E.  Ephraim),  poss.  Tell 
Taht&ni,  N.  of  Jertcho. 

Naas  (I  Par.,  iv,  12;  Juda),  perti.  Deir  N&Ws,  N.E. 
of  Beit  Jibrtn. 

Naasson  (Tob.,  i,  1),  prob.  Aser  2. 

Nahaliel  (Num.,  xxi,  19),  station  of  the  Israelites  £. 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  near  the  Amon.  Wady  Enkeile 
(7  Robinson). 

Naim  (Luke,  vii,  11):  Nafn,  on  the  N.W.  slope  of 
the  Jebel  Dahv 

Naioth  (I  Kings,  xix,  18,  etc.),  "in  Ramatha". 
Otherwise  unknown. 

Nazareth  (q.v.). 

Neapolis  (Acts,  xvi,  11 ;  xx,  6),  a  city  in  Macedonia* 
Ka  valla. 

NawOat  (II  Esd.,  xi,  34) :  Beit  Neb&la,  N.  of  Lydda. 


aSOORAPHT 


443 


OEOORAPH7 


Nd)o,  1  Mountain  N.  of  Moab:  Jebel  Neb&. — 2 
(Num.,  xxxii,  3;  Moabite  Stone,  1. 14),  a  town  about 
the  Jebel  Neb&. 

Nd)san  (Jos.,  xv,  62;  desert  of  Juda,  near  the  Dead 
Sea).    Unknown. 

Need}  (Jos.,  xix,  33,  in  the  Vulg.;  Nephtali).  See 
Adami. 

Nehelescol.    See  Escol. 

Nehid  (Jos.,  xix,  27;  Aser).  Some:  Kh.  YAnln,  E. 
of  Acre;  others:  Mi'&r. 

Nemra  (Nimi.,  xxxii,  3).    See  Bethnemra. 

Nemrim  (Is.,  xv,  6;  Jer.,  xlviii,  34):  WAdy  Nemeira, 
S.E.  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  there  is  a  ^.  Nemeira. 

Nephath  Dor.    See  Dor. 

NephUUi  (q.v.). 

Nephioa  (Jos.,  xv,  9;  Juda-Ben jamin) :  LiftA,  N.W. 
of  Jerusalem. 

NesSb  (Jos.;  xv,  43;  Sephela):  Beit  N^tb,  £.  of 
Eleutheropolis. 

Ndkuvhati  (II  Esd.,  xii,  28).    See  Netupha. 

Netuwia  (I  Par.,  ii,  54,  etc.;  Juda):  prob.  Beit 
Nettif,  N.E.  of  Eleutheropolis. 

Nicopdia  (Titus,  iii,  12;,acityinEpiru8:  Paleopre- 
vy»a. 

Nineveh,  A.V.  for  Ninive. 

Ninive  (q.v.). 

No, No Anum (Nahum, iii, 8;  Ezech.,  xxx,  14) 'not 
Thebes  of  Upper  E^ypt,  but  Thebes  in  the  Delta  (Dios- 
polis):  Tell  BalamSn. 

Noa  (Jos^  xix,  23;  Zabulon).    Unknown. 

Nob  (II  Esd.,  xi,  32;  Benjamin):  Beit  Ndbft,  be- 
tween 'Anftta  and  Jerusalem. 

Nobe,  1  (Judjges,  viii,  ll;Transjord.).  Unknown. — 
2  (I  Kings,  XXI,  1,  etc.).  See  Nob.— -3  (Num.,  xxxii, 
42).    See  Canath. 

Noji^  (Num.,  xxi,  30;  Moab):  text  doubtful. 

Nophetii  (Jos.,  xvii,  11).  a  town,  according  to  Vulg.; 
the  clause  should  be  renaered:  "three  villages". 

Noran.    See  Naaratha. 

Oboth  (Num.,  jxxxiii,  43).  Station  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  joumev  from  Asion^ber  to  the  frontiers  of 
Moab; prob.  Wady  Weibeh,  N.  of  Fen&n. 

Odollam:  prob.  Kh.  *Aid  el-Mteh;  the  cave  is  near 
the  summit  of  the  S.  hill.    See  Adullam. 

OdvUam.    See  Adullam. 

Olon  (Jos.,  XV,  51).    See  Holon. 

On.    See  Baalbek. 

Ono  (I  Par.,  viii,  12;  Dan);  E^ypt.:  Aunau;  Kefr 
'AnA,  between  Lydda  and  Jaffa. 

Oph/d  (II  Par.,  xxvii,  3),  a  part  of  Jerusalem. 

Opher  (IV  Kings^  xiv,  25).    See  Gethhepher. 

Opkera  (Jos.,  xviii,  23).    See  Ephra  2. 

Ophin  (Jos.,  xviii,  24);  Benjamm:  perhaps  Jifneh, 
N.W.  of  Beittn. 

Oreb  (Judges,  vii,  25,  etc.):  poss.  'Osh  el-Ghiir&b, 
between  the  Jeoel  Qarant&l  and  the  Jordan. 

Oronaim  (Is^  xv,  5;  Jer.,  xl viii,  3,  etc.;  Moabite 
Stone,  I.  32):  WAdy  Ghdweir  (Conder):  would  seem 
rather  S.  of  the  Amon. 

OronUe,  great  river  of  Syria:  Nahr  el-'Ast. 

Orthoeias  (q.v. — I  Mach.,  xv,  37). 

Ozeneara  (I  Par.,  vii,  24): perhaps  Beit  StrA,  W.S.W. 
of  Lower  Bethoron. 

Palmyra  (q.v.). 

Paphos  (q.v. — ^Acts,  xiu.  6,  etc.),  in  Cyprus:  Baffo. 

PoToe.  I  Par.,  xxix,  2;  Eisth.,  i,  6,  speak  of  ''marble 
of  Paros'';  but  this  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  original; 
only  "  white  stone". 

PaJUxra  (Acts,  xxi,  1-3),  a  citv  in  Lycia:  Jelemish. 

Paimoe.  One  of  the  Sporades,  S.  of  Samos,  W.  of 
Miletus:  Patino. 

Pdugium  (Ezech.,  xxx,  15,  16);  Copt.:  PeremHn, 
PelHeiil,  a  city  N.E.  of  the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  on  the 
branch  called,  after  the  name  of  the  city,  Pelusiac: 
S&  ei-Hagg&r. 


Peniavolie.  Region  of  the  five  cities:  Sodom, 
Gomorma,  Adama,  Seboim,  in  the  Valley  of  Siddim. 

Pergamus  (Apoc.,  i,  11;  ii,  12),  metropolis  of  the 
prov.  of  Asia:  Bei^;amo,  or  Bereama. 

Perae  (Acts,  xiu,  13),  second  city  of  the  prov.  of 
Pamphilia:  Murtana. 

Persia  (q.v.). 

Peraepoha,  Whether  it  is  spoken  of  in  II  Mach., 
xix,  2,  is  doubtful. 

Petra  (q.v.). 

PhaUt,    See  Bethphalet. 

Phanuel  (Gen.,  xxxii,  30,  etc.;  Transjord.),  Egjrpt.: 
Penualu;  on  the  banks  of  &e  Jaboc.    Site  imcertain. 

Phara  (I  Mach.,  ix,  50):  the  text  seems  uncertain; 
perhaps  the  same  as  Pharaton. 

Pharan,  General  term  to  designate  the  wilderness 
between  Sinai  and  Palestine. 

Pharaton  (Judges,  xii,  13,  etc.) :  birthplace  of  Abdon, 
one  of  the  Judg^  of  Israel.  Prob.  Fer  ata,  7  m.  S.W. 
of  Napltis. 

PharphoTj  river  of  Damascus:  Nahr  el- Awa|. 

Phaaelis  (l  Mach.,  xv,  23):  a  city  of  Asia  Mmor  on 
the  borders  of  Lycia  and  Pamphilia. 

Phasga,  Whether  this  is  a  common  or  a  proper 
name  is  doubtful.  At  any  rate,  it  indicates  a  place 
connected  with  Mt.  Nebo,  prob.  Has  SiAgh&h,  W.  and 
at  a  very  short  distance  of  the  Jebel  Neb&. 

Phaturee  (Is.,  xi,  11;  Jer.,  xliv,  1,  etc.):  Egypt.: 
Patarisi.    Upper  Egypt. 

Phau  (Gen.,  xzxvi,  39;  I  Par.,  i,  50):  Phau  &r&  has 
been  proposea. 

Pheadommim  (I  Kings,  xvii,  11 ;  I  Par.,  xi,  13) :  poss. 
D&mtm,  on  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Beit  Jibrtn,  N. 
of  Shiiweikeh. 

Phihahiroth  (Ex.,  xiv,  29;  Num.,  xxxiii,  7); 
Eg^t.:  Pikeheret.  A  station  of  the  Israelites  m 
theu*  flidit  from  E^pt.    Unidentified. 

Philadelphia  (q.vO* 

PkUipp%  (q.v.). 

Phinon,    see  Phunon. 

Phithom,  a  town  in  Lower  Egypt:  Tell  el-Ma8kh<it&, 
W.  of  Lake  Timsab. 

Phomicia  (q.  v.). 

Phogor,  1  Mountain  N .  of  the  Abarim  range,  variously 
identified:  El-Mareigh&t,  TeU-Mat&ba,  S-Ben&t.— 2 
See  Bethphogor. — 3  (Jos.,  xv,  60,  Greek):  one  of  the 
11  cities  idded  in  the  Greek  to  the  list  of  the  Hebrew: 
Kh.  Beit  FoghOr,  S.W.  of  Bethlehem. 

Phrygia,    See  Asia  Minor. 

Phunon  (Num.,  xxxiii,  42),  a  station  of  the  Israel- 
ites on  the  journey  from  Asiongaber  to  Moab:  Kh. 
Fen&n,  on  the  edge  of  the  *Araba. 

PiMia  (q.  v.). 

Pontue,  territory  N.E.  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  shore 
of  the  Black  Sea. 

PtdLemaia  (I  Mach.,  xii,  48,  etc.):  Greek  name  of 
Acre. 

PiUeoli  (Acts,  xxviii,  13),  a  seaport  near  Naples: 
Pozzuoli. 

Qibroth  HaUhawah  (Num.,  xi,  3;  D.V.:  "graves  of 
lust'O)  station  of  the  Israelites  on  their  journey  from 
Sinai  to  Cades:  possibly  in  W^y  Khbebeh. 

Qir  Moab  (la,,  xv,  1;  D.V.:  "the  waU  of  Moab"),  a 
proper  name:  Kerak. 

Qir  fleres  (Is.,  xvi,  7,  etc.;  D.V.:  "brick  walls"; 
Moabite  Stone,  1,  3).    See  Qir  Moab. 

R(Ma,  Rabbath  Amman,  principal  city  of  the  Am- 
monites: Amm&n.    See  Philadelphia. 

Rabboth  Moab.    See  Ar. 

Rabboth  (Jos.,  xix,  20;  Issachar):  RAbft,  7  m.  S.E. 
of  Jentn. 

Rachal  (I  Kings,  xxx,  29;  Septuag.:  "in  Carmel")* 
A  city  in  S.  Juda;  the  text,  however,  is  doubtful,  and 
several  commentat.  prefer  the  Greek  reading. 

Ragau  (Judith,  i,  6,  15):  a  prov.  in  Media. 


QSOOftAPHT 


444 


QEOaRAPHT 


Rages  (Tob.,  i,  14,  etc.):  principal  city  in  Ragau: 
Rai,  S.E.  of  Teheran. 

Rama,  1  Of  Aser :  prob.  R&m!A,  E.  of  Tyre.— 2 
Of  Benjamin  Er-Ram,  5  m.  N.  of  Jerusalem. — 3  Of 
Galaad.  See  Ramoth  Galaad. — 4  Of  Nephtali: 
Rameh,  6  m.  S.W.  of  S&fed.  See  Arama.— 5  Of 
Samuel.  Some:  Ram-All&h,  3  m.  S.W.  of  Beittn; 
others:  Beit  Rtm&.  13  m.  E.N.E.  of  Lydda;  others: 
Rsunleh;  more  prooably  Rentis,  W.  of  Beit  Rfm&. — 
6  Of  Simeon:  possibly  Kubbet  el-Baul,  S.  of  Hebron. 

Ramathaf  birthplace  of  Samuel.    See  Rama  5. 

Ramathaim  Sophim,  ^  See  Rama  5. 

Ramessea  (Gen.,  xlvii,  11 ;  Lower  Egypt).  The  site 
has  not  yet  been  identified;  some  see  it  in  ^an,  the 
Tanis  of  the  ancients ;  others  in  Es-^ihteh. 

Rameih.    See  Jaramoth. 

Ramothf  1  Of  Galaad,  usually  called  in  the  Bible 
Ramoth  Galaad:  perhaps  Reimdn  (Conder);  more' 
probably  Es-Salt. — 2  See  Jaramoth. 

Ramoth  Masphe,    See  Ramoth  of  Galaad. 

Raj^^m,  I  Generic  termdes^ating  the  earlypopu- 
lationof  Palestine:  the  Emim,  Enacim,  Horim,  Zuzim, 
were  Raphaim. — 2  (Valley  oO-  A  vallejr  which  seems 
to  have  been  S.  of  Jerusalem,  peih.  the  plain  EI-Bfigefa. 

Raphidim  (Ex.,  xvii,  8,  etc.).  A  station  of  the 
Israelites  in  their  journey  from  the  Red  Sea  to  Sinai; 
mav  correspond  to  W&dy  'Erph&td. 

Raj^um  (I  Mach.,  v.  37;  Transjord.):  poss.  Er- 
R&fe,  E.  of  the  Jerb  el-Qa^j. 

Rebla,  1  (Num.,  xxxiv,  11):  N.  boundary  of 
Israel;  its  site  is  much  disputed:  *Arbtn,  N.E.  of 
Damascus;  Rebleh,  between  Baalbek  and  Homs; 
Halibna  or  Z6r  Ramlfeh  being  proposed,  the  latter 
with  perhaps  more  probability. — 2  Also  called 

Rematha  (IV  Kings,  xxt,  6,  etc.) :  Rebleh,  in  the 
B^&'a. 

Reccath  (Jos.,  xix,  35;  Nephtali):  an  old  name  of 
Tiberias,  according  to  the  Talmud. 

Recem  (Jos.,  xvui,  27 ;  Ben j amin) .    Unidentified . 

Recha  (I  Par.,  iv,  12).    Unknown. 

Rechoboth  (Gen.,  xxxvi,  37),  a  well  near  Bersabee: 
Naqb  er-ROb&'i  (?). 

Kemman,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  32,  etc.;  S.  Juda):  prob.  Kh. 
fTmm  er-RQmm&mtn,  N.  of  Bersabee. — 2  (Jos.,  xix, 
13;  Zabulon):  ROmm&neh,  N.  of  Nazareth. 

Remmono  (I  Par.,  vi,  77,  Heb.  62) :   see  Remmon  2. 

Remmonphares  (Num.,  xxxiii,  19),  station  of  the 
Israelites  on  their  journey  from  Sinai  to  Cades.  Un- 
known. 

Rephidim,  A.V.  for  Raphidim. 

Resen  (Gen.,  x,  12),  one  of  the  four  cities  which 
made  up  Greater  Ninive:  poss.  Selamtyeh. 

Remph  (IV  Kings,  xix,  12 ;  Assyria) ;  Assyr. :  Ra^apa: 
identified  with  Ku9&f&,  between  Palmyra  and  the 
Euphrates. 

Renaa  (Num.,  xxxiii,  21),  station  of  the  Israelites, 
between  Sinai  and  Cades :  WAdy  SQweiq&  (7). 

Rdhma  (Num.,  xxxiii,  18),  another  station  in  the 
same  neighbourhood.    Unknown. 

Rhegium  (Acts,  xxvii,  40) :  Reggio  di  Calabria. 

Rhodes  (q.v. — I  Mach.,  xv,  23;^cts^xxi,  1). 

Roodim  (II  IQng9,  xvii,  27,  etc. ;  Galaad) .  UnknofWn. 

Rtmobf  1  (Num..  xiii,  22,  etc.),  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Cffisarea  Pnilippi:  poss.  Hibbartyeh. — 2  (Jos., 
xix,  23;  Aser):  prob.  Tell  er-RAhtb,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  Sidon. — 3  (Joe.,  xix,  30;  Judges,  i,  31), 
near  tiie  Sea  and  the  Cison.    Unknown. 

Rohoboth,    See  Rechoboth. 

Rome  (q.v.). 

Ruben  (q.v.). 

Ruma,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  52:  should  be  Duma;  S.  Juda): 
Ed-D6me,  S.E.  of  Eleutheropolis.— 2  (IV  Kings, 
xxiii,  36).    Unknown. 

Saananim  (Jos.,  xix.  33;  Nephtali):  poss.  Sin  en- 
NAbrft,  S.  of  the  L.  of  Tibenas. 

Saarim  (Jos.,  xv,  36;  S.  Simeon):  prob.  identical 
with  Siurohen. 


I  (Jos.,  xi^i  2;  S.  Juda):  perhaps  Saba  should 
;  might  be  Tell  es-Seba ,  E.  of  Bersabee. 


Sabama  (Jos.,  xiii,  19;  Ruben):  poss.  ShAnAb,  N.W. 
of  Hesb&n. 

Saban.    See  Sabama. 

Sabarim,  1  (Jos.,  vii,  6;  D.V.:  ''quarries"),  on 
the  descent  from  Hai  towards  the  Ghdr.  Unknown. 
— 2  (Ezech.,  xlvii,  16),  a  town  in  Syria  "between 
the'  border  of  Damascus  and  the  border  of  Emath." 

Sabee  (Jos.,  xix,  2 ;  Simeon) ;  text  not  certain. 

Sachacha  (Jos.,  xv,  61 ;  desert  of  Juda) :  prob.  Kh. 
es-Sikkheh. 

Salebim  (Jos.,  xix,  42,  etc.;  Dan):  Kh.  Selbtt,  N.W. 
of  Y&16. 

Salecha  (Dent.,  iii,  10,  etc.;  E.  limit  of  Basan): 
Salkh&d,  S.  of  Jeoel  Hauran. 

Salem f  1  (Gen.,  xiv,  18),  commonly  identified  with 
Jerusalem;  this  identification,  however,  is  far  from 
certain. — 2  (Gen.,  xxxiii,  18),  perhaps,  not  a  proper 
name;  if  one,  Salim,  E.  of  Naples. 

Saltm  (John,  iii,  23).    See  ^Enon. 

Salmona  (Num.,  xxxiii,  41),  station  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  journey  from  Asion^ber  to  Moab ;  must  be 
between  the  Gulf  of  *Aq&ba  and  Kh.  Fen&n.  Un- 
identified. 

Salmone  (Acts,  xxvii,  7),  a  promontory  at  the  N.E. 
end  of  Crete:  C.  Sidero. 

Soma 
be  read 

Samaraim  (Jos.,  xviii,  22;  Benjamin):  prob.  Kh. 
es-SQmr&,  5  m.  N.  of  Jericho. 

Samaria  (a. v.). 

SamxTy  1  (Jos.,  xv^  48;  mount,  of  Juda):  poss.  Kh. 
SdmerAh,  S.W.  of  Hebron.— 2  (Judges,  x,  1,  2),  the 
home  and  burial  place  of  Tola:  Saniir  (?),  between 
Samaria  and  Engannim. 

Samoa  (q.v.). 

Samothracia,  an  island  in  the  .£gean  Sea,  S.  of  the 
Coast  of  Thracia,  N.W.  of  Troas. 
.    Sanan  (Jos.^  xv,  37 ;  Sephela) :  perhaps  the  same  city 
as  indicated  m  Mich.,  i,  11  (D.V.:  "pass  away")** 
^endn, 

Sanir.  Name  given  to  Mt.  Hermon  by  the  Am- 
orrheans. 

Saphon  (Jos.,  xiii,  27;  Gad).  Some:  El-Hammeh; 
others:  Tell  Amftteh,  N.  of  the  Jaboc. 

Saraa  (Jos.,  xv,  33,  etc.;  Dan):  ^Or'ah,  W.  of 
Jerusalem. 

Saraim  (Jos.,  xv,  36;  plain  of  Juda):  Kh.  Sa*treh, 
N.E.  of  Zantfa. 

Sarathaear  (Jos.,  xiii,  19;  Ruben):  ^rft,  a  little  S. 
of  the  Zera&. 

Sardie  (Apoc.,  iii,  1),  principal  city  of  Lycia. 

Sarea.    See  Saraa. 

Saved.    See  Sarid. 

Sareda.  Prob.  Sarthan. 

Saredaiha.    See  Sarthan. 

SarephUiy  Sarepta  (III  Kings,  xvii,  9,  etc.):  ^ara- 
fend,  about  8  m.  S.  of  Sidon. 

Sarid  (Jos.,  xix,  10;  Zabulon):  poss.  Tell  ShAdM, 
S.W.  of  Nazareth. 

Sarton.  Name  given  by  the  Sidonians  to  Mt.  Her- 
mon. 

Sarohen  (Jos.,  xix,  6;  S.  Simeon):  prob.  Tell  esh- 
SherTah.    N.W.  of  Bersabee. 

Sarorij  1  Maritime  plain  between  Jaffa  and  Mt. 
Carmel. — 2  Country  between  Mt.  Thabor  and  the  L. 
of  Tiberias.— 3  (I  Par.,  v,  16):  either  some  region  £L 
of  the  Jordan,  or  1. 

Sarona  (Acts,  ix,  35).    See  Saron  1. 

Sarthan,  Sarthana  (Jos.,  iii,  16,  etc.):  poss.  Qam 
9ar^beh,  W.  of  the  Jordan,  S.  of  the  WAdy  F&r'a. 

Scorpion  (Ascent  of  the).    See  Acrabim. 

Scythopolis  (II  Mach.,  xii,  30):  Beisftn.    See  Betr- 

8AN. 

Seboim,  1  (Gen.,  x,  19,  etc.).  A  city  of  the  Pen- 
tapolis . — 2  (I  Kings,  xiii,  1 8) .  A  valley  leadine  from  the 
Ghdr  to  the  heij^t6*of  Machmas  (Benjamin):  WAdy 
Ahii  P&ba',  which  debouches  into  the  WAdy  el-Kelt. 


OSOOftAPHT 


445 


0X00RAPH7 


Seckrtma  (Jos.,  zv,  11 ;  N.  Juda):  Kh.  SQkereir  (?). 

Sedada  (Num.,  xxxiv,  8):  prob.  Kh.  ^rftd4,  E.  of 
the  Merj  *Aiy(in.  ^ 

Segor  (Gen.,  xiii,  10),  generally  identified  with  E9- 
9&ftyeh,  in  the  Gh^  of  the  same  name,  S.of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Sehesima  (Joe.,  xix,  22;  Lssachar),  prob.  E.  of  Mt. 
Tliabor.    Unknown. 

Seir,  1  (Gen.,  xxxvi,  8,  etc.)  practically  synony- 
mous with  Edom:  the  mountainous  region  between 
the  S.  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  the  W&dy  el-£mftz  and  the 
W&dy"Ar*Arah. — 2  (Jos.,  xv,  10),  a  point  defining  the 
limit  of  Juda,  S.W.  of  Cariathiarim. 

Seira  (IV  Kings,  viii,  21 ;  £dom),pos8.  Es-Zilweireh, 
W.  of  the  S.  end  of  l^e  Dead  Sea. 

Seirath  (Judges,  iii,  26),  likely  in  the  hill-country  of 
Ephraim,  and  not  far  from  Galgala.    Site  unknown. 

Sela,  1.  See  Pgtra.^2  (^dges,  i,  36):  prob. 
Cades. — 3  (Jos.,  xviii,  23;  Benjamin):  poss.  Kh. 
Tabaq&t,  at  a  short  distance  S.E.  of  Tell  el-FOl. 

Sdcha.    See  Salecha. 

Sdebin.    See  Salebim. 

Seleucia  (q.v. — I  Mach.,  xi,  8;  Acts,  xiii,  4). 

Selxm  (Jos.,  xv,  32;  S.  Juda),  prob.  the  same  as 
Sarohen. 

Selmorif  1  (Judges,  ix,  48):  prob.  Sheikh  Selm&n, 
S.W.  of  Mt.  Garizim. — 2  (Ps.  Ixviii,  14):  the  text  is 
not  altogether  certain;  perhaps  the  Asalmanus  of 
Ptolemy:  Jebel  Hauran. 

Semerortf  1  (Jos.,  xix,  15,  etc.;  Zabulon):  perh. 
Sem^kniyeh,  5  m.  W.  of  Nazareth;  or  Es-Semeirtveh,  3 
m.  N.  Of  Acre. — 2  (II  Par.,  xiii,  4):  a  hill  S.  of  Beittn. 

Senaa.    Unknown. 

Sene  (I  Kings,  xiv,  4),  one  of  two  conspicuous  rocks 
on  the  way  from  the  W&dy  S(!^weinlt,  which  seems  to 
have  retained  the  name,  to  Machmas. 

Senna.    See  Sin  2. 

Sennaar:  prob.  Upper  and  Lower  Babylonia. 

Sennim.    See  Saananim. 

Sensenna  (I  Par.,  iv,  31);  Jos.,  xix,  5,  has  Hase^- 
nua,  prob.  identical. 

Seon  (Jos.,  xix,  19;  lssachar):  *Ay(hi  esh-Sh&'tn 
(?),N.W.ofMt.Thabor. 

Sephaath  (Judges,  i,  17;  S.  Juda):  prob.  Sbaite. 

Sephama  (Num.,  xxxiv,  10, 11),  N.  lunit  of  the  Holy 
Land ;  prob.  Of&nt,  S.E.  of  Bantyas. 

Sephamoth  (I  Kings,  xxx,  28;  S.  Juda),  near  Aroer. 
Unknown. 

Septuxr  (Gen.,  x,  30),  limit  of  the  country  of  the  sons 
of  Jectan,  conunonly  identified  with  ^phar,  in  S. 
Arabia. 

Sejiharad  (Abd.,  20;  D.V.:  "Bosphorus"):  some 
prov.  in  the  Persian  empire. 

Sepkarvaim  (IV  Kings,  xvii,  24,  etc.):  poss.  Sippar, 
in  Babylonia:  mod.  AbO  Habb&;  more  prob.  a  city 
in  Syria,  poss.  Sabarim  2. 

SepkcUa  (II  Par.,  xiv,  9-10):  text  unsettled.  Some: 
Tell  e9-9aftyeh ;  othisrs:  a  valley  near  Maresa;  others, 
with  Sept.  '*  northwards ' '. 

Sephela:  maritime  plain  from  Jaffa  to  the  "torrent 
of  Egypt". 

S^her  (Num.,  xxxiii,  23),  a  station  of  the  Israelites 
in  their  journey  between  Sinai  and  Cades:  prob.  i^e 
defiles  of  the  Jebel  *Ar&tf. 

SephU  (Tob.,  i,  1;  Aser):  poss.  9&fed,  in  Upper 
xjrouuoe. 

Ser  (Josy  xix,  35;  Nephtali).    Unknown. 

Sesach  (Jer.,  xxv,  26;  ti,  41),  cryptographic  name  of 
Babylon,  according  to  the  system  called  the  Athbash 
(i.e.:  Aleph^Thau;  Beth=Shtn;  etc.). 

SeUm,  SeUim.    See  Abel. 

Siedeg  (Jos.,  xv,  31,  etc.;  S.  Simeon):  prob.  Kh. 
Zabeilfq&,  N.  of  the  WAdy  esh-Sherfa. 

Siichar  (John,  iv,  5),  very  prob.  Sahel  'Askar,  E.  of 
NaplOs. 

Sichem  (q.  v.). 

Sicyon  (I  Mach.,  xv,  23),  a  town  N.W.  of  Corinth, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Gonnth. 


Siddim  (Gen.,  xvi,  3,  etc.;  D.V.:  "Woodland 
Vale"):  plain  of  the  Pentapolis,  believed  to  be  about 
the  Dead  Sea,  perhaps  towards  the  S.  end. 

Side  (I  Mach.,  xv,  23),  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Pam- 
philia:  Eski  Adalia. 

Sidon  (q.  v.). 

Silo  (Jos.  xviii,  1,  etc.  Ei>hraim).  A  famous  place 
of  worship  of  the  Israelites  in  early  times;  the  Ark  of 
the  Covenant  was  kept  there  until  {ne  last  days  of  HeU. 
Silo  was  situated  "  on  the  N.  of  the  city  of  Bethel,  and 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  way  that  goeth  from  Bethel  to 
Sichem,  and  on  the  S.  of  the  city  of  Lebona"  (Judges, 
xxi,  19) :  SeilOn.     See  Ark. 

SHoe,    SeeSiLOE;  Jerusalem. 

Sin,  1.  Desert  in  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  through 
which  the  Israelites  went  on  leaving  Egypt:  Debbet 
er-Ramleh. — 2.  E^;ypt:  SUn:  Pelusiimi. 

Sinai  (q.  v.). 

Sion,  1.  See  Jerusalem. — 2.  Another  name  for  Mt. 
Hermon. 

Sior  (Jos.,  XV,  44;  mount,  of  Juda):  S&'lr,  N.N.E. 
of  Hebron. 

Sis  (II  Par.,  xx,  16),  a  steepy  passage  from  Engaddi 
up  to  the  desert  above:  prob.  W&dy  ^A^&^A. 

Smyrna  (q.  v.). 

Sofia,  Assyr. :  $iJbiii;  a  reoon  in  Syria,  possibly  S.  of 
Damascus,  m  the  neighboumood  of  the  Jebel  Hauran. 

Sobal  (Judith,  iii,  f,  14;  Ps.  lix,  2),  for  Soba. 

Soccothj  1.  (Ex.,  xii,  37)  first  station  of  the  Israel- 
ites on  leaving  Ramesses,  poss.  about  Ismailiya  or 
El-Gisr. — 2  (Gen.,  xxxiii,  17,  etc.;  Gad);  prob.  Tell 
Dar*&la,  N.  of  the  Nahr  ez-Zerq&. 

Socho,  1  (I  Kin^,  xvii,  1),  where  David  overcame 
Goliath:  Kh.  esh-Shfiweikeh,  N.E.  of  Eleutheropolis. 
— 2  (Jos.,  XV,  48;  mount,  of  Juda):  prob.  Kh.  e^- 
Shuweikeh,  S.W.  of  Hebron.—^.  See  Socooth  2. 

Sochot,  Sochoth,    See  Soccoth  2. 

Sodom  (q.  v.). 

Sorec  (Judges,  xvi,  4,  etc.),  a  vallev  famous  in  the 
story  of  Samson ;  prob.  the  Wady  e9^^r&r ;  the  name 
has  been  preserved  in  the  neighbouring  Kh.  S(brtq. 

Sparta  (q.v.). 

SimI  (I  Kings,  xiii,  17),  a  place  which  seems  to  have 
been  in  the  N.  of  Benjamin. 

Suba.    See  Soba. 

Sunam,  Sunem  (Jos.,  xix,  18,  etc.;  lssachar): 
S<ilem,  at  the  foot  of  Jebel  D&hy,  4  m.  N.  of  Zer&*tn. 

Sur,  1.  Desert  E.  of  ^^ypt,  also  called  Desert  of 
Etham,  perhaps  around  Tharti,  which  the  E^ptians 
considered  their  E.  frontier. — 2  (Judces,  ii,  ^),  per- 
haps another  form  of  the  name  l^re  (Hebr.  fi^), 

Susa,  Susan,    See  SuaA. 
-   Syene  (q.  v.). 

Syracuse  (q.  v.). 


Syria 


ise  [Q. 
(q.v.). 


Taberah  (A.V.).    See  Qibroth  Hatthawah. 

TaniSf  a  city  in  the  Delta  of  the  Nile:  Zoan. 

Taphna,  a  town  in  Lower  Egypt,  in  the  nei^bour- 
hood  of  Tanis  and  Pelusium:  lell  Defenne. 

Taphua,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  34;  Sephela).  Unknown. 
— 2  (Jos.,  xii,  17):  "between  fiethel  and  Epher". 
Unidentified .---3  (Jos.,  xvi,  8,  etc.),  on  the  borders  of 
Ephraim  and  Manasse,  perh.  the  same  as  Taphua  2. 

Tarsus  (a.  v.). 

Telhaik  (Judges,  vii^  22),  a  city  in  the  Gh6r,  near 
Abelmehula.    Unidentified. 

Telaim  (I  Kings,  xv,  4;  D.V.:  "as  lambs").'  prob 
Telem. 

Telem  (Jos.,  xv,  24;  S.  Juda),  S.  of  Tell  el-Milfa, 
there  is  a  tribe  of  Arabs  whose  name,  Dh&ll&m,  bears 
analogy  with  the  present  Biblical  name;  moreover, 
all  the  district  of  Molada  is  called  T(Uam  (Schwarts), 
possibly  also  a  relic  of  the  old  name. 

Temvtation  (Ex.,  xvii,  7,  etc.).    See  Raphidim. 

Terebinth  (Valley  of;  I  Kings,  xvii,  2,  etc.):  between 
Socho  and  Azeca,  most  prob.  Wddy  es-San(. 


OSOORAPHT 


446 


OXOOftAPHT 


Thabor,  1.  Mountain  (q.v.). — 2  (Jos.,  xix,  22; 
Judges,  viii,  18;  Issachar).  Unknown. — 3  (I  Par.,  vi, 
77;  Zabulon);  in  Jos.,  xxi,  28,  instead  of  Thabor,  we 
read  Daberath:  Debihiyeh. 

Tfiacaein  (Jos.,  xix,  13 ;  Zabulon) :  possibly  Corozain. 

Thadmor,    See  Pauiira. 

Thahath  (Num.,  xxxiii,  26),  given  as  a  station  of  the 
Israelites  in  t^eir  journey  from  Sinai  to  Cades ;  poss.  a 
gloss  added  to  the  text.^ 

ThalasM  (Acts,  xxvii,  8),  a  city  in  Crete,  near 
Good-havens. 

ThaUusar  (Is.,  xxxviL  12),  a  region  in  W.  Mesopo- 
tamia, prob.  along  the  Euphrates,  between  Balis  and 
Bireiik. 

Thaieha  (Jos.,  xix,  7^  Septuag.),  for  Ether. 

Thamcar  (Ezech.,  sdvii,  19;  xlviii.  28):  poss.Thamara 
of  the  classics,  and  Thamaro  of  me  Peutinger  Table, 
on  the  road  from  Hebron  to  Elath.  * 

Thamna,  1  (Judges,  xiv,  1,  25;  Benjamin)  Kh. 
Tibnch,  W.  of  'Ain  Shems.— 2  (Gen.,  xxxviii,  12-14; 
Jos.,  xv^  57;  N.  Juda);  Assyr.:  Tamna;  perh.  Tibneh, 
N.W.  of  Jeb&'a;  more  prob.  Tibn&h,  S.E.of  Deir  Ab&n. 

Thcannata  (I  Mach.,  ix,  50),  between  Bethel  and 
Pharathon:  poss.  El-Taiyebeh,  or  TammCUi,  in  the 
WAdy  F&r'a. 

ThamnathMraat  TAomnoMsore,  burialplaoe  of  Josue: 
prob.  Kh.  el-Fakhakhir,  in  Ephraim. 

Thanacy  Thanach  (Jos.,  xxi.  25,  etc.) :  Tell  Ta*annak, 
S.W.  of  LejOn. 

Thanathselo  (Jos.,  xvi,  6 ;  N.  Ephraim) :  Ta'anA,  S.E. 
of  Naplik. 

Thapsa,  1  (III  Kings,  iv,  24),  N.  limit  of  Solomon ^i 
kinfidom:  Thapsacus,  on  the  Euphrates,  above  the 
confluence  of  the  Belik.  Kala'at  Dibseh. — 2  (IV  Kings, 
XV,  6),  city  taken  by  Manahem,  after  he  had  over- 
thrown Sellum:  prob.  a  mistake  for  Thersa. 

Thare  (Num.,  xxxiii,  27),  supposed  to  be  a  station 
of  the  Israelites  on  the  journey  from  Sinai  to  Cades; 
poss.  a  gloss. 

Tharela  (Jos.,  xviii,  7;  Benjamin).    Unknown. 

TharsiSf  1.  A  maritime  country  far  to  the  Wl^of 
Palestine,  and  on  the  location  of  which  there  is  much 
variance  of  opinions,  some  deeming  it  to  be  Spain 
(Tartessos);  others  Cfarthagena,  in  »pain  (Tarseion); 
others,  the  Tyrrhenians  (Tiras  of  Gen.,  x,  12)^  or 
Etruscans. — 2  (Judges,  ii,  13),  poss.  Tarsus  of  Cilicia. 

Tkebaih  (I  Par.,  xviii,  8),  identical  with  Bete. 

Th^8  (Judges,  ix,  50;  II  Kings,  xi,  21;  Samaria): 
TObAs,  N.E.  of  NapKis. 

Thectia,  Thecue  (Amos,  i,  1),  birthplace  of  Amos: 
Kh.  Teqa*a,  S.  of  Bethlehem. 

Thelassar,    See  Thalassar. 

Thelharsa  (I  Esd.,  ii,  59;  II  Esd.,  vii,  61),. an  un- 
kpown  Babylonian  city. 

Thelmala  (I  Esd.^  ii,  59;  II  Esd.,  vii,  61),  another 
unknown  Babylonian  city. 

Theman  (Jer.,  xlix,  7,  etc.):  poss.  Chobak,  in  the 
W&dy  Gharandel,  S.  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Thdmela,    See  Thelmala. 

Themna.    See  Thanma. 

Thenac.    See  Thanac. 

Thersa  (Jos.,  xii,  24,  etc.;  Samaria),  the  capital  of 
Jeroboam's  kingdom:  poss.  Tullt^Ahj  N.  of  Mt.  Hebal, 
or  Et^-'JIreh,  near  Mt.  Garizim. 

The^,  birthplace  of  Elias;  whether  Thisbe  of 
Galilee  (see  below),  or  Thesbon  of  Galaad  (Kh.  el- 
Istib,  near  the  W&dy  'Ajliin.  10  m.  N.  of  the  Jaboc), 
is  not  absolutely  certain^  although  the  Greek  favours 
the  latter  opinion. 

ThessaUmica  (q.v.). 

Th%iA)e  (Tob.,  i,  2),  birthplace  of  Tobias,  S.  of  Cedes 
of  Nephtali. 

Thochen,    See  Ether. 

Thogorma  (Gen.,  x,  3,  etc.):  Phrygia.  according  to 
Josephus  and  Targum;  others  generally  identify  it 
with  Armenia,  and  especially  W.  Armenia.  Cf. 
Assyr.*.  TU-Oarimmu. 


TkoUxd.    See  Eltholad. 

Thophd  (Deut.,  i,  1):  poss.  Teftleh,  S.E.  of  the 
Dead  Sea. 

Tkopo  (I  Mach.,  ix,  50;  Judea),  perh.  identical  with 
Taphua  1. 

Three  Taverns  (Acts,  xxviii,  15),  a  place  likely  near 
the  mod.  Cistema  on  the  Appian  Way. 

Thyatira  (Apoc^  ii,  20),  a  city  in  Lydia:  Ak-Hissar. 

Tiberias.    See  Galilee. 

Tichon  (Ezech.,  xlvii.  16;  D.V.;  "the  house  of 
Tichon") :  possibly  El-Hadr,  E.N.E.  of  Bantyas,  on 
the  Nahr  MQghanntyeh. 

Tob,  A  countrjr  E.  of  the  Jordan ;  Geographers  are 
at  variance  as  to  its  location:  some  place  it  S.W.  of 
Soba*  others,  S.  of  Gadara;  others  E.  of  the  bridge 
called  Jisr  Ben&t  Y&kiib. 

Topheth.  See  Jerusalem. 

Tripoli  (q.v.). 

Troas  (Acts,  xvi,  6-8),  a  seaport  in  Mysia:  Eski 
StambiU. 

Trogyllium  (Acts,  xx,  15,  accord,  to  MS.D;  omitt. 
in  the  principal  other  MSS.),  a  promontory  in  Asia 
Minor,  over  against  the  E.  end  ot  Samos:  C.-Mycale. 

Tubin  (I  Mach.,  v,  13).    See  Tob. 

Tyre  (q.v.). 

Ur  (Gen.,  xi,  28,  etc.);  Assyr.:  ffru:  el-MQgh&ir,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Lower  Euphrates. 

Vale^  Casts  (Jos.,  xviii,  21),  a  place  in  the  Gh6r,  in 
the  nei^boumooa  of  Jericho. 

Vedan  ^ech.,  xxvii,  19),  poss.  E^ypt.:  Uethen,  a 
city  E.  of  Egypt;  the  text  is  not  clear. 

Zabulon  (q.v.). 

Zanoa,  Zanoe,  1  (Jos.,  xv,  34,  etc.;  Sephela): 
Zand'a. — 2  (Jos.,  xv,  56,  etc.;  mount,  of  Juda):  Kh. 

Zephrona  (Num.,  xxxiv,  9;  N.  limit  of  the  Holy 
Lana):  peiii.  Kh.  Senbartyeh. 

Zikfag,  A.V.  for  Siceleg. 

Ziph  (Jos.,  XV,  24,  etc.;  desert  of  Juda):  Tell  es- 
Ziph,  betw.  Hebron  and  Carmel. 

Zoheleth  (III  Kings,  i,  9),  a  rockv  place  near  Jerusa- 
lem; the  name  seems  preserved,  m  ihe  mod.  Es- 
Zehweileh. 

The  biblicMcraphy  of  Biblical  Geography  is  very  extensive. 
In  his  BibliothecaGeoarnphica  Paleatina  (Berlin.  1890),  ROricht 
attempted  a  claasification  of  the  whole  literature  oi  the  subject, 
from  333  to  1878.  Toblbr  had  already  paved  the  way  by  a 
similar  work,  some  twentv-five  years  before.  A  systematic 
enumeration  has  been  undertaken  by  Prof.  Thoicsbn,  of  the 
German  Palestinian  Institute.  We  must  limit  oursdves  here 
to  a  selection  of:  I.  Serials  and  periodicals;  II.  Studies  on 
old  sources;  III.  General  works;   IV.  Special  subjects. 

I.  Fbst  and  foremost,  the  publications  of  the  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration Fund,  since  1865.  Besides  the  maps  of  E.  and  W. 
Palestine  (1  inch  to  the  mile),  seven  volumes  of  Memoin  on  W. 
Palestine,  Moabj  Jerusalem,  special  papers,  name-lists,  three 
volumes  of  studies  on  natural  historsr,  ootanv,  ceolocy,  have 
been  issued,  and  others  are  forthcoming.  The  PatmtVM  Ex- 
ploraiion  Fund  Quarieriy  StatemerU  announces  the  progress  of 
the  work  accomplished  by  the  society.  Germany  has  likewise 
her  Palestine  Association,  issuing  the  ZeUachrilt  dm  DeuUchen 
PaUMina-Vereina  (abbreviated  ZdDPV),  the  MiUKeatmom  und 
NadiridUen  dm  DPV.  The  Imperial  Palestinian  Institute  be- 
gan in  1905  the  publication  of  a  PalOsttnaiahrbueh,  The  Eoole 
pratique  d*Etudes  Bibliques  of  the  French  Dominicans  at  Jeru- 
salem started  in  1892  the  excellent  Revue  Bibliaue;  the  Faculty 
Orientale  of  the  St.  Joseph  University  at  Beirut  has  been  issuing 
yearly  since  1906  a  stout  volume  of  Milangm;  while  the  mem- 
bers of  the  American  School  of  Oriental  Study  and  Research  in 
Palestine  publish  their  contributions  mostly  in  the  BMieal 
World  and  The  Amenean  Journal  of  ArthcBolooy.  Valuable 
articles  on  Biblical  geography  are  likewise  to  be  found  in  Cum- 
mont-Ganneau:  Milangm  ^ArchMoaie  Orientale,  also  in  the 
Orient  Chriatianue,  and  the  Revue  de  P  Orient  Latin, 

II.  1.  Pbtrib,  Syria  and  Eovptjrom  the  Tell  el  Amama  ut- 
tere  (London,  1898):  Zimmbrn,  Pal&atina  urn  daa  Jakr  1400  9. 
Chr.  (s.  d.):  Claubb,  Die  StAdte  der  El  Amama  Brief e  und  die 
Bibd  in  ZdDPV,  t.  XXV  (1907),  parts  1  and  2:  Drormb.  Lee 
pay  bibliqum  au  tempe  d^ at  Amama  in  Revue  BUdiQue  (1908, 
Octob.).  2.  Max  MGixbr,  Atien  und  Europa nach  A Udqyptxaeken 
DenkmOlem  (Leipsig,  1893):  Id.,  Die  PalAeHnaliaU  Thulmoeia 
III,  in  Mittheaungen  der  Vorderae.  Omdleehaft  (1907),  I,  3. 
Schradbr-Wincklbr,  Die  Keilinechr^en  und  doe  AUe  Teeta^ 
ment  (3rd  ed. ;  a  new  edition,  entitled  Keilinediriften  und  Bibel, 


OEOORAPHT  447  OSOORAPHT 

l«forthcommg;vol.II,tobepubli8hedbya  OUT  planet  in  relation  to  cosmic  and  physical  phe- 

Si^^r^iSn^U^nlrS^f^&u^  ^^S2;l?r  S.  nomena     For  the  fulfilment  of  ite  fi«t  U  monTim- 

paHibuB  Orimtia  et  Oeddeniia  (BdcKiNo  edit.,  1839-1853);  P«u-  portant  task,  the  accumulation  of  geographic  mfor- 

timta-  TabU  (ed.  pnnc,  1591;  ed.  Dmjabdinu,  Paris.  1875).  mation,  the  prerequisites  were  at  hand  even  in  the 

5.  UK  Laoabdb,  Onomasttca  Sacra  (Gdttiogen,  1870)r   Klo»-  aoiJiot.  Aava       T*  w^t%tu\oA  /^wtUt-  ;*tf~>*x;^  m^n  4^^  ,^^^ 

TBKUANN.  Eusetnua  Onotnasixcon  der  BM.  Chianamm  (Leipzig,  earlier  days.    It  needed  only  mtrepid  men  to  pene- 

1904);   Thomsbn,  PaiAatina  nach  dem  Ononuutican  dea  Euae-  trate  from  known  to  unknown  COUntnes.     But  the 

Mua  in  ZdDPV,  XXVIII,  97-141;  Id.,  Locaaacra:  Va^zeidinia  powerful  incentive  of  a  purely  scientific  interest  was 

^.^,^)/t'&.Si,i?:k.lStt.,S^^?SL^:2S:  «tfll  lacking     Tie  motives  ttat  led  to  g«>g«phical 

1868).    7.  Descriptions  of  tke  Holy  Land  by  earlv  Christian  progress  at  that  time  were  greed  and  lust  of  conquest. 

pUnims  noay  be  found  in  P.  L.,  VIII  (Pilomm  of  Bobdiaux);  as  well  as  a  far  nobler  motive  than  these— the  spread 

&TL.e  ^^t^ii'anJ'Sh^'Sx'Sr  e^c?  mSSS  of  Christianity,    To  this  mission  the  most  inteUiW 

writers:  some  likewise  (Bubkabd.  Deaeriptio  Terra  Sancta,  in  the  most  upnght,  and  the   most  persevenng  of  all 

particular),  may  be  found  in  Laubbot,  Perearinatora  Medii  explorers  devoted  themselves.    Consequently,  it  was 


texts  IS  given  in  Baumstabk,  AbmdlAndwche  PalMhrnamlgar  days,  nght  up  to  the  tune  when  modem  Scientific  re- 

d«B  eraten  Jahrtauamda  iind  thre  BeruMe  (Gologne,  1906).     8.  aoo~»l,    hftpamft   Ma  mM*ot>aanr      Tho   iwvtnnH    nnmnju» 

Pabis,  OuUIaume  de  Tir  el  aea  eantinuateun  (Paris,  1879-80);  searon   Oecame  Its  successor,      ine  secona   purpose, 

Recuea  dea  hiatariena  dea  Croiaadea,  publiS  par  lea  aoina  de  VAeadS-  geographical  theory,  commonly  called  universal  geog- 

mUdeahiacriptpmaetBellea'Lettr^-^HiaUnieneq  raphy,    could    only    be    profitably   attempted    after 

^SS^^^iS'Zii^r^cJJ^Sf^fS^^  «foq»*to  P««I«»  ^  been  maie  in  the  auxflianr 

delaSyrieauXII'eiauXIII'a.(PanB^lS8S).  sciences  of  astronomy,  mathematics,  and  physics. 

III.  Babdbkbb  (BBNsxaBB),  PaU^ine  and  Syria  (4th  ed..  But  herein,  too,  medieval  clerical  scholars  were  the 

Leipsig.  1906);  (Jondbb,  Handbo^to  the  fiiWj  (London.  1887);  first  to  show  their  clearsightedness.    For  them  there 

Id.,  Paleattne  and  numerous  artidee  on  Bibl.  geography   in  ^^„  „^  «««^  «♦♦-„**.;„«.  «.,,»..;«■  ♦k««  ♦^  4-—.^  ♦!,«  ,,«- 

HAirr..  Did.  o/  the  Bible:  Hublbdt,  Manual  of  B%bl&d  Geogra-  was  no  more  attractive  pursuit  than  to  trace  the  ves- 

sAy  ((Jhicago,  1894);  Rittbb,  The  Comvarative  Oeoaraphy  of  tiges  of  the  Creator  m  all  the  marvellous  harmony 

^it^ineand  the  SinaitiePannaula  (Edig>uri^.  1866);  Smxth,  of  the  universe.    How,  then,  was  it  possible  that  the 

Htatoneal  Oeogrqphy  of  the  Holy  Land  (New  York,  1908,  13th  i  ,^  «^„«.«^:«„  ♦u;«  »i^u»  «/  r>..«-  ™.1J  «.^«v»  ♦k«.:- 

ed.):  STAMiIf  S^i  and  Paleattne  (Loidon.  1866):  Thomson,  laws  govemme  this  globe  of  ours  could  es<»pe  their 

The  Land  and  the  Book  (3  vols.,  London.  1881-86);  Wiubon,  search  for  truth?    Of  course,  they  could  only  have  a 

The^  iMndM  of  Ae  BiUeCEdinhuiA^  IB47);   Bbnsiqbb,  He-  presentiment  of  these  laws,  but  frequently  enough 


edited  by  ROcbbbt;  Freiburg,  1906);  Filuon  and  Nicollb.  modem  instruments.    Again,  one  of  the  greatest  of 

ilt<(M  (?^o0rapAi4ii«de  to  fit6<e  (Lyons  and  Paris.  1890);  Gbatx,  xu^^  „ii  „^„  „  ♦k.,wvir>«:««___rL**«w«,'««- 

ThMtre  dea  ivStementa  raconUa  dana  lea  divinea  ieriturea.  Fr.  them  all  was  a  theologian— CopemiCUS. 

tr..  b^  QiMABBT,  revised  by  BuaNior  (Paris.  1869):  GuisiN,  Under  these  cireumstanoes  it  was  mevitable  that 

Deaern>iion  giooraphiaue,  hu^riqw  d  archtolomque  de  la  Palea-  the  part  contributed  by  the  Chureh  to  this  branch  of 

tme  (3  vols.,  Pans.  1868-1880);  Lbobnobb.  Carte  de  la  PaUa-  v„_-\l^  i,««.«,i-^«-*  .k^C.1^  u^  ^t  «.»»a4-  ;«»,^^«n.n^    «<. 

tine  ancienke  el  modeme  (Pans.  s.  d.);   Id..   Paleattne.  and  human  knowledge  should  be  of  gr^t  importance,  as 

numerous  geographical  and  topographical  articles  in  ViaouB-  the  most  distinguished  geographers  bear  witness.    We 

?^^'  ^'  ^s^.r^^'t^^^^H  ?!f  ^,4^ii^''  S"*^  *^^^J^  may  therefore  rightfully  present  a  coherent  picture 

la  Terre  Sarnie  (Jerusalem,  4th  ed.,  1897);  Haobn,  iiuos  dioft-  xu^l^^r      rn^  ♦i,;^^^  »^  wL^r^  Al-^A^^  *u^  onK^f  ««_ 

mis  (Paris,  1897);  Rbland,  Pakaatina  ex  monumentia  veteribua  thereof.     To  this  end  we  have  divided  the  subject  ac- 

iUuHrata  (Utrecht,  1714).  cording  to  the  followmg  aspects:    I.  The  Influence, of 

IV.  1.  Robinson,  Phyaieal  Oeotpnphy  of  the  Holy  Land  (Lon-  the  Activity  of  the  Chureh  on  the  Discoveries  of  New 

S"SliT.L.^?SLi^T:SS^^4lSS^"^n^  Lands  and  Races  during  the  Middte  A««:  II.  TTxe 

Labtbt.  Eaaai  aur  la  gSoipgie  dela  Paleatine  el  dea  contriea  avoiai-  Views  and  Statements  of  Medieval  Theoloffians ;  111. 

nantea/inAnnalea  dea  aciencea  pMogiauea,!  (1869);  Blanckbn-  The   Opening  up  of  Foreign   Lands  by  Missionaries 

la  Terre  Promiae,'m  Revue  Bibiiaue,iy  (1895),  23  sqq.    3.  FuB-  and  the  Part  Bome  by  Catholic  Scholars  in  Modem 

BBB,  Die  antiken  StAdie  und  OrtachaUan  im  Libanonpdnete,  in  Geographical  Research. 

ZdDpy,.  VIII  (1M5)     4.  FuBBBB,  Zvr  Oatjordani^^Topp-  i.^'fte  confines  of  the  world  as  known  to  geogm- 

graph%e,mZdDPV,XIII(l800):8cauuAcamR,DerDaeholan,in  ,          A"^wiiM««»  «*  v*«j  t»v**l.  «« -^yr.**  w  6^g*«^ 

ZdDpV,  IX  (1886),  tr.  The  }aulan  (London,  1888).    6.  db  phers  at  the  begimune  of  the  Christian  Era  are  shown 

LuTNBs,  Voyoife  d^ Exploration  h  /b  Mer  Morte  (Paris,  s.  d.);  db  in  the  famous  geography  of  the  Alexandrian,  Claudius 

Moab  (London,  1889);  Tribtbam,  The  Land  of  Moab  (London,  to  the  White  Nile  and  the  northern  boundary  of  the 

1874);  BbOnnow  and  von  Doicaszbswki,  Dxe  Promncia  Ara-  Sudan;  in  the  west  they  included  the  Canary  Isles 

jg^Strasburg.^)^M^iL,  ^«;J^^^~^  ft^«23S°°l'  ^^  *^®  ^"*^  "^^^ »  ^  *^®  °®^  *^®y  reached  as  far 

Moab}  Il.'fedom  (Vienna.  i907)?7r?ALMBB,  The  Deaert  of  th^  as  the  German  Seas  and  thence  over  the  Low  CJoun- 

Exodua  (Cambridge.  1871);   db  Labobdb,  Commeniaire  g4o-  tries  of  Russia  and  the  Aral  Sea  to  the  sources  of  the 

?>5vJ2SfcSS!L£flSl5«JrfiA?^  Indus  and  the  Ganges.    In  the  Orient  they  took  in 

IjeStna%molique,innevtie  atoiique{lais9),ao9-92;  1D.,X/  Ittner-      *     i  •  j  ai. S r  t~j:<.  --.j  t^j-.  r^w:^^  ««  r». 

aire  dea  laraSitea  du  vaya  de  oiaaen  aux  borda  di  Jourdain  in  Arabia  and  the  coasts  of  India  and  Indo-China  as  far 

Rmme  Biblique  (19(X)),  63-86;  273-87;  443-49;  Ssczbpanski,  as  the  Archipelago.    Their  certam  knowledge,  how- 

NachPetravndaumStnaiannBbfuek,  1908).  ^y^^^  did  not  extend  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the 

Charles  L.  Souvat.  Roman  Empire  when  it  was  at  its  zenith.    At  the 

aeography,   Eoclbsiastical.      See   Statibtics,  very  tune  when  ttiis  empire  wm  falling  to  pi^^ 

Ecclesiastical.  ^^  overrun  by  the  peaceful  missionanes  of  the  new 

spiritual  power,  ChristianitV.    Even  in  the  fifSt  few 

Geography  and  the  Ohureh.^The  classic  histo-  hundred  years  thejr  found  their  way  to  the  Far  East, 

rians  of  geomiphy.  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  Cari  Accordins  to  tradition,  the  Apostle  Thomas  himself 

Ritter,  and  Oscar  reschel,  never  for^t  to  acknowl-  reached  Meliapur.    In  any  case  Christianity  had  been 

edge  now  sreatly  their  science  was  mdebted  to  the  spread  in  Malabar,  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  in 

Church.    Of  course  the  beginnings  of  all  profane  Socotra  and  Ceylon  as  early  as  the  fourth  century,  as 

knowledge  can  be  traced  back  to  the  time  when  Cosmas  Indicopleustes  informs  us  in  his  ''Christian 

" priest *° and  "scholar"  meant  one  and  the  same  Topography*',  a  very  important  work  from  a  geo- 

thing.     But  with  geographv  especially  the  Church  graphic    standpoint.    Even    in    Abyssinia    and    in 

had  very  close  relations — relations  which  are  readily  Southern  Arabia  the  Faith  found  a  footing.    Simul- 

explained  by  the  nature  of  this  science  and  the  course  taneously  the  frontier  lands  on  the  Rhine  and  the 

of  its  evolution.  Danube  were  opened  up.    The  subsequent  centuries 

Hie  object  of  geography  is  to  extend  our  knowledge  were  spent  in  exploring  the  North .    To  this  end  a  cen- 

of  the  earth's  sunace  and  to  determine  the  position  of  tre  of  operations  was  established  which,  for  the  pur- 


QSOORAPHT                            448  OSOaftAPHT 

poee  of  the  scientific  discoverer,  could  not  have  been  time  quite  advanced,  thereby  placing  the  researdi  ot 

more  wisely  selected  in  the  conaitions  then  prevalent.  Western  scholars  on  entirely  new  bases,  and  putting 

Then  followed  the  foundation  of  monasteries  in  the  before  them  new  aims  and  objects.    Finally,  in  the 

British  Isles  which  sent  out  in  all  directions  their  effort  to  secure  new  allies  for  the  liberation  of  the 

monks,  well  equipped  with  learning  and  well  fitted  to  Holy  Land,  they  brought  about  intercourse  with  the 

become  the  pioneers  of  culture.    To  these  missionaries  rulers  of  Central  Asia.    This  intercourse  was  of  the 

we.  owe  the  earliest  geographical  accounts  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  history  of  medieval  disco v- 

northem  countries  and  of  the  customs,  religions,  and  eries. 

languages  of  their  inhabitants.  They  had  to  aefine  Stray  communities  of  Christians  were  scattered 
the  boundaries  of  the  newly  establisned  dioceses  of  throughout  the  interior  of  Asia,  even  in  the  early  cen- 
the  Church.  Their  notes,  therefore,  contained  the  turies,  thanks  to  the  zeal  of  the  Nestorians.  It  is  true 
most  valuable  information,  though  the  form  was  that  they  were  separated  from  Rome  and  were  sup- 
somewhat  crude,  and  Ritter  very  justly  traces  the  pressed  by  rigorous  persecutions  in  China  as  early  as 
source  and  beginning  of  modem  geography  in  these  the  eiehtn  century.  But  even  during  the  Crusades 
re^ons  back  to  the  ''Acta  Sanctorum''.  The  world  some  Mon^lian  tribes  showed  such  familiarity  with 
is  mdebted  to  the  diaries  of  St.  Ansgar  (d.  865)  for  the  the  new  faith  that  the  popes  had  great  hopes  of  an 
first  description  of  Scandinavia.  The  material  in  idliance  with  these  nations.  The  general  council  held 
them  was  employed  later  on  by  Adam  of  Bremen  in  at  Lyons  in  1245  under  Innocent  IV  decided  to  send 
his  celebrated  work  "De  situ  Daniffi''.  The  accounts  out  legates.  Men  duly  qualified  for  these  missions 
of  these  countries  that  Archbishop  Axel  of  Lund  (d.  were  found  among  the  newly  established  Orders  of  St. 
1201),  the  founder  of  Copenhagen,  furnished  to  the  Francis  and  St.  Dominic.  The  Dominican  Ascalinus 
historian  Saxo  Grammaticus  were  also  of  great  value,  in  1245  reached  the  court  of  the  Khan  of  Persia  on  the 
Reports  brought  in  by  monks  enabled  Alfred  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea  after  a  voyajge  of  fifty- 
Great  (901)  to  compile  the  first  description  of  Sla-  nine  days,  but  his  errand  was  fruitless.  His  compan- 
vonic  Lmds.    Then  followed  the  Chronicle  of  Regino  ion,  Simon  of  St-Quentin,  wrote  an  account  of  the 


of  PrQm  (907-968) — a  work  equally  important  for  the  voyage,  as  did  also  his  great  contemporary,  Vincent  of 
historian  and  the  eeographer,  as  it  contains  the  reports  Beauvais.  The  enterprises  of  the  Franciscans  were 
of  St.  Adalbert,  who  made  his  way  into  Russia  in  961 .  politically  more  succeE»f ul,  and  far  more  productive  of 
Of  similar  merit  are  the  historical  works  of  the  monk  scientific  results.  Under  the  leadership  of  John  de 
Nestor  of  Kiev  (d.  1100)  and  the  country  pastor  Hel-  Piano  Carpini  of  Perugia,  they  travelled  through  Ger- 
mold  (d.  1170).  Bishops  Tliietmar  of  Mersebui^  (d.  many,  Bohemia,  Poland,  and  Southern  Russia  as  far 
1019)  and  Vincent  Kadlubeck  of  Cracow  (1206-18)  as  the  Volca,  and  thence  to  the  Court  of  the  Grand 
bring  us  the  earliest  information  regarding  the  geog-  Khan  at  luuakorum  (1246).  Their  reports  embrace 
raphy  of  Poland,  while  the  letters  of  Bishop  Otto  of  the  political  conditions,  ethnography,  history,  and 
Bambei^  contain  the  earliest  description  of  Pom-  geography  of  the  Tatar  lands.  They  were  excellently 
crania.  In  like  manner  the  geography  of  Prussia,  supplemented  by  Friar  Benedict  of  Poland  of  the  same 
Finland,  Lapland ,  and  Lithuania  b^ins  with  the  evan-  order  in  r^ard  to  the  Slav  countries.  Both  these  works, 
gelization  of  these  countries.  And  even  if  it  be  diffi-  however,  are  surpassed  by  the  Franciscan  William 
cult  to-day  to  estimate  at  their  proper  value  the  dis-  Rubruck  (Rubruquis)  of  Brabant,  whose  refwrt 
00 very  of  these  rc^ons,  now  so  familiar  to  us,  the  first  Peschel  pronounces  to  be  "the  greatest  geographical 
vo3ra«es  of  civiUased  Europeans  on  the  high  seas,  masterpieceof  the  Middle  Ages  .  He  was  the  nrst  to 
which  started  from  Ireland,  will  always  challenge  our  settle  the  controversy  between  medieval  gec^graphers 
admiration.  Groping  from  island  to  island,  the  Irish  as  to  the  Caspian  Sea.  He  ascertained  that  it  was  an 
monks  reached  the  Faroe  Isles  in  the  seventh  century  inland  lake  and  had  not,  as  was  supposed  for  a  long 
and  Iceland  in  the  eighth.  Thev  thus  showed  the  while,  an  outlet  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  He  was  the 
Northmen  the  route  which  was  to  brinff  about  the  first  first  Christian  gpopr&pher  to  bring  back  reliable  in- 
communication  between  Europe  and  America,  and  formation  concemmg  the  position  of  China  and  its  in- 
finally  set  foot  on  Greenland  (1112).  The  earliest  ac-  habitants.  He  knew  the  ethnographic  relations  of  the 
counts  of  these  settlements,  with  which,  owing  to  un-  Hun^rians,  Bashkirs,  and  Huns.  He  knew  of  the 
propitious  politi<»l  and  physical  conditions,  perma-  remams  of  the  Gothic  tongue  on  the  Tauric  Cherso- 
nent  intercourse  could  not  be  maintained,  we  owe  to  nese,  and  recognized  the  differences  between  the  char- 
Canon  Adam  of  Bremen,  to  the  reports  sent  by  the  acters  of  the  different  Mongolian  alphabets.  T)ie 
bishops  to  their  metropolis  at  Drontheim  (Trondhjem),  glowins  picttues  he  drew  of  the  wealth  of  Asia  first  at- 
and  to  the  Vatican  archives.  tracted  the  attention  of  the  seafaring  Venetians  and 
Meanwhile,  communication  with  the  East  had  never  Genoese  to  the  East.  Merchants  followed  in  the  path 
ceased .  Palestine  was  an  object  of  interest  to  all  Chris-  he  had  pointed  out,  among  them  Marco  Polo,  the  most 
tendom,  to  which  the  eyes  of  the  West  had  been  turned  renowned  traveller  of  all  times.  His  book  deecribins 
ever  since  ^e  days  of  the  Apostles.  Thousands  and  his  journeys  was  for  centuries  the  sole  source  of  knowf 
thousands  of  pilgrims  flocked  thither  in  bands.  Not  a  ed^  for  the  geographical  and  cartographical  represen- 
few  of  them  possiessed  sufl&cient  ability  to  describe  in-  tatxons  of  Asia.  Side  by  side  with  Marco  Polo,  friars 
telligently  their  experiences  and  impressions.  Thus  and  monks  pursued  untiringly  the  work  of  discovery, 
the  so-called  ''Itineraries",  or  guide-books,  by  no  Among  them  was  Hayton,  Prince  of  Annania  (Ar- 
means  confined  themselves  to  a  description  of  the  Sa^  menia),  afterwards  Abbot  of  Poitiers,  who  in  1307 
cred  Places.  Besides  giving  exact  directions  for  the  made  the  first  attempt  at  a  systematic  geography  of 
route,  they  embraced  a  great  deal  of  information  Asia  in  his  "HLstoria  orientalis".  Also  the  Francis- 
about  the  neis^bouring  countries  and  peoples,  about  cans  stationed  in  India  who  followed  the  more  con- 
Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  even  India,  venient  sea  route  to  China  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
These  works  were  very  popular  reading  and  undoubt-  century.  Special  credit  is  due  to  John  of  Monte  Cor- 
edly  infused  an  entirely  new  element  into  the  study  vino  (1291-1328),  Odoric  of  Pordenone  (1317-31), 
of  geography  in  those  days.  A  still  greater  stimulus  whose  work  was  widely  circulated  in  the  writings  of 
was  eiven  to  it  by  the  Crusades — those  magnificent  John  Mandeville,  and  John  of  Marignolla.  Of  India, 
expeditions  which,  inspired  and  supported  by  the  also,  the  missionaries  gave  fuller  information.  Menen- 
Chufch,  brought  huge  masses  of  people  into  contact  tillus  was  the  first  to  prove  the  peninsular  shape  of 
with  the  Orient.  They  made  a  knowledge  of  the  lands  the  country  and,  in  contradiction  to  Ptolemy,  de- 
they  sought  to  conquer,  a  commonplace  in  Europe,  scril)ed  the  Indian  Ocean  as  a  body  of  water  open  to 
They  were  the  means  of  spreading  the  f^grapnic  the  South.  The  Dominican  Jordan  us  Catalani(  1328) 
theories  and  methods  of  Araoian  scholarship,  at  that  records  his  observations  on  the  physical  peculiarities 


GEOOaAPHY 


449 


GEOGRAPHY 


and  natural  history  of  India.  At  the  same  time  more 
frequent  visits  were  made  to  Northern  Africa  and 
Abyssinia ;  and  towards  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century  settlements  were  made  in  the  Canary  Isles. 

However,  the  immense  tracts  of  land  in  the  interior 
of  Asia  were  soon  closed  asain  to  scientific  investiga- 
tion. With  the  fall  of  the  Mongol  dynastv,  which  had 
been  favourably  disposed  to  Christians,  CJhina  became 
forbidden  groimd  to  Europeans.  But  the  East  re- 
mained the  goal  of  Western  trade,  to  which  the  mil- 
lions had  shown  the  way.  The  rich  lands  on  the  In- 
dian Ocean  remained  open,  and  henceforth  they  were 
the  objective  point  of  all  the  great  exploring  expe- 
ditions, imdertaken  by  the  sea-loving  Portuguese, 
which  culminated  in  the  discovery  of  America  by  Co- 
lumbus. It  is  well  known  how  much  these  imder- 
takinra  were  furthered  hy  the  all-pervading  idea  of 
spreading  Christianity.  The  main  object  of  Henry 
tne  Na^pator  in  equipping  his  fleet  with  the  revenues 
of  the  C^er  of  Christ  was  the  conversion  of  the 
heathen.  He  was  workine  to  the  same  purpose  on  the 
continent  of  Africa,  where  ne  sought  to  establish  com- 
municafaoDS  with  the  Christian  nuer  of  Abyssinia.  His 
efforts  led  to  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa  by  his 
successois,  and  to  the  systematic  exploration  of  the 
highland  states  of  East  Africa  begun  by  Portuguese 
missionaries  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Columbus, 
too,  was  recarded  in  his  time  as  pre-emmently  the  en- 
voy of  the  Church.  Furthermore,  the  strange  results 
expected  from  his  expedition  and  his  own  projects 
were  the  last  echo  of  all  the  aspirations  of  medieval 
Christendom,  which  contemplated  a  way  to  the  Kings 
ci  Cathay  (China)  whose  disposition  to  embrace 
Christiamty  had  been  repeatedly  emphasized  by  Tos- 
canelli,  as  well  as  the  discovery  of  the  Earthly  Para- 
dise, which  Columbus  placed  somewhere  near  the  gulf 
of  Paria,  the  leoovery  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  by  means 
of  the  treasures  be  expected  to  find,  and,  finally,  the 
extension  of  the  Kin^om  of  God  over  the  entire  earth 
before  the  approachmg  end  of  the  world. 

II . — PhUc^ophical  speculation  also  had  a  share  in  the 
magnificent  success  that  crowned  the  practical  work 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  Although  geograpny  as  a  science 
for  its  own  sake  was  no  more  the  chief  purpose  of  this 
specidation  than  exploration  for  its  own  sake  was  that 
of  the  missionaries,  it  had  arrived  at  truths  that  are 
admitted  to-day,  even  when  tested  by  the  light  of 
modem  researcn — truths  that  must  be  recognized  as 
real  progress.  As  might  be  expected,  in  uie  early 
centuries  of  the  Church  men  strove  above  all  thines  to 
reconcile  deductions  from  the  observation  of  the  facts 
of  nature  with  the  beliefs  that  were  then  supposed  to 
be  taught  in  Holy  Scripture.  The  earliest  Christian 
literature  was  so  predominantly  ex^etical  that  the 
teachings  of  the  ancients  were  always  tested  in  order 
to  see  whether  they  were  in  harmony  with  Holy  Writ. 
Hence  it  was  that  several  of  the  Fathers  pronounced 
in  favour  of  the  theory  of  the  flatness  of  the  earth's 
surface  which  had  been  put  forward  in  later  Roman 
cosmographies.  Among  the  advocates  of  this  error 
were  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  St.  John  Chrysostom, 
Severian  of  Gabala,  Procopius  of  Gaza,  and  others. 
Cosmas  Indicopleustes  advanced  an  especially  gro- 
tesque elaboration  of  this  doctrine.  In  his  exagger- 
atedly narrow  interpretation  of  the  phraseology  of 
Holy  Writ  he  claimed  that  the  world  was  constructed 
in  the  shape  of  the  Tabernacle  of  the  Covenant  in  the 
Old  Testament.  But  long  before  his  day  there  were 
men  who  believed  in  the  sphericity  of  the  earth.  It 
was  recognized  by  Clement  and  Onsen ;  Ambrose  and 
Basil  also  upheld  it.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  even  soueht 
to  explain  the  origin  of  the  earth  by  means  of  a 
physical  experiment,  and  advanced  hypotheses  that 
come  very  close  to  the  modem  theones  of  rotation. 
Ausustine  declared  that  the  doctrine  of  the  sphericity 
of  tne  earth  in  no  way  conflicted  with  Holy  Writ,  and 
later  authors,  especially  the  Venerable  Bede,  also  at- 
VI.— 29 


tempted  to  prove  it  on  scientific  grounds.  For  a  con- 
siderable period  the  question  of  tne  Antipodes  was  be- 
set with  controversy.  It  was  absolutely  denied  by 
Lactantius  and  several  others,  principally  on  relisious 
grounds,  as  thepeople  of  the  Antipodes  could  not  nave 
been  saved.  Tlie  learned  Irishman,  Bishop  Virgilius, 
patron  saint  of  Salzburg  (d.  784)  was  the  first  to  openly 
express  the  opinion  that  there  "were  men  living  b^ond 
the  ocean.  Individual  physiographical  phenomena 
also  b^an  to  come  imaer  the  observation  of  the 
leamed,  such  as  the  influence  of  the  moon  on  the 
tides,  the  erosive  action  of  the  sea,  the  circulation  of 
water,  the  origin  of  hot  springs  and  volcanoes,  the  di- 
vision of  land  and  water,  the  position  of  the  sun  at  dif- 
ferent latitudes.  The  learning  and  opinions  of  the 
first  few  hundred  years  were  comprehensively  set  forth 
in  the  tremendous  work  of  Isidore  of  Seville  (d.  636), 
the  "Etymologiap"  or  "Origines",  which  for  a  long 
time  enjoyed  unlimited  authority.  During  the  next 
few  centuries,  which  were  comparatively  barren  of  lit- 
erary achievements,  the  only  men  to  attain  any  celeb- 
rity, besides  Bede  and  Vir^lius  of  Salzburg,  were  the 
anonymous  geographer  of  Kavenna  (c.  670),  the  Irish 
monk  Dicuu,  author  of  the  well-known  ''Liber  de 
mensur&  Orbis  terrss"  (c.  825),  and  the  leamed  Pope 
Sylvester  (999-1003),  otherwise  known  as  Gerbert  of 
Aurillac,  the  most  iUustrious  astronomer  of  his  cen- 
tury. The  oldest  cartographic  documents  we  have 
also  date  from  the  same  period.  They  rely  for  their 
information  on  the  earth's  surface  substantially  on  the 
Roman  methods  of  delineation.  The  lost  map  of  the 
world  as  known  to  the  Romans  can  now  be  recon- 
structed only  by  means  of  the  medieval  Mapp<B 
mundi;  consequently,  they  exhibit  all  the  deficiencies 
of  the  model  they  followed ;  they  are  circular  in  plan 
and  were  drawn  neither  on  projection  nor  according  to 
scale,  the  boundaries  of  the  provinces  being  indicated 
by  straight  lines.  The  central  point  was  .in  the 
^gean  £a ;  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades  it  was  trans- 
fened  to  Jerusalem,  the  East  being  at  the  top  of  the 
maps.  In  addition  to  adhering  to  the  Roman  form, 
these  maps  have  preserved  for  us  also  the  oontente  of 
the  Roman  maps;  and  therein  lies  the  principal  value 
of  these  interesting  documents.  They  were  often 
draughted  with  the  greatest  and  most  artistic  care. 
Especial  importance  atteches  to  the  map  of  the  world 
msule  by  the  Spanish  monk  Beatus.  Numerous  copies 
of  this  show  tne  entire  area  of  the  globe  as  known  in 
776  after  Christ.  Of  the  big  wall  maps  only  those  in 
the  cathedral  at  Hereford  and  the  nunnery  at  Ebsdorf 
have  survived.  Both  of  them  are  of  the  fatter  half  of 
the  thirteenth  century  and  are  representative  of  the 
ancient  type  of  map.  Small  atlases  were  largely  cir- 
culated in  cosmographical  codices.  These  are  known 
as  Macrobius  atlases,  Zone  atlases.  Ranulf  atlases, 
and  so  forth.  Special  maps  have  also  come  down  to 
us ;  two  of  them,  showing  south-eastern  Europe  with 
Western  Asia  and  Palestine  are  even  attributed  to 
St.  Jerome.  There  is  a  representation  of  Palestine 
in  mosaic  in  the  church  at  Madaba:  this  dates  from 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century.  Tne  English  monk, 
Matthew  Paris,  draughted  some  modem  maps  in  the 
thirteenth  century  which  were  quite  free  from  the  in- 
fluence of  Ptolemy  and  the  Arabians. 

But  geographicial  problems  made  great  and  unex- 
pected pro^r^  when  they  received  a  more  scientific 
basis.  This  basis  was  provided  by  the  scholastics 
when  they  made  the  Aristotelean  system  the  starting 
point  of  all  their  philosophical  researches.  Their 
thorough  logical  training  and  their  strict  critical 
method  gave  to  the  work  of  these  commentators  on 
Aristotle  the  value  of  original  research,  which  strove 
to  comprehend  the  entire  contemporary  science  of  na- 
ture. As  at  the  same  time  the  Almaeest  of  Ptolemy 
was  brought  to  li^t  a«;ain  by  the  presbyter,  Gerard  of 
Cremona  (1114-87),  there  was  not  a  single  problem  of 
modem  physical  and  mathematical  geography  the 


GEOGRAPHY 


450 


GEOGRAPHY 


aolutaon  of  which  was  not  thus  attempted.  The  fact 
that  the  writings  of  Aristotle  and  Ptolemy,  on  whidi 
they  founded  their  investi^tions,  had  already  passed 
throush  the  hands  of  Arabian  scholars,  who,  however, 
probably  received  them  at  some  time  from  Syrian 
priests,  proved  of  advantage  to  the  consequent  geo- 
graphical discussions.  The  most  eminent  represen- 
tative of  physical  studies  was  Albertus  Magnus;  of 
mathematics.  Roger  Bacon.  Their  precursor.  Wil- 
liam of  Concnes,  had  already  given  evidence  of  inde- 
pendent conception  of  the  facts  of  nature  in  his  "  Phil- 
osophia  Mundi".  Also  Alexander  Neckham  (1150  to 
about  1227),  Abbot  of  Cirencester,  whose  ''Liber  de 
natudl  rerum"  contains  the  earliest  record  of  the  use 
of  the  mariner's  compass  in  navigation  and  a  list  of  re- 
markable springs,  rivers,  and  lakes.  Blessed  Albertus 
Magnus  (1193-1280),  a  master  with  whom  in  the  uni- 
vereedity  of  his  knowledge  only  Alexander  von  Hum- 
boldt is  comparable,  opened  up  to  his  contempora- 
ries the  entire  field  of  physiographer,  bv  means  of  his 
admirable  exposition  of  Aristotle,  laid  the  foimdations 
of  climatology,  botanical  ^graphy,  and,  in  a  certain 
sense,  even  of  comparative  geography.    His  work 


De  coelo  et  mundo    treats  of  the  earth  as  a  whole 


U 


his  "libri  meteororum"  and  "De  passionibus  aeris 

,  \  '    ^      \,  lismoloc, 

In  the  "De  natui?^  locbruin'"  be' enlarges  upon  me 


include  meteorology,  hydrography,  and  seismology. 

V  ne  enlarges 
system  of  the  zones  and  the  relations  between  man 
and  the  earth.  He  furnished  proofs  of  the  sphericity 
of  our  planet  that  are  still  popularly  repeated  to-day : 
he  calculated  accurately  the  duration  of  the  day  and 
the  seasons  in  the  different  quarters  of  the  globe.  Ebb 
and  flow,  volcanology,  the  formation  of  mountain- 
ranges  and  continents — ^all  these  subjects  furnish  him 
material  for  clever  deductions.  He  carefully  recorded 
the  shifting  of  coastlines,  which  men  at  that  time  al- 
ready associated  with  the  secular  upheaving  and  sub- 
sidence of  continents.  He  also  ascertain^  the  fre- 
quency of  earthquakes  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
ocean.  He  closely  observed  fossiuzed  animals.  He 
knew  that  ^e  direction  of  the  axes  of  mountain- 
ranses  influenced  the  climate  of  Europe,  and,  on  the 
authority  of  Arabian  writers,  he  was  the  first  to  refute 
the  old  error  that  the  intertropical  surface  of  the  earth 
must  necessarily  be  quite  parched.  His  feUow-friar, 
Vincent  of  Beauvais  (d.  1264),  also  proved  himself  to 
be  a  verjr  keen  observer  of  nature.  A  preat  mass  of 
geographical  material  is  stored  up  in  his  "Speculum 
naturaie".  Among  other  things  he  recognized  that 
mountain-ranges  constantly  lose  in  heieht,  owing  to 
the  influence  of  climate  and  of  rain,  ana  that  in  high 
altitudes  the  temperature  falls  because  of  the  decrease 
of  atmospheric  density.  FinaUy,  we  must  mention 
the  original  views  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  on  geog- 
raphy, as  well  as  those  of  the  lavmen  Ristoro  of 
Arezzo,  Brunetto  Latini  (1210-94),  his  great  disciple, 
Dante  (1265-1321),  and,  lastly  the  "Book  of  Nature" 
by  Conrad  of  M^enbere,  canon  of  Ratisbon  (1309- 
1378).  For  all  of  these  Albertus  Mwius  had  opened 
the  door  to  the  rich  treasure-house  of  Greek  ana  Ara- 
bian learning.  Still  more  far-reaching  in  their  results 
were  the  labours  of  the  scholars  who  applied  them- 
selves principally  to  mathematical  geography.  At 
the  head  of  them  aU  stands  Roger  Bacon,  the  "  Doctor 
Mirabilis"  of  the  Older  of  St.  Francis  (1214-94). 
Columbus  was  emboldened  to  cany  out  his  great  pro- 
ject on  the  strength  of  Bacon's  assertion  that  India 
could  be  reached  by  a  westerly  voyage — ^a  claim  haaed 
on  mathematical  computation.  Even  before  Ptol- 
emy's "Geography"  had  been  rediscovered.  Bacon 
attempted  to  sketch  a  map,  determining  mathemati- 
cally the  positions  of  places,  and  using  Ptolemv's  Al- 
magest, tne  descriptions  of  Alfraganus,  and  the  Al- 
phonsine  Tables.    Peschel  pronounces  this  to  be  "  the 

freatest  achievement  of  the  scholastics".    Cardinal 
ierre  d'AiUy  (1350-1426),  whose  "Imago  Mundi" 
was  also  afavourite  book  of  Columbus's,  foimded  it  on 


Bacon's  works.  It  is  to  him  and  Cardinal  Filiastei 
that  Western  civilization  owes  the  first  Latin  transla- 
tion of  Ptolemy's  "Geography",  which  Jacopus  Ange- 
lus  finished  and  dedicated  to  Pope  Alexander  V 
(1409-10) .  The  circulation  of  this  book  created  a  tre- 
mendous revolution,  which  was  particularly  beneficial 
to  the  development  of  cartosrapny  for  centuries  there- 
after. As  early  as  1427  the  Dane  Claudius  Clavus 
added  to  Filiaster's  priceless  manuscript  of  Ptolemy's 
Work  his  map  of  Northern  Europe,  the  oldest  map  of 
the  North  which  we  possess.  Donmus  Nicolaus  Ger- 
manus,  a  Benedictine  (of  Reichenbach?)  (1466),  was 
the  first  scholar  who  modernized  Ptolemy  by  means  of 
new  maps  and  made  him  generaUy  accessible.  The 
Benedictine  Andreas  Walsperger  (1448)  made  a  map 
of  the  world  in  the  medieval  style.  That  of  the  Cam- 
aldolese  Fra  Mauro  (1457)  is  the  most  celebrated  of  all 
monuments  of  medieval  cartography.  It  was  alrrady 
enriched  by  data  furnished  in  Ptolemy's  work.  The 
map  of  Germany  designed  by  Cardinal  Nicholas  of 
Cusa  (1401-64),  a  pupil  of  ToscaneUi  (1387-1492), 
was  printed  in  1491.  This  prelate  was  the  teacher  of 
Peuerbach  (1432-61),  who  m  turn  was  the  master  of 
Regiomontanus  (1436-67),  the  most  illustrious  as- 
tronomer since  Ptolemy.  Cardinal  Bessarion  enabled 
Redomontanus  to  study  Greek,  and  Pope  Sixtus  IV 
(1474)  entrusted  the  reformation  of  the  Calendar  to 
him.  We  must  also  mention  ^neas  Sylvius  (cdfter- 
wards  Pope  Pius  II)  and  the  papal  secretaries  Poggio 
and  Flavio  Biondo,  who  made  several  valuable  con- 
tributions to  the  science  of  jB;eography,  also  Cardinal 
Bembo  and  the  Carthusian  Keisch  (1467-1525). 

IU.~In  order  to  set  forth  properly  the  achieve- 
ments in  discovery  and  researcn  in  modem  times  by 
Catholic  scholars,  we  adopt  Peschel's  arrangement. 
He  divides  this  period  of  the  development  of  geo^ 
raphy  into  two  main  epochs:  (1)  That  of  discovery, 
up  to  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century;  (2)  That 
of  geographical  measurement,  from  1650  (K>wn  to  the 
present  day.  We  cannot  set  down  all  the  names  of 
priests  and  missionaries  which  we  find  in  both  these 
periods.  Their  chief  usefulness  lay  in  their  contribu- 
tions to  the  seneral  knowledge  of  various  countries 
and  races.  But  they  also  made  contributions  of  the 
greatest  value  to  the  theoretical  development  of  our 
science.  They  were  the  first  and  foremost  promoters 
of  many  studies  auxiliary  to  geography  that  sprang  up 
in  the  course  of  time,  such  as  ethnology,  meteorology, 
volcanology,  and  so  forth. 

(1)  Even  on  their  earliest  voyages  the  great  discov- 
erers took  with  them  learned  priests.  These  men 
wrote  glowing  accoimts  of  the  wonders  they  saw  in  the 
newly  discovered  lands  to  their  brethren  at  home,  so 
that  they  might  spread  the  information  broadcast. 
In  a  short  time  monastic  settlements  sprang  up  in  the 
great  colonial  possessions  of  Spain  and  Portugsu .  The 
Dominicans  were  the  first  missionaries  to  America, 
and  Franciscans  are  heard  of  in  India  as  earlv  as  1500, 
while  the  Augustinians  accompanied  Magellan  to  ^e 
Philippines  in  1521.  They  were  equip^d  with  the 
best  available  aids  and  assistants.  Amons  the  Jesu- 
its especially  these  received  a  thorough  and  systema- 
tic training.  The  Jesuits  estabHshecTmiBsions  on  the 
Congo,  in  1547,  in  Brazil,  in  1540,  in  Abvssinia,  1555, 
in  South  Africa,  1559,  in  Peru,  1568,  in  Mexico,  1572, 
in  Paraguay,  1586,  and  in  Chile,  1591.  They  even 
penetrated  into  the  old  heathen  civilizations  of  Japan 
(1549)  and  China  (1563). 

Soon  after  the  discovery  of  the  West  Indies,  the 
Hieronymite  Fray  Roman  wrote  a  valuable  stuay  of 
the  mythology  of  their  inhabitants,  which  Ferdinand 
Columbus  incorporated  in  his  ''Vida  del  Almirande". 
It  became  the  comer-stone  of  American  ethnology. 
The  Dominican  Bias  de  Castillo  explored  the  crater 
of  Masaya  in  Nicaragua,  in  1538,  which  Oviedo  also 
visited  and  described  later.  The  much-admired  work 
''De  rebus  oceanicis  et  novo  orbe"  was  written  by 


(S^ 


GE0GRAPH7           451  GEOOaAPHY 

Peter  Martyr  d'Anehierra  (1475-1526),  prior  of  Gra-  ereat  map-makers  Mercator  and  Ortelius  also  received 
nada,  and  a  friend  of  Colimibus.  It  is  especially  devoted  hel^  and  encouragement  from  ecclesiastics, 
noteworthy  for  its  intelli^nt  observations  on  ocean  The  most  important  result  of  the  astrononiical  and 
currents  and  volcanoes,  which  its  author  doubtless  de-  physiographical  observations  made  durine  this  period 
rived  from  missionaries.  A  most  signal  contribution  was  the  discovery  and  establishment  of  the  hefiocen- 
was  the  "Historia  natural  y  moral  de  las  Indias"  trie  system  by  Copernicus,  canon  of  Kdniesberg 
(1588),  by  the  Jesuit  Jos^  d'Acosta  (1539-1600),  who  (1473-1543).  Cello  Calcagnmi  (1479-1541)  had  pr&- 
Uved  in  Peru  from  1571  to  1588,  and  proved  himself  pared  the  way  for  this  theory.  In  spite  of  the  fact 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  writers  on  the  natural  history  that  his  hypothesis  was  in  direct  contradiction  to 
of  the  New  World  and  the  customs  of  the  Indians,  hitherto  accepted  interpretations  of  Holy  Writ,  such 
The  first  thorou^^  exploration  of  Brazil  was  made  by  high  dignitaries  of  the  (Jhurch  as  Schomberg,  Giese, 
Jesuit  mission'bries,  imder  Father  Ferre  (1599-1632)  Dantiscus,  and  others  encouraged  Copernicus  to  make 
and  others.  Starting  from  Quito,  Franciscans  visited  public  his  discovery.  Moreover  Pope  Paul  III  gra- 
the  region  aroimd  the  source  of  the  Amazon  in  1633.  ciously  accepted  the  dedication  of  the  work  "De  revolu- 
Father  Laureano  de  la  Cruz  penetrated  as  far  as  the  tionibus  orbium  coelestium"  which  appeared  in  1543. 
River  Napo  in  1647,  and  in  1650  made  a  journey  by  Among  the  foremost  astronomers  was  the  Jesuit 
boat  as  far  as  the  Pard  River.  Scheiner  (1575-1650).  He  and  his  assistant  Qysatus 
To  missionaries,  also,  we  owe  important  informa-  were  the  first  to  notice  the  spots  on  the  sim  (1612), 
tion  concerning  the  interior  of  Africa  during  the  six-  and  foimded  the  science  of  heliofiraphic  physics,  of 
teenth,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth,  cen-  which  Galileo  had  not  even  thou^t.  The  Capudiin 
tury.  The  Portuguese  priests  Alvarez  and  Bermtidez  monk  Sdijrl  (Sdiyrlseus)  de  Rheita  built  a  terrestrial 
accompanied  the  embassy  of  King  Emanuel  to  King  telescope  m  1645  and  drew  a  chart  of  the  moon.  Nor 
David  III  of  Abyssinia.  They  sent  home  valuable  did  isolated  physical  phenomena  pass  unnoticed ;  at- 
reports  regarding  the  country.  They  were  followed  tempts  had  already  been  made  to  classify  them  syste- 
by  the  Jesuits.  A.  Tem^dez  crossed  Southern  matioedly.  Giovanni  Botero  (1560>1617),  secretary  to 
'Aoyssinia,  as  far  as  Melinde,  in  1613,  and  set  foot  in  St.  Qiarles  Borromeo,  ranked  with  Peter  Martyr 
regions  which  until  recently  were  closed  to  the  Euro-  among  the  first  writers  on  deep-sea  research — or  thal- 
peans.  Father  Paez  (1603)  and  Father  Lobo  (1623)  assopraphy,  and  is  considered  to  be  the  founder  of 
were  the  first  to  reach  the  source  of  the  Blue  Nile.  As  statistical  science.  His  "  Relatione  del  mare"  (1599) 
earl^r  as  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  i^e  is  tiie  earliest  known  monograph  on  the  subject 
Jesuits  drew  a  map  of  Abyssinia  on  the  information  of  the  ocean.  He  was  fol&wed  by  the  Jesuit 
supplied  by  tbese  two  men  and  bv  Fathers  Almeida,  .  Foumier,  whose  significant  "H^drographie"  (1641) 
Mtodez,  and  T41ez.  It  was  the  best  map  of  Aby&-  treats  encyclopedically  of  oceamc  science.  At  In^l- 
sinia  irntil  the  time  of  Abbadie  (1810-97).  At  the  r&-  stadt  (Eck  ana  Scheiner)  and  Vienna  (Celtes,  Stabius, 
quest  of  Bishop  Migliore  of  S.  Marco,  the  Portuguese  Tannst&tter)  geography  was  treated  with  espe- 
Duarte  L6pez  (1591)  wrote  an  important  description  cial  care.  The  firat  professor  of  geography  at  Wit- 
of  the  Couep  territory.  The  '^tiopia  Oriental"  tenberg  was  Barthel  Stein,  who  entered  a  monastery 
(1609)  by  the  Dominican  Juan  dos  Santos  was  an  at  Breslau  in  1511  and  coobpleted  a  description  of 
authority  on  the  lake  country  and  eastern  Central  Silesia  in  1512-13.  Cochlffius  (1479-1552),  humanist 
Africa  until  Livin^tone's  transcontinental  expedi-  and  theologian,  sought  to  make  the  scientific  study  of 
tion.  The  Jesuit  missionaries  Machado,  Afifondo,  and  ancient  aumors  (Meteorology  of  Aristotle,  Geo^phy 
Paiva  in  1630  even  thou^t  of  establishing  communi-  of  Mela)  a  part  of  hi^er  education.  He  instilleid  a 
cation  between  Abyssinia  and  the  Congo  territory,  knowledge  of  geography  into  his  pupils  which  at  that 
The  Arabian  Leo  Africanus,  whom  Pope  Leo  X  had  time  was  without  equal.  Johann  Eck,  Luther's  op- 
educated,  and  who  was  named  after  nim.  wrote  a  ponent,  wrote  a  much-praised  work  on  the  physical 
book  describing  the  Sudan.  It  was  published  by  gsoeraphy  of  mountains  and  rivers  for  his  lectures  at 
Ramusio  in  1552  and  was  considered  the  only  reliable  Freiours.  The  Jesuit  Borrus  was  the  forerunner  of 
authority  on  this  country  till  the  nineteenth  century.  Halley  tne  astronomer.  He  drew  up  a  chart  showing 
More  careful  research  led  to  the  sending  of  mission-  the  magnetic  variations  of  the  compass  in  1620. 
aries  to  Central  Asia.  The  Augustinian  Gonzilez  de  (2)  About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  centuiy 
Mendoza  made  the  first  really  intelligible  map  of  it  was  left  almost  exclusively  for  missionaries,  goine 
China  in  1585,  and  Father  Benedict  Goes  openea  the  about  their  unselfish,  silent,  and  consequentl^r  much 
land  route  thither,  after  a  perilous  journey  from  India,  under-estimated  labours,  to  continue  geographical  r&- 
in  1602.  Thereupon  the  Jesuits  Ricci  and  Schall,  search  until,  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
both  learned  mathematicians  and  astronomers,  pre-  tury,  great  expeditions  were  sent  out,  supported  by 


w^^mpared  to  Marco  Polo,  the  "discoverer  of  China   .  missionaries  achieved  results  ..^^  v^^..  ..«,.«. «.««.« x..«- 

Using  his  notes,  Father  Trigault  issued  an  historical  title  them  to  the  credit  of  having  been  the  pioneers  of 

and  geographical  treatise  on  China  in  1615.    Father  scientific  geography  and  its  strenuous  co-operators. 

Andrada  visited  Tibet  in  1624,  and  published,  in  Bold  exp^tions  exploring  the  interior  of  continents 

1626,  a  book  describing  it  which  was  afterwards  trans-  became     more     frequent.    Numerous     reports    on 

lated  into  five  languages.    Borrus  and  Rhodes  pub-  Canada  from  the  hands  of  Jesuit  missionaries,  dated 

lished  reix>rts  on  Partner  India.  between  the  years  1632  and  1672,  have  been  preserved. 

The  science  of  cartography  now  made  a  quite  un-  The  Franciscan  Friar  Gabriel  Sa^rd,  commonly  called 


expected  advance,  due  to  the  frequent  and  repeatedly  Theodat,  sojourned  among  the  Hurons  from  1624  to 
enlarged  editions  of  Ptolemy's  work  that  were  issued  1626.  The  Jesuits  Bouton  (1658)  and  de  Tertre 
by  the  Benedictine  Ruysch  (1508),  by  Bemardus  Syl-  (1687)  devoted  a  few  pamphlets  to  the  Antilles  and 
vanus  (1511),  WaldseemtiUer  (1513},  and  others,  the  Carib  tribes.  It  was  at  that  time  that  the  great 
Canon  Martin  WaldseemOller's  map  of  the  world  (St-  rivers  of  America  for  the  first  time  became  adequately 
Di6, 1507)  was  his  most  distinguished  achievement.  It  Imown.  Under  the  leadership  of  La  Salle,  the  Fran- 
was  the  first  to  give  to  the  New  World  the  name  of  ciscans  Hennepin,  de  la  Ribourde,  and  Membr^  pene- 
America.  Bishop  Olaus  Magnus,  one  of  the  most  illus-  trated  to  the  Great  Lakes  and  Niagara  Falls  in  1680 
trious  geographers  of  the  Renaissance,  made  a  map  of  and  the  following  years.  The  same  men  navi«ited 
Northern  Europe  in  1539.  He  also  undertook  a  long  the  Mississippi,  of  which  even  the  Delta  had  oeen 
journey  in  the  North  in  1518-19  and  was  the  first  man  scarcely  known  imtU  then.  Mexico  and  California  as 
to  propound  the  idea  of  a  north-east  passage.    The  far  as  ttxe  Rio  Colorado  were  traversed  by  the  Jesuits 


GEOOaAPHY           452  GEOGRAPHY 

Kino  (1644-1711),  Sedlmayer  (1703-1779),  and  Bae-  and  Mongolia,  aa  far  as  the  Russian  frontier.    Simul- 

fert  (1717-1777).    We  find  that  between  1752  and  taneonsly,  a  delineation  of  Tibet  as  far  as  the  sources 

766--eighty  years  before  Meyer,  the  celebrated  cir-  of  the  Ganges  was  begun.    The  map  ranks  as  a  ma»- 

cumnavigator   of   the   globe — ^the  Jesuit   Wolfgang  terpiece  even  to-day.    It  appeared  in  China  itself  in 

Beyer  reached  lAke  Titicaca.    Father  Manuel  Ra-  120  sheets  and  since  that  time  has  formed  the  basis  of 

mon  sailed  up  the  Cassiauiare  from  the  Rio  Negro  to  all  the  native  maps  of  the  country.    Fathers  Espinha 

the  Orinoco  m  1744  ana  anticipated  La  Condamine,  and  HaUerstein  extended  the  survey  to  111.    The  Jesuit 

Humboldt,  and  Bonpland  in  proving  that  this  branch  Du  Halde  edited  all  the  reports  and  letters  sent  to  him 

connected  these  streams.    Father  &Lmuel  Fritz,  from  by^his  brethren  and  publish^  them  in  1735  in  his 
1684  on,  recognized  the  importance  of  the  Marafion 
as  the  main  river  and  source  of  the  Amazon.    He 

drew  the  first  reliable  map  of  the  entire  oomise  of  the 

stream.    The  Jesuits  Tecno  (1673),  Harques  (1687),  maps  in  this  work  was  prepared  by  d'AnviUe,  the 

and  Duran  (1638)  wrote  about  Paraguay,  and  d'Ovag-  greatest  geographer  of  his  tmie.    All  modem  maps 

lia  (1646)  about  Chile.  Abyssinia,  the  most  interesting  can  be  traced  back  to  his  "Atlas  de  la  Chine".    StiU 

country  in  Africa,  was  suddenly  closed  to  missionaries  later,  there  were  published  in  fifteen  volumes  the 

about  1630.    It  was  not  until  1699  that  the  Jesuit  ''M^oiresconcemantl'histoire  .  .  .  des  Chinois,  par 

Father  Br^vedent,  with  the  physician  Poncet,  once  les  missionaires  de  Pekin "  (Paris,  1776-91). 

more  ventured  up  the  Nile  ana  into  the  interior  of  the  Many  of  the  missionaries  belonged  to  the  learned 

countiy ;  but  in  so  doing  he  lost  his  life.    The  Capu-  societies  of  Paris,  London,  and  St.  Petersburg.    They 

chins  Cavazzi  (1654),  Carli  (1666).  Merolla  (1682),  exchanged  letters  on  scientific  topics  wiUi  such  re- 

and  Zucchelli  (1698)  accomplishea  remarkable  re-  nownea  scholars  as  Leibniz,  Linnseus,  John  Ray,  Du- 

suits  in  the  Congo  region.    Even  as  late  as  the  year  perron,  Delisle,  Marinoni,  Simonelli,  and  others.  The 

1862  the  geographer  Petermann  made  use  of  meir  mfluence  of  widely  read  periodical  publications  is  also 

writings  to  construct  a  map  of  that  rec;ion.  noteworthy.    Among  them  were  the  ''Lettres  ^ifi-: 

But  the  greatest  scientific  triumphs  attended  the  antes  et  curieuses  dcrites  des  missions  ^trangdres"^ 
work  of  the  missionaries  in  Asia.  Especially  remark-  numerous  volumes  and  repeated  editions  of  which 
able  were  the  successful  attempts  to  penetrate  into  were  published  in  the  eighteenth  century.  They  con- 
Tibet,  a  feat  which  EuropeaDs  did  not  repeat  until  tainea  a  mass  of  geographical  material.  The  science 
our  times.  After  Andrada,  whom  we  have  already  of  geography  pronted  by  this  intercourse  between  the 
mentioned,  followed  Fathers  Grueber  and  d'Orville,  Jesuits  and  the  European  scientists.  The  greatest 
who  reached  Lhasa  from  Pekin  in  1661  and  went  need  at  that  time  was  the  definite  determination  of 
down  into  India  through  the  Himalaya  passes.  The  astronomical  positions  in  order  to  construct  a  really 
Jesuit  Desideri  (1716-29)  and  the  Capuchins  Delia  faultless  map  of  the  world.  Thanks  to  the  sound 
Penna  (1719-1746)  and  Bieligatti  (1738)  spent  consid-  training  in  astronomy  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  before 
erable  time  in  this  country.  they  went  abroad,  their  missionary  stations  soon 

To  these  travels  must  be  added  the  splendid  achieve-  gathered  many  excellent  determinations  of  latitude 

ments  in  cartography  and  astronomy  of  the  Jesuits,  and  longitude.    As  early  as  the  middle  of  the  seven- 

which,  about  1^^,  caused  a  complete  revolution  in  the  teenth  century  they  produced  a  great  mass  of  reliable 

development  of  geography.    It  was  due  chiefly  to  data  from  China.    Between  1684  and  1686  they  deter- 

them  that  one  of  the  most  powerful  States  of  that  mined  the  exact  position  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  of 

timcj  France,  lent  its  support  to  this  science,  thus  GoaandLouveau  (Siam).  This  enabled  them  to  make 

ofiferins  an  example  that  resulted  in  a  series  of  sovem-  a  correct  map  of  Asia  which  had  until  then  shown  an 

mental  subventions  giving  the  development  of  geog-  error  of  nearly  25  degrees  of  longitude  towards  the 


raphy  its  most^weriul  impetus.  In  1643  the  «^uit  east.  By  order  of  the  French  Academy,  Father  Louis 
Martin  Martini  (1614-^1)  landed  in  China.  During  Feuill^,  the  learned  Franciscan,  and  pupil  of  Cassini, 
his  sojourn  he  acquired  a  personal  knowledge  of  most  revised  uncertain  positions  in  Europe  and  America, 
of  the  provinces  of  that  immense  empire  ana  collected  He  made  surveys  m  Crete,  Salonica,  Asia  Minor,  and 
his  observations  in  a  complete  work,  that  appeared  in  Tripoli,  in  1701-02,  in  the  Antilles  and  Panama,  1703- 
1651^  entitled  ''Atlas  sinensis".  In  Ricnthofen's  05,  in  South  America,  1707-12,  and  in  the  Canary  Isles, 
opimonitis  ''the  fullest  geographical  description  of  1724.  Thus  Delisle  and  d'AnviUe,  the  reformers  ot 
Cnina  that  we  have".  Moreover,  it  contains  the  first  map-making,  built  up  their  work  on  the  scafifolding 
collection  of  local  maps  of  that  country.  Athanasius  furnished  them  by  the  Jesuits.  In  the  attempts  to  de- 
Kircher  further  drew  the  attention  of  scholars  ^e  termine  the  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  made  in  the 
world  over  to  the  Celestial  Empire  in  his  "  China  seventeenth  century,  the  Jesuits  took  a  very  promi- 
monumentis  illustrata''  (1667).  He,  too,  had  at  his  nent  part.  As  early  as  1645  Fathers  Riccioli  and 
disposal  information  gathered  by  missionaries.  And  Grimcudi  tried  to  determine  the  length  of  a  degree  on 
finallv  the  Belgian  Jesuit  Verbiest  succeeded  in  aroua-  llie  meridian.  Similar  work  was  done  in  1/02  by 
ing  tne  interest  of  Louis  XIV  by  the  advices  he  sent  Father  Thoma  in  China;  in  1755,  by  Fathers  Bosoo- 
home  to  Europe.  At  his  request,  six  of  the  most  vichandMairein  the  Papal  States;  in  1762,  by  Father 
learned  Jesuits  went  to  China  in  1687;  they  were  Liesganig  in  Austria,  and  in  the  same  year  by  Father 
Fathers  Bouvet,  Fontaney,  Gerbillon,  Le  Comte,  and  Christian  Mayer,  in  the  Palatinate,  also  by  Fathers 
Visdelou.  They  bore  the  title  of  "royal  mathemati-  Beccaria  and  Canonica  in  northwestern  Italy  (1774). 
clans"  and  at  tne  expense  of  the  French  Crown  were  Besides  the  Jesuits  engaged  in  geodetic  work  in 
equipped  with  the  finest  instruments.  From  1691  to  Abyssinia,  South  America,  and  China,  we  meet  with 
1698  Gerbillon,  court  astronomer  to  the  emperor.  Father  Velarde  (1696-1753),  who  published  the  first 
made  several  excursionB  to  the  hitherto  unknown  re-  approximately  accurate  map  of  the  Philippines  about 
gion  on  the  northern  boundary  of  China.  He  pre-  1734.  G.  Matthias  Vischer,  parish  priest  of  Leonstein 
sen  ted  a  map  of  the  environs  of  Peking  to  the  emperor  in  Tyrol  (1628-95),  drew  a  map  of  Upper  Austria  in 
who  then  ordered  the  survey  of  the  Great  Wall,  which  1669  that  was  republished  as  recently  a»  1808.  Father 
was  completed  by  Fathers  Bouvet,  R^gis,  and  Jar-  Liesganig,  in  conjunction  with  Fathers  von  Mezbur^ 
toux.  Tnis  achievement  was  followed  in'  the  sue-  and  Guessmann,  designed  maps  of  Galicia  and  Poland. 
Deeding  years  by  the  mapping  of  the  entire  empire.  Father  Christian  Mayer  drew  a  map  of  the  Rhine 
Fathers  Jartoux,  Fridelli,  Caraoso,  Bonjour  (Angus-  from  Basle  to  Mainz,  and  Father  Adrian,  a  chart 
tinian),  de  Tartre,  de  Mailla,  Hinderer,  and  R^gis  of  Oarinthia.  Fathers  Grammatici  (1684-1736),  De- 
undertook  the  work.  By  1718  the  map  was  finish^,  challes,  and  Weinhart  must  also  be  mentioned. 
In  addition  to  China  proper  it  embraced  Manchuria  In  view  of  the  lively  intercourse  between  the  mi§- 


QEORGE 


453 


OEORQE 


donaries  and  the  members  of  their  orders  in  Europe  it 
is  not  surprising  that  the  latter  also  compiled  volu- 
minous geographical  summaries.  Such  are  tne  works  of 
the  Jesmt  Riccioli  (1598-1671),  the  "  Almagestum  No- 
vum" and  "Geo^raphia  et  Hydrographia  reformata" 
(1661).  Riccioh  was  a  worthy  contemporary  of  the 
great  Varenius,  and  was  really  entitled  to  rank  as  a 
reformer,  especially  in  cartographv.  Father  Atha- 
nasius  Kircher  (1602-80)  among  otner  things  devoted 
himself  to  physics.  His  most  ordinal  ol^ervations 
are  set  down  in  his  "Magnes,  sive  de  arte  magnetic^" 
(1641)  and  his  "Mundus  subterraneus"  (1664).  He 
made  the  ascent  of  Vesuvius,  Etna,  and  Stromboli,  at 
the  risk  of  his  life  in  order  to  measure  their  craters. 
On  the  basis  of  his  observations  he  advanced  a  theory 
concerning  the  interior  of  the  earth  which  was  ac- 
cepted b]^  Leibniz  and,  after  him,  bv  an  entire  school 
of  geologists,  the  Neptunists.  He  also  was  the  author 
of  the  mat  attempt  at  a  physical  map,  to  wit,  the 
chart  of  ocean  currents  (1665). 

The  Jesuit  Father  Heinrich  Scherer  (1628-1704),  pro- 
fessor at  Dillingen,  devoted  his  entire  life  to  geographi- 
cal study.  He  incorporated  in  his  works  aU  that  was 
then  known  of  the  earth.  His  "  Geographica  hierar- 
chica ' '  contains  the  earliest  mission  atlas.  The  science 
of  map-making  owes  much  to  him.  His  "  Geographia 
naturtuis"  contains  the  first  orographical  and  liydro- 
graphical  sjmoptic  charts.  His  '^  Oleographia  artifi- 
cialis ' '  recommends  a  system  of  cartographic  projection 
which  the  geographer  Bonne,  in  1752,  accepted  and 
carried  out  as  one  of  the  best.  Alongside  of  these 
mighty  works,  which  ,^  in  imitation  of  the  great  encyclo- 
pedic works  of  the  Middle  Ages,  attempt  to  eive  a  sm^ 
vey  of  the  whole  geographic  knowledge  of  a  period, 
we  now  meet  in  mcreasing  numbers  the  equally  im- 
portant treatises  on  special  subjects  which  resemble 
the  works  of  our  modem  scientists.  The  name  of  the 
Dane  Nicholas  Steno  is  one  of  the  foremost  in  the  his- 
tory of  geolo^r.  He  was  tutor  to  the  sons  of  Grand 
Duke  G^imo  III  and  later  vicar-general  of  the  North- 
em  Missions  (1638-87).  In  the  opinion  of  Zittel  he 
was  far  in  advance  of  his  time.  He  was  the  first 
scientist  to  attempt  the  solution  of  geological  prob- 
lems by  induction.  He  was  also  the  mrst  scholar  who 
clearly  conceived  the  idea  that  the  history  of  the 
earth  could  be  inferred  from  its  structure  and  its  com- 
ponent parts.  His  little  monograph  "  De  solido  intra 
solidum  naturaliter  contento''  (1669)  was  the  foun- 
dation of  crystallography  and  strati^phy,  or  the 
science  of  the  earth^  strata.  One  of  uie  most  pains- 
taking geologists  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  the 
Abbate  Lazzaro  Spallanzani  (1729-99).  With  him 
rank  Fathers  de  la  Torre  (Storia  e  fenomeni  del  Vesu- 
vio,  1755),  Fortis  (1741-1803),  Palassou  (La  min^r- 
alogie  des  Monts  Pyrenees,  1782),  Tomibia  (1754,  in 
America  and  the  rhilippines).  Canon  Recupero,  at 
Catania  (d.  1787),  and  many  otners. 

The  history  of  meteorology  tells  the  same  story  as 
that  of  mathematical  geography.  This  science  also 
depended  on  widely  scattered  observations  which 
could  only  be  obtained  from  the  monasteries  scattered 
over  Europe.  Raineri,  a  pupil  of  Galileo,  made  the 
first  records  of  the  fluctuations  of  the  thermometer. 
Hie  first  meteorological  society,  the  "  Societas  Mete- 
orologica  Palatina''  (1780-95),  accomplished  splendid 
results.  Its  founder  was  the  former  Jesuit  and  court 
chaplain  Johann  Jacob  Hemmer.  Almost  all  of  its  cor- 
respondents belonged  to  the  various  reli^ous  orders  of 
Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  France,  and  Italy.  The 
rapid  growth  of  ethnography  and  linguistics  was  ren- 
dered possible  solely  by  the  vast  accumulation  of  ma- 
terials made  by  the  missionaries  in  the  course  of  the 
centuries.  There  was  hardly  a  writer  of  travels  who 
did  not  to  some  extent  contribute  to  them.  While 
many  of  them  occupied  themselves  with  this  science 
exclusively,  we  mention  here  only  the  "pioneers  of 
comparative    ethnography",    Fauiers    Dobrizhoffer 


(1718-91),  in  Paraguay,  and  Lafiteux  in  Canada;  the 
noted  Sanskrit  scholars  Fathers  Hanxleden  (1681- 
1732),  Coeurdeux  (1767),  and  Paulinus  a  Santo  Bar- 
tholomeo  (1776-89,  in  India),  and,  finally,  the  able 
Father  Hervas  (1733-1809).  The  latter's  chief  work, 
the  "Catalogo  de  las  lencuas"  (1800-03),  was  pub- 
lished in  Rome,  whither  all  the  membere  of  the  sup- 
pressed Jesuit  Order  had  flocked. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
progress  of  seographi^  science,  as  was  to  be  expected, 
IS  due  chiefly  to  laymen,  who,  without  religious  aims, 
have  continued  the  work  on  the  foundations  already 
provided.  The  co-operation  of  the  clergy  was  of  sec- 
ondary importance,  but  it  never  entirely  ceased,  and, 
true  to  its  great  traditions,  it  has  won  a  place  of  hon- 
our even  amid  the  stupendous  achievements  of  modem 
research.  By  way  of  proof,  we  close  with  the  names 
of  the  theologian  Moigno  (1804-84),  the  foimder  and 
publisher  of  we  natural  science  periodicals  "  Le  Cos- 
mos" (1852 )  and  "Les  Mondes"  (1863 );  of 

the  astronomer  Secchi  (1818-78),  who,  among  other 
things,  invented  the  meteorograph  in  1858;  also  of  the 
Lazarist  Fathers  Hue  (1839-^),  Gabet,  and  Armand 
David  (d.  1900).  The  last-named  made  themselves 
famous  by  their  explorations  in  China,  Manchuria, 
and  Tibet.  Finally,  we  should  remember  the  astro- 
nomical, meteorological,  seismological,  and  magnetic 
observatories  estabUi^ed  by  the  Society  of  Jesus  all 
over  the  world  (Rome,  Stonyhurst,  Kalocsa,  Gra- 
nada, Tortosa,  Georgetown  near  Washington,  Manila, 
Belen  in  Cuba,  Amlx>hidempona  in  Madagascar,  Cal- 
cutta, Zi-ka-wei,  Bozoma,  and  Bulawayo  on  Uie  Zam- 
besi, etc.)  and  their  periodical  reports. 

Db Backer,  Bibliiothique des icrivaina delaC.de  J.  (Li^ge and 
Paris,  1876):  Bbazlbt,  The  Dawn  of  Modem  Oeography  (toLs. 
I-III,  London,  1897-1906);  BOndgbnb,  Was  verdanki  die 
LAnder-  ti.  Vdlkerkunde  den  miUdaUerlicMn  MOnchen  u.  Afis- 
fftondrenf  in  Frankfurter  zeitgemAsae  BroadiHren^  N.S.,  X,  nos.  6, 
7  (Frankfort,  1889);  Coroibr.  Bibliolheca  Sinica,  I,  II  (Paris, 
1904-06)2  FiBCHBR,  Die  Enldeckungen  der  Normannen  in 
Amerika  in  Siimmen  atu  Maria  Laach^  Suppl.,  XXI  (Freiburg, 
1903);  GOnthbr,  Studien  zur  Oeachickte  der  nuUhematischen 
und  phyeikaliechen  Oeooraphie  (Halle,  1877-79):  Hartio, 
AeUere  Entdeekitnoegeachichte  tmd  KartograTokie  AfrUcaa  in  Mit^ 
teUungenderk.  k.  geoffravh.  OeaeUechaft^  aLvIII  (Vienna,  1905), 
283-383;  Humboldt,  Kritieche  Untenuthungen  Hber  die  histor, 
Bntwicktung  der  geogr.  Kentniaae  von  der  neuen  WeU^  I-III  (Ber^ 
lin,  1852):  Idbm,  Koemoa,  I-IV  (Stuttgart,  1869):  Huondbb, 
DeuUche  JeauiUnmieeionAre  dea  17.  u.  18.  Jahrhunderia  in  Siimr 
men  aiM  Maria  Laaeh.  Suppl.,  XIX  (Freiburg,  1899);  Hbim- 
BUCHBR,  Die  Orden  una  Kongregalumen  der  kcUholiachen  Kirche, 
I-III  (Paderbom,  1907-08);  Krbtschmbr,  Die  pkyaische  Erd- 
kunde  im  chriaUitJien  MiUdaUer  (Vienna,  1889);  Idbm,  Die 
Entdeckung  Amerikas  (Berlin,  1892);  Lbbzbi/tbr,  KcJhoUache 
MiasionHre  aU  NalurforacKer  und  AenAe  (Vienna,  1902);  Mxi/- 
LBR  (ed.),  Mappa  mundi:  Die  dlteaten  Wdlkarten^  I-VI  (Stutt- 
gart, 1895-98);  Marinblli,  Die  Erdkunde  bei  den  KirckenvA- 
tern.  Germ.  tr.  by  Nbumann  (Leipzig,  1884);  Pbbghbl.  Ab- 
handlung  zur  Erd-  u.  Vdlkerkunde  (3  toLb.,  Leipzig,  1877-79); 
Idbm,  Oeachickte  der  Erdkunde  (Munich,  1877);  Richtbofbn, 
China  (Berlin,  1877-85);  Rioob,  BetiUigung  und  Leialungen  der 
Jeauiten  auf  dem  Oebiele  der  Aatroncmxe  im  19.  Jahrhundert  in 
Natur  u.  Offenbarung.  LI  Q^anster,  1905),  193-208:  273-287; 
Rittbr,  Dte  Erdkunde  im  VerkAllniaa  gur  Natur  und  Oeachichte 
dea  Menachen,  I-XIX  (Beriin,  1822-59);  Idbm,  Oeachichte  der 
Erdkunde  und  der  Entdeckunpen  (Berlin^  );  Rugb.  Oe- 
achichte dea  ZeUaUera  der  Enldeckungen  (Berlin,  1881 ) ;  Schrbzbbr, 
Die  Jeauiten  dea  17.  u.  18.  Jahrhunderia  und  ihr  Verh&Uniaa  zur 
Aatronomie  in  Natur  und  Offenbarung^  XLIX  (MQnster,  1903), 
129-143;  208-221;  db  Saint-Martin,  Histoire  de  la  giographie 
;  ZuRiA,  Dei  Vantaggi  diUa  Cattclica  Rdigvone  de- 


(Paris,  1873) 

rivati  daUa  Oeografia  (Venice,  1825). 


O.  Hartiq. 


George,  Saint,  martyr,  patron  of  England,  suffered 
at  or  near  Lvdda,  also  known  as  Diospolis,  in  Pales- 
tine, probably  before  the  time  of  Constantine.  Ac- 
coraing  to  the  very  careful  investigation  of  the  whole 

Suestion  recently  instituted  bv  Father  Delehaye,  the 
lollandist,  in  the  light  of  modem  sources  of  informa- 
tion, the  above  statement  sums  up  all  that  can  safely  be 
affirmed  about  St.  George,  despite  his  early  cultus  and 

g re-eminent  renown  both  in  East  and  West  (see  Dele- 
aye,  "Samts  Militaires",  1909,  pp.  45-76).  Earlier 
studies  of  the  subject  have  generally  been  based  upon 
an  attempt  to  determine  which  of  the  various  sets  of 
legendary  "Acts"  was  most  likely  to  preserve  traces 
ofa  primitive  and  authentic  record.    Delehaye  rightly 


GSORGB 


454 


QEORGS 


points  out  that  the  earliest  narrative  known  to  us, 
even  though  fragments  of  it  may  be  read  in  a  palimp- 
sest of  the  fifth  century,  is  full  beyond  belief  of  extrav- 
agances and  of  quite  incredible  marvels.  Three  times 
is  Georee  put  to  death — chopped  into  small  pieces, 
buried  deep  in  the  earth  and  consumed  b^  fire — ^but 
each  time  he'  is  resuscitated  bv  the  power  of  God .  Be- 
sides this  we  have  dead  men  brought  to  life  to  be  bap- 
tiised,  wholesale  conversions,  including  that  of  ''the 
Empress  Alexandra",  armies  and  idols  destroyed  in- 
stantaneously, beams  of  timber  suddenly  bursting 
into  leidf,  ana  finally  milk  flowing  instead  of  blood 
from  the  martyr's  severed  head.  There  is,  it  is  true, 
a  mitigated  fonn  of  the  story,  which  the  older  Bolland- 
ists  have  in  a  measure  taken  imder  their  protection 
(see  Act.  SS.,  23  Ap.,  §9).  But  even  this  abounds 
both  in  marvels  and  m  historical  contradictions,  while 
modem  critics,  like  Am^ineau  and  Delehaye,  tJiough 
approaching  the  question  from  verv  different  stand- 
pomts,  are  agreed  m  thinking  that  this  mitigated  ver- 
sion has  been  derived  from  the  more  extravagant  b^  a 
process  of  elimination  and  rationalisation,  not  vice 
versa.  Remembering  then  the  unscrupulous  freedom 
with  which  any  wild  story,  even  when  pagan  in  origin, 
was  appropriated  by  the  early  hagiographers  to  the 
honour  of  a  popular  saint  (see,  for  example,  the  case  of 
St.  Procopius  aa  detailed  in  Delehaye,  ''Legends", 
ch.  v)  we  are  fairly  safe  in  assuming  that  the  Acts  of 
St.  Georee,  thou^  ancient  in  date  and  preserved  to  us 
(with  endless  variations)  in  many  different  languages, 
afford  absolutely  no  indication  at  all  for  arriving  at 
the  saint's  authentic  history.  Tliis,  however,  by  no 
means  implies  that  the  martyr  St.  George  never  ex- 
isted. An  ancient  cultus,  gome  back  to  a  very  earlv 
epoch  and  ooimected  with  a  definite  locality,  in  itself 
constitutes  a  stroi^  historical  aivument.  Such  we 
have  in  the  case  of  St.  George.  Tne  narratives  of  the 
early  pilgrims,  Theodosius,  Antoninus,  and  Arculphus, 
from  the  sixlii  to  the  eighth  century,  all  speak  of 
Lydda  or  Diospolis  as  the  seat  of  tne  veneration  of  St. 
George,  and  as  the  resting-place  of  his  remains  (Geyer, 
"Itinera  Hierosol.",  139,  176,  288).  The  eariy  date 
of  the  dedications  to  the  saint  is  attested  by  existing 
inscriptions  of  ruined  churches  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia, 
and  £^ypt,  and  the  church  of  St.  Georj^  at  Thessa- 
lonica  is  also  considered  by  some  authonties  to  belong 
to  the  fourth  century.  Further  the  famous  decree 
"De  Libris  recipiendis",  attributed  to  Pope  Gelasius 
in  495,  attests  that  certain  apocryphal  Acts  of  St. 
George  were  already  in  existence,  but  includes  him 
among  those  saints  "whose  names  are  justly  rever- 
enced amonflst  men,  but  whose  actions  are  only  known 
to  God".  There  seems,  therefore,  no  groirnd  for 
doubting  the  historical  existence  of  St.  George,  even 
though  he  is  not  commemorated  in  the  Syrian,  or  in 
the  primitive  Hieronymian  Martyrologium,  but  no 
faith  can  be  placed  in  the  attempts  that  have  been 
made  to  fill  up  any  of  the  details  of  his  history.  For 
example,  it  is  now  oenerally  admitted  that  St.  George 
cannot  safely  be  ioentified  with  the  nameless  martyr 
spoken  of  by  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccles.,  VIII,  v),  who 
tore  down  Diocletian's  edict  of  persecution  at  Nico- 
media.  The  version  of  the  legend  in  which  Diocletian 
appears  as  persecutor  is  not  primitive.  Diocletian  is 
only  a  rationalized  form  of  the  name  Dadianus.  More- 
over, the  connexion  of  the  saint's  name  with  Nioo- 
media  is  inconsistent  with  the  early  cultus  at  Diospolis. 
Still  less  is  St.  Georse  to  be  considered,  as  suggested  by 
Gibbon,  Vetter,  and  others,  a  legendary  double  of  the 
disreputable  bishop,  George  of  Cappaoocia,  the  Arian 
opponent  of  St.  Atnanasius.  "  This  odious  stranger ' ', 
says  Gibbon,  in  a  famous  passage,  "disguising  every 
circumstance  of  time  and  pfaoe,  assumed  the  mask  of  a 
martyr,  a  saint,  and  a  Christian  hero,  and  the  infamous 
George  of  Cappadocia  has  been  transformed  into  the 
renowned  St.  George  of  England,  the  patron  of  arms, 
of  chivalry,  and  of  the  Garter. ' '    "  But  this  theory ' ', 


says  Profeflsor  Bury,  Gibbon's  latest  editor,  "haB 
nothing^  to  be  said  for  it. ' '  The  cultus  of  St.  George  is 
too  ancient  to  allow  of  such  an  identification,  though 
it  is  not  improbable  that  the  apocryphal  Acts  have 
borrowed  some  incidents  from  ^e  story  of  the  Arian 
bishop.  Again,  as  Bury  points  out,  "  the  connexion 
of  St.  George  with  a  dragon-slaying  legend  does  not 
relegate  him  to  the  region  of  the  mytn,  for  over  against 
the  fabulous  Christian  dragonnslayer  Theodore  of  the 
Bithynian  Heradsea,  we  can  set  Agapetus  of  Svnnada 
and  Arsadus,  who,  though  celebrated  as  oraeon- 
slayers,  were  historical  persons ' '.  This  episode  of  the 
draflon  is  in  fact  a  very  late  development,  which  can- 
not  t)e  traced  further  back  than  the  twelfth  or  thir- 
teenth century.  It 'is  foimd  in  the  Golden  Legend 
(Historia  Lombardica)  of  James  de  Voraffine  and  to 
this  circumstance  it  probably  owes  its  wi<&  cUffusion. 
It  may  have  been  derived  from  an  allegorization  of  the 
tyrant  Diocletian  or  Dadianus,  who  is  sometimes 
called  a  dragon  (6  p6$un  Spdictaw)  m  the  older  text,  but 
despite  the  researches  of  Vetter  (Reinbot  von  Dume, 
pp.  Ixxv-cix)  the  origin  of  the  dragon  story  remains 
very  obscure.  In  any  case  the  late  occurrence  of  this 
development  refutes  the  attempts  made  to  derive  it 
from  pagan  sources.  Hence  it  is  certainly  not  true,  as 
statea  by  Hartland,  that  in  Georee's  person  "the 
Church  has  converted  and  baptbsea  the  pagan  hero 
Perseus"  (The  Legend  of  Perseus,  iii,  38).  In  the 
East,  St.  George  (6  fitfa\6fiapTvp),  has  from  the  begin- 
ning been  classed  among  the  greatest  of  the  martyrs. 
In  tne  West  also  his  cultus  is  very  earlv.  Apart  from 
the  ancient  onan  of  St.  George  in  Velabro  at  Rome, 
Oovis  (c.  612)  built  a  monastery  at  Baralle  in  his  hon- 
our (Kurth.  Clovis,  II,  177).  Arculphus  and  Adam- 
nan  probably  made  him  well  known  in  Britain  eariy  in 
the  eighth  century.  His  Acts  were  translated  mto 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  English  churches  were  dedicated  to 
him  before  the  Norman  Conquest,  for  example  one  at 
Doncaster,  in  1061.  The  crusades  no  doubt  added  to 
his  popularity.  William  of  Malmesbury  tells  us  that 
Saints  George  and  Demetrius,  "the  martyr  knights", 
were  seen  assisting  the  Franks  at  the  battle  of  Antioch, 
1098  (Gesta  Regum,  II,  420).  It  is  conjectured,  but 
not  proved,  that  the  "arms  of  St.  Geor^"  (ar^nt,  a 
cross,  gules)  were  introduced  about  the  time  of  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion.  What  is  certain  is  that  in  1284  in  the 
official  seal  of  Lyme  Regis  a  ship  is  represented  with  a 
plain  flag  bearing  a  cross.  The  lar^  red  St.  George's 
cross  on  a  white  ground  remains  still  the  "white  en- 
sign" of  the  Britisn  Navy  and  it  is  also  one  of  the  ele- 
ments which  go  to  make  up  the  Union  Jack.  Any- 
way, in  the  fourteenth  century,  "St.  Georce's  arms" 
became  a  sort  of  uniform  for  En^ish  soldiers  and 
sailors.  We  find,  for  example,  in  the  wardrobe  ac- 
counts of  1345-49,  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Crtey, 
that  a  char^  is  made  for  86  penoncells  of  the  arms  of 
St.  George  mtended  for  the  king's  ship,  and  tor  800 
others  for  the  men-at-arms  (Archieologia,  XXXI, 
119).  A  little  later,  in  the  Ordinances  of  Rachard  II 
to  the  English  army  invading  Scotland,  every  man  is 
ordered  to  wear  "a  signe  of  the  arms  of  St.  George" 
both  before  and  behind,  while  the  pain  of  deatn  is 
threatened  against  any  of  the  enemy's  soldiers  "who 
do  bear  the  same  crosse  or  token  of  ^nt  George,  even 
if  they  be  prisoners".  Somewhat  earlier  than  this 
Edward  III  had  founded  (c.  1347)  the  Order  of  the 
Garter,  an  order  of  kmghthood  of  which  St.  Georae  was 
the  principalpatron.  Tne  chapel  dedicated  to  St.  George 
in  Windsor  Castle  was  built  to  be  the  official  sanctuary 
of  the  order,  and  a  badge  or  jewel  of  St  George  slaying 
the  dragon  was  adopted  as  part  of  the  insignia.  In 
this  way  the  cross  ot  St.  Georae  has  in  a  manner  be- 
come identified  with  the  idea  of  knighthood,  and  even  in 
Elisabeth's  days,  Spenser,  at  the  bednning  of  his  Faerie 
Queene,  tells  us  of  nis  hero,  the  Red  Cross  Knight: — 
But  on  his  breast  a  bloody  Cross  he  bore. 
The  dear  remembrance  of  his  dying  Lord, 


aioBai  455 

For  wBoae  sweet  uke  that  ^orious  badge  he  « 

And  dead  (as  living)  ever  him  adored. 

We  are  toM  also  that  the  hero  thought  continually  of  »rmiaaa  inKirclunlix.,  >.  v.;    D^HAta.  £»  ttmuttt 

wrealdng  vengeance;—          *  .       .. ,         ,,  V^.'Tk"lXimd.'"olf^Salt,'^Dg.iT.^odan.iio7}'^ 

Upon  hiB  foe,  a  dragon  homble  and  stem.  looudziS;  Stoebb  in  Diet,  chriii.  sic^..  t.  v. Georgiia  i^^: 

Ecclesiastically  speaking,  St.  George's  day,  23  April,  Matik«,  Cmin*uii™  lo  Uw  Hiiu^  of  St  Gecfnit  in  ,^™- 

was  ordered  to  ^  £e;?a.  a  IfMrh-May  ".early -«  xTllI Z-^'^'Z^'^l^' ^'^T^.^^TtTA^S^^ 

1222,  in  the  national  svnod  of  Oxford.     la  1415,  the  ehMitut  fnoitau  d-nnJUoioaii  orientale  (Puia.  1005).  IV.  220; 

Constitutionof  ArchbishopChicheleraiHedSt-George's  Hdbjb.  Zur  Oo™Wiirf*  (Erlangen,  i»06);    SrH^ioowaKi. 

day  to  the  rank  ot  one  ot  ine  greatest  reaais  ana  or-  (janRw,.  aattr  St.  Gtorg  in  Zeiuchrifi  /.  uw.  ThaoUm:.  XVI, 

dered  it  to  be  observed  luce  Cnnstmas  day.     Dunng  pp.  454  sqq.^  Act  SS..  *s  Apr,;  Dtluuhh,  Apob.  ihrtyrerge- 

the  Beveoteeath  and  eighteenth  centaries  St.  George's  "AifAfm  m  the  Siuungibmchui  of  the  ^lin.  Ac«kniy,^7; 

day   remain^   a   holiJTy   ot  obligation  for   eA  f8'SS';|''5;?ic^^..'!^^  ^^Tf^'f^^ShJ  fl%,'2^lS 

Catholics.     Since   1778,   however,  it  has  been  kept.  Saion  Aodnny,  XIII  (Lcipiig,  isai):   Zibhch.  nuns  S 

like  many  of  these  older  hohdaya,  as  a  simple  feast  of  Oeomi  m  the  BeriMe  of  the  8«od  A<«demy.  XXytl  (Ldp-Mi 


devotion,  though  it  ranks  Uturgi^^y  as  a  double  of    a^-^-^'^^^^t^  Sp^'-i«i-2M.  a.>d  372-Mi 


nl£77S 

_ .. , B-r," " •' ""      arnitaiagupit.  new  sermi.  AJUUi.  pp.  tva-an  • 

the  first  class  with  an  octave.  Zwibkiina.    Bmntrhmem    lur    Gnrom^LtoBidt 

Sa™t    G.O.O.    im    ™.    D»Aao».-Th.    ta.t.    I^SSSt.f^'^'^S^^ .,..  ., 

known  form  of  the  legend  of  St.  George  and  the  Dragon      VmiB,  Da  Ittaiat  Qearg  da  SanbU  van  Dume  (HsUe,  1896); 
la  that  made  popidar  by  the  "L^enda  Aurea",  and     Walub  Bomi.  ft.  jtfortiird™  md  Mj^j^  o/Si.  Ot^ 


QDoiuia  AND  ram  Dbaoon 
0,  HoaidUl  of  6»a  Oioripo  de'  aohiai 

round  a  city  of  Libya,  called  Selena,  making  its  lair     b"!!  in  fheSftm... ..  .  ,.^.,^,  "rfdl 

in  a  marshy  swamp.     I^  breath   caused   pestilence  ^f; ^^t^^^"" -^^,^^1%)'  Tn'st.  oS;j,t^'™.i 

whenever  it  approached  the  town,  so  the  people  gave  especWIy;   Scharf,  On  aVUne  Pamtme  of  St.  Stonii  and  tht 

the  monster  two  sheep  every  day  to  satisfy  its  hunger,  Dnam  m  Arduroioina.  XUX,  pp,  243-300  (London,  ISSS); 

1,1. t  wJiBn  thp  Hhwn  fnilpH   n  hiirnun  victim  WBa  tiP«s-  QoBBON.  St.  Oeorae  Chamjnott  ofChntltadam  (London,  1907); 

out,  wnen  ina  stieep  laiiea,  a  nuraan  victim  was  nec^  Bomr,  St.  OrerBc  /or  M>ttU  Enebmd  (London.  IWW);  on  ifae 

sary  and  lota  were  drawn  to  determine  the  victmi.  On  Flsft  and  Anna  ol  Bt.  Oeorn:— Cuubrbuhd,  HitUry  at  ih4 

one  occasion  the  lot  fell  to  the  king's  little  daughter.  tMwn  Jack  (LaadoD,  1901);  QaaBN.  Tk*  Union  Jack  (London, 

The  king  offered  all  his  wealth  to  purchase  a  substi-  ^*°''-                                             Herbert  Thdrhton 

tute,  but  the  people  had  pledse»i  themselves  that  mbrbbrt  ibumton. 

no  substitutes  should  be  allowea,  and  so  the  maiden,  Qeorga,  Saint,  Diocese  op.     See  Saint  George. 

dressed  as  a  bride,  was  led  to  the  marsh.     There  St.  n_„.„_    a  ,>™   n™   ^n=  «-     a^  a  ,...-  i-<.^,,^. 

0«,r«oh«icedWri<leby,».duk«lth,™ld.n,hu  Qh^S  oi                                    Se.  Saint  G.ome, 
she  did,  but  she  bade  him  leave  her  lest  he  also  might 

peri^.    The  good  knight  stayed,  however,  and,  when  OeoTge  HamartolttB,  a  monk  at  Constantinople 

the  dragoa  appeared,  St.  George,  makii^  the  sign  of  under  Michael   III   (842-867)  and  the  author  01  a 

the  cross,  bravely  attacked  it  and  transfixed  it  with  chronicle  of  some  importance.     Hamartolus  is  not  his 

his  lance.    Then  asking  the  maiden  for  her  girdle  (an  name  but  the  epithet  heaves  to  himself  in  the  title  of 

incident  in  the  story  which  may  possibly  have  some-  his  work;   "A  compendious  chronicle  from  various 

thing  to  do  with  St.  George's  selection  as  patron  of  the  chroniclers  and  interpreters,  gathered  together  and 

Order  of  the  Garter) ,  he  found  it  round  the  neck  of  the  arranged  by  (3eoi^,  a  sinner  [itrb  Ttupylou  5<aproXoC]". 

monster,  and  thereupon  the  princess  was  able  to  lead  It   is   a    common    form   among   Byzantine   monks, 

ft  like  a  lamb.     They  then  returned  to  the  city,  where  Krumbacher  (Byi.  litt.,  358)  protests  against  the  use 

St.  CWrge  bade  the  people  have  no  fear  but  only  be  of  this  epithet  as  a  name  and  proposes  (and  uses)  the 

baptized,  after  which  he  cut  off  the  dragon's  head  and  form  Georgioa  Monaehoa.     Nothmg  is  known  about 

the  townsfolk  were  all  convert«d.     The  king  would  him  except  from  the  internal  evidences  of  his  work, 

have  given  George  half  his  kingdom,  but  the  saint  re-  which  establishes  his  period  (in  the  preface  he  speaks 

plied  tiiat  he  must  ride  on,  bidding  the  king  mean-  of  Michael  III  as  the  reigning  emperor)  and  his  calling 

while  take  good  care  of  God's  churches,  honour  the  (he  refers  to  himself  several  times  as  a  monk).     The 

elergf ,  and  nave  pity  on  the  poor.     The  earliest  refer-  chronicle  consists  of  four  books.     The  first  treats  of 

ence  to  any  such  episode  in  art  is  probably  to  be  found  profane  history  from  Adam  to  Alexander  the  Great; 

in  an  old  Roman  tombstone  at  Conisborough  in  York-  the  second,  of  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament;  the 

ihire.  considered  to  belong  to  the  first  half  of  the  third,  of  Roman  histo^  from  Julius  Ccesar  to  Constan- 

twelftb  century.    Here  the  princess  is  depicted  at  *ine;  and  the  fourth  down  to  the  author's  own  time. 


OSOltOX  456  OKOBte 

• 

As  usually  in  the  case  of  such  medieval  chronicles,  the  assumed  the  name  "of  Trebizond **  because  his  family 
onlv  part  to  be  taken  seriously  is  the  account  of  more  came  from  there.  He  was  one  of  the  foremost  of  the 
or  less  contemporary  events.  The  rest  is  interesting  Greeks  to  arrive  in  Itabjr  (c.  1420)  before  the  fall 
as  an  example  of  Byzantine  ideas  on  the  subjects,  and  of  Constantinople.  Vittorino  da  Feltre  (1378-1446) 
of  the  questions  that  most  interested  Byzantine  monks,  taught  him  Latin,  and  in  return  he  taught  Greek  in 
George  describes  his  ideal  and  principles  in  thepreface.  the  famous  school  at  Mantua.  After  teaching  for  a 
He  has  used  ancient  and  modem  sources  (all  (jireek,  of  time  at  Venice  and  Florence  he  came  to  Rome,  and 
course),  has  especially  consulted  edifying  works,  and  when  Eugenius  IV  (1431-47)  restored  the  University 
has  striven  to  teU  the  truth  rather  than  to  please  the  of  Rome  (1431),  one  of  its  most  important  professor- 
reader  by  artistic  writing.  But  of  so  great  a  mass  of  ships  was  assi^ed  to  George  of  Trebizond,  who  had 
material  he  has  chosen  only  what  is  most  useful  and  acquired  the  highest  repute  as  a  master  of  Latin  stvle. 
necessary.  In  effect,  the  questions  that  seemed  most  .  By  Nicholas  V  (1447-1455)  he  was  much  sought  after 
useful  and  necessary  to  ecclesiastical  persons  at  Con-  as  a  translator  of  Greek  works — such  as  the  "  Syn- 
stantinople  in  the  ninth  century  are  those  that  are  taxis"  of  Ptolemy  and  the  "Prseparatio  Evaneelica" 
discussed.  There  are  copious  pious  reflections  and  of  Eusebius.  His  incompetence,  arrogance,  ana  quar- 
theological  excursuses.  Me  writes  of  how  idols  were  relsomeness  led  to  difficulties  with  Biessarion,  Theo- 
invented,  the  origin  of  monks,  the  religion  of  the  dore  Gaza,  Perrotti  and  Poggio,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
Saracens,  and  especially  of  the  Iconoclast  controversy  leave  Rome,  and  take  refuge  with  Alfonso,  King  of 
that  wasjust  over.  Lake  all  monks  he  hates  Icono-  Naples.  Under  the  pontificate  of  his  former  pupU, 
clasts.  The  violence  with  which  he  speaks  of  them  Paul  II  (1464-1471),  he  returned  to  Rome  and  was 
shows  how  recent  the  storm  had  been  and  how  the  appointed  a  papal^  abbreviator,  but  became  involved 
memory  of  Iconoclast  persecutions  was  still  fresh  when  in  fresh  quarrels ;  in  1465  he  visited  Crete  and  Byzan- 
he  wrote.  He  writes  out  long  extracts  from  Greek  tium,  and  then  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  wrote  the 
Fathers.  Tlie  first  book  treats  of  an  astonishingjv  account  of  the  martyrdom  of  Bl.  Andrew  of  Chios 
miscellaneous  collection  of  persons — Adam,  Nimrod,  (Acta  SS..  29  May).  He  died  resenting  the  obscurity 
the  Persians,  C]!haldees,  Brahmins,  Amazons,  etc.  In  mto  whicn  he  had  fallen,  and  was  buned  in  the  Min- 
the  second  book,  too.  although  it  professes  to  deal  with  erva.  "  George  of  Trebizond  is  the  most  impleasine 
Bible  history  only,  ne  has  much  to  say  about  Plato  of  the  Greeks  of  that  dav.  Conceited,  boastful  and 
and  philosophers  in  general.  George  Hamartolus  spiteful,  he  was  universally  hated"  (Pastor,  II j  202, 
endea  his  chronicle  with  the  year  842,  as  a  colophon  in  note).  He  sided  with  the  partisans  of  Aristotle  m  the 
most  manuscripts  attests.  Various  people,  among  controversy  raised  by  Georgios  Gemisthos  Pleithon 
themnotably"oymeonLogothetes'',  who  is  probably  (1356-1450).  His  onslaught  on  Plato  lost  him  the 
Symeon  Metaphrastes,  the  famous  writer  of  saints'  friendship  of  Bessarion  and  led  to  the  latter  writing 
lives  (tenth  century,  see  Krumbacher,  358),  continued  (1464)  his  great  work, ''  In  calumniatorem  Platonis  , 
his  history  to  later  dates — ^the  longest  continuation  in  the  fifth  book  of  which  he  points  out  259  mistakes  in 
reaches  to  948.  In  spite  of  his  crude  ideas  and  the  Trebizond 's  translation  of  the  "Laws"  of  Plato.  His 
violent  hatred  of  Iconoclasts  that  makes  him  always  numerous  translations  included  the  ''Rhetoric"  and 
unjust  towards  them,  his  work  has  considerable  value  "Problems"  of  Aristotle,  and  St.  Cyril's  "Commen- 
for  the  history  of  the  last  years  before  the  schism  of  tary  on  St.  John",  but,  as  Pastor  notes,  they  are  al- 
Photius.  It  was  soon  translated  into  Slav  languages  most  worthless  (II,  198,  note).  A  list  of  some  forty- 
(Bulgarian  and  Servian)  and  into  Georgian.  In  these  six  works  will  be foimd in Migne,  P.  G.,  CLXI,  745-908. 
versions  it  became  a  sort  of  fountain-h^  for  all  early       Jovius,  Elofria  doetorum  Virorum  (Basle,  1656);  Hodt,  De 

Slav  (even  Russian)  historians.     As  a  very  popular  GnBcit  illuttribua  lingua  Oraca  liUemmmoue  humanarum  fi»- 

AnH  wirlnlv  nnnRiilfAH  hnnlr  it  >i«j»  hAPn  cnnats^ihr  r«.  9tauratonbus,  eorum  vttu  BcnpHa  et  doatia  Itbrt  duo;  ed.  8.  Jebb 

ana  wiaeiy  consuitea  dook  it  nas  oeen  constantly  re-  (London.  1742),  102-135;  Bobmbr.  De  doctu  h<mimil>u»  Litter- 
edited,  corrected,  and  rearranged  by  anonymous  arum  Ontearum  in  Italia  Inttauratoribua  (LeipBig,  1750),  105- 
scribes,  so  that  the  reconstruction  of  the  original  work  120;   Shbphbw).  Life  at  Poooio  Braeciolini  (Liverpool.  1802); 

H.nT*  °?.  1^  "**f  difficult  problems  of  1by«mtine  '^^J^^t^.S^^^ffiS^t^^^^^^):  t^^ 

philology"  (Krumbacher,  355).  137-143;   PAnoB.  The  HiaUny  of  the  Povet  (Eng.  tr.,  Lon- 

Combefis  first  published  the  last  part  of  Book  IV  of  don,  1891),  II;  Woodward,  Vittorino  da  Feltre  arul  other  Hu- 

the  chromcle  and  the  continuation  (813^.48)  under  ^^SJ^^lS^i,^Sr^i^AJ!.V^,°^^W7^St»^. 

the  title.  Blot  tQp  viw  BoffiMtap  m  the     Maxima  blbho-  don.  1900) ;  Sandys,  A  History  of  Claasical  Scholarehip,  II  (Cam- 

theca  (Scriptores  post  Theophanem)"  (Paris,  1685;  bridge.  1908). 

reprinted,  Venice,  1729).    The  first  edition  of  the  Edward  Myers. 

whole  work  was  edited  by  E.  de  Muralt:  "Geoi]^ 

monachi,  dicti  Hamartoli,  Chronicon  ab  orbe  condito        George  Piaides  (or  thb  Pibidiak),  a  Bysantine 

ad  annum  p.  chr.  842  et  a  diversis  scriptoribus  usq.  ad  poet,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  centurv. 

ann.  1143  continuatum"  (St.  Petersburg,  1859).    This  From  his  poems  we  learn  he  was  a  Pisidian  bv  birth, 

is  the  edition  reprinted  in  Migne,  P.  G.,  C  A,  with  a  Latin  and  a  friend  of  the  Patriarch  Sergius  and  the  Emperor 

translation.    It  does  not  represent  the  original  text,  Heraclius,  'who  reigned  from  610  to  641.    He  is  said 

but  one  of  the  many  modified  versions  (from  a  Moscow  to  have  been  a  deacon  at  St.  Sophia's,  Constantinople, 

twelfth-century  MS.),  and  is  in  many  ways  deficient  where  he  filled  the  posts  of  arcnivist,  ^ardian  of  the 

and  misleading  (see  Krumbacher's  criticism  in  "  Byz.  sacred  vessels,  and  referendary.    He  evidently  accom- 

litt.",  p.  357).    A  critical  edition  is  still  wanted.  panied  Heraclius  in  the  war  against  the  Persians  (622), 

"Sovrm^  Bin  Exterptausdemxutngr6aatenTeil  nodi  uTigedrueh-  m  which  campaign  the  true  Cross,  which  the  enemy 

^  ?Ar?2i^  j^P^^*""^  ^''^'^  ^J^^^ZJ?^"^:  had  captured  some  years  before  at  Jerusalem,  was 

echrxft  (1862),  464-68;  db  Boor,  Zur  Kenntnu  der  Wdtchronxk  "****  v^^^v***^  ovr***«    t^^^o  t^avra^  «w  v^t  uocu^ui,    w»o 

dea  Oeorgioe  Monaehoe  in  Hisloriache  Unterauehunoen,  Arnold  recovered.     His  WOrks  have  been  pubhshed  in  the 

Sch&fer  ,  .  .  aewidmei  (Bonn,  1882),  276-95;  HznacH,  Bymn-  original  Greek  with  a  Latin  version  and  are  to  be 

tiniache    Studien   (Gk^ttingen.    1876),    1-88;   Lauchbrt,   Zur  e^imA  in  P    n     YflTT    IIAfUITM. 

TextUberlieferung  der  Chronik  dee  Oeorgioe  Monaehoe  in  Byz.  '^^^  ^  \'      IV  'j  ^'u-  *  ^  - 

Zeiteehrift   (Munich.  1895),  493-613;  Krumbachbr,  Bytan-        About  five  thousand  verses  Of  his  poetry,  most  m 

tinieehe  LitunUur  (2nd   ed.,  Munich,  1897),  352^68,  with  tnmetric  iambics,  have  come  down  to  US.    Some  of  the 

further  bibUography.  t7^„,^„.„^  poems  treat  of  theology  and  morals,  the  others  being 

Adrian  Fortescub.  j;^nicle  of  the  warlbf  his  day.    they  are:  (1)  "  dS 

George  of  Laodicea.    See  Sbmi-Arianb.  expeditione  Heraclii  imperotons  contra  Per^,  libri 

tres' , — an  account  of  the  Persian  war,  which  shows 

Oeorge  of  Trebisond,  a  Greek  scholar  of  the  eariy  tdm  to  have  been  an  eyewitness  of  it;  (2)  "  Bellum 

Italian  Henaissance ;  b.  in  Crete  (a  Venetian  posses-  Avaricum",  descriptive  of  the  defeat  of  the  Avars — a 

Bion  from  1206-1669),  1395;  d.  in  Rome,  1486.    He  Turkish  horde,  that  attacked  Constantinople  in  626, 


GEOBGB                               457  GEOBGB 

and  were  defeated,  during  thi  abeence  of  the  emperor  of  the  Albertine  line,  while  Geor^'s  brother  Heinrich 

and  his  army;  (3)  **  Heraclias"  or  **  De  extremo  Chos-  became  hereditary  governor  of  Fnesland.    The  Saxon 

roee  Persarum  regis  excidio'' — written  after  the  death  occupation  of  Fnesland,  however,  was  by  no  means 

of  Chosroes,  who  was  assassinated  by  his  mutinous  secure  and  was  the  source  of  constant  revolts  in  that 

soldiery  at  Ctesiphon,  in  628;  this  poem  treats  mostly  province.    Consequently  Heinrich,   who  was  of  a 

of  the  deeds  of  the  emperor  and  contains  but  little  rather  inert  disposition,  relinquished  his  claims  to  the 

concerning  Chosroes;  it  is  valued  not  so  much  for  any  governorship,  and  in  1505  an  a^jreement  was  made  be- 

literary  merit,  as  for  being  the  principal  source  for  the  tween  the  brothers  by  which  Fnesland  was  transferred 

history  of  the  reign  of  Heraciius;  (4)  ''In  sanctam  to  George,  while  Heinrich  received  an  annuity  and  the 

Jesu  Christi,  Dei  nostri  resurrectionem'',  in  which  ihe  districts  of  Freiberg  and  Wolkenstein.    But  this  ar- 

poet  exhorts  Flavins  Constantinus  to  follow  in  the  rangement  did  not  restore  peace  in  -Fnesland,  which 

footsteps  of  his  father,  Heraciius;  (5)  '' Hexaemeron",  continued  to  be  an  unceasing  source  of  trouble  to 

or  "Opus  sex  dierum  seu  Mundi  opificium",  this  is  Saxony,  imtil  finally  the  duke  was  obliged,  in  1515,  to 

his  lon^t  and  most  elaborate  poem  and  is  dedicated  sell  it  to  Burgundy  for  the  very  mooerate  price  of 

to  Semus;  (6)  "De  vanitate  vitse";  (7^  "Contra  im-  100,000  florins.    These  troubles  outside  of  his  Saxon 

pium  Sevenun  Antiochise",  written  a^mst  the  Mono-  possessions  did  not  prevent  George  from  bestowing 

physite  heresy:  (8)  "  In  templum  DeiparsB  Constant!-  much  care  on  the  government  of  the  ducal  territory 

nopoli,  in  Blachemissitum" ;  and  finally  (9)  one  piece  proper.   When  re^nt,  diuing  the  lifetime  of  his  father. 

in  prose,  "Encomium  in  S.  Anastasiimi  martyrem".  the  difficulties  arising  from  conflicting  interosts  ana 

From  r^erences  in  Theophanus,  Suidas,  ana  Isaac  the  large  demands  on  nis  powers  had  often  brought  the 

Tzetzds,  we  know  he  wrote  other  works  which  have  young  prince  to  the  vergp  of  despair.    In  a  short  time, 

not  reached  us.    George's  verse  is  considered  correct  however,  he  developed  decided  ability  as  a  ruler;  on 

and  elegant,  but  he  is  sometimes  dull  and  frigid.    He  entering  upon  his  inheritance  he  divided  the  duchy 

was  greatly  admired  by  his  countrymen  in  succeedmg  into  governmental  districts,  took  measures  to  suppress 

a^s  and  preferred  even  to  Euripides.    But  later  the  robbeivknights,  and  regulated  the  judicial  system 

critics  are  not  so  laudatory.    Finlay  in  his  History  of  by  defining  and  readjusting  the  jurisdiction  of  the 

Greece,  I  (Oxford,  1877)  says,  "  It  would  be  difficult  various  law  courts.    In  his  desire  to  achieve  good 

in  the  whole  range  of  literature  to  point  to  poetry  order,  security,  and  the  amelioration  of  the  condition 

which  conveys  less  information  on  the  subject  which  of  the  people,  he  sometimes  ventured  to  infringe  even 

he  pretends  to  treat  than  that  of  George  the  Pisidian.  on  the  rights  of  the  cities.    His  court  was  better  regu- 

In  taste  and  poetical  inspiration  he  is  as  deficient  as  in  lated  thaji  that  of  any  other  German  prince,  and  lie 

judgment  and  he  displays  no  trace  of  any  national  bestowed  a  paternal  care  on  the  University  of  Leipzig, 

characteristics."    But  to  be  just  we  must  remember  where  a  number  of  reforms  were  introduced,  ana 

that  he  was  a  courtier  and  wrote  with  the  intention  of  Humanism,  as  opposed  to  Scholasticism,  was  encour- 

winning  the  favour  of  the  emperor  and  the  patriarch,  aged. 

Literature,  if  we  except  the  production  ot  religious  From  the  beginning  of  the  Eeformation  in  1517, 

controversy,  was  practically  extinct  in  Europe  and  Duke  George  directed  his  energies  chiefly  to  ecclesiasti- 

George  stands  forth  as  its  sole  exponent,  the  only  poet  cal  afifairs.    Hardly  one  of  the  secular  uerman  princes 

of  his  century.  held  as  firmly  as  he  to  the  Church;  he  defended  its 

Davidson  in  Dtrf.  Christ,  bioo.,  8.  v.;  Stbbnbach,  Oeorgii  rights  and  vigorously  condemned  every  innovation 

Sr^SSrT:Sj£SilSk7iSMi^^S.^V^  «?Pt  those  w\ich  were  countenanced  by  the  highest 

Stud.  (Vienna,  1887),  IX,  207-22;  Tksa,  Eaaaemero  di  Giorgio  ecclesiastical  authonties.    At  first  he  was  not  Opposed 

Pitide  (Rome,  1893).                       a    a   lur    t?«  ^  Luther,  but  as  time  went  on  and  Luther's  aim  be- 

A.  A.  MacEblban.  came  clear  to  him,  he  turned  more  and  more  from  the 

George  Scholarius.    See  Gennadius  IL  Reformer,  and  was  finaUy,  in  oonseguence  of  this 

change  of  attitude,  drawn  into  an  acrimonious  corre- 

George  the  Bearded,  also  called  the  Rich,  Duke  epondence  in  which  Luther,  without  any  justification, 

of  Saxony,  b.  at  Dresden,  27  August,  1471;  d.  in  shamefully  reviled  the  duke.   The  duke  was  not  blind 

the  same  city,  17  April.  1539.    His  father  was  Albert  to  the  imdeniable  abuses  existing  at  that  time  in  the 


King  of  Bohemia.  Elector  Frederick  the  Wise,  a  cause  of  truth,  and  was  present  at  all  the  discussions, 
member  of  the  Ernestine  branch  of  the  same  family.  In  152I,  at  the  Diet  of  Worms,  when  the  German 
known  for  his  protection  of  Luther,  was  a  cousin  of  princes  handed  in  a  paper  containing  a  list  of  "griev- 
DukeGeorge.  Albert  the  Brave  had  a  large  family  and  ances"  concerning  the  condition  of  the  Church,  George 
George,  a  yoimger  son.  was  originally  intended  for  the  added  for  himselftwelve  specific  complaints  referring 
Church :  consequently  he  received  an  exceUent  training  mainly  to  the  abuse  of  Indulgences  and  the  annates, 
in  theolo^r  and  other  branches  of  learning,  and  was  In  1525  he  combined  with  hisLutheran  son-in-law,  the 
thus  much  better  educated  than  most  of  the  princes  of  Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse,  and  his  cousin,  the  Elector 
his  day.  The  death  of  his  elder  brother  opened  to  Frederick  the  Wise,  to  suppress  the  revolt  of  the  peas- 
George  the  way  to  the  ducal  power.  As  early  as  1488.  ants,  who  were  defeated  near  Frankenhausen  in  Thu- 
when  his  father  was  m  Fnesland  fighting  on  behalf  of  ringia.  Some  years  later,  he  wrote  a  forcible  preface  to 
the  emperor,  Georee  was  regent  of  the  ducal  posses-  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  issued  at  his  com- 
mons, which  mduded  the  Margravate  of  Meissen  with  mand  by  his  private  secretary,  Hieron3rmus  Emser, 
the  cities  of  Dresden  and  Leipzig.  George  was  mar-  as  an  ofifset  to  Luther's  version.  Lutheran  books  were 
ned  at  Dresden,  21  November,  1496,  to  Barbara  of  confiscated  by  his  order,  wherever  found,  though  he 
Poland,  daughter  of  King  Casimir  IV  of  that  country,  refunded  the  cost  of  the  books.  He  proved  himself  in 
C^rge  and  his  wife  had  a  large  familv  of  children,  all  every  way  a  vigorous  opponent  of  the  Lutherans,  de- 
of  whom,  with  the  exception  crt  a  daughter,  died  before  creemg  that  Christian  burial  was  to  be  refused  to  apos- 
their  father.  In  1498,  the  emperor  granted  Albert  the  tates,  and  recreant  ecclesiastics  were  to  be  delivered  to 
Brave  the  hereditary  governorship  of  Friesland.  At  the  bishop  of  Merseburg.  For  those,  however,  who 
Maastricht,  14  February,  1499,  Albert  settled  the  sue-  merely  held  anti-CathoBc  opinions,  the  punishment 
cession  to  his  possessions^  and  endeavoured  by  this  was  only  expulsion  from  the  duchy.  The  ouke  deeply 
arrangement  to  prevent  further  partition  of  his  do-  regretted  the  constant  postponement  of  the  ardentiy 
naain.  He  died  12  September,  1500,  and  was  sue-  desired  council,  from  tiie  action  of  which  so  much  was 
oeeded  m  his  German  territories  by  George  as  the  head  expected.    While  awaiting  its  convocation,  he  thought 


GEORGETOWV  458  GtfORGKTOWV 

to  remove  the  more  serious  defects  by  a  reform  of  the  Father  Ferdinand  Poulton,  a  few  yean  after  the  set- 
monasteries,  which  had  become  exceedingly  worldly  in  tlement  of  St.  Mary's,  wrote  to  the  general  of  Ihe 
spirit  and  from  which  many  of  the  inmates  were  depart-  society  about  the  prospects  of  founding  a  ooll^  in 
.    He  vainly  sought  to  obtain  from  the  Curia  the  the  infant  colony;  and  the  general  answered,  in  1640: 

^it,  which  was  sometimes  granted  by  Rome,  to  make  "  The  hope  held  out  of  a  college  I  am  happy  to  enter- 

idal  visitations  to  the  conventual  institutions  of  his  tain;  ana,  when  it  shall  have  matured,  I  will  not  be 

realm.    His  reforms  were  ooniGned  mainly  to  imiting  backward  in  extending  my  approval."    But  the  times 

the  almost  vacant  monasteries  and  to  matters  ol  were  not  favourable.    The  laws  against  Catholic  edu- 

eoonomic  management,  the  control  of  the  property  cation  and  educators  were  so  stringent  during  the 

being  entrusted  in  most  cases  to  the  secular  authon-  greater  part^  of  the  Maryland  coloniad  period  that  it 

ties.    In  1525,  Duke  George  formed,  with  some  other  was  only  at  intervals^.for  brief  spaces  ot  time,  and  by 

German  rulers,  the  League  of  Dessiau,  for  the  protection  stealth,  that  the  Jesmts,  always  solicitous  for  the  edu- 

of  Catholic  interests.    In  the  same  wav  he  was  the  cation  of  youth,  were  able  to  conduct  a  school.    Such 

animating  spirit  of  the  League  of  HaUe,  formed  in  a  school  was  at  Bohemia,  in  Cecil  Coimty*  it  numbered 

1533,  from  which  sprang  in  1538  the  Hol^  League  of  among  its  scholars  John  Carroll,  the  founder  of  Geoige- 

Nuremberg  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Rehgiousreace  town  College.    He  is  the  link,  moral  and  persoiud, 

of  NuremMrg.  between  G^i^town  and  earlier  schools ;  and  with  hu 

The  vigorous  activity  displayed  by  the  duke  in  so  name  the  history  of  Georgetown  College  is  indiasolubly 

many  directions  was  not  attencled  with  much  success,  connected.    He  had  a  large  share  in  its  foundation 

Most  of  his  political  measures,  indeed,  stood  the  test  of  and  upbuilding,  and  the  sons  of^  Geoi^town,  to 

experience,  but  in  ecclesiastico-political  matters  he  honour  his  memory,  have  formally  instituted  the  ob- 

witnessed  with  sorrow  the  gradual  decline  of  Catholi-  servance  of  *'  Founder's  Day",  in  January  of  each 

dsm  and  the  spread  of  Lutheranism  within  his  domin-  year.    His  life  and  character  are  detailed  elsewhere 

ions,  in  spite  of  Ms  earnest  efforts  and  forcible  prohi-  (see  Carroll,  John).    Even  before  he  became  Uie 

bition  of  the  new  doctrine.     Furthermore,  during  first  bishop  of  the  Umted  States,  he  saw  and  impressed 

George's  lifetime  his  nearest  relations,  his  son-in-law,  upon  his  former  brethren  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  the 

Philip  of  Hesse,  and  his  brother  Heinrich.  joined  the  urgent  need  of  a  Catholic  college.    .Having  secured 

ReformezB.    He  spent  the  last  years  of  nis  reign  in  their  co-operation,  he  drew  up  the  plan  of  the  institu- 

endeavours  to  secure  a  Catholic  successor,  thinking  by  tion  and  issued  a  prospectus  appealmg  to  his  friends  in 

this  step  to  check  the  dissemination  of  Lutheran  opin-  England  for  financial  assistance.    It  was  he  who  se- 

ions.    The  only  one  of  George's  sons  then  living  was  lected  the  site;  and,  although  unable  to  give  personal 

the  weak-minded  and  immarried   Frederick.     The  supervision  to  the  undertaking,  burden^  as  he  was 

intention  of  his  father  was  that  Frederick  should  rule  with  the  solicitude  of  all  the  churches,  he  watched 

with  the  aid  of  a  council.   EarK'in  1539,  Frederick  was  with  paternal  interest  over  the  earlv  growth  of  the 

married  to  Elizabeth  of  Mansteld.  but  he  died  shortly  college.    Georgetown  still  possesses  nis  portrait,  by 

afterwards,  leaving  no  prospect  of  an  heir.   According  Gilbert  Stuart,  relics  from  his  birthplace  at  Upper 

to  the  act  of  settlement  of  1499,  Geoi]ge's  Protestant  Marlborou^^,  the  maniiscript  of  his  course  in  theology, 

brother  Heinrich  was  now  neir  prospective  rbutGeoive,  the  Missal  which  he  used  when  a  rural  missionary  at 

disregarding  his  father's  will,  sought  to  disinherit  his  Rock  Cheek,  the  attestation  of  his  consecration  as 

brother  and  to  bequeath  tne  duchy  to  Ferdinand,  bishop  at  Lulworth  Castle,  the  cireular  which  he  issued 

brother  of  Charles  V.   His  sudden  death  prevented  the  detailing  the  plan  and  scope  of  the  college,  and  many 

carrying  out  of  this  intention.  letters,  original  or  copied,  relating  to  its  standing  and 

Geor^  was  an  excellent  and  industrious  ruler,  self-  prospects. 
Baoificmg,  hig^-minded,  and  unwearvine  in  the  fur^        In  1889  the  college  celebrated  with  befitting  pomp 

therance  of  the  highest  interests  of  his  land  and  people,  the  hundredth  anniversary  of  its  foundation.   George- 

As  a  man  he  was  upright,  vigorous  and  eneraetic,  if  town,  in  1789,  was  the  chief  borou^  of  Montgomery 

somewhat  irascible.    A  faiHseeing  and  faithfuladher-  Coimty,  Maryland.    Father  Carroll  selected  it  for  the 

ent  of  the  emperor  and  empire,  he  accomplished  much  site  of  the  academy,  influenced,  no  doubt^  by  a  knowl- 

for  his  domain  by  economy,  love  of  order,  and  wise  edge  of  the  locakty  acquired  during  his  missionary 

direction  of  activities  of  his  state  officials.    The  grief  of  excursions.    In  speaking  of  the  present  site,  he  de- 

his  life  was  Luther's  Reformation  and  the  apostasv  scribes  it  as  "one  of  the  most  lovely  situations  that 

from  the  Old  Faith.    Of  a  strictly  religious,  although  imagination  can  frame".    The  first  prospectus  says: 

not  narrow,  disposition,  he  sought  at  any  cost  to  keep  **  In  the  choice  of  Situation,  Salubnty  of  Air,  Con- 

his  subjects  from  falling  away  from  the  Chureh,  but  venience  of  Communication,  and  Cheapness  of  Living 

his  methods  of  attaining  his  object  were  not  always  have  been  principallv  consulted,  and  Georgetown 

free  from  reproach.  offers  these  united  advantages".    In  reguxi  to  the 

HiatoT.-  jaoliiif^  Burner  far  daakatholuche  DeuUchJand  "Salubrity  of  Air",  it  is  simificant  that  the  coUege 

2l""Aif?i-rS;«^^  records  show  the^  d^itt^ongt^^ 

dm  Herzcffa  Oeorg  von  Sadiaen  (Leipsig,  1888);  Idbm,  Akten  und  have  occurred  m  1843.     In  1784,  Father  Carroll  wafl 

Bri^e  mr  KirchmpolUik  HertooOeorga  von  Sach»m  (Leipsig,  appointed  prefect- Apostolic,  or  superior,  of  the  Church 

W^).  I,  oontaming  the  years  1617-24.  other  volumes  to  ap-  -^^^  United  States.     In  1785  he  wrote  to  his  friend, 

^^'  H.  A.  Creutzbehq.  Father  Charles  Plowden,  in  £neland:  "The  object 

nearest  my  heart  now,  and  the  omy  one  that  can  give 

OaoTf  etown  Uniyersity,  Washington,  District  of  consistency  to  our  religious  views  in  this  country,  is 

Columbia,   "is  the  oldest  Catholic  literary  estab-  the  establishment  of  a  school,  and  afterwards  of  a 

lishment   in  the   United   States.    It  was  foimded  Seminary  for  youn^cleraymen."    At  a  meeting  of  the 

immediately  after  the  Revolutionary  War,  by  the  cler^,  held  at  White  Marsh,  in  1786,  he  presented  a 

incorporated  Catholic  Clergy  of  Maryland,  who  se-  detailed  plan  of  the  school,  and  recommended  the  site 

lectea  from  their  Body  Trustees,  and  invested  them  which  had  impressed  him  so  favourably.    The  clergy 

with  full  power  to  choose  a  President  and  appoint  sanctioned  the  project,  adopted  a  series  of  "  Resolves 

Professors.    Since  the  year  1805,  it  has  been  under  the  concerning  the  Institution  of  a  School ",  and  directed 

direction  of  the   Society   of  Jesus"   (The   Laity's  the  sale  ofa  piece  of  land  belon^ng  to  the  corporation. 

Directory,  1822).  ^  in  order  that  the  proceeds  might  be  applied  to  the 

Origin — Founder. — In  treating  of  the  origin  of  erection  of  the  first  building.    The  Reverends  John 

Georgetown  University,  its  chroniders  and  historians  Carroll,  James  Pellentz,  Robert  Molyneux,  John  Ash* 

are  wont  to  refer  to  earlier  schools  in  Maryland,  pro-  ton,  and  Leonard  Neale  were  appointed  directors.    In 

jected  or  carried  on  by  the  Jesuits.    It  is  true  that  1788,  the  first  building  was  imdertaken.    The  work 


GEOBGETOWV                          459  GEORaSTOWV 

I>rooeeded  slowly,  from  want  of  funds,  and  1789  is  con-  preceding  ten  vears  had  been  25.    The  century  mark 

sidered  to  be  the  year  of  the  foundation  of  the  collegei  Uoi)  was  reacned  for  the  first  time  in  1818;  the  high- 

as  the  deed  of  the  original  piece  of  eroimd  was  dated  est  number  (317)  in  1859.    The  majority  of  the  stu- 

23  January  of  that  year.    The  lanf— one  and  a  half  dents  at  that  period  were  from  the  Southern  States,  and 

acres — ^was  acquired  by  purchase,  for  the  sum  of  £75  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  caused  a  rapid 

current  mohey.  The  "  Old  Buildins ' ',  as  it  was  called,  exodus  of  young  men  from  class-room  to  camp.  There 

was  not  ready  for  occupancy  untu  1791 ;  it  was  re-  were  onl]^  120  registered  in  1862. 

moved  in  1904,  to  make  way  for  Ryan  Hall.  The  printed  prospectus  of  1798,  issued  by  Rev.  Wm. 

In  its  material  growth  the  college  has  expanded  Dubourg  (president,  1796-99),  furnishes  details  of  the 

from  the  solitary  a<»demic  structure  of  early  days  into  studies  pursued  at  that  date,  and  holds  forth  promise 

the  clustering  pile  that  crowns  the  ancient  site,  con-  of  an  enlarged  course.    This  promise  was  fulfilled 

sisting  of  nine  dbtinct  constructions,  known  in  order  under  his  immediate  successor,  Bishop  Leonard  Neale 

of  erection  as  the  North  Buildins  (begun  1791,  com-  (president,  1799-1806).    In  1801,  there  were  seven 

geted  1808),  the  Infirmary  (1831-18^),  the  Mulledy  members  of  a  senior  class,  studyins  logic,  metaphysics, 

uilding  (1831),  the  Observatory  (1843),  the  Maguire  and  ethics.    Father  John  Grassi  (president.  1812-17) 

Building  (1854),  the  Healy,  or  Main.  Building  (lS79).  infused  new  life  into  the  administration  of  tne  college: 

the  Dahlgren  Chapel  (1893),  the  laa  M.  Ryan  Hall  he  promoted  liie  study  of  mathematics  and  secured 

(1905),  and  the  Ryan  Gymnasium  (1908).    To  the  the  necessary  apparatus  for  teaching  the  natural 

ori^bal  classical  academy  have  been  added,  as  oppor-  sciences.    During  nis  term  of  office,  the  power  to  grant 

tunity  arose  or  expediency  prompted,  the  astronomi-  degrees  was  conferred  by  Act  of  Congress,  March  1, 

cal  observatory,  in  1843;  the  medical  school,  in  1851 ;  1815,  the  bill  being  introauced  by  Georgetown's  proto- 

the  law  school,  in  1870;  the  university  hospital,  in  alumnus,  a  member  from  North  Carolina.    This  power 

1898;  the  dental  school,  in  1901 ;  the  training  school  was  first  exercised  in  1817.    The  formal  incorporation 

for  nurses,  in  1903.  of  the  institution  was  effected  by  Act  of  Congress  in 

Since  1805,  when  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  restored  1844,  imder  tJie  name  and  title  of ''The  President  and 

in  Maryland,  Georgetown  has  been  a  Jesuit  College,  Directors  of  Geoigetown  (DoUege".    By  this  Act  the 

with  the  traditions,  the  associations,  courses  of  study,  powers  granted  in  1815  were  increased.    The  Holy  See 

and  methods  of  instruction  which  the  name  implies,  empowered  the  college,  in  1833,  to  confer  in  its  name 

Until  1860  the  Superior  of  the  Mission  and  Provincial  of  degrees  in  philosophy  and  theology.    Degrees  have 

Maryland  generally  resided  at  the  coUege ;  the  novitiate  been  conferred,  from  1817  to  1908  inclusive,  as  follows : 

was  there  for  some  years;  and  it  was  the  provincial  Doctors — ^D.D.,  27;  LL.D.,  101;  Ph.D..  42;  M.D.,  950; 

house  of  higher  studies  for  philosophy  and  theology,  D.D.S.,  59;  Phar.D.,  3;  Mus.D.,  7 ;  total  1,189.    Lioen- 

during  the  greater  part  of  the  period  preceding  the  tiates,  Ph.L.,  9.    Masters:  LL.M.,  743;  A.M.,  432; 

opening  of  Woodstock  Scholasticate,  in  1869.    Natur-  M.S.,  2;  total,  1>177.    Bachelors:  LL.B.,  1,708;  A.B., 

ally,   under  such  conditions,  the  college  exercised  872;  Ph.B.,  13;  Phar.B.,  6;  B.S.,  14;Mus.B.,  1;  total, 

considerable  influence  upon  the  religious  development  2,614.— Grand  total  of  degrees  conferred,  4989. 

of  the  country  and  Catholic  progress  in  the  early  days.  The  Rev.  Robert  Plunket  waa  chosen  to  be  the  first 

The  first  three  Archbishops  of  Baltimore  had  intimate  president.    The  corporation  defrayed  the  expenses  of 

relations  with  it:  Carroll,  as  founder;  Neale,  as  presi-  nis  passage  from  England  to  America.    He  entered 

dent;  and  Mar^chal,  as  professor.    Bishop  Dubourg  upon  his  auties  in  1791,  served  for  two  years,  and  was 

of  New  Orleans  was  president;  the  saintly  Bishop  succeeded  by  Father  Robert  Mol}meux,  who  became 

Flaget,ofBardstown,was  professor;  as  also  Bishop  Van-  the  first  superior  of  the  restored  society  in  Maryland, 

develde  of  Chicago.    Bishops  Carrell  of  0>vington  and  and  held  tne  presidency  of  the  college  for  a  second 

O'Hara  of  Scranton  were  students.    Bishop  Benedict  term  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1808.    The  school 

J.  Fenwick,  of  Boston,  one  of  the  first  students  at  began  with  very  elementary  classes,  but  the  original 

Geor&etown,  and  afterwards  professor  and  president,  plan  contemplated  a  rounded  academic  course,  and 

founded  the  College  of  the  Holy  Cross,  at  Worcester,  gradually  the  standard  of  classes  was  raised,  and  their 

Mass.,  a  direct  offshoot  of  Georgetown.    The  Rev.  number  increased.    Some  of  the  assistant  teachers 

Enoch  Fenwick,  S.  J.,  president,  had  a  large  share  in  were  aspirants  to  Holy  orders,  and  a  class  in  theology 

buildins  the  cathedral  of  Baltimore.    Bishop  Neale  was  formed.    In  1808,  four  of  this  class  were  elevated 

founded  the  Visitation  Order  in  America.    Fathers  to  the  priesthood,  Benedict  Fenwick,  Enoch  Fenwick, 

James  Ryder  and  Bernard  A.  Maguire,  presidents,  Leonard  Edelen,  and  John  Spink,  the  first  members  of 

were  distinguished  pulpit  orators.    Father  Anthony  the  Society  of  Jesus  to  be  ordained  in  the  United 

Kohlmann,  president,  was  a  profoimd  theologian,  and  States. 

his  work,  "  Unitarianism  Refuted",  is  a  learned  con-  Predent  Staitu. — Georgetown  University  consists  of 

tribution  to  controversial  literature.    Father  Camillus  the  college,  the  school  of  medicine,  the  school  of  dental 

Mazzella,  afterwards  Cardinal,  is  famous  as  a  dogmatic  surgery,  and  the  school  of  law.    The  number  of  stu- 

theologian.    Father  James  Curley,  in  a  modest  way,  dents  at  present  (1909)  is:  college,  101 ;  medicsJ  school, 

promoted  astronomical  science;  the  renowned  Father  82;  dental  department,  54;  hospital  training  school, 

Secchi  was  for  a  time  connected  with  the  observatory,  17;  law  school,  495.    Total,  749.    The  faculties,  in- 

as  was  also  Father  John  Hagen,  now  Director  of  the  eluding  officials,  professors,  special  lecturers,  assistants 

Vatican  Observatory.     Georgetown  has  exerted  its  and  associates,  are  distributed  as  follows:  college,  26; 

influence  on  education  and  morals  indirectly  through  medical  school,  65;  dental  school,  27;  law  school,  24. 

various  other  colleges  that  have  sprung  from  it,  and  Clinical  instruction  is  given  in  uie  University  Hos- 

directly  by  the  host  of  its  own  alumni,  nearly  five  pital;  tiie  amphitheatre  accommodates  over  180  stu- 

thousand  m  number,  many  of  them  distinguished  in  dents.    The  hospital  is  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  St. 

every  walk  of  life.  Francis,  and  has  a  training  school  for  nurses  attach^. 

Upon  the  opening  of  the  college,  in  1791,  the  first  The  hospital  staff  numbers  8  physicians  in  chic^,  with 

name  upon  the  Register  is  that  of  William  Gaston  of  9  associates  and  18  assistants.    Post-^^uate  courses 

North  Carolina,  who,  despite  the  constitutional  dis-  of  study  are  carri^  on  in  the  law  and  medical  schools, 

qualifications  of  Catholics  in  his  native  State,  repre-  and  are  offered  in  the  college.    A  preparatory  depart- 

sented  it  in  Congress,  and  rose  to  its  Supreme  Bench,  ment,  or  classical  high  school,  is  attached  to  the 

The  number  of  students  enrolled  in  1792  was  66;  on  the  college  and  in  1909   nad  97  students.    The  oolle^ 

opening  day  of  1793,  47^  new  students  entered.    Hiis  grounds  comprise  78  acres,  a  large  part  of  which  is 

was  a  promising  beginning,  but  growth  was  slow,  and  occupied  by ''The  Wallis'',  famous  for  their  woodland 

for  several  years  following  there  was  even  a  falling  off.  scenery.    The  hospital  is  in  close  proximity  to  the 

In  1813  the  boarders  numbered  42 ;  the  average  for  the  college ;  the  law  and  medical  schools  are  in  the  heart 


GEOBOIA 


460 


GEOBGIA 


of  the  city.  The  Rkgs  Memorial  libraiy  contains 
more  than  95,000  volwnes,  among  which  are  many 
rare  and  curious  works,  early  imi)rint8,  and  ancient 
MSS.  Among  the  special  libraries  incorporated  in  the 
Riegs  is  that  of  the  historian,  Dr.  J.  Gilmary  Shea, 
valuable  for  Americana  and  Indian  languages.  The 
Hirst  Library  is  for  the  use  of  the  students  of  the 
undergraduate  school;  it  contains  about  5000  volumes. 
There  are  also  sjiecial  libraries  for  the  post-graduate 
course,  for  the  jimior  students,  and  for  Maryland 
colonial  research.  The  Coleman  Museum  is  a  large 
hall  in  which  are  displayed  various  collections;  here 
three  thousand  specimens  illustrate  the  whole  field  of 
mineralogy,  while  in  geolo^  and  paleontology  there 
are  exceuent  collections.  Mosaics,  valuable  sets  of 
coins,  pontifical  and  other  medals,  autographs,  photo- 
graphs, curios  in  great  variety  make  the  museum  one 
of  the  most  interesting  institutions  of  its  kind. — ^The 
College  Archives  are  deposited  in  a  spacious  fire-proof 
vault,  well  lighted  ancf  ventilated.  Connected  with 
the  archives,  there  is  a  hall  for  the  exhibition  of  Mis- 
sals, chalices,  vestments,  bells^  and  other  memorials  of 
the  early  Jesuit  missions  of  Maryland.  Gaston  Hall, 
where  commencement  and  other  exercises  are  held, 
owes  its  artistic  ornamentation  and  finish  to  the  liber- 
ality of  the  Alumni  Association.  The  Philodemic  De- 
bating Society  Room  is  decorated  with  portraits  of 
distinguished  graduates  and  college  worthies.  The 
College  Joumaland  the  literary  and  scientific  societies 
fumisn  opportunity  for  mentsd  improvement;  the 
Sodality  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  which  is  the  oldest  in 
the  Umted  States,  helps  to  piety.  The  Athletic  Asso- 
ciation encourages  sport  and  promotes  physical  train- 
ing by  means  of  the  gymnasium,  ball  clubs,  boat 
dubs,  etc.  The  spirit  oTloyaJty  towards  Alma  Mater 
is  fostered  by  the  National  Society  of  Alumni  and  by 
the  local  societies  of  New  York,  Philadelphia^  North- 
eastern Pennsylvania,  the  Pacific  Coast,  Wisconsin, 
and  the  Georgetown  University  Club  of  New  England. 
The  Triennial  Graduate  Li$t  elves  in  alphabetical 
order  the  names  of  all  those  who^ave  received  degrees 
from  the  university,  together  with  information  con- 
cerning the  present  occupation  and  residence  of  living 
graduates.  The  General  Catalo^e,  and  the  Circular 
of  Information,  Georgetown  Umversity  publications 
issued  annually,  fumisn  detailed  information  in  regard 
to  courses  of  studies,  requirements  for  admission  and 
graduation,  fees,  expenses,  etc.,  in  all  departments. 

Cabroll,  Letters  (in  relation  to  the  college,  original  and 
copied,  preserved  at  Georgetown  and  Ston^^urst  Colleges,  and 
in  Baltimore  diocesan  and  Maryland  Province  Archives. 
These  letters  are  generally  referred  to,  and  sometimes  quoted 
in  exteruot  by  the  writers  mentioned  below);  Hughbs,  HUtory 
of  the  Society  of  Jeme  in  N.  America  (London  and  Cleveland, 
1008,  1909),  Documente,  I,  II;  Shba,  Memorial  of  First  Centen- 
ary (New  York.  1891);  Id.,  Hist.  Cath.  ChurtA  in  U.  8.  (New 
York,  1888-1890),  II,  III;  Brent,  Biography  of  Archbishop 
CarroU  (Baltimore,  1843),  76-95;  EABBT*SifrrH,  GeorgHavm 
University,  Its  Founders,  Ben^actors,  Officers  and  Alumnt  (New 
York  and  Chicago,  1907);  McLauohun,  CoUege  Davs  at  Oeorge- 
toum  (Philadelphia,  1899);  Jackson,  Chronicles  of  Oeorgetovm 
(Washington,  1878),  215;  Laity*s  Directory  (New  York,  1822), 
84;  CathoUc  Almanac  (Baltimore,  1833 — );  Sumnbr,  Woodstock 
Letters,  VII.  3,  69,  135,  VIII,  3,  52;  Cassbrly  in  Scribner's 
Magazine,  XX,  665;  McLAuaHUN,  Catholic  World,  XL VI,  610; 
Bbckbt,  Cosmopolitan,  VIII,  449;  Taogart  in  Records  Colum- 
bia Hist.  Soc.,  XI,  120;  Dbvitt,  ibid.,  XII;  Metropolitan,  IV, 
287;  College  Journal  (1872 — ),  passim;  Annual  Calalpques 
(1851-);  College  Archives  (a  voluminous  collection  of  original 
manuscript  sources,  consisting  of  registers,  deeds  and  records, 
account  books,  diaries,  academic  exercises,  proceedings  of  socie- 
ties, and  letters  with  printed  discourses,  programmes,  notices  of 
persons  and  events — 135  vols.,  cliu»ified  ana  indexed). 

E.  J.  Dbvitt. 

Georgia. — Statistics. — ^The  area  of  Geors:ia  is 
59,475  EC},  m.,  and  it  is  the  largest  of  the  origins^  thir- 
teen United  States;  bounded  on  the  north  by  Tennes- 
see and  North  Carolina,  on  the  east  by  the  savannah 
River  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  Florida, 
and  on  the  west  by  Florida  and  Alabama.  Popula- 
tion in  1790,  82,548;  in  1830,  516,823;  in  1870,  1,184,- 
109;  and  in  1900,  2,216,331,  including  1,034,813  ne- 


groes, 204  Chinese,  1  Japanese,  and  19  Indians.  Tlie 
population  of  Savannah,  the  largest  city,  was,  in  1900, 
54,244.  The  present  Constitution  was  adopted  in 
1877.  The  State  is  divided  into  10  congressional  dis- 
tricts, 44  senatorial  districts,  and  137  coimties.  No 
State  in  the  American  Union  has  such  a  variety  of 
agricultural  products.  Cotton  is  the  chief.  Before 
the  Civil  War  one-sixth  of  the  total  cotton  crop  of  the 
United  States  was  raised  in  Georgia.  In  1883, 824,250 
bales  were  produced;  in  1907,  1,920,000.  Georgia 
now  ranks  as  the  second  cotton-producing  State. 
Among  other  agricultural  products,  Georgia  produced 
in  1907  5,010,000  bushels  of  oats.  57,538,000  bushels 
of  corn,  and  2.673,000  bushels  ot  wheat.  Georgia  is 
likewise  remarkable  for  the  extent  and  variety  of  its 
woodland,  its  pine  being  world-famous.  It  possesses 
coal,  iron,  and  gold 
mines,  as  weu  as 
silver,  copper,  and 
lead.  In  1905  the 
value  of  its  prod- 
ucts of  mamifae- 
turewas$151,040r 
455,  the  capital 
employed  Deing 
$135,211,551.  >  Its 
favourable  loca- 
tion, extensive 
railroads,  and  nu- 
merous navigable 
streams  give  Geor- 
gia exoeUent  com- 

m  e  r  c  i  a  1    ad  van-  gj^^^  ^^  Gbohoia 

tages.   Situated 

between  the  North  and  the  South^West,  the  West  and 
the  Atlantic,  trade  between  these  sections  passes 
through  the  State.  Atlanta  and  Savannah  are  its  prin- 
cipal commercial  centres.  The  value  of  foreign  com- 
merce is  estimated  at  $30,000,000.  There  is  no 
Southern  State  equal  to  Georgia  in  the  number  of 
its  railroad  enterprises.  Atlanta,  Columbus,  Macon, 
Savannah,  and  Augusta  are  the  principal  railroad 
centres.  The  mileage  of  railroads  in  1907  was  6786-33. 

Education. — ^The  Constitution  provides  for  a 
"  thorough  system  of  common  schools  ',  maintained  bv 
taxation  "or  otherwise",  and  free  for  "white  and  col- 
ored races".  The  State  school  commissioner  is  ap- 
g>inted  by  the  governor  for  a  term  of  two  yeajrs. 
very  county  has  a  board  of  education  and  a  superin- 
tendent, ana  is  provided  with  free  schools.  Atlanta, 
Savannah,  Augusta.  Macon,  and  Columbus  are  separ- 
ately organized  imaer  local  laws.  The  State  univer- 
sity, at  Athens,  founded  in  1785,  is  non-sectarian  and 
in  1908  had  199  instructors  and  3375  students.  Con- 
nected with  it  are  agricultural  colleges,  a  law  school, 
and  a  medical  school  in  various  parts  of  the  State, 
llie  other  prominent  institutions  of  learning  are  At- 
lanta University  at  Atlanta,  founded  in  1869,  non- 
sectarian,  with  20  instructors  and  340  students ;  Clark 
University  at  Atlanta,  founded  in  1870,  Methodist 
Episcopal,  with  25  instructors  and  532  students; 
Emory  College  at  Oxford,  founded  in  1836,  Methodist 
Episcopal,  with  14  instructors  and  265  students; 
Morris  Brown  College  at  Atlanta,  foimded  in  1881, 
Methodist,  with  28  instructors  and  940  students; 
Shorter  College  at  Rome,  founded  in  1877LBaptist, 
with  30  instructors  and  250  students;  and  Wesieyan 
Female  College  at  Macon,  the  first  institution  of  learn- 
ing for  women  in  America,  founded  in  1836,  Metho- 
dist Episcopal,  with  33  instructors  and  474  students. 
In  the  common  schools  of  Georgia  there  were  enrolled 
in  1907  499,103  pupils  and  10,360  teachers. 

Civil  History. — The  swamps  and  pine  lands  of 
Georgia,  the  last  colonized  of  the  original  thirteen 
American  settlements,  were  all  but  untrod  by  the  feet 
of  white  men  before  the  eighteenth  century.  Tradi- 
tion has  it  that  De  Soto,  in  nis  ill-starred  march  to  hia 


GEORGIA  461  GEORGIA 

grave  in  the  Missiauppi,  camped  for  a  while  in  1540  ony.  B^  a  splendid  bit  of  strategy  on  Oglethorpe's 
near  the  present  city  of  Augusta;  a  more  unreliable  part  the  invasion  was  repulsed,  and  the  last  blow  had 
tradition  asserts  that  Sir  Walter  Ralei^,  on  his  initial  been  struck  bv  Spain  against  the  English  colonies  in 
vo^^age,  ''landed  at  the  mouth  of  Savannah  River,  and  the  New  World.  Less  successful  was  the  attempt  of 
visit^  the  bluff  on  which  the  city  was  afterwards  the  board  of  trustees  to  plant  the  mulbeny  and  the 
built".  For  a  century  and  a  half  the  Uchees,  Creeks,  vine  in  the  new  colony.  The  warfare  with  Spain,  the 
and  Cherokees  were  left  undisputed  masters  of  their  lack  of  adequate  skilled  labour,  and  the  general  thrift- 
hunting-grounds — Lords  of  the  Marches — between  the  lessness  of  the  colonists  made  the  cultivation  of  such 
English  mntier  to  the  north  and  the  Snanish  to  the  products  practically  impossible.  The  vine,  which 
south.  In  the  nature  of  things  this  coula  not  lone  en-  was  to  have  supplied  all  the  plantations,  and  to  culti- 
dure.  By  the  voyage  of  John  Cabot,  in  1497,  England  vate  which  they  had  imported  a  Portuguese  vignerorif 
laid  claim  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard ;  oy  the  settlement  resulted  in  only  a  few  gaUons  and  was  then  abandoned, 
of  St.  Augustine,  in  1565,  Spain  established  its  author-  The  hemp  and  flax,  which  were  to  have  sustained  the 
ity  over  the  southern  coast.  The  vastness  of  the  new  linen  manufactures  of  Qreat  Britain  and^  to  have 
world  deferred  the  inevitable  clash  of  these  overlap-  thrown  the  balance  of  trade  with  Russia  into  Eng- 
ping  claims  until  the  settlen^nt  of  South  Carolina  m  land's  favour,  never  came  to  a  single  ship-load;  and 
1670,  when  Spain,  alarmed  at  this  territorial  expan-  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  seems  to  have  expired 
sion  of  the  Protestant  English  colonies,  began,  by  in-  with  its  crowning  achievement  when,  on  the  occasion 
trigues  with  Indians  and  negro  slaves,  to  narass  the  of  His  Majesty's  oirthday  in  1735,  Queen  Caroline  ap- 
saSty  of  the  latter  colony.  At  the  beginning  of  the  peared  at  the  levee  in  a  complete  court  dress  of 
ei^teenth  century  Parliament  began^  to  feefthat  a  Georgia  silk.  Least  successful  of  all  was  the  philan- 
military  colony  on  the  southern  frontier  was  impera-  thropic  attempt  to  colonize  Georgia  with  non-produc- 
tive, and  this  conclusion  was  felicitously  comple-  tive  inmates  from  English  prisons.  It  was  this  class 
mented  by  the  belief  that  the  mulberry  and  the  vine  that  early  b^m  to  cry  for  rum  and  slavery;  and  had 
could  be  successfully  cultivated  on  the  southern  hills  it  not  been  tor  the  settlement  of  Ebenezer,  in  1734, 
and  savannas;  while  a  third  great  philanthropic  con-  with  industrious  Salzburgers,  expelled  from  Germany 
sideration  contributed  to  the  final  adoption  of  the  byreasonof  their  religious  beliefs;  that  of  Fort  Argyle, 
scheme.  James  O^ethorpe^  who  had  followed  up  a  in  1735,  with  a  colony  of  Swiss  and  Moravian  immi- 
brilliant  military  career  as  aide-de-camp  to  the  Prince  grants;  and  that  of  New  Inverness,  in  1736,  with  a 
Eugene  b^  a  still  more  brilliant  parliamentary  career,  ha^rdy  band  of  thrifty  Scotch  mountaineers,  the  phil- 
had  conceived  the  plan  of  settling  a  colony  in  the  New  anthropic  plans  of  O^ethorpe  would  have  been  speed- 
World  with  worthy,  though  imfortunate  and  economi-  ily  wrecked.  As  it  was,  the  enei^^es  of  the  general 
cally  unproductive,  inmates  of  the  wretched  En^i^  were  mfunly  directed  towards  placmg  Savannah  upon 
prisons.  With  this  threefold  purpose  in  view,  a  peti-  an  economically  self-sufficient  basis, 
tion  was  presented  and  accepted  by  the  Privy  Coimcil  One  of  the  restrictions  that  acted  most  forcibly 
and  the  Board  of  Trade,  ana  the  charter  of  the  Colony  against  labour  and  thrift,  the  tenure  of  land  along  the 
of  Georgia,  named  after  the  king  and  embracing  the  line  of  male  descent,  was  repealed  in  1739.  Another. 
territor}r  lying  between  the  Savannah  and  the  Alta-  the  prohibition  of  slavery,  a  restriction  which  served 
maha  Rivers,  received  the  great  seal  of  England  on  9  to  make  restless  and  impermanent  an  unskilled  and 
June,  1732.  This  charter  created  a  board  of  trustees  thriftless  population  settled  so  close  to  the  slave-hold-' 
for  twenty-one  years,  who  were  to  possess  entire  rights  ing  settlements  of  South  Carolina,  was  removed  in 
in  the  governing  and  the  financing  of  the  project,  out  1747.  Even  the  attempt  to  rouse  up  spiritual  energy 
who  were  not  toprofit,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  by  in  Savannah  proved  too  great  a  task  for  the  Wesleys, 
the  venture.  Tne  board  thus  created,  composed  of  although  in  1738  the  eloquent  Whitefield  seems  to 
manjr  leading  noblemen,  clergymen,  and  members  of  have  won  at  least  a  hearing  for  his  strenuous  moral 
Parliament  of  the  day,  met  forthwith  and  drew  up  one  code.  But  neither  an  energetic  general  governor,  a 
of  the  most  remarkable  governmental  documents  in  concessive  board  of  trusts,  nor  the  zealous  bearera 
English  colonial  history.  A  military  governor  was  of  a  fresh  and  fiery  spiritual  code  could  establish  the 
appointed.  Transportation,  food,  ana  land  were  philanthropic  or  commercial  success  of  the  proprietary 
given  settlers  for  the  feudal  returns  of  labour  and  mili-  colony  of  Georgia.  Mutiny  was  widespread.  Ogle- 
tary  service^  but  tenure  of  land  was  to  descend  only  thorpe's  life  was  threatened  and  actually  attempted, 
along  the  Ime  of  direct  male  issue.  Other  salient  The  trustees  were  disheartened.  Letters  of  dissent 
limitetions  in  these  by-laws  were  the  prohibition  and  charges  against  Oglethorpe,  written  under  the 
of  liquor^  as  well  as  that  of  negro  slaves,  and  freedom  pseudonym  of  "The  Pmin  Dealer",  reached  Parlia- 
of  worship  was  to  be  granted  to  all  prospective  colo-  ment.  In  1743  Oglethorpe  returned  te  En^and  to 
nists  "except  papisto  .    With  this  document  and  126  face  a  general  court  martial  on  nineteen  char^.    He 


the  new  colony,  embarked  on  the  "Anne,"  on  12  returned  te  Savannah ;  whfle  the  board  of  trustees,  in 

November,  1732,  arrived  at  Charleston  the  following  1751,  at  the  expiration  of  their  charter,  formally  and 

January,  and  in  the  spring  of  that  year  founded  Sa-  wearily  surrenoered  their  right  of  government  to  the 

vannah,  which  took  its  name  from  that  of  the  river  Lords  of  the  Council,  and  Georgia  became  a  royal 

above  which  the  little  cabins  of  the  settlers  were  first  province. 

reared.  ^  ^  In  the  generation  before  the  Revolution  Georgia 
During  the  twenty-one  years  of  its  proprietary  gov-  steadily  increased  in  population  under  roval  governors, 
emment.  Georgia  struggled  along,  rather  m  spite  ofthe  llie  cultivation  of  rice  by  slaves  made  the  colony 
remote  designs  and  unpractical  restrictions  of  ite  trus-  economically  self-supporting.  A  better  class  of  colo- 
tees  than  because  of  ttieir  indefati^ble  labour,  ster-  nists  were  induced  to  immigrate  to  its  woodlands  and 
ling  integrity,  and  sin^e-minded  philanthropv.  Asa  rice  fields  from  Encdand  and  the  Carolinas.  On  11 
frontier  setuement  against  the  Catholic  coionies  of  January,  1758,  the  Assemblv  passed  an  Act  "for  con- 
Spain,  Georgia  speedily  justified  ite  existence.  War  stituting  the  several  Divisions  and  Districts  of  this 
between  the  rival  countries  was  declared  in  1739.  Province  into  Parishes,  and  for  establishing  Religious 
Oglethorpe  invaded  Florida  in  1740,  and  with  an  in-  Worship  therein,  according  to  the  Rites  and  Cere- 
sufficient  force  unsuccessfully  besieged  St.  Augustine,  monies  of  the  Church  of  England  ".  This  was  designed 
Two  years  later  Spain  retaliated,  attempting  By  land  not  to  interfere  with  other  classes  of  worshippers,  but 
and  sea  the  complete  annihilation  of  the  English  col-  to  provide  by  law  for  supplying  the  settlements  with 


0E0R0I4  462  0E0B0I4 

the  ministrations  of  religion,  by  which  Aet  a  salary  of  ties  of  the  State.  Triangular  difficulties  between  a 
£25  per  annum  was  allowed  every  clergyman  of  the  State  jealous  of  its  rights,  a  government  jealous  of  its 
Established  Church.  The  law  excluding  Roman  Cath-  federal  power,  and  Indians  j ealous  of  their  tribal  prop- 
olic  colonists  was  not,  however,  repealed ;  a  restriction  erty  rights  resulted  in  much  ill-feeling  and  bloodshea, 
which  put  to  the  test  the  lovalty  of  a  Georgian  Tory  with  afi  but  the  extermination  of  the  Creeks  by  Gen- 
governor  when  four  hundred  Acadian  refugees  sought  eral  Floyd's  Georgian  troops  in  the  War  of  1812. 
shelter  at  Savannah,  bringing  letters  from  the  cover-  Indeed  these  difficulties  were  not  finally  settled  until 
nor  of  Nova  Scotia  to  the  effect:  "That,  for  the  better  the  removal  of  the  Cherokees  b}^  the  Umon  to  a  West- 
security  of  that  province,  and  in  consequence  of  a  em  reservation  in  1838,  by  which  Georgia  came  into 
resolution  of  his  Council,  ne  had  sent  these  people  to  possession  of  the  full  quota  of  land  she  now  holds. 
Georgia".  Governor  Reynolds  distributed  them  about  The  relation  between  State  and  Government  in 
the  colony  for  the  succeeding  winter  and  maintained  these  Indian  affairs  during  the  first  three  decades  of 
them  at  the  public  expense.  But  in  the  spring,  "by  the  century  induced  in  (^rgia,  in  particular,  that 
leave  of  the  Governor,  they  built  themselves  a  number  spirited  endeavour  to  safeguard  the  ri^ts  of  local 
of  rude  boats,  and  in  March  most  of  them  left  for  gnvemment  which  later  diaracterized  the  State's 
South  Carolina;  two  hundred  of  them  in  ten  boats  Right  doctrine  of  the  entire  South  before  the  outbreak 
going  off  at  one  time,  indulging  the  hope  that  they  of  the  Civil  War;  and  upon  the  election  of  Lincoln  to 
might  thus  work  their  way  along  to  their  native  and  the  presidency  of  the  nation,  the  politicians  of  Georgia 
beloved  Acadie".  No  other  form  of  civic  or  religious  took  active  measures  towards  accomplishing  the  s&- 
exclusiveness,  however,  hampered  the  steady  growth  of  cession  of  their  State  from  the  Union.  The  delegates 
the  colony.  Aside  from  spasmodic  Indian  mcursions,  to  the  Confederate  convention  at  Montgomery,  Ala- 
incited  by  the  French,  Georgia  developed  the  arts  of  bama,  were  conspicuously  energetic,  and  a  Georgian, 
peace,  immigrants  continued  to  flock  in,  and  between  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  was  nubde  Vice-President  of 
1763  and  1773  the  exports  of  the  colony  increased  the  Confederacy.  In  the  war  that  followed  the  State 
from  £27,000  to  £121,600.  reaped  a  rich  harvest  of  havoc  and  devastation,  Uie 

The  preponderating  Tory  element  in  the  colony  at  culmination  of  its  suffering  being  Sherman's  March  to- 

the  outoreak  of  the  Involution,  made  up  for  the  most  the  Sea,  through  its  territory,  in  1864.    After  the  ter- 

part  of  a  new  generation  of  wealthy  limdowners  and  mination  of  hostilities  Georgia  violated  the  Recon- 

their  14,000  slaves,  who  spelt  commercial  ruin  in  revo-  struction  Act  b^  refusing  to  allow  nefl;roes,  upon 

lution  and  who  persuaded  a  second  generation  of  election,  a  seat  m  the  Legislature;  but  tne  Supreme 

parasitic  idlers  to  share  their  views,  allowed  the  Court  of  the  State  decided  that  negroes  were  entitled 

Briti^  Parliament  to  boast  throughout  the  Revolu-  to  hold  office;  a  new  election  was  neld;  both  houses 

tion  that  Georeia  was  a  royalist  province.    The  dis-  were  duly  reorganized;  the  requirements  of  Congress 

tance  of  the  colony  from  the  centre  of  operations,  the  were  acceded  to,  and  by  Act  of  15  July,  1869,  Georgia 

blundering  inaptitude  of  such  provincial  ^nerals  as  was  readmitted  to  the  union.    Since  the  close  of  tiie 

Howe.  Uie  early  capture  and  long  retention  by  the  war  the  material  development  of  Georgia  has  been  re- 

Britisn  of  both  Savannah  and  Atlanta,  and  the  hostil-  markable,  principally  along  the  lines  of  manufactured 

itv  of  the  Indians  to  the  colonial  cause  gave  some  industries.    At  present  its  cotton  mills  are  among  the 

.historical  warrant  to  such  a  point  of  view.    But  if  the  largest  in  the  world.    The  Cotton  Exposition  in  1881 

fervour  of  the  revolutionary  spirit  was  restricted  to  ana  The  Cotton  States  and  International  Exposition 

but  a  few,  it  gained,  in  consequence,  in  expressive  in  1895,  both  held  in  Atlanta,  were  eloquent  of  the  fact 

momentum.    In  spite  of  British  milituy  successes  that  Geor^  has  been  the  first  of  the  seceding  States 

along  the  coast;  in  spite  of  the  disheartening  and  dev-  to  recognize  the  spirit  of  the  new  commercial  life  of 

astating  guerilla  incursions  of  Indians  and  Florida  the  South. 

Rangers  to  the  south  and  west;  in  spite  of  Washing-  Religion. — Church  History. — ^The  Diocese  of  Sa- 
ton's  enforced  ne^ect  of  the  frontier  colony's  safetv,  vannah,  which  comprises  the  State  of  Georgia,  was 
the  spirit  of  the  Georgian  Americans  slumbered  fiercely  established  in  1850.  As  late  as  the  period  of  the 
under  an  intense  repression,  bursting  forth  in  sporadic  American  Revolution  there  was  scarcely  a  Catholic  to 
flames  of  personal  heroism  and  stoical  fortitude,  be  found  in  the  colony  or  State  of  Georgia,  nor  was 
Nancy  Hart  is  as  heroic  a  heroine,  if  a  coarser  one,  as  there  a  priest  in  the  State  for  many  years  thereafter. 
Molly  Pitcher,  and  Savannah  is  hallowed  b^  the  life-  Bishop  England  states  that  there  were  not  twenty-five 
blood  of  Pulaski.  Georgia  serv^  by  waiting,  and  priests  in  all  the  colonies  at  that  time.  About  1/93  a 
when  at  last  Washington  could  assign  Greene  and  Lee  few  Catholics  from  Maryland  moved  into  Georgia 
to  the  army  of  the  &uth,  the  recapture  of  Savannah  and  settled  in  the  vicinity  where  the  church  of  Locust 
followed  closely  upon  that  of  Atlanta,  and  the  last  Grove  was  subsequently  built.  Previous  to  their  re- 
British  post  had  been  abandoned  in  the  colony  before  moval  these  earhest  Georgian  Catholics  had  applied 
the  surrender  at  Yorktown.  for  a  clergyman  to  accompany  them,  but  were  unable 

In  the  meantime,  in  1777,  Georeia  had  passed  its  to  obtain  their  re<iuest.    Shortly  after  the  French 

first  State  Constitution.    A  secondwas  adopted  in  Revolution,  Catholic  imigr^s  from  the  French  colony 

1789   and  a   third   in   1798,  which,  several  times  of  Santo  Domingo,  then  enduring  the  horrors  of  a 

amended,  endured  up  to  the  time  of  the  pass^  of  the  negro  revolution,  settled  at  Augusta  and  Savannah. 

g resent  Constitution.    The  fifty-sixth  article  of  the  One  of  their  priests  began  to  discharge  the  duties  of 

rst  Constitution  established  religious  toleration.   The  his  ministry  at  Maryland,  a  little  colony  fifty  miles 

second  Constitution  closed  the  membership  of  both  above  Augusta,  a  fact  which  is  recorded  as  ''the  com- 

houses  against  clergymen,  but  the  test  of  Protestant-  mencement  of  the  Church  in  Georgia".    In  a  few 


paymg ,  ^ 

men.    On  2  June,  1788,  the  National  Constitution  was  city  council  gave  a  grant  of  land,  and  a  wooden  edifice 

ratified,  and  Georgia  was  the  fourth  State  to  enter  the  with  a  small  steeple  was  erected.    In  the  vear  1810  the 

Union.     In  the  first  thirty  years  of  its  statehood  Legislature  incorporated  the  Catholics  of  Augusta,  an 

Georgia  was  embroiled  In  difficulties  with  the  Indians,  Augustinian   friar.  Rev.    Robert   Browne,    became 

following  the  Yasoo  land  scandals  and  the  treaty  of  pastor,  and  the  brick  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 

1802,  by  which  Georgia  ceded  all  its  claims  to  lands  fifty  feet  in  length  and  twenty-five  wide,  was  erected 

westward  of  its  present  limits,  and  the  Creeks  ceded  from  funds  raised  by  subscription.     In  1820  Georgia 

to  the  United  States  a  tract  afterwards  assigned  to  and  the  Carolinas  were  separated  from  the  See  of 

Georgia  and  now  forming  the  south-western  coun-  Baltimore,  the  Rev.  Doctor  England  being  appointed 


OEOROnJS 


463 


OlOBOIDS 


to  the  newly  fonned  see.  At  that  time  there  were 
about  five  hundred  Catholics  in  Savannah,  with 
fewer  still  in  Augusta.  In  1839  Bishop  Engbuid  an- 
nounced that  there  were  but  eleven  priests  in  the  State. 

The  most  salient  feature  of  the  work  of  the  Church 
in  Georgia  at  the  present  time  is  the  evangelical  energy 
directed  towards  the  conversion  of  the  negroes,  a  task 
which  is  being  undertiJcen  b^  the  Society  of  the  Afri- 
can Missions.  The  population  of  the  State  is  about 
equally  divided  between  white  and  coloured,  and  of 
the  million  negroes  not  above  five  hundred  are  Catho- 
lics. There  is  a  mission  with  church  and  school  and 
two  resident  priests  in  Savannah,  with  about  four 
hundred  Catholic  people.  In  the  school  110  children 
are  taught  by  Franciscan  Sisters.  In  Augusta  a  new 
mission  has  been  established  with  a  church  and  a 
school  with  twenty  pupils.  Among  the  30,000  coloured 
in  the  city  of  Augusta  there  are  not  above  twenty 
Catholics. 

Church  StatUHcs, — In  the  Diocese  of  Savannah 
there  are,  according  to  the  census  of  1908,  23,000 
Catliolics,  18  secular  priests,  41  priests  of  religious 
orders,  13  churches  with  resident  priests,  18  missions 
with  churches,  81  stations,  and  14  chapels. 

Church  Educational  Facilities, — ^There  are  three 
Catholic  coUe^  in  Georgia  with  342  students:  the 
College  of  Manst  Fathers  at  Atlanta,  the  College  of  the 
Saci^Nl  Heart  at  Augusta,  and  St.  Stanislaus  Kovitiate 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Macon.  There  are  ten  acad- 
emies, one  seminary  for  small  boys,  while  twelve 
parishes  in  the  diocese  possess  parocnial  schools  in 
charge  of  Sisters  and  Brothers.  The  State  furnishes 
these  schools  no  financial  support. 

Church  Charitable  In8tit^U^ona, — ^There  are  in  Geor- 
gia 2  Catholic  hospitals  owned  by  and  in  charge  of  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  one  of  which  secures  aid  from  the 
county  for  the  care  of  the  poor — a  per  capita  assign- 
ment. There  are  170  orphans  cared  for  at  St.  Joseph's 
Orphan^,  Washington,  in  charge  of  6  Sisters  oi  St. 
Joseph ;  St.  Mary's  Home  for  Female  Orphans,  Savism- 
nah,  in  charge  of  7  Sisters  of  Mercv;  and  2  coloured 
orphanages.  In  addition  to  these  there  is  a  Home  for 
the  Aged,  at  Savannah,  in  charge  of  10  Little  Sisters  of 
the  Poor,  with  94  inmates. 

Relioioua  Polity, — Under  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  as  well  as  under  the  State  Constitution, 
full  liberty  of  conscience  in  matters  of  religious  opinion 
and  worship  is  granted  in  Georgia ;  but  it  has  been  held 
that  this  does  not  legalize  wilful  or  profane  scoffing, 
or  stand  in  the  way  of  legislative  enactment  for  the 
punishment  of  such  acts.  It  is  unlawful  to  conduct 
any  secular  business,  not  of  an  imperative  nature,  on 
Sunday.  There  are  no  specific  requirements  for  the 
administration  of.  oaths ;  such  may  be  administered  by 
using  the  Bible  to  swear  upon,  by  the  uplifted  hand, 
or  by  affirmation,  the  form  being:  "You  do  solemnly 
swear  in  the  presence  of  the  ever  living  God"  or  "  You 
do  sincerely  and  truly  affirm,  etc."  The  sessions  of 
the  Legislature  are  opened  with  prayer,  those  of  the 
courts  are  not.  Georgia  recognizes  as  State  holida3rs 
1  January  and  25  December,  but  no  church  Holy  Da3rs, 
as  such,  are  recognized  as  holidays.  The  law  allows 
the  same  privileges  to  communications  made  to  a 

Eriest  under  the  seal  of  confession  as  it  does  to  con- 
dential  communications  made  by  a  client  to  his 
counsel,  or  by  a  patient  to  his  physician.  The  statutes 
contain  no  provisions  making  any  exception  between 
the  ri^ts  and  privileges  of  civil  or  ecclesiastical  cor- 
porations. The  property  of  the  Church  in  the  diocese 
u  held  by  the  bishop  and  his  successors  in  office. 

Excise  and  Wills. — Georgia  from  the  very  besp- 
nine  seems  to  have  steadily  pursued  a  restrictive  policy 
in  the  granting  of  excise  pnvileees.  The  initial  steps 
in  legislation  looking  towards  toe  prohibition  of  tne 
sale  of  liquors  were  taken  in  1808,  when  the  Legislature 
passed  an  Act  making  it  unlawful  to  sell  intoxicating 
drink  within  one  mue  of  any  "meeting-house"  or 


other  "  places  of  public  worship  "  during  the  time  '*  ap- 
propriated to  such  worship' ,  under  the  penalty  of 
thirty  doUars,  a  fact  which  nas  been  regarded  as  ^the 
first  attempt  at  the  restriction  of  the  traffic".  By 
1904  there  were  104  prohibition  counties  out  of  134, 
and  Georgia  has  been  a  prohibition  State  since  1 
January,  1908. 

Every  person  is  entitled  to  make  a  will  unless 
labouring  imder  some  disability  of  law  arising  from 
want  of  capacity  or  want  of  perfect  liberty  of  action. 
Children  imder  fourteen  years  of  age  cannot  make  a 
will.  Nor  can  insane  persons.  A  married  woman 
may  make  a  will  of  her  separate  property  without  her 
husband's  consent.  All  wiUs,  except  such  as  are  nun- 
cupative, disposing  of  real  or  personal  property,  must 
be  in  writing,  signed  by  party  making  same,  or  by 
some  other  person  in  his  presence  and  by  his  direction, 
and  shall  be  attested  and  subscribed  in  presence  of 
testator  and  three  or  more  competent  witnesses.  If  a 
subscribing  witness  is  a  legatee  or  devisee  under  will, 
witness  is  competent,  but  legacy  or  devise  is  void.  A 
husband  may  oe  a  witness  to  a  will  b^  which  legacy 
creating  a  separate  estate  is  given  to  his  wife,  the  fact 
only  gomg  to  his  credit.  No  person  having  a  wife  or 
child  shaU  by  will  devise  more  than  two-thirds  of  his 
estate  to  any  charitable,  religious,  educational,  or 
civil  institution  to  the  exclusion  of  his  wife  or  child; 
and  in  all  cases  a  will  containing  such  a  devise  shall  be 
executed  at  least  ninety  days  before  death  of  testator 
or  such  devise  shall  be  void.  A  year's  support  of 
family  takes  precedence  in  wills  as  a  preferred  obligi^ 
tion.    There  is  no  inheritance  tax. 

Marriage  and  Divorce. — ^The  marriage  laws  of 
Georgia  reouire  parental  consent  when  the  contracting 
male  is  under  twenty-one  years  and  the  female  imder 
ei^teen  years,  while  all  marria^  are  prohibited  with- 
in the  Levitical  degrees.  Marriages  by  force,  menace, 
or  duress,  of  white  with  a  negro,  or  when  either  party  is 
mentally  or  physically  incapable,  or  insane,  or  when 
Uiere  has  been  fraud  m  the  mception,  as  well  as  biga- 
mous marriages,  are  considered  by  statute  void  or 
voidable:  The  ^unds  for  divorce  are  mental  and 
physical  incapacity,  desertion  for  three  3reais,  felony, 
cruelty,  habitual  drunkenness,  force,  duress,  or  fraud 
in  obtaining  marriage,  pregnancy  of  wife  by  other  than 
husband  at  marriage,  relationship  within  the  prohib- 
ited degrees,  and  adultery.  One  year's  residence  in 
the  State  is  required  before  the  issuance  of  a  decree  of 
divorce.  From  1867  to  1886  the  State  granted  3959 
decrees  of  divorce;  from  1887  to  1906 10,401  were  de- 
creed. In  1880  the  divorce  rate  per  100,000  population 

was  14;  in  1900,  26. 

Whztb,  Hiatorical  CoUectioM  of  Oeorgia  (New  York,- 1855); 
Stbven,  History  of  Georgia,  I  (New  York.  1847).  II  (Philadel- 


Jarvis  Keilbt. 


Gecrgiiu  Syncellas  (Gr.  Ttt&pyiot  6  Zi^yiccXXof); 
d.  after  810;  the  author  of  one  of  the  more  important 
medieval  Byzantine  chronicles.  Not  much  is  known 
of  his  life.  He  had  lived  manyyears  in  Palestine  as  a 
monk;  under  the  Patriarch  Tarasius  (784-806)  he 
came  to  Constantinople  to  fill  the  important  post  of 
syncellus.  The  svncellus  is  the  patriarch's  private 
secretary,  ^nerally  a  bishop,  always  the  most  impor- 
tant ecclesiastical  person  in  tne  capital  after  the  patri- 
arch himself,  often  the  patriarcn's  successor.  But 
George  did  not  succeed  Tarasius.  Instead,  when  his 
patron  died  he  retired  to  a  monastery  and  tnere  wrote 
njs  chronicle.  The  only  date  we  know  at  the  end  of 
his  life  b  810  (6302  an.  mundi),  which  he  mentions 
(Dindorf 's  edition^  389,  20,  see  below)  as  the  current 
year.  The  chronicle,  called  by  its  author,  "Extract 
of  Chronography"  CEKkoy^  xpo^oy pastas) ,  contains 
the  history  of  the  world  from  the  Creation  to  the  death 
of  Diocletian  (316).    It  is  arranged  strictly  in  order  of 


OSRAOB 


464 


OEEAMB 


time,  all  the  events  being  named  in  the  year  in  which 
they  happened.  The  text  is  continusdly  inteiTUi>ted 
by  long  tables  of  dates,  so  that  Krumbacher  describes 
it  as  being  ''rather  a  great  historical  list  [GeachichUta- 
bdU]  with  added  explanations,  than  a  universal  his- 
tory"  (Byzantinische  Litteratnr,  2nd  ed.,  Miviich, 
1897,  340).  The  author  has  taken  most  trouble  over 
the  Bible  history,  the  chronology  of  the  life  of  Christ 
and  the  New  Testament.  For  later  times  he  is  con- 
tent with  a  compilation  from  Eusebius  (Church  His- 
tory and  Canon)  and  one  or  two  other  historians  (the 
Alexandrines  Panodorus  and  Annianus  especially;  see 
Gelzer,  op.  cit.  infra) .  He  took  trouble  to  secure  good 
manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint  and  did  some  respect- 
able work  as  a  critic  in  collating  them.  He  also 
quotes  Greek  Fathers— Gregozy  Nazianzen  and  Chiys- 
ostom  especially.  His  interest  is  always  directed  in 
the  first  place  to  questions  of  chronology.  The  ''  Ex- 
tract of  Chronoloey '  *  has  merit.  Krumbacher  counts 
it  as  the  best  work  of  its  kind  in  Byzantine  literature 
(op.  cit.,  341).  That  the  author  thinks  the  Septua- 
c^it  more  authentic  than  the  Hebrew  text— of  which 
necould  read  nothing  at  all — is  a  harmless  and  inevit- 
able weakness  in  a  Greek  monk.  Geoi*mus  Svncel- 
lus's  chronicle  was  continued  by  his  friend  Theophanes 
Confessor  (Geo^dn^t  ifioXoyrrris),  Anastasius  Bibli- 
othecarius  composed  a  ''Hiistoria  tripartita"  in  Latin, 
from  the  chronicle  of  Svncellus,  Theophanes,  and 
Nicephorus  the  Patriarch  (806-815).  This  work, 
written  between  873  and  875  (Anastasius  was  papal 
librarian),  spr^Mi  Synoellus's  chronological  ideas  m  the 
West  also.  In  the  East  his  fame  was  gradually  over- 
shadowed by  that  of  Theophanes. 

GoAB  published  tiieetfiliopmictfjM.'  Georgiimonachi  .  .  .  Stfl^ 
edli  ehronographia  et  Nicephcri  Patriardug  Conatantinopclis  6r&- 
viarium  ehronographieum  (Paiis,  1652).  Dindobt  reprinted 
Gov's  edition  (2  vola..  Bonn^  1829).  Tbubnbb,  at  Leipzig, 
announces  a  new  one  in  nis  Scnplorea  »aeri  et  prof  ant  series,  that 
was  to  be  edited  by  Gbubb  (d.  1906)  and  Rbxcbhabdt.  Gbx/- 
SBB,  Sexlua  Juliua  AfrieanuB  (1885),  II.  I.  176-249.  Further 
literature  in  Kbjjubacbm^  Bytantiniadte  LtUemiur  (2nd  ed., 
Munich,  1897),  339-342. 

AdbIAK  F0BTE8CXJB. 

Oeracei  Diocese  of  (Hieracensis),  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Reggio  in  Calabria  (Southern  Italy),  on  a  lofty 
site  overlooking  the  Ionian  Sea,  not  far  from  Gape 
Spartivento.  The  city  probably  owes  its  origin,  or 
at  least  its  importance,  to  the  ruin  of  the  town  of 
Locri  Epizephvrii,  one  of  the  earliest  Greek  colonies  in 
Lower  Italy,  founded  by  the  Ozolian  Locrians  (684- 
680  B.  c.)  and  endowed  with  a  code  of  laws  b^  Zaleu- 
cus.  Tlurough  its  advanced  civilization  and  its  trade 
Locri  Epizephyrii  was  brought  into  prominence.  It 
suffered  much  during  the  wars  of  Dionysius  the 
Younger  and  of  Pyrrhus,  and  in  the  Second  Punic 
War,  when  it  passea  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  re- 
taining, however,  the  ancient  constitution  of  Zaleucus. 
Its  decay  dates  from  this  period.  Before  its  total 
ruin,  Locri  Episephyrii  had  a  bishop  of  its  own ;  but  in 
709,  under  Bishop  Gregory,  the  see  was  transferred  to 
Go^ce. 

The  name  Gerace  is  probably  derived  from  Saint 
Cyriaca,  whose  church  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
in  915.  They  captured  the  town  in  986,  but  in  1059 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Normans.  Until  1467  the 
Greek  Rite  was  in  use  at  Gerace,  and  such  had  probably 
been  the  custom  from  the  beginning.  •  As  earlv  as  the 
thirteenth  century  efforts  were  made  to  introduce  the 
Latin  Rite,  which  accounts  for  the  schism  between 
Latins  and  Greeks  about  1250-1253.  The  latter  de- 
manded as  bishop  the  monk  Bartenulfo,  a  Greek, 
whereas  Innocent  IV,  in  1253,  appointed  Marco  Leone. 
In  1467,  Bishop  Atanasio  Calceofilo  introduced  the 
Latin  Rite.  Among  bishops  of  note  are:  Barlaam  II 
(1342),  Abbot  of  San  Salvatore  at  Constantinople,  and 
ambassador  from  the  Emperor  Andronicus  to  Bene- 
dict XII,  apropos  of  the  union  of  the  two  Churches. 
Barlaam  at  one  time  had  opposed  the  idea*  but  later 


reoofloiiied  his  error,  and  Clement  VI  bestowed  on  him 
the  See  of  Gerace.  He  taught  Greek  to  Petrarch. 
Boccaccio,  and  others,  and  was  thus  one  of  the  first  ot 
the  Italian  humanists.  Bishop  Ottaviano  Pasqua 
( 1 574)  wrote  a  history  of  the  diocese.  Another  bishop, 
Giovanni  Maria  Belletti  (1625),  wrote  "  Disquisitiones 
Clericales";  Giuseppe  Maria  PeUicano  (1818)  rebuilt 
the  cathedral,  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1783. 
Gerace  is  a  suffragan  of  R^^io;  it  has  69  parishes,  and 
132,300  souls;  1  religious  nouse  for  men,  and  3  for 

women. 
CAPPaLurm,  Le  ChieBe  d^Ibdia  (1870).  XXL  165-71. 

U.  Beniqni. 

Gerald,  Saint.  Bishop  of  Mavo,  an  English  monk, 
date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  13  March,  731;  followed 
St.  Colman.  after  the  Synod  of  Whitby  (664),  to 
Ireland,  and  settled  at  Innisboffin,  in  668.  Dissen- 
sions arose,  after  a  time,  between  the  Irish  and  the 
Engli^  monks,  and  St.  Colman  decided  to  found 
a  separate  monastery  for  the  thirty  English  brethren. 
Thus  arose  the  Abbey  of  Mayo  (Magh  Eo,  the  yew 
plain),  known  as  "Mayo  of  the  Saxons",  with  St. 
Gerald  as  first  abbot,  in  670.  St.  Bede  writes: 
''This  monastery  is  to  this  day  (731)  occupied  by 
Endish  monks  .  .  .  and  contains  an  exemplary 
body  who  are  gathered  there  from  England,  and 
live  by  the  labour  of  their  own  hands  (after  the  man- 
ner of  the  early  Fathers),  under  a  rule  and  a  canon- 
ical abbot,  leading  chaste  and  single  lives.''  Although 
St.  Gerald  was  a  comparatively  yoime  man,  he  proved 
a  wise  ruler,  and  governed  Mavo  untu  697,  when,  it  is 
said,  he  resigned  in  favour  of  St.  Adamnan.  Some 
authors  hold  that  St.  Adamnan  celebrated  the  Roman 
Easter  at  Mayo,  in  703,  and  then  went  to  Skreen,  in 
Hy  Fiachrach,  and  that  after  his  departure  the  monks 

Prevailed  on  St.  Gerald  to  resume  the  abbacy.  The 
axon  saint  continued  to  govern  the  Abbey  and  Dio- 
cese of  Mayo  till  his  death.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on 
13  March.  Mayo,  though  merged  in  Tuam  for  a  time, 
remained  a  separate  see  until  1579. 

CoiiQAN,  Ada  SancL  Hib,  (Louvam,  1645),  13  March ; 
O'Hanlon,  Livea  of  the  Irtah  SainU  (Dublin,  s.  d.).  Ill,  13 
March;  Hbalt,  hmda  Sanetorum  et  Dodorum  (4th  ea.,  Dublin, 
1902);  Ki^ox,  JVbto*  on  the  Dxoceae  of  Tuam  (Dublin,  1904); 
Bids,  Ecd,  Hut,  cj  Bnt^and,  ed.  Pluiucbb  (London,  1907); 
Grattan-Flood,  The  Lnoeeee  and  Abbey  of  Mat/o  in  7r.  Bed. 
Record,  June,  1907. 

W.  H.  Gbattan-Flood. 

Geraldton,  Diocesb  of  (Geraldtonensib),  in 
Australia,  established  in  1898,  comprises  the  territory 
lying  between  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Kimber- 
ley  district  and  a  line  running  eastward  from  the 
Indian  Ocean  along  the  30th  parallel  of  south  latitude 
until  it  reaches  the  120th  degree  of  longitude,  whence 
it  follows  the  29th  degree  of  latitude  to  the  south 
Australiaiv  border.  It  is  a  suffragan  of  Adelaide. 
There  are  28  churches  in  the  diocese,  attended  by  10 
secidar  and  4  regular  priests;  5  boarding  and  12  pri- 
mary schools  with  747  pupils  in  charge  of  51  sisters. 
The  Presentation  nuns,  who  made  a  foundation  from 
Ireland  in  1890,  have  28  sisters  in  6  communities; 
Dominican  nuns  from  Dunedin,  New  Zealand,  arrived 
in  1899,  and  have  4  communities  with  24  sisters. 
The  first  bishop  of  the  see.  Right  Rev.  William 
Bernard  Kelly,  was  consecrated  14  Au^t,  1898. 
The  Bishop  of  Geraldton  also  has  jurisdiction  over  the 
Vicariate  of  Kimberlev. 

Auetralian  Catholie  Dtredory  (Sydney,  1909);  The  Sower 
(Oenldton.  1906). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Mrambi  Baron  Ferdinand  de,  in  religion,  Brother 
Mary  Joseph,  Abbot  and  procurator-general  of  La 
Trappe,  came  of  a  noble  and  ancient  family  in  Him- 
gary ;  b.  in  Lyons,  14  Jan.,  1772 ;  d.  at  Rome,  15  March, 
1848.  Some  historians  wron^ully  call  in  (question 
both  the  place  and  date  of  his  oirth,  as  also  his  noble 


OIBANDO 


465 


OESABD 


descent.  Being  of  a  fiery  and  chivalroiui  disposition^ 
he  took  an  active  psirt  in  the  struggles  of  the  monar- 
chies in  Europe  against  the  French  Revolution,  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-generaL  In  1808  he 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Napoleon,  who  imprisoned  him 
in  the  fortress  of  Vinoennes  until  1814,  the  time  when 
the  allied  powers  entered  Paris.  After  bidding  fare- 
well to  the  Tsar  and  Emperor  of  Austria,  he  resolved 
to  leave  the  world.  It  was  at  this  time  tnat  he  provi- 
dentially met  the  Rev.  Father  Eugene,  Abbot  of  Notre 
Dame  du  Port  du  Salut,  near  Laval  (France),  of  whom 
he  begged  to  be  admitted  as  a  novice  in  the  commu- 
nity. He  pronounced  his  vows  in  1817.  After  having 
rendered  great  services  to  that  monastery,  he  was  sent, 
in  1827,  to  the  monastery  of  Mt  Ohvet  (Alsace). 
During  the  Revolution  of  1830  de  G^ramb  displaved 
great  courage  in  the  face  of  a  troop  of  insurgents  that 
had  come  to  pillage  the  monastery;  though  the  reli- 

gious  had  been  dispersed,  the  abbey  was  at  least,  by  his 
eroic  action,  spiued  the  horrors  of  pillage.  It  was 
at  this  time  that  Brother  Mary  Jose{>h  made  his  pil- 
grimage to  Jerusalem.  On  his  return  in  1833,  he  went 
to  Rome,  where  he  held  the  office  of  procurator-general 
of  La  Trappe.  He  soon  gained  the  esteem  and  affec- 
tion of  Gregory  XVI,  who,  though  he  was  not  a  priest, 
named  him  titular  abbot  with  the  insignia  of  the  ring 
and  pectoral  cross,  a  privilege  without  any  precedent. 
Abbot  de  G^ramb  is  the  author  of  many  works,  the 
principal  of  which  are:  "Letters  to  Eugene  on  the 
E2ucharist";  "Eternity  is  approaching";  '^Pilmmage 
to  Jerusalem"; ''  A  Journey  trom  La  Trappe  to  Rome  , 
besides  many  others  of  less  importance  and  of  an 
exclusively  ascetical  character.  They  were  often  re- 
printed and  translated.  His  style  is  easy  and  without 
affectation.  The  customs,  manners,  and  incidents  of 
the  journey  which  he  describes,  all  are  vividly  and 
attractively  given,  and  the  topographical  descriptions 
are  of  an  irreproachable  accuracy.  Even  imder  the 
monk's  cowl  tne  great  nobleman  could  occasionally  be 
seen  distributing  in  alms  coi^derable  sums  of  mone^ 
which  he  had  received  from  his  family  to  defray  his 
expenses. 

In  1796,  Baron  de  G^ramb  married  his  cousin  The- 
resa de  Adda,  who  died,  in  1808,  at  Palermo.  Six 
children  had  been  bom  to  him,  of  which  number  two 
died  in  their  youth.  On  his  entrance  into  La  Trapi>e 
he  confided  the  surviving  children  to  the  care  of  his 
'  brother,  Lipoid  de  G&amb,  after  having  placed 
them  under  the  protection  of  the  Tsar  and  the  Em- 
peror of  Austria. 

Ardiivet  cff  the  Monaatery  of  N,  D,  du  Port  du  SaltU;  Rtwr, 
Trappiaten  Abtei  Odenbera  (Freiburs.  1898);  GtRAMB,  De  la 
Trappe  it  Rome  (Paria.  1858);  Idbm,  Voy<ufe  h  Jeruaalem  (Paris, 
1862);  Idbm.  Lettrea  h  Eugkne  but  VEucharxttie  (Pwu,  1828); 
HloBLB  in  Kirdienlex.,  s.  v.;  Michaud,  Bioo*  univ,  (Paris, 
1880). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Otamdo,  Joseph -Maris  de,  a  French  statesman 
and  writer,  b.  at  Lyons,  29  February,  1772;  d.  at 
Paris,  10  November,  1842.  After  completiiog  his 
studies  with  the  Oratorians  at  Lyons,  he  took  part  in 
the  defence  of  the  city  against  the  besiegmg  armies  of 
the  French  Convention.  Wounded  and  taken  pris- 
oner, he  barely  escaped  being  put  to  death,  and  later 
took  refu^  in  Switzerland  and  at  Naples.  He  en- 
listed a^un  in  the  army  and  was  at  Golmar  when  the 
French  Institute  announced  the  offer  of  a  prize  for  the 
best  essay  on  "The  influence  of  signs  on  the  forma- 
tion of  ideas".  G^rando  sent  a  paper,  which  was 
awarded  the  first  honours.  This  was  a  turning-point 
in  his  life ;  for,  having  come  to  Paris,  he  was  appomted 
to  many  important  functions,  political,  admmistra- 
tive,  and  educational.  In  1815,  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Soci^t4  pour  Tinstruction  ^6mentaire, 
which  introduced  into  France  the  monitorial  system, 
established  in  England  by  Lancaster,  and  thus  made 
education  possible  for  the  poor  classes.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  state-coimcil  under  Napoleon  and 
VL--30 


under  Louis  XVIII,  member  of  the  Acad^mie  des  In- 
scriptions et  Belles-Lettres,  and  of  the  Academic  des 
Sciences  morales  et  politiques,  and  officer  of  the  Le- 
gion of  Honour.  In  1819,  he  opened  a  course  in  the 
faculty  of  law  in  Paris ;  and,  in  1837,  became  a  member 
of  Hie  Chambre  des  Pairs.  He  consecrated  his  talent 
to  Uie  causes  of  education  and  charity,  taking  part  in 
the  foundation  and  administration  of  schools,  hoa- 
pitalsy  and  charitable  institutions  of  all  kinds.  His 
works  are  very  numerous;  among  the  most  important 
must  be  mentioned  the  following.  Philosophical: 
"  Des  signes  et  de  Tart  de  penser  consid^r^  dans  leurs 
rapporte  naturels"  (Paris,  1800),  a  development  of  his 
pnze-essay  in  which  the  author  follows  Condillac,  but 
differs  from  him  on  many  points;  ''De  la  g^n^ration 
des  connaissances  humaines"  (Berlin,  1802).  awarded 
a  prize  by  the  Academv  of  Sciences  of  Berlin;  '' Hi»- 
toire  oomparte  des  systemes  de  philosopfale  consid^r^ 
relativement  aux  principes  des  connaissances  hu* 
maines"  (Paris,  1803).  Educational:  ''Du  perfeo- 
tionnement  moral,  ou  de  I'^ucation  de  soi-m^e" 
(Paris,  1824);  "Cours  normal  des  instituteurs  pri- 
maires  "  (Paris,  1832) ;  "  De  T^ucation  des  sourda- 
muete  de  naissanoe"  (Paris.  1832);  "Institutes  du 
droit administratiffrangais"  (Paris,  1830).  Charitable: 
"Le  visiteur  dupauvre''  (Paris,  1820) ;"De  la  bien- 
faisance  publique"  (Paris,  1839). 

NouwiU  bioqmphie  ohUmLe  (Paris,  1858),  XX,  142;  Morbl, 
Eeaai  aur  la  vie  et  lea  travaux  de  Oirando  (1846) ;  MiONvr,  Notice 
Bur  de  Oirando  (1854);  Jourdain  in  Franck,  Dictionnaire  dea 
aeieneea  philoaophiquea  (2nd  ed.,  1885),  350;GosaoTinBux8SON, 
Dieiionnavre  de  pUagogie  (Paris,  1887),  1, 1. 1167. 

C.  A.  DUBBAT. 

Otourd,  Saint,  Abbot  of  Brogpe,  b.  at  Staves  in 
the  countv  of  Namur,  towards  tne  end  of  the  ninth 
century;  d.  at  Brogne  or  St-G6rard,  3  Oct.,  959.  The 
son  of  Stance,  of  the  family  of  the  dukes  of  Lower  Au»- 
trasia,  and  of  Plectrude,  sister  of  Stephen,  Bishop  of 
Li^ge,  the  young  Gerard,  like  most  men  of  his  rank, 
followed  at  first  the  career  of  arms.  His  pietv,  how- 
ever, was  admirable  amid  the  distractions  of  camp. 
He  transformed  into  a  large  church  a  modest  chapel 
situated  on  the  estate  of  Brogne  which  belonged  to  nis 
family.  About  917,  the  Coimt  of  Namur  charged  him 
with  a  mission  to  Robert,  younger  brother  of  Eudes, 
TCifig  of  France.  He  permitted  his  followers  to  reside 
at  Paris,  but  himself  went  to  live  at  the  Abbey  of  St- 
Denis,  where  he  was  so  struck  by  the  edifying  lives  of 
the  monks  that,  at  the  conclusion  of  his  embassy,  with 
the  consent  of  the  Count  of  Namur  and  Bishop 
Stephen,  his  maternal  uncle,  he  returned  to  St-Denis, 
tooK  the  religious  habit,  and  after  eleven  years  was  or- 
dained priest.  He  then  requested  to  be  allowed  to  re- 
turn to  Brogne,  where  he  replaced  the  lax  clerics  with 
monks  animated  h^r  a  true  religious  spirit.  There- 
upon he  himself  retired  to  a  cell  near  tne  monastery 
for  more  austere  mortification.  From  this  retreat  he 
was  summoned  by  the  Archbishop  of  Gambrai  who 
confided  to  him  the  direction  of  the  commimity  of  St- 
Ghislain  in  Hainault.  Here  also  he  established 
monks  instead  of  the  canons,  whose  conduct  had 
ceased  to  be  exemplary,  and  he  enforced  the  strictest 
monastic  discipline.  Uradually  he  became  superior  pf 
eighteen  other  abbeys  situated  in  the  region  between 
the  Meuse,  the  Somme,  and  the  sea,  and  through  his 
efforts  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict  was  soon  completely 
restored  throughout  this  region.  Weighed  down  b^ 
age  and  infirmities,  he  placed  vicars  or  abbots  in  his 
stead,  in  the  various  abbeys  with  which  he  was  charged, 
and  retired  to  that  of  Brogne.  He  still  had  courage  to 
take  a  joume^^  to  Rome  in  order  to  obtain  a  Bull  con- 
firming the  privileges  of  that  abbey.  On  his  return  he 
paid  a  final  visit  to  all  the  communities  which  he  had 
reorganized,  and  then  awaited  death  at  Brogne.  His 
body  is  still  preserved  at  Brogne,  now  commonly 

called  St-G^rard. 
Sbbvaib,  Eaaax  eurlaviede  S.  Ofrard,  abbS  de  Brogne  (Namur* 


GERARD                               466  OSRARD 

1886);  TmjaaAXHT,HuL  de  8.  ^rwd  for^ateurds  rMay^di  his  death  without  the  sacraments  was  regaided  as  a 

B^  (Namur,  1884);  Anal.  BcUand.  (BniBedii.  1886).  886-  pj^^   mdgment.     The  canons  refused  toburjr  him 

L£oN  Cluonst.  within  the  cathedral,  and  the  people  pelted  the  hearse 

with  stones.    Some  Latin  verses  by  hmi  are  preserved 

Gerard,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Toul,  b.  at  Cologne,  in  the  British  Museum  (Titus.  D.  XXIV.  3). 

936;  d.  at  Toul,  23  April,  994.    Belonging  to  a  wealthy  „&r.  Anbbum,  EpUu^  in  P.  L.,  XXX.  168-9;  Eadibb.  H%a 

and  noble  family  he  received  an  excellent  education  XSS^)?lf iiL^^^kl^SSIt^MfS^^                t 

m  the  school  for  denes  at  Cologne,  and  throughout  his  k,  8.  (1870) :  Hugh  thb  Chantbr,  Livet  of  Four  AnhbMiapB 

youth  was  a  model  of  obedience  and  piety.    He  was  5?.J5^^ii«,  Historiana  af^  tKe  Chwrdi  of  Yoi*,  n  {RolU  Serim. 

eyentuaUy  ordained  to  the  pnesthcKxl,  in  which  office  ISSv'^r^iJSMlSSon'rfssfrfeSJ-i.t^ftS^ 

his  vurtues  were  a  source  of  edification  to  the  city  of  references  to  ail  origmai  authoriUee.       Edwin  Burton. 
Colc^e.    At  the  death  of  Gauzelin,  Bishop  of  Toul 

(963},  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  by  the  Arch-  Gerard,  John,  Jesuit;  b.  4  Oct.,  1564;  d.  27  July, 
bishop  of  Colore,  was  well  received  by  the  cler^  1637.  He  is  well  known  through  nis  autobiography, 
and  people  of  Toul,  and  bore  the  burdens  of  his  epis-  a  fascinatine  record  of  dangers  and  adventures,  ot 
copal  omce  without  any  of  its  comforts.  Although  he  captures  andescapes,  of  trials  and  consolations.  The 
avoided  paying  long  visits  to  the  court  of  the  Emperor  narrative  is  all  the  more  valuable  because  it  sets  before 
Otto  II,  who  was  desirous  of  keeping  Gerard  near  him,  us  the  kind  of  life  led  by  priests,  wherever  the  peculiar 
he  nevertheless  obtained  from  the  emperor  the  con-  features  of  the  English  persecution  occurred.  Jolmwas 
firmation  of  the  privilege  in  virtue  of  which  Toul,  the  second  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Gerard  of  Bryn,  for  a 
although  united  to  the  empire  about  925,  formed  an  time  a  valiant  confessor  of  the  Faith,  who.  however,  in 
independent  state  of  which  the  Emperor  Henry  the  1589,  tarnished  his  honour  by  giving  eviaence  against 
Fowler  reserved  to  himself  only  the  protectorate,  the  Ven.  Philip  Howard,  Earl  of  Arundel  (q.  v.).  Dif- 
abandoning  to  Gerard's  predecessor,  Gauzelin,  the  ferent  opinions  are  held  (by  Morris  and  Gillow)  as  to 
suzerainty  of  the  city  and  the  countship.  Gersird  is  the  permanence  of  his  mconstancy.  John  left  his 
therefore  rightly  considered  as  the  true  founder  of  the  father's  house  at  New  Bryn  at  the  age  of  thirteen, 
temporal  power  of  the  bishops  of  Toul.  He  was  ener-  and  went  first  to  Douai  seminary:  matriculated  at 
getic  in  ms  opposition  to  powerful  personages  who  Oxford  (1579),  and  thence  proceeaed  to  the  Jesuits' 
were  inimical  to  his  authority,  and  governed  his  College  at  Paris  (1581).  Having  come  to  England  for 
county  wisely,  promulgating  administrative  measures,  his  health's  sake,  he  was  arrested  on  5  March,  1584, 
traces  of  wmcn  sub^dsted  to  the  time  of  the  French  and  suffered  two  vears'  imprisonment  in  the  Martial- 
Revolution.  He  died  at  the  age  of  fifty-nine,  and  waa  sea.  He  was  bailed  out  in  1586,  and,  with  the  con- 
buried  with  pomp  in  the  choir  of  his  cathedral.  Leo  sent  of  his  sureties,  once  more  made  his  way  to  the 
IX,  one  of  his  successors  in  the  See  of  Toul,  canonized  Continent,  and  was  received  at  the  Enelish  College, 
him  in  1050.  Rome,  5  August,  1586.  At  first  he  paid  for  himself, 
^  BmioiBT,La  Vie  de  8,Oimrd,&oiquede  Toul  (Toul,  1700);  but  in  April,  1587,  he  became  a  scholar  of  the  pope. 
^i^fS:,^ro^XX^£f.^\^fSt^)^:^^  Next  year   16  August,  1588   he  enteral  the  /eeuit 

LisoN  Cluonet.  novitiate;  but  so  great  was  the  dearth  of  nussionanes 

in  En^nd  that  he  was  dispatched  thither  in  the  en- 
Gerard,  Archbishop  of  York,  date  of  birth  un-  suin^  September, 
known;  d.  at  Southwell.  21  May,  1108.  He  was  a  His  romantic  adventures  befi;an  on  landing,  forhe 
nephew  of  Walkelin,  Bisnop  of  Winchester,  of  Simon,  was  set  ashore  alone  on  the  Norfolk  coast  at  a  moment 
Abbot  of  Ely,  and  connected  with  the  royal  family,  when  the  country  was  in  a  turmoil  of  excitement  after 
Orieinally  a  precentor  in  Rouen  cathedral,  ne  became  the  defeat  of  the  Armada,  and  when  feeline  against 
clens.  in  the  chapel  of  William  Rufus,  who  employed  Catholics  ran  so  high  that  fifteen  priests  had  been 
him  in  1095  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  the  pope.  His  butchered  in  two  days  in  London,  and  twelve  others 
success  was  rewarded  with  the  Bishopric  of  Hereford,  sent  to  the  provinces  for  the  same  purpose,  thou^ 
and  he  was  consecrated  by  St.  Ahselm  8  June,  1096,  half  of  these  eventually  escaped  death.  Gerwi,  being 
having  been  ordained  deacon  and  priest  on  the  pre-  an  accomplished  sportsman  and  rider,  succeeded  in 
vious  day.  On  the  accession  of  Henry  I,  in  1100,  he  making  his  way  about  the  country,  now  as  a  horseman 
was  made  Archbishop  of  York  and  b^an  a  long  con-  who  had  lost  lus  way  in  the  chase,  now  as  a  huntsman 
test  with  St.  Anselm,  in  which  he  claimed  ec|ual  pri-  whose  hawk  had  strayed.  Ere  long  he  had  won  the 
macy  with  Canterbury  siid  refused  to  make  hisprof es-  steadfast  friendship  of  many  Cathmic  families,  with 
sion  of  canonical  ol)edience  before  him.  When  he  whose  aid  he  was  able  to  make  frequent  conversions, 
joumeved  to  Rome  for  the  pallium,  he  was  entrusted  to  give  retreats  and  preach,  and  to  send  over  many 
with  the  mission  of  representing  the  Idn^  against  An-  nuns  and  youths  to  the  convents,  seminaries,  and  reh- 
selm  in  the  controversy  about  investitures.  The  gious  houses  on  the  Continent.  Dr.  Jessopp,  a  Protes- 
pope's  decision  was  against  the  king,  but  Gerard  pro-  tant,  writes: — 

te»ed  to  have  received  private  assurances  that  the  de-  "  The  extent  of  Gerard's  influence  was  nothing  less 
crees  would  not  be  enforced.  This  was  denied  by  the  than  marvellous.  Coimtry  ^ntlemen  meet  him  in 
monks  who  represented  St.  Anselm;  and  the  pope,  the  street  and  forthwith  invite  him  to  their  houses; 
when  appealed  to,  repudiated  the  statement  and  ex-  high-bom  ladies  put  themselves  under  his  direction 
commumcated  Gerard  till  he  confessed  his  error  and  almost  as  unreservedly  in  temporal  as  in  spiritual 
made  satisfaction.  things.  Scholars  and  courtiers  run  serious  risks  to 
Eventually  he  professed  obedience  to  St.  Anselm,  hold  interviews  with  him,  the  number  of  his  converts 
but  continued  to  assert  the  independence  of  York,  of  all  ranks  is  le^on;  the  very  ^olers  and  turnkeys 
When  Anselm  refused  to  consecrate  three  bishops,  two  obey  him;  and  in  a  state  of  society  when  treachery 
of  whom  had  received  investiture  from  the  king,  Ge-  and  venality  were  pervading  all  classes,  he  finds  ser- 
rard  attempted  to  do  so,  but  two  refused  to  accept  vants  and  agents  who  are  residy  to  live  and  die  for  him. 
consecration  at  his  hands.  The  pope  reprimanded  A  man  of  gentle  blood  and  gentle  breeding— of  com- 
him  for  his  opposition  to  the  primate,  and  finallv  the  manding  stature,  great  vigour  of  constitution,  a  mas- 
two  prelates  were  reconcilea.  Gerard  carriea  out  ter  of  three  or  four  languages,  with  a  rare  gift  of  speech 
many  reforms  in  York,  though  by  his  action  against  and  an  innate  grace  and  courtliness  of  manner — ^he 
St.  Anselm  he  incurrea  great  impopularity,  and  the  was  fitted  to  shine  in  any  society  and  to  lead  it.  From 
writers  of  the  time  charge  him  with  immorality,  boyhood  he  had  been  a  keen  sportsman,  at  home  in  the 
avarice,  and  the  practice  of  magic.  He  died  sua-  saadle,  and  a  great  proficient  in  all  coimtry  sport, 
denly  on  the  way  to  London  to  attend  a  council,  and  His  powers  of  endurance  of  fatigue  and  pain  were 


OEBABD 


467 


OE&ABD 


almost  superhuman;  he  could  remain  in  hiding  days 
and  ni^ts  in  a  hole  in  which  he  could  not  stand  up- 
right, and  never  sleep,  and  hardly  change  his  position: 
he  could  joke  on  the  gyves  that  were  ulcerating  his 
legs.  He  seems  never  to  have  forgotten  a  face  or  a 
name  or  an  incident.  Writing  his  autobiography 
twenty  years  after  the  circumstances  he  records,  there 
is  scarcely  an  event  or  a  name  which  recent  research 
has  not  proved  to  be  absolutely  correct.  As  a  literarv 
^ort  merely,  the  Life  is  marvellous."  ("  Academy  ", 
9  July.  1881.) 

In  tnose  times  of  dan^r,  no  prudence  could  always 
effectually  ens\u«  a  pnest  agsunst  capture.  Gerard 
was  taken  prisoner,  July,  1594,  through  a  servant, 
whose  secret  treachery  was  not  suspected.  He  passed 
two  years  in  smaller  prisons,  and  was  then  sent  to  the 
Tower,  where  he  was  cruelly  tortured,  being  hun^  up 
by  his  hands,  of  which  torment  he  has  left  a  very  vivid 
description.  His  courage  and  firmness,  however,  were 
such,  that  his  examiners  lost  hope  of  extracting  secrets 
from  him,  and  he  was  relegated  to  the  Salt  Tower, 
where  he  cleverly  contrived  to  say  Mass.  In  1597,  he 
managed  to  escape  by  means  of  a  string  thrown  one 
night  oy  a  friend  from  Tower  Wharf  into  the  Cradle 
Tower.  By  this  string  a  rope  was  drawn  across  the 
moat,  and  with  its  assistance  he  managed  eventually 
to  get  across,  but  with  great  difficulty,  as  his  hands 
were  still  helpless  from  the  torture. 

Until  the  discovery  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot  (q.  v.), 
at  the  end  of  1605,  he  continued  his  adventurous  life 
as  a  missioner  in  England,  but  he  was  then  obliged  to 
slip  away  disguised  as  a  footman  in  the  train  of  the 
Spanish  Amb^sador.  The  rest  of  his  life  waei  spent'  m 
the  English  colleges  on  the  Continent.  He  wrote,  in 
1607,  "A  Narrative  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot",  and  af- 
terwards his  autobiogjraphy,  "  Narratio  P.  Joannis  Ger- 
ardi  de  Rebus  a  se  in  Anglia  gestis".  He  strongly 
befriended  Mar^  Ward  (q.  v.)  in  her  attempt  to  found 
an  active  religious  order  for  women,  and  passed  the 
last  ten  years  of  his  life  as  spiritual  director  of  the  Eng- 
lish College  at  Rome. 

MoRBift,  Troiifrlet  of  our  Catholie  Forefathen  (London,  1871); 
7%6  IMeaf  John  Gerard  (3rd  ed.,  London,  1881);  Gixxow.  BibL 
IHet,  Sng,  Cath.,  8.  v. ;  Goopbh  in  Diet.  Nat.  Bioo,,  s.  ▼. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Gerard*  Miles,  Venerable,  martyr;  b.  about  1550 
at  Wigan;  executed  at  Rochester  13  (30?)  April,  1590. 
Sprung  perhaps,  from  the  Gerards  of  Inoe,  he  was. 
about  1576,  tutor  to  the  children  of  Squire  Edward 
lyidesley,  at  Morleys,  Lancashire.  Thence  in  1579  he 
went  to  the  seminaries  of  t)ouai  and  Reims,  where  he 
was  ordained  7  Aprfl,  1583,  and  then  stayed  on  as 
professor  until  31  August,  1589  (O.  S.),  when  he 
started  for  England  with  five  companions.  At  Dun- 
kirk the  sailors  refused  to  take  more  than  two  passen- 
Sirs;  so  the  missioners  tossed  for  precedence,  and 
erard  and  Francis  Dicconson,  the  eldest  (it  seems) 
and  youngest  of  the  party,  won.  Though  bound^  for 
Lonaon,  they  were  driven  out  of  their  course  into 
Dover  harbour,  where  they  were  examined  and  ar- 
rested on  suspicion  (24  Nov .,  N .  S .)  •  A  contemporary 
news-letter  says  that  they  were  wrecked,  and  escaped 
the  sea  only  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  persecutors  on 
shore,  but  this  is  not  consistent  with  the  official 
records.  These  show  that  the  prisoners  at  first  gave 
feigned  names  and  ambiguous  answers,  but  soon 
thought  it  better  to  confess  all.  After  many  tortures 
in  the  worst  London  prisons  under  the  infamous  Top- 
clifTe,  they  were  condemned  as  traitors,  and  ''taken  to 
Rochester,  where  they  were  hanged  and  quartered'', 
says  Father  John  CJurry,  S.  J.,  writing  shortly  afteiv 
wards.  "  and  gave  a  splendid  testimony  to  the  (Jatholic 
Faith  ^'. 

I^LLBN,  Aet3  of  Enoliah  Martyrs  (1891),  314;  Crallonkr; 
QiLLOw;  Catholie  Record  Society  (1908).  V,  pp.  169-171. 173  aqq.; 
8vaniah  Calendar,  1687-1609,  under  5  March  (May  T)  1590; 


rox,  Devay  XHarMt,  pp.  160  aqq. 


J.  H.  Pollen. 


Gerard,  Richard,  confessor;  b.  about  1635;  d.  11 
March.  1680  (0.  S.).  The  Bromley  branch  of  the 
Gerard  family,  which  divided  off  from  the  original  stock 
of  Bryn  in  the  fourteenth  century,  grew  to  power  and 
affluence  through  Gilbert,  solicitoivgeneral  to  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  as  such  an  active  persecutor  of  Catho- 
lics. Indeed  he  is  said  to  have  obtained  the  estate  of 
Gerard's  Bromley,  through  a  court  intrigue,  from  the 
Catholic  Sir  Thomas  Gerard  of  Bryn  (father  of  John 
Gerard,  S.  J.),  as  the  price  for  which  the  knight  bought 
off  the  prosecution  against  him  for  adhering  to  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  In  1603  Gilbert's  son  Thomas  was 
made  Baron  Gerard  of  Gerard's  Bromley ^  Co.  Stafford, 
but  his  grandson  (the  subject  of  this  article),  Richard 
of  Hilderstone,  Co.  Stafford  (by  John,  a  yoimger  son, 
d.  1673),  was  a  Catholic,  though  how  he  became 
one  is  not  known.  Richard  was  a  friend  of  the  Jesuit 
missioners,  had  three  sons  at  their  college  of  St-Omer, 
and  was  trustee  for  them  for  some  small  properties. 
It  would  seem  that  he  had  been  invited  to  a  little 
function  on  the  feast  of  the  Assumption,  1678,  when 
Father  John  Gavan  (the  future  martyr)  made  his  pro- 
fession, at  the  house  of  the  Penderels  at  Boscobel,  who 
had  sheltered  Charles  II  after  the  battle  of  Worcester : 
and  that  after  dinner  the  party  visited  the  celebratea 
"Royal  Oak",  in  which  Charles  had  hidden.  This 
came  to  the  knowledge  of  Stephen  Dugdale,  after- 
wards an  infamous  informer,  and  became  the  occasion 
of  Richard's  imprisonment  and  death.  For,  during 
the  fury  of  Oates's  Plot,  when  witnesses  were  being 
sought  to  attest  the  innocence  of  the  Catholic  lords 
who  were  impeached,  Richard  Gerard  manfully  came 
forward,  and  nis  evidence  was  likely  to  have  proved  of 
capital  importance.  To  obviate  this,  Dugdale  ac- 
cused him  of  having  contributed  to  the  funds  of  the 
alleged  plotters  (perhaps  with  some  reference  to  the 
pensions  paid  for  nis  bovs  at  St-Omer)  and  of  having 
conspiredf  to  murder  the  king.  Examined  by  the 
Loras'  committee  (19  May,  1679)  he  confessed  to  the 
innocent  meeting  at  Boscobel,  and  was  thrown  into 
Neweate,  where  he  languished  ten  months  without 
trial  before  he  was  freed  by  death.  He  was  fortunate 
in  being  attended  during  his  last  hours  by  Father 
Edward  Petre,  who,  in  a  letter  written  29  March,  1680, 
speaks  of  his  constancy  and  of  his  dying  wish  to  be 
buried  by  the  side  of  nis  friend,  Fatner  Whitbread, 
then  recently  martyred. 

Several  years  later  his  third  son,  Philip  (b.  1  Dec, 
1665),  having  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  7  Sept.. 
1684,  unexpectedly  became  seventh  and  last  Lord 
Gerard  of  Gerard's  Bromley  (12  April,  1707,  O.  S.), 
through  the  deaths  of  various  cousins  and  older 
brothers.  Philip  never  claimed  the  title,  and  gave  up 
all  rights  to  the  estates  for  a  small  yearly  pension  of 
£60,  being  obliged  to  leave  the  country  by  the  action 
of  a  near  connexion,  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  who  ad- 
vertised the  reward  of  £1,000  for  his  arrest  as  a  priest. 
It  is  curious  that  the  four  lords  who  have  been  among 
the  English  Jesuits  all  lived  at  the  same  time.  Philip 
Gerard  (d.  1733)  was  the  contemporary  of  Father  Gil- 
bert Talbot  (d.  1743),  who  became  Earl  of  Shrewsbury 
in  1717;  also  of  Father  William  Molyneux  (d.  1754), 
who  was  Viscount  Sefton  in  1745;  also  of  Father 
Charles  Dormer  (d.  1761),  who  was  Baron  Dormer 

in  1728. 

FoLBT,  Reearda  S.  J.;  Journals  of  the  House  of  Lords;  Kirk, 
Biographies  of  Eni^ish  Catholics  (1009),  05;  Gillow,  BihL 
Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  s.  v. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Gerard  Majella,  Saint,  b.  in  Muro,  about  fifty 
miles  south  of  Naples,  in  April,  1726 ;  d.  16  Oct.,  1755: 
beatified  by  Leo  AlII,  29  January,  1893,  and  canonized 
by  Pius  A,  11  December,  1904.  His  only  ambition 
was  to  be  like  Jesus  Christ  in  His  sufferings  and  hu- 
miliations. His  father^  Dominic  Majella,  died  while 
Gerard  was  a  child.  His  pious  mother,  owins  to  pov- 
erty, was  obliged  to  apprentice  him  to  a  tiSlor.  His 


OESABD 


468 


OEBAEDUS 


master  loved  him,  but  the  foreman  treated  him  cru- 
elly. His  reverence  for  the  priesthood  and  his  love  of 
sunering  led  him  to  take  service  in  the  house  of  a  prel- 
ate, who  was  veiy  hard  to  please.  On  the  latter's 
death  Gerard  returned  to  his  trade,  working  first  as  a 
joumeynian  and  then  on  his  own  account.  His  eam- 
mgs  he  divided  between  his  mother  and  the  poor,  and 
in  offerings  for  the  souls  in  purgatory.  After  futile  at- 
tempts firet  to  become  a  Franciscan  and  then  a  hermit^ 
he  entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Re- 
deemer in  1749.  Two  years  later  he  made  his  pro- 
fession, and  to  the  usual  vows  he  added  one  by  which 
he  bound  himself  to  do  always  that  which  seemed  to 
him  more  perfect.  St.  Alphonsus  considered  him  a 
miracle  of  obedience.  He  not  only  obeyed  the  orders 
of  superiors  when  present,  but  also  when  absent  knew 
and  obeyed  their  desires.  Although  weak  in  body, 
he  did  the  work  of  three,  and  his  great  charitv  eamed 
for  him  the  title  of  Father  of  the  Poor.  He  was  a 
model  of  every  virtue,  and  so  drawn  to  Our  Lord  in 
the  tabernacle  that  he  had  to  do  violence  to  himself  to 
keep  away.  An  angel  in  puritv,  he  was  accused  of  a 
shameful  crime;  but  he  bore  the  calumny  with  such 
patience  that  St.  Alphonsus  said:  ''Brother  Gerard  is 
a  saint ' '.  He  wsus  favoured  with  infused  knowledge  of 
the  highest  order,  ecstasies,  prophecy,  discernment  of 
spirits,  and  penetration  of  hearts,  bilocation,  and  with 
what  seemed  an  unlimited  power  over  nature,  sick- 
ness, and  the  devils.  When  he  accompani^  the 
Fathers  on  missions,  or  was  sent  out  on  business,  he 
converted  more  souls  than  many  missionaries.  He 
predicted  the  day  and  hour  of  his  death.  A  wonder- 
worker during  lue,  he  has  continued  to  be  the  same 
since  his  death. 

ViUi  da  Beaio  Oerardo  MajeOa  (Rome,  1893):  VAaaALL,  L«f0 
cf  BU  Gerard  MajeOa  (IxmdoD,  1893);  Saint^Ombr,  Life,  Vvr- 
tuee,  and  Miradea  of  S.  Oerard  MajeUa  (Boston,  1907). 

J.  Maqnisb. 

Gerard  of  Oremona,  a  twelfth-century  student  of 
Arabic  science  and  translator  from  Arabic  into  Latin: 
b.  at  Cremona,  in  1114;  d.  in  1187.^  The  place  ana 
date  of  Gerard's  birth  are  not  given  in  any  aocimient 
prior  to  the  fourteenth  centiuy.  ^  Tiraboschi,  in  his 
''  Storia  della  letteratura  italiana  ",  is  at  pains  to  refute 
the  contention  of  some  Spanish  writers  that  Gerard 
was  bom,  not  at  Cremona  m  Italy,  but  at  Carmona  in 
Spain.  While  concedinjg  that  Gerard  spent  a  good 
many  years  at  Toledo^  Tiraboschi  shows  that  Cremona 
and  not  Carmona  is  his  birthplace.  In  fact,  the  MSS. 
of  his  writings  style  him  Cremonensis,  or  ChermonemU 
(which  seems  to  be  a  corrupt  form  of  Cremonensis), 
From  the  "Chronicle"  of  tne  Dominican  Francisco 
Pipino,  who  flourished  about  the  }rear  1300.  we  learn, 
besides  the  place  and  date  of  his  birth  and  aeath,  that 
impelled  by  nis  interest  in  the  works  of  the  astronomer 
Ptolemy,  he  went  to  Toledo,  and,  applying  himself  to 
the  study  of  Arabic,  soon  acquired  so  great  a  profi- 
ciency in  that  language  that  he  was  able  to  translate 
not  only  the  "Almagest",  but  also  the  entire  works 
of  Avicenna,  into  Latin.  He  died  in  the  year  1187 
and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Lucy  at  Cremona, 
to  which  he  bequeathed  his  valuable  library.  The 
number  of  books  which  he  translated  from  Arabic  into 
Latin  is  said  by  Pipino  to  be  seventh-six.  Whether  he 
is  the  author  of  original  treatises  is  uncertain.  The 
works  sometimes  attributed  to  him  are  almost  certainly 
to  be  ascribed  to  Gerard  of  Sabionetta,  who  lived  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  He  must  have  been  a  man  of 
extraordinarily  wide  taste  in  scientific  matters,  for  he 
translated,  according  to  the  "Chronicle"  of  Pipino. 
works  on  dialectic,  geometry,  philosophy,  physics,  ana 
several  other  sciences.  His  activity  as  a  translator, 
combined  with  the  efforts  in  the  same  line  of  Michael 
Scott,  and  of  the  group  of  men  who  formed  a  regular 
college  of  translators  at  Toledo  under  the  direction  of 
Bishop  Rajrmond,  brought  the  world  of  Arabian  learn- 
ing within  the  reach  of  the  scholars  of  Latin  Christen- 


dom and  prepared  the  way  for  that  conflict  of  ideas 
out  of  which  sprang  the  Scholasticism  of  the  thirteenth 
centiuy.  In  this  work  Gerard  was  a  pioneer.  If  the 
description  of  his  moral  qualities  given  by  Pipino  is 
not  overdrawn,  he  was  a  man  whose  single-minded 
devotion  to  the  cause  of  science  enabled  him  to  over- 
come the  difficulties  which  in  those  days  were  inevi* 
table  in  a  task  such  as  he  undertook. 

MuRATORi,  Rer,  Ital.  SerxvUirea,  IX»  600  sqq.;  Tibabobghi» 
Storia  ddla  letteratura  ital,  (florence,  1806) » 11.  2.  376-^2. 

WlIJJAM  TUBNBB. 

Oerardnfl  Odonis,  also  GERAij>ns  Othonis,  or 
Ottonis,  a  medieval  theologian  and  Minister  General 
of  the  Franciscan  Order;  b.  probably  at  Ch&teauroux, 
in  the' present  department  of  Indre,  France,  date  un- 
known; d.  at  Catania,  Sicily,  1348.  Whether  he 
was  the  son  of  Count  Andr4  de  Chauvigny  is  very 
doubtful.  After  he  had  entered  the  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  most  probably  at  Ch&teauroux,  and  conse- 
quentlv  had  belonged  to  the  Touraine  province  of  the 
order,  he  became  a  member  of  the  Aquitanian  nrov- 
ince  and  still  belonged  to  this  latter  (without,  now- 
ever^  being  provincial  minister)  when  he  was  elected 
minister  general  of  the  order,  10  JXme,  1329,  at  the 
general  chapter.  The  presiding  officer  of  this  chapter 
was  Cardinal  de  la  Tour,  a  Franciscan,  whom  John 
XXII  (1316-34)  had  appointed  vicar-eeneral  of  the 
order.  The  previous  minister  genenu,  Michael  of 
Cesena,  had  been  deposed  by  John  XXII  on  6  June, 
1328,  on  account  of  his  rebellious  attitude  towards  the 
Holy  See  in  the  discussion  regarding  the  rule  of  pov- 
erty (see  Fraticelu  and  Michael  of  Cesena). 
Gerardus  Odonis  was  inclined  to  give  up  poverty,  the 
principle  of  the  order,  on  account  of  whicn  Michael  of 
Uesena  had  come  into  conflict  with  the  pope.  The  gen- 
eral chapter  held  at  Paris  (1329)  took  a  position,  in  the 
name  of  the  entire  order,  on  the  side  of  the  pope  and 
formally  expelled  the  small  party  made  up  of  Michael 
of  Cesena's  adherents  which  opposed  the  Holy  See. 

(3erardus  Odonis  openly  showed  his  readmess  to 
abandon  the  rule  of  poverty  at  the  general  chapter  of 
Perpignan  (1331),  wnere  he  won  over  to  his  side  four- 
teen provincial  ministers.  ^  In  reference  to  this  ques- 
tion tney  presented  a  petition  to  John  XXII  whicn  the 
Sype  rejected  in  the  consistory  of  1  August,  1331. 
wing  to  his  lax  views^  concerning  poverty  Gerardus 
also  became  entangled  in  a  dispute  with  King  Robert 
and  Queen  Sanzia  of  Naples  and  SicHy.  These  rulers 
were  unwavering  protectors  of  the  rigid  adherents  to 
the  rule  of  poverty  as  well  as  of  the  followers  of  Michael 
of  Cesena  and  of  the  Fraticelli.  Notwithstanding  the 
papal  letters  of  admonition  and  the  fact  that  John 
XXII  sent  Gerardus  Odonis  as  his  representative  to 
the  Court  of  Naples  in  1331  and  the  following  year. 
Gerardus  had  new  statutes  drawn  up  with  the  view  ol 
chanmng  the  form  of  the  Franciscan  Order  to  that  of 
the  old  orders  of  monks.  These  regulations  were  con- 
firmed, 28  November,  1336,  by  Benedict  XII  (1334- 
42) ;  consequently  Gerardus  was  able  at  the  chapter 
held  at  Cahors^  7  June,  1337,  to  obtain,  in  spite  of 
strong  opposition,  the  enactment  of  tne  so-called 
"  Constitutiones  Benedictine ' '.  Nevertheless,  he  was 
in  danger  of  being  removed  from  his  position,  nor  did 
the  statutes  remain  in  force  longer  tnan  the  lifetime 
of  Benedict  XII  and  the  period  during  which  Gerardus 
was  general.  The  general  chapter  of  Assisi  abro- 
g^teoT  1  June,  1343,  the  "Constitutiones  Benedic- 
tinse''and  re-enacted,  with  some  additions,  the  consti- 
tutions of  Narbonne  (1260). 

There  is  some  truth  in  the  assertion  made  as  to 
Gerardus  Odonis  that  he  both  resembled  and  imitated 
Brother  EUas,  the  lax  minister  general  second  in  suc^ 
cession  from  St.  Francis  of  Assisi;  indeed,  he  even 
exceeded  Elias.  However,  it  must  be  said  to  his 
credit  that,  in  union  with  tne  pope,  he  zealously  pro- 
moted Franciscan  missions,  constantly  sending  fresh 


OKRA8A 


469 


missionaries  to  Persia,  Georgia,  Armenia  (1329); 
Malabar  (1330),  China  and  "^tary  (1331);  Bosnia 
(1340).  In  1329  John  XXII  sent  him  to  King  Charles 
Robert  of  Hungary  and  to  Ban  Stephen  of  Bosnia  for 
the  purpose  of  bringing  about  the  extermination  of  the 
heretics,  largely  Patarenes,  in  these  countries.  On  5 
Sept.,  1333,  Gerardus  and  the  Dominican  Arnauld  de 
Samt-Michel  (Amaldus  de  S.  Michaele)  were  appointed 
papal  legates  to  make  peace  between  the  Kings  of 
England  and  Scotland.  The  procurator  of  the  Scotch 
king  in  Paris  having  reported,  however,  that  his 
master  was  not  to  be  loimd  in  Scotland,  John  recalled 
the  commission  of  the  legates,  31  Oct.,  1333.  Ger^ 
ardus  remained  in  Paris  and  defended  before  a  large 
number  of  professors  of  theuniversity,  on  18  Dec., 
1333,  the  opinion  of  John  XXII  concerning  the  Visio 
beatifica,  namely,  that  the  saints  do  not  enjoy  the 
complete  Beatific  Vision  until  after  the  Last  Judg- 
ment. The  University  of  Paris  was  greatly  agitated 
by  the  controversy,  and  the  next  day,  19  Dec.,  Philip 
VI  called  together  twenty-nine  professors  at  Vinoennes 
to  discuss  the  question.  This  assembly  dissented 
from  the  opinion  of  the  pope,  as  did  also  a  second 
assembly  which  met  2  Jan.,  1334.  As  is  known,  John 
XXII  withdrew  his  opinion,  3  Dec.,  1334.  Gerardus 
Odonis  was  also  one  of  the  commission  of  sixteen 
masters  of  theologv  which  met  by  command  of  Bene- 
dict XII  from  4  July  to  4  Sept.,  1334,  at  Pont-Sorgues 
near  Avi^on,  to  discuss,  imder  the  pope's  presidency, 
the  question  of  the  Visio  beatifica.  On  27  Nov.,  1342. 
Benedict  XII  appointed  him  Patriarch  of  Antioch  ana 
at  the  same  time  administrator  of  the  Diocese  of 
Catania,  Sicily. 

Apart  from  the  "Constitutiones  Benedictines ''  and 
the  "Officium  de  stigmatibus  S.  Francisci",  still 
recited  in  the  Franciscan  Order  and  commonly  attrib- 
uted to  Gerardus,  the  best  known  of  his  writing 
is  his  "Commentarius  pSxpositio]  in  Aristotelis  Ethi- 
cam"  (Brescia,  1482,  Venice,  1500).  This  work 
brought  him  the  honour  later  of  being  called  Doctor 
Moralis,  He  also  wrote  on  lo^c  and  a  treatise  en- 
titled "Philoeophia  Naturalis",  in  which  he  is  said  to 
have  apparently  taught  Atomism;  another  work  was  a 
"Commentarius  in  lY  libros  Sententiarum".  Amone 
his  exegetical  works  are:  ''De  figuris  Bibliorum",  and 
treatises  on  the  Psalter,  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  besides 
"Sermones".  In  addition  to  taking  severe  measures 
against  the  adherents  of  the  deposed  Michael  of 
Cesena,  Gerardus  addressed  to  the  latter  the  writing 
"  Quid  niteris",  to  which,  however,  Cesena  soon  made 
a  rejoinder  be^ning  "Teste  Salomone". 

EuBEL,  BuUanum  Franciscanum  (Rome,  1898,  1902).  V.  VI; 
Wadding,  Annalea  Minorum  (2Dd  ed.,  Rome,  1733),  VII,  VIII; 
Dbniuji  and  Chatblain,  Chartvlarium  Unioerntatia  Parineri' 
•ia  (Paris,  1891).  II,  321-442;  Analeda  Fmnciacana  (Quarao- 
chi.  1887).  II,  146-81;  (1897),  III.  488-537:  Micraelis  a 
Nbapoli,  Chronoloffia  hiatorioo-letfolu  Ord.  Frair.  Minorum 
(Naples.  16.50),  I.  46-63;  Wadding,  Scripiorea  Ordinia  Mine 
rum  (Rome,  1650).  145;  2nd  ed.  (Rome.  1806).  99;  3rd  ed.  (Rome, 
1906).  99-100;  Sbaralba,  Supplementum  ad  Seriptt.  Ord.  Min, 
(Rome,  1806).  306-7;  2nd  ed.  (Rome),  I,  324-25;  Jbilbr  in 
Kirchadex.t  s.  v.  Qerhiard  Odonia;  .TuLBNid,  De  Patarenia  Boania 

iSerajeyo,  1908).  98  aqq.;  Archivum  Fmnciacanum  hiatoricum 
Quaracchi.  1909),  11,  nn.  160  aqq.;  II,  nn.  269  sqq.;  Ill,  no. 
tl2  sqq. 

Michael  Bihl. 

Gerasa,  a  titular  see  in  the  province  of  Arabia  and 
the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch.  According  to  Josephus, 
it  was  a  city  of  Decapolis  in  which  a  number  of  Jews 
resided.  Alexander  Jannseus  took  possession  of  it, 
although  it  was  surrounded  by  a  triple  wall  (Bell.  Jud., 
I,  4,  8).  In  68  A.  D.  Vespasian  ravaged  the  country 
and  sacked  the  city  because  the  Jews  were  all-power- 
ful there  (op.  cit.,  iV,  9, 1).  Simon,  the  son  of  Gioras, 
one  of  the  principal  leaders  of  the  rebellious  Jews^  was 
bom  at  Gerasa.  The  cit^^  is  mentioned  as  formme  a 
^rt,  sometimes  of  Arabia,  sometimes  of  Syria,  oy 
Ptolemy,  Pliny,  and  Stephen  of  Byzantium,  who  also 


speak  of  several  notable  persons  of  the  place.  Coins 
and  a  number  of  inscriptions  prove  that  it  was  some- 
times called  Antioch  on  the  Chrysorrhoas,  the  little 
river  by  which  it  is  watered.  In  the  Gospel  (Matt., 
viii,  28;  Mark,  v,  i;  Luke,  viii,  26,  37)  there  is  ques- 
tion of  the  country  of  the  Gerasans,  but  if  this  name  is 
to  be  read  instead  of  Gadarenians  or  Gergesians,  the 
reference  is  to  another  locality,  near  the  lake  of  Tibe- 
rias. The  prosperity  of  Gerasa,  once  considerable, 
dates  from  the  nrst  centuries  of  our  era,  its  buildings 
date  from  the  emperors  of  the  second  and  third  cen- 
turies. Its  destruction  was  brought  about  by  earth- 
quakes and  the  Arab  invasions.  We  know  three 
Greek  Bishops  of  Gerasa:  Exairesius,  fourth  century; 
Plancus,  451;  ^neas,  who  built  the  church  of  St. 
Theodore  in  the  sixth  centurjr.  In  1121  Baldwin  II 
attempted  in  vain  to  conquer  it,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  thirteenth  century  the  geographer  Yakut  in- 
forms us  that  it  was  no  lonser  inhabited.  In  modem 
times,  several  thousand  Tcnerkesses  have  established 
themselves  amid  its  ruins  and  have  unfortunately  de- 
stroyed most  of  the  Grseco-Roman  monuments  which 
time  had  spared.  Until  recently  Djerasch  was  the 
best  preserved  city  of  Roman  antiquity  and  the  one 
which  afforded  us  the  most  exact  idea  of  Roman  civili- 
sation. Its  ramparts,  in  a  state  of  partial  preservation , 
are  still  to  be  seen;  also  a  magnificent  triumphal  arch, 
with  three  openings  about  82  feet  wide  by  &  high;  a 
"naumachia",  or  circus  for  naval  combats;  two  thea- 
tres; the  forum  with  fifty-five  columns  still  standing; 
the  great  colonnade  which  crosses  the  city  from  north 
to  south,  and  which  still  retains  from  100  to  150  of  its 
columns;  several  aqueducts;  some  propyUea;  a  tem- 

Ele  of  the  Sun,  the  columns  of  which  are  about  40  feet 
igh,  and  several  other  temples,  baths,  etc.  Greek 
and  Latin  inscriptions  are  very  numerous  among  the 
ruins.  The  ramparts  of  the  city  cover  a  distance  of 
about  three  miles. 

Gbrmbb-Dvrand,  Exploration  Spioraphigue  de  Ohaaa  in 
Revue  b%bliQ!ue,  1895,  374-400;  NouwUe  exploration  tpiarapki- 
9ue  de  Oiraaa  in  Remu  biblique,  1899,  5.  39;  and  1900.  93-95; 
see  alao  Pbborzzbt  in  Reoue  Btbligue,  1900,  429-443;  and  the 
varioos  guidebooks  to  Pslestine  and  Syria. 

S.  VailhI:. 

Oerberon,  Gabbiel,  a. Benedictine  of  the  Maurist 
Congregation;  b.  at  St^alais,  Department  of  Sarthe, 
France,  12  Aug.,  1628;  d.  in  the  monastery  of  St- 
Denis,  near  Paris,  29  March,  1711;  educated  by  the 
Oratorians  at  Venddme;  became  a  Benedictine  m  the 
monastery  of  St-M41aine,  at  Rennes,  11  Dec.,  1649; 
studied  theology  in  the  monastery  of  Mont  St-Michel; 
ordained  priest  in  1655;  and  taught  philosophy  and 
theology  in  the  monasteries  of  Bourgeuil,  St-Denis, 
and  St-Benott-sur-Loire  imtil  1663.  His  departure 
from  the  Scholastic  method  of  teaching  theology,  and 
his  leaning  towards  Jansenism,  influenced  his  superiors 
to  relieve  him  of  his  professional  duties.  In  1663  he 
was  sent  to  the  monastery  of  La  Couture,  near  Le 
Mans,  and  three  years  later,  to  St-Germain-des-Pr^, 
where  he  devoted  six  years  (1666-1672)  to  the  care  of 
souls  and  to  literary  pursuits.  In  1672  he  was  sent  to 
the  monaster^r  of  Argentetdl,  and  in  1675  he  was  ap- 
pointed subprior  of  the  monastery  of  Corbie.  Here  he 
openly  opposed  the  encroachments  of  Louis  XIV  in 
ecclesiastical  and  monastic  affairs,  and  when  it  be- 
came known  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  second  vol- 
ume of  "L'Abb6  commendataire"  (Cologne,  1674),  a 
work  which  severely  condemned  the  abuse  of  setting 
commendatory  abbots  over  monasteries,  the  king 
ordered  his  arrest  (1682).  Gerberon  escaped  the 
hands  of  the  law  by  fleeing  to  Brussels,  thence  to  Hol- 
land, where  he  lived  a  few  years  under  the  assumed 
name  of  Augustin  Kergrg.  In  1690  he  retumed  to 
Brussels,  and,  in  union  with  Quesnel  and  other  Jansen- 
ists,  wrote  numerous  pamphlets  in  favour  of  Jansen- 
ism. On  30  Mav.  1703,  he  was  arrested  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  who  intended  to 


OEBBEBT 


470 


OEBBET 


ffive  him  over  to  his  monastic  superiors.  Louis  XIV. 
however,  imprisoned  him  at  Amiens  (1703-1707)  ana 
at  Vincennes  (1707-1710).  After  retracting  all  his 
Jansenistic  errors,  Gerberon  was  set  free,  and  returned 
to  the  monastery  of  St-Germain-des-Pr^s.  25  April, 
1710.  He  deeplv  regretted  his  errors,  ana  died  a  re- 
pentant son  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

Gerberon  was  one  of  the  most  prolific  writers  of  the 
Maurist  Congregation.  Tassin  (loc.  cit.  below) 
ascribes  one  hundred  and  eleven  works  to  him,  many 
of  which,  however,  are  spurious.  Of  the  sixty-one 
works  ascribed  to  nim  by  de  Lama  (loc.  cit.  below), 
the  following  are  the  most  inaportant:  "Apolo^pro 
Ruperto  Abbate  Tuitiensi''  (Paris,  1669),  m  which  he 
proves  against  Salmasius  and  other  Protestants  that 
Abbot  Rupert  of  Deutz  held  the  Catholic  doctrine  of 
the  Real  Presence ;  "  Histoire  g^n^rale  du  Jans^nisme  " 
^Amsterdam,  1700).  3  vols.;  '^Acta  Marii  Mercatoris" 
(Brussels,  1673) ;  "Histoire  de  la  Robe  sans  couture 
de  N.  S.  J6sus-Christ,  qui  est  r6v^r6e  dans  I'^^ise  des 
Bdn^dictins  d'  Ar^nteuil"  (Paris,  1676).  ms  chief 
Jansenistic  work  is  entitled  "Le  Miroir  de  la  Pi^t^ 
chr6  tienne"  (Brussels,  1 676) .  He  also  edited  the  works 
of  St.  Anselm:  "  S.  Anselmi  opera  omnia,  necnon  Ead- 
meri  monachi  Cantuar.  Historia  Novorum  et  alia 
opuscula"  (Paris,  1675). 

Tassin,  Hiat.  liiUtaire  de  la  congr,  de  SaitU-Maur  (Bnusela, 
17S0),  483-684:  BbruIsiu,  Nouveau  SuppUment  to  the  preoed- 
ing  work  (Pans,  1908),  I.  242-245;  Ksrkbr  in  Kirdtenlex.; 
HuBTBR,  Nomendator;  db  Lama.  BihlioiKhnie  dee  icrivaine  de  la 
congr,  de  St,  Maur  (Munich,  1882),  03-102;  Lb  CEiur,  BtbUo" 
tkifue  hietorique  el  critique  dee  auteura  de  la  Conor,  de  St.  Maur 
(Ls  Haye,  1726)»  157-169. 

Michael  Ott. 

Oerbert,  Martin,  Prince-Abbot  of  Saint-Blaise, 
liturgist  and  musical  writer;  b.  at  Horb-on-the- 
Neckar,  in  the  Black  Forest,  12  August,  1720,  by  birth 
being  entitled  Baron  von  Homau ;  d.  in  his  monastery 
of  SaintrBlaise,  13  May,  1793.  He  studied  the  hu- 
manities successively  at  Ehingen,  Suabia,  at  Freiburg- 
im-Breisgau  and  at  Klingenau,  and  philosophy  and 
theology  at  the  Abbey  of  Saint^Blaise,  whose  prince- 
abbot  remarked  his  talents  and  undertook  the  direc- 
tion of  his  studies,  having  in  mind  to  make  him  his 
successor.  Having  entered  at  Saint-Blaise  in  1736, 
he  was  ordained  pnest  in  1744.  and  was  almost  imme- 
diately appointed  professor  ot  philosophy  and  theol- 
ogy. Besides,  he  fulfilled  the  duties  of^librarian.  His 
first  researches  in  liturgy  and  music  date  from  this 
time.  In  1760,  in  the  course  of  a  sojourn  in  France 
and  Italy,  he  made  the  acquaintance  at  Bologna  of 
Martini,  who  was  eoUecting  materials  for  his  **  lustoire 

g^n^rale  de  la  musique"  and  to  whom  he  made  known 
is  own  discoveries .  Gerbert  states  that  he  was  much 
surprised  to  learn  of  the  existence  of  so  extensive  a  lit- 
erature on  a  special  subject,  but  that  his  own  studies 
led  to  the  knowledge  of  many  other  works  which  he 
made  known  to  Martini,  with  whom  he  kept  up  a  cor- 
respondence. 

In  1762  Gerbert  announced  through  a  prospectus  his 
intention  of  writing  a  history  of  church  music,  and  he 
laboured  unceasinsly  at  this  task,  despite  the  cares 
imposed  upon  him  by  the  administration  of  the  Abbey 
of  Saint-Blaise,  of  which  he  was  named  prince-abbot 
in  1764.  The  first  volume  was  completea  and  the  sec- 
ond much  advanced  when  a  fire  destroyed  the  church, 
the  libraiy  and  a  part  of  the  manuscripts  of  Saint- 
Blaise  (1768).  Gerbert  set  to  work  once  more,  and 
the  work  appeared  in  1774.  The  researches  made 
necessary  by  the  preparation  had  brought  about  the 
discovery  of  a  number  of  manuscripts  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Uerbert  published  more  than  forty  of  them  in 
his  "Scriptores  de  music&"  (1784).  Between  whiles 
he  published  various  writings,  some  of  which  are  still 
of  real  importance,  such  as  the  "Iter  Alemannicum ", 
— ^in  which,  like  Mabillon,  Montfaucon,  and  Mart^ne, 
he  shares  with  us  the  treasures  he  has  discovered  in 
the  libraries  of  Germany,  France,  and  Italy-— and  use- 


ful works  on  Rudolph  I  and  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  on 
the  history  of  Sweden,  and  on  the  ancient  liturgy  of 
Germany. 

List  of  works:  "Martini  Gerberti  et  Remigii  Klee- 
sati  XXIV  Offertoria  Solemnia  in  f estis  Domini,  B .  V .  M . 
et  SS.  opus  I"  (in  fol.  Augsburg,  1747) ;  Apparatus  ad 
eruditionem  theologicam  (Saint-Blaise),  1754 ;  Iter  Ale- 
mannicum,  accedit  Italicum  et  Gallicum  (8^,  Saint- 
Blaise,  1765);  "Pinacotheca  principum  Austria" 
(1768);  "Codex  epistolaris  Ruaolphi  I  Romanorum 
regis''  (Saint-Blaise,  1772) ;  "De  Cantu  et  Musidl  Sa- 
cra a  prim&  ecclesise  state  usque  ad  proesens  tem- 
pus"  (2  vols.  4^  Saint-Blaise,  1774);  "Taphographia 
principum  Austris,  monumentorum  domus  Austria- 
c»  tomus  IV  et  ultimus"  ( 2  vols,  in  fol.,  1772) ;  "  Ve- 
tus  liturgia  Alemannica,  disauisionibus  prseviis,  notis 
et  observationibus  illustrata  (2  vols.  4^,  Saint-Blaise, 
1776);  "Monumenta  veteris  litui^gis  Alemannicie  ex 
antiquis  manuscriptis  codicibus"  (2  vols.  4^,  Saint- 
Blaise,  1777-79);  '^  Historia  Silvae  Nigrae"  (3  vols.  4^ 
1783);  "Scriptores  ecclesiastici  de  musicA  sacr&"  (3 
vols.  4'',  Saint- Blaise,  1784);  "De  Rudolpho  suevioo 
oomite  de  Rhinfelden,  duce,  rege,  deque  ejus  inlustri 
familiA"  (4^  Saint-Blaise,  1785) ;  "(Jbservationes  in 
Bertholdi  seu  Bemoldi,  Constantiniensis  presbyteri 
opuscula"  (in  the  "Mon.  res  Aleman.  must,  of 
Uffermaim,  2  vols.,  1792) ;  "  De  sublimi  in  evan^lio 
Christi  juxta  divinam  Verbi  incamati  Sdoonomiam 
(8^  1793). 

Fvns,  Dietionnaire  de  mueiciene;  Mxsabd,  Biogravhie  de  D. 
M.  Oerbert  (Paris,  1867);  Freiburger  Dibceaan-Anshie  (1808). 
XXVI.  299  sq. 

H.  Lbclbbcq. 

Oerbert  of  AnrllUc.    See  Stlybsteb  II. 

Oerbet,  Oltmpe-Philippb,  a  French  bishop  and 
writer;  b.  at  Polignv  (Jura),  1798;  d.  at  Perpignan 
(Pyrgn^es  OrientaTes),  1864.  He  studied  at  the  Aca- 
d^mie  and  the 
Grand  -  S^minaire 
of  Besangon,  also  at 
St-Sulpice  and  the 
Sorbonne.  Ordain- 
ed priest  in  1822, 
he  joined  Lamen- 
nais  at  "  La  Ches- 
naie"  (1825)  after 
a  few  years  spent 
with  Salinis  at  the 
Lvc6e  Henri  IV. 
Although  an  en- 
thusiastic admirer 
of  Lamennais  he 
nevertheless  ac- 
cepted the  papal 
Encyclical "  Mirari 
vos  of  15  Aug., 
1832,  and  the  "Sin- 
gulari  nos"  of  13 
July,  1834,  which 
condemned  the 
traditionalism  of  Lamennais;  and,  after  fruitless  efiforta 
to  convert  the  master,  he  withdrew  to  the  "  College  de 
Juilly"(1836).  The  years  1839-49  he  spent  in  Rome, 
mtherins  data  for  his  "  Esquisse  de  Rome  Chr6tienne  ". 
Recalled  DyMonseigneurSibour,  he  became  successively 
professor  of  sacred  eloquence  at  the  Sorbonne,  Vicar- 
General  of  Amiens,  and  Bishop  of  Perpignan  (1854) .  His 
episcopate  was  marked  by  the  holding  of  a  synod  (1865) , 
the  reor^nization  of  clerical  studies,  various  religious 
foundations,  and,  above  all,  by  the  famous  pastoral 
instruction  of  1860  aur  diversea  erreurs  du  temva  jpr^ent, 
which  served  as  a  model  for  the  Syllabus  ot  Pius  IX. 
Gerbet  has  been  called  the  F^nelon  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Besides  many  articles  in  "Le  Memorial 
cathohque",  "  L'Avenir'^',  "  L'Universit^  catholique", 
and  some  philosophical  writings  ("Des  doctrines 


Oltmphb-Philippb  Gbabbt 


GEBBILLOH  471  OESHABD 

philofiophiques  sur  la  certitude",  Paris,  1826;  "Som-  Among  his  works  are   ^El^ents  de  G^ozn^trie" 

maire  des  connaissances  humaines",   Paris,    1829;  (1689),  ''G6om6trie  pratic|ue  et  tli6orique"  (1690), 

"Coup  d'ceil  sur  la  controverse  chr6tieime ",  Paris,  ''Eldments    de    philosophie",    "Relations    de    huit 

1831;  "Pr6cis  d'histoire  de  la  philoeophie",  Paris.  Vovages  dans  la  Grande  Tartarie".    A  work  entitled 

1834:  under  the  names  of  Salinis  and  Scorbiac),  all  "Eiementa  linguse  Tartaric^"  is  also  attributed  to 

more  or  less  tinctured  with  Lamennais's  errors^  he  him. 

wrote  the  following:  "Considerations  sur  le  dogme       SoiaoavooBL, SiWioeA.<ie la  C.d*/., Ill;  EYBnas In  Buvro- 

g6n4rateur  de  la  piet6  chi^tienne"   (Paris,   1829);  vhu^  UmverHiie,  b,  r.  Hbnry  M  Brock 

^Vues  sur  la  P^mtence"  (Paris,  1836)— these  two  mbnby  M.  15rock. 

works  are  often  published  together;  "Esquisse  de        Oerdil,  Htacinthb  Sigismond,  cardinal  and  theo- 

Rome  CJ^tienne^'  (Pans,  1843),  oreviously  men-  logian;  b.  at  Samofins  in  Savoy,  20  June,  1718;  d.  at 

tioned.    In  the  two  former  books  Gerbet  views  the  Rome,  12  August.  1802.    When  fifteen  years  old,  he 

dogmas  of  the  Eucharist  and  Penance  as  admirably  joined  the  Bamabites  at  Annecy,  and  was  sent  to 

fitted  to  develop  the  affections— noiirrir  le  cmar  de  aenr  Bologna  to  pursue  his  theological  studies;  there  he  de- 

fomente— just  as  he  uses  the  rMiUe  visiblea  of  Rome  voted  his  mind  to  the  various  branches  of  knowledge 

as  symbols  of  her  essence  apiritudle.    Sainte-Beuve  ^ith  great  success,  and  attracted  the  attention  of 

(Causeries  de  lundi,  VI,  316)  says  that  certain  pas-  Arehbishop  Lambertini  of  that  city,  later  Pope  Ben^ 

saaes  of  Gerbet's  writings  "  are  among  the  most  beauti-  diet  XIV.    After  his  studies,  he  taught  philosophy  at 

ful  and  suave  pages  that  ever  honoured  rehgious  Macerata,  philosophy  and  moral  theology  at  Turin, 

literature".    Gerbet's  "Mandements  et  instructions  and  became  provincial  of  his  order.    At  the  suggestion 

pastorales"  were  published  at  Paris  in  1876.  of  Benedict  XIV,  he  was  (ihosen  preceptor  of  the 

^l}^iFoTlS^n%  'SeSi.  ':;^r.Z  iJJ'^t^l^l^;  Prince  of  Pi^mont^  afterwards  Charl^  Emmanuel 

BBiMOND,  OerbH  (Pans,  1007) ;  Lonohats.  Oerbei  in  EMquuam  IV.    Designated  cardmal  in  petto,  m  1773,  by  Clement 

liuiraire$  (Paris.  1908).  See  also  MaeActal.  Fwwi (TunntUme  XTV,  he  was  promoted  to  that  dignity  by  Pius  VI,  in 

SLmD*S*^  d^^  ^''  ^'^'^**  ^*™'  ^^^*  "**  1777j  who  called  him  to  Rome  andnam^  him  Bishop 

J.  F.  SoLLiBB.  of  Dibbon,  consultor  of  the  Holy  Office,  corrector  of 

the  oriental  books,  and  prefect  of  the  Propaganda. 
OerbiUon,  jBAN-FRANiJOis,  French  missionary;  b.  After  the  invasion  of  Rome  in  1798,  he  left  the  city 
at  Verdun,  4  June,  1654;  d.  at  Peking,  Chma,  27  and  returned  to  his  Abbey  Delia  Chiusa.  On  the  death 
March,  1707.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  5  of  Pius  VI  he  would  probably  have  been  elected  pope 
Oct.,  1670,  and  after  completing  the  usual  course  of  at  the  consistory  of  Venice,  in  1800,  had  not  his  election 
study  tau|j}it  grammar  and  the  numanities  for  seven  been  vetoed  by  Cardinal  Herzan  in  the  name  of  the 
years.  Hw  long-cherished  desire  to  labour  in  the  Emperor  of  Germany.  He  accompanied  the  new  pope 
missions  of  the  East  was  gratified  in  1685,  when  he  (Pius  VII)  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1802. 
joined  the  ban<^  of  Jesuite  who  hsud  been  chosen  to  His  numerous  works  written  in  Latin,  Italian,  and 
found  the  French  mission  in  China.  Upon  their  French  on  divers  subjects — dogmatic  and  moral  theol- 
arrival  in  Peking  they  were  received  by  the  Emperor  offlr,  canon  law,  philosophy,  pedagogy,  history,  physi- 
Kan^>Hi,  who  was  favourably  impressed  by  them  and  caTand  natural  sciences,  ete. — ^f orm  twenty  volumes  in 
retamed  Gerbillon  and  Bouvet  at.  the  Court.  This  quarto  (ed.  Rome,  1806-1821).  Among  the  most  im- 
famous  monarch  realized  the  value  of  the  services  portant  may  be  mentioned:  "  L'lmmortalit^  de  T&me 
which  the  fathers  could  render  to  him  owing  to  their  d^monti^  contre  Locke  et  defense  du  P.  Sialebranche 
scientific  attainments^  and  they  on  their  part  were  oontrecephiloeophe''  (Turin,  1747-48),  2  vols.;  "R6- 
^ad  in  this  way  to  wm  his  favour  and  gain  prestige  flexions  sur  la  th^orie  et  la  pratique  de  T^ducation 
m  order  to  further  the  intereste  of  the  infant  mission,  contre  les  principee  de  J.-J.  Rousseau"  (Turin,  1766), 
As  soon  as  they  had  learned  the  language  of  the  coun-  reprinted  m  a  new  edition  under  the  title  "Anti- 
try,  Gerbillon  with  Pereyra,  one  of  his  companions,  Emile";  "Exposition  des  caracteres  de  la  vraie  reli- 
was  sent  as  interpreter  to  Niptehou  with  the  ambasMr  gion",  written  in  Italian  (translated  mto  French, 
dors  commissioned  to  treat  with  the  Russians  regarding  Paris,  1770),  ete.  His  works  were  written  espe- 
the  boundaries  of  the  two  empires.  This  was  but  the  cially  for  the  defence  of  spiritual  philosophy  against 
beginning  of  his  travels,  durmg  which  he  was  often  materialism,  of  supernatural  religK)n  against  Deism, 
attached  to  the  suite  of  the  emperor.  He  made  eight  of  the  supreme  authority  of  the  pope  against  Febron- 
different  journeys  into  Tatery.  On  one  of  these  he  ianism  and  the  Synod  of  Pistoia.  A  scholar  of  very 
was  an  eyewitaess  of  the  campaign  m  which  Kang-Hi  extensive  knowledge,  a  deep  thinker,  though  some  of 
defeated  the  Eleuths.  On  his  last  journey  he  accom-  yg  philosophical  opinions,  especially  thoee  concerning 
panied  the  three  commissioners  who  regulated  public  our  knowledge  of  God.  are  not  those  generally  ao-. 
affairs  and  established  new  laws  among  the  Tatai>  cepted,  a  theologian  of  firm  principles,  he  was  also 
Kalkas,  who  had  yielded  allegianoe  to  the  emperor,  known  as  a  man  of  great  moderation  in  his  counsels 
He  availed  himself  of  this  opportunity  to  determme  and  of  great  charity  m  controversy. 

the  latitude  and  longitude  of  a  number  of  places  in         Pxantoni,  VUa  dd  (fard,  O.  S.  QerdU  A  analin  ddU  aue  open 

Tatary.      Gerbillon  was  for  a  time  in  charge  of  the  (Rome,  1831).;  HbbgbnrOthbb  in  K%rchmlex.,B.  v.:  Fbllkb- 

French   college  in   Peking,    and   afterwanis   became  f^^^^^'  Ihctumnaxre  histarviue  <m  Btogmphte  tMtveneUe, 

superior-^nend  of  the  mission.     He  enjoyed   the         *  G.  M.  Sauvags. 

special  friendship  and  esteem  of  the  emperor,  who        n^-*^«  Qati^     q^t*»»»a^t  t«^t^^ 
tSd  a  hi^  opinion  of  his  abUity  and  frequently        ^^««>'».  S^int.    See  Thbban  Lbqion. 

availed  himseliofhis  scientific  and  diplomatic  services.        Gerhard  of  ZtLtphen  (Zbrbolt  of  ZCtphbn)  ;  b. 

He  was  withal  a  zealous  missionary,  and  in  1692  ob-  at  Zfltphen,  1367;  d.  at  Windesheim,  1398;  a  mystical 

tained  an  edict  granting  the  free  exereise  of  the  writer  and  one  of  the  first  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Oom- 

Christian   religion.    After   the   emperor's   recovery  mon  Life,  founded  by  Gerhard  Groote  and  Florentius 

from  a  fever,  during  which  he  was  attended  by  Ger-  Radewyn  at  Deventer,  in  the  Netherhmds.    Even  in 

billon  and  Bouvet,  he  showed  his  eratitude  dv  be-  that  community  of  ''plain  livine  and  high  thinking" 

stowing  on  them  a  site  for  a  chapel  and  residence.  Gerhard  was  remarkable  for  his  absorption  in  the 

Gerbillon  was  a  skilled  linguist.    He  was  the  author  sacred  sciences  and  his  utter  oblivion  of  all  matters  of 

of  several  works  on  mathematics,  and  wrote  an  account  merely  earthly  interest.    He  held  the  office  of  libra- 

of  his  travels  in  Tatary.    These  relations  are  valuable  rian,  and  his  deep  learning  in  moral  theology  and  canon 

for  their  accurate  account  of  the  topography  of  the  law  did  the  brothers  good  service,  in  helping  them  to 

country,  the  customs  of  the  people,  and  also  for  the  meet  the  prejudice  and  opposition  which  their  manner 

details  of  the  life  of  the  missionaries  at  the  Court,  of  life  at  first  aroused.    His  best  known  works  are 


OEBHOH  472  OEBBIAIN 

entitled  "Homo  quidam"  and  "Beatus  vir/';  the  two  lares  et  regulares"  (P.  L.,  CXCIV,  1375-1420;  Sacknr, 

are  almost  identical  (de  la  Bigne,  Bibliotheca  Patrum,  202-239) :  "  De  novitatibus  hujus  sseculi  ad  Adrianum 

XXVI).    Two  other  treatises  on  prayer  in  the  mother-  IV  Papam  "  (selections  in  Grisar  and  in  Sackur,  288- 

tongue  and  on  reading  the  Scripture  in  the  mother-  304) ;    furthermore,  the  important  work  written  in 

tongue  are  attributed  to  him  (Ullmann,  Ref ormatoren  1 162,  **  De  investunitione  Anti-Christi ' '  libri  III  [seleo- 

vor  der  Reformation:  and  Hirsche  in  Herzog's  Real-  tions  in  P.  L.,  CaCIV,  1443-1480;  see  also  Stalz  in 

enc}rklop&die,  2nd  ea.)-    Ullmann  and  other  contro-  "  Archiv  fQr  fisterreichische  Geschichte,  XXII  ^1858), 

versialists  have  used  Gerhard  of  ZQtphen's  seal  for  127-188;    selections  in  Scheibelberger,   see   oelow; 

propagating  the  vernacular  Scriptures  as  proof  to  con-  book  I  complete  in  Sackur,  304-395];  "  De  schismate 

nect  the  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life  with  the  German  ad  cardinales ' '  [Mtlhlbacher  in  Archiv  f  Ur  dsterreich- 

Heformers*  but  an  examination  of  Gerhard's  arguments,  ische  Geschichte,  XL VII  (1871),  355-382;  Sackur, 

as  quoted  by  them,  reveals  with  how  little  foundation.  399-4111;   his  laist  work  is  the  "De  auarta  vigilia 

Abthur,  The  Spiritual  Atceni,  a  translation  of  Gsrhard.  noctis"  fOesterreichische  VierteljahresscnriftfQr  kath. 

BmUua  wr(Ix)ndon,l«>8);  Arthur.  rA«  Fotrndenofthe  New  Theologie  X  (1871),  565-606;  Sackur,  503-5251.    His 

Thomas  bKempie  and  the  Brothera  of  the  Common  Life  CLondon,  Psalmos"    (P.   L.,   CXCIII,   619-1814:    CXCIV,    1- 

125?^»  8CULLT,  Life  of  theVen.  Thoman  h  Kempia  (London.  1066) ;  it  offers  much  Interestmg  inatenal  for  contem- 

eSili?nfw'SS^eaf^on'^?jtLi!tS»o,J52^  Poraneous  hiatoiy.    Itis  is  particularly  tn«»  of  his 

1806).  oonmientary  on  Ps.  bav,  that  appeared  separately  as 

Vincent  Scully.  "Liber  de  corrupto  Ecclesis  statu  ad  Eugenium  III 

Papam"  (P.  L.,  CXCIV,  9-120;  Sackur.  439-92). 

Oerhoh  of  Reichersbergi  provost  of  that  place  We  are  indebted  to  him  also  for  a  number  of  polemical 

and  Austin  canon,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  theo-  works  and  letters  against  the  Christological  errors  of 

logians  of  Germany  in  the  twelfth  century,  b.  at  Poll-  Abelard,  Gilbert  de  la  Porr6e,  and  Bishop  Eberhard  of 

ing,  Bavaria,  1093 ;  d.  at  Reichersberg,  27  June,  1169.  Bamberg;  others  deal  with  the  errors  of  Folmar, 

He  studied  at  Freising,  Mosburg,  and  Hildesheim.    In  Provost  of  TViefensteini  on  the  subject  of  the  Holy 

1119,  Bishop  Hermann  of  Aumburg  called  him  as  Eucharist. 

''scholasticus"  to  the  cathedrsuT  school  of  that  city;        The  genuineness  of  the  "VitsB  beatorum  abbatum 

shortly  afterwards,  though  still  a  deacon,  he  made  him  Formbacensium  Berengeri  et  Wimtonis,  O.S.B.".  gen- 

a  canon  of  the  cathedral.    Graduallv  Gerhoh  adopted  erally  ascribed  to  Gerhoh,  is  denied  by  Wattenbach. 

a  stricter  ecclesiastical  attitude,  and  eventually  with-  Hie  Migne  edition  of  Gerhoh 's  works  is  faulty  and  in- 

drew  (1121)  from  the  simoniaical  Bishop  Hermann,  complete.    Those  of  his  writings  which  are  of  impor- 

and  took  refuge  in  the  monastery  of  Raitenbuch  in  the  tance  for  the  study  of  the  history  of  that  period  were 

Diocese  of  Freising.    After  the  Concordat  of  Wonns  edited  by  Sackur  m  the  ''Monumenta  Germanis  His- 

(1122)  Bishop  Hermann  was  reconciled  with  the  legiti-  torica:   liibelli  de  lite  imperatonmi  et  pontificum", 

mate  pope,  Callistus  II,  whereupon  Gerhoh  accom-  III  (Hanover,  1897),  131-525;  also  by  Scneibelberger, 

paniea  the  bishop  to  the  LateraA  Coimcil  of  1123.  On  *'  Gerhohi  Opera  adhuc  inedita  "  (Linz.  1875). 

nis  return  from  Rome  Gerhoh  resigned  his  canonicate.         Stole,  Hiatorieche  Ahhandlung  aber  doe  Leben  una  die  Werke 

and  with  his  fattier  and  two  haiarotheni  joined  the  ^iiJiST /^J'-iTlT^SSilSlX'^.''^ 

Austm  canons  at  Raitenbuch  (1 124).  ^        ^  Bach.  Prwpst  Oerhoeh  7.  von  Reicher^tenfi  ein  deuischer  Reforma- 

Bishop  KunO  of  Ratisbon  ordained  him  a  priest  in  tor  dee  Xtl  JahrhunderU  in  Oeeterreichtaehe  Vtertetiahreeachrift 

1126,  and  gave  him  the  parish  of  Cham,  which  he  Uter  t^^^  ^^n^'^^ii^l^hj^^^.ae.SS!^^ 

resigned  imder  threats  from  Hohenstaufen  followers  Reieherabero  (Loipsig,   1881):  LamjiD  in  Kirehenlez.  8.  v.; 

whom  he  had  offended  at  the  Synod  of  Wtlrzburs  in  Waitbnbach,  Deutaddanda  GeachichlagueUen  im  MittelaUer,  6th 

1197       TTft  rofnmAH  tn  Pafishnn    unH  m  1112  Arnh.  «!•»  H  (Berlin,  1894),  308-314;  Idbm  in  AUaemeine  DeuiaAe 

1127.  lie  retumea  to  WatlSbon^  ^^  ^^"^^  ^i?  r  BuvmpAie,  Vlh,  783  agq.;  ViLDHAUT,  HanSLeh  der  QueUen- 

bishop  Conrad  I  of  Salzburg  appointed  him  provost  of  kunde  rur  deutaehen   Geachiehte  (Arnaberg,   1898),  322-330; 

Reichersbere,  to  the  spiritual  and  material  advantage  Potthabt,  Bibli^theea  hiatcnea  medii  cwt,  .2nd  ed.,  I  (Berlin, 

of  ihtLf    mnrifiiitprv      ArchbiahoD   Conrad   aent  hun  ^^06),  602  sq^  Hubtbr,  Nomendator;  Ktrchltchea  Hemdlext- 

01   mat   monastery.     AJcnoisnop   ^nraa   sent;  nun  ^^^^^^^  j  j^^  ^     Details  are  treated  in  Bxntbrxm,  Praamo' 

several  times  on  special  missions  to  Rome ;  m  114d  he  twdte  Oeachichte  der  deutaehen  National-,  Provintial  und  vortQg- 

also  accompanied,  together  with  Arnold  of  Brescia,  lichatm  Dideeaaneonnlien,IV  (Mains,  1840),  187-212;  Bach. 

Cardinal  Guido  of  Santa  Maria  in  Porticu  on  hto  e,n-  ^SJ^Tl^SilSr  H  SXH^Si  ^iH^s^'^inSSTZl 

bassy  to  Bohemia  and  Moravia.     Eugene  HI  (1145-  Eberhard  von  Bamberg  in  Theolooiache  Quarialachrift  (Tubingen, 

63)  held  (jerhoh  in  high  esteem;  his  relations  with  the  1883),  523-652:  Ribbbck.  Oerhoh  von  Reieharabaround  aeine 

«,lrw»ic>rki«  r,t  *Kq*  rw^no  uroro  Iaba  nlAOiaanf       On  ihtk  I^^*^  <**«^  <^  VerhMtnxaa  notachen  Staat  und  Ktrdie  m  For- 

BUCCessors  Of  that  pope  were  IWS  pleasant.     Un  tne  ^^^gen  tw  deutaehen  OeachidUe,  XXIV  (GOtUngen,  1884). 

occasion  of  the  disputed  papal  election  m  1159  (Alex-  i.^;  see  also  XXV  (1885),  556-561;  Grisar,  Die  InveatUur- 

ander  III  and  Victor  IV)  Gerhoh  sided  with  Alexander  fra^  nadi,  ungedrucMen  Schr^tmGarMiavon  Reicheraberg  In 

III.  but  only  after  long  hesitation :  forthis  aption  the  ^•-«*"/«  1^  *«*•  ''*«*«-.  ^  Si^^XHM^K,. 
imperial  party  looked  on  him  with  hatred.    For  ref  us-  *«*ai/«*^n  ^^vvaanx. 

ing  to  support  the  antipopNB,  Archbishop  Conrad  was        Oerlach.    See  Petersbbn,  Gerlac. 
condemned  to  banishment  in  1 166,  and  the  monastery        Qerlandiw .    See  Garland,  John. 
of  Reichersberg  repeatedly  attacked;  Gerhoh  himself  ' 

was  forced  to  take  refuge  m  flifi^t.  and  died  soon  after        Oennain,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Auxerre,  b.  at  Auxerre 

his  return  to  Reichersberg.    Gerhoh  was  a  reformer  c.  380;  d.  at  Ravenna,  31  July,  448.    He  was  the  son 

in  the  spirit  of  the  Gregorian  ideas.    He  aimed  partio-  of  Rusticus  and  Germanilla,  and  his  family  was  one 

ularly,  perhaps  with  excessive  zeal,  at  the  reform  of  the  of  the  noblest  in  Gaul  in  the  latter  portion  of  the 

clergy;  it  seemed  to  him  that  this  object  could  not  be  fourth  century.    He  received  the  very  best  education 

attiuned  unless  the  community  life  were  generally  provided  by  the  distinguished  schoob  of  Aries  and 

adopted.  Lyons,  and  then  went  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  elo- 

His  reformatory  views,  and  his  ecclesiastical  policy  quence  and  civil  law.    He  practised  there  before  the 

are  set  forth  in  the  following  works:  "  De  sedificio  Dei  tribunal  of  the  prefect  for  some  years  with  great 

seu  de  studio  et  cura  discipTinro  ecclesiasticse''  (P.  L.,  success.    His  high  birth  and  brilliant  talents  brought 

CXCIV,  1187-1336;   Sackur,  136-202);   "Tractatus  him  into  contact  with  the  court,  and  he  married 

adversus  Simoniacos"  (P.  L.,   1335-1372;    Sackur,  Eustachia,  a  lady  highly  esteemed  in  imperial  circles. 

239-272;  see  also  Jaksch  in  Mittheilungen  des  Insti-  The  emperor  sent  him  back  to  Gaul,  appointing  him 

tuts    for    Osterreichische    Geschichtsforschung,    VI  one  of  the  six  dukes,  entrusted  with  the  government 

gB85],  254-69);   "Liber  epistolaris  ad  Innooentium  of  the  Gallic  provinces.    He  resided  at  Auxerre  and 

.  Pont.  Max.  de  eo  quid  distet  inter  clericos  s»cu-  gave  himself  up  to  all  the  enjoyments  that  naturally 


OBBBIAIN                              473  OEBBIAIN 

fell  to  his  lot.    At  length  he  incurred  the  displeasure  precious  cloths,  and  placed  in  a  more  prominent  posi- 

of  the  bishop,  St.  Amator.    It  appears  that  Germain  tion  in  the  church.    There  it  was  preserved  till  1567, 

was  accustomed  to  hang  the  trophies  of  the  chase  on  a  when  Auxerre  was  taken  by  the  Huguenots^  who  dese- 

certain  tree,  which  in  earlier  times  had  been  the  scene  crated  the  shrine  and  cast  out  the  relics.    It  has  been 

of  pa^gan  worship.    Amator  remonstrated  with  him  said  that  the  relics  were  afterwards  picked  up  and 

in  vain.    One  day  when  the  duke  was  absent,  the  placed  in  the  Abbev  of  St.  Marion  on  the  banks  of  the 

bishop  had  the  tree  cut  down  and  the  trophies  burnt.  Vonne,  but  the  authenticity  of  the  relics  in  this  church 

Fearing  the  anger  of  the  duke,  who  wished  to  kill  has  never  been  canonically  recognized.    St.  Germain 

him,  he  fled  and  appealed  to  the  prefect  Julius  for  was  honoured  in  Cornwall  and  at  St.  Alban's  in  Eng- 

permission  to  confer  the  tonsure  on  Germain.    This  land's  pre-reformation  days,  and  has  always  been  the 

being  granted,  Amator,  who  felt  that  his  own  life  patron  of  Auxerre. 

was  drawing  to  a  close,  returned.    When  the  duke  Tillemont,  Mimoires,  XV,  8;  Briobt  in  Diet.  Christ.  Bioo., 

«tme  to  the  chu«h  Amator  cau8«i  the  dootB  to  be  -p^,  C^*«_  ^^^I^^.^^JL^l  ^i^SSfy.  TIS-^;« 

barred  and  gave  him  the  tonsure  agamst  his  will,  otantiub,  Vie  deS.Oermaind' Auxerre,  tr.  franc,  avxuneitude 

telling  him  to  live  as  one  destmed  to  be  his  successor,  (1874):  and  for  hia  connexion  with  St.  Patrick,  Hsalt,  Life  of 

and  forthwith  made  him  a  deacon.  xkKS:^J!^^^A?Sl^\'J7^^ 

Aj  _•  1    i_                     •     X      J.1     ■LA  •     r\  Wnitley  Stokes  (Lionaon,  loo7),  2  vols.,  pa«8im;  duky.  Life  of 

wonderful  change  was  mstantly  wrought  m  Ger-  SL  Pa^iek  (London,  1006).  paasim;  O'Connor,  Rerum  Htberni 

main,  and  he  accepted  everything  that  had  happened  SeripL  (1826),  II,  92.                       a    a   u    tt 

as  the  Divine  will.    He  gave  himself  up  to  prayer,  A.  A.  MacErlean. 
study,  and  works  of  charity,  and,  when  in  a  short  time 

Amator  died,  Germain  was  unanimously  chosen  to  fill  Oennain,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Paris;  b.  near  Autun, 

the  vacant  see,  being  consecrated  7  July,  418.    His  Sa6ne-et-Loire,  c.  496;  d.  at  Paris,  28  May,  576.    He 

splendid  education  now  served  him  in  good  stead  in  was  the  son  of  Eleutherius  and  Eusebia.    He  studied 

tne  government  of  the  diocese^  which  he  administered  at  Avalon  and  also  at  Luzy  under  the  guidance  of  his 

with  great  sagEMsity.    He  distributed  his  goods  among  cousin  Scapilion,  a  priest.    At  the  age  of  thirty-four 

the  poor,  and  practised  great  austerities.    He  built  he  was  oraained  by  St.  Agrippinus  of  Autun  and  be- 

a  lai^  monastery  dedicated  to  Sts.  Cosmas  and  Da-  came  Abbot  of  Saint-Symphorien  near  that  town, 

mian  on  the  banks  of  the  Yonne,  whither  he  was  wont  His  characteristic  virtue,  love  for  the  poor,  mani- 

to  retire  in  his  spare  moments.    In  429  the  bishops  fested  itself  so  strongly  m  his  alms-giving,  that  his 

of  Britain  sent  an  appeal  to  the  continent  for  help  monks,  fearing  he  would  give  away  everything,  re- 

against  the  Pelagian  heretics  who  were  corrupting  the  belled.    As  he  happened  to  be  in  Paris,  in  555,  when 

faith  of  the  island.    St.  Prosper,  who  was  in  Rome  in  Bishop  Eusebius  died,  (^Hiildebert  kept  nim,  and  with 

431,  tells  us  in  his  Chronicle  that  Pope  Celestine  com-  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  clergy  and  people  he 

missioned  the  Church  in  Gaul  to  send  help,  and  Ger-  was  consecrated  to  the  vacant  see.    Under  his  influ- 

main  and  Lupus  of  Troyes  were  deputed  to  cross  over  ence  the  king,  who  had  been  very  worldly  was  re- 

to  Britain.    On  his  way  Germain  stopped  at  Nanterre,  formed  and  led  a  Christian  life.    In  his  new  state  the 

where  he  met  a  young  child,  Genevieve,  destined  to  be-  bishop  continued  to  practise  the  virtues  and  austeri- 

come  the  patroness  of  Paris.  ^  Gne  of  tne  early  lives  of  ties  ot  his  monastic  life  and  laboured  hard  to  diminish 

St.  PatricK,  Apostle  of  Ireland,  tells  us  that  he  formed  the  evils  caused  by  the  incessant  wars  and  the  licence 

one  of  St.  Germain's  suite  on  this  occasion.    Tradition  of  the  nobles.    He  attended  the  Third  and  Fourth 

tells  us  that  the  main  discussion  with  the  representa^  Councils  of  Paris  (557,  573)  and  also  the  Second  Coun- 

tives  of  Pelagianism  took  place  at  St.  Alban's,  and  cil  of  Tours  (566).    He  persuaded  the  king  to  stamp 

resulted  in  the  complete  discomfiture  of  the  heretics,  out  the  pagan  practices  still  existing  in  Gaul  and  to 

Germain  remained  m  Britain  for  some  time  preaching,  forbid  the  excess  that  accompanied  tne  celebration  of 

and  established  several  schools  foj  the  training  of  the  most  Christian  festivals.    Snortly  after  540  Childe- 

clergy.    On  his  return  he  went  to  Aries  to  visit  the  bert  making  war  in  Spain,  besie^d  Saragossa.    The 

prefect,  and  obtained  the  remission  of  certain  taxes  inhabitants  had  placed  themselves  under  the  protec- 

that  were  oppressing  the  people  of  Auxerre.    He  tion  of  St.  Vincent,  martyr.    C!hildebert  learning  this, 

constructed  a  church  m  honour  of  St.  Alban  about  this  spared  the  city  ana  in  return  the  bishop  presented  him 

time  in  his  episcopal  city.  wi^  the  saint's  stole.    When  he  came  back  to  Paris, 

In  447  he  was  invited  to  revisit  Britain,  and  went  the  king  caused  a  church  to  be  erected  in  the  suburbs 

with  Severus,  Bishop  of  Treves.    It  would  seem  that  in  honour  of  the  martyr  to  receive  the  relic.    Childe- 

he  did  much  for  the  Church  there,  if  one  can  judge  bert  fell  dangerously  ill  about  this  time,  at  his  palace 

from  the  traditions  handed  down  in  Wales.    On  one  of  (Jelles,  but  was  miraculously  healed  by  Germain,  as 

occasion  he  is  said  to  have  aided  the  Britons  to  gain  a  is  attested  in  the  king's  letters-patent  bestowing  the 

great  victory  (called  from  the  battle-cry,  AUdutat  the  lands  of  Celles  on  the  diurch  of  Paris,  in  return  for  the 

Alleluia  victory)  over  a  maraudiziff  Ixxiy  of  Saxons  favour  he  had  received.    In  588  St.  Vincent's  church 

and  Picts.    On  his  return  to  Gaulj  he  proceeded  to  was  completed  and  dedicated  by  Germain,  23  Decem- 

Armorica  (Brittany)  to  intercede  for  the  Armoricans  ber,  the  very  day  Childebert  died.    Close  by  the 

who  had  been  in  rebellion.    Their  punishment  was  church  a  monastery  was  erected.    Its  abbots  had 

deferred  at  his  entreaty,  till  he  should  have  laid  their  both  spiritual  and  temporal  jurisdiction  over  the 

case  before  the  emperor.    He  set  out  for  Italy,  and  suburbs  of  St.  Germain  till  about  the  year  1670.    The 

reached  Milan  on  17  June^  448.    Then  he  journeyed  church  was  frequently  plundered  and  set  on  fire  by  the 

to  Ravenna,  where   he   interviewed   the   empress-  Nonnans  in  the  ninth  century.    It  was  rebuilt  in  101,4 

mother,  Galla  Placidia,  on  their  behalf.    The  empress  and  dedicated  in  1163  by  Pope  Alexander  III. 

and  the  bishop  of  the  city,  St.  Peter  Chrysologus,  gave  Childebert  was  succeeded  by  Clotaire,  whose  reign 

him  a  royal  welcome,  and  the  pardon  he  sought  was  was  short.    At  his  death  (561)  the  monarchy  was 

granted.    While  there  he  died  on  31  July,  450.    His  divided  among  his  four  sons,  Charibert  becoming  Kine 

body,  as  he  requested  when  dying,  was  brought  back  of  Paris.    He  was  a  vicious,  worthless  creature,  and 

to  Auxerre  and  interred  in  the  Oratory  of  St.  Maurice.  Germain  was  forced  to  excommunicate  him  in  568  for 

which  he  had  built.    Later  the  oratory  was  replacea  his    immorality.    Charibert   died   in    570.    As   his 

by  a  large  church,  which  became  a  celebrated  Bene-  brothers  quarrelled  over  his  possessions  the  bishop 

dictine  abbey  known  as  St.  Germain's.    This  tribute  encountered  great  difficulties.    He  laboured  to  estab- 

to  the  memory  of  the  saint  was  the  gift  of  Queen  lish  peace,  but  with  little  success.    Sigebert  and  Chil- 

Clotilda,  wife  of  Clovis.    Some  centuries  later,  Charles  peric,  instigated  by  their  wives,  Brunehaut  and  the 

the  Bald  had  the  shrine  opened,  and  the  body  was  infamous  murderess  Fredegunde,  went  to  war.  and 

found  intact.    It  was  embalmed  and  wrapped  in  Chilperic  being  defeated,  Paris  fell  into  Sigebert's 


OXBMAIMX 


474 


AttltAX 


hands.  Gennain  wrote  to  Bninehaut  (his  letter  is 
preserved)  asldn^  her  to  use  her  influence  to  prevent 
lurther  war.  Sigebert  was  obdurate.  Despite  Ger- 
main's warning  he  set  out  to  attack  Chilperic  ^t  Tour- 
nai.  whither  he  had  fled,  but  Fredeeunde  caused  him 
to  pe  assassinated  on  the  way  at  vitri  in  575.  Ger- 
main himself  died  the  foUowiijg  year  before  peace  was 
restored.  His  remains  were  interred  in  St.  Sympho- 
rien's  chapel  *in  the  vestibule  of  St.  Vincent's  church, 
but  in  754  his  relics  were  solemnly  removed  into  Uie 
body  of  ihh  church,  in  the  p|resence  of  Pepin  and  his 
son,  Charlemaene,  uien  a  child  of  seven.  From  that 
time  the  church  became  known  as  that  of  St.  Germain- 
des-Pr^.  In  addition  to  the  letter  mentioned  above 
we  have  a  treatise  on  the  ancient  Galilean  Utursy, 
attributed  to  Germain,  which  has  been  published  oy 
Martene  in  his  ^'Thesauruis  Novus  Anecdotorum'\ 
St.  Gennain 's  feast  is  kept  on  28  May. 

BuTLBR,  Lives  of  the  Sainta,  II,  296-8;  Bbnnbtt  in  Diet, 
Chriat.  Biog,,  n.  v.  (18);  Gu^^n,  Vie  dee  Sainta  (Pciris,  1880); 
VI,  2114-71;  Acta  83.,  May,  VI,  774-8;  Mabillok.  Acta  SS, 
O.5.B.  (1668-72),  I,  234-45;  Dupudsst,  Hiatoire  de  St.  Ger- 
main (Paris.  1831);  Fbaicinst,  Not.  biog.  aur  St.  Germain-dea- 
Pria  (Afieo,  1881);  Anal.  BoUand.  (1883),  II,  69;  Bovtllast, 
HiaL  de  Vabbaue  de  8L  Germain  (Paris,  1724). 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Oermaine  Ck>a8in,  Saint,  b.  in  1579  of  humble 
parente  at  Pibrac,  a  village  about  ten  miles  from  Tou- 
louse; d.  in  her  native  place  in  1601.  From  her  birth 
she  seemed  marked  out  for  suffering;  she  came  into  the 
world  with  a  deformed  hand  and  tne  disease  of  scrof- 
ula, and,  while  yet  an  infant,  lost  her  mother.  Her 
father  soon  married  again,  but  his  second  wife  treated 
Germaine  with  much  cruelty.  Under  pretence  of 
saving  the  other  children  from  the  contagion  of  scrof- 
ula she  persuaded  the  father  to  keep  Germaine  away 
from  the  homestead,  and  thus  the  child  was  employed 
almost  from  infancy  as  a  shepherdess.  When  she 
returned  at  night,  her  bed  was  in  the  stable  or  on  a 
litter  of  vine  branches  in  a  garret.  In  this  hard  school 
Germaine  learned  early  to  practise  humility  and 
patience.  She  was  gifted  with  a  marvellous  sense  of 
the  presence  of  God  and  of  spiritual  things,  so  that  her 
lonely  life  became  to  her  a  source  of  light  and  blessing. 
To  poverty,  bodiljr  infirmity,  the  rigours  of  the  seasons, 
the  lack  of  affection  from  those  in  her  own  home,  she 
added  volimtary  mortifications  and  austerities,  maJc- 
ing  bread  and  water  her  daily  food.  Her  love  for 
Jesus  in  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  for  His  Virgin 
Mother  presaged  the  saint.  She  assisted  daily  at  the 
Holv  Sacrifice ;  when  the  bell  rans,  she  fixed  her  sheep- 
hook  or  distaff  in  the  ground,  and  left  her  flocks  to  the 
care  of  Providence  while  she  heard  Mass.  Although 
the  pasture  was  on  the  border  of  a  forest  infested  with 
wolves,  no  harm  ever  came  to  her  flocks. 

She  is  said  to  have  practised  many  austerities  as  a 
reparation  for  the  sacrileges  perpetrated  by  heretics 
in  the  neighbouring  churches.  She  frequented  the 
Sacraments  of  Penance  and  the  Holy  Eucharist,  and  it 
was  observed  that  her  piety  increased  on  the  approach 
of  every  feast  of  Our  Lady.  The  Rosary  was  ner  only 
book,  and  her  devotion  to  the  Angelus  was  so  great 
that  she  used  to  fall  on  her  knees  at  the  first  sound  of 
the  bell,  even  though  she  heard  it  when  crossing  a 
stream.  Whenever  she  could  do  so,  she  assembled  the 
children  of  the  village  around  her  and  sought  to  instil 
into  their  minds  the  love  of  Jesus  and  Mary.  The 
villagers  were  inclined  at  first  to  treat  her  piety  with 
mild  derision,  until  certain  signs  of  God's  signal 
favour  made  her  an  object  of  reverence  and  awe.  In  re- 
pairing to  the  village  church  she  had  to  cross  a  stream. 
Tlie  ford  in  winter,  after  heavv  rains  or  the  melting 
of  snow,  was  at  times  impassable.  On  several  occa- 
sions the  swollen  waters  were  seen  to  open  and  afford 
her  a  passage  without  wetting  her  garments.  Not- 
withstanding her  povertv  she  found  means  to  help  the 
SK)r  by  sharing  with  them  her  allowance  of  bread, 
er  father  at  last  came  to  a  sense  of  his  duty,  forbade 


her  stepmother  henceforth  to  treat  her  hanhly,  and 
wished  to  give  her  a  place  in  the  home  with  the  other 
children,  but  she  begged  to  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
humbler  position.    At  this  point,  when  men  were  be- 
ginning to  realize  the  beauty  of  her  life,  God  ctdled  her 
to  Himself.  One  morning  in  the  early  summer  of  1 601 . 
her  father  finding  that  she  had  not  risen  at  the  usual 
hour  went  to  calTher;  he  found  her  dead  on  her  pallet 
of  vine-twigs.    She  was  then  twenty-two  vears  of  age. 
Her  remains  were  buried  in  the  parish  ehureh  of 
Pibrac  in  front  of  the  pulpit.    In  1644,  when  the 
grave  was  opened  to  receive  one  of  her  relatives,  the 
body  of  Germaine  was  discovered  fresh  and  perfectly 
preserved,  and  miraculously  raised  almost  to  the  level 
of  the  floor  of  the  ehureh.    It  was  exposed  for  public 
view  near  the  pulpit,  until  a  noble  lady,  the  wife  of 
Francois  de  Beauregard,  presented  as  a  thanks-offer- 
ing a  casket  of  lead  to  hola  the  renudns.    She  had  been 
cured  of  a  malignant  and  incurable  ulcer  in  the  breast, 
and  her  infant  son  whose  life  was  despaired  of  was 
restored  to  health  on  her  seeking  the  intereession  of 
Germaine.    This  was  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  won- 
derful cures  wrought  at  her  relics.    The  leaden  casket 
was  placed  in  the  sacristy,  and  in  1661  and  1700  the 
remains  were  viewed  and  found  fresh  and  intact  by  the 
vicars-general  of  Toulouse,  who  have  left  testamen- 
tary depositions  of  the  fact.    Expert  medical  evi- 
dence deposed  that  the  body  had  not  been  embalmed, 
and  experimental  tests  showed  that  the  preservation 
was  not  due  to  any  property  inherent  in  the  soU.    In 
1700  a  movement  was  begun  to  procure  the  beatificar 
tion  of  Germaine,  but  it  fell  through  owing  to  acciden- 
tal causes.    In  1793  the  casket  was  desecrated  by  a 
revolutionary  tinsmith,  named  Toulza,  who  with  three 
accomplices  took  out  the  remains  and  buried  them  in 
the  sacristy,  thr(fwing  auick-lime  and  water  on  them. 
After  the  Revolution,  -her  body  was  found  to  be  still 
intact  save  where  the  quick-lime  had  done  its  work. 
Tlie  private  veneration  of  Germaine  had  continued 
from  the  original  finding  of  the  body  in  1644,  supported 
and  encouraged  b]r  numerous  cures  and  miracles. 
Tlie  cause  of  beatification  was   resumed   in   1850. 
The  documents  attested  more  than  400  miracles  or 
extraordinary  graces,  and  thirty  postulatory  letters 
from  arehbisnops  and  bishops  in  France  besought  the 
beatification  from  the  Holy  See.    The  miracles  at- 
tested were  cures  of  every  kind  (of  blindness,  con- 
genital and  resulting  from  disease,  of  hip  and  spinal 
disease),  besides  the  multiplication  of  food  for  the  dis- 
tressed oommunitv  of  the  Good  Shepherd  at  Bourges 
in  1845.    On  7  May,  1854,  Pius  IX  proclaimed  her 
beatification,  and  on  29  June,  1867,  placed  her  on 
the  canon  of  virgin  sainte.    Her  feast  is  kept  in  the 
'  Diocese  of  Toulouse  on  1 5  Jime.    She  is  represented  in 
art  with  a  shepherd's  crook  or  with  a  distaff;  with  a 
watehdog,  or  a  sheep;  or  with  flowers  in  her  apron. 

GutRiN  in  Petite  BoUandiatea.  15  June;  Vsuillot,  Vie  d«  la 
bienheureuae  Germaine  (2d  ed.,  Faris,  1904). 

C.  MlTLCABT. 

German  Gardiner,  Blessed,  last  martvr  under 
Heniy  VIII;  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  at  Tyburn,  7 
Maren,  1544;  secretary  to,  and  probably  a  kinsman  of 
Stejphen  Gardiner,  and  an  able  defender  of  the  old 
Faith,  as  his  tract  a^inst  John  Frith  (dated  1  Aueust, 
1534)  shows.  Dunng  the  years  of  fiery  trial,  which 
followed,  we  hear  no  more  of  him  than  that  ''he  was 
stirred  up  to  courage"  by  the  examples  of  the  martyrs, 
and  especially  by  More,  a  layman  like  himself.  His 
witness  was  given  eight  years  later,  under  remarkable 
cireumstances.  Henry  VIII  was  becomina  more 
severe  upon  the  fast-multiplying  heretics.  Q'anmer 
fell  under  suspicion,  and  Gardiner  was  (or  was  thought 
to  have  been)  employed  in  drawine  up  a  list  of  that 
heresiarch's  errors  in  the  Faith.  ^  Then  the  whim  of 
the  religious  despot  changed  again,  and  the  Catholic 
was  sacrificed  in  the  heretic's  {Mace.  Still  he  was  the 
last  victim,  and  Henry  afterwards  became  even  more 


OBBMAHIOIA                           475  OBBMAim 

hostfle    to    ProtefltantiBm.    Gardiner's    indictmiezit  the  begiiming  of  German-American  history.    These 

states  plainly  that  he  was  executed  for  endeavouring  early  immigrants  founded  Gerroantown,  Pennsylva- 

''to  deprive  the  King  of  his  di^tv,  title,  and  name  (S  nia,  where  they  soon  built  themselves  a  church  and 

Supreme  Head  of  the  English  ana  Irii^  Church",  and  establi/died  a  school,  taught  by  Fastorius^  who  wrote 

his  constancy  is  further  proved  by  this  circiunstance.  for  it,  and  published,  a  primer,  the  nrst  original 

that  Thomas  Haywood,  who  had  be«n  condemned  school-book  printed  in  Pennsylvania.    To  this  place 

with  him,  was  afterwards  pardoned  on  recanting  his  came  the  German  settlers  directly  after  their  landing; 

Gnoinions.    His  other  companions  at  the  bar  were  from  it  went  out  the  settlers  who  mdually  spread 

Blessed  John  Larke,  priest,  whom  Blessed  Thomas  over  Montgomery,  Lancaster,  and  Berks  Ck>unties, 

More  had  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Chelsea  (when  he  among  them,  the  so-called  Rosicrucians  (settled  near 

himself  lived  in  that  parish),  and  also  the  Yen.  John  Cxermantown),  a  colony  of  German  Friends,  Quaker 

Ireland,  who  had  once  been  More's  chaplain.    They  converts  made  by  William  Ames  and  visited  by  Fenn 

Bu£ferea  the  death  of  traitors  at  Tyburn.  (founded  Creshemi,  from  Kreirahefan  near  Worms), 

Camm,  L»»e»  cf  J^n£(M^  A(«Hyr«  (London*  1904),  i.  M8-7;  and  the  Dunkers  ((Jonestoga,  Ephrata).    From  these 

STOTra.  Cranmet  (i(l&4),  iM-8;  Mou,  Li/a  of  Mare  (1726).  ^^jy  Pennsylvania  settlSs  and  their  descendants 

J.  H.  Pollen.  many  Americans  of  note  have  sprune,  as  Ba3rard  Tay- 
lor, James  Lick,  Charles  Yerkes,  John  Fnts,  John 

Ctormaoidai  a  titular  see  in  the  province  of  Eu-  Wanamaker,  Charles  M.  Schwab,  and  Henry  C.  Frick. 
phratensis  and  the  ^triarchate  of  Antioch;  incor-  In  1707,  a  small  band  of  Lutherans,  from  the  Palati- 
rectly  called  Germaniciana  and  located  in  Bysacene,  nate.  embarked  for  America.  They  landed  at  Philar 
Africa.  An  official  document  of  the  Propaganda,  delpnia  and  settled  in  w^hat  is  now  known  as  Morris 
the  "Catalogo  dei  vescovati  titolari"  for  18&  (no.  County.  In  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  another 
228,  10)  expressly  states  that  the  see  is  Oermanicia  in  company  of  fifty-two  Palatines,  joined  by  three  Hol- 
Eupkratensia.  Lequien  (Oriens  christ.^  Paris,  1740,.  steinprs,  went  to  England  and  appealed  to  Queen 
II,  939)  names  five  Greek  bishops  of  this  citv,  among  Anne,  praying  for  transportation  to  America.  The 
them  l^e  Arian  Eudoxius,  futiu^  Bishop  of  Antioch  majority  of  these  men  were  farmers  and  one  was  a 
and  Constantinople.  He  also  names  (II,  1495)  four  Lutheran  cleigyman,  Kockerthal;  on  arriving  in  the 
Jacobite  bishops,  and  at  least  eighteen  others  are  Colonies  in  the  winter  of  1709,  they  were  settled  in  the 
known  from  the  eighth  to  the  thirteenth  century  district  then  known  as  Quassaick  Creek  and  Thanks- 
(Revue  de  TOrient  Chretien,  1901,  200),  if  Germanicia  kamir  (part  of  the  territory  of  the  present  Newbur^). 
be  considered  identical  with  Marash,  which  has  not  'Another,  and  far  more  extensive,  migration  took 
been  ascertained.  It  is  customary  to  consider  these  {dace  in  the  same  yeex  and  the  following;  about  three 
two  cities  as  identical,  but  the  texts  collected  by  thousand  Palatines  landed  in  America,  by  way  cX. 
Mailer,  in  his  edition  of  Ptolemy's  "Geozraphia"  (965-  England.  The  severities  of  the  winter  of  1708-09 
967),  are  so  contradictory  that  it  is  difficult  to  arrive  seem  to  have  been  the  chief  cause  of  this  exodus, 
at  any  conclusion.  Mttller  prefers  to  locate  (jermani-  One  companv,  imder  Christopher  de  Graffenried  and 
cia  in  the  neighbouring  ruins  of  Altun-Tash-Kal4.  If  Lewis  Michell,  settled  at  the  junction  of  the  Neuse 
Germanicia  and  Maraw  are  one,  this  industrial  city,  River  and  the  Trent  (North  Carolina)  and  in  the 
whose  climate  is  very  healthy,  is  situated  in  a  sanjak  neighbouring  country.  This  colony  included  a  con- 
of  the  vilayet  of  Aleppo.  It  numbers  52,000  inhaoii-  siderable  number  of  Swiss,  and  to  their  first  settle- 
ante,  about  15,000  of  whom  are  Catholics,  comprising  ment  they  ^ve  the  name.  New  Berne,  in  memory  of 
Melchites,  Armenians,  Chaldeans  and  Latins;  22,000  the  native  city  of  the  two  Swiss  partners,  de  Graffen- 
are  Mussulmans.  The  remainder  are  either  schismatic  ried  and  Michell.  Another  company  of  Germans  was 
Christians  or  Jews.  settled  about  the  same  time,  by  Governor  Spotswood, 

CuiNiT.  La  Twquie  dTAtie  (Ftois.  1802),  H.  ^6^9.  at  Gennanna  in  Virginia,  whither,  a  little  later,  many 

8.  Vailhb.  of  those  who  had  esteblished  tnemselves  in  North 

^           ,«...,            ...            .         *  Carolina  are  said  to  have  removed.    Some  ten  or  fif- 

OermanicopoUB,  a  titular  see  m  the  provmce  of  teen  yeare  after  Spotewood'sretirement  to  Gennanna, 

Isauna,  suffragan  of  Seleucia.    The  city  took  ite  name  a  company  of  Germans  came  into  Virginia  from  Penn- 

from  Germanicus,  mndson  of  Augustus.    Fourofite  ^Wania,  doubtless  Palatines  from  Berks  County, 

bishops  are  ImoTO  duHM  the  Bysantanego^^  •ftey  settled  in  the  lower  Shenandoah  Valley  and 

Jr^yf'  i^h^S^^^^^y^V'  ?*^'  878  (Leqmen,  founded  the  town  of  Strasbuig,  just  over  the  mountain 

Or.  Christy  II.  1027) ;  and  Bisulas  m  the  sixth  century  ff^m  Ciermanna. 

im'^fe^"'*'*  ^^^  °^  i^?  ^**^  of  fiteverus,  13,  26,  By  far  the  largest  expedition  of  Palatines  left  the 

^)'  .  The  crusaders  sustemed  a  ^t  defeat  near  ^e  ghores  of  England  towaids  the  end  of  Januarv,  1710. 

city  m  1098.    It  then  passed  mto  the  power  of  the  They  were  settled  on  the  Hudson  (Rhinebeac,  Ger- 

Armenian  dynasty  of  the  Rupenians,  who  caUed  it  mantown,  Newburgh,  West  Camp.  Saugerties,  ete.), 

Germam&whence  is  derived  the  present  name  of  Er-  whence  many  aftefwaids  remov^  to  the  Schoharie 

menek.    The  Ti^ks  took  pMsession  of  it  m  1228.    It  VaUey  (Blenheim,  Oberweiser  Dorp,  Brunnen  Dorp, 

IS  situated  at  a  hei^t  of  1362  feet,  m  a  caia  of  the  ete.);   the  Government,  however,  refused  to  recog' 

vilayet  of  Adana,  and  numbers  6500  uihabitante.   The  nise  their  title  to  the  Schoharie  lands,  and  soi^ 

ruins  of  many  Roman  monuments  and  a  stronghold  of  them  at  last  migrated  in  disgust  to  the  Mohawk 

are  stm  to  be  seen  cja  the  mounte^^  VaUey,  where  th^rmcrease  and  fie  stream  of  German 

^ISMT.  La  Tur^^TAne.  11,77;  Ali«ia»,  Sxuauan,  33»-  inmii^tion  that  followed  made  the  Mohawk  "for 

8.  VailhA.  thirty  miles^  a  German  river"  (Mannheim,  Oppen- 

heim,  Newkirk,  German  Plate,  Herkimer,  ete.).    But 

Oermans  in  the  United  States,  The. — Germans,  the  greater  portion  removed  from  Schoharie  in  1723  to 

either  by  birth  or  descent,  form  a  very  important  ele-  Pennsylvania,  where  Governor  Keith,  on  hearing  of 

ment  in  the  i)opulation  of  the  United  Stetes.    Their  their  afflictions  and  unrest,  offered  them  an  asylum 

number  is  estimated  at  not  less  than  twelve  millions,  from  all  persecution.    Previously  to  this  migration 

Under  the  name  Germana  we  here  understand  to  be  from  New  York  to  Pennsylvania,  thousands  of  Ger- 

included  all  German-speaking  people,  whether  origi-  mans  had  sailed  directly  to  the  latter  territory,  and  so 

nally  from  Germany  proper,  Austria,  Switserland,  or  large  was  the  Palatine  element  in  these  and  tlie  follow- 

Luxemburg.  ing  immigrations  tiiat  the  natives  of  all  other  German 

A.  Germans  in  General.    The  landing,  in  the  States,  coming  with  them,  were  called  by  the  same 

autumn  of  1683,  of  Frans  Daniel  Pastorius  and  his  name.    Between  1720  and  1730  the  German  immigra- 

little  band  of  Mennonite  weavers,  from  Crefeld,  marks  tion  to  Pennsylvania  became  so  large  as  to  be  looked 


476 

upon  by  the  other  settleiB  with  seriouB  mi^giviiigB;  Vermont,  and  Maine  have  practically  no  German 

Logan,  renn's  secretary,  suggested  the  danger  of  tne  population;  in  Massachusetts  there  are  very  few  except 

province  becoming  a  German  colony,  as  the  Germans  around  Boston.    According  to  the  twelfth  census, 

'^  settled  together,  and  formed  a  distinct  people  from  taken  in  1900,  there  was  in  that  year,  a  German-bom 

His  Majesty's  subjects".    As  early  as  1739,  a  German  population  of  2,663,418  in  the  United  States  (about 

newspaper  was  published  at  Germantown,  and  an-  three  millions  from  Germany  and  German  Austria), 

other  appeared  at  Philadelphia  in  1743.    Tlie  Ger-  Since  1900  about  250,000  more  have  come  over.    Add 

mans  became  an  important  factor  in  the  political  life  to  these  tiie  descendants  of  the  immigrants  from  the 

of  Pennsylvania,  usually  uniting  with  the  Quakers,  earliest  periods  down  to  our  time,  and  the  large  num- 

and  forming  with  them  a  conservative  peace  party,  ber  of  people  of  German  descent  who  can  now  hardly 

In  1734,  the  Schwenkfelders,  followers  of  Casper  Scho-  be  recognized  as  Germans,  owin^  to  the  fact  t^t  they 

field,  came  to  Pennsylvania  and  settled  along  the  have  assumed  Finglish  names,  it  is  safe  to  say  that 

Perkiomen,  in  Montgomery  County.    About  the  same  there  are  at  present  (1909)  fully  twelve  million  persons 

time  a  number  of  Germans  established  themselves  of  German  bu'th  or  descent  in  {he  United  States, 

near  Frederick,  Maryland,  and  between  South  Moun-  The  early  German  settlers  were  mostly  farmers  in 

tain  and  the  (>)nococheakue.  their  old  country,  and  it  was  but  natural  that,  after 

The  first  German  settlement  in  South  Carolina  their  arrival  in  the  United  States,  they  should  have 
was  in  1731,  at  Purysburg  on  the  Savannah.  In  chosen  the  same  occupation.  Tliere  is  no  need  of 
1734  Lutherans  from  Salzburg  founded  Ebenezer,  pointing  out  the  merits  of  the  German  farmers,  since 
the  first  settlement  in  Georgia.  Seven  years  later,  those  merits  have  been  generally  admitted  in  Pennsyl- 
there'  were  about  1200  Germans  in  Georgia.  By  the  vania,  the  Mohawk  Valley,  iad,  later,  the  Middle 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  mountain  ooun-  West.  In  trade,  industry,  and  commerce  the  Ger- 
ties of  North  Carolina  had  numerous  German  settle-  mans  in  the  United  States  are  second  to  none.  Men 
ments.  Meantime,  the  Moravians,  who  in  1736  had  like  Spreckels,  Havemeyer,  A.  Busch,  Fred.  Pabst, 
settled  in  Georgia,  had  left  that  colony  and  secured  a  Heniy  Miller,  and  Heniy  (;.  Frick,  stand  among  the 
tract  of  land  in  Pennsylvania,  to  which  they  ^ve  the  pillars  of  American  industry.  Rockefeller  is  proud  of 
name  of  Bethlehem.  Zinzendorf  came  thither  in  nis  (jerman  descent.  The  Belmonts  came  from 
1741.  More  than  twenty  years  earlier,  (3erman  Alzey,  the  Astors  from  Walldorf  near  Heidelberg,  the 
settlers  had  established  themselves  on  the  lower  Iselins  from  Switzerland.  The  lai^gest  lumber-ys^  in 
Mississippi.  The  "German  Oeoles"  of  Louisiana  are  the  world,  is  owned  by  Frits  Weyensh&user,  a  native 
descendants  of  these  early  colonists.  of  Hesse.    The  Roebhngs  are  still  prominent  in  their 

Diuing  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  thirty  thousand  line  of  industry.  Prominent  as  bankers  are  those  bear- 
German  soldiers  fought  imder  the  British  nag.    They  ing  German  names. 

had  been  sold  to  England  by  the  petty  princes  of  But  more  important,  thou^  less  known,  is  the 

Germany,  those  "brokers  of  men  and  sellers  of  soids",  army  of  skilled  mechanics  in  all  different  branches, 

as  one  of  these  soldiers  rightly  styled  them.    As  Hesse  designers,  lithographers,  etc.,  who,  in  their  spheres, 

furnished  more  than  any  other  German  State  (twelve  have  made  the  German  name  honoured  and  respected, 

thousand)  all  these  soldiers  were  called  Hessians.  Tlie  Germans  are  known  to  be  a  hardworking,  thrifty 

Over  one  third  of  the  thirty  thousand  never  returned  people,  and,  as  a  result,  they  are  generally  prosperous, 

to  Europe;  some  had  died;  many  had  deserted  to  ana  pauperism  is  hardly  known  among  them.    Amer- 

Washington's  army,   "coming  over  in  shoals",  as  leans  have  learned  that  wherever  the  Germans  settle. 

Gates  wrote  in  1777;  many  thousands  settled  in  the  prosperity  and  culture  are  pretty  sure  to  follow. — 

newly  created  States.  "What  the  Germans  do,  they  do  well",  has  become  a 

On  the  eve  of  the  Revolution  there  were  fully  a  common  saying  among  their  neighbours.    Puritanism 

hundred  thousand  Germans  in  Pennsylvania.    Tneir  never  gained  a  foothold  among-the  Germans.    Thou^ 

number  was  little  increased  during  the  next  sixty  they  cannot  be  charged  with  extravagance,  they  are 

years,  since  the  great  immigration  period  did  not  fond  of  the  quiet  joys  and  amusements  of  social  life, 

Degin  until  about  the  year  1840.    Among  those  who  witness  their  many  societies,  which  combine  beneficial 

came  to  the  United  States  before  1830  was  Frans  objects  with  recreation  and  amusement.    Their  fond- 

Lieber,  accompanied  by  his  two  friends.  Professors  ness  for  children  and  family  life  is  well  known;  as  a- 

Carl  Beck  and  Carl  Follen.    For  nearly  half  a  century  rule  they  have  large  families.    The  industry  and 

Lieber  stood  in  the  front  rank  as  an  authority  on  carefulness  of  the  German  housewife  are  proverbial, 

public  questions.    The  year  1848  brought  to  our  While  there  have  not  been  any  great  political  leaders 

shores  those  thousands  of  politicfd  fugitives  who  be-  among  the  Germans,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of 

longed  to  the  most  educated  of  the  German  nation.  Carl  Schurz,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  their  influence 

To  mention  several,  merely  as  typical  of  the  rest,  on  the  political  development  of  the  country  has  been 

among  these   "  Forty-Eighters"  were  Carl  Schurz,  on  the  whole  a  very  wholesome  one.    As  adherents  of 

Friedrich  Hecker,  Franz  Sigel,  Oswdd  Ottendorfer,  a  healthy  and  vigorous  conservatism  in  politics,  they 

Friedrich  Kapp,  Wilhelm  Rapp,  Gustav  von  Struve,  are  universally  respected.    Though  anxious  to  pre- 

and  Lorenzo  Brentano.    Soon  the  number  of  German  serve  their  language  and  customs,  they  have  giyen 

immigrants  grew  enormously,  averaging  over  800,000  ample  proof  of  tneir  loyalty  to  the  land  of  their  choice, 

for  each  of  the  six  succeeding  decades.    They  did  not.  The  share  taken  by  tne  (^ermans  in  the  wars  of  the 

however,  settle  in  the  Eastern  States  only,  but  the  United  States,  was  by  no  means  limited  to  the  War 

majori^  proceeded  to  the  Middle  West,  whither  many  of  the  Revolution  and  the  Civil  War  of   1861-65. 

of  the  Germans,  who  had  already  been  very  numerous  From  the  very  beginning  of  their  settlement  in  this 

on  the  frontiers,  had  removed  as  soon  as  the  new  country,  they  alwa3rs  stood  ready  to  take  up  arms  in 

country  was  opened  to  colonizing.    Owin^  to  pros-  its  defence.    The  early  Germans  of  Pennsylvania  and 

perity  in  the  Fatherland,  Cxerman  immigration  be^an  New  York,  responded  freely  to  the  summons  to  de- 

to  decline  in  the  early  nineties.    During  the  penod  fend  their  new  country  against  the  French  and  their 

subsequent  to  1848  tne  Germans  settled  chiefly  in  allies,  the  Indians.    They  gave  freely  of  their  men 

the  following  states:  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl-  and  means  to  the  cause  of  uberty,  in  the  War  of  the 

vania  (especially  the  western  parts),  Maryland,  Ohio,  Revolution.    The  names  of  Generals  de  Kalb,  F.  W. 

Indiana,   Illinois,   Michigan,   Wisconsin,   Iowa,  Ne-  A.  Steuben,  F.  W.  de  Woedke,  J.  P.  G.  Muehlenberg, 

braska,  Missouri.  Minnesota,  California,  Louisiana,  and  George  Weedon  will  always  be  mentioned  with 

Texas,  North  Dakota.    They  were  never  attracted  to  honour,  among  those  who  established  the  liberties  of 

the  New  England  States  until  about  Uie  middle  of  the  the  country.     Undoubtedly  the  ablest  of  them  was 

nineteenth  century.    Even  now  New  Hampshire,  General  Steuben,  the  impetuous  warrior  who  "took  » 


OBBMAHS  477 

mob  and  hammered  it  into  an  army".  Nor  should  we  "  Germanization"  of  most  of  the  greater  American 
forget  to  cite  the  name  of  Herkimer,  than  whom  no  colleges.  "Although  Great  Britain  is  generally  re- 
braver  man  fought  in  the  War  for  Independence.  He  gardeid  as  the  mother  of  the  United  States,  Germany 
was  tne  son  of  a  Palatine  immigrant,  and  in  the  battle  has,  from  an  intellectual  standpoint,  become  more  and 
of  Oriskany — "of  all  the  battles  of  the  Revolution,  more  the  second  mother  of  tne  American  Republic, 
the  most  obstinate  and  murderous" — those  whom  More  than  any  other  coimtry,  Germany  has  made  the 
Herkimer  4ed  were  largely  Palatines.  To  them  and  universities  and  colleges  of  America  what  they  are  to- 
their  brave  leader  belongs  largely  the  credit  of  making  day — ^a  i>owerf  ul  force  in  the  development  of  American 
possible  the  victory  of  Saratoga,  by  which  the  struggle  Civilisation"  (Andrew  D.  White), 
tor  the  Hudson  was  ended,  and  the  vital  union  of  tne  B.  The  German  Cathoucs  in  America.  A  certain 
northern  Colonies  secured.  proportion  of  the  Palatines  who  went  to  England  were 

The  Germans  also  did  their  duty  in  full  in  the  War  of  the  Catholic  Faith,  but  they  were  not  allowed  to 
of  1812  and  in  the  Mexican  War.  What  they  did  to  proceed  to  the  American  colonies,  neither  was  the 
keep  the  United  States  together,  can  be  learned  from  EM^lish  government  willing  to  permit  their  prolonged 
an  article  by  General  Franz  Sigel,  which  was  published  residence  in  England.  They  were  therefore  returned 
at  St.  Louis  after  his  death.  The  General  calls  atten-  imder  government  passports  to  the  Palatinate.  But 
tion  to  the  historical  fact,  that,  three  days  after  the  of  those  who  came  later  and  direcUy  to  America, 
surrender  of  Fort  Sumter,  when  the  City  of  Washing-  undoubtedly,  a  considerable  number  were  Catholics, 
ton  was  in  imminent  peril  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  In  1741  the  German  Province  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
the  Confederates,  this  catastrophe  was  prevented  by  sent  out  two  priests  to  minister  to  the  German>Catho- 
the  arrival  of  a  detachment  ot  infantry  and  cavalry  lies  in  Pennsylvania.  These  were  Father  William 
from  Pennsylvania,  the  five  companies  of  which  were  Wappeler  (bom  22  January,  1711,  in  the  Diocese  of 
chiefly  composed  of  Germans,  both  from  the  older  Mamz),  co-founder  of  the  mission  of  Conewago,  and 
and  from  the  more  recent  immigrant  stock.  A^un,  Father  Theodore  Schneider,  a  Palatine  (b^m  at 
when  St.  Louis  was  in  extreme  danger  of  falling  into  Geinsheim,  Diocese  of  Speyer,  7  April,  1703),  who 
the  hands  of  the  Confederacy  it  was  four  regiments  of  took  up  his  residence  at  Goshenhoppen,  in  Berks 
volunteers,  mainly  German,  and  one  regiment  com-  County.  Other  German  Jesuits  came  later  on,  among 
manded  by  Sigel  that  surrounded  the  camp  of  ^e  them  Fathers  James  Frambach  (died  1795  at  Cone- 
Confederates  and  made  them  prisoners.  There  were,  wago),  Luke  Geissler  (died  at  Lancaster,  in  1786), 
during  that  war,  not  fewer  than  176,767  Germans  in  Lawrence  Graessel,  who  was  appointed  coadjutor  to 
the  United  States  Army.  Of  the  more  than  5,000  Bishop  CarroU,  but  died  in  Pniladelphia,  of  yellow 
officers  of  the  German  contingent,  the  following  mav  fever,  before  consecration,  Jam^s  Pellentz,  one  of 
here  be  mentioned:  the  exiled  popular  leader  Fried-  Bishop  Carroll's  vicars-general  (died  at  Conewago  in 
rich  Hecker,  who  was  one  of  the  first  to  form  avolun-  1800),  Matthias  Sittensper^r  (changed  his  name  to 
teer  regiment,  Gustav  von  Struve,  General  Blenker,  Manners),  Ferdinand  Steinmayr  (Farmer),  who, 
General  Osterhaus,  Jos.  Fickler,  Nepomuk  Katzen-  according  to  Bishop  Carroll,  founded  the  first  Catho- 
mayer,  General  Alexander  von  »2hiinmelpfennig,  lie  congregation  in  New  York  (died  in  Philadelphia, 
General  Max  Weber,  General  Sigel,  and  Captam  17  August,  1787,  in  the  odour  of  sanctitv).  Father 
Albert  Sigel,  a  brother  of  the  Genend,  August  Wulich.  Farmer  was  a  member  of  the  famous  Pnilosophical 
the  commander  of  a  regiment  from  Indiana,  ana  Society  of  Philadelphia,  and  was  made  a  member  of 
especially  General  Carl  Scnurz,  who  commanded  the  the  Board  ofTrustee«ofthe  University  of  Philadelphia, 
eleventh  corps  at  the  battle  of  Gettysburg.  It  is  when  that  institution  was  chartered  in  1779.  To 
deserving  of  mention  that  among  the  Germans,  the  these  early  missionaries  may  be  added  Father  John 
advocates  of  the  abolition  of  slavery  were  alwa3r8  Baptist  de  Ritter,  who  was  a  German,  though  a  mem- 
prominent.  The  first  German  settlers  in  this  country,  ber  of  the  Belgian  Province.  He  died  at  Goshen- 
were  also  signers  of  the  first  anti-slavery  petition  m  hoppen,  3  February,  1787.  Father  Schneider  was  the 
America  (1^8).  pastor  of  the  parish  at  Goshenhoppen  for  twenty- 

Although  the  first  German  colonists  themselves,  for  three  years,  ministering  to  the  Catholics  there  and  m 

the  most  part,  had  no  higher  education  than  what  was  the  region  for  fifty  miles  around.    Before  he  died,  in 

to  be  acquired  in  the  German  village  schools  of  that  1764,  ne  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  Churoh 

time,  they  considered  it  their  duty  to  establish  schools  firmly  established  in  Pennsylvania.    His  companion, 

for  their  children,  and  therefore,  as  a  rule,  brou^t  Father  Wappeler,  foimded  the  mission  of  the  Sacred 

teachers  over  with  them.    School  attendance  was  Heart  at  Conewago.    Of  him,  Bishop  Carroll  wrote 

always  looked  upon  as  a  serious  matter,  almost  as  that  "  he  was  a  man  of  much  learning  and  imbounded 

serious  as  the  teaching  of  religion,  which  was  com-  zeal''.   Having  remained  about  eight  years  in  America, 

bined  with  elementary  instruction,  so  that  German  and  converted  or  reclaimed  many  to  the  Faith  of 

colonies  thus  pavedthewayfor  compulsory  education.  Christ,  he  was  forced  by  bad  health  to  return  to 

Men  like  Mueolenberg  and  Schlatter  did  much  in  the  Europe.    His  successor.  Father  Pellentz,  built  the 

way  of  improving  the  schools.    The  development  of  churcn  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,'  the  first  in  the 

German  literature  in  America,  including  thousands  of  coimtry  under  that  title.    It  is  not  probable  that 

?ublications,  went  hand  in  hand  with  this  prepress,  there  was  any  large,  or  indeed  appreciable,  number 

he  first  German  Bible  published  in  the  New  World  of  German  Catholics  in  any  other  colony  at  that  time, 

appeared  in  1743,  forty  years  before  an  En^ish  Bible  with  the  exception  of  Louisiana,  whose  French  in- 

was  printed  in  America.    The  "  Public  Academy  of  habitants  shared  and  honoured  their  religion,  whereas 

the  City  of  Philadelphia",  now  the  University  of  most  of  the  English  colonies  had  severe  laws  against 

Pennsylvania,  is  the  first  American  school  into  which  the  "  Papists''.    But  gradually  all  were  opened  to 

German  was  introduced.     Gradually  the  language  Catholics. 

was  introduced  into  the  public  schools  of  cities  wiui        From  a  letter  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Carroll  to  the  Rev.  C. 

a  large  German  population,  and  numerous  German  Plowden,  in  1785,  we  learn  that  in  that  year  he  visited 

private  schools  were  established  in  the  different  parts  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  the  upper  countries  of 

of  the  country.     And  after  educated  Americans  had  the  Jerseys  and  Pennsylvania,  "wnere  our  worthy 

become  acquainted  with  German  educational  methods,  German  brethren  have  formed  congregations".    Al- 

German  literature,  and  German  science,  either  directly  though  we  do  not  know  of  any  German  settlement  in 

by  attending  German  schools  of  learning,  or  indirectly  the  Far  West  during  the  seventeenth  or  eighteenth 

from  France  through  England,  they  enthusiastically  centuries,  we  find  during  that  period  German  priests 

advocated  educational  reform  based  upon  the  German  labouring  among  the  Indian  tribes  on  the  coast  of  the 

models.    It  is  no  exaggeration  to  speak  of  a  gradual  Pacific,  and  in  the  south-western  States.    The  first 


478 


Gennanpriest  on  the  Pacific  coast  was  the  Jesuit 
Father  Eaisebio  Francisco  Kino.  .  His  real  name  was 
Eusebius  Frans  Kuehn.  He  was  a  native  of  Trent, 
and  entered  the  Societv  of  Jesus  in  Bavaria,  where  for 
some  time  he  was  professor  at  Ingolstadt.  He  came 
from  Germany  in  1680  or  1681,  and  to  Lower  Califor- 
nia in  1683.  In  the  foUowing  year  he  was  called  to 
Sonora.  where  he  laboured  until  his  death,  in  1710, 
meanwnile  making  missionary  and  exploring  l^ps  to 
the  Rio  Gila  in  Sonora.  Other  German  Jesuits  in 
Lower  California  from  1719  to  1767,  were  Joseph 
Baegert,  the  author  of  the  '' Nachrichten  von  aer 
KalSomischen  Halbinsel"  (Mannheim,  1772),  Joh. 
Bischoff,  Frans  Benno  Ducure,  Joseph  Gastei^, 
Eberhara  Helen,  Lambert  Hostell,  Wenzeslaus  Luik, 
Karl  Neumayr,  Georg  Rets,  Ignatz  Tuersch,  Frans  X. 
Wagner.  Arizona  saw  the  indefatigable  Father  Euse- 
bius Kuehn,  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenUi 
century,  as  far  up  as  the  Gila  River  at  its  jimction 
with  the  Colorado.  In  1731,  Philip  V,  at  the  susges- 
tion  of  Benedict  Crespo,  Bishop  or  Dmango,  ordered 
three  central  missions  to  be  established  in  Ansona,  at 
the  royal  expense.  To  the  joy  of  the  bishop,  three 
German  Jesuit  Fathers  were  sent.  Father  Ignatius 
Xavier  Keller,  Father  John  Baptist  Grashoffer,  and 
Father  Philip  Begesser.  Of  the  last  two,  one  soon 
died,  and  the  other  was  prostrated  by  sickness,  but 
Father  Igpatius  Keller  became  the  leader  of  the  new 
missions  in  that  district,  taking  possession  of  Santa 
Maria  Soamca,  20  April,  1732.  About  the  year  1750, 
we  find  Father  Ignatius  Pfefferkom,  a  native  of  Mani^ 
heim,  Germany,  at  Guevavi;  and  at  the  same  time. 
Father  Sedelmayr,  at  the  instance  of  the  Spanish 
Government,  was  evangelizing  the  tribes  on  the  Gila, 
erecting  seven  or  eight  churches  in  the  villa^  of  the 
Papagos,  among  whom  Father  Bernard  Middendorf 
also  laboured,  and  Father  Keller  was  endeavouring  to 
reach  the  Moguls,  who  were  willing  to  receive  mission- 
aries of  any  kmd  but  Franciscans.  Other  prominent 
Jesuits  from  the  Fatherland  were  Fathers  Caspar 
Steiger,  Heinrich  KQrtzel,  and  Michael  Gerstner.  By 
the  summary  act  of  the  King  of  Spain,  in  1763^  every 
church  in  Arizona  was  closed  and  the  Christian  In- 
dians were  deprived  of  their  zealous  German  priests. 
In  1808,  the  Diocese  of  Baltimore,  which  hao,  up  to 
this  time,  embraced  the  entire  United  States,  was 
divided,  and  the  four  new  sees  of  Philaddphia,  New 
York,  Boston,  and  Bardstown  erected.  Tnere  were, 
at  that  time,  under  thejurisdiction  of  the  first  Bishop 
of  Philadelphia,  Holy  Trinitv,  attended  bv  the.  Rev. 
William  EUing  and  Father  Adam  Britt,  tne  latter  of 
whom  issued  a  new  edition  of  the  German  catechism ;  St. 
Joseph's  Orphan  Asylxim,  erected  in  1806,  was  the  first 
institution  of  its  kind  established  by  Catholics  in  the 
United  States.  The  Rev.  Louis  de  Barth  attended 
at  Lancaster  and  Conewago.  He  was  the  son  of 
Joseph  de  Barth,  Count  de  Walbach,  and  his  wife, 
Mana  Louisa  de  Rohme,  and  was  bom  at  MOnster, 
1  November,  1764.  When  the  See  of  Philadelphia 
became  vacant  by  the  death  of  Bishop  E^n,  Father 
de  Barth  became  administrator  of  the  diocese.  He 
died  13  October,  1838.  The  Rev.  Paul  Emtzen  had 
begun,  in  1793,  his  quarter-century  pastorship  at 
Gcwhenhoppen.  Father  Peter  Helbron,  O.  Min.  Cap., 
had  reared  a  log  chapel  in  Westmoreland  County. 
After  years  of  devoted  service,  he  went  to  Philadelphia, 
but  died  at  Carlisle  on  his  homeward  journey.  The 
Rev.  Demetrius  A.  GaUitzin  was  labouring  in  the  dis- 
trict of  which  Loretto  was  the  centre,  and  had  come  to 
America  in  1792,  with  a  learned  and  pious  priest,  the 
Rev.  F.  K.  Brosius,  who  had  offerea  his  services  to 
Dr.  Carroll.  He  travelled  under  the  name  of  Schmet, 
a  contraction  of  his  mother's  name,  but  this  in  America 
soon  became  Smith,  by  which  he  was  known  for  many 
vears.  He  bore  letters  to  Bishop  Carroll,  and  when 
he  was  introduced  to  the  priests  of  Saint-Sulpice,  was 
delighted  with  their  life  and  work.    His  father  had 


marked  out  a  brilliant  career  for  him  In  the  military 
or  diplomatic  service  in  Europe,  but  the  peace  and 
simplicity  which  reigned  in  America  contrasted  so 
forcibly  with  the  seethins  maelstrom  of  European 
revolution  that,  penetrateawith  the  vanity  of  worldlv 
grandeur,  young  GaUitzin  resolved  to  renoimce  aU 
schemes  of  pride  and  ambition,  and  to  embrace  the 
clerical  profession  for  the  benefit  of  the  American 
mission. 

In  1808  the  Diocese  of  New  York  was  created,  and 
its  chief  organizer  was  the  learned  and  able  Jesuit 
Father,  Anthony  Kohlmann,  as  vicar-general  and 
administrator  aede  vacanU,  tie  had  come  over  from 
the  old  country  in  1806,  together  with  two  other 
priests  of  his  order.  The  German  Catholics  in  New 
Vork  had  gradually  increased,  so  that  the^  organized 
a  little  congregation  by  themselves.  Their  firet  pas- 
tor seems  to  nave  been  the  Rev.  John  Raffemer, 
of  whom  Archbishop  Hughes  said:  " Bishops,  priests, 
and  people  have  reason  to  remember  Father  Raffeiner 
for  many  years  to  come".  He  visited  his  countrymen 
far  and  near,  always  ready  to  hasten  to  any  pomt  to 

S've  them  the  consolations  of  religion.  For  a  time 
le  Germans  in  New  York  assembled  under  lus  care 
in  a  disused  Baptist  place  of  worship  at  the  comer 
of  Delancey  and  Pitt  Streets,  and  afterwards,  when 
the  lease  expired,  in  St.  Mary's  church:  but  on  20 
April,  1833,  the  comer-stone  of  a  church  to  be  dedicated 
to  St.  Nicholas,  on  Second  Street,  was  laid.  By  the 
sacrifices  and  exertions  of  Father  Raffeiner  the  church 
was  coxnpleted  and  dedicated  on  Easter  Sunday.  1836. 
Father  Raffeiner  directed  the  church  for  several  years 
and  became  vicar-general  for  the  Germans  in  the 
diocese.  By  the  year  1836,  the  German  Catholic 
element  in  the  Boston  diocese  required  Bishop  Fen- 
wick's  care,  the  largest  body  of  them  being  m  and 
near  Roxbury.  Having  no  priest  in  his  diocese  who 
could  speak  German  fluently.  Bishop  Fenwick  applied 
to  his  tellow-bishop  in  New  York,  and  at  the  close  of 
May,  1835,  the  Very  Rev.  John  Raffeiner.  apostle  of 
his  countrymen  in  the  East,  arrived.  On  the  last 
day  of  May,  that  zealous  priest  gathered  three  hun- 
dred in  the  chapel  of  St.  Aloysius  and  addressed  them 
with  so  much  power  and  unction,  that  he  spent  the 
whole  evening  m  the  confessional.  Quickened  by  his 
zeal,  they  resolved  to  collect  means  to  support  a 
priest,  and  in  August,  1836,  they  obtained  the  Rev. 
Father  Hoffmann  as  their  pastor,  with  Father  Frey- 
gans  as  assistant;  but,  led  by  designing  men,  they 
would  not  co-operate  with  those  sent  to  minister  to 
them.  Fathers  Hoffmann  and  Freygang  were  both 
forced  to  retire,  and  an  ex-Benedictme,  named  Smol- 
nikar,  became  tneir  choice.  In  a  short  time,  however, 
the  bishop  discovered  in  this  priest  unmistakable 
signs  <^  insanity  and,  unable  to  ootain  another  clergy- 
man, became  nimself  the  chaplain  of  the  German 
congregation.  In  1841,  stimulated  by  their  bishop, 
they  purchased  a  lot  on  Suffolk  Street,  and  prepared 
to  erect  a  church,  laying  the  comer^one  on  28  June; 
he  had  already  secured  a  zealous  priest,  Rev.  F. 
Roloff,  for  this  congregation.  The  German  CathoUo 
body  in  New  York  City,  was  now  increasing  so 
rapidly  that  soon  another  church  was  needed,  and  in 
June  tne  comer-stone  of  St.  John  Baptist's  was  laid 
by  the  Very  Rev.  Dr.  Power,  to  be  dedicated  on  13 
September,  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  Hughes. 

About  1820  Ohio  was  already  the  home  of  many 
Catholic  families  of  German  speech.  It  was  for  this 
reason  that  Bishop  Flaget,  of  Bardstown  and  Louis- 
ville, ur^ed  that  a  see  should  be  erected  at  Cincinnati, 
and  for  its  first  bishop  recommended  the  Rev.  Deme- 
trius A.  GaUitzin,  educated  in  Germany,  and  familiar 
with  the  language  and  ideas  of  the  people;  but  the 
sood  priest,  teaming  of  the  project,  peremptorily  re- 
fused. In  1829,  two  zealous  German  priests  b^^  to 
make  a  list  of  their  Catholic  countrymen  in  the  State 
of  Ohio.    They  found  them  everywhere — at  Cindn- 


479 


OEBMAirS 


nati.  Somerset,  Lancaster — and  by  their  untiring  leal 
awoke  religion  in  the  hearts  of  maiw  who  had  for 
years  neglected  to  practise  it.  One  of  these  itinerant 
priests  was  the  Rev.  John  Martin  Henni,  a  name  to  be 
Known  in  time  as  that  of  the  founder  of  the  first  Ger- 
man Catholic  paper,  first  Bbhop  of  Wisconsin,  and 
first  Archbi^op  of  Milwaukee,  in  1832,'on  the  death 
of  Bishop  Fenwick  of  Cincinnati,  the  administrati^on 
of  the  oioeese  devolved  on  the  zealous  missionary 
priest,  Father  Edward  Reese,  who  had  laboured  so 
earnestly  among  his  countrymen  in  the  diocese  and 
been  instrumental  in  the  establishment  of  the  "Leo- 
poidinen-Stiftung",  an  association  for  aiding  missions, 
at  Vienna,  whose  alms  have  fostered  so  many  missions 
and  helped  substantially  towards  developing  the 
Catholic  school  system,  particularly  in  the  Diocese  of 
Cincinnati,  and  the  dioceses  formed  from  it.  Dr. 
Reese  was  bom  at  Vianenburg,  near  Hildesheim^  in 
1791  and,  like  Pio  Nono,  had  oeen  a  cavalry  officer 
before  he  embraced  the  priesthood.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  AUienaeum  m  Cincinnati,  which  later 
was  transferred  to  the  Jesuits,  and  changed  into  the 

? resent  St.  Xavier  College.  Holy  Trinity,  erected  in 
834,  was  the  first  German  church  west  of  the  All^ 
ghanies.  Its  second  pastor,  the  Rev.  John  M.  Henni, 
whom  we  have  already  mentioned,  displaved  untiring 
energy  in  founding  and  organizing  schools  in  Cincin- 
nati and  was  activelv  interested  in  the  development  of 
Catholic  educational  work  throughout  the  States;  he 
also  formed  the  German  Catholic  Orphan  Society  of 
St.  Aloysius,  and  an  asylum  was  soon  erected.  About 
this  time,  log  churches  arose  at  Glandorf,  Bethlehem, 
and  New  Riegel  in  northern  Ohio,  sufficient  to  gather 
the  faithful  together,  and  afforded  a  place  for  the 
instruction  of  the  young.  Meanwhile,  the  Catholic 
population  of  the  State  increased  steadily,  and  the 
churches  and  institutions  were  very  inadec^uate.  St. 
Mary's  church  for  the  Germans,  m  Cincinnati  was 
dedicated  in  July,  1842;  another  German  church  was 
erected  about  the  same  time,  at  ZanesviUe,  by  Rev. 
H.  D.  Juncker.  As  early  as  1836,  a  German  congr^a- 
tion  was  organized  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  by  we 
Rev.  Jos.  Stahlschmidt;  they  soon  erected  St.  Boni- 
face's church,  which  was  dedicated  on  the  feast  of  All 
Saints,  1838.  This  church  was  attended  for  a  time 
from  Indiana  and  Ohio  by  the  Rev.  Jos.  Femeding 
and  Rev.  John  M.  Henni.  In  1842,  on  30  October, 
Bishop  Chabrat  dedicated  St.  Mary's  churdi,  Coving- 
ton, Kentucky,  a  fine  brick  structure,  erected  by  the 
German  Catholics  of  that  city.  When,  in  1833,  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Frederick  Reese  became  Bishop  of  Detroit, 
there  were  labouring  in  his  diocese,  among  other  Ger- 
man priests,  the  Redemptorist  Fathers  Saenderl  and 
Hatscher.  In  the  following  year  the  German  church 
of  the  Holy  Trinity  was  established.  At  that  time 
Vincennes  was  erected  into  a  diocese.  Three  years 
later,  we  find  a  German  oonerc»jation  in  Jasper  County, 
Illinois.  The  German  CatnoUcs  around  Quincy,  Illi- 
nois, had  erected  a  house  for  a  priest,  and  as  a  tem- 
porary chapel  till  their  church  was  built.  Father 
Charles  Meyer's  ministrations  in  the  little  log  church  of 
St.  Andrew,  at  Belleville,  111.,  was  his  first  step  to  a 
future  bishopric.  In  1841  a  German  Catholic  cnurch 
was  erected  at  West  Point,  Iowa,  in  the  present  Dio- 
cese of  Dubuoue.  At  Pittsburg  the  German  Catholics 
attended  St.  Patrick's  until  their  increasing  numbers 
made  it  expedient  for  them  to  form  a  separate  congre- 
gation. They  then  worshipped  in  a  building  previously 
used  as  a  factory.  In  1839,  at  Bishop  Kenrick's  sug- 
gestion, a  community  of  Redemptorists  then  in  Ohio, 
came  and  took  charge  of  this  mission,  and  the  factory 
was  soon  transformed  into  the  church  of  St.  Philo- 
mena,  with  a  Redemptorist  convent  attached — the 
first  house  of  that  congregation  in  the  United  States. 
Here,  before  long,  the  Rev.  John  N.  Neumann  received 
the  habit  and  began  his  novitiate,  to  become  in  time 
Bishop  of  Philadelphia,  and  die  in  ttie  odour  of  sanc- 


tity. When,  on  3  December,  1843,  the  firat  Bishop 
of  Pittsburg  reached  that  city,  he  found  in  his  district 
a  Catholic  population  estimated  at  forty-five  thou- 
sand, 12,000  being  of  German  ori^n. 

An  attempt  at  Catholic  colonization  was  made  about 
this  time  at  St.  Mary's,  Elk  Countv,  where  Messrs. 
Mathias  Benziger  and  J.  Eschbach,  of  Baltimore,  our- 
chased  a  large  tract.  Settlers  soon  gathered  from 
Germany,  who,  from  the  first,  were  attended  bv  the 
Redemptorist  Fathers,  but,  though  well  maziacea,  and 
encour^^  by  the  hearty  approval  of  the  bishop,  the 
town  never  attained  any  considerable  size.  Impor- 
tant and  wide-reaching  in  its  results,  not  only  for  the 
Diocese  of  Pittsburg,  but  for  the  Catholic  Church  in 
the  United  States,  was  the  arrival  at  Pittsbui^,  30 
September,  1845,  of  the  Benedictine  monk,  Dom  Boni- 
face Wimmer.  The  Rev.  Peter  Lemcke,  a  German 
priest,,  had  been  labouring  for  several  years  in  the 
mission  of  Pennsylvania.  His  life  had  been  a  strange 
and  varied  one.  Bom  in  Mecklenburg,  of  Lutheran 
parents,  he  grew  up  attached  to  their  sect,  trained 
piously  by  those  who  still  clung  to  the  great  doctrines 
of  Christianity.  Drafted  into  the  army,  he  fought 
under  Bltlcher  at  Waterloo,  and  afterwards  returmng 
to  his  home,  resolved  to  become  a  Lutheran  minister. 
To  his  astonishment  and  dismay,  he  found  the  profes^ 
sors  to  be  men  who,  in  t^eir  classes,  ridiculed  every 
religious  belief  which  he  had  been  taught  to  prize.  He 
was  led  to  study,  and  a  thorough  mastery  of  the  works 
of  Luther  convinced  him  tliat  Almighty  God  never 
could  have  chosen  such  a  man  to  work  any  good  in  his 
Church.  He  went  to  Bavaria,  where  he  began  to 
study  Catholic  doctrines,  and  was  received  into  the 
Church  by  Bishop  Sailer.  Having  resolved  to  become 
a  priest,  he  went  throueh  a  course  of  study  and  was 
ordained.  Coming  to  £nerica  in  1834,  he  was  sent, 
in  time,  as  assistant  to  Father  Gallitzin,  and  laboured 
in  the  missions  of  Western  Pennsylvania.  As  early 
as  1835,  he  appealed,  in  the  Catholic  papers  of  Ger- 
many, to  the  Benedictines  to  come  to  the  United 
States.  He  returned  to  Europe  in  1844,  mainly  to 
obtain  German  priests  for  the  missions  of  the  Diocese 
of  Pittsburg.  At  Munich  he  met  Dom  Boniface 
\^^mmer,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  the  ancient  Abbey  of 
Metten,  in  Bavaria,  a  reli^ous  whose  thoughts  had  al- 
ready turned  to  the  American  mission.  Fatner  Lemcke 
offered  him  a  farm  of  400  acres  which  he  owned  at 
Carrolltown,  Maryland.  Correspondence  with  Bishop 
O'Connor  followed.  Dom  Bomface  could  not  secure 
any  priests  of  his  order,  but  he  obtained  four  students 
and  fourteen  lay  brothers.  Their  project  was  liber- 
ally aided  by  the  Ludwis-Verein,  the  Prince-Bishop  of 
Munich,  the  Bishop  of  linz,  and  others.  After  con- 
ducting; his  colony  to  Carrolltown,  Father  Wimmer 
paid  his  respects  to  Bishop  O'Connor.  That  prelate 
urged  him  to  accept  the  estate  at  St.  Vincent's  which 
Father  Brouwers  had  left  to  the  Church  in  the  preced- 
ing century,  rather  than  establish  his  monastery  at 
Carrolltown.  Visiting  St.  Vincent's  with  the  bishop, 
Dom  Boniface  found  there  a  brick  church  with  a  two- 
story  brick  house  which,  though  built  for  a  pastoral 
residence,  had  been  an  academy  of  Sisters  ot  Mercy. 
He  decided  in  favour  of  the  bishop's  su^estion,  and, 
19  October,  1846,  the  first  community  oTBenedictine 
monks  was  organized  in  the  schoolhouse  at  St.  Vin- 
cent's. Father  Wimmer  took  charge  of  the  neighbour- 
ing congregation,  and  was  soon  attending  several  sta- 
tions. His  students  were  gradually  ordained,  and  in  a 
few  years  St.  Vincent's  was  declared  by  the  Holy  See 
an  independent  prioiy,  and  was  duly  incorporated  10 
May,  1853.  Prior  Wimmer  showed  great  ability  and 
zeal,  and  from  the  outset  confined  his  labours  as  much 
as  possible  to  German  congregations. 

Already,  before  1850,  the  R«v.  John  E.  Paulhuber 
and  other  Jesuit  Fathers  from  Geor^town  had  been  in 
charge  of  St.  Mary's  church  at  Richmond,  Virginia, 
erected  for  Germans,  of  whom  there  were  seven  or 


480 


OSEMAN8 


eight  hundred  in  the  city.  In  the  Diocese  of  Wheel- 
ing, erected  in  1850,  there  was  a  log  chapel  near  the 
German  settlement  of  King^v^ood.  About  that  time, 
German  settlers  were  ^thering  in  Preston,  Doddridee, 
and  Marshall  Coimties.  Soon^  after,  the  Rev.  F. 
Mosblech  began  to  plan  the  erection  of  a  church  for  the 
Germans  in  Wheeling.  When  Bishop  Hughes,  in 
1843,  returned  from  £]urope,  one  of  nis  first  epis- 
copal acts  was  the  dedication  of  the  churdi  of  the 
Most  Holy  Redeemer,  on  Third  Street,  New  York, 
which  the  Redemptorists  had  erected  for  the  Ger- 
man Catholics.  The  Rev.  John  Raffeiner,  the  Apostle 
of  the  Germans,  reported  the  labours  among  his 
countrymen,  in  rfew  York  State,  of  Fathers  Schnei- 
der at  Albany,  Schwenninger  at  Utica,  Inuna  at 
Salina,  the  Redemptorists  and  Franciscans  of  St. 
Peter's  church  at  Rochester,  and  announced  that 
peace  prevailed  in  the  loim  distracted  congregation 
of  St.  Louis,  Buffalo.  In  New  York  City,  St.  A^hon- 
sus,  the  second  church  of  the  Redemptorists  for  the 
Germans,  was  erected  in  1848.  The  German  Catho- 
olics  of  Albany,  though  stru^ling  with  difficulties, 
were  soon  rearug  a  neat  Gothic  church  on  Hamilton 
and  Philip  Streets.  Addressing  the  Leopold  Society, 
in  January,  1850,  to  acknowledge  their  ^nerous  aid, 
Bishop  McCloskey  estimated  the  Catholic  population 
of  his  diocese  at  70,000.  including  10,000  Uermans. 
He  had  sixty-two  churches,  eleven  of  them  for  Ger- 
mans. At  about  the  same  time.  Bishop  Timon,  of 
Buffalo,  estimated  his  flock  at  40,000  souls,  half  of 
whom  were  Germans,  attended  b]r  five  sec^ar  I>rie8t8 
and  five  Redemptorists.  The  Diocese  of  Cincinnati 
received^  in  1843,  a  valuable  acoessiozi.  a  colony  of 
seven  pnests  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Precious 
Blood  (Sanguinists),  led  by  the  Rev.  Francis  de  Sales 
Brunner.  The  difficult  mission  of  Peru  was  assigned 
to  them  by  the  bishop,  with  the  charge  of  Norwalk  and 
scattered  stations  in  the  neighbouring  counties.  The 
labours  of  the  Sanguinist  priests  were  signally  blessed, 
and  the  healthy  growth  of  the  Church  m  that  part  ot 
Ohio  must  be  ascribed  mainly  to  these  excellent  mis- 
sioners.  In  December,  1844,  Father  Brunner  estab- 
lished a  convent  of  his  congregation  at  New  Riegel, 
another,  next  year,  at  Thompson,  and,  in  1848,  one  at 
Glandorf .  Each  of  these  became  the  centre  of  reli- 
gious influence  for  a  large  district.  Father  Brunner 
was  bom  at  Mumliswil,  Switzerland,  10  January. 
1795,  entered  the  Con^gation  of  the  Precious  Blood 
in  1838,  and,  after  takme  part  in  the  establishment  of^ 
a  community  in  Switzerland,  formed  the  project  of  a* 
mission  in  America. 

In  April,  1845,  Bishop  Purcell,  with  a  large  gather- 
ing of  tne  clergy,  societies,  ecclesiastics,  and  pupils  of 
the  schools,  laid  the  comer-stone  of  the  German 
church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  Green  Street,  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio,  to  be  dedicated  on  1  November  of  the  same 
year,  by  Bishop  Heimi  of  Milwaukee,  who  had  done  so 
much  for  the  German  Catholics  of  Cincinnati.  St. 
Mary's  church,  at  Detroit,  Michigan,  was  dedicated 
for  the  Germans,  29  June,  1843.  In  1844  Bishop 
Kenrick  of  St.  Louis  estimated  the  Catholic  popula- 
tion of  Missouri  at  50,000,  one-third  being  of  Gei^ 
man  origin.  At  this  time,  St.  Louis  possessed  the 
German  church  of  St.  Aloysius.  The  comer-stone 
of  St.  Joseph's,  another  church  for  the  Germans, 
under  the  care  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  was  laid  in  April,  1844.  A  letter  sent,  in  1850, 
by  Archbishop  Kenrick  to  the  Leopold  Association, 

fives  the  condition  of  the  German  Catholics  of  the 
iocese  at  this  time. — Four  of  the  ten  churches  in 
St.  Louis  were  exclusively  German.  The  Germans 
had  their  own  orphan  asylum  and  an  Ursuline  con- 
vent, with  sisters  trom  Hungary  and  Bavaria.  Three 
German  congregations  in  Scott  County  were  attended 
by  a  priest  at  Benton.  Two  congregations  in  St. 
dfiarles  County  had  each  a  German  priest.  Those  in 
Washington  CJounty  were  attended  by  two  German 


Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus;  and  three  othet 
fathers  attended  four  congregations  in  Oaag/d  and  Cole 
Counties.  Jefferson  City  nad  a  German  congregation 
and  priest.  In  Gasconade  County,  the  German  Cath- 
olics were  erecting  a  church.  Tne  archbishop  was 
about  to  send  a  German  priest  to  Montgomery  County. 
Those  at  Boonville  were  visited  by  priests,  but  had  no 
church,  while  those  in  Pettis,  with  five  or  six  small 
congregations,  were  regularly  attended. 

By  the  close  of  the  year  1844  the  Rt.  Rev.  William 
Quarter^  first  Bishop  of  Chicago,  had  twenty-three 

Sriests  m  his  diocese,  one  at  the  cathedral  (the  Rev. 
.  H.  Ostlangenberg)  to  care  for  the  Germans,  while 
Qiiincy  had  its  German  congregation  and  priest. 
With  a  steadily  increasing  German  flock^  he  apmaled, 
and  not  in  vain,  to  the  Lipoid  Association  and  made 
plans  to  give  them  a  church  of  their  own  in  Chicago, 
as  they  were  estimated  at  one  thousand.  •  Qiapels 
were  being  erected  at  St.  Peter's  and  at  Teutopolis. 
After  Easter,  1850,  the  Rt.  Rev.  James  Oliver  van  de 
Velde.  the  second  Bishop  of  Chicago,  dedicated  St. 
Joseph 's  church,  at  Grosse  Pointe,  or  New  Trier,  erected 
by  tne  Rev.  Henry  Fortmann,  and  exhorted  the  Ger- 
man Catholics  at  Ridgeville  to  commence  building. 
In  1844,  the  Rev.  Ivo  Schacht,  who  had  a  large  dis- 
trict, embracing  several  coimties  of  the  State  (h  Ten- 
nessee, laid  the  comer-stone  of  a  church  atQarksville. 
The  German  Catholics  in  Nashville  desired  a  church  of 
their  own,  and  Bishop  Miles  appealed  in  their  behalf  to 
the  Leopold  Association. 

When,  in  1846.  Bishop  Loras  of  Dubuque,  visited 
New  Vieima,  he  found  there  250  Germans,  all  Catho- 
lics. There  were  at  that  time  more  or  less  Germans 
everywhere  in  that  diocese,  and  almost  all  farmers. 
On  19  April,  1846,  Bishop  Henni,  of  MHwaukee,  laid 
the  comer-stone  of  St.  Mary's  German  church  in  that 
city.  Before  the  Mexican  War  had  begun,  German 
settlements  were  established  at  Couhi.  New  Braun»- 
fels,  and  Fredericksbure,  Texas.  Aoout  the  year 
1849  the  Rev.  Gregory  Menzel  was  labouring  amonc 
his  countrymen  at  the  two  last-named  places,  as  weu 
as  at  Bastrop  and  Austin,  uij^g  Catholics,  for  the 
sake  of  the  future  of  their  famines,  to  gather  near  each 
other  so  as  to  enjoy  the  benefits  of  church  and  school. 
Bishop  Odin  of  Galveston,  in  1851,  visited  Europe 
and,  before  the  end  of  the  following  year,  had  the  con- 
solation of  bringing  with  him  four  Franciscans  from 
Bavaria  to  take  care  of  his  increasing  German  flock. 

In  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg  the  community  of 
Benedictines  had  grown  and  prospered.  New  lands 
were  acquired,  and  suitable  buildings  for  various 
purposes  were  erected.  In  1855,  Prior  Wimmer  vis- 
ited Rome,  and  Pope  Pius  IX,  on  24  August,  made 
St.  Vincent's  an  exempt  abbey^  and  on  17  September 
appointed  the  Rt.  Rev.  Boniface  Wimmer  mitred 
aoDot  for  a  term  of  three  years.  St.  Vincent's  CoUeee, 
opened  in  1849,  had  thriven  with  the  growth  of  the 
community  and  soon  had  a  large  number  of  students. 
The  course  was  thorough,  and  pupils  had  special 
advantages  for  acquiring  a  practical  knowledge  of 
German .  The  Redemptorists  were  labouring  earnestly 
in  Pittsburg,  imder  Father  Seelos  and  others.  In 
1851  they  laid  the  foundation  of  St.  Joseph's  German 
Orphan  Asylum.  When,  in  1853,  the  See  of  E^e  was 
erected,  the  German  Catholics  had  a  little  church  in 
that  city.  Wilhamsbur^,  New  York,  had  a  German 
church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  many  years  before  the 
Diocese  of  Brooklyn,  to  which  it  now  belongs,  was 
erected.  In  Brooklyn,  St.  Boniface's,  purchased 
from  the  Episcopalians,  was  dedicated  for  the  use  of 
the  Germans  in  1854,  as  were  Holy  Trinity  and  St. 
Malachy's  in  East  New  York.  From  the  year  1849, 
the  German  Catholics  at  Elisabeth,  Diocese  of  Newark, 
were  visited  by  the  Redemptorist  Fathers  till  the 
Rev.  Augustine  Dantner,  O.  S.  F.,  became  their  red- 
dent  priest  in  1852.  Bishop  Bayley  endeavoured  to 
secure  the  Benedictine  Fathers  for  St.  Mary's  German 


OBBMANS                               481  0EBMAN8 

Church,  Newark,  and  in  1856  the  Rt.  Rev.  Abbot  with  schools  and  churches.  The  number  of  German 
Wimmer  sent  Father  Valentine  Felder,  O.  S.  B.,  to  Catholics  in  the  United  States  can  only  be  given 
that  city.  Two  years  later,  St.  MichaePs  German  approximately.  Over  one-third  of  the  Germans  from 
church  was  dedicated.  In  1853  the  Abbot  of  Einsied-  the  German  Empire,  as  weU  as  the  majority  of  the 
ehij  at  the  request  of  the  Bishop  of  Vinoennes,  sent  a  Germans  from  Austria,  are  Catholics;  accordingly, 
colony  of  Benedictine  monks  to  Indiana.  They  almost  one-half  of  the  Germans  in  this  country 
BBttled  in  Spencer  County,  where  they  founded  the  should  be  Catholics.  Making  liberal  allowance  for 
Abbey  of  St.  Meinrad.  At  that  time,  the  Very  Rev.  the  leakage,  we  ^  may  safeljr  say  that  at  least  one- 
Jos.  ICundeck  had  been  for  twenty  years  vicar-  fourth,  i.  e.  over 'three  miUions,  are  Catholics.  This 
[general  of  the  diocese,  in  which  he  laboured  most  is  a  conservative  estimate.  The  leaka^  is  consider- 
.'sealously.  In  1857  the  sovereign  pontiff  established  able  among  Catholics  of  all  nationalities.  For  the 
the  Diocese  of  Fort  Wayne,  selecting  for  its  first  defection  of  Germans  in  particular,  the  foUowine 
bishop,  the  Rev.  John  Henry  Luers.  bom  near  MOn-  reasons  must  be  assigned.  Where  Germans  settled 
ster,  Westphalia,  29  September.  1819.  He  soon  dedi-  in  small  niunbers,  frequently  there  were  no  priests  of 
cated  St.  Mary's  German  churcn,  the  pastor  of  which  their  own  tongue.  Left  to  themselves,  thev  were  in  a 
ivasthe  Rev.  Joseph Wentz.  Inthesiunmerof  1858the  condition  of  religious  isolation;  they  graaually  n^- 
Franciscan  Fathers  of  the  Province  of  the  Holy  Cross  lected  religious  practices  and  finally  lost  their  faith, 
founded  a  residence  at  Teutopolis^fiBngham  County,  Although  this  applies  to  all  immigrants  who  do  not 
Illinois,  under  the  Very  Rev.  Damian  Hennewig.  speak  £^^h,  it  proved  specially  disastrous  in  the 
The  comer-stone  of  the  college  was  laid  in  1861,  and  case  of  the  Germans.  As  over  one-half  of  the  German 
ithe  institution  opened  in  the  next  year.  A  similar  settlers  were  Protestant,  and  frequently  had  churches 
institution  arose  at  Quincy.  The  German  Catholic  and  various  church  organizations,  there  was  a  non- 
church  at  Alton  was,  in  June,  1860,  destroved  by  a  Catholic  atmosphere  around  them;  mixed  marriages, 
tornado,  but  the  congregation  coura^ously  set  to  particularlv  in  such  places,  frequently  resulted  in 
work  to  replace  it  by  a  more  substantial  edmce.  In  losses  to  the  Catholic  Church.  Great  as  the  contri- 
1856,  the  Salesianum,  the  famous  seminary  of  Mil-  butions  of  the  immigrants  of  '48  were  to  the  intellec- 
waukee,  was  opened,  with  the  Very  Rev.  Michael  tual  advancement  ofthe  United  States,  it  cannot  be 
Heiss  as  rector  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  Joseph  Salzmann  as  denied  that,  on  the  whole,  their  influence  was  not 
leading  professor.  The  church  of  the  seminary  was  favourable  from  a  reli^ous  viewpoint.  The  same 
consecrated  in  1861.  The  fine  church  of  St.  Joseph  was  must  be  said  of  certain  German  organizations,  as  the 
erected  at  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  in  1856,  by  Rev.  C.  tumvereins,  which  fre<iuently  manifested  an  anti- 
Holzhauer.  A  community  of  the  Capuchin  Order,  des-  Catholic,  and  even  anti-religious,  spirit.  Nor  can  it 
tined  to  spread  to  many  parts  of  the  United  States  and  be  denied  that  Socialistic  principles  were  largely 
to  distinguish  itself  by  successful  mission  work,  arose  spread  by  German  immigrants  and  German  pubfica- 
in  the  diocese.  Two  secular  priests.  Fathers  Haas  and  tions.  Small  wonder  that  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
Frey,  conceived  the  idea  of  establishing  a  Capuchin  Germans  have  been  lost  to  the  Catholic  Church, 
^house.  After  some  correspondence,  a  father  of  the  German  Churches  and  Reiiguyua  CommunUiea. — No 
order  came  from  Eiirope  and  opcoied  a  novitiate,  attempt  is  made  to  give  exact  statistics  of  German 
receiving  the  two  priests  as  novices  in  1857.  After  Catholic  churches  and  parishes,  because  such  are  not 
.  their  profession  postulants  came,  the  community  grew,  available  at  the  present  time.  A  general  idea,  how- 
and  God  blessed  their  labours  wonderfully.  The  ever,  can  be  formed  from  the  fact,  that  among  the 
first  German  priest  on  record  in  Upper  California,  15,655  priests  in  the  Catholic  Directory  for  the  United 
was  the  Rev.  Florian  Schweninger,  wno  first  appears  States,  about  one  third  bear  German  names.  Among 
at  Shasta,  in  1854.  He  must  have  arrived  in  1853.  the  more  distinguished  German  prelates,  mention 
In  1856  the  Rev.  Sebastian  Wolf  had  charge  of  a  should  be  made  of  John  Martin  Henni,  first  Bishop, 
station  at  Placerville,  Calif ornia.  He  was  later  (1858-  and  later  Archbishop,  of  MUwaukee:  Michael  Heiss, 
59)  stationed  at  St.  ratrick's  church  as  assistant,  but  Archbishop  of  Milwaukee;  Seb.  Gebhard  Messmer, 
preached  the  German  sermon  at  St.  Mary's  cathedral.  Bishop  of  Green  Bay,  now  Archbishop  of  Milwaukee; 
at  the  nine-o'clock  Mass  on  Sundays.  He  began  to  Winand  S.  Wigger^  third  Bishop  of  Newark,  a  wise 
erect  a  church  for  the  Germans  early  in  1860,  and  ruler,  a  devout  pnest,  and  notable  for  his  practical 
since  then  St.  Boniface's  congregation  has  formed  an  work  as  head  of  the  St.  Raphael  Society  for  the  pro- 
independent  parish.  He  remained  pastor  imtil  the  tection  of  immigrants;  ana  most  |>articularly  of  the 
archbishop  called  from  St.  Louis  some  Franciscans,  saintiv  Bishop  Neumann  of  Philadelphia,  whose 
who  took  charge  and,  in  1893,  founded  another  Ger-  beatincation  is  the  earnest  hope  of  all  American 
man  parish,  St.  Anthony's,  in  the  southern  part  of  the .  Catholics. 

city.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  State,  the  Diocese  of  Of  the  great  number  of  European  orders  and  con- 
Monterey,  the  first  German  name  found  in  the  parish  gregations  of  men  and  women  laoouring  in  the  United 
records  of  San  Diego  is  that  of  the  Rev.  J.  Christ.  States  for  man's  spiritual  or  physical  welfare,  the 
Holbein,  missionary  Apostolic,  who  was  in  charge  of  following  are  of  German  origin  and  even  now  (1909) 
both  the  former  Indian  mission  and  the  city  of  San  are  recruited  chiefly  from  Germans  or  their  descen- 
Diego,  from  July,  1849,  to  February,  1850.    A  Ger-  dants: — 

man  settlement  for  the  first  time  appears  in  the  Rdigioue  Orders  of  Men.  (1)  Benedictines, — (a) 
Catholic  Directory  as  an  out-mission  of  Santa  Anna  in  American  Cassinese  Congre^tion,  founded  in  1846| 
1867,  but  it  had  no  German  priests  until  years  after,  by  the  Rev.  Boniface  Wimmer,  O.S.B. — ^At  the 
It  is  St.  Boniface's.  The  first  German  parish  of  Los  present  time  there  belong  to  this  congregation  the 
Angeles,  St.  Jose];)h's,  was  organized  in  1888;  the  first  following  independent  abbejrs:  St.  Vincent's  Arch- 
German  church  in  Sacramento  in  1894.  German  Abbey,  Beattv,  Pennsylvama,  with  126  fathers,  5 
Jesuits  went  to  work  in  what  is  now  Oregon  and  deacons,  23  clerics,  64  lay  brothers,  and  4  novices; 
Washington,  with  others  of  their  order,  in  tne  early  St.  John's  Abbey,  CoUegeville,  Minnesota,  with  94 
forties,  and  since  then  German  parishes  have  arisen,  fathers,  11  clerics,  26  lay  brothers,  9  novices:  St. 
No  German  priests  or  settlers  of  account  reached  New  Benedict's  Abbey,  Atchison,  Kansas,  with  51  fatners, 
Mexico  until  within  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years.  6  clerics,  18  brothers;  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  Newark,  New 
Gradually  German  Catholics  were  to  be  found  in  Jersey,  with  40  fathers,  7  clerics,  14  lay  brothers: 
nearly  every  part  of  the  United  States,  especially  in  Maryhelp  Abbev,  Belmont,  North  Carolina,  the  Rt. 
New  York,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Rev.LeoHaid,D.D.,  O.S.B.,  abbot-bishop,  31  fathers, 
Minnesota,  Missouri,  Pennsvlvania^  and  Mew  Jersey,  1  deacon,  4  clerics,  36  lay  brothers,  4  novices;  St.  Ber- 
everywhere  establishing  flourishmg  congregations  nard'sAbbey,CullmanCo.,  Alabama,  with  38  fathers, 
VI.— 31 


GXBMAini                              482  OEBMAn 

1  deacon,  3  subdeaconSj  12  clerics,  16  lay  brothers,  6  (There  are  also  numerous  Getmans  amons  the  Pa»- 

postulants;  St.  Proco^ius's  Abbev,  Chicago,  Illinois,  sionists,  Dominicans,  Lasarists  and  the  Fatners  of  the 

with  14  fathers,  6  clerics,  20  lav  orothers,  6  novices;  Holy  Cross.) 

8t.  Leo's  Abbey,  St.  Leo,  Florida,  with  12  fathers,  16  Rdiguma  Orders  of  Women.    (1)  Sisters  of  St 

lay  brothers,  3  novices,    (b)  Swiss  American  Congre-  Benedict. — ^In  1852  the  first  colony  of  Benedictine 

Ktioxi;  foimded  by  Pope  Pius  IX,  1871,  and  Pope  Sisters  came  to  the  United  States  from  Elichst&tt, 
!0  XIII,  1881. — To  this  congr^tion  belong  tne  Bavaria,  and  settled  in  St.  Mary's,  Elk  County,  in  the 
following  abbeys:  St.  Meinrad's  Abbey,  St.  Meinrad,  Diocese  of  Erie,  Pennsylvania.^  At  present  they  have 
Indiana  founded  in  1854  by  two  Benedictine  Fathers  also  houses  in  many  other  dioceses.  They  number 
from  Einsiedeln,  Switzerland;  an  abbey  since  1871,  about  2000  sisters,  135  novices,  and  115  postulants. 
50  fathers,  6  clerics,  42  lay  brothers,  7  novices;  Con-  (2)  Sisters  of  Christian  Charity. — ^They  were  estab- 
oeption  Abbey,  Conception,  Missouri,  founded  in  1873  lished  in  1874  by  sisters  from  Faderbom,  Germany, 
by  Fathers  Frown  Conrad  and  Adelhelm  Odermatt  The  sisters  conduct  establishments  in  17  dioceses;  they 
from  the  Benedictine  Abbey,  Engelberg.  Switserland;  number  about  731,  including  novices  and  postulants, 
an  abbey  since  1881,  42  fathers,  7  clerics^  26  lay  The  mother-house  for  the  United  States  is  at  Wilkes- 
brothers,  4  novices;  New  Subiaco  Abbey,  Spielerville,  barre,  Pennsylvania.  (3)  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order 
Arkansas,  with  30  fathers,  5  clerics,  23  lay  brothers,  of  St.  Francis. — (a)  Mother-house  at  Peoria,  Illinois, 
5  novices;  St.  Joseph's  Abbey,  Gessen,  Louisiana,  founded  in  1876,  by  sisters  from  the  house  of  Beth- 
with  19  fathers,  4  clerics,  8  lay  brothers,  3  novices;  lehem,  Heriord,  Westphalia,  Germany.  151  sisters, 
St.  Mary's  Abbejr,  Richardton,  North  Dakota,  with  32  novices,  28  postulants,  (b)  Mother-house  at  Glen 
21  fathers,  8  clerics,  12  lay  brothers,  11  novices;  St.  Riddle,  Pennsylvania.  804  professed  sisters,  54  nov- 
Benedict's  Abbey,  Mt.  Angel,  Oregon,  with  18  fathers,  ices,  8  postulants,  (c)  •  Mother-house  at  337  Pine 
7  clerics,  28  lay  brothers,  2  novices. — ^With  these  Street,  Buffalo,  New  York.  256  sisters,  30  novices, 
abbeys  are  connected  17  colleges  and  nimierous  14  postulants,  (d)  Mother-house  at  Syracuse,  New 
parishes,  stations,  and  missions.  (2)  Capuchins. —  York;  Millvale.  Pennsylvania,  and  at  Mt.  Loretto, 
There  are  two  provinces:  (a)  St.  Joseph's,  extending  Staten  Island,  New  York.  All  these  houses  are  Ger- 
over  the  States  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Michi^m,  man  foundations,  though  now  many  sisters  of  other 
Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Dakota,  and  the  Dio-  nationalities  belong  to  Uiem.  (4)  Sisters  of  the  Third 
oeses  of  Chicago  and  Fort  Wayne;  (b^  St.  Au^istine's,  Order  Regular  of  St.  Francis. — ^There  are  about  500 
comprising  the  States  of  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  sisters,  48  novices,  and  7  postulants,  with  mother- 
Maryland,  Ohio,  Kentuckv,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  (the  house  at  Oldenburg,  Indiana.  They  were  founded 
Dioceses  of  Chicago  ana  Fort  Wayne  excepted). —  in  the  year  1851,  by  Mother  M.  Theresa  of  Vienna, 
(a)  St.  Joseph's  Province,  founded  in  1857  by  two  Austria.  (5)  Sisters  of  St.  Francis. — ^Their  mother- 
secular  priests.  Fathers  Gr^ory  Haas  and  John  house  at  749  Washington  Street,  Buffalo,  New  York, 
Anthony  Frey,  niunbers  67  fathers,  19  professed  was  founded  in  1874,  by  sisters  from  Nonnenwerth 
clerics,  43  professed  brothers,  2  novices,  and  10  Bro-  near  Rokmdseck,  Rhenish  Prussia.  There  are  268 
thers  of  the  Third  Order;  (b)  St.  Augustine's  Province,  sisters.  (6)  Franciscan  Sisters. — ^Founded  in  1872,  by 
founded  in  1874,  by  the  Capuchin  Fathers  Hyacinth  sisters  from  Salzkotten,  Germany.  Mother-house  for 
Epp  and  Matthias  Hay.  with  64  fathers,  18  professed  the  United  States,  at  St.  Louis,  Missouri.  There  are 
clerics,  37  professed  lay  brothers,  5  novices,  2  Brothers  192  sisters.  (7)  School  Sisters  of  St.  Francis. — ^Their 
of  the  Third  Order.  (3)  Franciscans. — ^The  three  mother-house  and  novitiate  are  at  Milwaukee,  Wis- 
provinces,  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  of  St.  John  the  consin.  There  are  668  professed  sisters,  1 10  novices, 
Baptist,  of  the  Most  Holy  Name,  number  431  fathers,  54  postulants.  (8)  Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Per- 
148  clerics,  233  lay  brothers,  36  Tertiary  Brothers,  and  petueJ  Adoration. — Founded  in  1853,  by  Most  Rev. 
10  novices.  (4)  Jesuits. — About  200  Jesuits  from  M.  Heiss,  D.D.  There  are  364  professed  sisters,  45 
the  Fatherland  are  labouring  in  the  United  States,  novices,  and  42  postulants.  Mother-house  at  St. 
Besides,  there  are  several  hundred  Jesuits  of  German  Rose  Convent,  La  Crosse,  Wisconsin.  (9)  Hospital 
descent  who  were  bom  in  this  coimtry.  For  nearly  Sisters  of  St.  Francis. — ^Founded  in  1875,  by  sisters 
forty  years  there  was  a  distinct  German  division  called  from  MUnster,  Westphalia,  Germany.  Sisters  299, 
the  Buffalo  mission  of  the  German  Province,  with  col-  novices  24,  postulants  6.  Provincial  House  at  St. 
l^es  at  Buffalo,  New  York;  Cleveland  and  Toledo,  John's  Hospital,  Springfield,  Illinois.  (10)  Poor  Sis- 
Ohio;  Prairie  duChien,  Wisconsin;  two  Indian  missions  ters  of  St.  Francis  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration. — Pro- 
in  South  Dakota,  and  other  houses.  In  1907,  the  vincisJ  house  at  St.  Francis  Convent,  Lafavette, 
mission  numbered  about  300  members;  in  that  year  Indiana.  Founded  by  Sisters  from  Olpe,  Westpnalia, 
the  mission  was  separated  from  the  mother-province,  Germany.  Professed  sisters  573,  novices  65,  postu- 
and  the  hoiises  and  members  joined  to  different  lants  24.  (11)  Sisters  of  the  Poor  of  St.  Francis. — 
American  provinces.  ^  (5)  Redemptorists. — Althou^  Foimded  by  sisters  from  Aachen,  German  v.  They 
now  manjT  other  nationalities  are  represented  in  the  conduct  hospitals  in  eight  dioceses,  and  number  about 
Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer,  it  still  530.  (12)  The  Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus  Christ. —The 
numbers  a  great  many  Germans  among  its  members.  American  Province  of  this  sisterhood  was  established 
The  two  provinces  of  Baltimore  and  St.  Louis  are  in  August,  1868,  at  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana.  The  mo- 
compoeed  of  325  fathers,  95  professed  students,  22  ther-house  and  novitiate  are  still  united  with  the 
choir  novices,  121  professed  lay  brothers,  48  novice  general  mother-house  at  Dembach,  Germanv.  They 
lay  brothers  and  postulants.  (6)  Fathers  of  the  number  423  professed  sisters,  32  novices,  19 jpoetu- 
Precious  Blood. — ^This  congr^ation,  founded  at  Rome  lants.  (13)  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame.  General 
in  1814  is  divided  into  four  provinces,  three  European  mother-house,  Munich,  Bavaria.  Principal  mother- 
and  one  American.  The  American  province  was  house  in  America,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin.  First  con* 
organized  in  1844  by  the  Rev.  Francis  S.  Brunner,  and  vent  established  at  Baltimore,  1847.  The  sisters 
most  of  its  members  are  Germans,  either  by  birth  or  form  the  largest  teaching  Congregation  in  the  United 
b]r  descent.  The  congregation  is  represented  in  the  States  and  conduct  schools  in  nearly  all  the  dioceses. 
Dioceses  of  Cincinnati,  Fort  Wayne,  Cleveland,  Number  of  sisters  and  novices  3368,  besides  238  can- 
Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph,  St.  Paul,  Chicago,  and  San  didates,  with  99,009  pupils.  (14)  Sisters  of  the  Most 
Antonio. — 100  fathers,  6  clerics,  82  lay  brothers,  and  Precious  Blood. — (a)  Mother-house  at  Maria  Stein, 
32  novices.  (7)  Alexian  Brothers. — They  conduct  Ohio,  established  in  1834,  by  sisters  from  Switzerland, 
hospitals  and  asylums,  in  the  Archdioceses  of  Chicago  (b)  Mother-house  at  Rimia,  Illinois;  established  in 
andSt.  Louis,  the  Dioceses  of  Green  Bay  and  Newark.  1868,  at  Piopolis,  Illinois,  bv  sisters  from  Gurtweil, 
— 99  professed  brothers,  5  novices,  6  postulants.  Baden,  Germany;  transferred  to  Ruma,  in  1876.    (o) 


OEBMANB  483  OEBMANS 

Mother-house  at  O'FaUon,  Missouri.  About  1000  exaniple  of  Catholic  Germany.  Founded  in  1855,  the 
sisters  belong  to  this  congregation.  (15)  Sisters  of  Central- Verein  had  for  its  object,  above  all,  the  mate- 
Divine  Providence.  Mother-house  at  .  Pittsbiirg,  rial  aid  of  its  members.  But  gradually,  it  broadened 
Pennsylvania,  and  Brightside,  Holyoke,  Massachu-  its  programme,  and  it  became  one  of  the  objects  of  the 
setts.  The  Pittsburg  mother-house  was  established  organization  ''to  stand  for  Catholic  interests  in  the 
in  1876,  by  sisters  from  Mainz,  Germany.  There  are  spuit  of  the  Catholic  Church".  It  has  been  said,  and 
now  about  400  sisters  in  all.  justly,  that  perhaps  no  other  Catholic  organization  in 

Besides  all  these,  there  are  several  smaller  German  the  United  States  can  point  to  a  greater  nimiber  of 

religious  congresations'in  the  United  States.    In  other  positive  results,  tending  to  promote  the  welfare  of  our 

congiregations  also,  not  of  German  foundation,  there  fellow-men,  than  the  Central- Verein.    It  has  been  a 

are  now  many  German  sisters.     There  must   be,  firm  support  of  our  youthful  and  flourishing  Church, 

therefore,  upwards  of  twelve  thousand  sisters  of  Ger-  and  has  nobly  contributed  towards  its  gratifying 

man  origin  in  this  country.  development.    For  decades  it  has  unflinchingly  la- 

Parochial  Schools. — From  the  very  beginning,  of  boured  in  the  interest  of  the  parochial  school  and  for 
their  settling  in  this  country  the  German  Catholics  had  the  preservation  of  the  German  language.  Chiefly 
at  heart  the  establishing  of  parochial  schools.  Inter-  under  its  influence  were  founded  the  Teachezs'  Semi- 
esting  details  are  given  concerning  the  schools  at  nary,  at  St.  Francis,  and  the  Leo  House,  an  institution 
Goshenhoppen  and  Conewaeo.  The  school  at  Gos-  in  New  York  City  for  Catholic  immigrants  by  which 
henhoppen  was  begun  by  Father  Schneider,  S.J.  (who  thousands  have  heen  rescued  from  b^ily  and  spirit- 
had  previously  served  as  Rector  Magnificus,  or  eleo-  ual  perdition.  The  German  American  Katholikentage 
tive  bead,  of  Heidelberg  University),  soon  after  his  likewise  owed  their  origin  to  the  activity  of  the  men  of 
arrival,  in  1741.  It  was  under  his  charge  for  twenty  the  Central-Verein,  after  the  model  of  the  famous  an- 
years,  and  under  Father  Hitter's  during  the  twenty-  nual  assemblies  of  the  German  Catholics,  in  the 
three  succeeding  years.  It  was  attended  by  the  chil-  Fatherland.  The  influence  of  this  splendid  organiza- 
dren  of  the  whole  neighbourhood,  Protestant  as  well  tion  on  the  formation  of  the  Federation  of  Catholic 
as  Catholic,  it  being  the  only  one  in  the  place.  About  Societies  cannot  be  overrated. — "The  young  organiza- 
the  time  of  the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  tion  breathes  the  spirit  which  animated  the  C^ntral- 
the  school,  for  the  first  time,  engaged  the  services  of  a  Verein  durine  the  past  fifty  years ;  the  programme  of  the 
lay  teacher.  Contrary  to  the  custom  which  prevailed  Federation,  in  its  essential  parts,  is  identical  with  that 
in  the  Colonies  generally,  the  schoolmaster  was  looked  of  the  Central- Veiein,  so  that  the  former  helps  to 
upon  as  a  person  of  distinction  in  the  little  world  of  further  and  complete  what  the  vigorous  and  valiant 
Goshenhoppen.  Three  schoolmasters  are  mentioned  Germans  began.'' — ^Together  witii  Bishop  McFaul  of 
in  the  pansh  registers  between  1763  and  1796:  Henry  Trenton,  the  German  Archbishop  Messmer,  of  Milwau- 
Fredder,  Breitenbach,  and  John  Lawrence  Gubema-  kee,  Wisconsin,  is  the  prime  mover  and  leading  spirit 
tor.    The  last-named  was  no  doubt  the  most  distin-  of  the  Federation. 

^shed  of  the  three.    Bom  at  Oppenheim,  Germany,        T?ie  Press. — ^More  than  twenty-five  weekly  papers 

in  1735,  he  served  as  an  officer  in  the  army  of  the  Al-  are  published  in  the  United  States  for  the  benefit  of 

lies  in  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  came  to  America  German    Catholics,    besides   a   goodly   number   of 

during  the  Revolutionary  War.    Highly  educated,  monthly    periodicals.    The   first    German    Catholic 

and  a  devoted  teacher,  he  rendered  eminent  services  paper,  "Der  Wi^rheitsf reund ",  was  established  in 

to  the  cause  of  Catholic  education  in  Pennsylvania,  1837,  by  the  Rev.  John  M.  Henni.    After  an  existence 

during  a  period  of  twenty-five  years.    When,  about  of  almost  seventy  years  it  ceased  to  appear  in  1907. 

1787,  the  school  near  Conewago  was  so  far  developed  Another  weekly  which  no  loneer  exists,  but  which  for 

as  to  be  able  to  support  a  lay  teacher,  the  services  of  many  years  rendered  essential  service  to  religion,  was 

this  famous  schoolmaster  were  obtained.  the  '^Katholische  Kirehenzeitung".    Maximilian  Oer- 

These  schools,  along  with  the  other  schools  estab-  tel,  the  founder  of  this  weekly,  was  bom  at  Ansbach, 

•iished  and  conducted  by  the  Jesuitis,  have  greatly  Bavaria,  in  1811,  and  arrived  in  this  country  in  the 

influenced  the  development  of  the  Catholic  parochial  beginning  of  the  year  1839,  highly  commended  by  the 

school  system  in  the  United  States.    This  early  zeal  heads  of  his  denomination,  to  attend  Lutheran  immi- 

for  founding  parochial  schools  is  typical  of  the  activity  grants  in  the  United  States.    On  15  Mareh  of  the  fol- 

of  the  Germans  during  all  succeeding  periods.     Where-  lowine  year  he  was  received  into  the  Catholic  Churoh, 

ever  they  settled  in  sufficient  numbers  the  schoolhouse  to  which  he  remained  tme  and  faithful  throughout  the 

soon  rose  by  the  side  of  the  parish  chureh,  and  until  rest  of  his  life,  doing  excellent  service  to  the  Catholic 

the  present  day  they  have  never  ceased  to  be  staunch  cause  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  editors  the  Germans 

and  unffinching  advocates  of  the  parochial  school  ever  produced  in  this  country.    The  "Ohio  Waisen- 

system.  ...  freund  ",  founded  in  1873,  and  edited  by  the  indefati- 

Sodeties, — ^The  natural  inclination  and  aptitude  of  gable  Rev.  Jos.  Jessing,  later  Monsignore,  has  a  larger 

the  Germans  for  organizations  issued  in  the  formation  circulation  than  any  other  Catholic  weekly  in  the 

of  numerous  social  and  religious  associations.    Be-  country.    It  has  been  doing  a  great  amount  of  good 

sides  parochial  and  local  societies  there  is  one  organi-  these  thirty-five  years,  the  finest  monument  of  its 

zation  which  exerted  a  far-reaching  influence,  namely,  missionary  spirit  being  the  "  Josephinum  ",  a  seminary 

the  Central-Verein.    The  wonderful  organization  of  for  the  education  of  candidates  for  the  priesthood, 

the  Centre  Party  in  the  Fatherland  and  the  admirable  Whereas  an  En^sh  Catholic  daily  for  many  years  has 

unity  shown  by  the  German  Catholics  during  the  been  a  desideratum  not  yet  realized,  the  German 


respected There  is  a  vigor  in  German  Catho-  periodical  publications,  may  be  mentioned  the  "Pas- 

licity,  both  political  and  doctrinal,  that  should  excite  toral-Blatt",  for  a  number  of  years  edited  by  the  Rev. 
our  admiration,  and  be  for  us  a  splendid  example  for  W.  Fftrber,  of  St.  Louis,  which  existed  long  before  the 
imitation.  Who  can  reflect  upon  the  work  of  the  able  English  '^  Ecclesiastical  Review"  was  founded 
Centre  Party,  from  Mallinckrodt  and  Windthorst  to  and  editeid  by  Dr.  Herman  J.  Heuser. 
the  late  lamented  Lieber,  without  a  feeling  of  pride  It  is  surely  deserving  of  notice  that  among  Catholic 
and  satisfaction?"  (Father  John  Conway,  S.J.). —  publishers  in  this  country  the  German  names  of  Ben- 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Central-Verein  would  ziger.  Herder,  and  Pustet  stand  in  the  front  rank, 
never  have  become  what  it  now  is  without  the  noble  Nor  should  it  be  overlooked,  that  the  translations  of 


OEBMANUB 


484 


GBBMANT 


Qerman  religious  works — as  Deharbe's  Catediism, 
Wilmer's  '' Hand-book  of  the  Christian  Religion'', 
Schuster's  Bible  History,  the  works  of  Knecht,  Akog, 
Brilck,  Spirago,  Schanz,  Hettinger,  etc. — ^have  been 
largely  used,  and  are  still  being  used,  for  the  religious 
instruction  of  American  Catholics.  The  words  of 
Father  John  A.  Conwav,  S.J.  (in  the  preface  to  Fr.  von 
Hammerstein's  work,  Edgar,  or  from  Atheism  to  the 
Full  Truth")  may  well  be  quoted  in  this  connexion: 
''Who  can  read  the  works  that  teem  from  the  Qerman 
Catholic  press  without  feeling  that  the  defence  of 
CathoUc  truth  is  in  brave  and  fearless  hands?  It  is  in 
Germany  that  the  fiercest  onslaughts  are  made  upon 
revealed  truth  by  rationalists,  materialists,  panthe- 
ists, Kantians,  Hegelians,  evolutionists,  etc.  But  it  is 
from  Germany,  too,  that  we  eet  our  best  defence  and 
our  ablest  expositions  of  Catnolic  doctrines."  Thus 
we  see  that,  although  the  efforts  of  the  German  Cath- 
olics, naturally,  are  concerned  in  the  first  place,  with 
the  religious  affairs  of  their  own  people,  still  their  ac- 
tivity has  produced  beneficial  results  for  the  Catholic 
body  in  general. 

For  Gennans  in  General. — Cobb,  The  Story  of  the  PaUitin» 
(New  York,  1879);  Vxbbbck,  Qerman  huiruction  in  American 
Schools  (Washington.  1902);  McMasteb,  A  Hiaiaryat  the  Peo- 
ple of  the  United  States  (New  York.  1883-1900);  LdHBR.  Oe- 
schicMe  und  ZustOnde  der  Deutschen  in  AmerUea  (Gdttingen, 
1855);  Sbidbnbtickbr,  Die  erate  Deutsche  Einvxmderung  in 
Amenhi  und  die  OrOndung  von  OermarUown  tm  Jahret  1683 
(Philadelphia,  1883);  KdRNSB.  Das  Detttsche  Element  m  den 
Vereinigten  Staaten,  1818-1848  (New  York.  1884);  Kapp.  Die 
Deutschen  im  Staate  New  York  wOhrend  des  achtx^nUn  Jahihun- 
derts  (New  York,  1884);  Jannbt-KAmpfb,  Die  Vereinigten 
Staalen  Nordamerikas  in  der  Gegenwart  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1893) ; 
Knortk,  Dot  Deutschtum  in  den  Vereinigten  Staaten  (Hamburg, 
1897) ;  Gobbbl,  Das  DeuistMum  in  den  Vereini4jt«n  Staaten  von 
Nordamerika  (Munich,  1904). 

The  German  Gatholics  in  America.— Shva,  History  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States  (New  York,  1886-1892); 
Burns,  The  Cathdie  School  System  in  the  United  Stales  (New 
York|  1908);  Enoblbardt^  True  History  of  the  Missions  and 
Missionaries  of  California  (Wataonyille,  Galifomia);  Schwickb- 
RATH,  Jesuits  as  Missionaries  in  The  Review  (St.  Louis,  1901); 
WiLTZius,  Catholic  DiretAory  (Milwaukee,  annual);  Hammbr,  Die 
Katholische  Kirche  in  den  Vereinigten  Staaten  Nordamerikas 
rNew  York,  1897);  Shabfbr  and  Hbrbbrmann,  Records  and 
Studies  in  U,  S.  Cath.  Historical  Society,  I,  110;  Hbrbbrmann, 
A  Catholie  Qerman  Colony  in  Ohio  in  l7.  S.  Caiholie  Historical 
Magazine,  IV.  125. 

Francis  M.  Schirp. 

Oermanua  I,  Saint,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
(715-30),  b.  at  Constantinople  towards  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Emperor  Heraclius  (610-41) ;  d.  there  733  or 
740.  The  son  of  Justinianus,  a  patrician,  Germanus 
dedicated  himself  to  the  service  of  the  Church  and 
became  a  cleric  at  the  cathedral  of  the  metropolis. 
Some  time  after  the  death  of  his  father,  who  had  filled 
various  high  official  positions,  at  the  hands  of  the 
nephew  of  Heraclius,  Germanus  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Cyzicus,  but  the  exact  year  of  his  elevation 
is  not  known.  According  to  Theophanes  and  Nice- 
phorus,  he  was  present  in  this  capacity  at  the  Synod 
of  Constantinople  held  in  712  at  the  instance  of  the 
new  emperor,  Philippicus,  who  favoured  Monothelit- 
ism.  The  object  of  the  council  was  to  re-establish 
Monothelitism  and  to  condemn  the  Acts  of  the  Sixth 
General  Council  of  681.  Even  Germanus  is  said  to 
have  bowed  to  the  imperial  will,  with  the  majority  of 
the  Greek  bishops  (Mansi,  Cone.  Coll.,  XII,  192-96). 
However,  immediatelv  after  the  dethronement  of 
Emperor  Philippicus  (713)  his  successor,  Anastasius 
II,  restored  orthodoxy,  and  Monothelitism  was  now 
definitively  banished  from  the  Byzantine  Empire.  If 
Germanus  really  yielded  for  a  short  time  to  tne  false 
teachings  of  the  Monothelites,  he  now  once  more  ac- 
knowledged the  orthodox  definition  of  the  two  wills  in 
Christ.  John,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  appointed 
by  Philippicus  to  succeed  the  deposed  Cyrus,  sent  to 
Pope  Constantino  a  letter  of  submission  and  accepted 
the  true  doctrine  of  the  dlhurch  promulgated  at  the 
Council  of  681,  whereupon  he  was  recognized  by  the 
pope  as  Patriarch  of  Ck)nstantinople.  On  his  death 
Germanus  was  raised  to  the  patriarchal  see  (715)|  which 


he  held  until  730.  Immediately  (715  or  716)  he  con- 
vened at  Constantinople  a  synod  of  Greek  bishops,  who 
acknowledge  and  proclaimed  anew  the  doctrihe  of 
the  two  wills  and  tne  two  operations  in  Christ,  and 
placed  under  anathema  Seigius,  Cyrus^  and  the  other 
leaders  of  Monothelisin  (q.v.).  Gennanus  entered 
into  oommimication  with  the  Armenian  Monophy- 
sites,  with  a  view  to  restoring  them  to  unity  witii  the 
CShurch,  but  without  success.  Soon  after  his  elevation 
to  the  patriarchal  dimity  the  Iconoclastic  storm  burst 
forth  in  the  Byzantme  Church,  Leo  III  the  Isaurian, 
who  was  opposed  to  the  veneration  of  images  having 
just  acceded  to  the  imperial  throne  (716).  Bishop 
Constantino  of  Nacoleis^  in  Phrygia,  who  like  some 
other  bishops  of  the  empire  condemneid  the  veneration 
of  the  pictures  and  images  of  Christ  and  the  saints, 
went  to  Constantinople,  and  entered  into  a  discussion 
with  Germanus  on  the  subject.  The  patriarch  repre-^ 
sented  the  traditional  use  of  the  Churcn,  and  sou^t  to 
convince  Constantino  of  the  propriety  of  reverencing 
images.  Apparently  he  was  converted  to  the  teach- 
ing of  the  patriarch,  but  he  did  not  deliver  the  letter 
entrusted  to  him  by  Germanus  for  the  Metropolitan  of 
Synnada,  for  which  he  was  excommunicated.  At  the 
same  time  the  learned  patriarch  wrote  to  Bishop 
Thomas  of  Claudiopolis,  another  Iconoclast,  and  de- 
veloped in  detail  the  sound  principles  imderlying  the 
reverencing  of  images,  as  aeainst  the  recent  innova- 
tions. Emperor  Leo  III,  however,  did  not  recede 
from  his  position,  and  everywhere  encouraged  the 
iconoclasts.  In  a  volcanic  eruption  between  the 
islands  of  Thera  and  Therasia  he  saw  a  Divine  judg- 
ment for  the  idolatry  of  image-worship,  and  m  an 
edict  (726)  explained  that  Christian  images  had  taken 
the  place  of  iaols,  and  the  venerators  of  images  were 
idolaters,  since,  according  to  the  law  of  God  (Ex.,  xx, 
4),  no  product  of  the  hand  of  man  may  be  adored. 
Immediately  afterwards,  the  first  Iconoclastic  disturb- 
ances broke  out  in  Constantinople.  The  Patriardi 
Germanus  vigorously  opposed  the  emperor,  and 
sought  to  convert  him  to  a  truer  view  of  things, 
whereupon  Leo  attempted  to  depose  him.  Germanus 
turned  to  Pope  Gregory  II  (729),  who  in  a  lengthy 
epistJe  praised  his  zeal  and  steadfastness.  The  em- 
peror in  730  summoned  the  council  before  which  Ger- 
manus was  cited  to  subscribe  to  an  imperial  decree 
prohibiting  images.  He  resolutely  refused,  and  was 
thereupon  compelled  to  resign  his  patriarohal  office, 
being  succeeded  by  the  pliant  Anastasius.  Gennanus 
withdrew  to  the  home  of  his  family,  where  he  died 
some  years  later  at  an  advanced  age.  The  (Ecumeni- 
cal Council  of  Nicsea  (787)  bestowed  hig^  praise  on 
Germanus,  who  is  venerated  as  a  saint  in  ooth  the 
Greek  and  the  Latin  Church.  His  feast  is  celebrated 
on  12  May.  Several  writings  of  Germanus  have  been 
preserved  (Migne,  P.  G.,  XCVIII,  39-454),  viz., 
''Narratio  de  Sanctis  synodis^',  a  dialogue  "De  vitte 
termino",  a  letter  to  the  Armenians,  ana  three  letters 
on  the  reverencing  of  ima^.  as  well  as  nine  discourses 
in  the  extravagant  rhetoncal  style  of  the  later  Byzan- 
tines. Of  doubtful  authenticity  is  the  "  Histona  ec- 
clesiastica  et  mystica",  also  attributed  to  him  (Migne, 
loc.  cit.,  383-454). 

Pabooxrb.  L'Eglise  Bvzantine  de  BV  h  8U7  (Paris,  1905); 
HuBTBB,  Nomenclator;  ICRUicnACHBR,  Qesch.  der  butaniini- 
schen  Litteratur  (2nd  ed.,  Munidi,  1897),  66  sqq.;  HBrBLB, 
Kontiliengesch.,  2nd  ed..  Ill,  363  sqq.,  380  sq. ;  HEBOBMRdrsBR 
AND  KiBSGH,  Kirdieng&ehichiet  4Ui  ed.,  II,  6, 16-17,  266. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Oermany. — ^From  their  first  appearance  in  the  his- 
toiy  of  the  w^orld  the  Germans  represented  the  prin- 
ciple of  unchecked  individualism,  as  opposed  to  the 
Roman  principle  of  an  all-embracing  authority.  Gei^ 
man  history  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  strongly  influ- 
en(^ed  by  two  opposing  principles:  universalism  and 
individualism.  After  Arminius  had  fought  for  German 
freedom  in  the  Teutoburg  Forest  the  idea  that  the 


GEBMANT                             485  OEBMAMY 

race  was  entitled  to  be  independent  gradually  became  order  to  obtain  the  protection  of  the  lord  or  to  eain  the 
a  powerful  factor  in  its  historical  development.  This  usufruct  of  land.  From  this  Gallic  system  of  client- 
conception  first  took  form  when  the  Germanic  states  ship  there  developed,  in  Frankish  times,  the  conception 
grew  out  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Even  Theodoric  the  of  the  "  lord's  man  "  {fumagium  or  hominiurn) ,  who  by 
Great  thought  of  uniting  the  discordant  barbarian  an  oath  swore  fealty  to  his  suzerain  and  became  a  vcust^a, 
countries  with  the  aid  of  the  leges  gentium  into  a  great  or  gasindtiSf  or  Iiomo.  The  result  of  the  growth  of  this 
confederation  of  the  Mediterranean.  Althoiigh  in  idea  was  that  finally  there  appeared,  tnroughout  the 
these  M^iterranean  countries  the  Roman  principle  kinedom,alon^  with  royalty,  powerful  territorial  lords 
finally  prevailed^  being  that  of  a  more  advanced  civili-  with  their  vassi  or  vaasculif  as  tneir  followers  were  called 
zation,  still  the  mdividualistic  forces  which  contrib-  from  the  eighth  century.  The  vassals  received  as 
buted  to  found  these  states  were  not  wasted.  By  fief  (ben^icium)  a  piece  of  land  of  which  they  enjoyed 
them  the  world-embracing  empire  of  Rome  was  over-  the  use  for  life.  The  struggle  of  the  Franks  Witn  the 
thrown  and  the  way  prepared  for  the  national  principle.  Arabs  quickened  the  development  of  the  feudal  sys- 
It  was  not  until  after  tne  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  tem,  for  the  necessity  of  creating  an  army  of  horsemen 
that  a  great  Frankish  kingdom  became  possible  and  then  became  evident.  Moreover  the  poorer  freemen, 
the  Franks,  no  longer  held  in  check  by  the  Roman  depressed  in  condition  by  the  frequent  wars,  could  not 
Empire,  were  able  to  draw  together  the  tribes  of  the  be  required  to  do  service  as  horsemen,  a  duty  that 
old  Teutonic  stock  and  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  could  only  be  demanded  from  the  vassals  of  the  great 
German  empire.  Before  this  tne  Germanic  tribes  had  landowners.  In  order  to  force  these  territorial  lords 
been  continually  at  variance;  no  tie  bound  them  to-  to  do  military  service  fiefs  were  granted  from  the 
gether;  even  the  common  language  failed  to  produce  already  existing  public  domain,  and  in  their  turn  the 
imity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  so-called  lAitUver-  great  lords  granted  part  of  these  fiefs  to  their  retain- 
sckiSbung.  or  shifting  of  the  consonants,  in  German,  ers.  Thus  the  Frankish  kine  was  gradually  trans- 
separated  the  North  and  South  Germans.  Nor  was  formed  from  a  lord  of  the  lana  and  people  to  a  feudal 
German  mytholo^  a  source  of  union,  for  the  tribal  lord  over  the  beneficiaries  directly  and  indirectly 
centres  of  worship  rather  increased  the  already  existing  dependent  upon  him  by  feudal  tenure.  By  the  end  of 
particularism.  The  Germans  had  not  even  a  common  the  ninth  century  the  feudal  system  had.  bound  to- 
name.  Since  the  eighth  century  most  probably  the  gether  tiie  greater  part  of  the  population, 
designations  Franks  and  Frankuk  extended  beyond  While  in  this  way  the  secular  aristocracy  grew  into 
the  Doundaries  of  the  Frankish  tribe.  It  was  not,  a  power^  at  the  same  time  the  Chiirch  was  equally 
however,  until  the  ninth  century  that  the  expression  strengthened  by  feudalism.  The  Christian  Churcn 
iheoditk  (later  German  DeuUch),  signifying  "  popu;-  during  this  en^— a  fact  of  the  greatest  importance — 
lar '',  or  "  belonging  to  people",  noiade  its  appearance,  was  the  guardian  of  the  remains  of  classical  culture, 
and  a  great  stretcn  of  time  aivided  this  beginning  With  this  culture  the  Church  was  to  endow  the  Ger- 
from  the  use  of  the  word  as  a  name  of  the  nation.  mans.  Moreover  it  was  to  bring  them  a  great  fund  of 
The  work  of  uniting  Germany  was  not  begun  liy  a  new  moral  conceptions  and  principles,  much  increase 
tribe  living  in  the  interior  but  by  one  on  the  outskirts  in  knowledge,  and  skill  in  art  and  handicrafts.  The 
of  the  country.  The  people  called  Franks  suddenly  well-knit  organization  of  the  Church,  the  convincing 
appear  in  history  in  the  third  century.  They  repre-  Ic^c  of  dogma,  the  grandeur  of  the  doctrine  of  salva^ 
sented  no  single  tribe,  but  consisted  of  a  combination  tion,  the  sweet  poetry  of  the  liturgy,  all  these  captured 
of  Low  and  High  German  tribes.  Under  the  leader-  the  understanding  of  the  simple-minded  but  fine- 
ship  of  Clovis  (Chlodwig)  the  Franks  overthrew  the  natured  primitive  German.  It  waa  the  Church,  in 
remains  of  the  Roman  power  in  Gaul  and  built  up  the  fact,  that  first  brought  the  exa^rated  individualism 
Frankish  State  on  a  Germano-Romanic  foundation,  of  tne  race  under  control  and  developed  in  it  gradu- 
The  German  tribes  were  conquered  one  after  another  ally,  by  means  of  ascesticism,  those  social  virtues 
and  colonized  in  the  Roman  manner.  Large  extents  essential  to  the  State.  The  country  was  converted  to 
of  territory  were  marked  out  as  belonging  to  the  king,  Christianity  very  slowly,  for  the  Church  had  here  a 
and  on  these  military  colonies  were  founded.  The  difficult  problem  to  solve,  namely,  to  replace  the 
commanders  of  these  military  colonies  gradually  be-  natural  conception  of  life  by  an  entirely  different  one 
came  administrative  functionaries,  and  the  colonies  that  appearedTstrange  to  the  people.  The  acceptance 
themselves  ^w  into  peaceful  a^cultural  village  com-  of  the  Christian  name^  and  ideas  was  at  fh«t  a  purely 
munities.  For  a  long  time  pohtical  expressions,  such  mechanical  one,  but  it  became  an  inner  conviction, 
as  Hundreds,  recalled  the  original  military  character  of  No  people  has  shown  a  more  logical  or  deeper  compre- 
the  people.  From  that  time  the  Frankish  ruler  became  hension  of  the  organization  and  saving  aims  of  the 
the  German  overlord,  but  the  centrifugal  tendency  of  Christian  Church.  None  has  exhibited  a  like  devotion 
the  Germanic  tribes  reacted  against  this  sovereignty  to  the  idea  of  the  Church,  nor  did  any  people  contribute 
as  soon  as  the  Merovingian  Dynasty  began  slow^  to  more  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  greatness  of  the 
decline,  owing  to  intemaJ  feuds.  In  each  of  the  tribes  Church  than  the  German.  In  the  conversion  of  Ger- 
after  this  the  duke  rose  to  supremacy  over  his  fellow  many  much  credit  is  due  the  Irish  and  Scotch,  but 
tribesmen.  From  the  seventh  century  the  tribal  duke  the  real  founders  of  Christianity  in  Germany  are  the 
became  an  almost  independent  sovereign.  These  An^o-Saxons,  above  all  St.  Boniface.  Among  the 
ducal  states  originated  in  the  supreme  command  of  e&rfy  missionaries  were:  St.  Columbanus,  the  firet  to 
laree  bodies  of  troops,  and  then  in  the  administration  come  to  the  Continent  (about  583),  who  laboured  in 
of  large  territories  by  dukes.  At  the  same  time  the  Swabia;  Fridolin,  the  foimder  of  S&ckingen;  Pirmi- 
disintegration  was  aided  by  the  bad  administration  of  nius,  who  established  the  monastery  of  Reichenau  in 
the  counts,  the  officials  in  charge  of  the  territorial  dis-  724;  and  Gallus  (d.  645),  the  founder  d  St.  Gall.  The 
tricts  (Gau),  who  were  no  longer  supervised  by  the  cause  of  Christianity  was  fiirthered  in  Bavaria  by 
central  authority.  But  what  was  most  disastrous  was  Rupert  of  Worms  (beginning  of  the  seventh  century), 
that  an  unruly  aristocracy  sought  to  control  all  the  Corbinian  (d.  730),  and  Emmeram  (d.  715).  The 
economical  interests  and  to  exercise  arbitrary  powers  great  organizer  of  the  Church  of  Bavaria  was  St. 
over  politics.  These  sovereign  nobles  had  become  Boniface.  The  chief  herald  of  the  Faith  among  the 
powerful  through  the  feudal  system,  a  form  of  govern-  Franks  was  the  Scotchman,  St.  Kilian  (end  of  the 
ment  which  gave  to  medieval  Germany  its  peculiar  seventh  century);  the  Frisians  received  Christianity 
character.  Csesar  in  his  day  found  that  it  was  cus-  through  Willibrord  (d.  739).  The  real  Apostle  of 
toraary  among  the  Gauls  for  a  freeman,  the  "client",  Germany  was  St.  Boniface,  whose  chief  work  was  in 
voluntarily  to  enter  into  a  relation  of  dependence  on  a  Central  Germany  and  Bavaria.  Acting  in  conjuno- 
"  senior".   This  surrender  (comm^rufo^io)  took  pla(^  in  tion  with  Rome  he  organized  the  German  Church, 


\ 


GEBMANT 


486 


OERMAHT 


and  finafly  in  755  met  the  death  of  a  martyr  at  the 
hands  <^  the  Frisians.  After  the  Church  nad  thus 
obtained  a  good  foothold  it  soon  reached  a  position  of 
much  importance  in  the  eyes  of  the  youthful  German 
peoples.  By  grants  of  land  the  pnnces  gave  it  an 
economic  power  which  was  greatly  increased  when 
many  freemen  voluntarily  became  dependents  of 
these  new  spirit\ial  lords;  thus,  besides  the  secular 
territorial  aristocracy,  there  developed  a  second 
power,  that  of  the  ecclesiastical  princes.  Antagonism 
between  these  two  elements  was  perceptible  at  an 
early  date.*^  Pepin  sought  to  remove  the  difficulty  by 
strengthening  tne  Frankish  Church  and  placing  be^ 
tweep  the  secular  and  spiritual  lords  the  new  Carlo- 
yin^an  kin^,  who,  by  the  assumption  of  the  title  Dei 
graliaf  obtamed  a  somewhat  rehgious  character. 

Tlie  Au^;ustinian  conception  of  the  Kii^om  of 
God  early  mfluenced  the  Frankish  State:  political  and 
relifiious  theories  unconsciously  blended.  The  union 
of  Cnurch  and  State  seemed  the  ideal  which  was  to  be 
realized.  Each  needed  the  other;  the  State  needed 
the  Church  as  the  only  source  of  real  order  and  true 
education;  the  Church  needed  for  its  activities  the 
protection  of  the  secular  authority.  In  return  for  the 
training  in  morals  and  learning  that  the  Church  gave, 
the  State  granted  it  large  privileges,  such  as:  the 
mvOegium  fori  or  freedom  from  thejurisdiction  of  the 
State;  inmiimity,  that  is  exemption  from  taxes  and 
services  to  the  State,  from  whidi  gradually  ^w  the 
right  to  receive  the  taxes  of  the  tenants  residing  on 
the  exempt  lands  and  the  right  to  administer  justice 
amone  them;  further,  release  from  military  service; 
and,  mially,  the  granting  of  great  fiefs  that  formed  ^e 
basis  of  the  later  ecclesiastical  sovereignties.  The 
reverse  of  this  picture  soon  became  apparent;  the  ec- 
clesiastics to  whom  had  been  given  lanos  and  offices  in 
fief  became  dependent  on  secular  lords.  Thus  the 
State  at  an  eaiiy  date  had  a  share  in  the  making  of 
ecclesiastical  laws,  exercised  the  rieht  of  patronaee, 
appointed  to  dioceses,  and  soon  undertook,  especisSly 
in  the  time  of  Charies  Mattel,  the  secularization  of 
church  lands.  Consequently  the  question  of  the  rela- 
tion of  Church  and  State  soon  claimed  attention ;  it 
was  the  most  important  question  in  the  history  of  the 
German  Middle  Ag^.  Under  the  first  German  em- 
peror this  problem  seemed  to  find  its  solution. 

Real  German  history  begins  with  Charlemagne 
(768-814).  The  war  with  the  Saxons  was  the  most 
important  one  he  carried  on,  and  the  result  of  this 
struggle,  of  fundamental  importance  for  German  hia- 
torv,  was  that  the  Saxons  were  brought  into  connexion 
with  the  other  Germanic  tribes  and  did  not  fall  under 
Scandinavian  influence.  The  lasting  union  of  the 
Franks,  Saxons,  Frisians,  Thuringians,  Hessians,  ^a^ 
manni.  and  Bavarians,  that  Charlemagne  effected, 
formea  the  basis  of  a  national  combination  which 
gradually  lost  sight  of  the  fact  that  it  was  the  product 
of  compulsion.  From  the  time  of  Charlemagne  the 
above-named  German  tribes  lived  under  Frankish 
constitution  retaining  their  own  old  laws,  the  leges 
barbararumf  which  Charlemagne  codified.  Another 
point  of  importance  for  German  development  was  that 
Charlemagne  fixed  the  boundajy  between  his  domain 
and  theSlavs,  including  the  Wends,  on  the  farther 
skle  of  the  Elbe  and  Saale  Rivers.  It  is  true  that 
Charlemagne  did  not  do  all  this  according  to  a  delib- 
erate plan,  but  mainly  in  the  endeavour  to  win  these 
related  Germanic  peoples  over  to  Christianity. 
Chariemagne's  German  policy,  therefore,  was  not  a 
mere  brute  conquest,  but  a  union  which  was  to  be 
strengthened  by  the  ties  of  moralityand  culture  to  be 
created  by  the  Christian  religion.  The  amalgamation 
'  ^  "MK^Iesiastic^d  with  the  secular  elements  that  had 
1  the  reign  of  Pepin  reached  its  completion 
arlemagne.  The  fact  that  Pepin  obtained 
>roval  of  his  kinedom  strenc^thened  the  bond 
the  Church  and  Uie  Franldsn  kingdom.    The 


oonsdousnesB  of  being  the  champion  of  Christianity 
against  the  Arabs,  moreover,  gave  to  the  King  of  the 
Franks  the  relLrious  character  of  the  predestined  pro- 
tectors of  the  Qiurch ;  thus  he  attained  a  position  of 
great  importance  in  the  Kingdom  of  Goa.  Charle- 
ma^e  was  filled  with  these  ioeas;  like  St.  Augustine 
he  hated  the  supremacy  of  the  heathen  empire.  The 
type  of  God's  Kingdom  to  Charlemagne  and  his  coun- 
cillors was  not  the  Roman  Empire  but  the  Jewish 
theocracy.  This  type  was  kept  m  view  when  Charle- 
magne undertook  to  fi;ive  reahty  to  tiie  ^Kingdom  of 
God.  The  Frankish  king  desired  like  Solomon  to  be  a 
great  ecclesiastical  and  secular  potentate,  a  royal  priest. 
He  was  conscious  that  his  conception  of  his  position  as 
the  head  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  according  to  the  G^- 
man  ideas,  was  opposed  to  tne  essence  of  Roman 
Cffisarism,  and  for  this  reason  he  objected  to  being 
crowned  emperor  by  the  pope  on  Christmas  Day,  800. 
On  this  day  the  Germanic  ioea  of  the  Kin^om  of  God, 
of  which  Charlemagne  was  the  representative,  bowed  to 
the  Roman  idea,  wmch  regards  Rome  as  its  centre,R(une 
the  seat  of  the  old  empire  and  the  most  sacred  place 
of  the  Christian  world  Ghariemagne  when  emperor 
stni  regarded  himself  as  the  real  leader  of  the  Church. 
Although  in  774  he  confirmed  the  gift  of  his  father  to 
the  Roman  res  pMica,  nevertheless  he  saw  to  it  that 
Rome  remained  connected  with  the  Frankish  State; 
in  return  it  had  a  claim  to  Frankish  protection.  He 
even  interfered  in  dogmatic  questions. 

Chariemagne  looked  upon  the  revived  Roman  Em- 
pire from  the  ancient  point  of  view,  inasmuch  as  he 
greatly  desired  reoogmtion  by  the  Eastern  Empire. 
Me  regarded  his  possession  of  the  »npire  as  resulting 
solely  from  his  own  power,  consequently  he  himsell 
crowned  his  son  Louis.  Yet  on  the  other  hand  he 
looked  upon  his  empire  only  as  a  Christian  one,  whose 
most  noble  calling  it  was  to  train  up  the  various  races 
within  its  borders  to  the  service  of  God  and  thus  to 
unify  them.  Hie  empire  rapidly  declined  under  his 
weak  and  nerveless  son,  Louis  the  Pious  (814-40). 
Tlie  decay  was  hastened  by  the  prevailing  idea  that 
the  State  was  the  personal  property  of  tlie  sovereign, 
a  view  that  oontamed  the  germ  of  constant  quarrels 
and  necessitated  the  division  of  the  empire  when  there 
were  several  sons.  Louis  soi^t  to  prevent  the  dan- 
^FB  of  such  division  by  the  law  of  hereditary  succes- 
sion published  in  817,  by  which  the  sovereign  power 
and  tne  imperial  crown  were  to  be  passed  to  we  oldest 
son.  This  law  was  probably  enacted  through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Church,  which  maintained  positively 
this  unity  of  the  supreme  power  and  the  Crown,  as 
being  in  narmonv  with  the  idea  of  the  Kingdom  of 
God,  and  as  besicies  required  by  the  hierarchical  econ- 
omy of  the  church  or^mization.  When  Louis  had  a 
fourth  son,  by  his  second  wife,  Judith,  he  immediately 
set  aside  the  law  of  partition  of  817  for  the  benefit  of 
the  new  heir.  An  odious  struggle  broke  out  between 
father  and  sons,  and  among  the  sons  themselves.  In 
833  the  emperor  was  captured  by  his  sons  at  the  battle 
of  LOeenfeld  (field  of  lies)  near  Colmar.  Pope  Greg- 
ory I V  was  at  the  time  in  the  camp  of  the  sons.  The 
demeanour  of  the  pope^  and  the  humiliating  ecclesias- 
tical penance  that  Louis  was  compelled  to  undergo  at 
Soissons  made  apparent  the  change  that  had  come 
about  since  Charlemagne  in  the  theory  of  the  relations 
of  Church  and  State.  Gregory's  view  that  the  Church 
was  under  the  rule  of  the  representative  of  Christ,  and 
that  it  was  a  higher  authority,  not  only  spiritually  but 
also  substantially,  and  therefore  politically,  had  l>efore 
this  found  leameid  defenders  in  France.  In  opposi- 
tion to  the  oldest  son  Lothair,  Louis  and  Pepin,  sons  of 
Louis  the  Pious,  restored  the  father  to  his  throne  (834), 
but  new  rebellions  followed  when  the  sods  once  more 
grew  dissatisfied. 

In  840  the  emperor  died  near  Ingelheim.  The 
quarrels  of  the  sons  went  on  after  the  death  of  the 
father,  and  in  841  Lothair  was  completely  defeated 


GERBfANY 


487 


OEBBfANY 


near  Fontenay  (Fontanetum)  by  Louis  the  German 
and  Charles  the  Bald.  The  empire  now  fell  apart,  not 
from  the  force  of  national  hatreds,  but  in  conii^uence 
of  the  partition  now  made  and  knowi>  as  the  Treaty  of 
Verdun  (August,  843),  which  divided  the  territory  be- 
tween the  sons  of  Louis  the  Pious:  Lothair,  Louis  the 
German  (843-76),  and  Charles  the  Bald,  and  which 
finally  resulted  in  the  complete  overthrow  of  ihe  Car- 
lovingian  monarchy. 

As  the  imperial  power  grew  weaker,  the  Church 
gradually  raised  its^f  above  the  State.  The  scandal- 
ous behaviour  of  Lotiiair  II,  who  divorced  himself 
from  his  lawful  wife  in  order  to  marry  his  concubine, 
brought  deep  disgrace  on  his  kingdom.  The  Church 
however,  now  an  imposing  and  well-organized  power, 
sat  in  judgment  on  the  adulterous  king.  When 
Lothair  II  died,  his  imcles  divided  his  possessions 
between  them ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Ribemont  (Mersen), 
Lorraine,  which  lay  between  the  East  Frankish  King- 
dom of  Louis  the  German  and  the  West  Franki^ 
Kingdom  of  Charles  the  Bald,  was  assigned  to  the  East 
Frankish  Kingdom.  In  this  way  a  long-enduring 
boundary  was  definitely  drawn  between  liie  growing 
powers  of  Germany  and  France.  By  a  curious  chance 
this  boundai^  coincided  almost  exactly  with  the  lin- 
ffuistic  dividmg  line.  Charles  the  Fat  (876-87),  the 
last  son  of  Louis  the  German,  imited  once  more  the 
entire  empire.  But  according  to  old  Germanic  ideas 
the  weak  emperor  forfeited  nis  sovereignty  by  his 
cowardice  when  the  dreaded  Northmen  appeared  be- 
fore Paris  on  one  of  their  frequent  incursions  into 
France,  and  by  his  incapacity  as  a  ruler.  Conse- 
quently the  Eastern  Franks  made  his  nephew  Amulf 
(887-99)  king.  This  chanee  was  brou^t  about  by  a 
revolt  of  thelaitv  aeainst  we  bishops  m  alliance  with 
•  the  emperor.  Ine  oanger  of  Norman  invasion  Amulf 
ended  once  and  for  all  by  his  victory  in  891  at  Lou  vain 
on  the  Dyle.  In  the  East  also  he  was  victorious  after 
the  death  (894)  of  Swatopluk,  the  great  Kins  of  Mora- 
via'. The  conduct  of  some  of  the  great  nobles  forced 
him  to  turn  for  aid  to  the  bishops;  supported  by  the 
Church,  he  was  crowned  emperor  at  Rome  in  896. 
Theoretically  his  rule  extended  over  the  West  Frank- 
ish Kingdom,  but  the  sway  of  his  son.  Louis  liie  Giild 
(899-911),  the  last  descendant  of  tne  male  line  of 
the  German  Carlovingians,  was  limited  entirely  to  the 
East  Frankish  Kingdom.  Both  in  the  East  and  West 
Frankish  Kingdoms,  in  this  era  of  confusion,  the  nobil- 
ity grew  steadily  stronger^  and  freemen  in  increasing 
numbers  became  vassals  m  order  to  escape  liie  bur- 
dens that  the  State  laid  on  them;  the  illusion  of  the 
imperial  title  could  no  longer  give  strength  to  the  em- 

Sire.    Vassal  princes  like  Guido  and  Lamberto  of 
poleto,  and  Berenear  of  Friuli,  were  permitted  to 
wear  the  diadem  of  we  Caesars. 

As  the  idea  of  political  unit^  declined,  that  of  the 
imity  of  the  Church  increased  in  power.  The  King- 
dom of  God,  which  the  royal  priest,  Charlenui^e,  by 
his  overshadowing  personality  had,  in  his  own 
opinion,  made  a  fact,  proved  to  be  an  impossibility. 
Cnurch  and  State,  which  for  a  short  time  were  united 
in  Charlemagne,  had,  as  early  as  tlie  reign  of  Louis  the 
Pious,  become  separated.  The  Kingdom  of  God  was 
now  identified  with  the  Church.  Pope  Nicholas  I  a&- 
serted  that  the  head  of  the  one  and  indivisible  Church 
could  not  be  subordinate  to  any  secular  power,  that 
only  the  pope  could  rule  the  Church,  that  it  was  obli- 
gatonr  on  princes  to  obev  the  pope  in  spiritual  things, 
and  nnally  that  the  Carlovingians  had  received  their 
ri^t  to  rule  from  the  pope.  This  grand  idea  of  unity, 
this  all-controlling  sentiment  of  a  common  bond, 
could  not  be  annihilated,  even  in  these  troubled  times 
when  the  papacy  was  humiliated  by  petty  Italian 
rulers.  The  idea  of  her  unity  gave  the  Church  the 
strength  to  raise  herself  rapidly  to  a  position  higher 
than  that  of  the  State.  From  the  age  of  St.  Bonuace 
the  Church  in  the  East  Frankish  lungdom  had  had 


direct  relations  with  Rome,  while  numerous  new 
churches  and  monasteries  gave  her  a  firm  hold  in  this 
region.  At  an  early  date  the  Church  here  controlled 
the  entire  religious  life  and,  as  the  depositary  of  all 
culture,  the  entire  intellectual  life.  She  had  also 
gained  frequently  decisive  infiuence  over  German 
economic  life,  for  she  disseminated  much  of  the  skill 
and  many  of  tiie  crafts  of  antiquity.  Moreover  the 
Church  itself  had  grown  into  an  economic  power  in 
the  East  Frankish  Kingdom.  Piety  led  many  to 
place  themselves  and  their  lands  under  the  control 
of  tiie  C3iurch. 

•  There  was  also  in  this  period  a  change  in  social  life 
that  was  followed  by  important  social  consequences. 
The  old  militia  composed  of  every  freeman  capable  of 
bearing  arms  went  to  pieces,  because  the  freemen  con- 
stantly decreased  in  number.  In  its  stead  there  arose 
a  higher  order  in  the  State,  which  alone  was  called  on 
for  military  service.  In  this  chaotic  era  the  German 
people  made  no  important  advance  in  civilization. 
Nevertheless  the  union  that  had  been  formed  between 
Roman  and  German  elements  and  Christianity  pre- 
pared the  way  for  a  development  of  the  East  Frankish 
Kingdom  in  civilization  from  which  great  results 
mi^ht  be  expected.  At  the  close  of  the  Carlo vingian 
period  the  external  position  of  the  kinsdom  was  a 
very  precarious  one.  The  piratic  Northmen  boldly 
advanced  far  into  the  empire:  Danes  and  Slavs  con- 
tinually crossed  its  borders ;  but  the  most  dan^rous 
incursions  were  those  of  ihe  Magvars,  who  m  907 
brought  terrible  suffering  upon  Bavaria;  in  their 
marauding  expeditions  tney  also  ravaged  Saxony, 
Thuringia,  ana  Swabia.  It  was  then  i£a.t  salvation 
came  from  the  empire  itself.  The  weak  authority  of 
the  last  of  theCanovin^ans,  Louis  the  Child,  an  in- 
fant in  years,  fell  to  pieces  altogether,  and  the  old 
ducal  form  of  government  revived  in  the  several 
tribes.  '  This  was  in  accordance  with  the  desires  of  the 
people.  In  these  critical  times  the  dukes  sought  to 
save  the  countrv;  still  they  saw  clearly  that  only  a 
union  of  fdl  the  duchies  could  successfully  ward  off  the 
danger  from  without;  the  royal  power  was  to  find  its 
entire  support  in  the  laity.  Once  more,  it  is  true,  the 
attempt  was  made  by  King  Conrad  I  (911-18)  to 
make  the  Church  the  basis  oithe  royal  power,  but  the 
centralizing  clerical  policy  of  the  king  was  successfully 
resisted  by  the  subordinate  powers.  Henry  I  (919^6) 
was  the  free  choice  of  the  lay  powers  at  Fritzlar.  On 
the  day  he  was  elected  the  ola  theory  of  the  State  as 
the  personal  estate  of  the  sovereign  was  finallv  done 
away  with,  and  the  Frankish  realm  was  transformed 
into  a  German  one.  The  manner  of  his  election  made 
plain  to  Henry  the  course  to  be  pursued.  It  was 
necessarjr  to  yield  to  the  wish  of  the  several  tribes  to 
have  their  separate  existence  with  a  measure  of  self- 
fl»vemment  under  the  imperial  power  recognized. 
Tlius  the  duchies  were  strengthened  at  the  expense  of 
the  Crown.  The  fame  of  Henrv  I  was  assured  by  his 
victory  over  the  Magyars  near  Merseburg  (933).  By 
re^aimng  Lorraine,  that  had  been  lost  during  the 
reign  of  Conrad,  he  secured  a  bulwark  on  the  side 
towards  France  that  permitted  the  uninterrupted 
consolidation  of  his  realm.  The  same  result  was  at- 
tained on  other  frontiers  by  his  successful  campaigns 
against  the  Wends  and  Bohemians.  Henry's  kingdom 
was  made  up  of  a  confederation  of  tribes,  for  the  idea 
of  a  "  Kinff  of  the  Germans ' '  did  not  yet  exist.  It  was 
onl^r  as  tne  ''Holy  Roman  Empire  of  the  German 
Nation"  that  Germany  could  develop  from  a  union  of 
German  tribes  to  a  compact  nation.  As  supporters  of 
the  supreme  power,  as  vassals  of  the  emperor,  the  Ger- 
mans were  united. 

This  imperial  policy  was  continued  by  Otto  I,  the 
Great  (93&-73) .  During  his  long  reign  Otto  soujght  to 
found  a  strong  central  power  in  Germany,  an  effort  at 
once  opposea  by  the  particularistic  powers  of  Ger- 
many, who  took  advantage  of  disputes  in  the  royal 


0EB1SAN7 


488 


OEBiffAinr 


family.  Otto  proved  the  necessity  of  a  strong 
Bovemment  by  his  victorv  over  the  Magyars  near 
Augsburg  (955).  one  result  of  which  was  the  re- 
establiwment  ot  the  East  Mark.  After  this  he  was 
called  to  Rome  bv  John  XII,  who  had  been  threatened 
by  Berengarius  II  of  Italy,  and  by  making  a  treaty 
that  secured  to  the  imperial  dienity  a  share  in  the  elec- 
tion of  the  pope,  he  attaineathe  imperial  crown,  2 
February,  962.  It  was  necessary  for  Otto  to  obtain 
imperial  power  in  order-  to  carry  out  his  politico- 
ecclesiastical  policv.  His  intention  wafi  to  make  the 
Churdi  an  oreanic  leature  of  the  German  constitution. 
This  he  could  only  do  if  the  Church  was  absolutely 
imder  his  control,  and  this  could  not  be  attained  unless 
the  papacy  and  Italy  were  included  within  the  sphere 
of  ms  power.  The  emperor's  aim  was  to  found  his 
royal  power  among  the  Germans,  who  were  stronglv 
indinra  to  particularism,  upon  a  close  imion  of  Church 
and  State.  The  Germans  had  now  revived  the  em- 
pire and  had  freed  the  papjacy  from  its  unfortunate 
entanglement  with  the  nobility  of  the  city  of  Rome. 
The  papacy  rapidly  rained  strength  and  quickly 
renewed  the  policy  of  Nicholas  I.  Bv  safeguarding 
the  unity  of  ue  Church  of  Western  Europe  the  Ger- 
mans protected  both  the  peaceful  development  of 
civilization,  which  was  dependent  upon  religion,  and 
the  progress  of  culture  which  the  Chiu*cn  spread. 
Thus  the  Germans,  in  imion  with  the  Church,  founded 
the  civilization  or  Western  Europe.  For  Germany 
itself  the  heroic  age  of  the  medieval  emperors  was  a 
period  of  progress  in  learning.  The  renaissance  of 
antiquity  auring  the  era  of  the  Ottos  was  hardly  more 
than  superficial.  Nevertheless  it  denoted  a  develop- 
ment in  learning,  throughout  ecclesiastical  in  charac- 
ter, in  marked  contrast  to  the  tendencies  in  the  same 
age  of  the  granmiarian  Wilgard  at  Ravenna,  who 
sought  to  revive  not  onlv  the  literature  of  ancient 
times,  but  also  the  ideas  of  antiquity,  even  when  they 
opposed  Christian  ideas.  Germany  now  boldly  as- 
sumed the  leadership  of  Western  Europe  and  thus 
prevented  any  other  pow^  from  claiming  the  su- 
premacy. Moreover  the  new  empire  sousht  to  assert 
its  universal  character  in  France,  as  weU  as  in  Bur- 
sundy  and  Italy.  Otto  also  fixed  his  eves  on  Lower 
Italy,  which  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  but  he 
preferred  a  peaceful  policy  with  Byzantium.  He  there- 
fore married  his  son  Otto  II,  m  972,  to  the  Greek 
Princess  Theophano. 

Otto  II  (973^83)  and  his  son  Otto  III  (983-1002) 
firmly  uphdd  the  union  with  the  Church  inaugurated 
by  Ctto  I.  Otto  II  aimed  at  a  great  development  of 
his  power  alon^  the  Mediterranean;  these  plans  nat- 
urally turned  his  mind  from  a  national  German  policy. 
His  campaign  against  the  Saracens,  however,  came  to 
a  disastrous  end  in  Calabria  in  982,  and  he  did  not 
loiu;  survive  the  calamity.  His  romantic  son  sought 
to  bring  about  a  complete  revival  of  the  ancient  em- 
pire, the  centre  of  which  was  to  be  RomeT,  as  in  ancient 
times.  There,  in  union  with  the  pope  Jhe  wished  to 
establish  the  true  Kingdom  of  God.  The  pope  and 
the  emperor  were  to  be  the  wielders  of  a  power  one  and 
indivisible.  This  idealistic  policv,  full  of  vague  ab- 
stractions, led  to  severe  German  losses  in  the  east,  for 
the  Poles  and  Hungarians  once  more  gained  their  in- 
dependence. In  Italy  Arduin  of  Ivrea  founded  a  new 
kingdom;  naturally  enough  the  Apennine  Peninsula 
revolted  against  the  German  imperial  policy.  With- 
out possession  of  Italy^  however,  the  empire  was  im- 
possible, and  the  blessings  of  the  Ottoman  theory  of 
government  were  now  manifest.  The  Chureh  became 
uie  champion  of  the  unity  and  Intimacy  of  the 
empire. 

After  the  death  of  Otto  III  and  the  collapse  of  im- 
perialism the  Chureh  raised  Henry  II  (1002-24)  to  the 
throne.  Henry,  reviving  the  policy  of  Otto  I  which 
had  been  abandoned  by  Otto  III,  made  Germany  and 
the  German  Church  the  basis  of  his  imperial  system; 


he  intended  to  rule  the  Church  as  Otto  I  had  done*  In 
1014  he  defeated  Arduin  and  thus  attained  the  imperial 
crown.  *The  sickly  ruler,  whose  nervousness  caused 
him  to  take  up  projects  of  which  he  quickly  tired,  did 
his  best  to  repair  the  losses  of  the  empire  on  its  eaatem 
frontier.  He  was  not  able,  however,  to  defeat  the 
Polish  King  Boleslaw  II:  all  he  could  do  was  to 
strengthen  the  position  of  the  Germans  on  the  Elbe 
River  by  an  alliance  with  the  Lusici,  a  Slavonic  tribe. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  reign  a  bitter  dispute  broke  out 
between  the  emperor  and  the  bishops.  At  the  Synod 
of  Seligenstadt,  in  1023,  Archbishop  Aribo  of  Mainz, 
who  was  an  opponent  of  the  Reform  of  Quny,  forbade 


founding 

man  Church  independent  of  Rome.  The  greater  part 
of  the  clergy  supported  Aribo,  but  the  emperor  held  to* 
the  party  of  reform.  Henry,  however,  did  not  live  to* 
see  the  quarrel  settled. 

With  Conrad  II  (1024-39)  began  the  sway  of  ]bhe 
Franconian  (Salian)  emperors.  The  sovereigns  of  this*, 
line  were  vigorous,  vehement,  and  autocratic  rulers.. 
Conrad  had  xiatural  political  ability  and  his  reign  is: 
the  most  flourishing  era  of  medieval  imperialism.  The 
international  position  of  the  empire  was  excellent.  In 
Italy  Conrad  strengthened  the  German  power,  and  his 
relations  with  King  Canute  of  Denmark  were  friendly. 
Internal  disputes  kept  the  Kingdom  of  Pokmd  from 
becoming  dangerous;  moreover,  by  regaining  Lusatia 
the  Germans  recovered  the  old  preponderance  against 
the  Poles.  Important  gains  were  lUso  made  in  Bur- 
gundy, whereby  the  old  Romanic  states,  France  and 
Italy,  were  for  a  long  time  separated  and  the  great 
passes  of  the  Alps  controlled  by  the  Germans.  The 
close  connexion  with  the  empire  enabled  the  German 
population  of  north-western  Burgundy  to  preserve  its: 
nationality.  Conrad  had  also  kept  up  the  close  unions, 
of  the  State  with  the  Church  ana  had  maintained  his 
authoritv  over  the  latter.  He  claimed  for  himself  the 
same  right  of  ruling  the  Church  that  his  predecessors 
had  exercised,  and  like  them  appointed  oishops  and 
abbots;  he  also  reserved  to  himself  the  entire  control 
of  the  property  of  the  Church.  Conrad's  ecclesiastical 
policy,  however,  lacked  definiteness;  he  failed  to  un- 
derstand the  most  important  interests  of  the  Church, 
nor  did  he  ^asp  the  necessity  of  reform.  Neither  did 
he  do  anytning  to  raise  the  papacy,  discredited  by 
John  XIA  and  Benedict  IX,  from  its  dependence  on 
the  civil  rulers  of  Rome.  The  aim  of  nis  financial 
policv  was  economic  emancipation  from  the  Church : 
royal  financial  officials  took  their  place  alonsside  of 
the  mimstenales,  or  financial  agents,  of  the  oishops 
and  monasteries.  Conrad  sou^t  to  rest  his  kingdom 
in  Germany  on  these  royal  officials  and  on  the  petty 
vassals.  In  this  way  the  laity  was  to  be  the  guarantee 
of  the  emperor's  independence  of  the  episcopate.  As 
he  pursued -the  same  methods  in  Italy,  oe  was  able  to 
maintain  an  independent  position  between  the  bishops 
and  the  petty  Italian  despots  who  were  at  strife  with 
one  another.  Thus  the  ecclesiastical  influence  in  Con- 
rad's theory  of  government  becomes  less  prominent. 

This  statesmanlike  sovereign  was  folu)wed  by  his 
son,  the  youthful  Henry  III  (1039-56).  UnUke  his 
father  Henry  had  had  a  eood  education;  he  had  also 
been  trained,  from  an  early  age  in  State  affairs.  He 
was  a  bom  ruler  and  allowed  himself  to  be  influenced 
by  no  one ;  to  force  of  character  and  courage  he  added 
a  strong  sense  of  duty.  His  foreign  policy  was  at  first 
successful.  He  established  the  suzerainty  of  the  em- 
pire over  Hungary,  without,  however,  being  always 
able  to  maintain  it ;  Bohemia  also  remained  a  depend- 
ent state.  The  empire  gained  a  dominant  position  in 
Western  Europe,  and  a  sense  of  national  pride  was 
awakened  in  tne  Germans  that  opened  the  way  for  a 
national  spirit.  But  the  aim  of  these  national  aspira- 
tions, the  hegemony  in  Western  Europe,  was  a  mere 


OXUUKT  4t 

phaatoin.  Eacli  time  aa  emperor  went  to  Ittly  to  be 
crowned  that  couatry  had  to  be  reconquered.  Even 
at  this  very  time  the  imperial  supremacy  was  in  great 
d&nger  from  the  threatened  connict  between  the  itn- 
perial  and  the  sacerdotal  power,  between  Church  and 
State.  The  Church,  the  only  guide  on  earth  to  sal- 
vation, had  attained  dominion  over  mankind,  whom  it 
strove  to  wean. from  the  earthly  and  to  lead  ' 


had  become  powerful.  I^nry  himseU  laid  much  : 
stress  than  his  predeeeesora  ou  the  ecdesiastical  side  of 
his  royal  position.  His  re- 
li^ous  views  led  him  to  side 
with  tbe  men  of  Cluny. 
The  {[Teat  mistake  of  hu 
ecclesiBatical  policy  was  the 
belief  that  it  was  possible 
to  promot«  this  leionn  of 
the  Chuicb  by  laying  stress 
on  his  suierain  authority. 
He  repeatedly  called  and 
presided  over  synods  and 
issued  many  decisions  in 
Church  affaire.  His  funda- 
mental mistake,  tbe  thought 
that  he  could  transform  the 
Church  in  the  manner  de- 
sired by  the  party  of  re- 
form and  at  the  same  time 
maintain  his  dominion  over 
it,  was  also  evident  in  his 
relations  with  the  papacy. 
He  sought  to  put  an  end 
to  (he  disorder  at  Rome, 
caused  by  the  unfortunate 
schism,  by  tbe  energetic 
measure  of  deposing  tbe 
three  contending  popes  and 
raising  Clement  II  to  tbe 
Apostolic  Hee.  Clement 
crowned  him  emperor  and 
made  him  Patrician  of 
Rome.  Thus  Henry  seemed 
to  have  regained  the  same 
control  over  the  Church 
that  Otto  had  exercised. 
But  the  papacy,  purified  by 
the  elevated  conceptions  of 
the  party  of  reform  and  freed 

by  Henry  from  the  influence  Cabtis  o: 

of  the   degenerate   Roman 

aristocracy,  strove  to  be  absolutely  independent.  Tbe 
Oiurch  was  now  to  be  released  from  all  numan  bonds. 
Tbe  chief  aims  of  the  papal  policy  were  the  celibacy  of 
the  clergy,  the  presentation  of  ecclesiastical  offices  by 
the  Church  alone,  and  the  attainment  by  these  means 
^  as  great  a  centraliiBtion  as  poesible.  Henry  had 
acted  with  absolute  honeaty  in  raising  the  papacy,  but 
be  did  not  intend  that  it  snould  outgrow  his  control. 
Sincerely  pious,  he  was  convinced  of  the  possibility 
and  necessity  of  complete  accord  between  empire  and 
papacy.  His  fanciful  polioy  became  an  unpractical 
idealism.  Consequently  the  monarchical  power  began 
rapidly  to  decline  in  atrenclh.  Hungary  regained  free- 
dom, the  southern  part  of  Italy  was  held  by  the  Nor- 
mans, and  the  Duchy  of  Lorraine,  already  long  a 
source  of  trouble,  maintained  its  hostility  to  the  king. 
By  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  III  discontent  was 
universal  in  the  empire,  thus  permitting  a  growth  of 
the  particularistic  powers ,  especially  of  the  dukes. 
Whan  Henry  III  died  Germany  hod  reached  a  tucn- 


1106),  and  at  once  showed  her  incompetence  for  tbe 
position  by  granting  the  great  duchies  to  opponents  of 
the  crown.    She  alwJ  sought  the  support  of^the  lesser 
nobility  and  thus  excited  the  hatred  of  the  great 
princes.  A  conspiracy  of  the  more  powerful  nobles,  led 
by  Archbishop  Anno  (Hanno)  of  Cologne,  obt^ned 
possession  of  tne  royal  child  by  a  stratagem  at  Kaisers- 
wert  and  took  control  of  the  imperial  power.    Henry 
IV,  however,  preferred  the  guidance  of  Adalbert, 
Archbishop  of  Bremen,  who  was  able  for  the  moment 
to  ^ve  the  governmental  policy  a  more  national  char- 
acter.    Thus  in  1063  he  restored  German  influence 
over  Hungary,  and  the  aim  of  his  internal  polioy  was 
to  strengthen  the  central  power.     At  the  Diet  of 
IVibur,  1066,  however,  he  was  overthrown  by  tbe  par- 
ticularists,  but  the  king  by 
now   was   able    to   assume 
control  for  himself.    In  the 
meantime  the  papacy  had 
been   rapidly  advanuw 
towards  absolute  independ- 
ence.    The  Curia  now  ex- 
tended the  meaning  of  si- 
mony to  the  granti^  of  an 
eccl^iastical  office  by  a  lay- 
man and  thus  demanded  an 
entire  change  in  tbe  condi- 
tions of   tbe  empire  and 
placed  itself  in  opposition  to 
tbe   in^>erial  power.    The 
ordinances  passed  in  lOfiS 
for  tbe  reffulation  of  the 
papal  elections  excluded  all 
imperial  rights  in  the  same. 
Conditions    in  Italy  grew 
continually  more  unfavour- 
able for  the  empire.    Tbe 
chief  supporters  of  the  papal 
policy  were  the  Nonnaju. 
over  whom  the  ^pe  claimea 
feudalsuieramty.    The 
German  bishops  also  yielded 
more  and  more  to  toe  au- 
thority of  Rome;  the  Otto- 
man theory  of  government 
was    already   undermined. 
The  question  was  now 
raised:  In  the  Kingdom  of 
God  on  earth  who  is  to  rule, 
the  emperor  or  the  pope  7  In 
Rome  this  question  bad  long 
been  settl«l.    Tbe  powers 
ful    opponent    of    Henry, 
Rhbinstbin  Gregory  VII,  claimed  that 

the  princee  should  acknowt 
edge  the  supremacy  of  the  Kingdom  of  God,  and  that 
the  taws  of  God  should  be  everywhere  obeyed  and  car- 
ried out.  Tbe  struggle  which  now  broke  out  was  in 
principle  a  conflict  concerning  tbe  respective  rights  of 
the  empire  and  the  papacy.  But  tne  conflict  soon 
shifted  from  the  spiritual  to  the  secular  domain;  at 
last  it  became  a  conflict  for  the  possession  of  Italy,  and 
during  the  struggle  the  spiritual  and  the  secular  were 
often  confounded.  Henry  was  not  a  match  for  the 
genius  of  Gregory.  He  was  courageous  and  intelligent 
and,  though  of  apassionate  nature,  fought  with  dogged 
obstinacy  for  the  rights  of  his  monarohical  power. 
But  Gregory  as  the  representative  of  the  reform  move- 
ment in  the  Chureb,  demanding  complete  liberty  for 
the  Chureb,  was  too  powerful  for  him.  Aided  by  the 
inferior  nobility,  Henry  sought  to  make  himself  abso- 
lute. The  particularistic  powers,  however,  insisted 
upon  the  maintenance  of  tne  constitutional  limits  of 
the  monarchy.  The  revolt  of  the  Saxons  against  the 
royal  authonty  was  led  both  by  spiritual  and  seeular 


OEBMAMY                             490  OEBBCANY 

prinoes,  and  it  was  not  until  after  many  humiliations  the  investiture  of  his  vassal  bishops  with  the  regplia, 
that  Henry  was  able  to  conquer  them  in  the  battle  on  that  a  distinction  must  be  made  between  the  spintual 
the  Unstrut  (1075).  Directly  after  this  began  his  and  secular  power  of  the  bishops.  The  pope  now 
conflict  with  the  papacy.  The  occasion  was  the  ap-  niade  the  strange  proposal  that  the  emperor  should 
pointment  of  an  Archbishop  of  Milan  by  the  emperor  give  up  the  investiture  and  the  pope  the  regalia.  This 
without  reguxl  to  the  election  already  held  by  the  eccle-  proposal  to  strip  the  Church  of  secular  power  would 
siastical  party.  Gregory  VII  at  once  sent  a  t nreatenin^*  nave  led  to  a  revolution  in  Germany.  Not  only  would 
letter  to  Henry.  Anfi;ry  at  this,  Henry  had  the  deposi-  the  bishops  have  been  imwilling  to  give  up  their  posi- 
tion of  the  pope  declared  at  the  Synod*  of  Worms,  24  tion  as  ruling  princes,  but  many  nobles  as  well,  as  vaa- 
Januarv,  1076.  Gregory  now  felt  himself  released  sals  of  the  Church,  would  have  rebelled.  The  storm 
from  all  restraint  and  excommunicated  the  emperor,  of  dissatisfaction  which  in  1111  broke  out  in  Rome 
On  16  October,  1076,  the  German  princes  decided  that  obliged  the  pope  to  annul  the  prohibition  of  investi- 
the  pope  should  pronounce  judgment  on  the  king  and  ture.  It  was  soon  seen  to  be  impossible  to  carry  out 
that  unless  Henry  were  released  from  excommunica-  the  permission  so  granted,  and  the  conflict  regarding 
tion  within  a  year  and  a  dav  he  should  lose  his  crown,  investitiires  began  aeain.  The  ecclesiastical  part^ 
Henry  now  sought  to  break  the  alliance  between  the  was  again  joined  by  the  German  princes  antagonistic 
MUlicularists  and  the  pope  by  a  clever  stroke.  The  to  the  emperor,  and  the  imperial  forces  soon  suffered 
German  princes  he  could  not  win  back  to  his  cause,  but  defeats  on  the  Rhine  and  in  Saxony.  Consequently 
he  might  gain  over  the  pope.    By  a  {penitential  pil-  the  papal  party  gained  groimd  a^ain  in  Germany,  and 

gim&ge  he  forced  the  pope  to  grant  him  absolution,  the  majority  of  the  bishops  fell  away  from  Henry, 

enry  appealed  to  the  priest,  and  Gregory  showed  his  Notwithstanding  this  he  went,  in  1116,  to  Italy  to 

greatness.    He  released  the  king  from  the  ban,  al-  claim  the  impenal  feudal  estates  of  the  Coimtess  Ma- 

Qiou^h  by  so  doine  he  injured  his  own  interests,  which  tilda,  who  had  died,  and  to  confiscate  her  freehold 

reqmred  that  he  should  keep  his  agreement  to  act  in  property.    This  action  naturally  made  more  difficult 

umon  with  the  German  princes.  the  relations  between  pope  and  emperor,  and  in  spite 

Thus  the  day  of  Canossa  (2  and  3  February,  1077)  of  the  universal  wearmees  the  conflict  began  anew, 

waa  a  victory  for  Henry.    It  did  not,  however,  mean  The  influence  of  the  German  secular  princes  had  now 

the  comine  of  peace,^  for  the  German  confederates  of  to  be  reckoned  with,  for  at  this  time  certain  families  of 

the  pope  aid  not  recognize  the  reconciliation  at  Ca-  the  secular  nobility  commenced  to  claim  hereditary 

nossa  and  elected  Duke  Rudolf  of  Swabia  as  king  at  power  and  appeared  as  hereditary  dynasties  with  dis- 

Forchheim,  13  March,  1077.    A  civil  war  now  broke  tinct  family  names  and  residences.    It  was  in  the  a^ 

out  in  Germany.    After  long  hesitation  Gregory  fi-  of  the  Franconian  emperors  that  the  dynastic  famUies 

nall^  took  the  side  of  Rudolf  and  once  more  excom-  of  the  German  principalities  were  founded.    These 

municated  Henry.    Soon  after  this,  however,  Rudolf  princes  acted  as  an  independent  power  in  settling  the 

lost  both  throne  and  life  in  the  battle  of  Hohenmolsen  disagreement  between  emperor  and  pope.    Calustus 

not  far  from  Merseburg.    Henry  now  abandoned  his  II  was  ready  for  peace;  m  1122  an  agreement  was 

S>licy  of  absolutism,  reco^izing  its  impracticability,  reached  and  the  concordat  was  proclaimed  at  the 

e  returned  to  the  Ottoman  theory  of  government,  Synod  of  Worms.    In  this  the  pope  agreed  that  in 

and  the  German  episcopate,  which  was  embittered  by  Gennany  the  election  of  bishops  should  take  place  ao- 

the  severity  of  the  ecclesiastical  administration  of  cording  to  canonical  procedure  in  the  presence  of  the 

Rome,  now  came  over  to  the  side  of  the  king.    Rely-  king  or  his  representative,  and  that  tne  bishop-elect 

ing  upon  this  strife  within  the  Church.  Henry  caused  should  then  be  invested  by  the  king  with  the  sceptre 

Gregory  to  be  deposed  by  a  synod  held  at  Bnxen  and  as  a  symbol  of  the  regalia.    In  Germany  this  investi- 

Guibert  of  Ravenna  to  be  elected  pope  as  Clement  III.  ture  was  to  precede  the  ecclesiastical  consecration,  in 

Accompanied  by  this  pope,  he  went  to  Rome  and  was  Italy  and  Burjgundy  it  was  to  follow  it.    The  emperor 

crown^  emperor  there  m  1084.    Love  for  the  rights  therefore  retained  all  his  influence  in  the  appointment 

of  the  Churcn  drove  the  great  Gregory  into  exile  where  to  vacant  dioceses,  and  as  secular  princes  tne  bishops 

he  soon  after  died.    After  the  death  of  his  mighty  op-  were  responsible  to  him.    Notwithstanding  this  the 

ponent  Henry  was  more  powerful  than  the  particu-  Concordat  of  Worms  was  a  defeat  for  the  imperial 

larists  who  had  elected  a  new  rival  kin^,  Herman  of  claims,  for  the  papacy  that  had  been  hitherto  a  suboi^ 

Luxemburg.    In  1090  Henry  went  agam  to  Italy  to  dinate  power  had  now  become  a  power  of  at  least  equal 

defend  his  rights  against  the  two  powerful  allies  of  the  rank.    It  was  now  entirely  free  from  the  control  of  the 

Sapacy,  the  Normans  in  the  south  and  the  Countess  German  Crown  and  held  an  independent  position,  de- 
[atiloa  of  Tuscany  in  the  north.  While  he  was  in  riving  its  dignity  wholly  from  Goid.  The  emperor,  on 
Italy  his  own  son  Conrad  declared  himself  king  in  op-  the  contrary,  received  his  dignity  from  the  papacy, 
position  to  him.  Overwhelmed  by  this  blow,  Henry  The  talented,  but  intriguing  and  deceitful,  km^  had 
remained  inactive  in  Italy,  and  it  was  not  until  1097  c^eatly  strengthened  the  anti-imperial  tendency  m  all 
that  he  returned  to  Germany.  No  reconciliation  had  Western  Europe.  During  the  great  investiture  con- 
been  effected  between  him  and  Pope  Urban  II.  In  flict  the  other  kings  had  treed  themselves  completely 
Germany  Henry  sought  to  restore  internal  peace,  and  from  the  suzerainty  of  the  emperor.  The  pope  was 
tiiis  popular  policy  intensified  the  particularism  of  the  the  guarantee  of  their  independence,  and  he  had  be- 

Srinces.  In  union  with  these  the  king's  son,  young  come  the  representative  of  the  whole  of  Christendom, 
[enry,  rebelled  against  his  father.  The  pope  sup-  while  the  imperial  dignity  had  lost  the  attribute  of 
ported  the  revolt,  and  the  emperor  was  unable  to  cope  universality.  The  way  was  now  open  to  the  pope  to 
with  so  many  opponents,  in  1105  he  abdicated,  become  the  umpire  over  kings  and  nations.  There 
After  this  he  once  more  asserted  his  rights,  but  death  was  now  a  truce  in  the  conflict  between  pope  and  em- 
soon  closed  (1106)  this  troubled  life  filled  with  so  peror.  Only  a  minor  question  had  been  settled,  but 
many  thrilling  and  tragic  events.  To  Henry  should  the  conflict  had  awakened  the  intellects  of  men,  and 
be  ascribed  the  credit  of  saving  the  monarchy  from  on  both  sides  a  voluminous  controversial  literature 
the  threatened  collapse.  He  has  been  called  the  most  appeared.  The  assertion  was  now  made  that  the 
brilliant  representative  of  the  German  laity  in  the  Cnristian  conception  of  the  papacy  was  not  realized  by 
early  Middle  Ages.  During  his  reign  began  the  de-  existing  conditions.  There  were  also  other  manifesta- 
velopment,  so  fruitful  in  results,  of  the  German  cities,  tions  of  independent  thought.  The  Crusades  opened 
Henry  V  (1106-25)  also  adopted  the  policy  of  the  a  new  world  of  ideas;  historical  writing  made  rapid 
Ottos.^  In  the  numerous  discussions  of  the  right  of  progress,  and  art  ventured  upon  new  forms  in  archi- 
investiture  men  of  sober  judgment  insisted,  as  cud  the  tecture.  Commerce  and  travel  increased  through  the 
emperor,  that  the  latter  could  not  give  up  the  rig^t  of  active  intercourse  with  Italy,  a  state  of  affairs  bene- 


OEB1SAN7  191  OERBfANY    ' 

ficial  to  the  growth  of  the  cities.    Germany  grew  in  formidable  rising  of  the  Welfs.   In  1152  he  died.   Dup* 

civilization  although  it  did  not  reach  the  same  level  of  ing  his  leizn  the  intellectual  results  of  the  Crusades 
culture  which  Ital^  and  France  had  then  attained.  began  to  snow  themselves.  Men's  imaginations  had 
Henry  V  died  childless,  and  his  nephew,  Duke  Fred-  been  stimulated  and  led  them  away  from  traditional 
erick  of  Swabia,  the  representative  of  the  most  {)ower-  medieval  sentiment.  The  world  was  seised  by  a 
ful  ruling  family  in  the  empire,  hoped  to  be  nis  su&-  romantic  impulse  and  the  conception  of  the  Crusades, 
cessor.  The  clergy,  led  by  Archbishop  Adalbert  of  developed  first  among  the  Romanic  nations,  gave  a 
Mainz,  however,  feared  that  Frederick  would  continue    Romanic  colouring  to  the  civilization  and  morals  of 

the  ecclesiastical  policy  of  the  Franconian  emperors,  the  age.    For  a  long  time  German  knighthood,  in  par- 

and  they  succeeded  in  defeating  him  as  a  candidate,  ticular,  was  characterized  by  Romanic  ideas  and  man- 
At  Mainz  the  majority  of  the  princes  voted  for  Lothair    neis. 
of  Supplinburg  (1125-37);  thus  the  electors  disre-        When  the  new  king,  Frederick  I  Barbarossa  (1152- 

fardea  any  hereditary  right  to  the  throne.    The  Ho-  90),  ascended  the  throne  his  German  kingdom  seemed 
enstaufen  brothers,  Frederick  and  Conrad,  did  not  on  the  ver^  of  disinteg^tion,  and  he  sought  to 
S'eld  the  crown  to  Lothair  without  a  struggle.    The  strengthen  his  power  by  a  journey  through  all  parts  of 
ohenstaufen  family  was  in  possession  of  the  crown-  his  realms.    Contrary  to  the  policy  pursued  bv  his 
lands  belonging  to  the  inheritance  of  the  Franconian  predecessor,  he  exerted  himself  to  settle  the  strife  be- 
emperors^  and  a  long  struggle  ensued  over  these  terri-  tween  the  Welf  (Guelph)  and  Hohenstaufen  parties, 
tones.    Lothair's  suzerainty  was  for  a  while  in  a  very  He  wanted  to  strengthen  the  Welf  power  to  such  ex- 
critical  position;  ther  Hohenstaufen  power  increased  tent  as  to  make  it  evident  that  this  party's  interests 
to  such  an  extent  that  in  1127  its  abettors  ventured  to  coincided  with  those  of  the  Crown.    Besides  Saxony, 
proclaim  Conrad  king.    In  the  end,  however,  Lothair  Henry  the  Lion  received  also  the  Duchy  of  Bavana 
concjuered.    A  courageous  man,  but  one  somewhat  which  had  been  taken  from  his  father  Henry  the 
inclined  to  hasty  action,  he  was  able  to  maintain  the  Proud.   As  secular  protector  of  the  Church,  Frederick 
claims  of  the  empire  against  Bohemia,  Poland,  and  came  to  an  agreement  with  the  pope  in  regard  to  the 
Denmark.    As  a  statesman,  however,  Conrad  was  less  latter's  adversaries,  the  citizens  of  Rome  and  King 
aggressive.    He  allowed  the  schism  of  1130,  when  In-  Roger  of  Sicily.   The  imperial  policy  of  Frederick  was 
nocent  II  and  Anacletus  II  contended  for  the  Holy  one  of  vast  schemes  which  he  could  onl^r  carry  out 
See,  to  pass  by  without  turning  the  temporal  weak-  when  he  had  a  firm  footing  in  Italy.    But  in  Italy  the 
ness  of  tne  papacy  to  the  benefit  of  the  empire.    After  city  republics  had  arisen,  and  these  had  entirely  cast 
a  delay  Lothair  finally  recognized  Innocent  as  pope  off  his  suzerainty.    Not  realizing  the  power  of  resist- 
and    brought   him   to    Rome.    Here   Lothair   was  ance  of  the  free  communities,  Frederick  wanted  to 
crowned  emperor  in  1133;  but  the  Curia  did  not  agree  force  the  cities  to  recognize  the  supremacy  of  the  em- 
to  his  demand  for  the  restoration  of  the  old  ri^t  of  pire.    In  case  the  pope  should  interfere  in  the  dispute, 
investiture.    However,  he  received  the  domams  of  Frederick  was  resolved  not  to  permit  his  intervention 
the  Countess  Matilda  as  a  fief  from  the  pope  and  thus  in  secular  affairs.    Frederick  was  filled  with  an  ideal 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  strong  position  of  the  house  conception  of  his  position  as  emperor.    He  believed 
of  Welf  (Guelph)  in  Central  Europe.    In  the  mean-  that  tne  Germans  were  destined  m  the  history  of  the 
time  the  two  Hohenstaufen  brothers  were  defeated,  world  to  exercise  universal  rule.   It  was  this  idea,  how- 
and  Lothair  was  now  able  (1136),  without  fear  of  an  ever,  that  exasperated  the  Italians  and  aroused  their 
uprising  in  Germany,  to  go  to  Rome  for  a  second  time,  hatred.    Frederick  could  only  carry  out  this  universal 
Tiie  object  of  this  further  campaign  in  Italy  was  to  policy  if  Italy  were  his,  and  the  question  of  its  posses- 
defeat  King  Roger  of  Sicily,  the  protector  of  the  anti-  sion  led  to  renewed  struggles  between  Church  and 
pope,  but  uie  success  of  tne  imperial  army  was  only  State.    When  Frederick  went  to  Rome  to  be  crowned 
temporarv.    Differences  of  opinion  as  to  imperial  and  emperor  in  1155,  most  of  the  Italian  cities  paid  their 
papal  rignts  in  lower  Italy  and  Sicily  endajigered  at  homage  to  him.    On  his  return  home  Bavana  was  re- 
times the  good  understanding  between  the  two  great  storea  in  fief  to  Henry  the  Lion,  the  East  Mark  (later 
powers.    The  emperor  grew  ill  and  died  on  the  way  Austria)  being  first  detached  from  the  duchy.    This 
nome,  and  after  his  death  the  vigorous  Roger  imited  led  in  the  course  of  time  to  a  development  of  the  mark 
all  lower  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  Benevento,  into  that  proved  of  great  importance  for  the  future  history 
a  kingdom  that  held  an  unrivalled  position  in  Europe  of  the  empire.    Fredenck's  policy  was,  in  the  main, 
for  its  brilliant  and  straJQgely  mixed  culture.    In  tne  not  to  interfere  with  the  rights  of- the  German  princes 
stnie^e  between  the  papacy  and  the  empire  this  Sicil-  as  long  as  they  obeyed  the  laws  of  the  empire.    Tlie 
ian  Jmigdom  was  before  long  to  take  an  important  spiritual  princes  he  attached  closely  to  himself.    The 
part.  most  powerful  bishops  of  this  period,  Rainald  of  Col- 
The  political  policy  of  the  Church  was  directed  by  ogne.  Christian  of  Mainz,  and  Wichmann  of  Ma^e- 
its  distrust  of  the  aims  of  the  Saxon  dynasty  in  lower  burg,  supported  the  imperial  party.    The  majority  of 
Italy;  consequently  by  a  bold  stroke  it  brought  about  the  bishops  looked  upon  Fredencic  as  a  protection 
the  election  of  Conrad  III  (1138-52),  the  Hohen-  against  the  encroachments  of  Rome  and  of  the  secular 
staufen  Duke  of  Franconia,  passing  over  Duke  Henry  rulers.    The  emperor  soupht,  by  strengthening  his 
the  Proud,  ruler  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  and  a  de-  dynastic  power,  to  make  himself  mdependent  of  Doth 
soendant  of  Duke  Welf  (Guelph).    The  new  king  de-  the  ecclesiastical  and  temporal  princes;  to  carry  out 
mandedfromHenry  the  surrender  of  the  Saxon  duchy,  this  policy  he  depended  on  his  inferior  civil  omcials 
Although  after  a  long  struggle  the  double  Duchy  of  {Ministenalen),  who  were  still  sezfs,  and  from  whom 
Bavaria-Saxony  was  dissolved,  yet  the  Saxon  duchy  was  hereafter  to  come  the  important  militaiy  nobility, 
that  was  given  by  the  treaty  of  1142  to  young  Henry  Thus  Frederick  prepared  the  way  for  the  nourishing 
the  lion,  son  of  Henry  the  I^roud,  continued  a  menace  period  of  chivalry,  which  was  to  ^ve  its  signature  to 
to  the  Hohenstaufen  rule.    Conrad  was  not  able  to  put  the  time  now  at  hand.    A  romantic,  kni^tly  culture 
an  end  to  the  disorders  in  his  realm,  and  the  respect  arose;  poetry  flourished ;  yet  the  love  \ynca  of  the  age 
felt  for  the  empire  on  the  eastern  frontier  declined;  often  expounded  unhealthy  views  of  morals  and  mar- 
neither  was  he  able  to  assert  his  power  in  Italy.    Yet  riage.    Nevertheless,  the  movement  did  not  penetrate 
all  these  troubles  did  not  prevent  his  yielding  to  the  very  deep,  and  the  common  people  remained  uncor- 
fiery  eloquence  of  St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  and  joining  rupted.    Moreover,  poetry  was  not  wasted  on  artificial 
the  Second  Crusade.    This  crusade,  the  success  of  love  songs;  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach  had  the  courage 
which  had  been  promised  by  St.  Bernard  and  the  pope,  to  attempt  great  problems;  Walther  von  der  Vogel- 
failed  completely.     When  Conrad  returned  home,  weide  was  the  herald  of  German  imperialism.    Art 
broken  in  spirit,  he  was  confronted  by  the  danger  of  a  undertook  to  solve  ^reat  questions,  and  b^an  to  draw 


GEBMAKY 


492 


OEBHANT 


ito  themes  from  life.  Scientific  learning,  however,  had 
not  made  equal  progrejBs;  the  time  of  apprenticeship 
was  not  yet  passed,  while  in  France  and  Italy  Scholas- 
ticism had  aheady  shown  itself  creative.  In  1158 
Frederick  nuuie  a  second  campaign  in  Italy  that  closed 
with  the  sack  of  Milan,  the  subjugation  of  Italy,  and 
the  flight  of  Pope  Alexander  III  to  France.  When, 
however,  the  rest  of  Europe  sided  with  the  lawful 
pope,  the  defeat  of  the  emperor  was  assured,  for  the 
papacy,  when  supported  by  all  other  countries,  could 
not  be  coerced  by  Frederick.  The  emperor's  third 
campaign  in  Italy  (1162-64)  ended  in  the  failure  of  his 
lower  Italian  policy,  and  the  outbreak  of  the  plague 
destroyed  the  more  bromising  prospects  of  the  fourth 
expedition.  In  the  m th  campaign  (1 174)  occurred  the 
memorable  defeat  near  Legnano  which  opened  the 
eyes  of  the  emperor  to  the  necessity  of  a  treaty  of 
neaoe.  In  1177  he  made  peace  with  the  pope  at 
Venice,  and  recognised  Alexander  III,  whom  he  had 
so  obstinately  opposed.  The  papac3^  had  victoriously 
defended  its  equality  with  the  empire.  In  Germany 
Frederick  was  obliged  to  take  steps  against  the  violent 
proceedings  of  Henry  the  Lion.  The  insubordinate 
Guelph  was  deposed  and  his  fiefs  divided,  Bavaria  be- 
ing given  to  Otto  of  Wittelsbach.  By  the  repeated 
allotment  of  these  lands  Frederick  in  reality  helped  to 
break  up  the  empire,  and  when  in  1184  he  betrothed 
his  son  Henry  to  Clonstance,  the  heiress  of  the  Norman 
kingdom,  he  prepared  the  wa.y  for  new  complications. 
Frederick  took  part  in  the  Third  Crusade  in  order  that 
the  highest  power  of  Christendom  mi^ht  actively  fight 
against  the  mfidel.  He  was  drowned  m  Asia  Minor,  10 
June,  1190;  and  was,  at  his  death,  a  popular  hero. 
He  had  greatly  strengthened  the  feeling  of  the  Ger- 
mans that  they  were  one  great  people,  though  a  really 
national  empire  was  at  the  time  quite  out  of  the  ques- 
tion; the  acnievement  of  unity  was  prevented  by  the 
international  character  of  intellectual,  and  partly  of 
social  life 

Frederick's  son,  Henry  VI  (1190-07),  meant  to 
establish  a  world  power  along  the  Mediterranean.  His 
schemes  were  opposed  by  a  Saxon-Guelphic  combina- 
tion headed  by  Kichard  the  Lion-Hearted  of  England, 
and  also  by  the  German  princes,  who  strove  to  hinder  ^ 
the  increase  of  the  rovat  power  aimed  at  by  Henry. 
The  capture  of  Richard  in  1192  dissolved  the  league  of 

frinces  and  led  to  peace  with  the  House  of  Guelph.  In 
194  Henry  succeeded  in  conquering  Sicily,  and  it  now 
seemed  as  though  his  imperialistic  schemes  would  gain 
the  day;  nevertheless  they  failed  owing  to  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  German  princes  and  the  pope.  When 
Henry  died  in  1197  ^he  countries  of  Western  Europe 
had  already  taken  a  stand  against  the  all-embracing 
schemes  of  the  German  emperor.  Germany  was  threat- 
ened by  the  horrors  of  a  civil  war.  All  the  anti- 
national  forces  were  active. 

Instead  of  the  crown  going  to  Frederick,  son  of 
Henry,  who  was  at  Naples,  Archbishop  Adolph  of  Co- 
lore sought,  by  means  of  the  electoral  rights  of  the 
Snnces,  to  obtain  it  for  the  son  of  Henry  the  Lion, 
Itto  IV  (1198-1215).  But  the  Hohenstaufen  party 
anticipated  this  scheme  by  securing  the  election  of  the 
popular  Duke  PhiUp  of  Swabia  (1198-1208).  For  the 
first  time  the  question  now  arose,  which  of  the  princes 
have  the  right  to  vote?  The  number  of  electors  had 
not,  so  far,  been  defined,  yet  as  early  as  the  election  of 
Lothair  and  Conrad  only  the  princes  had  voted,  and 
the  right  of  the  Archbishops  of  Mainz  to  preside  at  the 
election  was  clearly  admitted.  Not  much  later  the 
opinion  prevailed  that  only  six  ruling  princes  were 
entitled  to  act  as  electors :  the  three  Knenish  Arch- 
bishops, the  Rhenish  Palsgrave,  the  Duke  of  Saxony, 
and  tne  Margrave  of  Brandenburg;  to  these  was  ad- 
ded in  the  course  of  time  the  King  of  Bohemia.  The 
"Saohsenspiegel"  (compilation  of  Saxon  law,  c.  1230) 
eauBod  this  view  to  prevail.  At  the  time  of  the  double 
eleotkiQ  of  Otto  ana  Philip  the  policy  pursued  by  the 


German  princes  was  a  purely  selfish  one.  Tbe  ener- 
gjetic  Innocent  III,  who  was  then  pope,  claim^  the 
right  of  deciding  the  dispute  and  adjudged  the  crown 
to  Otto.  Thus  the  latter  for  a  time  gained  the  advan- 
tage over  Philip.  In  this  conflict  the  German  princes 
changed  sides  whenever  it  seemed  to  their  interest. 
Archbishop  Adolph  of  Cologne,  who  had  carried  the 
election  of  Otto,  finally  fell  away  from  him.  Philip 
gained  in  authority,  and  after  the  successful  battle 
near  Wassenberg  m  1206  he  would  have  overcome 
Otto  and  his  ally  the  papacy,  had  he  not  been  mu> 
dered  at  Bamberg  in  1208  by  Otto  of  Wittelsbach. 

Otto  IV  was  now  universally^  acknowledged  king.  He 
had  promised  the  pope  to  give  up  his  claim  to  the 
domains  of  the  Countess  Matilda  of  Tuscany  and  to 
erant  the  free  election  of  bishops.  But  when  at  Rome 
he  refused  to  carry  out  these  promises.  However,  the 
pope,  thou^  displeased,  crowned  him  emperor  in 
1209.  But  when  Otto  after  tiiis  wished  to  revive  the 
imperial  claims  to  Naples,  the  pope  excommunicated 
him  (1210). 

In  the  meantime  the  supreme  position  of  the  empire 
had  become  so  important  a  matter  that  foreign  princes 
meddled  in  German  politics.  The  great  conmct  be- 
tween Philip  II  Augustus  of  France  and  John  of  Eng- 
land was  reflected  in  the  contest  between  the  Guelphis 
and  the  Hohenstaufens  in  Germany.  Protected 
by  the  French  and  the  pope,  Frederick  II  (1212-^^) 
came  to  Germany  and  was  crowned  at  Mainz.  The 
coalition  of  tibe  English  and  the  Guelphs  was  broken 
ter  the  French  at  the  battle  of  Bouvmes  (1214).  yet 
Otto  kept  up  ^e  struggle  for  his  rights  until  his  aeath 
in  1^18.  Tne  lone  conflict  had  greatly  impaired  the 
strength  of  the  Hohenstaufen  line;  both  the  imperial 
and  the  Hohenstaufen  domains  had  been  squandered, 
and  the  German  princes  had  become  conscious  of  their 
power.  Like  his  father,  Frederick  II  made  Italy  the 
centre  of  his  policy;  but  at  the  same  time  he  intended 
to  keep  the  control  of  Germany  in  his  own  hands,  as 
the  imperial  power  was  connected  with  this  country 
and  he  must  draw  the  soldiers  needed  for  his  Italian 
projects  from  Germany.  In  order  to  maintain  peace 
m  Germany  and  to  secure  the  aid  of  the  German 
princes  for  his  Italian  policy  Frederick  made  great 
concessions  to  the  ecclesiastical  princes  in  the  "uon- 
fcederatio  cum  principibus  eccle8iaal;iciB''  (1220)  and 
to  the  secular  princes  in  the  "Statutum  in  favorem 
principum ' '  (1232) .  These  two  laws  became  the  basis  of 
an  aristocratic  constitution  f^r  the  German  Empire. 
They  both  contained  a  large  number  of  separate  ordi- 
nances, which  taken  together  might  serve  as  a  secure 
basis  for  the  future  soverei^ty  of  the  local  princes. 
In  these  statutes  the  expression  landesherr  Qora  of  the 
land)  occurs  for  the  first  time.  In  this  era  Gennany 
was  cut  up  into  a  laree  number  of  territorial  sover- 
eignties, consisting  of  tne  ecclesiastical  territories,  the 
duchies,  which,  however,  were  no  longer  tribal  ducnies. 
the  margravates,  among  which  the  North  Mark  rulecl 
by  Albert  the  Bear  was  one  of  the  most  important,  the 
palatinates,  the  coimtships,  and  the  independent  do- 
mains of  those  who  had  risen  from  landed  proprietors 
to  landed  sovereigns.  In  addition  to  these  were  the 
districts  ruled  directly  by  the  king  through  imperial 
wardens.  What  Frea,erick  soueht  to  get  by  favouring 
the  princes  he  obtained.  He  had  no  real  interest  in 
Germany,  which  was  at  first  ruled  by  the  energetic 
Encelbert,  Archbishop  of  Cologne;  after  1220  he  via- 
ited  it  only  once.  It  was  to  him  an  appendage  of 
Sicily.  Frederick's  Italian  policy  threatened  the 
papacy ,  and  he  strove  by  concessions  to  avert*^  con- 
flict with  the  pope,  llie  highly  talented,  almost 
learned,  emperor  was  far  in  advance  of  his  age;  an 
autocratic  ruler,  he  created  in  lower  Italy  the  first 
modem  state;  but  by  his  care  for  Italy  he  over- 
strained the  resources  of  the  empire.  This  brou^t 
advantages  to  the  neighbouring  Kingdoms  of  France 
and  England,  now  long  independent  powers,  as  well  aa 


§3 


GSBBCANT                            493  OEBBCANT 

to  Hungary,  Poland,  and  the  Scandinavian  countries,  least,  taught  their  doctrines  in  langua^ge  quite  intelli- 
The  conflict  between  the  sacerdotal  power  and  the  pble  to  the  people.  The  rise  of  the  cities  was  also  of 
empire*  had  aided  the  independent  devdopment  of  the  importance  m  the  social  life  of  the  day,  for  the  princi- 
Btates  of  Western  Europe.  The  .possession  of  Italy  pie,  "City  air  gives  freedom"  (StadUuft  macht  fret), 
Slid  the  vow  to  go  on  a  crusade  regulated  Frederick's  created  an  entirely  new  class  of  freemen, 
relations  with  the  Curia.  In  1212  he  was  crowned  Under  the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufens  the  beginnings 
emperor.  Repeatedly  uiged  to  undertake  the  prom-  of  a  nationsd  culture  began  to  appear.  Latin  had 
isea  crusade,  and  finally  excommunicated  because  he  fallen  into  disuse,  and  German  haxf  become  the  pre- 
failed  to  do  so,  the  emperor  obtained  successes  in  the  vailing  written  language.  For  the  first  time  Ger- 
East  in  1227-29,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  the  pope,  many  felt  that  she  was  a  nation.  This  soon  brought 
The  silent  acknowled^ent  of  these  successes  by  the  many  Germans  into  opposition  to  the  Church.  In  the 
Curia  was  a  victory  for  Frederick.  A  rebellion  headed  conflict  between  the  papacy  and  the  empire  the  former 
by  his  son  Henry  was  quickly  cruidied,  but  the  con-  often  seemed  the  opponent  of  nationalism,  and  bitter- 
federates  of  Henry,  the  Lombaxds,  assumed  a  threaten-  ness  was  felt,  not  against  the  idea  of  the  Church,  but 
ing  attitude.  The  emperor  was  able  to  brine  order  against  its  representative.  The  Germans  still  re- 
out  of  the  confusion  m  Germany  by  the  policy  of  mained  deeply  religious,  as  was  made  evident  by  the 
yielding  to  the  princes.    About  the  same  time  began  German  mystics. 

Fredemk's  struggle  with  the  Lombards  and  Pope  The  most  valuable  result  of  this  strengthening  of 
Gregoiy  IX  (12^-41).  The  German  princes  loyally  the  national  feeling  was  the  conquest  of  what  is  now 
upheld  the  emperor,  consequently,  upon  the  pope%  the  eastern  part  of  the  present  German  Empire, 
death,  the  victory  seemed  to  bdong  to  the  imperial  Henry  I  had  sought  to  attam  this  end,  but  it  was  not 
party.  Innocent  IV  (1243-54),  however,  renewed  until  the  thirteenth  century  that  it  was  accomplished, 
the  struggle  and  from  Lyons  excommumcated  the  largely  by  the  energy  of  the  Teutonic  Order.  The 
emperor,  whose  position  now  became  a  serious  one.  Marks  of  Brandenburg,  Pomerania,  Prussia,  and  Sile- 
In  Germany  his  son  Conrad  was  obliged  to  contend  sia  were  colonized  by  Germans  in  a  manner  that  chal- 
with  the  pretenders,  Heinrich  Raspe  of  Thuringia  and  lenges  admiration,  and  German  influence  advanced  as 
William  of  Holland.  In  Italy,  though,  conditions  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  The  centres  of  German 
seemed  favourable,  but  just  at  mis  juncture  Frederick  civilization  in  these  districts  were  the  Premonstraten- 
died  (13  December,  1250),  and  with  his  death  ended  the  sian  and  Cistereian  monasteries.  This  extraordinary 
strufi^e  for  the  world  sovereignty.  success  was  won  by  Germans  in  an  era  when  the  im- 
TEeyear  1250  marks  an  era  of  extraordinary  change  perial  government  seemed  ready  to  go  to  pieces.  It 
in  Germany.  The  romance  of  chivalry  passed  away,  was  the  period  of  the  Great  Interregnum  (1256-73). 
and  ,new  forces  directed  ^e  life  of  the  nation.  On  We  find  traces  of  internal  chaos  as  early  as  the  rei^ 
account  of  the  extraordinary  economic  changes  the  of  Frederick's  son,  Conrad  IV  (1250-54),  and  the  con- 
population  rapidly  increased;  the  majority  of  tne  peo-  fusion  grew  worse  in  the  reign  of  William  of  Holland, 
pie  were  peasants,  and  this  class  was  rising,  but  com-  and  after  him  during  the  nomimJ  reigns  of  Richard  of 
pared  wim  nobles  and  ecclesiastics  the  peasants  had  Cornwall  and  Alfonso  of  Castile.  At  tne  same  time 
no  weight  politically.  The  important  factor  of  the  Bohemia  rapidly  advanced  in  yowei  under  Ottocar  II 
new  era  was  the  municipality,  and  its  development  and  became  a  dangerous  element  for  the  domestic  and 
was  the  bc^nnmg  of  a  purely  German  policy.  The  foreign  policy  of  Germany.  It  was  Pope  Gregory  X 
glamour  of  the  imperial  idea  had  vanished,  men  now  who  restored  order  in  Germany.  To  carry  out  his 
took  their  stand  on  facts  and  realities.  Education  projects  in  the  Holy  Land  peace  must  be  secured  in 
found  its  way  among  laymen,  and  it  developed  with  Western  Europe.  He  therefore  commissioned  the 
trade.  New  markets  were  opened  for  commerce,  electoral  princes,  who  now  appear  for  the  first  time,  to 
The  new  commercial  settlements  received  "  city  char-  elect  a  new  king.  In  1273  tne  princes  chose  Rudolf  c^ 
ters''  under  the  royal  cross.  The  merehants  in  these  Hapsburg  (1273-91),  a  man  of  no  great  family  re- 
settlements needed  craftsmen,  and  these  latter  from  sources.  Meantime  the  imperial  power  had  fallen 
the  twelfth  century  formed  themselves  into  guilds,  into  decay;  the  imperial  estates  had  been  squand(sred; 
thus  making  a  new  political  unit.  Councils  elected  by  there  were  no  imperial  taxes;  and  the  old  method  of 
the  cities  strove  to  set  aside  the  former  lords  of  the  obtaining  soldiers  for  the  service  of  the  empire  had 
cities,  especially  the  bishops  on  the  Rhine.  In  vain  broken  down.  Rudolf  saw  how  necessary  the  posses- 
the  Hohenstauf en  rulers  supported  the  bishops  against  sion  of  crown-lands  was  for  the  imperial  autnority, 
the  independence  of  the  towns,  but  the  self-govern-  his  aim  being  to  create  a  dynastic  force.  Ottocar  u, 
ment  in  the  cities  could  no  longer  be  put  down.  In  King  ofBohemia,sou|^t  to  mduce  the  Curia  to  object  to 
order  to  protect  their  rights  some  of  the  cities  formed  the  Section  of  Rudolr  but  the  Curia  had  quickly  come 
alliances,  such  as  the  confederation  of  the  Rhenish  to  terms  with  Rudou  concerning  conditions  in  Italy, 
towns,  that  was  formed  as  early  as  the  period  of  the  After  his  election  he  demanded  from  Chbtocar  the  re- 
Great  Interregnum,  in  order  to  guard  the  public  turn  of  the  imperial  fiefs,  and  the  refusal  of  the  latter 
peace.  These  confederations  promised  to  become  led  to  a  war  (1276)  in  which,  on  the  plain  called  the 
dangerous  (n>ponent8  of  the  territorial  lords,  but  such  Marohfeld,  Ottocar  lost  both  life  and  crown.  This 
alliances  did  not  become  general  and,  divided  among  victory  gave  Rudolf  secure  possession  of  the  Austrian 
themselves,  without  mutual  support,  the  smaller  con-  provinces.  As  the  German  king  was  not  permitted  to 
federations  of  towns  succumbed  to  the  united  princely  retain  vacant  fiefs,  he  evaded  this  law  oy  raunting 
power.  The  growth  of  the  towns  brought  about  Ae  Austria,  Styria,  Camiola,  and  Lusatia  in  fi«  to  his 
ruin  of  the  system  of  trade  by  barter  or  in  kind;  the  sons  Albert  and  Rudolf;  in  this  way  the  power  of 
rise  of  the  capitalistic  system  of  commerce  at  once  the  family  was  greatly  increased.  Not  even  Rudolf 
affected  German  views  of  life.  Up  to  this  time  almost  thought  of  strengthenmg  the  kingly  power  by  consti- 
wholly  absorbed  in  the  supernatural,  henceforth  the  tutional  means.  He  decided  to  protect  the  public 
Germans  took  more  interest  in  worldly  things.  Un-  peace  but  did  not  entirely  succeed  m  this.  His  policy 
conditional  renunciation  of  the  world  came  to  an  end,  was  always  influenced  oy  the  cireumstances  of  the 
and  men  grew  more  matter-of-fact  and  practical,  moment;  at  one  time  he  favoured  the  princes,  at  an- 
This  change  in  the  German  way  of  thinking  was  aided  other  the  cities;  consequently  he  was  never  more  than 
by  the  opposition  that  sprang  up  in  the  towns  between  haJf  successful.  His  only  great  achievement  was  that 
the  citizens  and  the  former  lords  of  the  territory,  often  he  secured  for  his  family  a  position  in  Eastern  Europe 
the  bishop  and  their  clergy.  Here  and  there  the  in-  that  was  destined  to  give  it  importance  in  the  future, 
fluence  of  the  city  on  the  views  of  the  clergy  mani-  Rudolf's  successor  was  Adolf  of  Nassau  (129^98), 
iested  itself.    The  Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  at  not  his  son  Albert,  as  he  had  desired.    The  policy  of 


GEBBffAKY                             494  GIBMANY 

V 

the  new  sovereign  was  to  weaken  Austria,  his  natural  While  this  conflict  was  going  on  the  old  strife  be- 
opponent.  Like  Rudolf  he  recognized  the  necessity  tween  Church  and  State  again  broke  out.  At  the  time 
or  obtaining  possessions  for  his  family,  for  which  he  *  of  the  double  election  John  XXII/slaimed  the  rights 
tried  to  lay  a  foundation  in  Thuringia.  Adolf's  sue-  of  an  administrator  of  the  country.  He  asserted  that 
cess  i^inst  Frederick  the  Degenerate  of  Thurin^  no  kine  chosen  by  the  electors  could  exercise  author- 
caused  the  electoral  i)rinces  to  mcline  to  Albert.  In  ity  before  the  pope  had  given  his  approval.  This 
a  battle  near  Gdllheim,  fought  between  Albert  and  over-straining  of  tne  paps!  claims  roused  a  dissatis-  , 
Adolf,  Albert,  aided  by  Adolf's  numerous  enemies,  faction  which  continually  grew  and  to  which  were  al- 
defeated  the  king,  who  was  killed.                                 '  ready  added  complaints  of  the  worldliness  of  the 

Albert  I  of  Austria,  a  very  able  but  morose  man  Church.  The  Minorites  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
(1298-1308),  was  filled  with  a  boimdless  ambition  for  king  eloquent  preachers  to  denounce  the  worldliness 
power.  Without  regard  for  the  rights  of  others,  he  en-  of  the  papacy,  which  had  rejected  as  heretical  the 
forced  the  recognition  of  his  own  rights  in  his  duchy.  Franciscan  te^hing  concerning  the  poverty  of  Christ 
He  desired  to  preserve  the  public  peace  in  Germany  and  the  Apostles.  In  1324  Loim  was  excommuni- 
and  opposed  the  cruel  persecution  of  the  Jews  custom-  cated  because  he  had  not  obeyed  the  papal  command 
ary  at  this  time.  He  also  wished  to  reorganize  the  to  lay  down  his  authority.  To  this  Louis  made  a 
imperial  lands,  which  were  to  be  regained  in  such,  a  shajp  reply  in  the  proclamation  of  Sachsenhausen,  in 
way  as  to  provide  a  connecting  link  between  the  terri-  whi(m  he  denied  the  claims  of  the  pope  and  at  the 
tones  of  the  Hapsburgs  in  the  east  and  those  in  the  same  time  defended  the  teaching  concerning  poverty 
west.  If  his  lands  were  thus  united  he  would  be  a  upheld  by  the  Franciscans.  In  the  conflict  with  the 
match  for  the  strongest  of  the  territorial  princes;  but  pope,  who  supported  the  candidature  of  Charles  IV  of 
the  latter  opposed  this  scheme.  Albert  also  roused  France  for  the  imperial  tlux)ne,  the  German  cities  and 
the  anger  of  the  ecclesiastical  electors  by  combining  the  German  episcopate,  the  latter  led  by  Baldwin  of 
with  lung  Philip  IV  of  France  against  Boniface  VIII,  Trier,  were  vulually  a  unit  on  the  side  of  Louis, 
who  had  not  recognized  Albert.  Boniface  now  de-  Even  the  death  of  Frederick  the  Fair  did  not  produce 
clared  his  intention  of  sununoning  Albert  before  his  a  reconciliation  with  the  Curia.  It  was  at  this  junc- 
tribunal  for  the  murder  of  Adolf.  Supported  by  the  ture  that  the  writings  of  the  Franciscans,  Michael  of 
cities,  Albert  contended  successfully  with  the  Rhen-  Cesena  and  William  of  Occam  began  to  exert  their 
ish  electors,  but  after  a  while,  in  order  to  carry  out  his  influence.  The  spirit  of  revolution  in  the  Church  is 
plans  for  the  aggrandizement  of  his  family,  he  came  to  shown  by  the  "  Defensor  Pacis  "  of  Marsilius  of  Padua, 
terms  with  the  pope,  and  this  put  an  end  to  the  oppo-  a  professor  of  Paris  who  went  to  the  Court  of  Louis  the 
sition  of  these  electors.  The  only  opponent  ol  nis  Bavarian.  In  this  the  medieval  papal  ecclesiastical 
dynastic  schemes  now  to  be  dreaded  was  Wenceslaus  system  is  attacked.  The  intellectual  ferment  enabled 
II  of  Bohemia;  but  the  Przemysl  line  soon  died  out,  Louis  to  undertake  an  expedition  to  Rome.  He  had 
and  Albert  at  once  claimed  then:  lands  and  gave  them  been  invited  to  enter  Italy  by  the  magnates  of  north- 
to  his  son  Rudolf  as  a  fief.  Before  he  could  carry  em  Italy,  especially  by  the  Yisconti  m  Milan  and  the 
out  his  designs  on  Thuringia  he  was  murdered  by  John  Scala  of  Verona.  The  city  of  Rome  received  him  with 
of  Swabia,  called  Johannes  Parricida.  According  to  joy,  and  he  was  the  first  German  king  to  receive  the 
legend  the  tyranny  of  his  rule  in  Switzerland  led  to  a  imperial  crown  from  the  Roman  commonwealth, 
great  struggle  for  freedom  on  the  part  of  the  confeder-  which  had  always  regarded  itself  as  the  source  of  all 
ated  Swiss.  The  aim  pursued  by  Albert  was  always  sovereignty.  But  the  fickle  populace  soon  drove  him 
the  same:  by  making  Austria  powerful  to  force  the  away;  the  means  at  his  command  were  too  small  to 
other  sovereign  princes  to  acknowledge  his  suzerain^  carry  out  the  old  imperial  policy.  Again  Italy  was 
and  thus  to  make  the  crown  hereditary  in  his  family.  It  lost.  Notwithstanding  the  lack  of  success  in  Italy, 
is,  therefore,  not  a  matter  of  surprise  that  after  his  death  Germany  in  the  main  held  to  Louis,  who  had  been  ex- 
the  electors  decided  to  select  a  less  mighty  prince.  communicated  again.    It  was  now  evident  that  papal 

Archbishop  Baldwin  of  Trier  managed  the  matter  so  interdicts  had  laSmly  lost  their  terrors;  the  civil  com- 
skUfplly  that  his  brother  Henry  of  Luxemburg  (Lot-  munities  frequently  paid  no  attention  to  them,  and  in 
zelbur^  was  chosen  ( 1 308- 13) .  A  man  of  genue,  ami-  some  places  ecclesiastics  were  forced,  notwithstanding 
able  character,  Henry  was  full  of  visionary  enthusi-  the  prohibition,  to  say  Mass.  The  growth  of  a  worldly 
asm,  but  withal  he  was  a  man  of  energy;  consecjuently  spint  in  the  Church  began  to  tmdermine  respect  for  it, 
he  was  soon  very  popular.  By  birth  he  was  in  sym-  and  Germany  was  the  first  countiy  to  turn  against  the 
pathy  with  the  French.  German  interests  concerned  ideals  of  the  Middle  A^s.  Sects  opposed  to  saoerdo- 
tiim  less.  Italy  had  a  great  fascination  for  him;  he  talism  appeared;  mysticism  tended  to  make  the  soul 
was  ambitious  to  receive  the  imperial  crown,  to  be  the  indepenaent  in  its  progress  towards  God,  without, 
first  after  a  long  interregnum.  Clement  V  had  recog-  however,  rejecting  the  sacraments,  as  was  done  by 
nizedhim.  The  Ghibelline  party  in  Italy  greeted  him  some  in  this  era.  Yet,  unintentionally,  mysticism 
with  joy.  At  first  he  sought  to  hold  a  neutral  position  strengthened  the  tendency  to  deny  the  absolute  neces- 
in  the  quarrels  of  the  Italian  parties,  but  this  proved  sity  of  the  intercessory  office  of  the  Church.  More- 
to  be  impossible.  The  Guelpns,  led  by  King  Robert  over,  mysticism  gave  a  national  cast  to  German  re- 
of  Naples,  began  to  oppose  him.  When  Henry  there-  Hgious  life,  for  the  intellectual  leaders  of  mysticism, 
upon  wi£thed  to  attack  Naples,  the  old  conflict  with  the  {Skkehard,  Suso,  and  Tauler,  wrote  and  preached  in 
Cnurch  again  broke  out,  but  death  suddenly  ended  his  German.  The  chief  strength  of  this  religious  move- 
imperial  dreams.  Henry's  only  successful  act  was  the  ment  was  among  the  citizens  of  the  towns.  In  the 
marriage  of  his  son  John  with  the  heiress  of  Bohemi^,  conflict  between  Church  and  State  the  cities  sided  with 
Elizabeth,  the  sister  of  Wenceslaus  III;  for  Germany  the  emperor,  but  they  weYe  not  yet  strong  enough 
his  reign  proved  of  no  advantage.  The  election  of  his  without  assistance  to  maintain  the  authority  of  a  Ger- 
son  John  to  succeed  him  was  impossible,  and  the  Lux-  man  emperor.  Consequently  the  position  taken  by 
emburg  party  chose  Louis  the  Bavarian  (1314-47)  in  the  German  princes  wm  decisive  for  Louis.  As  he 
opposition  to  Frederick  the  Fair  (1314-30).  There  meant  to  carry  on  a  dynastic  policy,  as  his  predeces- 
was  a  double  election,  each  of  the  candidates  being  sors  had  done^  he  soon  came  into  conflict  with  these 
elected  by  one  party,  and  a  civil  war  broke  out,  con-  princes,  and,  m  order  to  be  stronger  than  his  oppo- 
fined,  however,  mainly  to  the  partisans  of  the  two  nents,  ne  sought  to  establish  friendly  relations  with 
Houses  of  Wittelsbach  and  Hapsburg.  The  struegle  the  pope.  But  althoueh  Louis  could  resolve  on  vigor- 
was  ended  by  the  capture  of  Frederick  at  the  battleof  ous  action,  yet  he  lacked  the  necessary  persistence. 
Mohldorf  (1322);  siter  this  Louis  was  universally  He  was  not  an  able  man,  nor  one  of  much  mtellectual 

power.    He  tried  to  make  a  good  impression  on  every 


OEBMAM7                            495  GEBMAMT 

one;  as  a  consequence,  he  failed  with  all  parties.    He  king.    Only  the  coronation  as  emperor  was  left  to  the 

opened  negotiations  with  the  Curia,  but  the  intrigues  pope.    The  Golden  Bull  remained  the  most  important 

of  Philip  VI  of  France  kept  the  two  psurties  from  con-  ps^  of  the  fundamental  law  of  the  Holy  Romlan  Em- 

duding  peace.    This  led  Louis  to  take  the  side  of  Ed-  pire. 

ward  nt  of  England  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  be-  Learning  floiirished  under  the  rule  of  Charles,  who 
tween  the  French  and  English  for  the  succession  to  the  was  a  scholar  among  his  contemporaries.  He  was 
French  throne.  This  stand  won  more  general  sym-  surrounded  by  highly  educated  inen,  one  of  whom  was 
pathy  for  Louis  in  Germany.  The  electors  were  also  John  of  Neumarkt,  the  head  of  his  chanoelry.  His  in- 
mfluenced  by  public  opinion  when  they  declared  at  terest  being  almost  entirely  in  Bohemia,  ne  showed 
Reuse  in  1338  that  a  legitimate  German  emperor  his  care  for  the  advancement  of  learning  cniefly  in  this 
could  be  created  only  by  their  votes;  a  king  so  chosen  country  and  founded  there,  7  April,  1348,  the  Univer- 
needed  no  papal  recogmtion,  and  the  pope,  by  crown-  sity  of  Prague.  ^  Charles  held  steadfastly  to  Catholi- 
ing  the  German  king,  only  gave  him  the  miperial  title,  cism  and  Christian  Scholasticism.  But  this  did  not 
Louis  was  also  declared  to  be  entirely  without  blame  prevent  him  from  carrying  on  policies  independent  of 
in  the  dispute  with  the  Curia.  When  Edwiund  HI  ap-  the  pope.  Li  reorganizing  the  imperial  chancelry  he 
peared  before  Louis  at  Coblens  and  the  latter  ap-  encouraged  the  use  of  German  in  the  imperial  docu- 
pointed  him  imperial  vicar  for  the  territories  beyond  ments  and  thus  assured  the  victory  of  the  national 
the  Rhine,  the  emperor  had  reached  the  zenith  of  his  tongue  over  Latin.  By  this  action  he  gave  German 
power.  Nevertheless  the  fickle  Louis,  because  he  learning  an  independent  standing, 
noped,  through  the  mediation  of  the  King  of  France,  Charles  also  furthered  the  interests  of  the  empire  in 
to  DC  reconciled  with  the  Curia  and  to  secure  the  sup-  various  other  directions.  He  did  not^  indeed,  over- 
port  of  the  latter  for  his  schemes  to  aggrandise  ms  throw  the  power  of  the  princes,  which  had  grown 
tamily,  allied  himself  with  the  French  m  1341.  In-  strong  during  the  several  nimdred  years  of  its  exist- 
stead  of  peace  a  worse  estrangement  with  the  papal  ence,  out  he  sought  by  the  maintenance  of  internal 
court  was  the  result.  peace  to  preserve  nis  supreme  poww.  To  promote  the 
With  the  consent  of  the  emperor,  Margaret  Maul-  foreign  interests  of  Germany  he  deedred  to  liberate  the 
tasch  of  Tyrol,  who  had  married  John  of  Luxemburg  papacy  from  its  connexion  with  France  anod  to  per- 
(LQtselburg),  nad  divorced  herself  without  awaiting  suade  the  pope  to  return  from  Avignon  to  Rome, 
the  papal  decision  and  married  the  emperor's  son,  Gregory  Xl  went  back  to  Rome,  but  the  Babylonian 
Louis  of  Brandenburg.  The  Luxemburg  party  at  Captivity  was  to  be  followed  by  the  Great  Schism, 
once  had  recourse  to  Clement  VI.  Louis  was  excom-  In  the  meantime  Charles  had  iareely  increased  the 
municated  in  1346,  and  Charles  IV  of  Moravia  (1347-  territorial  possession  of  his  family;  tne  Marks  of  Bran- 
78)  was,  with  the  help  of  the  pope,  chosen  German  denburg,  Lusatia,  and  Silesia  came  into  his  hands. 
Idng  by  five  of  the  electors  under  humiliating  condi-  By  marriage  he  hoped  to  obtain  for  his  son,  and  thus 
tions.  At  first  Louis  had  strong  support  from  the  for  his  dynasty,  both  Himgary  and  Poland.  Thus  for 
German  cities,  but  his  imexpectea  deatn  secured  uni-  a  time  the  House  of  Lux;jemburg  threatened  to  crush 
versal  recognition  for  Charles.  Henceforth  for  nearly  out  ^he  Hapsburgs.  In  two  directions  only  Charles's 
a  hundred  years  the  Luxemburg-Bohemian  dynasty  adroit  asreements  and  diplomatic  skill  failed  of  suc- 
held  the  throne.  The  king  set  up  by'the  Wittelsbach  cess.  Tne  Swiss  Confederation  seceded  more  and 
party,  GQnther  of  Schwarzburg,  could  make  no  head-  more  completely  from  the  empire,  and  the  cities  bv 
way  against  the  adroit  policy  of  Charles  IV.  In  1347  their  leagues  established  for  themselves  an  indepena- 
Germany  was  ravaged  by  the  Black  Death;  the  Jews  ent  position  in  the  empire.  Towuxls  the  end  of  his 
were  immediately  accused  of  poisoning  the  wells,  and  life  he  secured  the  election  of  his  son  Wenceslaus  aa 
a  frightful  persecution  followed.    In  Uie  midst  of  the  German  king. 

confusion  the  country  was  traversed  by  bands  of  Flag-  Wenceslaus  (1378-1400)  reigned  without  the  oon- 

ellants,  and  these  ''penitents"  were  often  full  of  hos-  firmation  of  the  defenceless  pope  of  that  time.    The 

tility  to  the  Church.    While  in  Italv  Petrarch  and  Germancrownwas  no  longer  oependenton  the  papacy. 

Cola  di  Riensi  revived  the  dream  of  the  universal  do-  Other  questions  far  more  important  than  tms  were 

minion  of  the  Eternal  City,  Charles  IV  r^arded  Ital-  now  brought  into  the  foreground  by  the  Great  Schism, 

ian  affairs  with  the  eyes  of  a  political  realist,    llie  There  was  a  continually  growing  clamour,  which  could 

Italians  said  that  ne  went  to  Rome  (1355)  to  secure  not  be  suppressed,  for  th«  reform  of  the  Church  in  its 

the  imperial  crown  like  a  merchant  going  to  a  fair.    In  head  and  members.    The  demand  for  reform  had  in- 

Germany  Charles  sought  to  settle  the  election  to  the  fused  new  life  into  the  whole  conception  of  the  Church, 

crown  at  the  Diets  oi  Nuremben;  and  Metz  in  1356,  and  the  leaders  of  this  movement  still  held  to  Catholic 

and  he  issued  the  Golden  Bull,  which  was  the  first  at-  dogmas.    The  most  difiicult  task  of  the  new  king,  and 

tempt  to  put  into  writing  the  more  important  stipula-  one  he  did  not  shirk,  was  to  put  an  end  to  the  schism, 

tions  of  the  imperial  constitution.    Above  all,  the  Bull  He  sided  with  Rome  and  supported  Urban  VI  while 

was  intended  to  regulate  the  election  of  tJie  king,  and  France,  at  the  head  of  the  Romanic  countries,  upheld 

defined  what  princes  should  have  the  electoral  vote.  Clement  VII.    Wenceslaus,  however,  took  no  energetic 

The  electoral  collc^  was  to  consist  of  the  three  Arch-  action  in  ecclesiastical  affairs;  the  intern^  disorder 

bishops  of  Mains,  Trier,  and  Cologne;  the  Count  Pala-  in  Germany  did  not  permit  it,  for  here  the  confedera- 

tine  of  the  Rhine,  the  Duke  of  Saxony  (Sachsen-Wit-  tions  of  princes,  knights,  and  the  cities,  struggled  with 

tenberg),  and  the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg;  to  this  one  another.    In  1381  the  confederation  of  the  Rhen- 

number  was  added  later  the  Kin^  of  Bohemia.    The  ish  cities  formed  a  coalition  with  the  lesgue  of  the 

electors  were  granted  special  privileges^  besides  the  Swabian  cities  and  sought  with  considerable  success 

royal  rights  (regoZta)  and  those  of  taxation  and  coin-  to  obtain  the  adherence  of  other  Swabian  towns  and 

age,  they  received  the  privUegium  de  non  evocando,  of  those  of  North  Germany.    Thus  strengthened,  the 

that  is,  their  subjects  could  not  be  summoned  before  cities  wished  to  share  in  the  government  of  the  empire ; 

the  court  of  another  jurisdiction,  not  even  before  an  this  desire  was  opposed  by  the  princes  who  in  mihtary 

imperial  one.    The  royal  authority  was  to  find  in  the  force  were  supenor  to  the  cities.    The  attempts  of  the 

electors  who  were  scattered  throujghout  the  empire  a  rulers  of  Austria  to  overthrow  the  Swiss  confederates 

support  against  the  many  petty  pnnces.    Other  arti-  failed,  but  in  Germany  the  army  of  the  Swabian 

cles  of  the  Golden  Bull  were  to  guard  the  rights  of  the  League  suffered  a  crushing  defeat  in  1388  near  Dof- 

local  princes  against  their  vassals  and  subjects,  es-  fingen.    After  this  Wenceslaus  changed  his  policy  and 

pecially  against  the  cities.    Nothing  is  said  of  the  sided  with  the  princes.    (Confederations  ofthe  cities 

share  of  the  pope  in  the  election  of  the  king;  the  one  were  forbidden.    Owing  to  their  lack  of  union  the 

chosen  by  the  majority  of  the  electora  was  to  be  the  cities  succumbed  in  this  contest  for  political  independ- 


OSBBCANT  496  GEBMAMT 

enoe  and  the  territorial  princes  were  the  conquerors.  He  had  married  the  daugjhter  and  heiress  of  ^Louis  the 
The  auick-tempered,  irascible  king  sought  to  Great  of  Hungary,  and  had  been  crowned  king  of  that 
strenguien  his  hold  on  his  hereditary  provinces  by  country  in  1387.  In  the  war  between  Hungary  and 
protecting  himself  against  the  other  ruling  princes,  but  the^  Turks  he  had  been  completely  defeated  by  Sultan 
m  this  he  was  not  successful.  A  government  by  fa-  Bajazet;  after  this  he  had  had  to  contend  witn  a  dan- 
vouritism  of  the  worst  kind  began  which  excited  the  gerous  rebellion  in  Hungary.  Sigismund  was  tal- 
anger  of  the  nobility  and  the  clergy.  A  dispute  with  ented,  eloquent,  witty,  and  exceedingly  ambitious;  he 
the  Aichbishop  of  Prague  led  to  tne  murder,  by  the  was  inclined  to  visionary  schemes,  but  he  honestly  de- 
king's  command,  of  the  archbishop's  vicar-general,  sired  to  relieve  the  woeful  troubles  of  his  time,  hi  his 
John  of  Pomuk,  and  this  caused  open  rebellion.  In  hereditary  dominions,  to  which  Hungary  was  now 
1394  the  nobles  with  Jost,  Margrave  of  Moravia,  as  added,  there  was  great  disorder.  Yet  uotwithstand- 
their  leader,  took  the  king  prisoner;  he  was  soon  set  ing  this  he  succeeded  in  bringing  together  the  great 
free  at  the  instance  of  the  German  princes,  but  his  re-  (}ounci]s  of  Constance  and  Basle.  Ambition  leahim 
lease  did  not  do  away  with  the  rule  of  the  nobility  in  to  attempt  to  settle  the  difficulties  in  which  the  Church 
Bohemia.  In  this  era  of  confusion  no  attempt  was  was  involved,  but  he  was  also  impelled  by  political 
made  to  oppose  the  repeated  incursions  (1388)  of  considerations.  He  hoped  that  a  council  would  aid 
Charles  VT  of  France  mto  Germany.  Wenceslaus  him  in  suppressing  the  religious  troubles  kindled  in 
looked  on  inactively  when  the  French  king  imdertook  his  hereditary  kingdom  of  Bohemia  by  John  Hus.  It 
to  carry  out  a  scheme  for  putting  an  end  to  the  schisni  was  not  seal  for  the  Church,  however,  which  inspired 
by  securing  the  success  of  the  Avignon  pope  by  a  bold  his  interest  in  the  council,  as  is  evident  from  the  gen- 
stroke  ;  but  in  1392  Charles  VI  became  insane,  and  his  eral  bent  of  his  mind.  For  with  all  his  interest  in  lit- 
plans  were  brou^t  to  nought.  The  waning  influence  erature  and  learning,  Sigismimd  scrupulously  avoided 
of  the  German  Empire  was  everywhere  perceptible  involving  himself  in  theological  difficulties;  moreover 
and  called  forth  univereal  indignation.  The  king's  he  took  pleasure  in  denouncing  the  faults  of  the 
lack  of  capacity  for  government  led  the  majority  of  the  clei^.  Nevertheless  it  was  Si^mund's  energy  that 
electors  to  form  a  league  for  the  protection  of  the  in-  hela  together  the  ^at  council  at  Constance.  It 
terests  of  the  country.  was  certainly  not  his  fault  that  many  were  not  satis- 
Soon  after  this  the  three  episcopal  electors  chose  fied  with  the  result  of  this  and  the  following  councfl. 
Ruprecht,  Count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  as  King  of  The  forcible  interference  of  the  Council  of  Constance 
Germany  (1400-10).  As  only  a  part  of  the  electors  in  the  religious  diffik^ulties  of  Bohemia  and  the  burning 
joined  in  this  choice  Ruprecht  was  never  more  than  a  of  John  Hus  were  injurious  to  Sigismund's  dynastic 
pretender,  and  although  he  was  an  ambitious  and  interests,  and  not  in  accordance  with  his  political 
capable  man  he  never  succeeded  in  uniting  the  empire,  schemes.  In  Bohemia  and  Moravia  the  Hussites  at 
Ruprecht  hoped  to  gain  popularity  by  restoring  Ger-  once  strove  to  prevent  the  king  from  taking  possession 
man  influence  in  northern  Italy,  and  by  securing  the  of  these  countries;  and  the  result,  especially  in  Bo- 
imperial  crown  to  prove  himself  the  legal  sovereign,  hemia^  was  a  violent  religious  and  national  outbreak. 
As  Ruprecht  had  no  money,  his  expedition  to  Ital^  The  king  was  held  directly  responsible  for  the  burning 
was  inglorious,  and  its  failure  had  a  oad  effect  on  his  of  the  natipnal  hero  and  saint.  Fanatical  hordes  led 
position  in  Germany.  Even  his  final  recognition  by  by  Ziska  repeatedly  overthrew  Sigismund's  army  in 
the  pope,  who  had  for  a  long  time  held  to  the  Luxem-  his  crusade  against  the  Hussites,  and  the  storm  spread 
burg  dynasty,  his  faithful  supporters,  did  little  to  lud  over  the  adjacent  provinces  of  the  empire.  Bavaria, 
Ruprecht's  cause,  and  his  throne  began  to  totter.  In  Franconia,  Saxony,  and  Silesia  were  terribly  devaa- 
1405  Archbishop  Johann  of  Mainz  combined  the  tated.  The  imperial  government  broke  down  com- 
princes  against  Kuprecht  in  the  League  of  Marbach  pletely.  The  selfishness  of  the  cities  prevented  the 
which,  however,  accomplished  next  to  nothing.  In  reform  of  the  German  military  system,  even  after  its 
the  question  of  the  schism  Ruprecht  supported  Boni-  necessity  had  been  proved  by  further  successes  of  the 
face  iX.  As  King  of  the  Germans  Ruprecht  was  a  Hussites.  In  1427  an  imperial  law  for  the  levying  cd 
failure.  During  the  iaxity  of  government  that  fol-  a  war-tax  was  laid  before  the  Diet  at  Frankfort,  but  it 
lowed  his  death  the  German  conquests  in  the  eastern  was  never  carried  out. 

part  of  the  empire  were  in  danger  of  bein^  lost.    A        In  addition  to  the  troubles  in  Bohemia,  Sigismund's 

new  factor  had  appeared  in  history,  the  Kmgdom  of  already  insecure  position  was  made  more  precarious 

Poland.  by  a  fresh  invasion  of  Hungary  by  the  Turks.    The 

All  this  time  the  confusion  in  the  affairs  of  the  only  help  he  received  was  from  Duke  Albert  V  of  Aus- 
Church  had  continued  to  grow  worse,  and  it  was  now  tria,  his  son-in-law  and  the  prospective  heir  of  the 
proposed  to  put  an  end  to  the  schism  by  means  of  a    ^at  inheritance  of  the  Luxemburg  possessions.    The 

council.  The  cardinals  of  the  two  rival  popes  called  a  jealousy  among  the  German  states  prevented  common 
council  at  Pisa  which  deposed  Popes  Gregory  XII  and  action  against  both  foes.  Sigismund's  chief  ambition, 
Benedict  XIII  and  elected  Alexander  V,  but  Gregory  after  the  reunion  and  reformation  of  the  Church,  to 
and  Benedict  could  still  count  on  some  supporters,  and  unite  all  the  nations  of  Western  Europe  in  a  war 
the  world  thus  saw  three  popes.  The  greater  part  of  against  the  Turks,  became  more  and  more  hopeless. 
Germany  held  to  the  new  pope,  Alexander  V,  but  the  The  defeat  of  the  Hussites  appeared  eaually  impossi- 
party  of  the  Coimt  Palatine  and  of  the  Bishop  of  Trier  ble,  and  negotiations  were  opened  witn  them,  peace 
neld  to  Gregory.  A  period  of  utter  confusion  and  being  finally  arranged  at  Ba^le.  Sigismund  inauced 
great  distress  of  conscience  followed;  all  the  relations  the  pope  to  weaken  in  his  attitude  towards  the  concil- 
of  life  suffered,  the  political  by  no  means  the  least.  In  iar  theory,  and  especially  to  the  Council  of  Basle 
Germany  the  troubles  led  to  a  double  election;  Sigis-  which  was  to  deal  with  the  Hussite  difficulties.  To 
mund  of  Luxemburg,  King  of  Hungary,  the  brother  of  gain  his  point  he  had  gone  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
Wenceslaus  was  elected  (1410-37),  as  was  also  Jost,  crowned  emperor  in  1433.  Even  in  Bohemia  where 
Margrave  of  Moravia.  Jost  withdrew,  and  Wences-  the  existing  anarchy  had  been  increased  by  a  new 
laus  resigned  the  government  to  Sigismund,  who  in  religious  quarrel,  where  the  moderate  Calixtmes  had 
1411  was  generally  recognized  as  emperor.  The  im-  obtained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Taborites  under 
potence  of  the  last  reign  convinced  the  electors,  who  Procopius  the  Great  in  1434,  the  need  of  peace  grew 
nad  chosen  Margrave  Jost  for  reasons  of  Church  poli-  more  and  more  intense.  The  year  previous  to  this, 
tics,  that  a  king  who  had  not  large  territorial  power  1433,  a  commission  of  the  Council  of  Basle  had  made 
could  accompush  nothing.  (>>nsequently  they  a  number  of  concessions  to  the  Hussites  in  the  Corn- 
dropped  their  opposition  to  Sigismund.  The  latter's  pact  of  Basle  or  of  Prague ;  among  these  was  the 
life  before  his  election  had  been  a  very  eventful  one.    granting  of  the  Cup  to  the  laity.    On  the  basis  of  the 


QEIOUXT 


497 


QIBMAHY 


Compact  a  peace  was  agteed  to,  which  waa  followed  by  elected  canonicaUy,  but  the  king  had  the  ri^t  to 

the  rectwutioQ  (1436)  of  Sigiemund  as  king  in  Bq~  Becure  the  election  of  suitable  persons  by  negotiation. 

hemia.     When  this  was  attained  Sigismund  seemed  to  Papal  reservations  and  annates  were  abolished.     The 

loae  all  concern  for  the  reform  of  the  Church  and  em-  Council  of  Basle,  however,  held  firmly  to  its  exa^er- 

piie  in  which  before  he  had  shown  so  keen  and  active  ated  conception  of  the  powers  of  a  council,  and  its 

j)interest.     Hecan  hardly  be  blamedjfortbe  bound-  members  "Wished  to  establiah  the  dogma  of  conciliar 


_  i  selfishness  and  jealousy  of  the 
princes  repeatedly  wrecl^d  the 
work  of  reform;  and  the  whole  re- 

rosibility  for  the  scanty  gains  for 
empire  achieved  duringhis  reign 
should  not  be  laid  on  his  shoulders. 
Only  two  of  his  measures  were  to 
have  permanent  existence;  tbe 
transfer  of  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg 
to  the  Hohenioliems,  and  the  grant- 
ineof  electoral  Saxony  to  the  House 
ofWettin.  The  great  councils  passed 
without  bringing  the  fervently  de- 
sired  reform.  Great  changes  were 
witnessed  in  these  assemblies.  At 
Basle  the  pope  was  regarded  simply 
as  a  representative  of  tbe  Churob, 
and  tbe  superiority  of  the  council 
over  the  pope  was  openly  declared. 
In  1433  Procopius  had  b^n  allowed 
to  enter  Basle  at  the  head  of  his 
heretjcal  followers  and  to  set  forth 
his  opinions  before  the  assembled 
members  of  tjie  councU  without 
molestation.  At  Basle  opinions 
which  were  signs  of  a  revolutionary 

movementintto  Church  repeatedly      „.„  „™^  .:,„„„  ^.„,„„, 

appeared.  In  character  this  council  consideration.    From 

differed  entirely  fromallearherones;  the  excitement     Synod  of  Basle,  transferred  to  Lai 


Buperiority  by  deposing  Pope  Eu- 
gene IV.  Intnisdiapute  the  electors 
remained  neutral.  The  reform  of 
the  Church  was  more  and  more 
lost  sight  of  by  the  Council  of  Baale 
in  its  struggle  with  tbe  pope.  Fred- 
erick, who  was  appealal  to  by  both 
Rome  and  Basle,  at  firat  remained 
neutral ;  then  he  proposed  the  calling 
of  a  new  council  to  reunite  divided 
Christianity.  Western  Europe  grad- 
ually turned  again  to  the  rightful 
pope,  and  the  pope  elected  at  Basle, 
Felix  V,  received  but  alight  recog- 
nition. For  a  time  the  German  at- 
titude of  neutrally  was  maintained, 
but  after  a  while  Frederick  gave  ihe 
impulse  to  the  universal  recognition 
of  Pope  Eugene.  This  was  brought 
about  by  -Eneas  Sylvi'--  '-'~  "•— 


UtiH  FoBTAL,  Earuai  Cathidbal 


auuuv  uj  ji^uEos  >jji»us.  later  Plus 
II,  an  adroit  diplomat  who  was  able 
toinSuencetbekingand  the  leading 
princes.  An  agreement  was  made 
with  Rotne  in  the  Concordat  of 
Vieona  (144S)  in  which  the  Curia 
made  but  trifling  conceeaions,  while 
the  <fuestion  of  r^orm  received  scant 

i,  had  only 


so  gieat  that  tumults  and  brawls  occurred.    Con-    a  shadowy  existence.    The  Curia,  although  sorely 
"  "  ''  ■      ■     ■  .     .  1     ,     .  conquered.     The   general 


traiT  to  the  wishes  of  Rome  the  council 
Baste;  thefearwasthatif  it  were  transferred 
soil  the  work  of  reform  would  be  forgotten.  Yet  the 
honest  intentions  of  the  majority  of  uie  members  can- 
not be  doubted.  In  the  end  tlie  pope  was  victorious, 
and  the  council  was  transferred  to  Ferrara.  Some  of 
the  members  remained  at  Basle  and  the  spectacle  of  a 

conciliar  schism  was  offered  to  the  world.  „ 

In  this  troubled  era  Albert  II  (1433-39),  Duke  of  gnacs,and  tbusfrustratedhisachemeaforrestoring  the 
Austria,  was  chosen  emperor.  The  electore  recog-  control  of  the  Hapsburgs  over  the  Swiss  League.  In 
niied  the   fact  that  the  '  " 

centre  of  gravity  of  the 
empire  now  lay  towards 
tbe  east.  Albert,  member 
of  the  Hapsburg  family, 


.  led  at     pressed,    had   i     __    

Italian  anxiety  to  avoid  a  new  schism  m  the  Church  had  far 
more  to  do  with  the  settlement  of  these  ecclesiastical 
troubles  than  the  interference  of  Frederick.  More- 
over Frederick  showed  hie  lack  of  skill  in  other  ways. 
In  1444  the  Swiss  at  the  battle  of  St.  Jakob  on  the 
Bin,  not  far  from  Basle,  by  their  extraordinary  cour- 
age defeated  his  French  mercenaries,  called  Arma- 


spite  of  tbe  constant  dio- 
orders  in  the  empire  and 
the  frequent  wars,  Fred- 
erick never  wavered  in  his 
__  __,  ___^ „   „,  belief  in  the  future  great- 

bad   not  put  himself  for-  ness  of  the  Hapsburg  dy- 

ward  as  a  candidate,  and  nasty.     It  was  this   con- 

the  electors  probably  se-  fidence  that  in  1452  led 

lected  him  tnrou^  fear  ,   him  to  Rome,  where  he 

that  the  important  and  was  crowned  emperor  by 

necessary    eastern    terri-  the  pope,  the  last  Qerman 

toriesmightfallawayfrom  .   king  to  be  crowned   at 

the    empire.    Before    he  Rome.    Directly  after- 

oould  come    to  Westeni  wards  came  the  capture 

Qermany  Albert,  a  rough  of  Constantinople  by  the 

soldier,  died  during  a  cam-  Turks,  which  obliged  the 

pt^m  against  the  Turks.  emperor  to  take  up  arms 

The  election  now  went  to  for  the  defence  of  the  east- 

thehead  oftheHapabui^  Catr.dba..  (XTV  Cntcb.)  a«d  Chus™  o»  9t.  8«tibcb  em  frontier  of  his  realm. 
family,  the  inert  and  ma  o-  (XIlI-Xrva!HTDiiT),FHi»DaicBWii4iaLM8PL*.T£.EKnjKT  Yet  he  could  neither  mam- 
lent  Frederick  III,  who,  as  tain  peace  within  the  era- 
King  of  the  Romans,  was  Frederick  IV  (1440-93).  pirenor  its  most  important  rights.  Luxemburg  and 
Durmg  his  reign  tbe  work  of  reform  in  the  empire  fell  the  possessionsof  tbe Wittelsbach  family  in  the  Nether- 
completely  into  abevance.  He  too  was  obhged  to  face  lands  fell  into  the  hands  of  Burgundy,  the  Poles  annexed 
the  difficulties  in  tne  Church.  Tbe  electors  had  de-  West  Prussia,  and  the  remnant  of  the  Teutonic  Order 
cided  to  remain  neutral  in  the  dispute  between  the  in  East  Prussia  was  obli^  to  recognize  the  suser- 
pope  and  the  Council  of  Basle,  but  thia  neutrality  had  ainty  of  the  Polish  king.  Thus  the  Germanising  influ- 
been  broken,  inasmuch  as  the  Diet  of  Main*  in  1439  ences  that  had  been  at  wort,  for  centuries  in  what 
accepted  the  reform  decrees  of  Basle,  with  exception  is  now  the  eastern  part  of  the  German  Empire  were 
of  the  assertion  of  the  superiority  of  the  council  over     destroyed. 

the  pope.    Henceforth  bishops  and  abbots  were  to  be        The  complete  breakdown  of  the  power  of  the  empire 
VI.-32 


eERMANT 


498 


crERMAmr 


called  forth  the  demand  that  the  emper6r  should  be 
either  deposed  or  have  a  coadjutor,  but  the  lack  of 
harmony  among  the  electors  prevented  any  change. 
The  clamour  for  internal  reform  grew  louder,  but 
nothing  was  done  except  to  enact  laws  for  thcmainte- 
nanoe  of  the  public  peace.  During  this  confusion 
Frederick's  position  in  his  hereditary  possessions  be- 
came very  precarious.  The  Czechs  had  held  the 
preponderating  power  in  Bohemia  ever  since  the  time 
of  the  Hussite  troubles  and  now  elected  George  of 
Podiebrad  as  king.  The  Hungarians  also  chose  a 
ruler  for  themselves,  electing  the  hero  of  the  wars  with 
the  Turks,  Matthias  I  Corvinus.  Matthias  soon  over- 
threw the  Bohemian  king,  and  in  1487  apparently 
intended  to  form  a  great  kingdom  by  imiting  the 
eastern  German  provinces  with  the  Bohemian,  Mora- 
vian, and  Hungarian  territories.  Important  changes 
also  occurred  in  the  northern  part  of  Germany.  The 
Counts  of  Holstein,  who  had  carried  the  German  na- 
tionality into  the  northern  territory  of  what  is  now 
Germany,  had  received  Schleswig  as  early  as  1386  in 
fief  from  Denmark;  the  two  provinces,  Holstein  and 
Schleswig,  soon  grew  together.  After  the  death  of 
the  last  Count  of  Holstein,  King  Christian  of  Denmark 
was  in  1460  elected  duke  by  Schleswig  and  Holstein. 
In  this  way  he  became  a  prmce  of  the  empire,  a  point 
of  importance  in  the  near  future.  This  was  after- 
wards to  influence  the  position  of  the  Baltic  countries 
and  the  German  interests  there.  For  centuries  the 
centre  of  the  empire  had  been  in  the  south,  and  Ger- 
many had  had  no  maritime  interests.  In  this  case 
also,  as  in  the  Germanization  of  the  east,  self-help  was 
the  means  of  attaining  the  desired  end.  The  Han- 
seatic  League,  a  union  of  German  mercantile  guilds, 
rapidly  extended  from  Cologne  to  Reval  on  the  Gulf  of 
Finland.  From  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
the  chief  towns  of  the  League  were  LQbeck  and  Ham- 
burg. German  conunerce  flourished  on  all  waters,  for 
the  members  of  the  League  carried  the  fame  of  their 
country  across  all  the  seas  surroimding  the  Europe  of 
that  day.  It  is  in  fact  a  strikine  phenomenon  that  the 
national  feeling  was  invigoratea,  while  the  strength  of 
the  empire  was  weakened  by  the  division  into  so  many 
petty  sovereignties.  The  Hanseatic  League  main- 
tained its  ascendencv  in  the  Baltic  as  late  as  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries. 

At  the  same  time  a  great  power  threatened  to  spring 
up  in  the  west.  By  (>eaceful  agreement  Charles  the 
Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy  (1467-77),  attempted  to 
secure  Frederick's  consent  to  his  election  as  King  of 
the  Romans  and  to  the  elevation  of  his  possessions  to 
the  rank  of  an  independent  kingdom.  But  all  these 
ambitious  plans  came  to  an  end  upon  the  death  of 
Charles  at  the  battle  of  Nancy  in  1477.  The  duke's 
possessions  fell  to  Louis  XI  of  France,  while  Maxi- 
milian, son  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  and  son-in-law 
of  Charles  the  Bold,  hastened  to  the  Netherlands, 
which  he  secured  for  himself  (1479)  by  the  brilliant 
battle  at  Guinegate.  He  was  not,  however,  able  to 
make  himself  master  of  Bur^;undy  and  Artois.  More- 
over, Flanders  was  not  wilhng  to  submit  to  the  new 
regime  and  it  was  not  tmtil  1489  that  it  was  com- 

Eletel^  subdued.  Somewhat  later,  on  the  death  of 
[atthias  Corvinus  in  1490,  Maximilian's  energetic 
action  gained  for  his  dynast^  the  future  possession  of 
Hunparv  and  Bohemia,  .while  at  the  same  time  he 
reunited  the  Tyrol  with  Austria.  Consequentlv  when 
the  old  emperor  died,  all  looked  to  the  knightly  hero 
Maximilian  for  the  restoration  of  the  empire. 

Thus  the  outlook  was  by  no  means  unfavourable 

at  the  time  Maximilian  I  (1493-1519)  ascended  the 

throne.    There  were  even  indications  of  a  healthier 

condition  of  internal  affairs.    The  Swabian  League, 

made  up  of  the  free  cities  and  of  the  knights^  sought, 

'  Uy  in  1486,  to  effect  an  adjustment  of  those  in- 

f  the  different  estates  which  most  threatened 

^nce  of  the  empire.    Another  favourable  sign 


was  the  rapid  development  in  civilization  and  eultnra 
of  the  several  principalities.  No  less  promising  was 
the  decision  of  the  electors,  now  that  the  imperial  au- 
thority had  shown  its  entire  impotence  to  check  fur- 
ther decentralization.  Turbulent  agitation  for  re- 
form in  the  cities  was  another  important  indication  in 
the  same  direction.  Maximilian  tried  by  vigorous  re- 
forms to  win  the  good  will  of  the  cities,  the  aid  of  which 
would  be  essential  to  him  in  the  expected  war  with 
France,  but  the  ob&rtacles  to  be  overcome  before  re- 
forms could  be  introduced  seemed  steadily  to  increase. 
The  naost  serious  difficulty  was  and  remained  the  an- 
tagonism between  the  interests  of  the  empire  and 
those  of  the  princes.  Maximilian,  with  his  d3ma8tic 
resources,  which  were  made  up  of  very  heterogeneous 
elements,  was  not  able  to  overcome  these  opposing 
forces.  Thus  the  Diet  of  Worms  in  1495  coula  not  do 
much  to  promote  reform  on  account  of  the  opposing 
interests  of  the  ruling  princes,  the  free  knights  of  the 
empire,  and  the  imperial  cities.  At  this  diet  the 
''Universal  Pacification  of  the  Empire"  was  pro- 
claimed. All  private  wars  were  forbidden.  An  Im- 
perial Chamber  was  established  as  a  perpetual  su- 
preme court  for  the^  maintenance  of  the  public  peace, 
and  the  appointments  to  it  were  made  by  the  emperor 
and  the  Estates  of  the  empire.  So  many  matters, 
however,  were  turned  over  to  this  court  that  it  was 
condemned  to  inactivity  from  the  outset.  Nor  was 
the  Imperial  Chamber  able  to  promote  the  pubUc 

S^aoe,  as  it  lacked  all  power  of  enforcing  its  decrees, 
rder  in  the  empire  could  not  be  attained  until  the 
subordinate  rulers  became  strong  enough  to  exercise  a 
vigorous  police  power  in  their  territories.  Maximil- 
ian had  only  agreed  to  the  establishment  of  this  court 
on  condition  that  a  ^neral  imperial  tax,  "the  com- 
mon penny",  and  military  help  against  France  and 
the  Turks  should  be  promised  him.  Concessions  of  a 
very  different  character  had  also  been  demanded  by 
the  rulinp  princes  from  the  king.  Tlie  powerful  Arch- 
bishop ofMainz,  Berthold  of  Uennebei^,  was  the  first 
to  express  the  opinion  that  the  administration  of  the 
empire  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  electors, 
without,  however,  doing  away  with  the  monarchy. 
This  proposition  of  the  Diet  of  Worms  was  rejected  by 
Maximihan.  Five  years  later,  however,  when  the 
promised  financial  and  militaiy  aid  was  not  forth- 
coming, he  consented  to  the  appointment  of  a  per- 
manent Imperial  Council  at  Nuremberg.  If  this 
council  had  maintained  an  active  existence  for  any 
length  of  time  the  king  would  have  become  a  mere 
puppet.  But  after  two  years  the  royal  power  proved 
strong  enough  to  break  down  the  unnatural  limita- 
tions imposed  on  it  by  the  Estates. 

During  these  constitutional  stru^les  within  the 
empire  the  hostile  feeling  between  France  and  Ger- 
many continued  to  grow.  France,  now  greatly  in- 
creased in  power,  wished  to  gain  a  firm  foothold  in  the 
Italian  peninsula,  and  put  forward  claims  to  Naples 
and  Milan.  Thus  be^m  the  long  strugg^  of  the 
Hamburg  dynasty  with  France  for  the  possession  of 
Italy.  Maximilian  was  imable  to  checkmate  the  Itid- 
ian  schemes  of  the  French  king.  In  the  end  Maximil- 
ian even  changed  his  policy,  for,  in  order  to  e&in  as- 
sistance against  Venice,  he  allied  himself  with  France. 
Yet  even  now  he  reaped  no  laurels  in  Italy.  In  the 
Swabian  war  also,  which  the  Swiss  confederated  can- 
tons carried  on  against  the  Swabian  League,  his  inte]^ 
vention  was  unsuccessful.  As  a  matter  of  fact  Maxi- 
milian was  obliged,  in  the  Treaty  of  Basle  (1501).  to 
acknowledge  the  independence  of  the  Swiss  Confed- 
eration. In  the  course  of  these  wars  the  Swiss  had 
become  enthusiastic  soldiers,  and  f^ter  this  Switzer- 
land could  furnish  or  refuse  entire  armies  of  mercen- 
aries, in  this  way  attaining  European  importance  in 
the  great  struggle  of  the  Hapsburgs  with  France.  The 
work  of  reform  in  the  empire,  however,  came  to  a  com- 
plete standstill  on  account  of  these  unsuccessful  for- 


OEBMANT                             499  OERMANT  . 

eign  undertakingiE^.  The  only  pennanent  result  of  all  thickly  populated  southern  part  of  Gennany.  Com- 
these  efforts  was  the  Imperial  Chamber.  The  course  munistic  writings  appeared,  which  discussed  the  posi* 
of  histoiy  could  not  be  reversed;  the  territorial  devel-  tion  of  the  ^asants.  The  unrest  increased  in  Fran- 
opment  of  the  separate  states  had  been  too  logical  to  conia,  Swabia,  and  on  the  upper  Rhine,  and  revolts 
allow  its  reversal.  A  strengthening  of  the  central  ad-  occurred.  It  was  proposed  to  found  a  communistic 
ministration,  the  preliminary  condition  for  a  reform  kingdom  of  God  and  aU  hopes  were  placed  on  a  strong 
of  the  empire,  was  no  lon^r  possible.  In  1508  Maxi-  emperor.  Mixed  with  these  desires  was  the  expecta- 
milian  had  assumed  the  title  of  ''  Elected  Roman  Em-  tion  of  a  thorou^  reform  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  con- 
peror ",  thus  proclaiming  that  the  imperial  dignity  was  ceming  which  dissatisfaction  was  loudly  expressed, 
independent  of  papal  confirmation.  RestLessly  ao-  The  social-religious  restlessness  continually  in- 
tive,  he  staked  eveiything  on  the  success  of  those  for-  creased.  The  period  of  political  confusion  haa  not 
eign  policies  that  would  strengthen  his  royal  power,  passed  by  without  leaving  its  impress  on  the  German 
It  was  for  this  reason  that  he  finally  returned  to  his  character.  The  brilliant  exterior  of  life  covered  but 
earlier  course  of  action  and  joined  the  Holy  Leai^ue  thinly  the  brutality  withbi.  There  was  widespread 
against  France.  The  brilliant  success  of  Francis  I  evidence  of  the  lack  of  morality  in  domestic  life,  of 
over  the  Swiss  at  Marignano  (1515)  forced  Maximilian  barbarity  in  the  administration  of  justice,  and  of  in- 
to agree  to  a  peace  by  which  the  French  received  Mi-  humanity  in  war.  Lo3ralty  to  the  Church  continually 
Ian,  and  Vemce  obtained  Verona.  In  the  meantime  decreased,  although  a  rich  and  voluminous  religious 
various  imperial  diets  again  took  up  the  question  of  literature  had  been  disseminated  by  the  art  of  print- 
reform,  but  the  whole  reform  movement  failed  en-  ing.  Great  preachers,  like  Geiler  von  Kavsersbeig  at 
ti'rely,  and  the  separate  states  gained  a  complete  Strasburg,  also  appeared  at  this  time.  The  Brethren 
victory  over  the  central  administration.  At  Maximil-  of  the  Common  Life  took  for  their  ideal  the  abnegation 
ian's  death  practically  nothing  had  been  accom-  of  the  world.  But  all  this  failed  to  prevent  the  de- 
plished  for  the  constitution  of  the  empire.  cline  of  the  authoritative  influence  of  the  Church  on 
Political  and  cultural  life  followed  tne  course  of  de-  the  life  of  the  people.  The  Great  Schism  had  severely 
velopment  we  have  described,  the  foci  being  in  the  shaken  the  position  of  the  papacy.  The  common  peo- 
several  states.  Among  these  states  the  most  promi-  pie  were  estranged  from  the  Church.  A  craving  for 
nent  were  the  electoral  principalities,  which  had  been  religious  self-help  arose,  and  religious  movements  an- 
raimted  special  honours  and  privileges  by  the  Golden  tagonistic  to  the  Church  won  large  followings.  Ger- 
Bull.  The  three  Rhenish  electors  were  the  most  im-  man  learning  loosened  the  bond  that  up  to  then  had 
portant  political  personages.  Saxony  was  much  in-  united  it  to  theology.  A  new  inteUectual  movement 
creased  in  size  by  the  addition  of  Meissen.  It  would  disputed  the  dominance  of  Scholasticism  at  the  uni* 
have  become  the  leading  state  of  northern  Germany  versities.  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  Mneaa  Sylvius,  and 
had  not  its  territories  been  divided  in  1485  between  the  Gregor  von  Heimburg  prepued  the  way  for  Human- 
Albertine  and  Ernestine  branches  of  the  ruling  family,  ism.  The  medieval  ideals  having  apparently  lost 
The  Electoral  Mark  of  Brandenburg,  acquired  in  1417  their  attraction*  men  turned  to  others,  which  advo- 
by  the  HohenzoUems,  was  still  in  thfe  beginnings  of  its  cated  the  world  and  its  pleasures  in  opposition  to  self- 
growth.  The  Hussite  wars  had  almost  entirely  e&-  abnegation,  and  instead  of  medieval  universalism 
tranged  Bohemia  from  the  empire.  The  Palatmate  preacned  the  freedom  of  the  individual, 
of  the  Rhine,  always  a  home  of  culture,  was  still  one  of  In  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  Italian 
its  centres.  The  Duchies  of  Brunswick-Ldneburg  and  Humanism  entered  Germany  in  order  to  break  down 
Bavaria  were  also  prominent.  In  1495  the  able  here  as  it  had  done  in  Italy  the  absolute  domination 
Counts  of  Wirtemberg  (Wttrtemberg)  received  Count-  of  the  ecclesiastical  conception  of  the  world.  But 
ship  of  Swabia,  which  was  raised  to  a  duchy.  Baden  Humanism  in  Germany  assumed  an  entirely  different 
erew  into  a  principality  more  slowly.  More  rapid  was  form.  In  Germany  the  end  sought  was  not  beauty  of 
the  development  of  Hesse,  whose  sovereigns  under  the  form  in  learning,  art,  and  life ;  here  it  manifested, 
title  of  Landgraves,  were  soon  to  come  into  promi-  rather,  a  practical,  pedagogical,  and,  finallv,  reli^ous 
nence.  The  future  of  the  empire  depended  on  these  tendencv.  Aided  by  the  art  of  printing,  humanism, 
minor  states.  The  empire  lacked  imperial  civil  offi-  by  its  delight  in  experiment  and  induction,  roused 
cials,  imperial  taxes,  an  imperial  army,  a  general  and  other  sciences  to  fresh  life,  such  as  the  science  of  history 
systematized  administration  of  imperial  justice,  while  and  especially  the  natural  sciences.  Individualism, 
in  these  subordinate  states  there  arose  a  defined  gov-  moreover,  strengthened  the  national  sentiment  ana 
eminent,  a  centralization  of  the  civil  officials,  a  sys-  was  a  powerful  force  in  overthrowing  medieval  uni- 
tematic  administration  of  law.  This  is  also  true  versalism,  and  in  putting  an  end  to  the  ideal  of  the 
of  Maximilian's  hereditary  possessions,  the  Austrian  medieval  world,  the  universality  of  the  Kingdom  of 
provinces.  The  leaders  of  progress  in  this  respect  God.  At  the  close  of  MaximUiiaji's  reign  the  signs  of 
also  were  the  imperial  cities,  m  which  intellectual  life  the  times  were  undoubtedly  very  threatening,  yet 
began  to  flourish.  In  art  they  produced  an  Albiecht  closer  investigation  shows  that  the  Christian  idea  was 
Durer  and  the  two  Holbeins.  A  darker  side,  how-  still  powerful.  Notwithstanding  the  turning  away 
ever,  was  not  lacking  to  this  brilliant  city  life.  Bloody  of  many  from  the  Church,  there  were  still  men  in  Ger- 
outbreaks  were  often  caused  by  a  restless  proletariat,  many  who  were  filled  with  this  idea.  These  men  did 
Dissatisfaction  was  also  rife  among  the  free  knights  not  conceal  from  themselves  the  necessity  of  genuine 
of  the  empire  who  had  lost  their  former  importance  in  moral  reform.  The  same  power  and  intensity  of 
consequence  of  the  change  in  the  military  system.  Christian  feeling  that  had  bmlt  the  ^at  cathedrals  in 
which  had  again  made  infantry  the  decisive  element  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  was  still  alive  m  the  more  serious 
battle.  Moreover  discontent  was  at  work  among  the  minded  part  of  the  nation.  Only  the  elect  few  carried 
peasantry.  The  knights  became  robber-knights  and  these  feelings  over  into  the  succeeding  age,  and  with 
highwavmen.  Though  banned  by  the  empire,  Franz  them  the  certain  expectation  of  the  reform  of  the 
von  Sickingen,  without  authority,  carried  on  war  with  Church  from  within. 

the  city  of  Worms.     The  economic  changes  had  even  Potthak..  Bibliatheca  histarica  medU  c^  (2nd  ed..  189«; 

more  rmnous  consequences  for  the  peasantry.     The  Dahlmann  and  Wait«.  Qudlenkuride  der  deuUchen  Oeackiehla^ 

age  of  discovery,  of  the  growth  of  commerce,  and  of  7th  ©d.,  edited  by  Branmnbubo  (1906— ):   Watttdnbact. 

m&i  inventions,  is  also  tne  age  m  wmcn  capital  made  xill.  Jahrh.:  Vol.  I  m  7th  ©d.,  edited  by  DOmmubr  and 

its  appearance  as  the  great  power  of  the  world.    There  Tbaube  (1904);  Vol.  ll  in  6th  ed.  (1894);  Loxunz.  Deutaeh' 

was  a  change  in  the  value  of  money  which  brought  ^a«<^  Ge»chicht»queUm  im  MJUtdalter  Beit  der  Mitte  da  XIIL 

aavtiTt*.  aitfTorincr  iin^n  fKa  nAoaonfi^  wKiVK  xwrt^B  H*^  Jahrh.  (3rd  ed.,  1886-87);  ViLDHAUT,  Handbuch  der  OuMen^ 

severe  suttenng  upon  tl^  peasantry  which  was  de-  j^^^  ^^  deutschen  Oeschichte;  Vol.  I.  to  the  fall  of  the  Hohen- 

spised  and  pohtically  without  rights,  especially  m  the  stsufens  (1898;  2nd  ed.,  1906);  Vol.  II,  from  the  fall  of  the  Uo- 


GEBMAVT  500  OEBMAKY 


taiiu  reviMd  texts:  Die  0€$ehiduschreiber  der  deutaehen  VoneU  these  Were  in  DO  wiae  affected  b^  Charles's  mihtary 

indeuUdurBearheUuno  (Berlin,   1849—);  2nd  opmplete  ed..  suocesses,  as  he  did  not  push  his  operations  as  far 

^1?«7^„*^r,;trvo^lSSln'.^S^i3llS^f!XtSrS  «  northern  Ctermany.    -fte  Duke,  of  Saxony  and 

the  Carlovindan  aoe;    BdniUDB.  FmUtt  rerum  Oermaniearum,  Bavana  also,  whO  were  friendly  tO  Charles  and  tOOk 

Oeaehichtaqudlm  DeutsdUanda  (Stuttgart.  1843-68);    Idbm,  part  in  his  campaigns,  suffered  no  curtailment  of  their 

£SSSl*;:SSJ3i L°S?S??S;.l'Srt£'SSl^.SSr'upT^tS  r'r^-,  T^ PartSfailure of  Charles .fetermined the 

fourteenth  century,  revised  and  continued  to  1410.  some  parts  lUture  developinent  ot  the  empire,  the  basis  of  which 

alTMdy  published;  DieChron^cenderdeutaefunStAdtevomXlV.  was  laid  down  in  the  recess  of  the  Imperial  Diet  of 

bt8  ifu  XVI.  JoAr*.  (Leipw  1882—).  I-XXVIII;  Ai;tmann  1555^    gy  u  j^  ^he  80-called  Religious  Peace  of  Aurb- 

AND  BuBNHKiM,  AuaoewfUute  Urkunden  aur  ErlAuterung  der  *y^^'     ^'j    «,  *«  «**«  wy-w»*aw  *wm5*vw  ac«w  vi  <ri.«ftp 

Verfaenmgeotechiehu  Deutachlande  m  MitteUUier  (2nd  ed.,  Ber-  ouTg,  Germany  was  divided  between  the  Cathohcs  and 

lin,  1895);  von  Bblow  amo  KsuToaN,  AueaewiihUe  Urkunden  the  adherents  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  and  the 

52«23S%a'iSrMS:*ilS9'5:  ^ii^''^:^^::^^^  temtorial  prmoes  were  pmcticaUy  made  the.  poUti«d 

luno  tur  GeeehtchU  der  deuteeken  Reieheverfasatmg  tm  MiUdaUer  arbiters  Of  the  empire.     The  prmcipte,  CU^UB  remo, 

undNeuseit  (Leipsig,  1004):  von  Qibbbbrbcht.  Oeediiehie  der  eitu  reUgio,  was  recognised.    The  Imperial  Chamber 

deutacKen  KaieerzeU  (5th  ed..  Leipsig.  1881-90).  I-IIIj    —  -       ' ^    '  -  ^  .  .  .  1^  .      .    _ 

6d..  1877).  IV:   (Leipsic.  1895),  VI;  von  T 
H0B8T.  ed.,  Bibltolhek  deuUdier  OesdtidUe 

NmBCH,  ueachidtte  dee  deutachen  Vcikee 

RdioioneMe^,  ed.  MatthXi  from  the  Uterary  remains  sihd  oV  the  emperor  was  no  longer  permitted'     Further 

lectures  of  NmscH  (2nd  ed.,  Leipsig,  1892).  Ill;   Qkbhard  xil           w*"!^***'    "■**  -i    /  j"    -*v  T-^^/n   *«*v»*c», 

ed..  Handlnich  der  deuUehen  GeeS^iSue  (2na  ed..  Stuttgart,  t^©  permanent  councU  of  admmistration  {ReichBdepu- 

1902),  II;  LAMPBacHT,  Deutaehe  Geachidiie  (Berlin,  1891-96).  tatiofutag),  an  Organ  of  centralization  developed  in 

)?JaZ±>  ^T"  '''  ^^^'  i^-^?H  X?**-,"iVJi*  ^Sl^f*"*  4  1568  from  the  system  of  "circles",  wassummoned  and 

iliat1?!*l^iSS"'^^^^  presided.overbV^^^^ 

1429  (Munich.  1903);  in  von  Bblow  and  Mbinbckb  eds..  the  empire  and  not  by  the  emperor.    Economical  and 


mshidde  der  deiUsehen  KtUtur  (Leipsig,  1904) ;  Gbupp,  KuUurge-  supreme  authority  of  the  emperor  in  military  matters. 

adiidoe^  Miudalura  (Paderborn.  1908).  il.  voL  III  pot  yet  ^ese  events  implied  not  only  a  change  in  the  gov- 

^S^'ik^rin^lT^I^^T'i^^       ^S15SS  ernment  of  the  emj^ire,  so  that  i(  was  controlled  b/the 

BeduaoeadiidUe  (4th  ed..  Leipsig.  1902)  ^ von  Inama-Stbbnboo.  electors  and  not  by  the  emperor,  but  the  empire  itself 

Deutadie    ^vJ^M'^^'S^iP*?-^,  %? *P"-**  J5!?l}®®/V'  •  ^-^^  became  ahnost  a  shadow  incapable  of  great  admini»- 

5&'Kri^' 8S£^^^  5?tive  actions.    Its  constitutional  powere  waned; 

Kircke  m  Deutaehland,  Vol.  I.  Aa  dsr  naturahoirtadurfaiehen  diets  were  seldom  Convoked  (onlv  ten  up  tO  1618),  the 

ZeUbUaufKaHdmGroMm  (leipsig.  1900);  Hauct.Km^^^  decisions  of  the  Imperial  Chamber  were  not  carried 

!S^;f^te^(SK?T»&^to.*i{'[^&':'iX-  out   the  «imin|Btra'uon  by  "cirdes"  did  not  take 

Franz  Kampers.  '^^o^*    ^^  empire  failed  just  as  signally,  as  a  Euro- 
pean power,  in  maintaimngj  its  interests  during  the 

From  1556  to  1618. — ^After  the  death  of  Maximilian  great  wars  of  the  reign  of  Philip  II  in  Western  Europe, 

I  the  two  ^at  competitors  for  the  imnerial  crown  an  exception  being  ^e  Pacification  of  Cologne  (1579), 

were  Francis  I  of  France  and  Charles,  Maximilian's  which  sou^t  to  restore  order  in  the  Netherlsoids,  but 

ridson.  Notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  Leo  to  which  little  heed  was  paid.  Not  even  the  bound- 
and  the  alienation  of  French  sympathies,  the  aries  of  the  empire  were  maintained.  From  about 
choice  of  the  electors  fell  on  Charles  (28  June,  1519),  1580  the  Spaniards  and  Dutch  established  themselves 
who  was  crowned  as  Charles  V  (a.  v.)  at  Aachen,  on  23  in  the  Rhine  provinces  and  Emden,  and  Spain  sought 
October,  1520,  and  by  Clement  VII  at  Bologna,  on  23  in  addition  to  obtain  Alsace.  France  entangled  as 
February,  1530.  In  January,  1521,  he  opened  the  man^  of  the  south- western  sections  of  the  empire  as 
Diet  of  Worms  and  his  administration  of  the  Holy  possible  in  its  intrigues,  especially  the  city  of  Strao- 
Roman  Empire  lasted  until  his  abdication.  In  1556  burg.  James  I  of  Englana  mamed  his  daughter  to 
Charles  V  resigned  the  imperial  throne.  This  act  the  Elector  Palatine.  On  the  Baltic  coast  the 
implied  a  serious  break  in  the  continuity  of  the  politi-  Swedes,  Russians,  and  Poles  despoiled  the  Germans  of 
cal  and  religious  history  of  the  German  people,  the  more  distant  territories  colonized  by  them,  while 
Charles's  reign  had  lasted  for  more  than  a  generation,  the  Danes  settled  in  the  south-west  comer  of  the 
but  only  an  insignificant  part  of  it  had  been  devoted  to  Baltic.  At  the  same  time  the  Dutch  overthrew  the 
Germany.  His  attention  had  been  mainly  given  to  economic  supremacy  of  the  Hanseatic  league  in 
the  Netnerliuids,  to  Spain,  and  to  the  wars  with  the  Baltic  Sea  and  German  Ocean.  On  the  Danube 
France  and  the  Turks.  Consequently  from  1520  the  the  Hapsburgs  were  compelled  to  buy  an  armistice  with 
defection  from  the  Chureh  had  made  more  and  more  the  Turks  by  the  payment  of  tribute.  The  blame  for 
rapid  headway,  in  spite  of  the  emperor's  prohibitory  the  helpless  conditiop  of  the  empire  rested  principally 
edicts  issued  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  (1521)  and  at  the  on  the  reigning  princes.  Thev  took  no  interest  m  its 
Diet  of  Augsburg  (1530),  and  shortly  after  1540  this  affairs,  not  because  they  were  lacking  in  German  aenti- 
apostasy  threatened  to  affect  the  whole  of  Germany,  ment,  but  because  the  horizon  of  their  ideas  was  still 
At  the  same  time  the  separatist  tendencies  of  the  too  restricted,  and  because  either  they  gave  httle 
ruling  princes  increased  in  strength.  It  was  not  until  thought  to  politics  or  their  attention  was  absorbed  by 
towards  the  end  of  his  reign  that  Charles  took  meas-  the  aetails  of  administration  within  their  own  do- 
ures  to  check  the  princes  of  the  empire.  By  the  war  minions.  The  governmental  organisation  of  their 
in  Gelderland  (1543),  the  deposition  of  the  Archbishop  principalities  was  still  very  imperfect.  The  conserva- 
of  Cologne  (1547),  and  the  Smalkaldic  War  (1546-47),  tion  and  gradual  development  of  their  territories  en- 
he  suc^eded  in  bringing  the  triumphant  career  of  grossed  the  energies  of  the  princes,  especially  of  the 
Protestantism  to  a  standstill,  thus  saving  the  greater  most  powerful  among  them,  the  Elector  Augustus  of 
part  of  western  and  southern  Germany  to  Catholicism.  Saxony  (1553-86)  and  Duke  Albert  V  of  Bavaria 
Driven  from  these  territories  Protestantism  overran,  (155CHS9).  They,  therefore,  avoided  war  above  all 
during  the  following  decades,  the  Bavarian  and  Bohe-  thin^.  The  only  alliance  among  them  that  had  any 
mian- Austrian  provinces  in  the  south-east.  But  even  stability  at  that  time,  the  "Landsbei^g  League"  of 
there  it  was  not  able  to  maintain  itself.  On  the  other  southern  Germany  (1556-90),  had,  for  its  sole  object, 
hand,  Charles  did  not  succeed  in  forcing  the  princes  to  the  maintenance  of  peace, 
return  to  their  proper  position  in  the  empire  and  to  The  emperors  of  this  period,  Ferdinand  I  (1556-64), 


GEBISANT 


501 


OSBMAKY 


Maximilian  II  (1504-76),  Rudolf  U  (157^1612),  and 
Matthias  (1612-19),  not  only  failed  to  arouse  the 
princes  to  a  more  intelligent  treatment  of  the  affainof 
the  empire,  but  by  their  own  policy  they  encouraged 
the  princes  to  pursue  purely  persoxial  ends.  For,  un- 
like Charles  V  who  had  ruled  a  world-empire,  his  suc- 
cessors governed  territories,  the  political  importance 
of  which  barely  exceeded  that  of  the  majority  of 
German  states,  and  which  only  surpassed  these  latter 
in  extent.  Accordingly ^  as  none  of  them  were  men  of 
pre-eminent  ability,  tneir  political  aims  were  narrow, 
their  need  of  peace  urgent,  and  their  credit  inadequate, 
while  the  credit  of  tne  western  powera  had  largely 
developed  since  the  time  of  Charles  V.  Moreover  they 
had  hiuder  conditions  to  face  in  their  own  dominions 
than  the  other  princes.  Most  of  their  territories  were 
in  the  ^tstem  part  of  Europe  where,  from  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  the  luided  pett^  nobles,  who 
formed  a  large  class,  opposed  with  ever-mcreasin^  suc- 
cess the  progress  of  the  commonalty  and  the  mtro- 
duction  of  oraerly  administration  undfer  the  control  of 
the  sovereign.  With  this  inferior  nobility  in  the  do- 
minions of  the  German  Hapsburgs,  the  Protestants, 
who  attracted  to  themselves  all  the  opposing  elements, 
made(  common  cause.  Thus  the  emperors  were  by 
degrees  so  harassed  in  their  family  possessions  that, 
towards  the  end  of  Rudolf's  reign,  the  power  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  nobility,  and  Matthias,  though  ad- 
vised by  his  able  minister  Cardinal  Klesl,  was  hardly 
able  to  maintain  his  authority. 

In  the  period  from  1556  to  1618  the  only  general 
movement  in  the  inner  politics  of  the  empire^  and  one 
that  caused  important  changes  in  the  relative  influ- 
ence of  the  German  rulers^  namely^  t^  endeavour  to 
pUioe  the  ecclesiastical  pnncipalities  in  the  hands  of 
the  vounger  sons  of  reigning  princes,  was  entirely  due 
to  the  desire  of  these  princes  to  increase  their  ter- 
ritories. The  ecclesiastical  domains  in  the  eastern 
provinces  of  Germany  were  few  and  insignificant, 
whereas  in  the  north-west  as  weU  as  throu^out  the 
west  and  south  they  were  numerous,  some  being  large 
in  extent  and  of  great  importance.  With  exception  of 
the  territorially  uu^  ana  powerful  Diocese  of  MQnster 
and  the  small  Diocese  of  Hildesheim  those  in  the  east 
and  north  came  tmder  the  control  of  Protestant 
princes  as  ''administrators"  to  the  aggrandizement  of 
the  Houses  of  Wettin,  HohenzoUem,  and  Guelph.  In 
this  way  these  territories  were  made  ripe  for  seculari- 
zation. Bavarian  princes  became  Bishops  of  Cologne 
and  Hildesheim,  wnich  were,  thereby,  saved  from  the 
fate  that  befell  the  others.  These  measures  quick- 
ened the  process  of  consolidation  by  which  the  terri- 
tories of  a  few  dynastic  houses  in  northern  Germany 
steadily  grew  in  extent,  the  result  being  of  consider- 
able importance  in  the  future  political  development  of 
Germany.  On  the  other  hand,  the  attempts  of  the 
princes  to  annex  the  spiritual  principalities  of  southern 
Germany  failed.  Protestantism  entered  these  terri- 
tories at  a  later  date  and  with  less  force  than  it  had  in 
those  of  northern  Germanv.  Consequently  the  eccle- 
siastical lands  in  the  south  had  more  power  of  resist- 
ance than  those  in  the  north,  while  the  princes  were 
weaker^  because  their  number  was  liu*ge  and  their 
possessions  all  small,  excepting  what  belonged  to  the 
Austrian  Hapsburgs  on  the  Upper  Rhine  and  perhaps 
also  the  territorv  belonging  to  W  ttrtemberg.  In  these 
ciroumstanoes  the  Ecclesiastical  Reservation  {Reservor- 
turn  EccUmasticum),  adopted  at  the  instance  of  the 
Catholics  in  the  Recess  of  the  Imperial  Diet  of  1555, 
proved  an  effective  precautionary  measure  in  southern 
Germany.  It  provided  that  any  bishop  or  abbot  who 
turned  Protestant  could  not  take  advantage  of  the 
rule  CUJ118  regiOf  ejus  religion  but  must  resign. 

The  chief  opponents  of  the  ecclesiastical  principali- 
ties in  southern  Germany  were  the  representatives  of 
the  House  of  Wittelsbach,  rulers  of  the  Palatinates 
and  of  Bavaria.    Prominent  because  of  their  noble 


descent,  ilie  Elector  Palatine  being  in  fact  the  ranking 
temporal  elector,  they  were  all  poor  in  land.  The 
branch  that  ruled  the  Palatinate  of  Neuburg  acquired 
a  heritage  on  the  Lower  Jthine  bv  marryine  into  the 
ducal  House  of  Cleves-Jttlich,  which  was  Decominjg 
extinct.  The  other  branches  sought  to  extend  their 
domains  at  the  expense  of  their  neighbours.  What 
decided  the  predominance  of  the  Catholics  in  the 
south  was  the  result  of  two  movements  which  settled 
the  question  whether  the  Protestants,  in  spite  of  the 
successes  in  1543-47  of  Charles  V,  were  finally  to  seize 
Cologne  and  the  whole  countiy  of  the  Lower  Rhine 
and  from  these  centres  crush  the  Catholics  of  southern 
Germ^i^.  In  the  first  of  these  contests,  the  ''Co- 
logne War"  (1582-^),  which  arose  from  the  apostasy 
of  Arehbishop  Crebhaid  Truchsess,  the  last  Archbishop 
of  Cologne  who  was  not  a  Bavarian,  the  Catholics 
were  successful.  In  the  second,  the  contest  over  the 
Qeves-Jtilich  succession  on  the  extinction  of  the  na- 
tive ducal  family,  the  inheritance,  it  is  true,  passed  to 
Protestant  rulers,  the  Palatines  of  Neuburg  and  the 
Hohenzollems ;  but  of  these  the  Neubure  line  became 
Catholic  in  1612,  so  that  the  danger  was  dispelled  once 
more.  As  a  consequence  the  Catholic  Church  gained 
sufficient  time,  after  the  Council  of  Trent,  to  accom- 
plish gradually  the  reconversion  of  the  greater  part  of 
southern  and  western  Germany,  especiaUy  since  Bava- 
ria in  the  south,  and  MQnster  as  well  as  Cblogne  in  the 
west,  remained  faithful  to  it.  The  political  conse- 
quence of  the  Catholic  victorjy  in  the  south-west  was 
mat  this  part  of  the  empire,  m  contrast  to  the  north- 
ern sections,  continued  to  be  split  up  into  many  princi- 
palities. This  caused  a  consts^t  state  of  unrest  among 
the  reigning  princes  and  the  nobles  of  the  empire  in 
south-western  Germany.  The  electore  palatine,  espe- 
cially, were  dissatisfied  with  their  fortunes.  They 
pursued  within  the  empire  a  policy  of  hostility  to  the 
Catholics  and  to  the  imperial  nouse  that  became  more 
and  more  reckless  with  each  succeeding  decade. 
Moreover  they  were  in  league  with  France  and  other 
foreign  countries.  In  accordance  with  this  policy 
thev  turned  from  the  Lutheran  to  the  Calvinistic 
faitn  and  put  themselves  at  the  head  of  all  the' discon- 
tented elements  in  the  empire.  Up  to  1591  their  aim 
was  to  bring  about  a  union  of  all  tne  German  Protes- 
tant princes,  including  the  Lutheran,  for  the  purpose  of 
enforcing  the  claims  oi  Protestantism  in  soutn-westem 
Germany.  Even  Saxonv  eventually  took  part  in 
these  negotiations.  At  the  same  time  Calvimsm  also 
penetrated  surreptitiously  into  central  Germany  (the 
so-called  Ciypto-Calvinism) .  But  in  1592  a  complete 
revulsion  took  place  in  Saxonv.  After  that  the  only 
remaining  adherents  of  Uie  palatine  princes  in  central 
Germany  were  a  few  pettv  reigniiiK  princes  and  counts 
of  that  section.  One  of  them,  Cnristian  of  Anhalt, 
appeare  actually  to  have  guided  the  policies  of  the 
electoral  palatinate  from  1592-1620.  After  sixteen 
years  more  of  peraistent  urging,  a  few  princes  of 
south-western  Germany  joined  the  palatine  princes  in 
1608  to  form  the  "Protestant  Union".  Their  value 
as  allies,  however,  was  in  inverse  ratio  to  their  histori- 
cal fame.  The  hopes  of  foreim  succour  that  the  pala- 
tine princes  had  entertained  &o  proved  vain ;  in  1609 
the  Netherlands  concluded  an  armistice  with  Spain; 
in  1610  Henry  IV  of  France  was  assassinated.  In 
their  disappointment  the  Calvinists  brought  the  entire 
machinery  of  the  empire  to  a  standstill  by  breaking  up 
the  Imperial  Diet  in  1613.  In  their  freebooting  tem- 
per the  party  was  ready  to  snatch  at  whatsoever  spoil 
presented  itself. 

The  Calvinistic  party  was,  nevertheless,  too  weak  to 
inflict  any  serious  harm.  The  Lutherans,  under  the 
leadership  of  Saxony,  drew  back  more  and  more.  The 
Catholics,  led  by  Bavaria,  maintained  a  purely  defen- 
sive attitude.  The  revival  of  reli^ous  life  among 
them  made  but  slow  progress,  despite  tiie  strenuous 
exertions  of  the  Bavarian  rulers,  of  the  Hapsburgs, 


OERMANY 


602 


OEBBCANT 


and  of  individual  bishops,  of  whom  the  Bishop  of 
WQrzbui^g,  Julius  Echter  of  Mespelbrunn,  was  the 
most  prominent,  and  of  the  Jesuits.  The  situation 
was  in  no  wise  altered  by  th^  fact  that  in  1598  Maxi- 
milian I  succeeded  to  the  sovereignty  of  Bavaria.  He 
surpassed  all  the  German  princes  of  that  period  in 
ability  and  energy,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  he 
made  Bavaria  the  most  powerful  of  the  German  states. 
But  he  was  prudent,  peaceable,  and  above  all  intent 
on  the  internal  improvement  of  his  principality.  Only 
on  one  occasion  did  he  offer  a  decided  opposition  to 
the  Calvinistic  party;  in  1607  he  seized  Donauwdrth, 
which  had  persecuted  its  Catholic  inhabitants.  The 
Catholic  League,  which  he  organized  in  1609  to  offset 
the  Protestant  Union,  was  of  a  purely  defensive  nature. 

Thus,  in  spite  of  unrest,  the  peace  of  the  empire  was 
apparently  not  in  immediate  aanper  at  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  Its  impotence,  however, 
was  most  clearly  manifested  in  its  economic  and  intel- 
lectual life.  Under  Charles  V  the  German  mercantile 
instinct  had  made  the  mistake  of  giving  itself  largelv 
to  the  profitable  business  of  money  transactions  with 
governments.  This  was  no  longer  lucrative,  but  the 
self-control  necessary  for  the  more  arduous  gains  of 
industrial  enterprises  now  hardly  existed.  Moreover, 
political  conditions  made  commerce  timid.  Hie  free 
cities  of  ike  empire,  the  centres  of  mercantile  life,  had 
lost  the  support  of  the  imperial  power.  The  princes 
were  either  hostile  to  them  or  still  biased  by  their 
economic  views  of  land  and  agriculture.  Further- 
more, the  extent  of  the  several  principalities  was  too 
small  to  form  the  basis  of  commercial  undertakings 
while  customs  duties  closed  their  frontiers.  Foreign 
competition  was  already  proving  a  superior  force: 
commerce  and  manufacture,  with  the  prosperity  of 
which  the  growth  of  great  states  seems  universally 
bound  up,  were  at  the  point  of  collapse  in  Germany. 
Intellectual  life  was  in  an  equally  discouraging  state. 
Almost  without  knowing  it  the  nation  had  been  di- 
vided by  the  Reformation  into  two  religious  camps, 
and  a  lanze  part  of  it  had  accepted  a  wholly  different 
faiUi.  Tbc  thoughts  of  the  people  were  beine  concen- 
trated more  and  more  on  tnis  one  fact.  Thev  were 
encouraged  in  this  by  the  princes  who  had  derived 
from  ^e  schism  great  advantages  in  position  and  pos- 
sessions, and  also  by  the  clei^  on  either  side.  The 
still  insurmountable  prejudice  of  the  Lutherans  of 
northern  Germanv  against  Catholics  can  be  traced  to 
the  sermons  of  their  preachers  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. From  an  entirely  different  point  of  view  the 
Jesuits  exhorted  the  Catholics  to  have  as  little  as  pos- 
sible to  do  with  Protestante.  Sectarian  strife  con- 
trolled all  minds.  Thereby  the  common  consciousness 
of  nationality  was  just  as  obscured  in  the  people  as  it 
was  dulled  in  the  princes  by  political  selfishness. 

From  1618  to  1713.— (1)  1618  to  1648.— The  po- 
litical life  of  the  German  nation  was  quickened  into 
fr^h  activity  by  the  strong  character  of  several 
princes  who  in  their  respective  states  took  up  almost 
simultaneously  the  fight  against  the  preponderating 
power  of  the  petty  mnded  nobility.  Those  among 
these  princes  who  made  their  mark  on  German  history 
were  Ferdinand  II  of  Austria,  Gustavus  Adolphus  of 
Sweden,  and,  a  generation  later,  Frederick  William 
of  Brandenburg,  called  the  Great  Elector.  In  1617 
Frederick  II  was  chosen  by  his  family,  on  account  of 
the  vigour  he  had  shown  as  ruler  of  Stvria,  to  be  the 
associate  and  successor  of  Matthias.  No  sooner  had 
the  nobles  felt  Ferdinand's  strong  hand  than  they 
revolted  in  Bohemia,  where  they  were  most  rebellious 
(1618).  As  Ferdinand  did  not  have  at  his  disposal 
the  means  to  suppress  it  vigorouslv,  the  rebellion 
spread  to  the  Danubian  provinces,  where  it  was  sup- 
ported by  the  rulers  of  Transylvania.  When  Matthias 
died  (1619)  the  insurgents,  through  the  mediation  of 
Christian  of  Ar^alt,  went  to  the  extreme  of  raising  the 
head  of  the  Union,  Frederick  V  of  Palatinate,  to  the 


throne  of  Bohemia  (August,  1619),  in  order  to  obtain 
the  help  of  the  German  Protestants.  At  the  same 
time,  however,  Ferdinand  was  chosen  emperor  by  the 
electors,  whereupon  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  and  the 
Elector  of  Saxony  promised  to  fight  on  his  side.  The 
issue  at  stake  was  the  existence  of  the  Hapsburg  dv- 
nasty.  The  struggle  was  carried  on  chiefly  by  tne 
troops  of  the  twoWittelsbach  lines  and  the  Elector 
Palatine  was  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  on  8 
November,  1620,  at  the  battle  of  the  White  Mountain 
(Weissenberg)  before  the  gates  of  Prague.  Ferdinand 
II  followed  up  his  victory  vi^rously  and  from  1621  to 
1628  establisned  a  new  oasis  of  political  administra- 
tion in  his  dominions.  The  multiplicity  of  heteroge- 
neous Hapsburg  territories,  bound  together  almost 
solely  by  aynastic  unity,  was  to  be  replaced  by  a  com- 
pact Austrian  state.  This  was  to  be  founded  on  a 
system  of  government  based  on  one  official  language, 
the  German,  on  uniformity  of  administrative  princi- 
ples, on  the  profession  of  the  Catholic  faith  by  the  en- 
tire population,  and  on  the  steady  support  of  the 
reignmg  house  by  a  body  of  great  landed  proprietors 
whose  estates  were  made  up  of  the  confiscated  lands  of 
the  landed  petty  nobility.  These  great  hmdowners, 
established  m  the  various  dominions  of  the  Hapsburgis 
and  free  from  separatist  traditions,  were  to  represent 
the  principle  of  a  single  state  as  against  the  peoples  of 
the  several  provinces. 

The  consequences  of  this  change  of  system  were 
soon  felt  all  over  Europe.  The  sdieme  had  in  view 
the  organization  of  so  extensive  a  state  that  the  united 
Austrian  dominion  must  needs  become  one  of  the 
great  powers  of  Europe.  Hitherto  great  countries 
had  developed  only  m  Western  Europe,  namely, 
Spain  and  France.  Their  fields  of  conflict  were  Italy 
and  Burgundy.  Now,  however,  a  strong  power  was 
rising  on  the  borders  of  central  Europe,  which  ap- 
peared to  have  unlimited  room  for  expansion  in  tne 
territories  of  eastern  Europe.  By  means  of  its  dynas- 
tic connexion  with  Spain  it  was*  as  well  a  menace  to 
France.  As  early  as  1623  Austria  and  Spain  sup- 
ported each  other  in  Switzerland;  jn  1628  Ferdinand 
by  his  power  as  emperor  protected  the  interests  of 
Spain  in  the  War  of  the  Mantuan  Succession.  As  a 
result  France  became  the  natural  enemy  of  Austria 
from  the  very  beginning. 

It  was  for  this  reason  that  the  empire  first  became 
interested  in  the  issue  of  the  war  in  Bohemia.  The 
greater  portion  of  its  territory  lay  between  France  and 
Austria.  In  the  paralyzed  condition  of  the  empire  a 
war  between  these  two  great  countries  would  have  to  be 
fought  out  on  imperial  territory.  It  was  remarkable 
that  the  clouds  ot  war  so  quickly  gathered.  For  the 
states  of  western  Europe  were,  nrst  of  all,  hampered 
by  internal  troubles  and  by  their  relations  to  one  an- 
other, while  the  Hapsburgs  were  occupied  at  home. 
Even  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  after  the  battle  of  the 
White  Mountain,  expected  to  bring  the  war  to  a 
speedy  end  by  overcoming  Christian  of  Anhalt  and  a 
few  other  adherente  of  the  fugitive  Elector  Palatine. 
In  order  to  bring  the  old  Wittelsbach  family  feud  to  a 
final  settlement,  to  seize  the  Upper  Palatinate  by  way 
of  war  indemnity,  and  to  secure  the  transfer  of  the 
electoral  dignity  from  the  palatine  to  the  Bavarian 
line  of  the  house  Maximilian  occupied  the  entire 
Palatinate.  But  war  once  kindled  in  the  empire 
could  not  be  confined  within  limits,  and  it  spread 
slowly  but  steadily  (see  Thirty  Years  War).  Too 
much  inflammable  material  had  been  accumulated 
by  the  discontent  of  the  petty  princes  of  the  empire, 
by  the  religious  animosities,  oy  the  lack  of  em- 
ployment that  resulted  from  the  economic  decline, 
and  by  the  occupation  of  the  border  provinces  by 
foreign  powers.  Whenever  Maximilian  gained  a  vic- 
tory his  enemies  with  very  little  trouble  enlisted  fredi 
hoste  of  mercenaries  *  the  Netherlands  furnished  the 
money.    Very  soon  he  was  obliged  to  send  his  army 


GEBHAHT  503  OEBMANT 

into  north-western  Germany;  thus  the  war  continued  disroiss&l  of  Wallenstein  (1629-30).    While  be  thus 

to  spread.  Boueht  to  deprive  the  emperor  of  his  commander-in- 

Twoeventaof  the  years  1624-29  increaaedanituoBi-  chief  and  bis  main  army,  Richelieu  also  uaed  every 

tiea  and,  finaiiy,  in  1G30,  gave  the  struKle  an  inter-  means  to  induce  GuatavuB  Adolphus,  Kingof  Sweden, 

national  character,     (a)  The  historical  aevelopment  to  invade  the  empire.     The  appearance  of  Wallenetein 

of  the  German  Hapaburgs  had  led  to  bo  close  a  con-  on  the  Baltic  coast  and  the  invasion  of  the  ecclesiaeti- 

nexion  between  their  dynastic  power  in  their  own  ca!  principalities  on  the  Elbe  by  the  Cathohcs  dis- 

dominions  and  the  imperial  authority  that  the  recov-  turfed  the  ambitious  King  of  Sweden.     He  was  the 

ery  of  the  former  immediately  filled  Ferdinand  with  idlest  of  all  the  princea  who,  in  the  first  half  of  the 

the  ambition  to  restore  the  latter.     When  be  drove  seventeenth    century,    sustained    the    authority   of 

the  Elector  Palatine  out  of  Bohemia  he  had  also  out-  the   aoverei^    against    the    encroachments   of    the 

lawed  him  as  a  prince  of  the  empire.    Now  that  the  petty  nobility  in  central  and  eastern  Europe.    After 

territories  in  the  empire  occupied  by  Maximilian  of  a   speedily   won   success   in   Sweden   itself,   he    set 

Bavaria  were  growing  in  extent  and  the  war  was  be-  about  the  task  of  conquering  all  the  territories  on 

cominemoregeneral  throughout  Germany,  Ferdinand  the  Baltic  in  which  the  princes  still  euScred  the  in- 

could  nardly  avoid  assuratng  its  direction.    Be  had  ferior  nobles  to  do  as  they  pleased,  thereby  securing 

not  the  necessary  funds  for  such  an  undertaking,  be-  also  for  Sweden  tbe  control  of  this  sea  and  a  place  aa 

cause  of  the  fersistently  blundering  economic  admin-  one  of  the  great  powers.     If  the  Hapsburss  should 

istration  of  Austria.     But  he  accepted  Wallenstcin's  accomplish  their  plans  for  the  restoration  of  Catholi- 

oiTer  to  maintain  an  army  for  him.     Wallenstein  was  cism  theschemesof  Gustavus  Adolphua  would  be  com- 

ambitious  to  be  invested,  as  the  head  of  an  army,  with  pletely  frustrated.    For,  in  order  to  control  all  the 

extraordinary  powers  both  military  and  diplomatic,  lands  on  the  Baltic  and  to  sever  permanently  the 

Hewaaa  genius  as  anorganizerand  a  remarkable  man,  Gerban  provinces  of  this  region  from  the  empire,  he 

but  a  conHoUtere  rather  than  a  statesman.     Neverthe-  must  unite  them  in  an  organic  poUtical  system  and  > 

less  the  emperor  placed  him  (lfl25)  at  the  head  of  an  civiliaation;  this  would  be  impossible  uidess  all  of 
army.  Wallenstein  did  not  act  in  conjunction  with 
Maximilian's  troops;  moreover,  he  showed  little  re- 
spect either  for  the  historically  established  relation 
between  emperor  and  princes,  or  for  the  position  of  the 
latter  in  the  empire.  He  quartered  his  trooin  in  tbe 
territories  of  the  princes,  levied  heavy  contributions 
from  their  subjects  and  treated  these  sovereigns 
themselves  with  arrogance,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
was  not  a  general  who  rapidly  achieved  decisive  re- 
sults. The  blind  jealousy  that  had  animated  tbe 
princes  against  Cbaries  V  was  now  directed  against 
Ferdinand.  Once  more  the  complaint  resounded  that 
the  emperor  was  placing  on  them  "the  yoke  of  brutal 
servitude",  was  making  himself  "monareb"  of  the 
empire,  and  an  autocrat,  (b)  Maximilian  followed  up 
the  victory  of  the  Bavarian  and  irnperial  forces  by 
restoring  Catholicism  in  the  Upper  Palatinate.     The 

Catholics  demanded  the  restitution  of  the  small  terri-  .^  „ 

tories  in  southern  Germany  of  which  they  had  been  See* n^di 

despoiled  since  1550,  despite  tbe  ReaemaluTn  eccletiai- 

ticum.    Furtbeimore,  overestimating  their  success  in  them  were  separated  in  religion  from  the  greater  part 

the  field,  tbey  sought  to  regain  thedioceses  in  northern  of  the  rest  of  Europe  by  professing  Lutberanism.     In 

Germany  that  bs!d  passed  under  Protestant  adminie-  the  summer  of  1030  the  king  landed  inPomerania;  in 

tration.    The  emperor  was  impelled  by  his  political  August  the  emperor  sacri£ced  Wallenstein  to  the 

interests  to  enforce  tbe  claims  for  restitution  in  the  princes. 

south,  since  this  would  greatly  weaken  the  WQrtemberg         The  success  of  Richelieu's  intrigues  and  of  Ibeinvo- 

dynasty,  which  was  an  obstacle  to  the  extension  of  the  sion  of  Gustavus  Adolpbus  appAred  more  aiarming 

Hapsburg  power  in  Swabia.     In  addition  he  also  au-  at  first  than  the  outcome  warranted.     They  did  not 

thorized  the  reclamation  of  the  bishoprics  of  northern  cause  the  dynastic  pdwer  of  Uie  Hapsburgs  to  totter. 

Germany  in  tbe  district  of  the  Elbe  and  at  the  mouth  Gustavus  Adolphua  was  killed  at  Luteen  (1632) ;  his 

of  the  Weser,  in  order  to  place  them  in  the  hands  of  finest  troops,  the  mainstay  of  his  strength,  were  anni- 

an  Austrim  archduke.     Accordinglv  he  issued  the  hilated  at  N6rdlingen  (1634).     Theieafter  the  Swedes 

Edict  of  Restitution  of  1629.     The  Calviniatic  party  could  achieve  only  ephemeral  successes  by  means  of  a 

of  the  Palatinate  had  been  totally  defeated,  and  now  few  bold  but  spasmodic  excursions  from  the  coast  into 

Lutberanism  was  in  danger  of  being  confined  to  a  the  interior  of  the  empire.    Years  passed  before  Rich- 

comparatively  narrow  territory  split  up  into  detached  elieu  was  able  to  replace  the  army  of  Gustavus  Adol- 

districts  by  Catholic  ecclesiastical  principahties.     On  phus  by  French  troops.     During  the  Swedish  invasion 

this  account  all  the  Protestant  states  of  the  empire  ne  had  occupied  (1630-34)  die  whole  of  Lorraine  and 

were  filled  with  distrust  and  resentment,  although  the  region  between  the  Moselle  and  the  Upper  Rhine. 

ill-prepared  to  take  up  arms  in  self-defence.  After  the  battle  of  NOrdlingen  he  openly  declared  war 

Cardinal  Richelieu  had,  meanwhile,  overthrown  the  against  the  emperor  (1635),  but  he  did  not  venture  far 

Huguenots  in  France  and  had  laid  plans  to  strengthen  beyond  the  Rhine.     Within  the  empire  the  first  suc- 

theFrenchpowerinEuropeby  theoccupationof  desir-  cesses  of  the  Swedes  led  to  a  reconciliation  between 

able  positions  in  upper  Italy  as  well  as  in  Lorraine  and  Maximilian  and  tbe  emperor,  while  the  continued 

on  German  soil.     He  saw  a  menace  to  his  schemes  in  occupation  of  German  soil  by  the  Swedes  and  the 

the  growth  of  the  imperfal  power  in  the  empire  and  in  French  declaration  of  war  after  Richelieu's  aasurancea 

Ferdinand's  interference  in  the  War  of  the  Mantuan  of  peace  influenced  most  of  the  other  princes  to  ally 

Succession.     He  reminded  the   princes  that  France  themselvesagainwith1beemperor,Saxony leadingtfas 

had  formerly  protected  their  liberties,  impressed  them  way.     There  was  a  burst  of  patriotic  indignation,  such 

with  its  peace-loving  character,  and  urged  them,  eape-  ashad  not  beenknown  for  along  tune;  men  were  ^ain 

cially  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  to  refuse  to  elect  the  ready  to  sacrifice  their  interests  to  those  of  the  empire, 

emperor's  son  King  of  the  Romans  and  to  demand  the  In  the  Peace  of  Prague  (1635)  emperor  ajid  prmcea 


QEBMAKY 


504 


OSRMANY 


agreed  upon  the  future  organization  of  the  empire. 
This  treaty  made  allowances  both  for  the  historical 
development  of  the  empire  and  its  necessities:  the  en- 
forcement  of  the  Edict  of  Restitution  was  suspended, 
the  autonomy  of  the  Austrian  dominions,  of  Bava- 
ria, and  of  the  great  states  of  northern  Germany  was 
recognized,  and  the  exercise  of  the  imperial  authority, 
in  so  far  as  it  extended  to  internal  a£fairB,  was  confined 
to  the  smaller  territories  of  the  west  and  south.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  administration  by ''  circles ' '  was  to 
be  revived  and  perfected.  Against  foreign  foes  all 
pledged  themselves  to  act  in  common,  no  one  desired 
any  further  separate  leagues.  In  case  of  war  a  con- 
solidated imperial  arm^r  was  to  enter  the  field.  As 
early  as  163o  the  offensive  was  taken  against  France 
and  the  Swedes.  In  1636  Ferdinand  III  was  fleeted 
Kmg  of  the  Romans;  he  was  emperor  1637-57. 

Tnus  the  political  unity  of  the  German  nation, 
sorely  as  it  had  suffered  from  the  weakness  of  the  im- 
perial authority,  the  excessive  erowth  of  separatism, 
and  the  religious  schism,  stood  me  test  in  the  hour  of 
danger.  However,  its  resources,  seriously  weakened 
after  a  struggle  of  twenty  years,  were  not  adequate  to 
carry  out  the  compact  made  at  Prague  and  to  relieve 
the  distress  of  the  empire  at  one  stroke;  Austria,  in 
particular,  was  not  equal  to  its  task.  It  was  found 
mipossible  to  drive  the  enemy  by  force  out  of  the  em- 
pire and  to  move  all  the  estates  to  imite  with  the 
emperor.  For  the  protection  of  the  frontiers  had  been 
neglected  and  Hhe  mdividual  states  allowed  to  culti- 
vate relations  with  foreign  countries  too  long  to  permit 
the  attainment  of  these  ends.  In  western  Germany 
the  Landgravate  of  Hesse  became  a  supporter  of  the 
French,  wnile  the  yoimg  Frederick  William,  Elector  of 
Brandenburg,  who  haa  succeeded  to  his  electorate  in 
the  latter  part  of  1640,  concluded  an  armistice  with 
the  Swedes.  From  1640  on  Richelieu  was  finally  able 
to  send  French  armies  into  Germany.  The  made- 
quacy  of  the  services  that  Austria  rendered  the  empire 
and  the  support  It  gave  the  Spaniards,  who  were  hated 
throughout  Germany,  reawakened  distrust  in  the  em- 
peror. Moreover  economic  conditions  in  the  German 
states,  after  nearly  a  century  of  gradual  decline,  and 
the  ravages  since  1621  of  the  soldieiy,  became  each 
year  more  pitiful.  The  need  for  rest  excluded  eveiy 
other  consideration.  Even  the  antagonistic  religious 
parties  be^n  to  lon^  for  peace.  The  smaller  estates 
of  the  empu«  felt  no  mterest  in  the  war  and  demanded 
peace  at  any  price  with  the  foreign  enemies :  even  the 
greater  ones,  becoming  gradually  exhausted,  declared 
themselves  neutral.  In  conjunction  with  the  em- 
peror, and  even  without  him,  they  negotiated  for 
peace  at  Monster  and  OsnabrQck  with  France  and 
Sweden,  whose  influence  thereby  natiu^y  became 
much  more  powerful.  But  the  consciousness  that 
they  were  parts  of  the  empire  did  not  again  die  out. 
A  cum  perception  that  Austria  in  its  development  as  a 
great  power  partly  belonged  largely  to  eastern  Europe 
had  deepen^  the  conviction,  which  was  encouraged 
by  France,  that  the  interests  of  the  empire  and  Aus- 
tria were  not  absolutely  identical,  that  the  policy  of 
the  one  need  not  of  necessity  be  the  policy  of  tne  otner. 
and  that  the  empire  had  needs  of  its  own  which  should 
be  safeguarded  by  the  estates.  In  order  to  meet  these 
exigencies  the  estates  claimed,  on  behalf  of  the  em- 
pire, the  right  to  seek  the  protection  of  other  great 
powers  as  well  as  of  the  emperor,  so  as  to  find  support 
m  all  emergencies  either  on  one  side  or  the  other. 
Some  declared  that  these  needs  were,  above  all,  the 
restoration  and  maintenance  of  peace,  and  the  preser- 
vation of  the  independence  of  tne  different  estates  of 
the  empire,  and  of  the  varied  forms  of  German  govern- 
mental administration  as  opposed  to  the  centralization 
of  other  countries.  The  Bishop  of  Wiirzburg,  John 
Philip  of  Sch6nbom,  the  most  active  representative  of 
the  inferior  estates,  was  strongly  imbued  with  these 
principles. 


These  views  were  officially  recognized  by  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia  (1648).  To  procure  the  evacuation  of 
Germany  by  the  foreifi;n  armies  France  was  mdemni- 
fied  by  that  part  of  ALsace  that  belonged  to  Austria, 
and  Sweden  oy  the  territories  at  the  mouths  of  the 
Oder  and  the  W  eser.  The  great  possessions  gained  by 
Austria  in  Bohemia  and  in  the  countries  on  the  Dan- 
ube were  not  touched,  but  it  agreed  to  cease  support- 
ing Spain.  Within  the  empire  everyone  was  restored 
to  his  own  possessions  ana  his  own  rights.  At  the 
same  time,  nowever,  the  possessions  of  the  German 
princes  having  military  resources  were  enlaiged  in 
such  manner  that  the  balance  of  power  was  main- 
tained among  them.  To  do  this  the  lands  of  decadent 
principalities,  especially  the  lands  of  the  bishoprics  of 
northemGermany  which  were  ready  for  secularization, 
were  allotted  to  them.  The  consoudation  of  northern 
Germany  into  an  ever  decreasing  number  of  states 
thus  made  another  great  advance,  as  was  evidenced  by 
the  fact  that  towards  the  end  of  the  war  even  the  mucn 
divided  possessions  of  the  Guelphs  in  the  north-west 
were  combined  to  a  laijge  extent,  like  those  of  the  other 
north  German  dynasties,  imder  a  single  government. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  assure  the  mutual  recogni- 
tion of  the  new  territorial  boundaries  by  establishing 
complete  ecjuality  between  Protestants  and  Catholics. 
The  Catholics  were  satisfied  with  a  slight  enlargement 
of  their  possessions  over  those  they  held  in  the  year 
1618,  the  year  taken  as  the  standard  being  1624,  and 
the  Calvinistic  Confession  was  recognized.  The  new 
order  of  things  was  protected,  as  regards  the  emperor, 
by  proclaiming  the  sovereignty  of  the  princes  of  the 
empire,  by  restoring  to  them  the  right  to  make  alli- 
ances, and  by  making  France  and  Sweden  the  guaran- 
tors of  the  execution  of  the  treaty.  As  against  these 
two  powers,  however,  it  was  most  inadequately  se- 
cured; the  disturbances  in  the  south-west,  it  is  true, 
were  suppressed,  but  the  division  of  that  re^on  into 
small  states  was  maintained,  and  its  devSopment 
thereby  impeded.  The  result  was  that  the  frontier 
bordering  on  France  was  ill-protected,  while  the  occu- 
pation of  the  lands  at  the  mouUis  of  the  Oder  and 
Weser  by  the  Swedes  was  a  perennial  danger  to  north- 
em  Germany. 

(2)  164S  to  i67^.— Frishtful  as  had  been  the  devas- 
tation of  property  and  Toss  of  life,  the  conclusion  of 
peace  did  not  find  a  mined  people.  Both  in  political 
affairs  and  in  the  advance  of  civilization  the  war  had 
brought  about  the  renewal  of  national  vigour.  In 
most  of  the  states  the  governments  gave  themselves  to 
arduous  work.  Some  commercial  centres  gradually 
revived,  and  by  untiring  enei^  the  agriculture  of 
northern  Germany  recovered  its  working  power.  In- 
tellectual life  also  reawakened  and  grew  apace.  In  ju- 
risprudence, political  science,  education,  the  perfecting 
of  the  German  language,  and  poetry,  a  succession  of 
scholars,  by  a  constajitly  increasing  mastery  qi  form  and 
matter,  produced  a  series  of  great  works.  The  study 
of  these  works  during  the  next  two  decades  matured 
the  all-embracing  genius  of  Leibniz  (1646-1716). 
France,  which  reached  the  height  of  its  literary  culture 
in  the  following  generation,  was  the  teacher  of  Ger- 
many, and  Catholicism  derived  especial  advantage 
from  the  influence  of  France.  The  reputation  of 
Catholicism  rapidly  increased,  and  it  soon  exerted  a 
powerful  force  of  attraction  over  many  high-minded 
Protestants  in  Germany  which  eventually  led  them 
into  the  Church.  Around  Sch6nbom  especially,  who 
in  1647  had  become  Archbishop  of  Mainz  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  empire,  was  ^thered  a  circle  of  Catholics, 
converts,  and  well-intentioned  Protestants,  among  the 
latter  Leibniz.  From  SchOnbom  emanated  an  influ- 
ence that  permeated  the  entire  intellectual  life  of 
Germany.  In  the  domain  of  politics  Catholic  hopes 
were  founded  on  the  military  successes  of  Austria  and 
Bavaria,  which  had  shown  themselves  the  strongest  of 
the  German  states,  on  the  efforts  of  Schdnbom  to  ior 


QXRBIANY                              505  GERMAinr 

ivuse  life  into  the  administration  by  "  circles ",  and  on  In  1667-68  Louis  was  able  to  place  a  check  upon  the 
his  attempt  to  form  alliances  among  the  princes  with  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  and  also  upon  Austria,  the 
the  ultimate  aim  of  bringing  about  a  ^neral  confeder-  d3rma8tic  line  of  which  was  now  reduced  to  one  person, 
ation  of  the  estates.  Sch6nbom  desued,  by  means  of  and  threatened  to  become  extinct  like  that  of  Spain, 
such  a  general  confederation,  to  make  Germany  under  Although  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  led  the  Germans  to 
his  own  leadership  independent  of  the  favour  of  the  take  France  as  a  model,  yet  in  many  unseen  ways 
great  powers.  Although  this  confederation  was  to  be  it  prepared  the  emancipation  of  Germany.  The  nar 
peaceful  in  character  and  could  consequently  only  tional  consciousness  became  quickened  in  proportion 
Become  a  second  grade  power,  he  even  hoped  to  make  as  intellectual  life  reawakened,  and  the  national  spirit 
of  it  a  means  of  establishing  a  balance  of  power  in  once  more  found  a  voice.  The  princes  gradually  drew 
Europe  between  France  and  Austria,  such  as  some  back  from  France,  and  its  friendship  was  only  seriously 
Italians  had  sought  to  make  of  their  country  in  the  sought  by  the  House  of  Wittelsbach.  When  de  Li- 
preceding  century.  SchOnbom's  policy  was  most  sue-  onne,  Louis's  adviser  in  foreign  affairs,  warned  him 
cessful  in  1657-58,  when  Ferdinand  III  died  with-  not  to  carry  out  his  purpose  ofattacking  the  Nether- 
out  leaving  an  heir  who  had  attained  his  majorit^r  and  lands  until  he  was  sure  of  the  sympathy  of  the  more 
had  been  elected  King  of  the  Romans,  thus  giving  important  German  princes,  all  the  efforts  of  the  able 
France  an  opportunity  to  attempt  to  dictate  the  suo-  French  diplomats  did  not  avail  to  obtain  this  assur- 
oession  to  the  imperial  crown.  ochOnbom,  however,  anoe.  Louis,  nevertheless,  advanced  against  the 
secured  its  bestowal  upon  another  Hapsburg,  Leopold  Dutch,  and  a  storm  of  popular  indication  broke  out  in 
I  (1658-1705);  at  the  same  time  he  united  a  large  Germany  which  earned  along  with  it  the  German 
number  of  princes  in  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  princes,  with  the  exception  of  the  Wittelsbach  line.  In 
(Rheinbund),  which  looked  for  support  to  France.  1674  the  empire  declared  war  against  France. 

Still  more  powerful  but  not  more  advantageous  for  (3)  167Jh^71S, — ^This  was  the  si^al  for  a  war  of 
Germany  was  the  influence  exercised  on  the  course  of  forty  years  duration,  which  was  divided  into  three 
events  by  another  reigning  prince,  Frederick  William  periods.  In  the  first  the  advantages  of  efficient  gen- 
of  Brandenburg,  the  Great  Elector*  His  contemporar  ^  erals,  well-trained  troops,  and  abundant  means  were 
ries  looked  upon  him  only  as  the  most  turbulent  of  the,  all  on  the  side  of  France.  The  contingents  of  the 
rulers  in  the  empire.  His  chief  object  was  the  ag-  German  princes  formed  a  motley  body;  in  1675  the 
grandisement  of  Brandenburg  to  the  eastward  of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  withdrew,  and  marched  into 
Elbe,  but  in  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  he  had  been  Pomerania  against  the  Swedes.  In  addition,  the 
compensated  by  new  territories  in  western  Germany,  allies  of  the  emperor,  the  Netherlands  and  Spain, 
Dissatisfied  with  this  arrangement  he  openly  avowed  proved  inefficient.  Only  a  few  isolated  exploits,  such 
that  as  the  greater  part  of  his  dominion  bordered  on  as  the  battle  of  Fehrbelhn  (1675),  revived  the  fame  of 
eastern  Europe,  he,  like  Austria  and  even  more  un-  German  military  prowess.  In  1679  peace  was  made 
scrupulously,  did  not  consider  the  interests  of  Ger-  between  the  empire  and  France  at  Nimwegen.  Louis, 
many  as  identical  with  those  of  Brandenburg.  When  however,  overestimated  his  success.  On  tne  one  hand 
Sweden  declared  war  on  Poland  in  1655  he  took  part  he  calculated  on  detaching  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg 
on  the  side  of  the  former  country  with  all  his  resources,  permanently  from  the  German  cause  by  compelling 
In  1658  the  new  emperor  joined  forces  with  him  to  nim,  as  in  1660,  to  restore  all  the  territory  won  from 
drive  Sweden  out  of  Germany.  In  order  to  be  more  the  Swedes  and  then  to  enter  into  an  aUianoe  with 
certain  of  the  aid  of  the  imperial  troops  Frederick  France  that  would  reduce  him  almost  to  feudatory 
William,  at  the  election  of  the  emperor,  brought  it  dependence.  On  the  other  hand,  after  peace  had 
about  that  Austria  was  required  to  renew  its  pled^  been  signed,  France  seized  various  strips  of  territory  on 
not  to  support  Spain,  at  which  France  was  prepanng  the  western  frontier  of  Germany  (called  the  'vRe- 
to  strike  the  final  blow.  This  threatened  Germany  unions '')i  this  unwarranted  procedure  culminating  in 
enoe  more  with  serious  danger,  for  France,  after  forcing  the  occupation  of  Strasburg  (1781).  Such  conduct, 
Spain  into  concluding  the  Peace  of  the  P3rrenees  in  however,  only  stimulated  the  patriotic  indignation  of 
1659,  in  1660  dictated  peace  on  the  Baltic  at  Oliva  and  the  small  western  states  (Alliance  of  Laxenbui^, 
GopNenhagen  on  such  terms  that  Sweden  was  protected  1682),  while  at  the  same  time  the  rising  g|eneration  m 
against  any  diminution  of  its  territories.  Tnen  when  the  larger  principalities,  including  the  territories  of  the 
the  Turks,  after  a  long  truce,  renewed  their  advance  Wittelsbach  line,  was  rallying  enthusiastically  around 
on  Vienna  in  1662  France  forced  auxiliaries  on  Austria  the  emperor  for  the  Turkish  war.  The  repulse  of  the 
as  soon  as  the  latter  began  to  offer  a  sturdy  defence.  Turks  at  the  siege  of  Vienna  (1683),  followed  by 
Consequently,  after  the  first  victories,  Leopold  pre-  the  glorious  recovery  of  Hungary,  ^ve  a  new  impulse 
ferred  to  come  to  a  secret  understanding  with  the  to  Austria's  political  power.  With  the  increase  of 
Turks  at  Vasvdr  (1664).  France  interfered  in  every  French  interference  in  German  affairs  (succession  to 
quarrel  among  the  states  of  the  empire.  the  Palatinate,  1685;  election  of  the  Bishop  of  Co- 
Aided  by  the  personal  charm  of  its  young  king  logne,1688),German  resistance  to  Louis,  in  which  Bran- 
Louis  XIV,  who  had  assumed  the  government  in  1 661 ,  denbuig  joined,  became  unanimous .  Louis  retorted  by 
France  appeared  to  have  obtained  a  dominant  influ-  renewing  war.  ^tiiough  Austria  was  still  engaged  in 
ence  in  Cxermany  such  as  Charles  V  had  formerly  held  the  struggle  with  the  Turks,  the  military  forces  of  the 
in  Italy.  What  it  had  vainly  striven  to  gain  by  war  two  sides  were  almost  even.  The  Maigrave  Louis 
France  now  acquired  during  ten  years  of  peace.  Ap-  William  of  Baden  organized  the  troops  of  the  small 
parently  in  all  parts  of  the  empire,  including  Austria,  south-western  states  of  Germany  in  an  efficient  man- 
there  was  a  continually  growing  need  of  peace.  The  ner.  Austria  found  in  Eugene  of  Savoy  a  general  and 
subsidies  that  Louis  poured  into  the  exchequers  of  the  statesman  who,  in  a  position  similar  to  Wallenstein's, 
impecunious  princes,  who  were  just  beginning  to  de-  far  surpassed  the  latter  in  ^nius  and  character, 
vise  a  rational  system  of  taxation,  were  intended  to  Moreover,  the  emperor  found  m  Eneland  a  far  more 
fetter  them.  The  upper  classes  in  Cxermany  surren-  efficient  ally  than  the  Netherlands  had  been.  Both 
dered  themselves  completely  to  the  influence  of  French  sides  brought  laiger  and  larger  armies  into  the  field, 
culture  and  customs.  Moreover,  French  statecraft,  until  each  of  them  maintains  400,000  men.  By  the 
economic  policy ,  and  military  system,  which  presented  Peace  of  R3rswick  (1697)  Louis  restored  part  of  the 
to  the  princes  an  example  of  effective  administrative  territory  of  which  he  had  robbed  the  empire.  Austria, 
organization,  all  promised  to  place  Germany  more  and  by  the  brilliant  victory  of  Zenta  (1697),  drove  the 
more  under  the  spell  of  its  western  neighbour.  The  THirks  completely  out  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania 
Houses  of  Guelph  and  Wittelsbach  and  the  rulers  of  (Treaty  of  Carlowitz,  1699).  Hie  death  of  the  last 
Saxony  aUowed  themselves  to  be  won  over  by  France.  Spanish  Hapsbuig  (1700)  caused  a  fresh  outbreak  of 


OKRBIANY 


506 


QKBBIAHY 


the  war  ajs  early  as  1701.  This  time  Austria  was  able 
to  emplo}r  most  of  its  forces  against  France,  England 
beinff  aeain  the  ally  of  the  empire.  The  allied  powers 
won  omliant  victories,  some  jointly,  some  separately 
(Blenheim,  1704,  Ramillies  and  Turin,  1706,  Ouden- 
arde,  1708,  Malplaquet,  1709).  By  straining  its  pow- 
ers to  the  utmost  France  bettered  its  position  after 
1709.  Durins  the  course  of  the  war  Austria  chanced 
rulers  twice,  Joseph  I  reining  1705-11,  Charles  Vl, 
171 1-40.  After  Charles  VI  ascended  the  throne  Eng- 
land deserted  Austria.  By  the  Treaties  of  Rastatt 
and  Baden  in  1713-14  France  retained  only  Alsace  out 
of  all  its  conquests  on  the  German  frontier.  Mean- 
while Austria,  which  had  once  more  become  embroUed 
with  the  Turks,  again  defeated  the  latter,  and  imposed 
terms  at  the  Peace  of  Passarowitz  in  1718  that  were 
esxtremely  favourable  to  Austrian  trade  in  the  Levant. 
At  the  same  time  a  war  was  raging  between  Russia  and 
Sweden,  and  the  princes  of  northern  Germany  took 
advantage  of  it  to  drive  Sweden  completely  out  of 
Germany  (treaty  of  Stockholm  between  Sweden  and 
Hanover  in  1719;  between  Sweden  and  Prussia  in 
1720). 

By  the  victories  over  the  Turks  and  by  its  opposi- 
tion to  Louis  XIV  the  Austrian  monarchy  became  in 
the  fullest  sense  a  great  power,  while  France  effected 
no  substantial  extension  of  its  frontiers.  In  this  way 
the  plans  of  Ferdinand  II  were  realized  and  secured 
for  a  long  period.  But  at  the  same  time  Ferdinand's 
successors  allowed  the  imperial  power  and  the  reor- 
sanization  of  the  empire  to  dechne.  In  the  reign  of 
Leopold  I  the  Diet  had,  indeed,  become  a  permanent 
body  at  Ratisbon  from  1663,  and  the  empire  took  part 
as  a  whole  in  aU  three  periods  of  the  war.  The  con- 
temporary sovereim  princes,  however,  were  inter- 
ested chiefly  in  Uie  political  development  of  the 
separate  states.  Their  policies  were  bas^  on  the 
centralizing  and  absolutist  principles  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Louis  XIV.  These  principles  were  suscepti- 
ble of  application  to  the  individual  principalities,  out 
not  to  tne  empire,  which,  by  its  very  nature,  was  fed- 
eral and  parliamentary.  The  empire  could  never 
have  the  same  bureaucratic  form  of  administration 
that  the  separate  principalities  had  now  received,  nor 
could  it  be  organized  on  a  fiscal  basis  similar  to  theirs. 
Consequently  Austria,  Prussia,  which  had  become  a 
kingdom  in  1701.  and  the  other  larger  German  states 
detached  themselves  more  and  more  from  the  empire. 
Some  ruling  houses,  dissatisfied  with  the  smallness  of 
their  territories,  which  did  not  admit  of  extension, 
were  disposed,  at  the  beginning  of  the  new  century,  to 
seek  new  countries.  The  Elector  of  Saxony,  belong- 
ing to  the  Wettin  line,  accepted  the  crown  of  Poland 
(1697^,  while  the  main  branch  of  the  Guelphs  ascended 
the  tnrone  of  England  (1714).  The  branch  of  the 
House  of  Wittelsbach  that  ruled  Bavaria  aspired  to 
the  crown  of  Spain,  or  at  least  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands.  When  foiled  in  this  they  made 
an  alliance  with  France  in  1701 ;  this  doom^  them  to 
an  unfruitful,  separatist  policy  in  their  territories. 
Even  among  the  people  the  conception  of  imperial 
unity  no  longer  obtained.  It  is  true  that  the  nation 
made  steadv  progress  towards  intellectual  unity, 
as  the  development  of  its  written  language  proved. 
Moreover  between  1660  and  1690  the  patriotic  sen- 
timent of  the  nation  showed  itself  plainly,  but  it 
grew  weak  again  at  the  very  moment  that  was  de- 
cisive for  a  constitutional  policy.  For  the  people  took 
but  little  interest  in  the  aims  of  the  last  period  of  war, 
tiie  struggle  over  the  Spanish  succession,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  entire  organic  life  of  the  nation  was 
undereoine  a  vital  crisis.  Economically  the  country 
made  but  Qttle  progress  because  its  resources  were  too 
much  exhausted  and  the  constant  wars  permitted  no 
recuperation.  Consequently  the  social  or^nization 
of  the  nation,  in  particular,  lost  its  elasticity;  the 
nobility  became  arrogant,  the  middle  class  decayed, 


the  bureaucracy  ^w  overweening  and  excluded  all 
others  from  participation  in  state  affairs.  During  this 
period  the  (Germans  made  no  effort  to  secure  national 
unity.  Under  these  circumstances,  notwithstanding 
the  Cxerman  victories,  foreign  countries  affected  in 
large  measure  German  politics.  France  continued  to 
be  the  guaranteeing  power.  Two  other  ^reat  powers, 
England  and  Russia,  had  considerable  mfluence,  the 
former  on  Hanover,  with  which  it  was  connected  by  a 
common  dynasty,  the  other  on  all  the  Cierman  states 
on  the  Baltic,  especially  Prussia. 

Catholicism  lost  its  preponderance  once  more  owing 
both  to  the  renewed  decay  of  political  and  national 
life  in  Cxermany  and  to  the  decline  of  France.  At  the 
banning  of  the  eighteenth  century  its  progress  lay  in 
the  field  of  art,  especially  in  that  of  arcnitecture.  In 
Vienna  and  the  capitals  of  the  spiritusJ  and  temporal 
lords  of  southern  (jfennany  many  architecturally  strik- 
ing buildings  were  erected;  among  the  great  archi- 
tects and  fresco  painters  of  this  period  were  Hilde- 
brand,  Pr&ndauer,  Fischer  of  Erlach,  Neumann,  and 
the  brothers  Asam.  Protestantism,  however,  led  in 
learning,  as  was  exemplified  by  the  professors  of  the 
University  of  Halle,  Thomasius,  Christian  Wolff, 
Francke.  Moreover,  the  close  relations  of  Enjgland  to 
Germany  now  began  to  make  themselves  felt,  and 
German  I^testantism  found  in  England  a  powerful 
and  progressive  intellectual  aid  that  Sweden  had  not 
been  able  to  afford. 

From  1713  to  1848.— (1)  I71S  to  176S.—M&ny  petty 
differences  were  still  left  unsettled  in  1713,  many  an 
ambition  was  as  yet  unrealized.  In  Germany  as  wdl 
as  in  the  rest  of  Europe  questions  remained  to  be  set- 
tled by  diplomatic  negotiations,  but  swords  were 
sheathed .  The  people  had  an  intense  desire  for  peace. 
The  industrial  classes  longed  to  emerge  from  the 
miserable  hand-to-mouth  existence  which  had  been 
theirs  for  so  many  years,  to  rise  again  to  the  profitable 
exercise  of  trades  and  commerce,  and  to  accumulate 
capital  for  larger  undertakings.  For  several  decades 
to  come  they  were  obliged  to  work  without  visible 
results.  But  the  strenuous  effort  produced  the  will 
and  the  strength  necessary  to  achieve  the  phenomenal 
economic  progress  of  the  German  people  in  the-nine- 
teenth  century.  The  prevailing  tendencv  among  the 
princes  and  nobility  was  towaras  the  voluptuous  en- 
joyment of  the  social  and  artistic  pleasures  of  life, 
which  they  gratified  by  the  erection  of  magnificent 
buildinsi  and  by  gorgeous  court  ceremonials;  exam- 
ples of  me  indulgence  of  such  tastes  were  the  rulers  of 
Saxony  Augustus  II  (1694-1733)  and  Augustus  III 
(1733-^3),  the  latter  being  also  King  of  Poland ;  Maxi- 
milian II  Emanuel  of  Bavaria  (1679-1726) ;  Eberhard 
Louis  (1677-1733)  and  Charles  Eugene  (1737-93)  of 
WQrtemberg.  Men  of  higher  aims  were  Maximilian 
III  Joseph  of  Bavaria  (1745-77),  and,  among  the 
bishops,  especially  those  of  the  SchOnbom  family.  In 
the  interior  development  of  the  states  the  princes 
sought  to  complete  the  reorganization  of  their  terri- 
tories according  to  the  Frendi  absolutist  and  bureau- 
cratic model,  as:  the  introduction  of  state  oflScials  into 
local  government,  the  collection  of  taxes  in  coin  and  a 
money  basis  for  trade,  the  augmentation  of  the  stand- 
ing armies,  repression  of  the  privileges  of  the  nobility, 
and  the  extinction  of  parliamentary  and  corporative 
rights.  To  perfect  such  a  system  both  persistent  and 
steady  effort  was  needed;  the, majority  of  states  fell 
short  in  this  respect.  In  Hanover  the  nobles  gradually 
recovered  control  of  the  government;  in  Austria  a 
perilous  state  of  political  inertia  set  in  under  Charles 
VI.  Frederick  William  I  of  Prussia  (1713-40)  waa 
the  only  sovereign  who  carried  out  the  work  of  econo- 
mic reconstruction  with  energy.  The  ideal  state 
which  the  statesmen  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV  sought  to 
attain,  an  id^  impracticable  in  larger  countries,  was 
to  a  ^reat  extent  realized  in  Prussia.  Small  as  was 
Prussia's  territory  and  backward  as  it  was  in  civilize- 


tion,  it  grew,  neyerUieless,  into  a  power  influential  out  Europe,  for  En^and  in  this  period  was  rapidly  ad- 

of  all  proportion  to  the  riie  of  its  population  and  area,  vanemg  in  commerce,  industries,  and  intellectual  life. 
thanks  to  the  hi^  efficiency  of  the  administration,  to  and  exhibited  an  eneraetic  and  far^eeinff  political 
the  utilization  of  all  resources  for  the  benefit  of  the  policy-.  The  minine  ol  the  coal  and  ore  oepoBits  in 
State,  and  to  the  imBa^inf;  energy  of  the  king  himself,  the  Rhenish- Westpnalian  district  and  in  Silesia  was 
Shortly  aft«r  1740  Prussia  was  able  to  maintain  a  undertaken  on  a  lai^  scale,  the  number  of  factories 
Btandins  army  of  more  than  100,000  men  ready  for  increased,  the  Hanseatic  towns  took  advantage  of  the 
war,and with thisarmyitcould turn thescaleinacoD-  American  Declaration  of  Independence  to  establish 
flict  between  the  equally  balanced  forces  of  the  great  transoceanic  trade  relations  that  were  pr^nant  with 
1-:^  j^Ij  resultfl  for  the  future  of  German  commerce,  while 


In  1740  Irederick  11,  the  Great,  succeeded  to  the  agriculture  east  of  the  Elbe  adopted  larger  methods 

throne  of  Prussia.    In  the  period  just  passed  Austria  involving  the  use  of  capital  in  order  to  develop  export 

and  France  had  eidiausted  themselves  m  a  war  b^un  trade  in  grain  with  England.    In  addition  to  Halle 

in  17^  over  issues  that  had  not  been  setUed  in  1713,  other  universities  in  northern  Germany  became  noted 

namely,  the  Polish  Succession,  and  the  right  of  France  as  centres  of  intellectual  life ;  amone  these  were  Gat^ 

to  Lorraine.     By  the  Peace  of  Vienna  in  1738  France  tingen,  founded  in  1737,  which  had  the  historians  and 

obtained  Lorraine;  Austria,  moreover,  in  1739  lost  writers  on  political  science,  SchlAzer  and  Spittler,  as 

Belgrad  to  the  Turks.     Soon  after  Frederick's  occes-  professors,  and  KOnigaberg,  where  Kant  and  Kraus 

Bion  in  Prussia,  the  Emperor  Charies  VI  died,  leavine  taught.    Most  of  the  precursors  of  the  classical  age  of 

s  daughter,  Maria  Theresa  (1740--80).     France  and  German  poetry,  as  Klopstock  and  Lessing,  were  North 

Bavana  took  up  arms  to  prevent  her  cdming  to  the  Germans,  so  were  many  of  the  writera  of  the  Storm 

throne  of  Austria;  this  was  in  direct  violation  of  the  and  Stress  (Sturm  utuf  Drajig)  period.     And  although 

promises  made  to  Charles  when  these  countries  recog-  Goethe  and  Schiller,  the  grta.t  poets  of  the  dassic  era, 

nised  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  At  the  instigation  of  were  South  Germans,  yet  uiey  made  their  homes  in  the 
Fnuice  the  electors  chose  Charles  Albert  of  Bavaria 
emperor  under  the  title  of  Charles  VII  (1742-^6), 
Frederick  the  Great  took  full  advantage  of  Maria 
Theresa's  difficulties;  he  occupied  Silesia  and,  upon 
her  refusal  to  surrender  it,  concluded  an  alliance  with  , 
France  and  Bavaria;  tiie  wars  that  followed  upon  this 
were  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (I740-4S), 
the  First  Silesian  War  (1740-12),  and  the  Second 
Silesian  War  (1744-45).  Impaired  in  stren^  during 
the  weak  Rovemment  of  Charies  VI,  Austria  seemed 
ready  to  fall  to  pieces  under  the  force  of  the  shock. 
But  the  hesitation  of  Frederick  the  Great,  the  aid  of 
En^and,  Austria's  ally  after  1742.  and  above  all 
Haria  lieresa'a  political  eneivy  ana  inspiriting  per- 
sonality helped  Austria  to  witEstand  the  shock.  Si- 
lesia, it  is  true,  was  not  recovered,  but  Maria  Theresa 
kept  all  the  other  provinces  and  in  1746  her  husband, 

Francis  I,  was  elected  emperor.     She  found  in  Kau-  ,^ 

nits  a  most  valuable  guide  in  matters  of  foreign  policy  |i*!Sd'^i^2^""" 
and  a  wise  assistant  in  the  direction  of  home  wfairs.  »niae  uiuBaaa 
"The  internal  administration  was  steadily  perfected  north,  the  centre  from  which  their  inSuence  was 
in  imitation  of  Prussia,  the  army  was  reoreanised  exerted  beins  the  Court  of  Weimar.  Herder  and  the 
bv  Daun,  Laudon,  and  Lacy.  Further,  by  t£e  new  two  Humboldts  were  Prussians.  The  Romantic 
,  aUiance  between  the  three  great  European  powers,  School  also  under  the  leadership  of  North  Germans, 
Austria.  France  and  Russia,  Austria  was  once  more  the  Schl^els,  Uardenberg,  Tieck,  Schleiermacher, 
establisned  in  a  commanding  position  in  Europe,  devdoped  around  two  northern  cities.  Beriin  and 
However,  Frederick,  with  the  aid  of  England  as  afly,  Jena.  It  was  through  the  intellectual  ascendancy 
prevented  the  consequences  of  these  measures  from  exerted  by  northern  Germany  that  Denmark  and 
becoming  immediately  apparent.  In  1756  he  made  a  Holland  were  brought  almost  completely  within  the 
fresh  attack  on  Austria  while  England  simultaneously  sphere  of  German  culture.  From  north-western  Ger- 
went  to  war  with  France  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  many  proceeded  the  chief  influences  that  in  a  pcriod- 
the  latter's  colonies.  The  ensuing  stru^le  was  the  ical  press  created  German  public  opinion  (SchlOcer'E 
Seven  Years  War,  which  exposed  the  weak  points  of  criticisms  on  contemporary  politics  in  his  "  Staatsan- 
the  schemes  of  Kaunitz  and  especially  the  decline  in  leigen",  the  political  writmgs  of  Gentz),  and  encour- 
the  military  strength  of  France  before  their  exceltencee  aged  the  sense  of  nationality  (MOser,  Count  Stolberg). 
could  be  turned  to  use.  Moreover  Maria  Theresa,  by  It  was  in  this  part  of  Germany  that  Freiherr  vom 
summoning  as  empress  the  French  to  enter  the  coun-  Stein  received  his  early  education  and  his  training  in 
try,  stifled  in  the  princes  all  feeling  of  obligation  to  the  official  lite.  The  relatively  large  area  of  the  states  of 
empire,  while  Frederick  by  his  victory  over  the  French  northern  Germflny,  the  result  of  the  last  two  hundred 
at  Rossbach  (1757)  became  a  national  hero  despite  the  and  fifty  years  of  political  evolution,  encouraged  in- 
, unpopularity  of  Prussia.  In  addition,  the  sturdy  re-  tellectual  progress  and  was  in  turn  promot«d  thereby, 
sistance  that  the  Prussian  kingoflered  to  the  uiree  For  the  first  time  northern  Germany  undertook  to  out- 
powers,  even  though  he  failed  of  victory,  made  an  strip  southern  Germany  in  development;  along  with 
impression  on  the  political  worid  in  Prussia's  favour  no  this,  however,  the  Protestant  states  once  more  took 
less  great  in  results  than  were  the  consequences  in  the  lead  of  the  Catholic  states. 
northern  Germany  of  his  alliance  with  Eneland.  Itis  true  that  southern  Germany  immediately  strove 

(2)  1763  to  1815. — After  the  Treaty  of  HubertuB-  to  compete  with  northern  Germany,  but  the  division  of 

burg  (1763)   Prussia  was  not  only  an  independent  the  former  section  into  so  many  small  principalities 

state,  it  had  as  well  an  independent  policy.     From  paralysed  commerce  and  retarded  intellectual  pro^ 

thistimeon  the  rest  of  northern  Germany  also  became  ress  and  the  development  of  industries.     Joseph  U 

alienated  from  Austriaandsouthern  Germany.     These  (q.v.),  ioint-ruler  with  Maria  Theresa  from  1760  and 

states  now  received  an  impulse  from  England  such  as  sole  ruler  of  Austria  from  1780  to  1700,  desired  to 

they  had  never  bad  from  the  empire   and  Central  remedy  tliia  disintegration  by  annexing  Bavaria  to 


1 


aKBMAHT  508  OERMAirr 

Austria  and  bv  eztendine  the  Austrian  power  in  and  by  bumble  supplication  obtained  from  It  the 

Swabia  and  on  tne  Upper  BSiine.    The  latter  result  he  aggrandisement  of  their  territories  at  the  expense  of 

desired  to  attain  by  making  the  city  of  Constance  a  the  ecclesiastical  rulers  whose  dominions  were  to  be 

f;reat  emporium  of  trade  between  Italy  and  Germany,  secularized.  At  the  Congress  of  Rastatt  (1797-09) 
n  Austria  he  set  on  foot  far-reaching  projects  of  re-  France  was  willing  to  grant  their  petitions,  but  Russia, 
form.  On  the  non-materud  side  he  and  other  rulers  England,  and  Austria  brought  the  congress  to  a  pre- 
s trove  to  infuse  new  stren^Ui  into  the  intellectual  and  mature  end  b^  renewing  the  war  with  France.  Pre- 
civilising  influence  of  Catholicity  as  opposed  to  Prot-  vious  to  this,  in  1792,  rrussia  had  joined  Austria  in 
estantism.  Catholicity  in  southern  Uermany,  which  taking  up  arms  against  the  French  Revolution.  At 
remained  closely  in  touch  with  French  intellectual  life,  the  Treaty  of  Basle  (1795),  however,  it  had  deserted 
suffered  from  the  paralyzing  influence  of  French  ration-  Austria  and,  influenced  by  French  diplomacy,  die- 
alism  and  its  destructive  critical  tendencies.  The  closed  for  the  first  time  its  ambition  to  become  the 
champions  of  the  Church ,  foremost  among  them  being  ruling  power  of  northern  Germany,  to  annex  Hanover, 
the  Prince-Abbot  Martin  Gerbert  of  St.  Slasien,  ^ve  and  to  carry  out  the  secularisation  of  ecclesiastical 
it  a  more  national  basis  aeain  and  infused  into  it  a  lands.  But  Frederick  the  Great's  successors.  Frede- 
more  positive  spirit.  But  uie^  failed,  almost  without  rick  William  II  (1786-97)  and  Frederick  William  III 
exception,  to  renounce  in  pnnciple  the  rationalistic  (1797-1840),  were  men  of  little  eneivy.  Moreover  at 
movement;  this  failure  led  many  men,  as  Joseph  II,  the  Second  (1793)  and  Third  (1795)  Partitions  of 
and  Wessenberg,  into  grievous  errors.  Progress  in  Poland  Prussia  had  assumed  more  Polish  territory 
southern  Germany  depended  ultimately  upon  proj^ress  than  it  could  assimilate ;  its  administrative  resources, 
in  Austria.  Not  only^  however,  did  all  the  political  unable  to  bear  the  strain  put  upon  them,  were  para- 
plans  for  Germany  of  Joseph  II  break  down  b^ore  the  lyzed.  Thus  the  end  of  tne  eighteenth  century  left 
opposition  of  Frederick  the  Great,  as  shown  in  the  Germany  in  complete  disorder. 
War  of  the  Bavarian  Succession  (1778-79)  and  in  the  South-western  Germany,  brought  into  constant 
leaeue  of  princes  formed  by  Frederick  against  Joseph  contact  with  France  by  active  commercial  relations, 
(1785),  but  towards  the  end  of  Joseph's  reign  serious  now  manifested  a  desire  for  comprehensive  and  effi- 
revolutionary  movements  sprang  up  against  nim  even  dent  political  omnization.  For,  by  the  impetuosity 
in  his  own  dominioDs.  A  complete  reversal  of  the  with  which  the  French  Revolution  preached  the  prin- 
relative  strength  of  northern  and  southern  Germany  ciple  of  nationality  and  the  rights  ot  the  individiud  in 
seemed  imminent.  the  State,  the  German  mind  had  again  become  acoessi- 

Nevertheless  northern  Germany  did  not  fullv  util-  ble  to  national  ideas  and  strong  political  convictions. 

ise  the  pre-eminence  it  had  obtained  in  intellectual  From  the  beginning  of  the  nmeteenth  century  the 

progress.    In  spirit  Frederick  the  Great  was  not  in  Romantic  School  extolled  theelories  of  German  na- 

sympathy  with  recent  developments.    The  Exijglish  tionality  and  the  empire,  and  the  younger  jjenera- 

political  system  rested  on  principles  differing  widely  tion  of  officials  in  the  several  states,  eepecially  in 

from  French  absolutism,  the  methods  and  aims  of  Prussia,  promoted  drastic  measures  of  reform.    Na- 

which  Frederick,  following  in  his  father's  footsteps,  poleon,  as  the  instrument  of  the  times,  contributed  to 

clung  to  tenaciously.    He  even  carried  these  some-  the  realization  of  these  ideals.    Defeating  Austria 

what  further,  especially  in  regard  to  economic  adminis-  again,  both  in  1800  (Treaty  of  Lun^ville,  1801),  and  in 

tration.    Taken  altogether  his  political  achievements  1805  (Treaty  of  Presbui^),  Napoleon  proceeded  to 

were  the  greatest  and  most  effective  development  of  make  a  new  distribution  oi  German  territory.    By  the 

the  French  system.    After  1763  by  the  annexation  of  T^reaty  of  Lun^ville  he  annexed  the  left  bank  of  the 

West  Prussia,  obtained  throujo^  the  First  Partition  of  Rhine  to  France.    By  the  partition  compacts  with 

Poland  in  1722,  he  extended  his  dominions  in  the  dis-  Prussia  and  Bavaria  in  1802  and  by  the  Imperial 

trict  of  the  Oder  and  Weichsel  Rivers,  and  by  adopt-  Delegates  Enactment  of  1803,  he  secularized  such 

ing  the  policy  of  Catherine  II  of  Russia  he  secured  for  ecclesiastical  states  as  still  existed,  and  in  1805-06  he 

his  kingdom  a  strong  position  among  the  states  of  abolished  the  rest  of  the  decadent  pettv  principalities 

Eastern  Europe.    Moreover  he  declared  his  intention  in  the  south,  indudins  the  domains  of  tne  free  knichts. 

to  cive  ^)ecial  weight  to  the  eastern  or  Prussian  part  of  the  empire  and  of  the  free  cities.    He  wished  to 

of  his  monarchy  by  makine  its  nobility,  the  Junker,  retain  only  three  territorial  divisions  in  southern  Ger- 

his  principal  instruments  Both  in  the  military  ana  many:    Bavaria,  WOrtember^,  and  Baden.    These 

civil  administration.    From  the  time  of  t^eir  arrival  his  creative  genius  built  up  into  secondary  states, 

in  these  districts  these  nobles  had  been  trained  to  similar  to  those  of  northern  Germany  both  in  area 

fight  and  to  colonize.    The  impulse  towards  a  united  and  in  their  capacity  for  internal  development.    The 

nortJiem  Germany  could  in  this  era  only  come  from  South  Germans  had  at  last  a  clear  course  for  renewed 

Frederick  the  Great,  the  middle  class  of  north-western  pro^^resa.    Napoleon  hoped  thereby  to  put  them  under 

Germany  had  not  as  yet  made  itself  felt.    In  1786  lasting  obligation  to  France;  in  1806  he  bound  tiiem, 

Frederick  died,  whereupon  Prussia's  presti^  declined  as  weU  as  the  central  German  states,  more  strondy  to 

once  more.    Bereft  of  a  strons  political  stimulus  the  hims^f  by  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  (JnMin- 

intellectual  life  of  Germany,  both  north  and  sout^,  bund).    In  the  abolition  of  the  small  principalities  he 

took  on  a  cosmopolitan  and  purely  humanitarian  gave  the  death-blow  to  the  Holy  Koman  Empire, 

character.  which  ceased  to  exist  6  Au^t,  1806.    The  adminis- 

Even  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  at  first  tration  and  economic  condition  of  the  secondary  states 

produced  in  Germany  not  progress  but  a  a^ock.    Tlie  now  rapidly  improved,  but,  contrary  to  Napoleon's 

ideas  of  1789  were  greetea  with  approved,  but  when  expectations,  the  sympathies  of  their  inhabitants  diet 

the  Revolution  became  radical  in  1792  and  involved  not  turn  to  France.  Napoleon  then  overthrew  Prussia 

Germany  in  war,  the  people,  craving  peaceful  develop-  at  the  battles  of  Jena  and  Auerst&dt  (1806)  and  by  the 

ment,  without  exception  rejected  it.     Austria,  reor-  Treaty  of  Tilsit  (1807)  left  to  Prussia  onljr  its  original 

ganized  by  Leopold  II  (1790-92)^  took  up  again  imder  provinces  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Russian  frontier. 

Thusut,  prime-minister  of  Francis  II,  who  was  Francis  After  tiiis,  by  means  of  far-reaching,  liberal  reforms 

I  of  Austria  (1792-1835),  the  policy  of  expansion  initi-  instituted  under  the  enlightened  guidance  of  Freiherr 

ated  by  Joseph  II.    Thugut,  however,  preferred  to  vom  Stein  aided  by  Gneisenau  and  Schamhorst,  both 

make  conquests  in  Italy  rather  than  in  southern  Geiv  state  and  army  in  Prussia  became  stronger  and  more 

many,  and  Napoleon's  victories  in  1796  compelled  him  progressive  than  ever  before.    In  all  the  German  lands 

to  desist  even  from  these  (Treaty  of  Campo-Formio,  on  we  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  the  educated  classes 

1797).    The  princes  of  southern  Germany,  being  left  were  full  of  fervid  patriotism,  and  in  Austria  and 

to  themselves,  now  turned  to  the  French  government  Prussia  as  well  the  people  bore  the  foreign  yoke  with 


OSBMANY  £09  OSBMANY 

impatienoe.    In  1809  a  national  war  against  Napoleon  nuu^iinety  (Federal  Acts  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna* 

broke  out  in  Austria.    The  Tyrolese  under  Hofer  made  9  June,  1815). 

an  heroic  stnigeie,  and  Archduke  Charles  won  a  victory        (3)  X816  to  1848. — ^The  Federal  Diet  was  in  session 

over  the  Frezicn  at  Aspem.    It  is  true  that  Napoleon,  from  1816  to  1848  and  again  from  1850  to  1866  with* 

notwithstanding  all  this,  finally  maintained  his  ascen-  out,  however,   enacting  any  fundamental  laws  or 

dancy  (Treaty  of  SchOnbrunn,  also  called  of  Vienna,  creating  any  administrative  machinery.    The  only 

1809),  and  Austria,  thereafter,  by  the  advice  of  Met-  result  of  liie  deliberations  was  a  fuller  and  more  de- 

temich,  who  was  prime-minister  from  1809  to  1848,  tailed  but  not  a  more  definite  statement  of  the  prob- 

adopted  a  polic^r  of  inaction.    Pursuing  an  opposite  lems  to  be  solved  by  the  confederation  (Final  Federal 

course,  the  Prussian  people  rose  in  a  body  in  1813  after  Act  of  Vienna,  1820),  and  this  in  spite  of  Mettemich's 

Napoleon's  disastrous  campaign  in  Russia.    This  re-  i>re8sure  for  the  working  out  of  these  problems.    Prus- 

volt  Napoleon  did  not  succe^  in  crushing;  on  the  sia  and  the  secondary  states  opposed  all  progress  in 

contrary,  he  himself  was  now  defeated  in  tne  Wars  the  work  of  the  Diet.    Even  Mettemich  was  no  longer 

of  Liberation  by  the  coalition  of  Russia,  Austria,  really  in  earnest  about  it.    In  the  autumn  of  1815  ne 

Prussia,  and  England.  had  concluded  the  Holy  Alliance  with  the  Czar  and 

The  interior  of  Germany,  the  true  home  of  Teutonic  the  King  of  Prussia  and  had  thereby  bound  himself 

national  life,  had  been  forced  almost  completely  into  to  a  common  policy  with  the  great  powers  of  Eastern 

tiie  background  durins  the  eighteenth  century  by  Euro{>e,   the  three  countries   Russia,  Austria,  and 

Austria  and  Prussia.    During  uie  Napoleonic  era  it  Prussia  being  then  called  the  eastern  powers.      This 

advanced  materially  in  influence  as  a  result  of  the  policy,  in  view  of  the  possibility  of  revolutionary 

formation  of  the  secondary  states  and  the  growth  of  agitation,  opposed  the  national  and  constitutional 

national  political  opinions.    Nevertheless  Austria  and  current  of  the  times.   Moreover,  as  Premier  of  Austria, 

IVussia  re-established  their  military  ascendancv  over  Mettemich 's  course  had  to  be  directed  by  the  fact 

the  interior  during  the  Wars  of  Liberation.    In  the  that,  after  the  troubles  of  the  reign  of  Joseph  II  and 

Treaties  of  Paris  (1814)  and  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  the  losses  sustained  in  war  during  the  last  twenty-five 

(1814-15)  efforts  were  made  to  do  justice  to  both  of  years,  the  coimtry  stood  in  need  of  absolute  rest, 

these  circumstances.    Under  Mettemich 's  guidance  Austria  kept  its  people  from  all  foreign  commercial 

Austria  reached  the  climax  of  its  power  at  the  Con-  competition  and  in  politics  avoided  contact  with 

flress  of  Vienna.    It  became  the  leading  state  in  foreign  nations.    Consequently  its  policy  wiUiin  the 

Europe,  but  at  the  same  time  it  made  the  Danube  and  conf^eration  was  restricted  substantially  to  the  safe- 

the  territory  east  of  the  Alps  the  centres  of  its  power  guarding  of  its  own  interests. 

and  withdrew  completely  from  southern  Germany.        Between  1815  and  1848  Prussia  and  the  secondary 

Prussia,  now  likewise  recognized  as  a  great  power  and  states  also  devoted  themselves  exclusively  to  the 

a  leading  state  of  Germany,  received,  on  condition  of  solution  of  problems  within  their  own  boundaries, 

surrendering  a  part  of  its  Polish  possessions,  a  strong  Up  to  1848  Germany  witnessed  the  most  complete 

position  in  the  extreme  north-west,  but  it  did  not  attain  autonomy  of  the  individual  states  in  its  entire  history, 

the  hegemony  of  northern  Germany.  ^  The  Napoleonic  The  need  of  national  unity  was  once  more  entirely 

System  of  secondary  states  was  ratified  ana  ampli-  ifi;nored.  In  most  of  the  secondaiy  states  mudi  was 
ed,  as  in  the  four  kingdoms  of  Bavaria,  WQrtember^,  done  to  improve  the  administration  and  the  economic 
Hanover,  and  Saxony,  etc.  It  was  hoped  that  this  policy.  Prussia,  the  self-reliance  of  which  had  been 
settlement  would  be  permanent  since  it  was  founded  still  further  intensified  by  the  Wars  of  Independence 
on  the  joint  liability  of  all  the  European  states,  a  wafi;ed  against  Napoleon,  complete  the  reforms  that 
principle  recognized  by  the  Vienna  Congress  and  the  haa  been  started  m  the  perioa  before  1815,  although 
maintenance  of  which  was  guaranteed  both  by  Prussia  not  in  the  German  national  spirit  of  their  authors  but 
and  Austria.  Moreover  the  political  rivalry  between  ratlier  in  accordance  with  antiquated  Prussian  ideas, 
the  different  faiths  was  supposed  to  have  been  over-  Even  the  new  western  provinces  were  as  far  as  possible 
come,  since  of  the  great  powers  Austria  was  Catholic  subjected  to  the  old  Prussian  law  as  wdl  as  tiie  old 
and  Prussia  Protestant  and  both  were  now  on  friendly  Prussian  ecclesiastical  policy  and  methods  of  ^vem- 
terms.  By  the  award  of  many  Catholic  districts  to  ment.  At  the  University  of  Berlin,  founded  m  1809 
Protestant  sovereigns  Catholicity  had,  it  is  tme,  su»-  by  William  von  Humboldt,  Hegel  raised  the  Prussian 
tained  great  losses  in  central  Germany,  WUrtemberg  conception  of  the  state,  filled  with  the  spirit  of  Pro- 
being  one-third,  Baden  two-thirds,  and  Prussia  at-  testantism  and  rooted  in  absolutism,  to  the  dignity  of 
most  one-half  Catholic.  It  was  tnought,  however,  a  philosophical  system.  He  gave  this  position  to  the 
that  none  of  these  states,  not  even  Prussia,  could  be  state  as  the  highest  and  all-controlling  form  of  society, 
able  thereafter  to  retain  an  entirely  Protestant  charao-  Nevertheless  Sie  individual  German  states  had  clearly 
ter.  Moreover  Catholicity  gained  greater  influence  passed  the  limit  of  their  capacity  for  oiganization. 
over  the  minds  of  men  owmg  to  the  Romantic  move-  Routine  dominated  state  aaministration.  A  well- 
ment  and  the  spread  of  anti-revolutionary  ideas.  Met-  trained  but  arrogant  bureaucracy  seized  control  of  the 
temich,  continuing  the  policy  decided  upon  in  1548  government  in  Russia  as  wdl  in  the  secondary  states, 
and  1635,  committed  himself  to  the  following  pro-  and  while  it  carried  to  excess  the  traditional  political 
gramme:  to  give  a  new  guarantee  to  the  reawakened  principles,  yet  it  did  not  enforce  them  with  the  firm 
national  feeling  by  establishing  a  German  Confedera-  nand  of  the  rulers  of  an  earlier  era.  This  was  especially 
tion ;  that  each  German  state  must  belong  to  the  Con-  the  case  in  the  conflict  concerning  mixed  marriages  in 
federation,  though  without  prejudice  to  its  autonomy;  the  fourth  decade  of  the  century  when  the  Prussian 
that  the  primary  object  of  the  Confederation  was  to  be  government  arrested  Archbishop  Droste-Vischering  of 
the  defence  of  the  independence  and  stability  of  Ger-  Cologne  as  an  "insubordinate  servant  of  the  state" 
many  against  external  foes  as  well  as  against  revolu-  (1837).  Its  weaJmess  was  also  plainly  shown  when 
tionary  agitation;  but  it  was  also  to  be  allowed  to  the  people  of  western  and  southern  Germany  objected 
develop  into  a  confederated  state  by  gradually  en-  to  the  interfering  supervision  of  the  government 
laigine  its  authority  over  the  internal  affairs  of  the  officials. 

inmvidual  states,  such  as  commerce,  economic  admin-        The  middle  class  was  indebted  to  Mettemich  for 

istration,  civil  and  constitutional  law.    The  organ  of  more  than  thirty  years  of  iminterrupted  peace,  during 

this  confederation  was  to  be  a  permanent  assembly  which  he  protected  it  from  all  disturbances  tx>th  at 

composed  of  plenipotentiaries  appointed  by  the  re^-  home  and  abroad,  and  they  owed  to  Prussia  laws  more 

ing  princes,  as  in  the  Imperial  Diet  prior  to  1806.  This  favourable  to  commerce  than  had  ever  before  existed. 

b<^y  was  authorized  to  enact  fundamental  laws  for  the  These  were  the  moderately  protective  Prussian  cus- 

oonfederatbn  and    to  organize   its   administrative  toms  law  of  1818  and  the  founding  (1833)  of  l^e  cua- 


GSBBCAinr 


610 


GEBlffAHT 


tom»-union  (ZcUverein),  which  made  a  commercial 
unit  of  Prussia,  central  and  southern  Germany.  Now 
for  the  first  time  the  exertions  of  the  commercial 
classes  during  the  eighteenth  century  brou^t  forth 
ample  fruit,  and  Germany  regained  tiie  financial 
ability  to  undertake  large  commercial  enterprises. 
Important  industries  flourished  and  traffic  was  in- 
creased many-fold,  while  the  middle  class  ^ned  a 
clearer  perception  of  the  influence  of  foreign  and 
domestic  policies  on  economic  conditions.  The  leaders 
(Hansemann,  Mevissen,  and  von  der  Heydt)  in  llie 
manufacturing  district  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  the  most 
promising  region  in  Germany  from  an  economic  point 
of  view,  were  ready  as  early  as  1840  to  guide  the 
fortunes  of  Prussia,  provided  they  could  obtain  politi- 
cal rights.  Holdine  radical  views  in  politics  and  re- 
ligion, they  adoptedalso  the  political  demands  of  tiieir 
intellectuiil  kinsmen  in  France,  the  Liberals:  the 
creation  of  a  constitutional  parliament  and  the  re- 
modelling of  the  bod^  politic  m  accordance  with  their 
social  and  economic  principles.  As  Prussia  like 
Austria  had  not  granted  its  subjects  a  constitution,  the 
struggle  of  these  men  for  influence  was  conducted 
under  difficulties.  Their  efforts,  however,  were  aided 
by  the  existence  of  constitutional  government  in 
some  of  the  smaller  states  since  1819,  whereby  a  num- 
ber of  men,  mostly  university  professors,  were  enabled 
in  the  several  Diets  to  attack  the  bureaucratic  admin- 
istrations. These  men  were  also  Liberals,  but  their 
primary  demand  was  the  substitution  of  popular 
government  for  that  of  the  bureaucracy:  the  leaders 
were  Rotteck  and  Welcker  of  Baden,  ana  of  tibe  mod- 
erates, Dahlmann.  As  early  as  1837  matters  came  to 
a  crisis  in  Hanover,  while  in  Baden  the  contest  lasted 
from  1837  to  1844.  In  answer  to  the  opposition  they 
called  forth  the  Liberals  raised  the  battle-cry  of  na- 
tional unity,  claiming  that  union  would  be  the  strong- 
est guarantee  of  civic  liberty.  Their  programme,  as 
well  as  the  appeal  to  the  moral  feeling  of  the  people 
made  by  many  of  their  leaders,  arous^  univei^ 
sympathy.  ^  As  champions  both  of  the  principle  of 
national  unity  and  oi  economic  and  social  progress, 
they  hoped  soon  to  be  able  to  lead  the  entire  people  in 
a  struggle  against  the  reactionary  administrations  of 
the  individual  states.  The  latter,  blinded  by  their 
particularistic  prejudices,  did  not  rallv  their  forces  to 
meet  the  threatening  attack.  As  early  as  the  forties 
differences  on  politico-economic  (questions  weakened 
the  customs-umon  between  Prussia  and  the  states  of 
southern  Germany.  Mettemich  had  repeatedly  ur^ed 
that  Austria  become  a  member  of  the  customs-union. 
But  it  now  appeared  that  the  social  and  economic 
differences,  always  existing  between  Austria  and  the 
rest  of  Germany,  had  been  so  accentuated  bv  the 
selfish  policy  pursued  by  Austria  since  1815  that  a 
strong  opposition  to  its  entering  the  customs-union 
came  irom  within  Austria  itself. 

The  position  of  the  Catholic  Church  also  became 
critical.  The  expectations  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
had  not  been  realized.  Catholicity,  it  is  true,  owing 
to  the  splendid  abilities  of  a  number  of  men,  partly  the 
sons  of  the  Church  and  partly  converts,  exercised  a 
leading  influence  in  the  field  of  political  sciences 
(Haller,  Adam  MQlIer,  Frederick  von  Schlegel,  Gdrres, 
Jarcke,  Radowitz),  in  history  (Buchholtz,  Hurter),  in 
art  (Cornelius,  Overbeck,  Veit),  and  in  theology  (Mdh- 
ler,  Ddllinger,  Kuhn,  Hefele).  But  in  actual  political 
life  and  in  connexion  with  the  life  of  the  masses  it 
fared  ill.  The  bureaucratic  state  administration  so 
fettered  the  Catholic  Church  that  it  was  hardly  able 
to  stir,  while  Liberalism,  for  the  most  part  anti-Catho- 
Uc,  threatened  to  place  a  p;ulf  between  the  Church  and 
the  people.  The  deep  piety  of  the  people,  however, 
was  manifested  both  m  1844,  on  the  occasion  of  the 

gilnima^  to  Trier,  and  in  the  rejection  of  German 
albolicism  (1844-46).    The  attempt,  however,  to 
build  up  a  Christian  and  anti-revolutionary  party  in 


conjunction  with  a  few  conservative  Protestants  (the 
two  von  Gerlachs,  and  the  periodical  ''Politisches  Wo- 
ehenblatt"  in  Berlin;  Gdrres  and  his  circle  of  friends 
in  Munich),  on  the  basis  of  Haller's  political  teaching, 
was  unpopular  and  altoigether  out  of  sympathy  wiui 
the  actual  politico-socialand  politico-economic  devel- 
opment of  the  nation.  Nevertheless  a  few  courageous 
politicians  attacked  at  the  same  time  the  bureaucratic 
administration  and  Liberalism;  thus  Gdrres  published 
his  "Athanasius''  in  1837,  and  founded  witlb  friends 
the  periodical '' Historisch-politische  Bl&tter"  in  1838: 
others  were  Andlaw  and  Buss  in  Baden,  Kuhn  ana 
Hefele  in  WQrtemberg,  Moritz  Lieber  in  Nassau.  In 
Bavaria  the  Catholics  were  represented  by  the  Abel 
ministry  (1837-47).  In  Austria  Mettemich  favoured 
them. 

From  1848  to  1871. — ^The  wide-spread  political 
agitation  in  Western  Europe,  which  from  1846  had 
been  imdermining  the  foundations  of  the  system  of 
government  established  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
culminated  in  Germany  in  March,  1848.  The  reim- 
ing  princes,  unpreparea  for  the  emergency,  turned  we 
governments  over  to  the  Liberals  and  ordered  eleo^ 
tions  for  a  German  Parliament  on  the  basis  of  uni- 
versal suffrage.  Austria  and  Prussia,  in  addition, 
now  granted  constitutions  to  their  peoples  and,  be- 
sides the  national,  summoned  local  parliaments.  On 
18  May  the  German  National  Parliament  was  opened 
at  Frankfort,  Heinrich  von  Gagem  presiding.  Arch- 
duke Johann  of  Austria  was  elected  pro  visiomu  imperial 
administrator.  The  success  of  Liberalism  was  appar- 
ently complete,  the  individual  existence  of  the  separate 
states  practically  annulled,  and  the  establishment  of  a 
constitutional  (merman  national  State,  as  opposed  to 
the  development  as  a  confederation,  seemed  assured. 
The  only  difficult  question  was,  apparently,  how 
Prussia  was  to  be  "merged"  into  Germany.  How- 
ever, as  Frederick  William  IV  of  Prussia  (1840-61) 
had  expressed  his  sympathy  with  German  unity,  while 
ike  Liberals  were  prepared  to  make  it  as  easy  as 
possible  for  Prussia,  as  the  head  of  the  customs-union 
and  the  leading  Protestant  power  in  Germany,  to  sur- 
render its  individuality  as  a  state,  and  were  ready  to 
offer  to  Prussia  the  hereditary  imperial  crown,  the 
Pariiament  made  light  of  this  obstacle.  Austria,  rent 
by  grievous  nationtu  dissensions,  seemed  ready  to  step 
aside  of  its  own  accord. 

In  the  autumn  of  1848,  however,  the  situation  be- 
came complicated.  The  draft  of  a  new  constitution 
made  by  the  Liberal^  awakened  the  distrust  of  the 
Catholics  by  its  provisions  regarding  the  Church  and 
the  schools.  At  the  sue^tion  of  the  Pius  Asso- 
ciation (Piusverein)  of  Mainz,  the  Catholics  flooded 
the  Parliament  wi&  petitions,  while  in  October  the 
Catholic  societies  assembled  at  Mainz  and  the  Ger- 
man bishops  at  WQrzburg.  The  Liberals  gave  way 
but  conditions  remained  strained.  The  great  mass  of 
Catholics  repudiated  the  proposed  settlement  of  the 
German  question  in  the  "Little  German"  {Klein^ 
detUsche)  sense,  which  advocated  the  exclusion  of 
Austria  from  Germany  and  the  conferring  of  the  im- 
perial dignity  upon  Prussia;  they  demanded  that 
Austria  snomd  remain  part  of  Germany  and  should 
be  its  leader.  This  was  called  the  "  Great  German" 
(GrossdeiUsche)  view.  Simultaneously  a  radical  re- 
action broke  out  against  the  Liberals.  Liberalism 
stood  for  ethical  and  political  progress  only,  not  for 
social  progress;  nevertheless  it  nad  receivea  the  sup- 
port ot  the  labouring  classes,  who  were  impoverished 
oy  the  recent  industrial  development  but  not  ready  to 
become  a  political  organization,  because  of  the  Liberal 
opposition  to  the  existinj^  state  of  thincs.  Now  that 
the  Parliament  did  nothmg  to  better  uieir  condition 
they  flocked  to  the  standaras  of  radical  agitators.  Be- 
fore the  spring  of  1849  repeated  disturbances  resulted, 
especially  in  Southern  Germany ;  furthermore  Radical- 
ism obtamed  a  majority  in  the  constitutional  assembly 


QEBMANY  511  QEBMANT 

of  Berlin.  The  Liberals  were  not  able  to  make  any  other  hand  the  Catholic  movement  soon  spread  among 
headway  against  this  movemeht.  Prussian  troops  the  people,  though  it  did  not  constitute  as  yet  an 
had  to  re-establish  the  authority  of  the  state,  and  in  the  organized  politiciJ  party.  The  Catholics,  undeceived 
interim  the  rei^;ning  princes  had  also  regained  con-  at  last  as  to  the  true  character  of  Liberalism,  but  with- 
fidence.  Austna,  now  under  the  leadership  of  Schwar-  out  entering  into  relations  with  the  Conservatives, 
zenberg  (Francis  Joseph  having  been  emperor  since  devoted  themselves  chiefly  to  the  interests  of  the  sufFe> 
November,  1848),  declared  in  December,  1848,  that  it  ing  masses  whose  social  and  economic  needs  had  inter- 
would  not  suffer  itself  to  be  forced  out  of  Germany,  ested  Radicalism  merely  as  a  pretext  for  agitation,  and 
The  Catholic  agitation  as  well  as  the  politico-economic  who  had  been  neglected  by  the  other  parties.  Tlius 
movements  were  in  Austria's  favour.  The  industrial  arose  the  organization  of  journeymen's  unions  {Geadr- 
classes  of  Southern  Germany,  inspired  by  the  fear  lenvereine)  by  Kolping,  of  farmers'  associations  by 
that  Prussia  would  adopt  free-trade,  desired  to  secure  Schorlermer- Alst,  and  the  attempts  to  solve  the  labour 
a  politico-economic  alliance  with  Aiistria,  while  the  question,  which  was  taken  up  especially  by  Ketteler 
^*eat  merchants  of  the  Hanseatic  cities  preferred  for  and  JOrg.  At  the  same  time  the  Camolics  fou^t 
we  field  of  their  commercial  operations  Germany  with  against  the  restoration  of  Protestant  supremacy  in 
Austria  included,  an  area  extending  from  the  Baltic  Prussia  {"  Catholic  Fraction",  1852,  Mallinckrodt,  the 
Sea  to  the  Levant,  to  the  lesser  Germany  alone.  Hav-  Reichenspereers),  and  in  the  South- West  against  the 
ing  imposed  a  constitution  on  his  kingdom  in  Decem-  unwarranted  control  of  the  Church  by  the  bureau- 
ber,  1848,  the  King  of  Prussia  refused  to  accept  the  cracy.  The  beginningis  of  Socialism  resembled  those 
imperial^crown  at  uie  hands  of  the  Frankfort  Parlia-  of  the  Catholic  movement.  The  feeling  of  a  commu- 
ment  (April,  1849).  Maximilian  II  of  Bavaria  (1848-  nity  of  interests  awoke  in  the  labouring  classes;  but  it 
64),  by  a  strange  recourse  to  the  ideas  of  the  seven-  was  not  until  about  1864  that  Lassalle  utilized  this 
teenth  century,  advocated  a  union  of  the  secondary  sentiment  for  political  purposes.  Throughout  the 
states,  which  m  conjunction  with  Prussia  but  not  in  fifties  and  sixties  the  Liberals  retained  the  lead.  As 
subjection  to  it,  i^ould  control  the  policy  of  Germany  early  as  1859  they  deemed  the  time  propitious  for  seek- 
(the  ''Triad")-  hig  to  attain  again  to  political  power,  without,  how- 


by  Prussia  with  the  aid  of  the  Liberals  and  berg's  death  (1852)  encouraged 

thesecondarystates  to  agreeon  a  German  constitution  mean  War  the  temporizing  policy  of  Austria,  which 

maintaining  the  federal  principle  (The  Union,  Diet  of  offended  Russia  and  did  not  satisfy  the  western  powers, 

Erfurt,  1850),  and  to  form  merely  an  offensive  and  brought  upon  that  coimtry  a  serious  dii>lomatic  defeat, 

defensive  alliance  with  Austria;   this  was  foiled  by  while  in  the  Italian  war  it  suffered  military  disaster. 

Austria.    But  although  Austria  forced  Prussia  to  In  both  cases  Austria  had  opposed  Napoleon  III  who 

yield  in  the  negotiations  at  Olmtltz  in  December,  1850,  by  these  wars  laid  the  foimaation  of  his  prestige  in 

it  failed  to  effect  either  the  renewal  of  the  German  Europe. 

Confederatidn  under  conditions  that  would  strengthen  The  growth  of  large  commercial  enterprises  in  Ger- 
itself  or  to  gain  admission  to  the  customs-union.  The  many  widened  the  breach  between  it  and  Austria  so 
German  Diet,  still  unreformed,  resumed  its  delibeiv  that  in  1859  the  latter  was  obliged  to  consent  to  a 
ations  in  1851,  while  by  the  treaty  of  February,  1853  further  postponement  of  its  admission  into  the  cus- 
(Febntarvertrag)  the  negotiations  for  Austria's  en-  toms-umon.  In  ecclesiastical  politics  Austria  sou^t 
trance  into  the  customs-union  were  postponed  for  six  to  satisfy  the  ''Great  German"  aspirations  of  the 
years.  Austria  and  Prussia  neutralized  each  other's  Catholics  of  southern  and  western  Germany  by  sien- 
mfluence  and  nothing  was  done,  either  in  the  customs-  ing  the  Concordat  (1855).  Wilrtemberg  and  Baden 
union  or  in  the  Diet.  Consequently  the  central  states,  also  negotiated  with  Rome  on  the  subject  of  a  Con- 
Saxony  and  Bavaria,  von  Beust  being  prime-minister  cordat;  but  when,  in  1859,  Austria  was  defeated  they 
in  Saxony  and  von  der  Pfordten  of  Bavaria,  regarded  relinquished  the  project.  Austria's  discomfiture  in 
themselves  as  the  balance  of  power.  Maximilian  II  1859  and  its  failure  to  form  an  alliance  with  Prussia 
summoned  to  Catholic  Munich  Liberal  and  Protestant  against  Napoleon,  greatly  excited  public  opinion  in 
professors,  nicknamed  the  ''Northern  Lights",  in  Germany,  for  the  impression  prevailed  that  Germany 
order  to  win  the  public  opinion  of  all  Germany  for  his  was  menaced  by  France.  The  Liberals  took  advan- 
" Triad"  project.  Both  of  the  great  powers  strove  to  tage  of  this  to  renew  their  a^tation  for  the  union  of 
secure  the  support  of  the  German  press.  The  failure  Germany  into  a  sinele  constitutional  state.  In  1860 
to  secure  German  unitv  once  more  gave  the  bureau-  the  Grand  Duke  Frederick  of  Baden  (1852-1907), 
cracy  of  the  individual  states  the  control.  It  was,  whose  land  was  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  France,  en- 
however,  no  longer  able  to  check  the  erowth  of  demo-  trusted  the  Liberals  with  the  ministry  of  Baden.  In 
cratic  ideas  among  the  people,  and  the  masses  were  1861  the  Liberals  undertook  to  force  parliamentary 
more  and  more  influenced  by  the  political  and  social  government  upon  Prussia  so  as  to  obviate  aU  further 
movement  of  the  times.  In  1849-50  Liberalism  under-  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  king  to  the  creation  of 
went  defeat;  it  then  changed  its  programme  and  piuv  a  consolidated  German  state.  They  encountered,  in- 
sued  chiefly  economic  aims.  These  were  attamed  deed,  an  obstinate  resistance  from  King  William  I 
partly  by  founding  countless  politico-economic  asso-  (1861-88),  but  the  prevailing  anta0)iusm  oetween  the 
ciations,  such  as  consumers'  leagues,  unions  of  dealers  bureaucracy  and  the  people  caused  the  sympathies  of 
in  raw  products,  and  loan  associations  (Schulze-De-  almost  the  entire  German  nation  to  be  enlisted  on  the 
litzsch) ;  partly,  and  more  largely,  by  controlling  the  side  of  the  Liberals.  The  smaller  states,  becoming 
use  of  capital  on  a  large  scale.  Durine  the  fifties  the  anxious,  proposed  reforms,  leading  to  greater  unity, 
representatives  of  great  capital  were  able,  by  foundine  in  the  constitution  of  the  German  Confederation, 
laree  joint-stock  banks,  pnncipally  for  the  purpose  ot  Austria,  where  since  1860  von  Schmerling  had  been 
buudin^  railroads  and  offinancing  mining  enterprises,  prime  minister,  also  made  advances  to  the  Liiberals  in 
to  attam  a  leading  position  in  German  economic  life,  order  to  strengthen  its  position  in  Germany  (Austrian 
The  large  landed  proprietors  of  the  Prussian  provinces  Constitution,  1861 ;  congress  of  the  princes  at  Frank- 
east  of  tne  Elbe  had  also  in  1848  formed  an  economic,  fort,  1863).  However,  the  appointment  of  Bismarck 
the  Conservative,  party.  They  watched  over  agrarian  to  the  presidency  of  the  Prussian  ministry  in  the  au- 
interests  and  also  aimed  at  restoring  the  old  Prussian-  tumn  of  1862,  and  the  political  organization  in  1864 
I^testant  character  of  the  Prussian  monarchy  and  of  Socialism  by  Lassalle,  again  checked  the  rising  tide 
the  absolute  sovereignty  of  the  king.  For  a  time  in-  of  Liberalism  as  early  as  1863-64.  This  was  followed 
competent  leadership  hmdered  their  growth.    On  the  by  Bismarck's  determination  to  settle  onoe  and  for  all 


GKBMAHY 


512 


QERBIANY 


with  the  sword  the  antagonism  existing  since  1848  in 
German  aQfairs  between  Prussia  and  Austria.  As 
Prussian  envoy  to  the  Federal  Diet  in  the  fifties  Bis- 
marck had  observed  the  instability  of  the  lesser  Ger- 
man states  and  the  decline  of  Austria's  strength,  as 
well  as  the  methods  of  Napoleon,  especially  the  use 
the  latter  made  of  the  principle  of  nationahties;  but 
he  was  also  able  to  see  that  since  1860  Napoleon's  star 
was  on  the  wane.  To  a  certain  extent  he  appropriated 
Napoleon's  views  in  order  that  Prussia  might  reap  the 
f  nuts  of  what  the  French  emperor  had  sown  in  Europe. 
At  the  same  time  he  preserved  an  independent  judg- 
ment so  as  to  fit  his  measures  to  German  conditions 
and  proved  that  his  genius  contained  greater  qualities 
and  more  elements  of  success.  In  the  Danish  War 
(1864),  fought  to  settle  whether  Schleswig  and  Hol- 
stein  belonged  to  Denmark  or  Germany,  he  forced 
the  Austrian  minisier  of  foreign  affairs,  Rechberg,  to 
adopt  his  policy.  He  then  manceuvred  Austria  into  a 
position  of  diplomatic  isolation  in  Europe  and,  after 
lorming  an  alliance  with  Italy,  made  a  furious  attack 
upon  Austria  in  1866. .  After  two  weeks  of  war  Aus- 
tria was  completely  defeated  at  KOniggrftts  (3  July), 
and  by  the  middle  of  July  Prussia  had  occupied  all 
Germany.  In  the  meanwhile  Napoleon  had  inter- 
vened. Bismarck  put  him  off  with  unmeaning, 
verbal  concessions,  and  in  like  manner  pacified  the 
German  Liberals  whose  continued  opposition  might 
hinder  the  canying  out  of  his  solution  of  the  question 
of  German  unity.  He  then  concluded  with  Austria 
the  Treaty  of  Prague  (23  August,  1866)  which  partook 
of  the  nature  of  a  compromise.  Austria  separated 
itself  entirely  from  Germany,  the  South  German 
states  were  declared  internationally  independent, 
Prussia  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  North  Ger- 
many, while  Hanover,  Hesse-Casisel  (Electoral  Hesse), 
Hesse-Nassau,  Schleswig-Holstein,  and  Frankfort 
were  directly  annexed  to  Prussia,  and  preliminaries 
were  arranged  for  the  adoption  of  a  federal  constitu- 
tion by  the  still-existing  North  German  states.  The 
constitution  of  the  North-German  Confederation,  es- 
tablished 1  July,  1867.  was  framed  by  Bismarck  so 
that  the  federal  development  of  German  9onstitu- 
tional  law  should  be  yarded,  thus  the  constitution 
was  adopted  by  treaties  with  the  several  sovereign 
princes,  the  autonomv  of  the  individual  states  was 
assured,  aiid  a  federal  council  (Bundesrat)  was  to  be 
the  representative  of  the  various  governments.  The 
necessary  unity  of  the  government  was  guaranteed 
(1)  by  endowing  Prussia  with  large  authority  in  ad- 
ministration, giving  it  especially  the  command  of  the 
army  and  direction  of  diplomatic  relations;  (2)  by 
assigning  foreign  affairs,  formation  of  the  army, 
economic  interests,  traffic  and  means  of  communica- 
tion to  the  authority  of  the  confederation,  the  com- 
petence of  which  was  to  be  gradually  enlarged  (the 
model  here  taken  being  the  Federal  Acts  of  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  of  1815) ;  (3)  by  creating  the  Reichstag 
(Parliament),  elected  by  universal,  direct  and  equal 
suffrage,  as  the  exponent  of  the  national  desire  for 
unity.  In  the  years  immediatelv  following  the  Reich- 
stag passed  laws  regulating  the  administration  of 
justice. 

Bismarck  considered  the  absence  from  the  confed- 
eration of  the  South  German  states  to  be  merely  tem- 
porary. As  early  as  August,  1866,  he  had  secretly 
made  sure  of  their  co-operation  in  case  of  war.  In 
1867  he  re-established  the  customs-union  with  them; 
politico-economic  Questions  of  common  interest  were, 
in  future,  to  be  laid  before  the  Reichstag  of  the  North 
German  Confederation  which,  for  this  purpose,  was  to 
be  complemented  by  delegates  from  Southern  Ger- 
many so  as  to  constitute  a  customs  parliament.  In 
all  other  respects  he  left  diplomatic  relations  with  the 
states  of  South  Germany  in  statu  quo.  Attempts  on 
their  part  to  found  a  southern  confederation  failed. 
In  like  manner  Bismarck  postponed  as  long  as  possi- 


ble the  accounting  with  France  in  regard  to  the  unifi- 
cation of  Germany,  although  he  foresaw  that  such  an 
accounting  was  unavoidable.  At  a  conference  held  in 
London,  in  1867,  he  secured  the  neutralisation  of 
Luxemburg.  In  1868  he  desired  to  secure  a  resolution 
in  favour  of  national  unity  from  the  customs  parlia- 
ment. To  attain  this  he  relied  on  the  economic  pro- 
gress which,  in  consequence  of  the  gradual  unification 
of  Germany,  continually  grew  more  marked '  and 
caused  a  complete  change  in  a  Liberal  direction  in  the 
legislation  on  social  and  economic  questions,  and  in 
that  on  the  administration  of  law^  both  in  the  North 
German  Confederation  and  Bavana.  lUustrations  of 
these  moite  liberal  changes  are:  the  organisation  of 
the  postal  system  by  Heniy  Stephan ;  introduction  of 
freedom  of  trade  and  the  right  to  reside  in  any  part  of 
Germany;  enactment  of  the  penal  code,  1870.  Not- 
withstanding these  results  of  the  efforts  towards 
imion^  the  opposition,  led  by  Ludwi^  Windthorst,  suo- 
ceeded  in  obtaining  a  majority  against  him. 

On  19  July,  1870,  war  oroke  out  with  France,  the 
cause  being  the  candidature  of  Prince  Leopold  of 
Hohensollem  for  the  Spanish  throne.  Napoleon  had 
not  been  able  to  secure  the  help  of  Austria  and  Ital^; 
furthermore,  his  army  was  not  prepared  for  war.  Bis- 
marck, on  the  contrary,  fanned  to  white  heat  the  na- 
tional enthusiasm  of  Germany.  The  German  armies 
quickly  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  gained  a  firm  footing 
on  the  other  side  by  a  rapid  succession  of  victories  at 
Weissenburg,  Wdrth,  ana  the  Heights  of  Spicheren. 
The  main  French  army  under  Basaine  was  defeated  at 
Metz  and  shut  up  inside  the  city,  14-18  August.  The 
army  of  relief  under  MacMimon  was  defeated  at 
Sedan,  1-2  September.  The  war  became  a  series  of 
sieges;  Strasburg  fell,  28  September;  Mets,  27  Octo- 
ber, and  Paris,  not  until  28  January.  Meanwhile 
Gambetta  had  organized  a  national  militia,  600,000 
strong,  which,  in  conjunction  with  the  remains  of  the 
standmg  army,  harassed  and  obstructed  the  Germans 
on  the  Loire  and  in  the  North- West  from  October  to 
Januarv.  On  10  May,  1871,  by  the  Peace  of  Frank- 
fort, Alsace-Lorraine  was  restored  to  Germany  as  an 
imperial  territory  (Reichsland),  The  southern  states 
had  already  joined  the  Confederation,  which  had  be- 
come the  German  Empire  (with  an  area  of  208,748  sq. 
miles).  The  Constitution  of  the  North  German  Con- 
federation was  adopted,  with  the  reservation  of  cer- 
tain privileges  in  favour  of  Bavaria  and  Wtirtemberg. 
The  Constitution  was  proclaimed  16-20  April,  1871, 
Prussia  being  entitled  to  17  of  the  58  votes  in  the 
Bundesrat  or  Federal  Council,  and  to  236  of  the  397 
deputies  in  the  Reichstag  or  Imperial  Parliament. 
William  I  assumed  the  title  of  "German  Emperor"  at 
Versailles,  18  January,  1871;  the  office  was  made 
hcFGd  itarv 

The  New  German  Empire.— (1)  1871-1888.— A 
development  that  had  been  in  progress  for  man^ 
centunes  and  had  been  attended  by  many  comph- 
cationshad  practically  reached  its  culmination;  the 
political  union  of  the  Germans  in  a  single  body  politic, 
without  any  relinquishment  of  the  federal  pnnoiple, 
so  far  as  the  relations  among  the  ruling  houses  were 
concerned,  had  been  accomplished,  advanta^  being 
taken  of  the  popular  movement  towards  the  unification 
of  the  several  States  into  one  organic  whole.  Austria 
had  been  excluded  from  Germany,  the  political  con- 
solidation of  Northern  Germany  was  almost  complete, 
and  Prussia's  economic  superiority  over  the  south 
had  been  established  beyond  question.  For  while 
Southern  and  Central  Germany  (with  the  exception  of 
Saxony  and  Nassau),  as  well  as  Hanover,  expenenced 
an  increase  in  population  of  onlv  about  22  to  36  per 
cent  between  1830  and  1880,  tnat  of  Prussia  grew 
about  60  per  cent;  and  nearly  all  the  coal  and  ore 
deposits  or  Germany  were  located  within  the  borders 
of  the  latter  kingdom.  Withal,  during  the  ensuing 
years  the  united  people  did  not  devote  themselves 


QEBMANT  513  QEBMANT    . 

exclusively  to  peaceful  pursuits.  It  is  true  these  re-  \)f  noi;i-political  departments  were  also  established,  in 
oeived  great  attention;  Gernmn  commercial  and  part  under  the  vanous  secretaries  of  State,  the  chief  of 
economic  interests  throughout  the  world  were  devel-  which  was  the  Imperial  Insurance  Department;  mili- 
oped;  uniformity  was  established  in  weights  and  tary  affairs  were  placed  under  the  Prussian  Minister 
measures  (1872),  coinage  (1875),  the  administration  of  of  War.  In  1879  the  imperial  territory  of  Alsace- 
justice  (1879) ;  the  laws  of  the  empire  were  codified;  Lorraine  was  granted  autonomy,  though  this  was  of  a 
and  after  a  short  time  close  attention  was  also  given  to  limited  character.  In  1878,  alter  the  attempts  made 
social  problems.  On  the  other  hand,  military  prepa-  by  Hddel  and  Nobiling  on  the  life  of  William  I,  Bis- 
rations  (September.  1874),  in  case  France  shomd  renew  marck  carried  out  temporary  measures  for  the  sup- 
the  war,  were  pushed  forwu^  with  increasing  zeal,  pressiok  of  Social  Democratic  amtation,  e.  g.,  the 
Furthermore,  tne  old  internal  feuds  among  the  re-  Socialist  Law  forbidding  all  Social  Democratic  organi- 
h'gious  creeds  and  parties  were  resumed  with  greater  sations  and  newspapers.  ^  In  the  following  year,  en- 
passion  than  ever  m  consequence  of  the  proclamation  couraged  by  the  increase  in  the  sense  of  national  unity 
of  the  dogma  of  Infallibility  and  of  the  or^mization  due  above  all  to  the  growth  of  German  commerce  and 
of  the  Centre  party.  In  all  this  BismarcK  was  the  industry,  he  effected  the  financial  and  economio-polit- 
leader,  while  the  Liberals  constituted  the  government  ical  reform,  his  battle  cry  being:  ''Protection  for  Ger- 
party  (see  Kulturkampf)  .  man  Labour  I ' '  Small  protective  duties  were  imposed 
It  was  not  until  1875  that  there  was  any  degree  of  upon  agricultural  and  mdustrial  imports,  and  a  tariff 
tranquillity  and  stability.  Bismarck  recogniz^  that  for  revenue  only  on  colonial  wares.  The  proceeds  of 
he  was  lessening  the  extraordinary  esteem  in  which  both  duties  were  to  constitute  the  chief  revenue  of 
he  was  held  by  tne  whole  world,  by  his  excessive  in-  the  empire,  but  of  these  only  130  million  marks  were 
timidation  of  France.  Moreover,  the  defeat  in  France  to  go  to  the  imperial  treasury,  the  rest  beine  divided 
of  the  Royalists  and  Catholics  by  the  Radicals  and  among  the  federal  states,  in  return  for  which  the 
I^testants  freed  him  from  apprehension  of  danger  latter,  by  means  of  federal  contributions  {Mairikuiar' 
from  that  quarter.  Russia  having  been  estran^d  beUrdge),  were  to  make  good  the  contingent  deficits  of 
from  the  empire  by  his  anti-French  policy,  Bismarck  the  empire.  During  the  eighties  the  duties  on  agricul- 
sought  the  friendship  of  Austria-Huneary.  In  1879  tural  products  were  gradually  raised  (especially  in 
he  brought  about  an  alliance  with  Austria,  which,  1887),  besides  which  several  profitable  indirect  taxes, 
when  joined  by  Italy  in  1883,  became  the  Triple  Alii-  e.  g.,  on  brandy,  tobacco^  and  stamps,  were  sanctioned, 
ance,  which  still  subsists — ^the  lei^ue  of  the  great  in  order  to  meet  the  growing  expenditures  of  the 
powers  of  Central  Europe.  He  re-established  better  empire.  In  1881  an  imperial  messa^  to  the  Reichstag 
relations  with  Russia  by  means  of  the  secret  treaty  announced  the  inauguration  of  a  pohcy  of  social  reform 
with  that  country  in  1887.  The  election  of  Leo  XIII,  in  favour  of  the  working  classes.  Between  1881  and 
the  ''pope  of  peace"  (1878),  disposed  Bismarck  to  1889  the  compulsory  insurance  of  working-men 
come  to  an  understanding  with  tne  Catholic  Church,  against  sickness,  accident,  disability,  and  old  age  was 
But  as  a  preliminary  condition  he  demanded  either  provided  for  by  legislation.  This  was  Bismarck's 
that  the  CJentre  party  be  dissolved  or  that  it  become  greatest  achievement  in  domestic  politics.  The  em- 
a  government  party.    At  the  same  time  he  contem-  pire  was  now  for  the  first  time  made  the  centre  of 

Elated  sweeping  changes  in  internal  politics.  The  the  civil  interests  of  the  Germans,  who  up  to  this  time 
iberal  ascendanc^r,  beginning  in  18/1,  had  been  had  been  occupied  chiefly  with  the  doinjgs  of  their 
responsible  for  the  inauguration  of  an  excessive  num-  respective  states,  the  management  of  Church  and 
ber  of  economic  undertakings,  resulting  in  the  financial  school  having  been  retained  by  these.  Bismarck,  now 
depression  of  1873;  in  poutical  finance  it  brou^t  at  the  zenith  of  the  second  creative  period  of  ^  life, 
about  an  almost  complete  sta^ation  in  the  develop-  conceived  the  idea  of  organizing  labour  insurance  on 
ment  of  the  systems  of  taxation  both  of  the  empire  the  basis  of  the 'community  of  mterests  of  those  en- 
and  the  component  states ;  in  social  politics  it  nad  gaged  in  the  same  work.  By  this  means  he  proposed 
led  to  a  rapid  increase  in  the  ruiks  of  the  Social  Demo-  to  establish  in  the  empire  self-^vemment  in  social 
crats,  who  after  Lassalle's  death  had  become  imder  politics,  which  would  equal  in  importance  the  local' 
Bebel  and  Liebknecht  an  international  party,  in  self-government  of  communities  subordinated  to  tiie 
which  numerous  anarchistic  elements  were  blended,  individual  states,  and  which  would  complement  the 
In  1875  there  had  been  a  fusion  of  the  Lassalle  and  establishment  of  universal  suffrage  by  educating 
Bebel  factions;  the  Gotha  programme  was  drawn  up;  the  people  for  the  administration  ofpubiio  affairs, 
at  the  elections  of  1877  they  scored  their  first  impor-  Bismarck  also  gave  his  support  to  the  great  German 
tant  success.  Liberalism  had  also  failed  completely  commercial  interests  which  insisted  upon  the  acqui- 
in  its  opposition  to  the  Centre ;  the  latter  party  nad  so  sition  of  colonies ;  in  1884  South- West  Africa,  Kame- 
grown  that  it  controlled  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  run,  and  Togo  were  acquired;  in  1885-86  German, 
votes  in  the  Reichstag.  Bismarck  determined  to  re-  East  Africa,  German  New  Guinea,  and  the  Bismarck 
strict  once  more  the  influence  of  the  Liberals  in  domestic  Archipelago.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to  risk  being 
poUtics.  The  transformation  of  the  Conservative  embroiled  with  En^and,  althou^  it  was  an  invio- 
taction  from  an  old-Prussian  party  of  landed  proprie-  lable  fundamental  principle  of  his  policy  not  to  en- 
tors  into  a  German  Agrarian  party  (1876)  maae  it  croach  on  that  cotmtry's  privileges.  It  appeared  as  if 
capable  of  further  development  ana  useful  as  a  sup-  Bismarck,  though  he  had  grown  up  under  wholly 
port  for  Bismarck.  He  purposed  forming  a  majority  different  conditions  and  had  been  schooled  in  wholly 
by  combining  this  Ck>nservative  party  with  the  moder-  different  ideas,  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the  demo- 
ate  National  Liberals  (imder  Bennigsen  and  Miquel),  cratic  Germany  of  the  future,  with  its  world-wide 
while  at  the  same  time,  the  Centre  party  having  re-  commerce  and,  its  world-wide  economic  interests, 
fused  to  disband,  there  was  the  possiDility  of  forming  But  the  first  step  taken,  he  retre{kted.  He  did  not 
a  majority  of  the  Conservatives  and  the  Cientre.  carry  out  his  scneme  of  co-operative  organization. 
Between  1876  and  1879  to  organize  the  administra-  It  was  in  the  fight  aj^ainst  the  growth  of  the  German 
tion  of  the  empire,  the  Reichstag  created,  subordinate  democratic  tendencies  within  the  empire  that  he 
to  the  chancellor,  who  under  the  Constitution  was  the  exhausted  his  strength  in  the  eighties.  Domestic 
only  responsible  official,  the  following  imperial  author-  peace  was  proipoted  in  Germany  by  the  fintJ  thou^ 
ities  or  secretariat»  of  State:  Ministry  for  Foreign  belated  close  of  the  Ku^turibamp/ (1886-87) ;  thebene- 
Affairs,  Imperial  Home  Office,  Imperial  Ministry  of  ficial  effects  of  this  were  greatly  lessened  by  the  sever- 
Justice,  Imperial  Treasurjr,  Administration  of  Im-  ity  and  violence  of  the  measures  with  whicn  Bismarck 
perial  KailwayB,  Imperial  Post  Office,  Imperial  Ad-  had  begun  (1885-86)  to  break  up  the  national  move- 
m]ralty,SecretariatfortheColonies(1907).  A  number  ment  of  the  Prussian  Poles,  which  was  the  oonse- 
VI.— 33 


aEBMANY                              514  GERMANY 

quenoe  of  their  constantly  increasing  prosperi^iy  and  attain  this  end,  internal  tranquilii^  was  as  necessary  as 

of  the  rise  of  a  middle  class  among  them.    £xile,  external  peace.    He  dismissed  Bismarck  in  Mar^ 

efforts  to  suppress  the  Polish  language,  the  ezpendi-  1890  and  replaced  him  by  Capri vi  (1890-94).    Then 

ture  of  State  funds  to  colonize  Poland  with  German  he  saw  to  it  that  the  all  but  unanimous  desire  of  the 

peasants  were  the  means  used.    Incapable  of  respect-  Reichstag  to  complete  the  compulsory  insurance 

mg  political  parties  and  working  in  harmony   with  legislation  by  comprehensive  factory,  legislation  was 

them,  he  bectune  involved  in  incessant  parliamentary  satisfied.    An  international  conference  for  the  protec- 

contests  with  them.    Particularly  the  demands  of  the  tion  of  working  men  was  held  Mardi,  1890.  and  a 

Government  for  an  increase  in  the  strength  of  the  supplementary  law  (Gewerbsordnunes-Novelle)  was 

army,  which  was  levied   by  general  conscription,  passed  1  June,  1891.    He  moderated  the  repressive 

brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  Centre  and  the  measures  against  the  Poles.    He  intended  to  give 

Left,  because  of  his  insistence  that  the  appropriation  the  Catholics  a  guarantee  that  the  national  schools 

for  army  purposes  should  be  made  for  a  period  of  would  continue  to  be  Christian  by  the  proposed  Na- 

seven  years,  instead  of  for  one  year,  according  to  the  tional  School  Law  in  1892,  but  witharew  the  bill 

Constitution,  or  for  the  term  of  a  parliament.    Bitter  when  the  Liberals  assimied  a  hostile  attitude,  and 

quarrels  also  marked  the  debates  on  social  questions,  his  pacific  aims  were  thwarted.    In  forei^  affairs  he 

because  Bismarck  refused  to  agree  to  state  protection  came  to  an  understanding  with  England  m  regard  to 

of  workmen,  thou^  he  had  conceded  state  msurance.  the  difi&culties  that  had  arisen  from  Uie  colonial  ex- 

The  political  parties,  all  of  which  had  been  organ-  pansion  of  Germany,  e.g.  the  exchange  of  Zanzibar  for 

ized  b^ore  the  creation  of  the  empire,  now  began  to  Heligoland  in  1890.    In  the  interests  of  peace  likewise 

adapt  themselves  to  new  conditions,  to  cast  aside  he  succeeded  in  concluding  commercial  treaties  with 

issues  resulting  from  the  division  of  Germany  into  Austria,  Italy,  Russia,  ana  several  smaller  states,  by 

separate  states,  and  to  alter  their  positions  to  con-  lowering  the  a^cultural  duties  which  had  become 

form  to  new  points  of  view;  but  their  development  vet^y  high.    With  France  he  sought  to  establish  r&- 

was  seriously  nampered  bv  these  conflicts.    In  1879  lations  that  were  at  least  free  from  bitterness.    Be- 

the  Liberals  had  resigned  the  presidency  of  the  Reich-  cause  of  its  sovereimty  over  the  Balkans  and  the  East, 

Bta^  in  consequence  of  the  adoption  of  financial  and  he  devoted  specisa  attention  to  Germany's  political 

tariff  reform.    The  president  was  now  chosen  from  relations  to  Turkey.    For  he  saw  that  these  countries 

the  Conservatives,  marking  the  Conservative  era  of  were  the  best  markets  for  German  trade.    But  trouble 

the  empire,  which  down  to  the  present  time  has  been  soon  began.    The  emperor's  autocratic  proclivities 

uninterrupted  with  the  exception  of  the  supremacy  of  and  his  sudden  changes  of  opinion  aroused  bitter 

the  Centre  from  1895  to  1906.    After  their  fall  from  criticism  among  the  people.    The  new  Armv  Bill  of 

power,  tiie   Liberals  repeatedly  split  into  factions  1893,  which  proposed  to  reduce  the  period  of  military 

accoraineto  their  differences  of  opinion  on  commercial  service  to  two  years,  was  well-meant  on  his  part,  but  was 

policy.    The  most  important  section,  the  National  so  badly  managed  that  it  brought  him  mto  collision 

liberal  party,  was  reorganized  in  1884  by  MiqueL  with  the  Centre  (Dissolution  of  the  Reichstag,  1893). 

It  became  reconciled  with  Bismarck  and  regamed  On  the  other  hand,  the  commercial  treaties,  which 

some  seats  in  the  Reichstag,  but  not  its  former  power,  were  opposed  by  the  agricultural  party,  got  the  em- 

The  Conservatives  energetically  took  up  the  demands  peror  into  difficulties  with  the  Conservatives.    In  1895 

for  the  protection  of  the  working  classes.     Eventuallv  the  Reichstae  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  his  demands  for 

the  Am,rian  element  among  them  got  the  upper  hand,  renewal  of  sharp  repressive  measures  a^tinst  aflta- 

They  Tailed,  however,  to  attract  into  their  ranks  the  tions  that  were  ''hostile  to  the  state"  (tne  so-cSUed 

smaUer.  middle  class,  1.  e.  the  small  retail  traders  who  "  Umsturzvorlage")*    His  views  subsequently  became 

had  combined  to  resist  the  great  industrial  inter-  liberalized,  his  lollowing  being  recruited  mainly  from 

ests;  nor  did  they  win  over  tne  officials  of  the  civH  the  commercial,  industrial,  and  intellectual  classes 

service,  nor  the  Christian   Socialists   among  their  (Krupp,  Ballin,  Hamack). 

Evangelical  constituents.  Consequently,  small  par-  The  success  of  the  emperor's  policy  during  the  next 
*  ties  sprang  up  in  the  west  and  south  of  Germany  that  few  years  dispelled  the  clouds  ofopposition,  especiaJly 
were  fundamentally  Conservative  in  character  but  as  Caprivi's  successor,  Chlodwig  Hohenlohe  (ISd^ 
had  no  connexion  with  the  great  Conservative  party.  1901),  was  a  man  of  astute  and  conciliatory  nature, 
The  attempt  that  von  Kleist-Retzow  made  to  found  a  while  in  Count  Posadowsky,  Se^etary  of  State  for 
Protestant  party  of  the  Centre  in  the  hope  of  winning  Home  Affairs,  the  emperor  had  the  support  of  an 
over  the  heir  to  the  throne,  Prince  William,  to  its  extremely  competent  and  energetic  man.  Germany 
cause,  was  frustrated  by  Bismarek's  intrieues,  by  became  Turkey's  chief  coimsellor.  The  maintenance 
which  the  prince  was  alienated  from  the  (x>nservar  of  friendly  relations  with  the  rapidly  devdopine 
tives.  The  Centre  maintained  its  strength  and  di-  United  States  of  America,  despite  the  opposition  of 
rected  its  attention  to  social  politics  in  the  empire  and  tJieir  economical  interests  and  isolated  mstances  of 
to  the  school  question  in  the  individual  states.  It  friction  between  officers,  strengthened  public  con- 
became  the  leading  party  in  the  Reichstag,  repre-  fidence  in  the  international  situation.  By  the  occu- 
sented  by  Hitze  ana  von  Hertling.  In  1890  the  pation  of  Kiao-chau  in  1898,  Germany  secured  a  foot- 
' 'People's  Union  for  Catholic  Germany  "  (Volksverein  mg  in  Eastern  Asia,  while  the  partition  of  the  Samoan 
fitr  aas  kaiholische  DeutsMand)  was  founded.  The  Islands  and  the  acoiusition  of  tiie  Carolines  (1898^9) 
Social  Democrats,  prevented  by  the  Socialist  Law  from  mve  her  a  much-aesired  increase  of  station*  in  the 
agitating  their  cause  publicly,  kept  up  their  strength  Pacific.  The  German  transatlantic  merehant  marine 
by  secret  recruitment.  By  dissolving  the  Reichstag  held  for  a  long  period  the  record  for  the  race  across  the 
in  1887,  Bismarek  secured  the  most  favourable  elec-  Atlantic,  and,  even  in  Africa  and  Asia,  Germanvprom- 
toral  results  that  had  ever  fallen  to  his  lot,  inasmuch  ised  to  become  a  veiy  serious  rival  ojf  England.  The 
as  an  overwhelming  majority  of  Conservatives  and  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  a  period  of 
National  Liberals  $o-called  Kartell-Reichstag)  was  exceptional  prosperity  throu^out  the  country.  From 
returned  But  he  was  unable  to  work  harmoniously  forty- one  millions  in  1871,  the  population  mcreased 
even  with  this  majority.  to  sixty  millions  in  1905.    The  mcreased  national 

(2)  From  1888  to  1909.— In  1888  Wflliam  I  died,  well-being  will  be  realized  from  the  fact  that  at  present 

Frederick  III,  the  hope  of  the  Liberals,  followed  him  the  gross  value  of  the  agricultural  produce  amounts  to 

to  the  grave  in  ninety-nine  days,  and  the  reign  of  some  $3,525,000,000,  and  of  the  mdustrial  output  to 

William    II   began.    The  youthful  and  able  ruler  about  $8,460,000,000.    In  1871,  two-thirds  of  the 

wished  to  make  Germany  as  speedily  as  possible  a  population   still   lived  in  the  country,  whereas  in 

sharer  in  the  world's  commerce.    He  reali^^  that,  to  1900  54.3  per  cent  lived  in  towns  of  more  than  2000 


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inhabitants,  and  in  1905  19  per  cent  lived  in  cities  of 
more  l^an  100,000  inhabitants.  In  the  {^cultural 
districts,  however^  conditions  continued  to  be  healthy 
— ^31  per  cent  bemg  cultivated  by  peasants,  24  per 
cent  being  held  in  large  estates,  and  the  remainder  in 
lots  of  less  than  20  hectares  (roughly  50  acres).  The 
woodland  area  still  includes  one-fourth  of  the  total 
area. 

During  this  period  the  national  standard  of  living 
became  more  luxurious;  revolutionary  and  anar- 
chistic tendencies  began  appreciably  to  disappear. 
The  whole  nation  was  seized  oy  a  burning  tendency  to- 
wards the  formation  of  new  associations,  a  spint  to 
which  we  owe  the  foundation  of  the  Catholic  People's 
Union  (der  Volksverein:  members  in  1908,  600,000), 
the  Farmers'  Lea^e  (1908:  300,000  members),  the 
free  (Socialistic)  guilds  (1908:  over  750,000  members), 
the  Christian  Endeavour  guilds  (1908:  over  200,000 
members),  etc.  In  Parliament  the  great  political 
parties  ((Jonservatives,  National  Liberals,  and  the 
Centre)  drew  closer  together;  the  presidency  devolved 
on  the  Centre  in  consequence  of  its  numerical  pre- 
ponderance and  the  ability  of  its  leaders.  In  1899, 
the  constantly  recurring  conflict  between  the  Crown 
and  the  Reichstag  on  the  subject  of  appropriations  for 
military  expenditure  was  settled  bv  an  agreement  on 
the  part  of  the  legislative  assembly  to  vote  supplies 
henceforth  for  the  parliamentary  period,  which  had 
been  increased  from  three  to  five  years  in  1888. 
Among  the  important  measures  passed  were  the  com- 

Sletion  of  the  unified  legal  codes  (1896)  and  the 
[aval  Acts  (1898,  1901),  which  had  in  view  the  rais- 
ing of  Germany  to  a  maritime  power  of  the  first  rank. 
In  1902  the  resolution  to  restore  the  hig^  protective 
duties  on  agricultural  products  was  passed  in  the  face 
of  the  bitter  opposition  maintained  by  the  Social 
Democrats  for  many  months  (Tariff  Bills,  on  the 
basis  of  which  the  commercial  treaties  were  renewed  • 
in  1905).  Prussia's  project  of  constructing  a  canal 
through  her  own  territory  from  the  Oder  to  the  Rhine 
met  with  obstinate  resistance,  not  indeed  in  the 
Reichstae,  but  in  the  Prussian  diet  (rejected  in  1899, 
approved  in  1903).  In  the  midst  of  this  era  of  pros- 
perity Bismarck  died  (1898). 

In  foreign  politics,  however,  there  came  a  change  for 
the  worse  after  England's  sub j nation  of  the  Boers. 
Under  Edward  VII,  Great  .Britain  forced  Germany 
back  from  almost  all  the  positions  which  she  had 
reeentlv  occupied.  Meanwhile,  WiUiam  II  devoted 
himself  to  a  Une  of  policy  calculated  to  win  temporary 
favour  (journey  to  Jerusalem,  1898;  intervention  in 
the  Chinese  complications,  1900;  landing  in  Tangier, 
1905).  Prince  Bulow,  who  replaced  Hohenlohe  in 
1900,  was  unable  to  stem  the  ebbing  tide.  In  the 
Moroccan  controversy  between  Germany  and  France, 
Germany,  who  appealed  to  an  international  confer- 
ence (at  Algeciras,  1906),  suffered  a  severe  rebuff.  By 
his  efforts  to  separate  Austria  and  Italy  from  the 
Triple  Alliance  and  by  his  ententes  with  the  other 
Powers  of  Europe,  IJdward  VII  isolated  his  rivsA 
(1907,  Triple-Entente  between  En^and,  Russia,  and 
France).  Bulow's  Polish  policy,  which  was  more 
drastic  even  than  Bismarck's  (cf.  the  Expropriation 
Act  of  1908),  resulted  only  in  disappointments  with- 
out effectually  checking  the  Polish  aisturbances.  In 
1907,  owing  in  part  to  the  financial  crisis  in  America, 
Germany's  commercial  prosperity  markedly  de- 
clined. Favoured  bv  the  customs  tariff,  agriculture 
alone  continued  to  nourish.  The  revenue  of  the  em- 
pire decreased  with  the  commercial  profits.  At  the 
same  time  the  risine  of  the  Herreros  in  South- Western 
Africa  in  1904  called  for  large  unforeseen  expendi- 
tures, while  the  troubled  aspect  of  the  foreign  situa- 
tion necessitated  a  tremendous  increase  in  the  outlay 
on  armaments  (cf.  Naval  statutes  of  1908.  The 
"ordinary"  expenditure  in  1907  was  2329  millions  of 
marks;  National  debt  in  1873;  18(X)  millions,  and  in 


1908  4400  millions  of  marks.)  One  attempt  after  an» 
other  was  made  at  fiscal  reform  [1904,  relaxation  of 
the  Franckenstein  clause;  1906,  150  milhon  marks 
($35,250,000)  yearly  taxes  were  voted;  in  1908-09, 
500  millions  were  demanded  b^  the  government],  but 
the  government  is  still  earned  on  with  a  deficit. 
Thorough  recovery  has  been  prevented  by  the  re- 
newed violent  dissensions  in  the  nation  bv  party  spirit 
(since  1892)  and  the  clash  of  opposing  id,eals. 

The  coalition,  which  had  formed  the  majority  dur- 
ing the  nineties,  broke  up  in  1903.  Its  most  impor- 
tant factor  was  the  Centre,  the  number  of  whose  seats 
in  the  Reichstag  and  supporters  in  the  constituencies 
remained  stationary  even  during  the  period  of  its  par- 
liamentary ascendancy.  Therein  lay  its  weakness, 
since  meanwhile  its  allies,  the  official  Liberal  and 
Conservative  parties,  gained  ground.  The  Liberals 
gained  in  consequence  of  a  movement  towards  con- 
centration among  the  Liberals  of  the  Left  soon  after 
the  beginning  of  the  century  (Fusion  of  the  Liberals  of 
the  Left;  1906),  and  of  a  reconciliation  between  the 
National  Liberals  and  the  Liberals  of  the  Left  by 
means  of  a  *'  Young  Liberal ' '  movement  in  their  ranks. 
The  Conservatives,  who  had  been  growing  as  a  party 
almost  uninterruptedly  since  1876,  especially  after  the 
founding  of  the  ''Farmers'  League"  in  1893,  gained  by 
gradually  invading  the  agrarian  territory  in  the  west 
and  south-west. 

Up  to  1906,  the  Protestant  League,  founded  in  1886, 
maintained  a  fanatical  agitation  amongst  the  popu- 
lace to  frustrate  the  endeavours  of  the  Catholics,  di- 
rected through  the  Centre,  to  secure  recognition  of  their 
eaual  rights  as  citizens  in  the  public  life  of  the  nation. 
Yielding  to  this  a^tation,  first  the  National  Liberals 
then  the  Conservatives  dissociated  themselves  from  the 
Centre.  Despite  its  utmost  efforts,  the  Centre  failed 
in  1906  to  secure  the  repeal  of  the  remainder  of  the 
Kulturkampf  Laws,  except  to  the  extent  of  the  two 
paragraphs  of  the  Jesuit  law  (i.  e.  the  expulsion 
clauses) .  Furthermore,  the  so-called  "toleration  bills ' ', 
in  which  the  Centre  strove  by  imperial  l^:islation 
to  fix  the  minimum  of  rights  to  be  conceded  to  Catho- 
lics in  the  separate  states,  although  repeatedly  pre- 
sented to  the  Reichstag  after  1900,  always  met  with 
defeat.  When,  in  1906,  the  Christian  character  of  the 
national  schools  was  finally  established  by  statute  in 
Prussia  after  an  interval  of  13  years,  the  Government 
drafted  the  bill  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the 
Conservatives  and  the  National  Liberals,  and  left  to 
the  Centre  only  the  right  of  voting  for  it. 

Another  important  factor  in  bringing  about  the 
cleavage  between  the  parties  was  the  spread  among 
the  wealthier  classes,  both  Liberal  and  Conservative, 
of  a  strong  feeling  of  opposition  to  further  social  legis- 
lation. 'Riis  feeung  found  an  outlet  in  the  formation 
of  influential  syndicates,  and  was  most  bitterly  di- 
rected against  the  Centre,  as  the  principal  promoter  of 
social  remedial  measures.  An  open  breach  between 
the  parties  took  place  on  the  question  of  a  relatively 
insignificant  colonial  budget.  The  Govemmei)t  im- 
mediately disowned  the  Centre,  and  dissolved  the 
Reichstag  (13  December,  1906).  Since  then  the  sit- 
uation has  been  very  complicated.  As  a  result  of 
the  elections  the  Centre  retained  its  former  voting 
strength,  but  was  isolated.  The  Government  formed 
a  new  coalition,  called  ''the  Block",  consisting  of 
the  Conservatives  and  the  united  Liberal  party — the 
Liberals  of  the  Left  had  hitherto  been  in  opposition. 
In  this  it  relied  on  the  feelinm  of  hostility  towards  the 
Centre  which  animated  the  Protestants  and  the  prop- 
ertied classes.  When  the  administration,  however, 
made  concessions  to  Liberal  principles  (extension 
of  the  rig^t  of  association,  partial  repeal  of  the  stock 
exchange  legislation,  promise  to  introduce  popular 
suffrage  into  Prussia),  the  Conservatives,  after  some 
hesitation,  decided  to  oppose  the  Government  and 
again  sought  an  alliance  with  the  Centre.    They  are 


OEttBCANY 


516 


OtRlCAN^ 


stronger  than  the  Liberals,  but  the  sjjrmpathles  of  the 
Government  and  of  the  anti-<)athohc  portion  of  the 
population  will  help  the  Liberals  in  their  contests  with 
the  Ck>nservatiyes.  The  auarrel  amonggt  ihe  civil 
parties  prevents  the  further  loss  of  parliamentary  seats 
by  the  Social  Democrats,  whose  voting  power  has 
been  steadily  increasing  since  1890  (in  1907  thev  cast 
3,259,000  votes,  29  per  cent  of  the  total,  although 
they  won  only  forty-three  seats  in  the  Reichstag  as 
compared  with  eigh^-one  in  1903).  It  also  prevents 
the  reconstruction  of  the  programme  of  the  Socialists, 
many  of  whom — especiaUy  in  South  Germany — ^favour 
a  peaceful  transformation  of  society.  The  difference 
of  opinions  existing  among  the  Socialist  party  was 
clearl^jT  evidenced  by  the  violent  quarrel  between  the 
opposing  sections  at  the  Dresden  Convention  in  1903. 

The  position  of  the  Government  in  view  of  its  rela- 
tions with  the  parties  is  at  present  (Jan.,  1909)  not 
very  favourable.  The  admmistrative  organization 
of  the  empire  hardly  suffices.  Besides,  the  shock 
^ven  to  the  power  of  the  emperor  in  November,  1908, 
in  consequence  of  the  popular  resentment  of  his  per- 
sonal interference  in  politics  as  revealed  in  the  "Daily 
Telgzraph''  interview,  has  not  served  to  strengthen 
the  Government.  On  the  other  hand,  its  prestige^was 
greatly  enhanced  by  the  re-establishment  of  German 
influence  in  international  politics,  owing  to  its  firm 
support  of  Austria-Hungary  in  the  Balkan  crisis 
(1908-9).  It  has  put  an  end  to  the  isolation  of  Ger- 
many, strengthened  the  bonds  of  the  Triple  Alliance, 
and  promises  to  result  in  a  rapprochement  with  Russia. 

In  dealing  with  the  present  situation  of  German 
Catholicism,  relations  between  Church  and  State  must 
be  separated  from  the  question  of  the  civic  ^^ts  of  the 
German  Catholics.  The  authorities  of  the  Church  and 
State  work  together  in  a  spirit  of  mutual  benevolence, 
the  chief  creait  for  which  is  due  to  Cardinal  Kopp, 
since  1886  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau.  Ecclesiastically 
speaking,  Germany  is  divided  into  5  archbishoprics,  14 
suffragan  and  6  exempt  bishoprics,  3  Apostolic  vicari- 
ates, and  2  Apostolic  prefectures.  The  clergy  are 
trained  for  the  most  part  by  15  theological  university 
or  lyceum  faculties  (the  most  recently  established  being 
at  Strasburg.  1902),  a  smaller  number  in  seminaries. 
Ecdesiasticai  affairs  are  not  regulated  by  the  empire 
but  by  tiie  individual  state.  In  Pruisia  they  rest  on 
the  Bull ''  De  Salute  Animarum  "  and  the  explanatory 
brief  "  Quod  de  Fidelium  "  of  1821  (althoueh  the  prom- 
ise of  land  endowment  for  the  bishoprics  nas  not  been 
kept),  on  the  constitution  of  1850,  and  on  the  laws  of 
1886-87  regulating  ecclesiastical  polity.  In  Wtirtem- 
berg,  they  rest  on  me  Statute  of  1862,  m  Baden  on  the 
Statutes  of  1860,  in  Bavaria  on  the  Concordat  of  1817, 
which  has  not  actually  been  enforced  and  which  con- 
sequently creates  a  state  of  legal  uncertainty.  In 
these  divisions  of  the  empire^  the  Church  has  the 
ri^ts  of  a  privileged  corporation.  In  the  Kingdom 
oi  Saxony  and  in  Saxe- Weimar,  all  ecclesiastical 
ordinances  and  appointments,  even  those  issued  from 
Rome,  as  well  as  the  erection  of  new  churches,  etc., 
are  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Government. 
Appeal  to  Rome  is  foroidden.  In  the  other  small 
Tnuringian  states,  and  in  Brunswick  and  Meck- 
lenburg, the  Catholics  even  recently  had  to  submit 
their  parochial  affairs  to  the  authority  of  the  Protestant 
pastors,  and  in  part  Catholics  even  now  pay  tithes  to 
the  Protestant  pastors  for  this  unsoughtrfor  service. 
The  building  of  churches  and  establishment  of  schools 
are  also  subject  to  galling  restrictions. 

The  bishops  are  elected  by  the  cathedral  chapters, 
except  in  Bavaria  (where  tney  are  chosen  by  agree- 
ment between  the  Government  and  Rome) ;  in  the 
Upper  Rhenish  church  province,  in  OsnabrOck,  and 
in  Hildesheim,  the  Irish  method  of  election  obtains: 
elsewhere  exists  the  customary  submission  of  a  list  ot 
candidates  to  the  Government.  The  establishment  of 
convents  is  everywhere  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 


State.  In  Wartemberg  and  Baden  only  female  orden 
are  allowed;  in  Saxony  and  the  smaller  P^testant 
States  only  nursing  sisterhoods.  Jesuit  institutions 
are  not  permitted  an^here.  The  primary  schools 
are  mostly  denominational,  but  are  neutral  m  Baden, 
in  part  of  Bavaria,  and  in  two  provinces  of  Prussia. 
They  are  founded  by  the  State  and  by  the  communi- 
ties, but  the  local  pastors  supervise  the  religious  in- 
struction and  are  generally  the  local  sdiool  inspectors. 
The  system  of  intermediate  and  higher  schools  for  boys 
is  undenominational  almost  without  exception,  and 
is  under  either  state  or  municipal  control;  tne  schools 
for  girls  are  mostly  under  private  and  denominational 
management,  being  largely  conducted  by  nuns.  The 
civil  marriage  ceremony  takes  precedence  of  the  re- 
ligious by  an  imperial  law  of  1875:  divorce  is  regu- 
lated by  the  civil  code.  For  Catholic  couples  separa- 
tion a  menad  et  thoro  may  be  granted.  CharitsJble 
relief  work  is  admirably  regulated  and  carefully  stim- 
ulated by  the  focusing  of  charitable  impulses  in  the 
ChtirUavverband  (Charity  Organisation  Society), 
founded  at  Freiburg  in  1^7.  It  is  working  more  and 
more  in  harmony  with  social  relief  work.  There  is  a 
lar^  number  of  religious -societies;  the  throngs  who 
assist  at  all  religious  festivals  are  impressive,  and  the 
numbers  who  receive  the  sacraments  are  gratif3ring. 
Pilgrimages  are  numerously  attended,  the  most  fa- 
mous place  of  pilgrimage  in  Prussia  being  Kevelaer,  in 
Bavana  Alt6tting.  Considerable  anxiety  is  inspired 
b^r  the  prevfdence  of  Social  Democracy  in  certain  dis- 
tricts, and  by  the  irreligious  indifference  of  the  rising 
generation  of  the  propertied  classes. 

The  civil  status  of  Catholics  is  not  so  good.  Of 
the  60,641,272  inhabitants  of  Germany  in  1905, 
about  36.00  per  cent  were  Catholic  (in  1900  onPy 
36.1  per  cent  as  compared  with  36.2  per  cent 
in  1871).  At  present,  as  formerly,  unity  infuses 
vigorous  life  into  the  Catholic  Church.  The  Catho- 
lics are  splendidty  organized  (for  politics  by  the 
Centre  ana  in  sociological  respect  by  the  Chnstian 
guilds  and  by  Volksverein).  They  are  making  per- 
sistent efforts  to  secure  equal  recognition  in  puolic 
life  (cf.  the  agitation  .afoot  in  Prussia  since  1890  in 
favour  of  equal  ri^ts  for  Catholics;  the  so-called 
"Self-examination  Movement"  throughout  the  em- 
pire, that  is  to  say,  the  general  investigation  into  the 
injustices  suffered  by  Catholics  in  the  educational  and 
economical  life  of  the  country).  Recently,  the  num- 
ber of  Catholic  pupils  in  the  intermediate  and  hi^er 
schools  has  increased,  but  only  on  the  humanistic  side. 
Tlieir  representation  in.  the  polytechnic  schools  as  well 
as  in  the  student  bodies  at  the  universities  continues  to 
be  weak,  out  of  all  proportion  to  those  of  the  other 
communions.  Only  in  isolated  instances  are  the 
leading  positions  in  the  states  and  communities  filled 
by  (Catholics.  No  Prussian  state  minister,  and  only 
one  state  secretary  is  Catholic.  Their  share  in  the 
public  wealth  does  not  at  all  correspond  with  their 

numerical  strength. 

Jansbn.  Oea€hichte  dea  deutachm  Volkta.  IV-VIII;  Rrtbb, 
DeuUche  OeachidUe  im  ZeUaller  der  Qegenr^oTmaium  vend  de*  30- 
jAhriqen  Krieges,  III;  ERDMANNSDORrnsR,  Deutsche  OeeehichU 
vom  WeatflUiBehen  Frieden  b%$  zur  Reqienmgaantritt  Friedridu 
dea  Groaaen,  II;  Immicr,  Oeachichte  aea  europAiadien  Staaien- 
ayatema  von  1660  hia  1789;  Kosbr,  Friedrich  der  Oroaae  (1903- 
04),  II;  Arnkth,  OeachicMe  der  Maria  Thereaia  (1863-79).  X; 
Hbiobl,  Deutat^  Oeachichte  vom  Tod  Friedricha  d.  Or.  hia  tur 
Aufldaung  dea  Reieha  (1899).  I;  Trbftbchkb,  DeuUche  Oe- 
achichte tm  XIX.  Jahrhundert  (1879-94).  V.  coea  to  1848; 
Stbel,  BeorHnduno  dea  Deutachen  Reieha  dunh  Kaiaer  Wilhelm 
I  (1889-94),  VII;  Fribdjtjno.  Oeachichte  Oeaterreicha  von  1848 
hia  1869  (1908).  I;  Idbm,  Der  Kampf  urn  die  Vorherrachaft  in 
DeuUchland  1869-1866  (1M8).  II;  Lorbns.  WUhdm  I.  und  die 
BegrUnduna  dea  Deutachen  Reidu  (1002).  I;  Marckb.  WOhdm  I. 
(1905);  Lbns,  Biamarck;  Bismarck,  Oedanken  und  £rwme- 
runoen  (1898),  II;  Denkwardigkeiten  dea  FUraten  Chlodwig  mu 
Hohenlohe-SchiUingaflkrat  (1906),  II;  Eoblhaaf.  Deutache  Oe- 
achichte aeit  dem  Frankfurter  Frieden  (1908),  I;  Labord,  Dol 
Staatarecht  dea  DeuUchen  Reieha  (1901).  IV;  Publioati4ma  of  the 
Bureau  of  Imperial  Staliatica  (Kaiaerl.  SkUiatiaih.  AnU.); 
BrCck-Kiplino,  Oeachichte  der  kalh.  Kirche  im  Deutachland  tm 
XIX.  Jahrh.  (1887-1908).  IV.  ^  ^ 

Martin  Spahn. 


QSBMAinr                              517  OBRBiANY 

QbrmanLitbrature. — ^I.  From  Oldest  Prk-Chrib-  anoe.  The  oonveiwon  of  Genxiai!^,  vigorouslY  carried 

HAN  Period  to  800  a.  d. — ^There  are  no  written  monu-  on  since  the  eighth  century  by  Irish  and  Angjio-Saxon 

ments  before  the  e%hth  century.   The  earliest  written  missionaries,  notably  by  St.  Boniface  (d.  755).  was 

record  in  amr  Germanic  languagei  the  Gothic  transla-  completed  when  Charlemagne  (d.  814)  forced  the 

tion  of  the  Bible  by  Bishop  ulmas,  in  the  fourth  cen-  heatnen  Saxons  to  submit  to  his  rule  and  to  be  bap- 

tury,  does  not  belong  to  German  literature.    It  is  tized,  and  united  all  the  German  tribes  under  his  sway, 

known  from  Tacitus  that  the  ancient  Germans  had  an  Under  him  and  his  successors  Christianity  was  firmly 

unwritten  poetry,  which  amone  them  supplied  the  established.   The  clergy  became  the  representatives  of 

place  of  his^ry.    It  consisted  of  hynms  in  honour  of  learning;  the  newly  established  monasteries  and  their 

gods,  or  songs  commemorative  of  the  deeds  of  heroes,  schools,  above  all  tnose  of  Fulda  and  St.  Gall,  were  the 

Such  hymns  were  sung  in  chorus  on  solemn  occasions,  centres  of  culture.    The  language  of  the  Church  was 

and  were  accompanied  by  dancing;  their  verse  form  Latin,  but  preaching  and  instruction  had  to  be  carried 

was  alliteration.    There  were  also  songs,  not  choric.  on  in  the  vernacular.^  The  prose  literature  that  arose 

but  sung  by  minstrels  before  kings  or  nobles,  8ong9  or  to  serve  this  purpose  is  only  of  linguistic  interest.   The 

praise,  besides  charms  and  riddles.    During  the  great  poetry  that  developed  during  this  period  was  wholly 

period  of  the  migrations  poetic  activity  received  a  Christian  in  character.    Examples  are  the  ''Wesso- 

tresh  iinpulse.    New  heroes,  like  Attila  (Etzel),  Theo-  brunner^  Gebet"  and  the  "Muspilli",  the  latter  an 

doric  (Dietrich),  and  Ermanric  (Ermanrich),  came  alliterative  poem  on  the  destruction  of  the  world ;  both 

upon  the  scene ;  their  exploits  were  confused  by  tradi-  date  from  the  ninth  century.    The  Church,  naturally, 

tion  ^th  those  of  older  heroes,  like  Siegfried.    Mythic  opposed  the  old  heathen  songs  and  strove  to  supplant 

and  historic  elements  were  strangely  mingled,  and  so  them  by  Christian  poems.    Inus  arose  the  Old  Saxon 

arose  the  great  saga  cycles,  which  later  on  formed  the  epic,  the  "Heliana'',  which  was  composed  between 

basis  of  the  natiomd  epics.    Of  all  these  the  Nibelun-  822  and  840  by  an  unknown  poet,  at  the  suggestion  of 

fi«n  saga  became  the  most  famous,  and  spread  to  all  Kin^  Louis  the  Pious.    It  is  written  in  Low  German 

Germanic  tribes.     Here  the  most  primitive  legend  of  and  is  the  last  great  poem  in  alliterative  verse.    The 

OrrBiBD's  ''Evangblibnbuch" 
Section  of  m  page,  IX-Century  MS.,  Court  Library,  Vienna 

Siegfried's  death  was  combined  with  the  historical  story  of  the  Redeemer  is  here  told  from  a  thoroughly 

destruction  of  the  Burgundians  by  the  Huns  in  435,  German  point  of  view,  Christ  bein^  conceived  as  a 

and  affords  a  typical  instance  of  saga-formation.  -  mild  butpowerful  chief,  and  His  disciples  as  vassals  or 

Of  all  this  pagan  poetry  hardly  anything  has  sur-  thanes,  liie  same  subject  is  treated  in  tne"Evangelien- 

vived.   The  collection  that  Charlemagne  caused  to  be  buch"  of  Otfried,  a  monk,  of  Weissenbure,  the  first 

made  of  the  old  heroic  laiys  has  perished.    All  that  is  German  poet  known  by  name.  It  was  completed  about 

known  are  the  '' Merseburger  ZaubersprQche",  two  868  and  dedicated  to  Louis  the  German.    While  not 

sones  of  enchantment  preserved  in  a  manuscript  of  the  possessing  the  literaiy  merit  of  the  "  Heliand  ",  it  is  of 

tenth  century,  and  the  famous  ''Hildebrandshed",  an  the  greatest  importance  because  it  definitely  intro- 

epic  fragment  narrating  an  episode  of  the  Dietrich  duces  into  German  poetry  the  principle'  of  rhyme, 

saga,  the  trwc  combat  between  father  and  son.    It  already   familiar   from   the    Latin   church   hymns, 

was  ¥mtten  down  after  800  by  two  monks  of  Fulda,  on  Rhyme  was  also  used  by  the  unknown  author  of  the 

the  covers  of  a  theological  manuscript.   The  evidence  **  Ludwigslied"  to  celebrate  the  victory  of  Louis  III 

afforded  by  these  fragments,  as  well  as  such  literature  over  the  Northmen  at  Saucourt  (881).    This  is  the 

as  the  "  Beowulf"  and  the  ''  Edda",  seems  to  indicate  only  song  of  the  period  not  purelv  religious  in  charao- 

that  the  oldest  German  poetrv  was  of  considerable  ter,  though  its  auUior  was  probably  a  cleric, 

extent  and  of  no  mean  order  of  merit.  During  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  German 

II.  The  Old  High  German  Period  (c,  800-1050).  poetry  fell  into  neglect;  at  the  courts  of  the  Saxon 
CBRiBTiANrrT  AND  iTa  INFLUENCE. — Between  the  (919-1024)  and  Franconianemperors  (1024-1125)  and 
years  500  and  700  occurred  the  High  German  sound-  in  the  monasteries  the  Latin  language  was  almost  ex- 
shifting,  which  divided  the  dialects  of  the  South,  High  dusively  cultivated,  and  thus  a  Dody  of  Latin  poetry 
German,  from  those  of  the  North,  Low  German.  Tne  arose,  of  which  tne  tenth-century  "Waltharius'^' 
hisiorv  of  German  literature  is  henceforth  mainly  con-  (Waltharilied)  of  E^kehud  (q.  v.),  a  monk  of  St.  Gall 
cemed  with  High  German  monuments.  In  fact,  until  (d.  973).  the  "Ruodlieb"  (1030),  and  the  "Ecbasis 
the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  Southern  Germany  occu-  Captivi"  (c.  940)  are  tiie  most  noteworthy  examples, 
pies  the  leading  place  in  literary  production.  The  "Waltharilied"  relates  an  old  Burgundian  saga 

The  Goths,  the  first  C^rmanic  tribe  to  be  converted,  and  is  thoroughly  German  in  spirit,  while  the  "  Ecba- 

embraced  Christianity  in  the  form  of  Arianism.    But  sib"  is  the  olcfest  medieval  beast  epic  that  we  possess- 

they  soon  gave  way  to  the  Franks^  who  became  the  The  Latin  dramas  of  the  nun  Roswitha  (Hrotsvitha) 

dominant  people,  and  the  conversion  of  their  king,  hardly  belong  to  German  literature. 

Qovis,  to  (Christianity,  in  496,  was  of  decisive  import-  The  great  master  of  German  prose  in  this  period  was 


OKBMANY 


518 


OEBMAKY 


Notker  III,  surnamed  Labeo  (about  952-1022),  the 
head  of  the  convent-school  of  St.  Gall.  His  transla- 
tions from  Boethius,  Aristotle.  Marcianus  Capella,  and 
especially  of  the  Psalter,  are  tne  best  examptes  of  Ger- 
man prose  mitil  the  fourteenth  century. 

III.  The  Period  of  CmvALBY  and  the  Crusades 
(1050-1300).  Middle  High  German  Poetry. — ^In 
the  eleventh  century,  imder  the  influence  of  the  reform 
movement  that  emanated  from  the  Bur^undian  mon- 
astery of  Cluny,  a  spirit  of  stem  asceticism  begins  to 
dominate  in  hterature.  The  Church  in  its  struggle 
with  the  emperors  turned  again  to  the  people,  to  carry 
through  the  reforms  of  Gregory  VII,  and  sJthough  the 
poets  of  the  beginning  of  this  period  were  almost  ex- 
clusively clerics,  they  at  least  wrote  in  German. 
The  literature  which  they  produced  consists  mainly 
of  rhvmed  versions  of  Biblical  stories  and  other 
sacred  themes,  and  is  represented  by  Ezzo's  ''Lay 
of  the  Miracles  of  Christ",  Williram's  paraphrase 
of  the  Canticle  of  Canticles  (both  c.  1060),  and  the 
poems  of  Frau  Ava.  Some  of  the  best  poetry  of 
this  time  was  inspired  by  devotion  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  as  for  instance  the  *'  Driu  Liet  von  der  Maget " 
by  a  Bavarian  priest  named  Wemher  (c.  1170).  In 
these  songs  the  characteristic  German  trend  towards 
mysticism  is  unmistakable.  A  most  noteworthy  prod- 
uct of  the  age  is  the  half  legendary  "Annohea",  a 
poem  in  praise  of  Archbishop  Anno  II  of  Cologne  (d. 
1075).  The  "  Kaiserchronik*  (c.  1160),  a  bulky  poem 
narrating  the  history  of  the  world,  presents  a  strange 
medley  of  legendary  and  historic  lore.  The  bitter 
hostihty  of  the  ascetic  spirit  to  the  worldly  life  finds 
expression  in  the  scathing  satire  of  Heinrich  von  Melk 
(c.  1160).  But  ascetidam  was  losing  ground;  under 
the  influence  of  the  Crusades  the  prestige  of  the 
knightly  caste  was  steadil^r  rising.  A  compromise  with 
the  secular  spirit  became  imperative,  ana  the  clerical 
I>oet8,  to  keep  their  audiences  and  meet  the  competi- 
tion of  the  gleemen,  now  had  recourse  to  worldly  sub- 
jects.   For  their  models  they  turned  to  France. 

A  priest  named  Lamprecht  composed  the  "  Alexanr 
derlied"  (c.  1130),  while  a  priest  of  Ratisbon,  named 
Konrad,  wrote  the  "Rolandslied"  (c.  1135).  In  both 
cases  the  authors  drew  from  French  origmals.  The 
minstrels  began  once  more  to  come  to  the  front,  and  a 
number  of  popular  epics  date  from  this  period.  Among 
these  "Kdnig  Rother"  (c.  1160)  is  conspicuous.  Its 
subject  is  an  old  Germanic  saga^  and  the  r61e  which 
the  Orient^  Constantinople  in  this  case^  plays  therein 
shows  the  influence  of  the  Crusades.  Still  more  notice- 
able is  this  fondness  for  the  Orient  in"  Herzog  Ernst" 
(c.  1180).  where  the  historical  hero,  Duke  Ernest  II  of 
Swabia  (d.  1030),  is  represented  as  a  pilgrim  to  the 
Holv  Land  and  the  subject  of  marvellous  adventures 
in  tne  Far  East.  From  this  period  dates  also  the  first 
German  beast  epic,  "Reinhart  Fuchs",  by  Heinrich 
der  Gliches&re  (c.  1170). 

The  rule  of  the  Hohenstaufens  (1138-1254)  marks 
the  first  great  classic  era  of  German  literature.  Many 
causes  contributed  to  bring  about  a  great  literary  re- 
vival. The  Crusades  instilled  new  fervour  into  reli- 
gious life.  Many  thousands  of  German  knights  followed 
King  Conrad  III  in  the  crusade  of  1145-47.  They 
were  brought  into  contact  on  the  one  hand  with  the 
Orient  and  its  wealth  of  stories  and  marvels,  and  on 
the  other  with  their  more  cultured  French  neighbours, 
whose  polished  customs  and  manners  they  adopted 
with  avidity.  Chivalry,  an  institution  essentially 
Romance  in  origin  and  spirit,  was  thus  raised  to  pre- 
dominance in  the  social  life  of  the  age.  The  cultiva^ 
tion  of  poetry  passed  chiefly  into  its  hands;  the  clergy 
ceased  to  be  the  sole  purvevors  of  learning  and  culture. 

The  poets  of  this  period  are,  as  a  rule,  of  knightly 
rank.  Many  of  the  poorer  knights  depended  on  the 
generosity  of  princelv  patrons,  such  as  the  landgraves 
of  Thuringia  or  the  dukes  of  Austria.  The  only^  kinds 
of  poetry  cultivated  in  this  epoch  were  the  epio  and 


the  lyric,  and  the  former  was  either  courtly  or  popular. 
Form  received  the  most  careful  attention;  versifica- 
tion was  reeulated  by  the  strictest  rules;  the  language, 
the  classic  Middle  High  German,  is  extremely  elegant. 
This  classic  poetry  was  essentially  a  poetry  of  caste 
and  conformed  absolutely  to  the  ideals  x>f  Frendi 
courtly  society.  Brilliant  as  it  was,  it  was  mainly  a 
poetry  of  translation  and  adaptation. 

^  The  courtly  epic  deals  almost  exclusively  with  for- 
eign subjects;  its  models  were  derived  mostly  from 
France.  The  subject  most  in  favour  was  liie  malUre 
de  Bretagne,  the  lejeends  clustering  around  Kins  Arthur 
and  the  Round  Table^  with  which  that  of  tne  Holy 
Grail  had  been  combmed.  This  subject  was  made 
especially  popular  by  the  versions  of  the  French  trou- 
vdre,  Chrestien  de  Troyes,  who  exerted  great  influence 
on  the  German  courtly  epic.  Chivalry  and  the  cult  of 
woman  are  the  leadmg  motifs  of  tms  poetry.  The 
court  epic  was  introduced  into  Germany  by  Heinrich 
von  Veideke,  a  knight  of  the  Lower  Rhineland.  whose 
"  Eneit "  (c.  1 175-86) ,  based  on  a  French  model,  treats 
the  story  of  ^neas  in  thoroughly  medieval  and  chival- 
ric  spirit.  The  court  epic  was  transplanted  to  Upper 
Germany  by  the  Swaoian,  Hartmann  von  Aue  (d. 
about  1215).  In  his  "Erec"  he  introduced  the 
Arthurian  romance  into  German  literature;  his 
"  Iwein  "  is  from  the  same  cycle ;  his  "  Gregorius  "  is  an 
ascetic  version  of  the  (Edipus  story.  Hb  best-known 
work  is  "  Der  arme  Heinrich  ",  which,  as  a  purely  Ger- 
man story  of  womanly  devotion,  occupies  a  unique 
position  amon^  the  creations  of  the  courtly  poets. 
The  greatest  of  these  poets  is  Wolfram  von  jBschen- 
bach  (d.  about  1220),  whose  chief  work  is  his  ''Parzi- 
val",  the  story  of  the  simpleton  who  overcomes  doubt 
and  temptation  and  ultimately  becomes  King  of  the 
Holy  Grail.  As  in  Goethe's  '^Faust",  we  have  here 
the  story  of  a  human  soul.  To  the  cycle  of  Giail- 
romances  belons  also  the  so-called  "Titurel"  frag- 
ments^ while  W(Mfram's  last  work,  **  Willehalm'',  is  an 
historical  legend  which,  however,  remain^  incom- 
plete. Opposed  to  Wolfram  in  spirit  is  his  great  rival, 
Gottfried  von  Strasburg,  whose  '^ Tristan"  (c.  1210)  is 
a  glorification  of  sensuallove  and  of  somewhat  dubious 
morality.  With  Gottfried  the  court  epic  reached  its 
highest  development;  with  him  excessive  art^ciality 
begins  to  appear,  and  soon  this  species  of  poetry 
declines  rapioly.  The  succeeding  poets,  in  trym^  to 
imitate  tiie  great  masters  just^  mentioned,  fall  mto 
tedious  diff useness,  and  their  epics  too  often  become  a 
meaningless  string  of  adventures.  Rudolf  of  Ems  (d. 
1254)  and  Konrad  von  WOrzburg  (d.  1287)  are  the 
most  ^ted  among  these  epi^nes.  The  former  is  the 
author  of  narrative  poems  like  "Der  snite  Gerhard" 
and  ''Barlaam  und  Josaphat",  an  old  Buddhistic  le^ 
end  in  Christian  form.  The  latter  wrote  a  bul^  epic 
on  the  Trojan  War,  for  which  he  used  the  french 
romance  of  Benott  de  Sainte-More  as  a  model.  Far 
more  meritorious  are  his  shorter  romances,  like 
"Heraem&re"  and  "Engelhard".  His  "Goldene 
Schmiede"  is  a  poem  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 
Thoroughly  independent  Qf  courtly  influence  is  the 
powerfm  and  realistic  poem  "Meier  Helmbrecht",  a 
tragic  village  story  written  by  a  Bavarian  priest  named 
Wemher  der  G&rtner  (c.  1250). 

By  the  side  of  the  courtly  romances  developed  the 
popular  epic.  On  the  basis  of  old  son^  still  current 
among  the  people,  arose  about  1200  m  Austria  the 
great  German  epic,  the  "  Nibeluneenlied ",  telling  of 
Siegfried's  death  at  the  hands  of  Hagen  and  Kriem- 
hild's  fearful  vengeance.  The  author  is  unknown, 
through  he  was  probably  of  kniehtly  rank.  The  poem 
is  in  strophic  form,  and,  though  the  subject  is  primi- 
tively Germanic,  tne  influence  of  chivalry  and  Chris- 
tianity is  througnout  apparent.  In  Austria  arose  also, 
hut  little  later,  the  "  Guarunlied  ",  a  story  of  the  North 
Sea,  telling  of  Gudrun's  loyal  devotion  to  her  be- 
trothed lover.  King  Herwig  of  Seeland.  Of  far  lesB 


OUUUVT  51 

interest  are  the  other  popular  epics,  which  also  date 
from  the  beginning  of  the  thirt«enth  century;  they  are 
moatly  related  to  the  saga-cycle  concerning  Dietrich 
von  ^em.  The  moat  notable  are  the  "  Roeenrairten  ", 
"AlphiirtBTod",  "Laurin",  "Eokenlied",  and  "Rab- 

enacUaeht".   Three  otherepics,"Ortnit''"Hugdiet-     luc^  icauucu  luc  imiui  ui  ^ui;  (idul 
rich",  and  "Wolfdietrich",  talce  their  subjects  from     aristocratic  literature  of  chivalry  had  no  influence. 
the  Langobardic  saga-cycle;   in  them  the  influence  of     The  Berraons  of  David  of  Augsburg  (d.  1272)  are  not 
the  Crusades  is  very  noticeable.  preserved.     His  disciple,   Berthold  of  Ratisbon   (d. 

LyricpoetryalsoflourishedbriUiantlyin thisperiod.     1272),  was  immensely  popular  as  a  preacher.    His 
Lync  poetry  of  a  popular  kind  seems  to  have  existed     dramatic,  paasionate  eloquence,  bom  of  the  sincerity 
in  Austrian  territory  long  before  the  Romance  inllu-     of  conviction,  turned  thousands  of  his  hearers  to  re- 
ence  caroe  in  from  the  North-west;  but  it  was  under    pentance  and  a  better  life. 
this  Romance  influence  that  the  lyric  attained  its         IV-  Decline  or  Foetrt  at  the  eno  or  the  Hid- 


in  German  prose,  the  "Sachsenchronik",  was  written 
by  a  Saion  cleric  (before  1250). 

A  great  impetus  was  given  to  Qerman  prose  bj^  the 
preaching  of  the  mendicant  friars,  who  were  rinng 

mto   prominence   early   in   the   thirteenth   centu^. 
They  reached  the  hearts  of  the  peopl^  on  whom  the 


characteristic  form.  Minne,  i 
cult  of  woman,  is  the  lead- 
ing molt},  but  other 
themes,  reli^oue  or  pohti- 
cal,  are  not  wanting,  and 
the  Sprueh,  a  poem  of 
gnomic  or  sententious 
character,  was  also  in 
0eat  favour.  Most  of 
the  minnesingere  were  of 
knightly  rank.  Tradition 
mentions  Heinrich  von 
Veldeke  as  the  pioneer  of 


.  the  c 


Qventional     dle  Ages.    Rise  o 


He  V 


B  fol- 


lowed by  Friedrich  ■ 
Hausen,  Heinrich  Vuu 
Morungen,  and  Reinmar 
von  Hagenau.  A  disciple 
of  the  last-named,  the 
Austrian,  Walther  von 
der  Vogelweide  (c.  1165- 
1230),  is  the  greatest  and 
most  versatile  lyric  poet 
of  medieval  Germany.  He 
is  equally  great  in  the 
Minndiea  and  in  the 
SpnicK  He  was  a  stanch 
partisan  of  the  emperors 
in  their  fight  against  the 
papacy,  and  many  of  his 
poems  are  bitter  invec- 
tivea  arainst  pope  and 
clergy.  But  he  never  at- 
tacked the  doctrines  of 
the  Church;  hia  religious 
fervour  is  attested  by  such 
poems  as  that  in  honour 
of  the  Trinity.  With  his 
Bucceaaois  the  Minrieeang 
enters  on  its  decline.  UP 
r  i  c  h  von  Lichtenstein  'b 
life,  as  revealed  in  his  aut«bioeraphy,  "  Frauendienat " 
(1255),  shows  to  what  absurdities  the  worship  of  « 


.  ._.  LrrBRATURE  (130O- 
1500).— The  declme  of  the 
kn^htly  caste  brought 
with  it  a  decline  of  the 
literature  of  which  this 
caste  had  been  the  chief 
support.  The  fourteenth 
ana  fifteenth  centuries 
were  not  favourable  to 
the  development  of  an 
artistic  literature.  The 
Empire  was  losing  its 
power  and  drifting  into 
anarehy,  the  emperors 
were  Mnt  chiefly  on  in- 
creasing their  dynastic 
power,  while  the  princes 
strove  to  make  them- 
selves independent  of  im- 
perial authority.  Iliey 
were  no  longer  patrons  U 
poetry.  The  deny  also, 
m  ^eat  part,  followed 
worldly  pursuits  and  un- 
dermined then ~ 


their  oommerce  was  fatal 
to  the  prestige  of  knight- 
hood and  its  ideals;  life 
became    more    practical, 
more  utilitarian,  less  aa- 
thetic,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence the  didactic  tone 
becomes  more  and  more 
irominent   in    literature, 
universities    which 
irang    up    in    (lermany 
aurine    this    period — the 
first    Deing    founded     at 
Prague  (1348)  — widened 
the  gap  between  the  learned  classes  and  the  people 
and  prepared  the  way  for  Humanism,  which  to- 


a  ViRoiN,  Entitled  "Doid    i 
U*aRT" 


a  could  go.      Neidbart  von  Reuenthal  (d.  about  wards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  beeins  to  be 

1245)  holds  up  to  ridicule  the  rude  life  of  the  peasants  a  foree  in  German  letters.    The  influence  of  Human- 

and  so  introauoes  an  element  of  coarseness  into  the  ism  was  not  wholly  beneficial.    It  was  a  foreign  insU- 

aristocratic  art.     Lastly,  Reinmar  von  Zweter  (d.  tution  and  fostered  Latin  as  the  language  of  scholar- 

about  1260)  must  be  mentioned  as  a  distinguished  ship  at  the  expense  of  the  native  iaiom.    Gradually 

gnomic  poet.  the  Humanists  turned  against  the  dominant  Scholastic 

The  didactic  spirit,  which  now  becomes  prominent,  philosophy,  and  soon  a  spirit  of  revolt  manifested  itself 

is  exhibited  in  longer  poems,  like  "  Der  w&lsche  Gast  against  the  Church  and  its  authority.    The  schisms 

(1215}  of  an  Italian  priest  Thomasin  of  ZircUere,  and  within  the  Church  and  the  woridliness  of  many  of  its 

especially  in  Freidank's  "Bescheidenheit"  (c.  1215-  dignitaries  stimulated  this  spirit,  which  took  a  violent 

30),  i.  e.  wisdom  bom  of  experience,  a  collection  of  form,  notably  in  the  Hussite  movement.   The  way  was 

rhymed  sayings.     Though  these  works  are  strictly  thus  prepared  for  the  great  Lutheran  revolt. 

]>ious  in  tone,  outspoken  criticism  of  papal  and  eccle-  The  romance  of  chivalry  degenerated  into  allegory 

n'astical  matters  is  frequently  indulged  in.  and  tedious  description,  of  which  a  typical  instance  is 

Prose  was  very  backward  m  this  period.    Idtin  was  the  "Theuerdank''  (1517),  an  allegorical  description 

the  language  for  history  and  law.     About  1230  ap-  of  Emperor  Maximilian's  courtship  of  Hary  of  Bur- 

peared  the  "Sachsenapiegel",  a  code  of  Saxon  law  gundy,  written  at  the  suggestion  of  the  emperor  him- 

written  in  Low  German  by  Eike  von  Hepgowe,  and  self.    The  heroic  epic  farM  no  better;  its  tone  became 

this    example    produced    in    Uroer    Germany    the  coarse  and  vulgar.    Rhymed  chronicles  still  supidied 

"Schwabenspiegel"  (before  1280).  lite  first  chronicle  the  plac      *"  '            '           ■      -  -  "^    ■  -'---'^- 


«  of  histories,  the  most  noteworthy  being  Hm 


OKSBfAinr 


620 


OBRBiANY 


eluonicle  of  the  Teutonic  Order  translated  from  the  The  or^in  of  the  secular  drama  is  not  wholly  dear* 

Latin  of  Peter  von  Dusbuirg  by  Nikolaus  von  JeroBchin  In  the  fifteenth  century  this  genre  is  chiefly  repre- 

(c.  1340).    Of  higher  poetic  value  are  the  legends,  sented  by  the  Shrovetide  play,  which  undoubtedly 

fables,  and  anecdotes  tnat  enjoyed  such  populanty  in  traces  its  oriein  to  the  mummeries  and  the  coarse  f un- 

this  period.    The  best-known  collection  of  fables  was  making  indulged  in  on  special  occasions,  notably  on 

^'Der  Edelstein",  containing  a  hundred  fables  trans-  Shrove-Tuesday.    No  doubt  the  religious  drama  ex- 

lated  from  the  Latin  by  Ulrich  Boner,  a  Dominican  erted  its  influence  on  the  development  of  the  secular 

monk  of  Berne  (c.  1340).   Of  the  many  didactic  poems  drama.    As  a  rule  the  latter  was  extremely  crude  in 


of  this  period,  by  far  the  most  famous  was  the  'Nar- 
renschin''  (Ship  of  Fools)  of  the  learned  humanist 
Sebastian  Brant  (d.  1521),  which  appeared  in  1494 
and  achieved  a  European  reputation.  This  is  a  satire 
of  all  the  vices  and  follies  of  the  age,  of  which  no  less 
than  one  hundred  and  ten  kinds  are  enumerated.  A 
satiric  tendency  pervades  also  the'"Reinke  de  Vos", 
a  Low  German  version  .from  a  Dutch  original  of  the 
famous  story  of  Reynard  the  Fox  (1498).  The  allu- 
sions in  this  poem  to  the  vices  of  men  high  in  Church 
and  State  are  unmistakable. 

As  for  lyric  poetry,  the  Minneeang  dies  out,  Hugo, 
Count  of  Montfort  (d.  1423),  and  Oswald  von  Wolken- 
stein  (d.  1445)  being  its  last  representatives.  The  cul- 
tivation of  the  lyric  is  now  taken  up  by  the  buighers; 

.•  ^w      »    M  J*  1  J.l_  TtM^ T>_      A. ! 


form  and  also  incredibly  coarse  in  languiu»  and  con- 
tent. The  chief  place  for  these  plavs  was  Nuremberg, 
and  Hans  Folz  and  Hans  RosenblQt  are  ^e  best- 
known  authors  in  this  line.  In  their  plays  appears  the 
tendency  that  was  to  make  of  this  literary  genre  an 
effective  vehicle  for  satire. 

In  this  period  of  utilitarianism  prose  comes  to 
occupy  a  leading  position.  The  romances  of  chivalry 
were  turned  into  prose,  foreign  romances  were  trans- 
lated, and  thus  arose  the  VolkMU:her,  of  which  the 
most  noteworthy  is  that  of  Till  Eulenspiegel,  a  notori- 
ous wag,  around  whom  gathered  all  kinds  of  anec- 
dotes. The  original  Low  German  book  of  1483  is  lost, 
the  oldest  Hi^h  German  version  dating  from  1515.  In 
connexion  with  translated  literature  the  names  of 


the  Meietereang  displaces  the  Minneeang.    Poetry  in    the  earliest  German  humanists,  Heinrich  SteinhOwel 


the  han.ds  of  this 
dass  became  a  mere 
matter  of  technic,  a 
trade  that  was  taught 
in  schools  established 
for  iJiiat  purpose.  The 
guild  B3^tem  was  ap- 
plied to  art,  and  the 
candidate  passed 
through  different 
grades,  from  appren- 
tice to  master.  ^  Tra- 
dition names  Mainz  as 
the  seat  of  the  oldest 
sdhooL  and  Heinrich 
von  Meissen  (d.  1318) 
as  its  f oimder.  Of  the 
many  cities  where 
schools  flourished, 
none  gained  such   a 


>*>-'« 


m 


tndn  nnUea  lUrrmJnfolc  ] 
^      h  uf-e^i^^wi  •  Ifdatwt  tit 

\^jr      ih  I  ma  ti  t  Ani  n  ^trJuut :  ^Aj 


^l-> 


ill  -    -  Jf^^ 


rii5.*V 


•yi 


^^h 
$} 


-m 


ps^f^ 


^^fAluihc^ 


r.-y^.V, 


Tkb  "Hildbbbandblikd" 

Faoaimile  of  passage,  Earliest  (Fulda)  MS.,  IX  Century, 

ProviDoial  Library,  Kanel 


Niklas  van  Wyl,  and 
Albrecht  von  Eyb 
should  be  mentioned. 

History  was  now 
written  m  German 
prose.  Of  prose  chron- 
icles we  possess  a  num- 
ber, as  that  of  Stras- 
bure  (to  1362),  of 
limburg  (to  1398), 
and  the  Thuringian 
chronicle  of  Johannes 
Rothe,  a  monk  of 
Eisenach  (1421). 

But  the  best  Ger- 
man prose  of  this 
perioa  is  found  in  the 
writinrai  of  the  mys- 
tics. The  foimder  of 
this  school  was  Master 


reputation  as  Nuremberg,  the  home  of  Hans  Sachs.  Eckhart   (d.  1327),  a  Dominican  monk,   and  the 

very  little  of  the  poetry  of  these  meistersingers  has  Dominican  Order  became  its  chief  exponent.    Eck- 

literary  merit.    The  best  Ivric  poetrv  of  this  period  hart  was  accused  of  pantheism,  but  repudiated  any 

and  the  following  is  found  in  the  Volkslied,  a  song  such  interpretation  of  his  utterances.  ^  His  disciple, 

^nerallv  of  unknown  authorship,  expressive  of  the  Heinrich  Sense  (Suso),  also  a  Dominican  (d.  1366), 

icmi  ana  sorrows  of  people  in  all  stations  and  ranks  of  was  less  philosophical  and  more  poetical.    The  third 

life.   Contemporary  events  often  fumi^ed  the  inspir-  great  mvstic,  Jonannes  Tauler  (d.  1361),  a  Dominican 

ation,  as  in  Halbsuter's  song^  of  the  battle  of  Sempach  of  Strasburjg,  ^ve  the  teaching  of  his  predecessors  a 


(1386).  Other  songs  deal  with  legendary  subjects,  as 
for  instance  the  son^  of  Tannh&user,  the  minstrel 
knight  who  wandered  mto  the  Mountain  of  Venus  and 
then  journeyed  to  Rome  to  ^in  absolution.  The  re- 
ligious lyric  of  this  period  is  lar^ly  devoted  to  the 
praise  of  the  Blessed  Vir^;  in  this  connexion  Hein- 
rich von  Laufenberg,  a  pnest  of  Freiburg  im  Breisgau, 
later  a  monk  at  Strasburg  (d.  1460),  is  specially  note- 
worthy. 


more  practical  turn.  The  service  which  the  mystics 
rendered  to  the  German  language  in  making  it  the 
medium  for  their  speculations  can  hardly  be  overesti- 
mated. 

The  greatest  preacher  of  the  period  was  Geiler  von 
Kaysersberg  of  Strasburg  (d.  1510),  whose  series  of 
sermons  based  on  Brant's  ''Ship  of  Fools"  was  espe- 
cially famous. 

V.  The  Age  of  the  Reformation  (1500-1624). — 


Another  literary  genre  that  now  rose  into  promi-    The  effects  of  Humanism  in  Germany  be&nn  to  be  felt 


nence  was  the  drama,  the  origin  of  which  here  as  else- 
where is  to  be  sought  in  the  religious  plays  with  which 
the  great  Christian  festivals,  especially  Easter,  were 
cdebrated.  These  plays  had  a  distinct  purpose;  they 
were  to  instruct  as  well  as  to  edify,  hiit  gradually 
they  assumed  a  more  secular  character,  they  were  no 
longer  performed  in  the  church,  but  in  the  market- 
plaoB  or  some  public  square.  Laymen  also  began  to 
participate,  and  in  the  fourteenth  century  German 
tf^es  tne  place  of  Latin.  Besides  the  Passion,  Biblical 
stories  and  legends  were  dranxatized.  One  of  the  old- 
est and  most  striking  of  such  plays  is  the  Tegem- 
see  play  "Antichrist  (twelfth  century).  A  famous 
drama  of  which  the  text  is  preserved  is  that  of  the  wise 
and  foolish  virgins,  performed  at  Eisenach  in  1322. 


in  the  attention  given  by  such  men  as  Erasmus  and 
Reuchlin  to  the  study  of  the  Bible  in  the  original 
languages.  For  German  literature  the  Reformation 
was  a  calamity.  The  fierce  theological  strife  absorbed 
the  best  intellectual  energy  of  the  nation.  Literature 
as  an  art  suffered  by  being  pressed  into  the  service  of 
religious  conUt)versy;  it  beeame  polemic  or  didactic, 
ana  its  prevailing  form  was  prose. 

Martin  Luther  Q  483-1 546)  is  the  most  important 
figure  of  this  perioa  and  his  most  important  work  is  his 
translation  of  the  Bible  (printed  complete  at  Wit- 
tenberg, 1534;  final  edition,  1543-45).  The  German 
translations  before  his  time  had  been  made  from 
the  Vulgate  and  were  deficient  in  literarv  quality. 
Luther's  version  is  from  the  original,  and  although  not 


OEBHANY 


521 


OKBBCAITS 


free  from  errors  it  is  of  wonderful  oleamess  and 
thorou^y  idiomatic.  Its  effect  on  the  German  lan- 
guage was  enormous:  the  dialect  in  which  it  is  written, 
a  luddle  German  oiaiect  used  in  the  chanceiv  oi 
Upper  Saxony,  became  gradually  the  norm  for  both 
Protestant  ana  Catholic  writers,  and  is  thus  the  basis 
of  the  modem  literary  German.  Luther's  pamphlets 
have  only  historical  mterest;  his  catechism  and  ser- 
mons belong  to  theological  literature.  His  "Tischre- 
den"  CTable-TaUc)  shows  the  personality  of  the  man. 
Force  and  strenpth  of  will  mark  his  character  and 
writings.  But  his  firmness  often  savours  of  obstinacy, 
and  in  dogmatism  he  yields  no  tittle  to  his  opponents, 
while  the  Dluntness,  or  still  better  the  vulgarity,  of  his 
language,  gave  offence  even  in  an  a^  accustomed  to 
abuse.  As  a  poet  he  appears  in  his  religious  songs, 
among  which  ''Ein  feste  Burg''  is  famous  as  the 
battle-hymn  of  tha  Reformers.    Other  writers  ctf 


directed  against  the  Jesuits,  notably  his  "  VierhAmiges 
JesuiterhUtlein "  (1580).  His  most  ambitious  work  is 
the  "  Geschichtklitterung*'^  a  free  version  of  Rabelais's 
"Gargantua"  (1575).  Fischart  is  not  an  original 
writer,  and  his  extravagance  of  language  and  love  for 
punning  make  his  work  thoroug^y  unpalatable  to  a 
modem  reader. 

Narrative  prose  is  very  prominent  in  the  literature 
of  this  period.  Collections  of  anecdotes,  such  as  JOrg 
Wickram's  "RollwagenbQchlein''  (1555)  and  espe- 
cially''Schimpf  imd  Ernst"  (1522)  of  Johannes  Pauli, 
a  Franciscan  monk,  were  veiy  popular.  Translations 
of  French  and  Spanish  romances  like  the  "  Amadis  of 
Gaul"  were  also  much  in  favour.  Then  there  were 
the  "VolksbCkcher",  with  their  popular  stories,  amcmg 
which  those  connected  with  Faust  and  the  Wandering 
Jew  have  become  especially  famous.  Didactic  prose 
was  represented  by  the  historical  work  of  ^gidiue 


^cfidrAm.  ub  iatravmtWtttium«i(Hlrtrti^  t^lK%Mm.{b^trinf'«i^ 

Thb  "Nibblunqbnubd" 
Section  of  page,  Earliest  (HobeDem»>La88berg)  MS.,  XIII  Century,  Court  Library,  Donauesohingen 

Protestant  church  hymns  were  Paulus  Speratus  (d.  Tschudi  (d.  1572),  Sebastian  Frank  (d.  1542),  and 

1551),  NDcolaus  Decius  (d.  1541),  Nikolaus  Herman  Johannes  Thurmavr  (known  as  Aventinus;  d.  1534); 

(d.  1561),  and  Philipp  Nicolai  (d.  1608).  the  collections  of  proverbs  and  sayings  made  by 

As  a  rule,  the  German  Humanists  were  indifferent  Frank  and  Johann  Agricola  (d.  1566)  are  also  to  be 

to  the  Reformation,  but  Ulrich  von  Hutten  (d.  1523)  mentioned  in  this  connexion.    In  theology  Bishop 

was  a  zealous  partisan  of  the  movement;  his  writings  Berthold  of  Chiemsee  represents  the  Catholic  side, 

are  mostly  in  Latin.    One  of  the  bitterest  enemies  with  his  "Tewtsche  Theologey"  (1528);  the  Francis- 

of  Luther  was  Thomas  Mumer,  a  Franciscan  monk  can,  Johann  Nas  (d.  1590),  a  Catholic  convert,  in  his 

Q475-1 537),  who  in  his  earlier  satires  castigated  the  "Secbs  Centurien  Euangelischer  Wahrheiten"  also 

follies  of  the  age.    At  first  he  showed  sympathy  for  champions  the  old  Church.    The  chief  Protestant 

the  reform  movement,  but  when  Catholic  doctrine  was  writer  was  Johann  Amdt  (d.  1621),  author  of  the 

assailed,  he  turned,  and  in  a  coarse  but  witty  satire  ''  Vier  BQcher  vom  waren  Christenthuna ",  one  of  the 
"Von  dem  gro^n  Lutherischen  Narren"  (1522).  he 
unsparingly  attacked  the  Reformation  and  its  author. 

Tne  best  poet  of  the  sixteenth  century  was  the 
Nuremberg  snoemaker.  Hans  Sachs  (1494-1576)  who, 
although  a  follower  oi  Luther,  was  not  primaril^r  a 
controversialist.  He  displayed  amazing  productivity 
in  many  fields,  niasterson^,  Spruchy  anecdote,  fable, 
and  drama.  His  Shrovetide  plays  display  a  ^nial 
humour  that  even  to-day  is  enective.  The  spirit  of 
the  worthy  master's  verse  is  thoroughly  didacuc,  and 
artistic  form  is  altogether  lacking. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  writers  of  school  comedies  chose  their  subjects  from 

Counter-Reformation  set  in,  and  reined  much  of  the  the  Bible,  as  for  instance,  Paul  Rebhun  (d.  1546)  and 

^ound  lost  to  Protestantism,  which  had  now  spent  Sixt  Birck  (d.  1554).    The  most  prolific  dramatist  of 

itself  as  a  vital  force  and  was  divided  by  the  dissen-  the  period  was  Hans  Sachs,  who  wrote  no  less  than  208 

sions  between  Lutherans  and  C^lvinists.    The  most  plays,  which  in  spite  of  their  lack  of  all  hiidier  literary 

Srominent  polemical  writer  on  the  Protestant  side  was  quality,  make  a  promising  beginning.    Towards  tlie 

ohann  Fischart  (d.  1590),  much  of  whose  satire  is  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  &glish  strolling  players 


most  widely  read  books  of  the  time.  Conteniporary 
with  Amdt  was  the  famous  shoemaker,  Jakob  BOhme 
(d.  1624^,  a  mystical  philosopher  in  whose  writings 

grof ound  thougnts  and  confused  notions  are  strangely 
lended. 

In  the  dramatic  field  there  was  also  much  activity. 
Luther,  thou^^  opposed  to  the  passion  play,  had 
favoured  the  drama  on  educational  grounas.  Niko- 
laus Manuel,  a  Swiss  (d.  1530),  used  the  dramatic  form 
for  satirizing  the  pope  and  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
Biblical  drama  was  m  favour,  and  many  of  the  learned 


OKBHANT                                522  OERMAlTr 

sppeared  in  Germany,  aJid  throi^  their  auperior  his-  tarianism  of  the  Opitzians,  the  writers  of  the  Second 
trionic  art  gained  the  favour  of  the  public.    Jakob  Silesian  School,  Christian  Hofmann  von  Hofmums- 
Ayrer  (d.  1606),  the  leading  dramatist  of  that  age,  waldau  (1617-79}  and  Daniel  Kaapar  von  Lohensteim 
ebows  their  influence;  still  more  bo  Heinrich  Julius,  (1635-83)  fell  into  the  opposite  extremee  of  bombast 
Duke  lit  Brunswick- WoIfenbQttel  (d.  1613),  the  fiist  and  exaggeration.    Their  etvie  was  modelled  on  that 
to  write  German  dramas  in  prose  instead  ot  verse.  of  the  Italian  Marini.    The  lyric  poems  of  the  former 
VI.  The  Aqe  of  Religious  Wars   (1624-1748).  and  the  dramas  and  novels  ol  the  latter  are  written  in 
The  Pobtbt  op  Scholarship  anu  Imitation. — The  an  unnatural  and  inflated  style,  overioaded  with  met- 
reli^our  strife  inaugurated  by  the  Reformation  cul-  apbors.    In  their  style,  as  well  as  in  their  immoral- 
minated  in  the  Thirty  Years  War  (1618-1648),  which  ity,  these  writings  reflect  the  taste  of  contemporary 
practically  destroyed  Germany  as  a  nation.     National  courtly  society.     In  opposition  to  this  fashionable 
feeling  almost  died  out.     The  Catholic  League  looked  tendency,  Christian  Weise   (d.   1708)   in  his  school 
for  support  to  Soain  and  Austria,  while  the  Protestant  dramas  and  satiric  novels  strove  for  simplicity,  which 
princes  betrayed  the  national  interests  to  Sweden  and  in  his  work  and  that  of  his  foUowera  degenerated  fre- 
Prance,     A  servile  spirit  of  imitation  was  abroad,  quently  into  triviality  and  inanity.    The  best  poetry 
The  German  language  was  neglected  and  despised  in  that  the  seventeenth  century  produced  was  the  reU- 
aristocratic  circles  gious  Ijrics,  especially  the  hymns.    The  tone  of  these 
and  was  corrupted  poems  is  no  longer  one  of  combat,  but  rather  of  pious 
by  the  influx  of  resignation,    l^e  greatest  of  Protestant  writers  in 
foreign  words,  this  line  was  Paul  Gerhardt  (1607-1676).     Others 
Literature  was  de-  deserving  of  mention  are  Joachim  Neander,  Georg 
void  of  csiginality  Neumark,  Johann  Franck,  and  Philipp  Jakob  Spener. 
and  substance;  Among  Catholic  writers  the  most  prominent  were  the 
the   formal    side  Jesuit,  Friedrich  Spe  (1591-1635),  the  intrepid  defen- 
abflorbed  the  chief  der  of  the  victims  of  the  witchcraft  tribunals,  author 
attention   of  the  of  the  lyric  collection  "Trutznachtigall",  and  Johann 
writers.  Scheffler,  better  known  as  Angelus  Silesius  (d.  1S77), 
The   literary  a  convert  and  later  a  priest,  in  whose  poetic  collections 
leader  of  this  "Heilige  Seelenlust     and  "Der  cherubinische  Wan- 
period  was  Martin  dersmann"  mysticism  again  finds  a  noble  expression. 
Op  its    (1697-  Another  Jesuit  poet,  Jacob  Balde  (1604-68),  did  his 
1639),    whose  best  work  in  Latm,  though  his  German  poems  are  not 
treatise  "Von  der  without  merit. 

deutechen  Poet-  The  novel  began  to  flourish  in  tiie  seventeenth  cen- 

erey"   (1624)  en-  tu^.     The  heroic   and   gallant   romance,  of   which 

joyed  undisputed  Lohenstein  was  the  <^ief  exponent,  was  hi^  in  favour 

authority    as   an  with  aristocratic  society,  but  of  small  literary  value. 

ara  pottica  for  The  romances  of  roguery,  coming  in  under  Spanish 

more  than  a  cen-  influence,  were  far  better.    The  prose  classic  of  the 

tury.     Inbelli^-  century  is  the  "Simplicissimus     of  Christoph  von 

■^          r^      v        bility  and  regular-  Grimmelshausen  (d.  1676),  a  convert  to  C^tholicism- 

HAHaSAOHBiNnuEiaBTT-F^BirrYBAn   j^y   rather   than  In  the  form  of  an  autobbgraphy  it  unfolds  a  vivid  and 

^7SSi°^^ b?^i^^S^°     ima^tion  and  realistic pietureofthepenodoftheThirtyYearsWar. 

feeling  were  to  Defoe's    Robinson  Crusoe"  brought  forth  a  flood  of 

be   todced   for   in    poetiy.      The   theory    of   Opiti  imitationB,ofwhichSchnBbel's"DieInselFelsenburg" 

was  drawn  from  the  practice  of  French  and  Dutch  was  the  best.     Satire  is  represented  by  Christian  Reu- 

Renoissance  poeta  and  left  no  room  for  originality,  ter's  "Schellmuffskys  Reisebeschreibung"  (1696)  and 

The  book  had  a  salutary  effect,  however,  in  that  it  the  writings  of  Johann  Balthasar  Schupp,  a  Lutheran 

put  an  end  to  the  mechanical  counting  of  syllables  pastor  of  Hamburg  (d.  1661),  as  well  as  those  of 

and  made  rhythm  dependent  on  stress.     Its  protest  tllrich  Hc^rle,  known  as  Abraham  a  Sancta  Clara 

against  the  senseless  use  of  foreign  words  was  also  (lS44'1709)j  who  as  court  preacher  at  Vienn^  was 

laudable.    Opitz  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  poems,  noted  for  his  wit  and  drollery.    German  prose  be- 

moraliiing,  didactic,  religious,  or  descriptive  in  char-  gannow  to  be  used  for  philosophy  and  science.   The 

acter,  but  of  little  real  merit.    His  b^t^known  work  is  [uoneers  in  this  line  were  Christian  Thomas  and  Chris- 

"Tro3tgedichtinWiderw&rtigkeitdeeKriegB"(1633).  tian  Wolff,  who  inaugurated  the  Rationalistic  move-  ' 

The  poets  who  followed  the  leadership  of  Opiti  are  ment  in  Germany. 

known  as  the  First  Silesian  School,  though  not  all  were  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  Ger- 

Silesians  by  birth,  and  included  some  of  real  talent  man  literature  was  still  in  a  low  state.     The  drama 

likeFiiednchvonLogau(d.  1655),  thewittyepigram-  especially  was  in  a  bad   plight,  ooarse   farces   with 

matist,  and  Paul  Fleming  (d.  1040),  the  lyrist.    The  the  clown  in  the  leading  rAle  being  most  in  favour, 

poeta  of  the  so-called  KOnigsberg  Circle  were  also  fol'  A  reform  was  attempted  by  the  Leipzig  professor, 

loweniofppitc.     Among  them,  Simon  Dach  (d.  1659)  Johann    Christoph  _  Gottsched    (1700-66).      His   in- 

ia  pre-emment.     In  this  connexion  may  be  mentioned  tentions   were   praiseworthy,   but   unfortunately  he 

also,  AndreasGryphius  (1616-64),  thechief  dramatist  was  anything  but  a  poet.'  Poetry  for  him  was  a 

of  the  period.     His  tragedies,  based  mostly  on  Dutch  matter  of  the  intellect;  its  aims  were  to  be  practical, 

models,  are  marred  by  their  stilted  rhetoric  and  pre-  For  the  mysterious  and  the  wonderful  he  had  no  use. 

dilection  for  the  horrible;  his  comedies  are  far  better.  Good  taste  was  to  be  cultivated  by  imitating  the 

thougii  they  did  not  meet  with  the  same  favour.     It  French  classic  drama,  which  was  supposed  to  be  the 

was  chiefly  diction  and  versification  that  benefited  by  best  exponent  of  the  practice  of  the  ancients.    Gott- 

the  poets  of  this  school.     Literature  in  their  hands  sched's  literary  dictatorship  was  undisputed  until  he 

was  a  mere  product  of  scholarship,  entirely  out  of  became   involved   in   a   controversy  with  the   Swiss 

touch  with  the  people.     The  linguistic  societies  that  critics,  Bodmer  and  Breitinger,  who  insisted  on  the 

Krang  up  at  this  time,  the  most  Famous  of  which  was  rights  of  imagination  and  feeUng  and  held  up  the  Eng- 
t  fmchibringende  Gesdlschaft  (1617),  did  not  change  list  poets  as  better  models  than  the  French.  Gottsched 
this  condition.     The   language,   not   the   literature,  was  defeated  and  in  consequence  lost  all  authority. 
improved  through  their  efh>rt«.  Slowly  poetry  began  to  improve.     This  improve- 
As  a  reaction  against  the  cold  formalism  and  utili-  ment  is  distinctly  noticeable  in  the  descriptive  poem 


523  oEBUAinr 

"DieAlpen"of  AlbrechtvL 

Kiceful  verae  of  IViedrich  von  Hagedor^  , ,.     
b  most  popular  author  of  the  day  was  Christian  The  repreaentative  of  the  Enlightenment  in  its  beet 
FOrehtegott  Geliert  (1715-69),  whose  fablea  were  fa-  aspect  is  Gotthold  Ephraim  Lessing  (1729-81),  one 
miliar  to  every  German  household.    He  also  wrote  of  the  greatest  critics  of  the  century.    In  the  "  Littera- 
stories,  moralizing  comedies,  and  hymns.    But  neither  turbriefe",  a  series  of  essays  on  coatemponuy  litera- 
these  writers  nor  those  of  the  Halle  circle,  Johann  ture,  his  wonderful  critical  ability  was  first  shown. 
Wilhelm  Ludwig  Gleim,  Ewald  Christian  von  Kleist,  Here  Shakespeare  is  held  up  as  a  model   and   the 
And  Johann  Peter  Uz,  were  in  any  sense  great  writers,  supremacy  of  the  French  drama  is  challenged.    In 
VII.  The  Classic   I^riod  or  Gbkuan  Litbra-  1766  appeared  the  "  Laokoon",  in  which  the  spheres 
TURl!  (1748-1806). — Many  causes  contributed  to  the  of  txietry  and  the  plastic  arts  are  clearly  defined,  and 
rise  of  a  neat  national  literature  in  the  o^hteenjh  their  fundamental  differences  paint«d  out.     The  at- 
century.    The  victories  of  the  Prussian  King  fVederick  tempt  to  establish  a  national  theatre  at  Hamburg 
the  Great  quicliened  national  sentiment  in  all  German  resulted  in  the  "Hamburgiscfae  Dramaturgie"  (1767- 
lands.    This  quickening  of  patriotism  is  discernible  in  69),  wherein  Leasing  investigates  the  nature  of  the 
Klopstock's^Miems;  itencouraoed  Lessing  to beg^n his  drama,  and  refutes  toe  claim  of  the  French  that  their 
campaign  against  the  rule  of  French  classicism.    R&-  classic  drama  is  the  true  exponent  of  the  practice  of 
ligious  movements  also  exerted  a  powerful  influence,  the  anciente.    The  rules  of  Aristotle  are  accepted  as 
Pietism  came  as  a  reaction  against  the  narrow  Luth-  final,  but  it  is  shown  that  the  French  have  misunder- 
eran  orthodoxy  then  prevailmg,  and  thoi^jh  it  ulti'  stood   them,   and 
matety  added  but  one  more  petty  sect  to  those  already  their  German  imi- 
existing,  the  deepening  of  religious  sentiment  that  tators  are   tlieie- 
followed  it  was  beneficial  to  poetry.     With  the  ap-  fore     doubly     in 
pearance  in  1748  of  the  three  opening  cantos  of  "  Der  error.  With  all  its 
Hessias"  a  new  era  opened   for  German   literature,  one-sidedneas,  the 
The  author,  Friedrich  Gottlieb  Klopslock  (1724-1303),  polemic  was  fruit- 
was  hailed  at  once  as  a  poet  bom  not  made.     Poetry  lul,  for  it  put  an 
— !_  1..  J  ^  noble  content:   love,  patriotism,  and  reli-  end    to     pseudo- 

h<t  i.K^tmp  nf  Ihp  ^*MMRinH''iH  t.lin  TfHiATnnt.inn.  f^lnnHlcism   and 

i  national 

___._,_ impatient  of  the  possible.    Lening 

p^antic  rules  of  versification  followed  by  poets  since  led  the  way.  His 
the  days  of  Opiti,  he  discarded  rhyme  alt<^ther  and  "  Miss  Sara  Samp- 
chose  for  his  odes  antique  metres  and  free  rhythms,  son"  (1755)  ia 
This,  as  well  as  their  involved  diction,  has  stood  in  the  the  first  bourgeois 
way  of  their  popularity.  Another  defect  that  mars  all  tragedy  of  the 
of  Klopstock  s  work  is  ite  excessive  sentimental  ism,  a  German  stage.  It 
defect  that  is  disagreeably  noticeable  in  most  of  the  was    followM   by 

literature  of  that  time.    The  poet's  jsatriotism  found  "MinnavonBamr                  Sbbamian  Bbakt      ~ 

vent  in  odes  as  well  as  in  patriotic  prose  dramas,  the  helm"  (1767),  the 

so-calted  BardieU,  in  which  an  attempt  was  made  to  first  German  national  drama,  on  a  subject  of  con- 
revive  Germanic  antiquity  and  to  excite  enthusiasm  temporaneous  interest  with  the  Seven  Years  War 
for  Arminius,  the  liberator  of  ancient  Germany  from  for  a  background,  and  by  "Emilia  Galotti",  the 
Roman  subjugation.  As  dramas  these  productions  first  classic  German  tragedy  (1772)  an  adaptation  to 
are  utter  failures,  though  their  lyric  passages  are  often  modem  conditions  of  the  story  of  Appius  ana  Virginia. 
beautiful;  their  chiet  effect  was  to  stimulate  the  Lessing's  last  drama  "Nathan  der  Weise"  (1779)  was 
"bardic"  movement  represented  by  von  Gerstenberg,  the  outcome  of  the  theological  controversy  in  which  he 
Kretschmann,  and  the  Viennese  Jesuit  Denis.  Klop-  had  been  involved,  through  the  publication  of  the 
stock's  Biblical  dramas  like  "DerTod  Adams"  (1757)  WolfenbQttel  fragments.  These  had  been  written  by 
ara  now  wholly  foivotten.  Reimanis  and  contained  a  bold  attack  on  Christianity 
Of  far  greater  influence  on  literature  than  pietism  and  the  Bible.  A  bitter  feud  between  Leasing  and 
was  rationalism,  whose  watchword  was  "  EkJight-  Goeie,  the  champion  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  was  the 
enment".  Reason  wsa  to  be  the  sole  guide  in  all  result,  in  the  course  of  which  Lessing  wrote  a  number 
things;  tradition  and  fiuth  were  to  conform  to  it.  For  of  polemics  in  which  he  asserted  that  Christianity 
dogmaof  any  kind  therewasnoroominsuchaHVBtem,  could  exist  without,  and  did  exist  before,  the  Bible. 
which  frequently  tended  towards  undisguised  atheism,  When  a  decree  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  forbade  fur- 
as  with  the  English  Deiste  and  especially  the  French  ther  discussion,  he  had  recourse  to  the  stage  and  wrote 
Encyclopedists.  Frederick  the  Great  was  an  adherent  his  "Nathan".  I  n  this  he  uses  Boccaccio's  famous  para- 
of  their  views  and  made  them  dominant  in  Church  and  ble  of  the  three  rings  to  enforce  the  thesis  that  there  is 
Stete  as  far  as  Prussia  was  concerned.  In  Germany,  no  absolutely  true  religion.  Not  faith,  but  virtuous 
however,  rationalism  did  not  go  to  the  length  of  atbe-  action  is  the  essence  of  religion,  and  all  reli^ous  sys- 
ism;  as  a  rule  a  compromise  between  reason  and  terns  are  equally  good.  For  a  dogmatic  r^ision  there 
revealed  religion  was  attempted.  The  broad  humani-  is,  of  course,  no  room  in  this  view,  which  is  a  frank 
terianism  of  the  ^«at  writers  of  this  period,  Lessing,  expression  of  Lessing's  deistic  rationalism.  His  last 
Herder,  Goethe,  Schiller,  shows  the  mfluence  of  the  prose  works,  notably  "  Die  Erziehung  des  Menschen- 
Enlightenment.  Certein  it  is  that  all  these  writere  geschlechte"  (1780),  are  philosophical  in  character 
were  out  of  sympathy  with  any  of  the  orthodox  forms  and  treat  of  ideas  relat^  to  those  expressed  in 
of  Christianity.    Often,  however,  the  Enlightenment  "Nathan". 

degenerated  into  s  shallow,  prosy  rationalism,  desti-  A  contrast  to  Klopetock's  "seraphic"  sentimental- 
tute  of  oil  finer  sentiment,  as  in  the  case  of  the  notori-  ism  is  offered  in  the  sensualism  of  Christopher  Martin 
ous  Nicolai  (d.  1811).  As  a  reaction  against  the  one-  Wieland  (1733-1813).  He  began  as  a  fervid  pietist 
sided  sway  of  rationalism,  came  a  passionate  revolt  and  admirer  of  Klopstock,  and  under  the  influence  of 
against  the  existing  order.  This  revolt  was  inaugu-  rationalism  passed  to  the  opposite  extreme  of  sen- 
rated  by  Rousseau  and  manifested  itself  in  German  aualism  tinged  with  frivolity  before  he  found  his  level, 
literature  in  the  Sturm-und  Dronj^Pmode  (Storm  and  His  "Agsthon"  is  the  first  German  BUdunggroman, 
Stress  period).   The  final  product  of  the  whole  ration-  presenting  a  modem  content  in  ancient  garb,  a  method 


QEBIUirT                            524  OBBHAirT 

also  followed  in  the  "Abderiten"  (1780),  innhichthe  producto  of  such  mea  as  von  KlioKer,  Friedrich  Holler 

provineiAlism  of  the  small  town,  is  gatirized.    His  or  Ualer  Mtlller,  and  Lenz,  and  the  l^c  efTusiona  <k 

masterpiece  is  the  romantic  heroic  epic  "Oberon"  Schubart  (d.  1791).    But  the  movement  found  ite 

(1780),  for  which  he  drew  his  inspiration  from  the  old  beeteipresBion  in  the  early  work  of  Germ&ny'agreateat 

French   romance   "Huon  de   Bordeaux".     His   last  poets,  Goethe  and  Schiller. 

work,  "Aristipp",  is  a  novel  in  epistolarj]  form,  like  Johana  Wolfeang  Goethe    (1749-1832)    wbile'  a 
the  "  Aeathon    Greek  in  drees,  but  otherwise  modem,  student  at  Strasburg  had  come  under  Hemer'a  influ- 
Wieland  was  not  a  great  poet,  out  the  smooth  graceful  ence   and   caught  the   revolutionary  spirit.     In   his 
style  of  his  writii^  and  their  pleasant  wit  did  much  to  "Gfitz  von  Berlichingen  "  (1773),  the  £rst  great  hi»- 
wm  the  sympathy  ot  the  upper  classes  for  German  torical  German  drama,  the  poet  gave  vent  to  his 
literature.  dissatisfaction  with  the  social  and  poUtical  conditions 
While  WieUnd's  influence   on  German   literature  of.  his  time.     In  Bpit«  of  its  irregular  form,  due  to  a 
has  been  small,  that  of   Johann  Gottfried  Herder  misguided  enthusiasm  for  Shakespeare,  the  national 
(1744-1803)    was    decisive    and    far-reaching,    less  content  of  the  drama  and  the  forceful  aictioo  carried 
through  his  own  writing  than  through  the  new  ideas  the  public  by  storm.     Its  popularity  was  exceeded  by 
he  proclaimed  and  the  mfluenee  of  his  personality  on  "Die  Leiden  des  juugen  Werthers"  (1774),  a  novel  in 
others,  notably  Goethe.     Rousseau's  summons  to  re-  letter  form,  reflecting  the  morbid  sentimentalism  of 
turn  to  nature  was  applied  by  Herder  to  poetry.    Not  the  age;  the  hero  kills  himself  under  the  spell  of  a 
imitation,  but  native  power  makes  the  poet.    Poetry  hopeless  passion  for  the  affianced  of  his  friend.    The 
was  to  be  judged  years  from  1775  to  1786  were  not  so  fruitful;  political 
as  the  product  of  and  social  activity.inlerfered  with  literary  production, 
historic   and    na-  The  spirit  of  storm  and  stress  gradually  subsided  and 
tional   environ-  gave  way  to  the  classicism  which,  especially  after  bis 
ment.     Natural  return  from  Italy  (178S),  left  its  stamp  on  all  of 
and      popular  Goethe's  subsequent  work.     The  apostle  of  this  neo- 
poetry    like     the  Hellenism   was   Johann   Joachim   Winckelmann   (d. 
lolk-soQg  was  pre-  1768),  the  founder  of  the  historical  study  of  art.    He 
ferred   to  arliatio  postulated thecanonsofancientOreekartasabeolute. 
poetry.     These  The  claaaicism  that  he  inaugurated  was  directly  op- 
views  were  devel-  poeed  in  spirit  to  the  national  tendency  championed 
oped  in  a  series  of  by  Herder.    Lesaing's  work  had  shown  the  influence 
essays    "Frag-  of  this  neo-Hellenism.     Now  Goethe  became  its  pro- 
mente    Qber    oie  nounced  follower.    The  works  that  he  wrote  under 
neuere     deutsche  its  influence  exhibit  perfection  of  form,  notably  the 
titteratur"(1767)  dramas  "%mont"   (1788),  "Iphigenie  auf  Tauris" 
and  "KritiBche  (1787),   and    "Torquato   Tasso"    (1790J.     Goethe's 
Wilder"  (1769)  literary  productions  during  this  period,  before  1794, 
and  were  still  fur-  are  not  numerous;  they  include   the  "  RAmische  Fle- 
FHiaDucH  L«ow.u.GMr.D          ther  elaborated  in  gien"  and  the  epic  "Reineke  Fuchs"  (1794),  a  hee 
Srouisa                       essays  on  Ossian  versionmhexametersfrom  the  Old  Low  German.  The 
and    Shakespeare  dramas  that  arose  under  the  influence  of  the  French 
in  "  Von  deutscher  Art  und  Kunst  einige   fliegende  Revolution  are  not  very  important.     In  fact  Goethe's 
Bl&tter"(1773).     Thenfollowed"StimmenderV6lker  chief  interests  at  this  tune  were  scientific  rather  than 
in  Liedem"  (1778),  a  collection  of  182  folk-songs  from  literary.     After  1794^  however,  under  the  inspiration 
every  age,  clime,  and  nationahty.     Herder's  skill  as  of  Schiller's  fnendship,  the  poetic  impulse  came  with 
translator  or  adapter  is  exhibited  herCj  as  also  in  new  strength.     The  period  of  Goethe  s  and  Schiller's 
"Der  Cid",  a  free  version  from  the  Spanish  through  friendship  (1794-1805)  marks  the  climax  of  the  poetic 
the  medium  of  the  French.  His  original  poems,  mostly  activity  of  these  two  great  men.     The  satiric  epigrams 
parables  and  fables,  are  of  little  importance.     Herder,  known  as  "Xenien"  were  the  fruit  of  their  joint  ac- 
the  founder  of  the  historical  methixl,  could  not  but  be  tivity.     Then  followed  a  number  of  their  finest  bal- 
hoatile  to  rationalism  with  its  unhisloric  methods  and  lads.     In  1790  Goethe  completed  "  Wilhelm  Meisters 
one-sided  worship  of  reason.     In  "Vom  Geiste  der  Lehriahre",anovelof culture,discursiveanddidi.ctie, 
hebrfiiechen  Poesie  "  (1783)  he  ^owed  what  a  wealth  with  the  stage  for  its  principal  theme.    The  exquisite 
(A  poetry  the  Bible  contained.     In  his  last  work,  idyllicepic.HermannundDorothea"  (1797),  though 
"  Ideen  zur  Pliiloaophie  der  Geachichte  der  Mensch-  written  m  hexameter,  is  thoroudily  German  in  spirit 
heit"  (1784-91),  the  history  of  the  human  race  is  and  Bubject-matter.    After  Schiller's  death  (1806) 
regarded  under  the  aspect  ot  evolution;  humanitarian-  Goethe's  noetic  productivity  decreased.     Some  fine 
ism  is  the  ultimate  goal  of  religious  development,  lyrics  produced  in  this  period  are  in  the  "WestAstliche 
This  work  pointed  out  the  way  for  the  philosophical  Divan    (1819),  a  collection  of  poems  in  Oriental  garb, 
study  ot  history.  Most  ot  the  poet's  work  now  was  in  prose.    "Die 
The  effect  of  the  work  of  Klopstock,  Herder,  and  Wahlverwandt«chaften"(1809),spsychologicBlnovel, 
Lesaing  was  immediate.     The  national  movement  was  depicts  the  tragic  conflict  between  passioo  and  duty 
taken  up  by  the  "  Q6ttinKer  Hain  "  poets,  of  whom  the  and  upholds  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage  tie.     In  the 


translator   of   Homer,    Ludwig   Heinrich   Chrietoph  (1811''33)  the  poet  tells  with  poetic  licence  the  story 

HOity   (d.    1776)^,   the   elegiac   singer,   and   the  two  of  his  life.     A  number  ot  stones  were  loosely  strung 

brotheiB  Stolberg.    Connected  with  them,  thou^not  together  in  "Wilhelm  Meisters  Wandcrjahre    (1821), 

members  of  the  circle,  were  Matthias  Claudius  (d.  a  long  didactic  novel  ^ven  over  largely  to  the  discus- 

1815)  and  the  gifted  but  dissolute  Gottfried  August  eion  of  ethical  and  sociological  problems.   Thes^eatest 

Burger  (d.  17S4),  the  ballad  writer,  whose  "Lenore"  work  ot  Goethe  and  of  German  literature  is  "Faust". 

(1773)  has  become  widely  known.  a  dramatic  poem,  the  composition  ot  which  occupiea 

The  protest  voiced  by  Rousseau  against  the  existing  the  poet's  entire  life.     The  idea  was  conceived  while 

social  order  produced  m  German  letters  the  so-callea  Goethe  was  still  a  young  man  at  Frankfort;  afmgment 

Sturm   utuj   Dran^   (Storm   and   Stress)   movement,  containing  the  Gretehen  episode  appeared  in  1790. 

which  dominated  the  decade  (1770-80).     It  was  a  Under  the  stimulus  ot  Schiller's  sympathy  the  first 

passionate  revolt  a^inst  conventional  traditions  and  part  was  completed  and  published  m  1806.    ''^~ 

standards  and  mamfested  itself  in  the  wild  dramatic  second  part  was  not  finished  im'-'  ---*-' *'--'  *~ 


tile  poet's  death.    It  is  &  colossal  druna  with  humaii-  expressed  in  hbaovel"  Hyperion",  as  well  as  in  some 

Hy  ^r  its  hero.    Weak  human  nature  ma^  fall,  under  noble  Wrics. 

temptation,  but  its  innate  nobility  will  assert  itself  '    VIII.  Romanticism  and  the  Era  of  Rsvoldtion 

triumphiuitlj  in  the  end,     Faust  atones  for  his  errors  (lSOS-1848). — With  the  beginniiiK  of  the  nineteenth 

U(e  devoted  to  altruistic  effort,  and  so  his  soul  century  the  revolt  against  the  Aujkld.ru.ng  (EnlighteD* 

-"  '-  saved.     The  Catholic  atmosphere  of  the  ment),  started  by  Herder,  reasserted  itself.    Therewaa 


1 


closing  scene,  where  the  penitent  Gretcben  intercedes  also  a  marked  revival  of  religious  sentiment.     The 

with  tne  Vii^in  for  her  lover,  betrays  the  influence  of  Romantic  School  roee  into  prominence.'  Art  was  to  be 

the  Romantic  School.  rescued  from  the  sway  of  rationalism;    imaginatioD 

If  Goethe  is  the  man  of  universal  gifts,  Johaun  and  emotion  were  to  be  set  free.    Taking  as  a  basis 

Christoph    Friedrich    Schiller   (1759-1805)   is    pre-  Fichte's  philosophv,  which  proclaimed  the  ego  as  the 

eminentlv  a  dramatist.     He  too  received   his  first  supreme  reality,  the  romanticists  proceedea  to  free 

impulse  from  the  Storm  and  Stress  movement.     His  creative  genius  from  the  barriers  <^  convention  and 

first  three  dramas,  "Die  RAubcr"  (1781),  "Fieeco"  tradition.    But  the  result  was  often  an  extreme  sub- 

(1783),  and  "Kabale  und  Liebe"  (1784),  breathe  a  jectivism  that  broke  through  the  restraints  of  artistic 

spirit  of  passionate  revolt.     With  all  their  youthful  form  and  lost  itself  in  fantastic  visions  and  vague 

exaggeration,    they   reveal   unmistakable   draraatio  mysticism.  The  leaders  of  the  movement  turned  away 

power.     In  "DonCarlos"  acalmerspirit  reignsanda  from  a  sordid  present  to  far-away  Oriental  regions, 

^eater  mastery  of   form   is  evident.     Freedom   of  or  to  a  remote  past  like  the  Middle  Ages.    This  predi- 

tbou^t  is  the  burden  c^  its  message.    The  composi-  lection  for  meaie- 

tion  of  this  work  had  turned  Schiller's  attention  to  valism  coming  t«- 

history,  and  for  a  time  the  study  of  history  and  phil-  gether    with    the 

osopby  got  the  better  <^  poetic  production.    The  his-  religious     revival 

torical  works  that  are  the  outcome  of  these  studies  gave  to   the  ro- 

are  valuable  rather  for  their  style  than  as  original  con-  mantle  movement 

" •"      ced 

.„_, jf  works  of  an  Ksthctic  char-  Catholictendi 

acter,  notably  "Ueber  i.  

Dicbtung",  where  naivt  and  tentimental  are  taken  as  ing    romanticists, 

typical  of  ancient  and   modem  respectively.    His  Bientano,  OOrres, 

friendship  with  Goethe  {179+-1805)  won  Schiller  back  Eichendorff,  were 

to  poetry  and  now  followed  in  rapid  succession  his  Cathohcs;   others, 

dramatic  masterpieces:  "  WalleDstem ",  a  trilwy,  the  like  Friedrioh 

first  historic  German  tragedy  in  the  grand  style  (1796-  Schlegel,    became 

99),  "Maria  Stuart"  (1800),  and  "Die  Jun^rau  von  Catholics.    .  Svm- 

Orleans  "(1801),  a  noble  defence  of  the  Maid  of  Or-  pathy  tor  CatliolT 

1  the  work  of  all 

tempt  to  combine  modem  spirit  with  antique  fonn.  the    members   of 

The  poet's  last  great  drama,  "  Wilhelm  Tell''  (1804),     the  school.  i  

is,  perhaps,  the  most  popular  German  play.     Here  he  The    Romantic                    Z*cBABii»  Wuhir 

reverts  again  to  the  idea  of  freedom  which  he  cham-  movement  was 

pioned  so  passionately  in  his  youthful  dramas,  and  alsoasalutaryreactionagainsttbeexcessiveelaasicism 

which  hero  found  its  most  convincing  expression,  of  Goethe  and  Schiller.    The  national  element  was 

The   grandly  conceived   tragedy  "Demetnus"   re-  a(pin  emphasised.    TheMiddle  Ages,  depreciated  and 

mained  a  fragment,  owing  to  the  author's  untimely  misrepresented  ever  since  the  Reformation,  were  now 

death  (1806).     As  a  lyric  poet  Schiller  is  far  below  shown  in  a  fairer  li^t  by  historians  like  von  Haumer, 

Goethe.    Hts  lyrics  lack  spontaneity;  they  ore  rather  Wilken,  Voigt^  and  others.    Tlie  great  medieval  litera- 

Uieproductof  reflection  and  ore  mostly  philosophic  in  ture  was  rediscovered  by  scholars  like  Jakob  and 

character.     His  masterpiece  in  this  line  is  "  Das  Lied  Wilhelm  Grimm  and  Lachmaun.     In  fact,  the  science 

von  der  Gloeke  "  (1800).     He  also  excels  in  epigram  of  Germanic  philology  owes  its  origin  to  the  Romantic 

and  gnomic  verse,  and  as  a  writer  of  ballads  ne  has  School.   The  enthusiasm  for  foreign  literature  also  bore 

few  equals.  rich  fruit  in  masterly  translations  and  reproductions. 

The  great  classic  drama  by  no  means  immediately  Here  lies  the  main  significance  of  much  of  the  work 

won  its  way.    Besides  the  opera,  the  bourgeois  drama  of  the  brothers  Schlegel,  the  critical  leaders  of  the 

ruled  the  stage  and  its  most  popular  representatives  Older  Romantic  School.   August  Wilhelm  vanSchleael 

were  Iffland  and  Kotiebue.   The  plays  of^these  writers  (I7S7-I845)  is  famous  as  a  translator.    His  tran^a- 

were  thoroughly  conventional  in  tone;  those  of  Kotie-  tions  of  Shakespeare  have  become  German  classics, 

bus  had  a  distinctly  immoral  tendency,  but  they  were  while  his  renderings  from  the  Spanish  (Calderon,  Lc^ 

theatrically  effective  and  immensely  popular.  de  Vega),  Italian,  and  Sanskrit  are  hardly  less  merito- 

Ofproee  writers  contemporary  with  Goethe  we  may  rious.     His  brother,  Friedrich  von  Schlegel  (1772- 

mention  the  historians,  Justus  MOser  (d.  1794)  and  1829).  who  became  a  convert  to  Catholicism,  enun- 

Johannes  von  HQller  (d.  1800).     In  philosophy  the  ciated    the    romantic    doctrines    in    his    aphorisms, 

commanding  figure  is  Immanuel  Kant,  whose  work  Through  his  treatise,  "Ueber  die  Spracbe  und  Weio- 

has    exerted    a    tremendous    influence   on    modem  heit  der  Indier"   (1808)   he  became  the  pioneer  of 

thought.     Alexander  von   Humboldt's   (1769-1859)  Sanskrit  studies  in  Germany.    Thework  of  the  Schle- 

"Kosmos"  is  a  classic  of  natural  science.  gels  in  criticism  and  literary  history  was  epoch-mak- 

Id  the  field  of  the  novel,  Jean  Paul  Friedrich  Richter  ing;  they  taught  critics  not  merely  to  criticize,  but  to 

(1763-1825)    achieved    distinction.      His    writings,  understand,   to  interpret,   to   " cnaracterize ".     "The 

"QuintusFixlein",  "Hesperus",  "Titan",  and  others  school  found  no  really  great  poet  to  put  its  theories 

were  enormously  popular  in  their  day,  but  owing  to  into  practice.    Still  the  poetry  of  Friedrich  von  Har- 

their  bizarre  style  and  absolute  formlessness,  joined  to  denberg   (1772-1801),   better  known  as  Novalis,   is 

'ledisc .,.,/..          .... 


_n  unbearable  discursiveness,  they  have  lost  oil  charm    pervaded  by  deep  feeling.     His  fragmentary  novel 
for  modem  readera.    The  unfortunate  Friedrich  Hfll-        Heinrich  von  Olterdingen"  is  an  attempt  to  show 


derlin   (1770-1843)   combined   the   classic   with   the     the  development  of  a  tme  romantic  poet.     Ludwig 

tie  spirit  in  unique  fashion.     His  passionate    Tieck  (1773-1853)  revived  the  old  folk-books,  satip- 

I  for  the  lost  beautv  tA  ancient  Greece  was    iied  the  Enlightenment  in  his  comedies,  wrote  roman- 


ticdramaa  of  dq  great  value,  like  "GenoverA",  and  a  Auguat  von  Platen  (1796-1835),  in  whose  verses  form 

novel  of  culture     Franz  Stembalds  Wanderungen",  reached  perfection,  often  to  the  detriment  of  feeling. 

which  had  much  influence  on  German  paiating.    After  The  greatest  Ivric  poet,  and  the  most  striking  literarjr 

1821  he  turned  to  the  short  stoiy,  which  he  was  the  figure  of  the  day,  was  Heinrich  Heine  (1797-1856),  a 

first  to  cultivate  with  success.     A  second  group  of  Jewish  convertto  Protestantism.    Unfortunately,  hia 

romantic  writers,  the  Younger  Romantic  School,  ^th-  great  gifts  are  marred  by  the  insincerity  and  immor- 

ered  chiefly  at  Heidelberg.     With  them  the  national  ality  of  bis  character;  his  finest  poetic  enorts  are  of  ten 

tendency  is  more  pronounced.     Their  work  shows  impaired  or  destroyed  by  a  wanton,  mocking  irony. 

great  talent,  but  ia  often  sjwiled  by  a  lack  of  artistic  IJis  proee  works,  for  the  most  pui  fragmentary  and 

restraint.     Especially  is  this  the  case  with  Ktemens  journalistic  in  character,  are  written  in  a  eraceful, 

Maria  Brentano  (1778-1842),  a  highly  poetic  but  very  easy  style,an4with  brilliant  wit.  The  miserable  politi- 

eccentric  character,  who  togetlier  with  Achim  von  cal  conditions  of  Germany  were  tjie  object  of  I^ine's 

Amim  collected  and  edited  an  important  book  of  folk-  bitterest  satire;  but  unforturtately  reUgion  and  moral- 

BOi^gS,  "Dea  Knaben  Wimderhom"  (1805-8).    Their  itf  also  became  a  target  for  his  mockery  and  cynical 

friend  Joseph  von   G6rres   (1770-1843).   during  his  wit.    Great  as  his  influence  was  on  hterature,  on  the 

period  of  ardent  patriotism  edit«d  old  German  songs  whole  it  was  pernicious.    His  poems  appeared  in  dif- 

and  folk-bocks;  hiB  later  activity  was  lately  devoted  ferent  collections  under  the  titles  ot  "Buch  der 

to  the  service  of  the  Catholic  Church,_  which  found  in  Liedcr",  "Neue  Gedichte",  and  "Romanzero".     Of 

him  a  lealous  champion.    The  patriotic  tendency  is  his  prose  writings  the  "Reisebilder"  (1826)  are  the 

much  in  evidence  best.     Another  romantic  lyrist  of  the  highest  order 

in    the    work    of  was  the  Austrian,   Nikolaus  Lenau   (Niembseh  von 

Friedrich     de     la  Strehlenau).  the  poet  of  melancholy.  A  strong  individ- 

Motte  Fouqu6  uality,  uninfluenced  by  the  literary  cuirenta  of  the 

(1777-1843),  day,  reveals  itaelf  in  the  work  of  a  noble  Catholic  lady, 

whose  fantastic  Annette  Elisabeth  von  Droste-HulahoS  (17S7-1848), 

ohivalric   ro-  whose  writings  throughout  show  a  deeply  relieiouB 

manees    are    for-  spirit.    Her  collection  entitled  "Das  geistliche  Juir", 

Etten,  while  his  poems  appropriate  for  the  Sundays  and  Ifcdy  Dajrs  of 

ry  -  tale     "  Un-  the  Catholic  year,  contains  some  of  the  fioest  religious 

dine"    atill   lives,  poetry  in  the  German  language.    Another  genius  who 

The  only  dramatic  stood  apart  from  the  cun^nta  of  the  day  was  Fraiu 

poet    of     a    high  Grillpa!Ter(1791-1872),  Austria's  greatest  dramatist. 

order     connected  In  his  work  classic  and  romantic  elements  were  united. 

with  the  Roman-  Of  his  many  dramatic  masterpieces  we  only  mention 

tic  School  is  Hein-  "Die  Ahnfrau",  "Sappho".   "Das  goldene  Vliess", 

rich    von    Kleiat  "  Des  Meere«  una  der  Liebe  Wellen  ",  and  "  Der  Traum 

(1777-1811),  ein  Leben",    His  compatriot,     Feniinand  Raimund, 

among     whose  istheauthor  of  plays  deservedly  popular.     Thedra- 

dramaa    "Der  matic  produetiona  of  Christian  Grabbe  were  too  ex- 

,  Prini  von   Horn-  travag^nt  and  erratic  to  be  performed.    The-moet 

burg"    (1810)    is  popular  playwright  of  that  day,  Ernst  Raupach,  is 

regarded    as    hia  now  forgotten, 
masterpiece.    Hia  novels,  of  which  'Michael  Kohl-        The  historical  novel  rose  into  favour  during  this 

haas"  la  the   best  known,  show  a   graphic   power,  period,  lar^Iy  through  the  influence  of  Sir  Walter 

Zacharias  Werner  (1768-1823),  who  ultimately  be-  Scott.    Von  Amim  and  Tieck  had  tried  their  hand  at 

came  a  Catholic,  is  chiefly  known  as  the  originator  (rf  this^«nre,  to  be  Followed  by  Wilhelm  Hauff,  the  author 

the  ao-callaj  ''fate-tragedies",  a  gruesome  species  of  of  "Licbtenstein"  (1826)  and  WilUbald  Alexis  (paeu- 

dramain  which  blind  chance  is  the  dominating  factor,  don^  for  Wilhelm  Hiring),     The   latter   took   hia 

Characteristic  of  decayingromanticismaretheweirdly  subjects  from  Prussian  history  and  gave  the  novel  a 

fantastic  stories  of  E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann  (1776-1822).  patriotic  tendency.    A  significant  change  is  marked 

The  influence  of  the  romantic  movement  continued  for  by  the  novels  of  Karl  Immermann  (1796-1840),  who 

some  time  after  Uie  movement  had  spent  itself  as  a  in    "Die    Epigonen"    and    "Hilnchhausen"    (1838) 

living  force.     Almost  all  the  poets  of  the  first  half  of  treated  contemporary  conditions  in  a  satiric  vein.  The 

the  mneteenth  century  wcremore  or  lesBaSected  by  it.  episode  of  the  "Oberhof"  in  the  latter  work  intro- 

Tbe  national  tendency  fostered  by  romanticism  was  duced  the  village  and  peasant  sto^  into  German 

transformed  by  the  Wani  of  Liberation  into  patriotic  literature.     In  this  field,  Jeremiae  Gotthelf  (Albert 

fervour  which  found  expression  in  the  stirring  lyrics  Bitiius)  and  Berthold  Auerbach  won  success.   Charles 

of  Max  von  Schenkendori,  Theodor  KOmer,  and  Sealsfield  (Karl  PostI)  is  known  as  a  writ«r  of  novels 

Horita  Amdt.  (rf  travel  and  adventure. 

The  poets  of  the  Swabian  School,  who  were  roman*        The  hopes  that  patriots  in  1815  had  cherished  of  a 

tic  only  in  BO  far  as  th^  leaned  towards  medieval  or  united  Germanv  had  been  rudely  dispelled.    Freedom 

religious  subjects,  excelled  particularly  in  the  ballad,  of  thought  ana  speech  had  been  suppressed  by  the 

Then-  leader  was  Ludwig  Uhland  (1787-1862),  distin-  poUtical  reaction  typified  by  the  Mettemich  reeime. 

guished  as  poet  and  scholar.    Beardes  him  there  were  The  smouldering  discontent  broke  forth  violently  at 

Justinus  Kemer  and  Gustav  Schwab.    Some  of  Ker-  the  news  of  the  Paris  Revolution  (1830)  and  found  its 

ner's   and    Uhland's   lyrics   have   become   veritable  literaryexpreasionin  themovementknownos"Young 

VoVulieder.  Germany".    The  relentless  war  that  was  carried  on 

Romanticism  cast  its  spell  over  the  lyric,  which  against  the  existing  political  order  was  also  directed 

occupies  a  large  space  in  the  literature  of  this  period,  against  reli^on  and  morality.    The  "emancipation  of 

Prominent  in  tiiis  field  were  Adelbert  von  Chamisao,  the  flesh  "  was  openly  proclaimed.    Heine  had  led  the 

Wilhelm  Mailer,  and  Joseph  von  Eichendorff,  a  Cath-  attack,  and  the  members  of  the  coterie  followed  with 

olic  nobleman  of  Silesia,  the  most  gifted  lyrist  of  the  essays,  novels,  and  dramas,  which  for  the  most  part, 

group.    Friedrich  RQckert  (1788-1866)  was  a  volu-  owingtotheirpoliticaland80cialcharacter,wereBhort- 

minous  but  unequal  writer  of  verse;    his  fame  rests  lived.    Karl  Gutzkow  (1811-78)  ia  the  leading  fi^re 

largely  on  his  translations  and  imitations  of  Oriental  of  the  coterie.     His  novels,  with  their  antl-reiigious 

poetry,  the  difficult  forms  of  which  he  reproduced  and  immoral  tendencies,  have  to-day  only  historicat 

with  amaiing  sldll.    In  this  he  was  followed  bf  Count  interest,  while  his  dramas,  of  which  the  bc«t  Imown  is 


OEBHAHT  527  OESHAMT 

"Uriel   AcoBta"    (1847),    are   theatrically   eSeciive.  merit.     Thenecv-romanticproducticinHot otherCatho- 

Neict  to  Gutskow  m  prominence  was  Heiorich  Laube  lie  poete  like  Behringer,  Wilbelm  Molitor,  aud  Maria 

(1806-S4),  whose  best  work,  however,  waa  done  aa  a  Leuien  failed  to  make  alastingimpression.  A  Catholic 

draroatist  and  not  aa  a  partisan  of  Young  Germany,  poet  of  this  period  who  won  a  permanent  place  was  the 

Women  also  took  part  in  the  movement.    Ortheeethe  Westphalian,   Friedrich   Wiihelm   Weber   (1813-94), 

moat  notable  are  the  Jewess,  Fanny  Lewald,  nboee  author  of  the  epic  "Dreizehnlinden".     Apessimistio 

writing  display  a  decided  anti-Chnstian  spirit,  and  atmo^here  pervades  the  Austrian  Robert  Hamerling's 

Countess  Ida  von  Hahn-Hahn,  who  began  her  literary  epic,     Ahaaver  in  Rom"  {1866).     "Die  Nibelung^" 

career  with  novels  of  high  life  iu  which  matrimony  is  of  Wilbelm  Jordan  is  a  noteworthy  attempt  to  revive 

treated  with  levity,  and  ended  by  becoming  a  devout  the  great  medieval  saga  in^modem  alliterative  foim. 

Catholic.'  This  was  accomplished   with   brilliant  Bucceaa  by 

The  spirit  of  revolution  inaugurated  by  Young  Ger-  Richard  Wagner  (1813-^),  whose  music  dramas  are 

many  soon  assumed  a  definite  poUtical  character  and  among  the  greatest  achievements  of  modem  German  - 

doramated  the  literary  activity  from  1840  to  the  out-  art. 

break  of  1848.     It  found  its  most  eloquent  expression         A  result  of  the  more  serious  view  of  life  was  the  new 

in  the  poUtical  lyric.     In  Austria  Anastasius  Grtln  realism  that  strove  to  present  lite  truthfully,  stripped 

(pseudonym  for  Count  Anton  Alexander  von  Auers-  of  the  conventional  phraseological  idealism  that  had 

perg),  Karl  Beck,  Morits  Uartmann,  and  Lenau  were  been  the  vogue  since  Schiller.    This  realism  mani- 

most  prominent  in  this  line;  in  Germany  Herweeh,  tested  itself  chiefly  in  the  diama  and  novel.    In  the 

Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben,  Frana  von  Din^lstedt,  former     field     its 

Ferdinand  Freiligrath  (1810-70},  and  Gottfned  Kin-  most  eminent  rep- 

kel  were   the  political  leaders   of   the   malcontents,  resentative    is 

Much  of  thisjoetry  was  necessarily  ephemeral;  in  Friedrich  Hebbel 

fact  Kinkel,  Fallersleben,  and  Freiligrath  owe  their  (1813-63)  with  his 

fame  to  their  verses  not  political  in  character.     In  powerful  tragedies 

the  ffoetry  of  Count  Moriz  von  Strachwiti  and  Karl  ''Maria    Magda- 

Simrock,    the   excellent   translator   of   Old   German  lena",    "Herodes 

Uterature,  a  reaction  against  the  political  tendency  und    Mariamne", 

in  literature  and  in  favour  of  romanticism  is  evident.  "Gyras   und  aein 

The  short  stories  of  Adalbert  Stifter  and  the  dramas  of  Ring  ,  and  "Die 

.  Friedrich  Halm  (Freiherr  von  MUnch-Bellinghausen)  Nibelungen  ". 

also  show  the  romantic  tinge.     The  greatest  lyrist  <^  Otto   Ludwig 

the  age,  Eduard  Horike  (1804-75),  a  Swabian,  went  (1813-65)   foN 

his  way  wholly  unconcerned  with  the  questions  of  the  lowed  with  "  Der 

day.  ErbfOrater"     and 
"Die  Makka- 

tX,  Modern  German  Literature  (since  1848).  b&er",  as  well  as 

New  Aims.  Poetic  REALiau.  Natdrausm. — The  year  the  masterly  ro- 

1848  marks  a  great  change  in  the  political  and  literary  mance  "Zwischen         Joufb  Vk^xib  von  Scnaitaii 

history  of  Germany.    The  great  question  of  German  Himmel     und 

unification  now  loomed  in  the  foreground,  and  though  Erde  ".     These  dramas  found  little  favour  at  the  time 

a  reaction  had  set  in  after  the  revolutionary  outbreak,  of  their  appearance ;  the  realistic  novel  fared  better. 

liberal  ideas  were  strong,   and  interest  m  political  GustavFreytag(1816-95)wonKreatsucceBswith"Soll 

questions  was  keen.    Literature  sought  to  get  more  in  und  Haben"  (1866),  a  novel  of  bourgeois  life.    Frit* 

touch  with  life,  and  became  less  exclusively  ffisthetic.  Reuter  (1810-74)  used  his  native  Low  Gerrr^:in  dialect 

The  materialistic  t«ndencies  of  the  age  were  reflected  for  his  popular  humorous  novels,  the  most  impOTtant 

in  and  conditioned  by  the  great  progress  of  science  and  of  which  are  included  m  "0!le  Kamellen"  (1860-64). 


e  of  journalism.     The  lync  and  epic  lost  ground  Great  originality  marks  the  work  of  the  Swiss,  Gott- 

to  the  drama  and  the  novel.  The  cmssic-romantic  fried  Keller  (1819-00),  regarded  by  many  aa  the 
tradition  still  found  many  followers.  In  fact,  after  master'novelist  of  the  period.  His  best  production  is 
the  turbulence  of  the  Revolution  came  a  return  to  a  the  series  of  novels  from  Swiss  life  entitled  "Die  Leute 
e  formal  and  Esthetic  art,  which,  however,  kept  von  Seldwyla"  (1856).  The  litera:?  value  of  the 
e  or  leas  in  touch  with  the  life  of  the  age.  An  work  of  Friedrich  Spielhagen  (b.  1829],  a  novelist  of 
ranous  array  of  names  confronts  the  student  of  undoubted  talent^  is  impaired  by  its  undue  treatment 
the  literature  of  this  period,  but  only  a  relatively  small  of  social  and  political  questions,  while  the  great  favour 
number  call  for  notice.  accorded  to  the  antiquarian  novels  of  Georg  EbetB 
The  most  prominent  lyri'.;  poet  now  was  Emanuel  and  Felix  Dahn  cannot  hide  their  literary  defects, 
Geibel  (1815-84),  whoee  poems  are  distinguished  by  Midway  between  romanticism  and  realism  stands 
beauty  of  form  and  dignified,  patriotic  sentiment.  Tbeodor  Storm  (1817-88),  whose  great  poetic  talent 
He  was  the  leader  of  the  Munich  group,  which  num-  is  shown  no  less  in  his  heartfelt  lyrics  than  in  his 
bered  among  others  Count  Adolf  von  Schack,  the  art  stories,  such  as  "Aquis  Submersus  .  Fiction  began 
connoisseur  and  distinguished  translator  of  Firdauai,  to  occupy  a  lai^r  place  in  literature  ^lecially  alW 
Herrmann  von  Lingg  and  Julius  Grosse,  the  epic  poets,  1870.  We  mention  only  Uie  Swiss,  C.  F.  Meyer,  who 
Friedrich  von  Bodenstedt;  whose  enormously  popular  excels  in  the  historical  novel,  and  Tlieodor  Fontane, 
"MirzaSchafIy"BongB  continued  the  Oriental  fashion  whose  later  works  were  thoroughly  modem  and  real- 
inaugurated  by  Goethe's  "Divan".  The  work  of  one  istic.  Peter  Rosegger,  a  Styrian,  has  won  fame  with 
of  this  ^up,  Paul  Heyse,  a  masterly  writer  of  short  his  village  stories.  Of  the  numerous  women-write™  trf 
stories,  IS  characterisea  by  extreme  ele^nce  of  form  fiction,  the  most  gifted  are  Luise  von  Francois  and 
and  diction.  In  his  novel  "Kinder der  Welt"  (1873),  Marie,  Baroness  von  Ebner-Eschenlmch.  The  chief 
however,  these  fine  qualities  cannot  conceal  atheistic  activity  of  the  last-mentioned  writers  belongs  to  the 
and  immoral  tendencies.     Among  the  writers  of  this  period  after  1870. 

period  noneachieved  such  popularity  as  Joseph  Victor  The  Franco-German  War  of  1870  and  the  establiah- 

von  Scheffel,  with  his  romantic  epic,  "  Der  Trompeter  ment  of  the  new  empire  had  comparatively  little  effect 

von  Sftckingen"  (1854)  and  his  historic  novel  "Ekke-  on  literature.     Poetry  continued  to  move  lately  in 

hard"    (1855).     The   lyric-epic   poem   "Amaranth"  the  old  classic-romantic  grooves.     The  gracefiil  but 

(IS49)  of  the  Catholic  Baron  Oskar  von  Redwiti  owed  trivial  lyrics  and  epics  of  Rudolf  Baumoach,  Julius 

its  success  more  to  its  religious  feeling  than  to  any  real  Wolff,  and  other  imitatore  of  Sdheffel's  manner  best 


OBBlfANT                               528  OEBMAHT 

suited  popular  taste.  The  passionate  lyrics  of  Prince  (1892)  is  the  best  known,  are  pleasing  but  shallow. 
Emil  zu  schOnaich-Carolatn  deserved  their  success*  The  new  romanticism,  which  is  exemplified  by  the 
The  poetry,  however,  of  Martin  Greif  Eduajd  von  dreamy  poetry  of  Maeterlinck,  was  even  less  able  than 
Paulus,  Chnstian  Wa^er,  and  Heinrich  Vierordt  was  naturalism  to  produce  a  vital  drama.  The  produo- 
slow  to  win  recognition.  The  decade  following  the  tions  of  Hugo  von  Hofmannsthal  (b.  1874)  are  wholly 
great  victories  of  1870  was  not  favourable  to  literary  imdramatic,  revelling  in  emotion  and  devoid  of  ao- 
activity.  For  the  moment  political,  social,  and  reh-  tion.  His  proper  fiela  is  the  lyriCb  where  his  talents  as 
sious  (questions  (as  in  KvUurkampf)  were  dominant,  well  as  those  of  Stefan  George  (o.  1868)  find  scope. 
A  spirit  of  agitation  and  unrest  was  abroad.  Much  of  Symbolism  has  found  its  most  characteristic  expres- 
the  literature  of  the  time  was  partisan  and  polemic,  or  sion  in  the  rapturous  and  vasue  lyric  effusions  of 
else  catered  to  the  materialistic  taste  that  prevailed  Richard  Dehmel  (b.  1863).  Mier  all  the  best  l3rric 
and  merely  aimed  to  entertain.  Of  this  kind  were  the  poets  of  the  present,  are  those  who  do  not  aJQfect  any 
dramas  of  Paul  Lindau^  cut  according  to  French  pat-  particular  fashion.  Such  are  Detlev  von  LiUencron,  a 
terns,  and  presenting  pictiires  from  decadent  Parisian  realist  of  great  power,  regarded  by  many  as  the  fore- 
life.  The  more  senous  drama,  favouring  historical  most  German  lyrist  of  to-day,  Gustav  Falke,  Ferdi- 
subjects  and  affecting  the  conventional  manner  of  nand  Avenarius,  Karl  Busse,  Otto  Julius  BierlMium 
Schiller,  is  best  represented  by  Ernst  von  Wildenbruch.  and  Anna  Ritter.  Freiherr  Bdrries  von  MOnchhausen 
By  far  the  most  original  dramatist  was  the  Austrian,  has  written  masterly  ballads. 

Ludwig  Ansengruber  (1839-89),  whose  dramas,  "  Der  .     The  novelistic  literature  has  grown  to  enormous 

Pfarrer  von  lUrchfeld",  "Das  vierte  Gebot",  etc.  proportions,  and  shows  a  host  of  names.    Naturalism 

received  almost  no  reco^tion  until  after  1880.    The  asserted  itself  in  the  novels  ''Meister  Timpe"  (1888) 

onlv  factors  that  helped  to  counteract  the  materialism  and  **  Das  Gesicht  Christi"  (1897)  of  Max  ICretzer,  as 

ana  commercialism  tnat  ruled  the  stage  were  the  model  well  as  in  the  earlier  work  of  Wilhelm  von  Polens 

performances  of  the  Meiningen  troupe  and  the  imcom-  (1861-1903} .     With  Polenz,  however,  naturalism  has 

promising  seriousness  of  Kichard  Wagner's  artistic  developed  mto  artistic  realism,  as  evidenoed  by  his 

activity,  as  demonstrated  in  the  festival  performances  last  novels  "  Thekla  LQdekind  *^  (1899)  and  "  Wurzel- 

of  Bayreuth.  locker '^  (1902).    In  addition  mention  may  be  made  of 

The  mediocrity  into  which  literature  had  fallen  by  Gustav  Frenssen,  whose  "  Jdm  Uhl "  (1901)  gained  an 

1880,  its  emptv  formalism,  and  conventional  char-  enormous  success,  Adolf  Wilbrandt,  Thomas  Mann, 

acter,  producMsd  another  literary  revolt,  a  "  Youngest  Wilhelm  Speck,  Georg  von  Ompteda  and  Walter  Sieg- 

Germany''.    Poetry  was  to  become  more  modem,  fried.    Prominent  among  women  writers  of  fiction  are 

The  questions  of  the  day  were  to  be  its  concern,  the  Isolde  Kurz  (b.  1853),  I&lene  B6hlau,  Marie  Eugenie 

faithful  reproduction  of  reality  its  aim.    Instead  of  delle  Grazie,  Carmen  Sjrlva  (Queen  Elizabeth  of  Ru- 

harking  back  to  the  realism  of  a  Hebbel  or  Ludwig,  the  mania)  and  above  all  Ricarda  Huch  (b.  1867),  whose 

leaders  of  this  movement  looked  to  foreign  models  for  great  novel  **  Erinnerungen  von  Ludolf  Ursleu    (1893) 

inspiration,  to  the  works  of  Ibsen,  Tolstov,  Dostoyev-  stands  in  the  front  rank  of  modem  fiction, 
sky,  and  Zola.    The  realism  there  found  was  copied 

and  exaggerated,  and  the  result  was  a  cmde  natural-  For  bibUomphv  the  standard  work  b  Gobdbkb,  OrundriM 

lam  whiph  iinrlnlv  PrytnVioAiKAH  tht^  moAn   f Hp  iialv  anH  nLrOe»di%cMe  derdeuUchm  Dtchtunff  (2nd  ed.,  GoBTt«,  Dresden. 

ism  wmcn  unamy  empnasizea  tne  mean,  tne  ugiy,  ana  1884— ).    Useful  also  are  Bartblb.  Handbuch  gur  OettJiichu 

the  vulgar.     The  pessimistic  philosophy  of  Schopen-  der  deuUchm  lAUnUw  (2nd  ed..  LeipEig,  1009);  BuuL.  Handy 

hauer  and  especially  the  revolutionary  doctrines  of  Bmicoraphioal  Ouidetothe  Study  of  the  Oerman  Lanauage  and 

Niet«cto  adp  their  unwhol^me  influence  and  ^^ilT ^"^H^dXi  iCS^'^JSi^'^J'S^ 

tended   towards  a  perversion   of  ethical  and  mo.^1  German  Literature  (Chicago.  1903)  will  be  found  helpful.     Of 

standards.     The  activity  of  the  movement  was  at  first  «P°^^  histories  the  best  are:    Kobkmtein,  Orundnaa  der 

nuunly  negative  and  poUicaL    Ite  literary  creations  ^^H^  tl&  l^SSl^'^ViA'I^Ailt^ 

have  already  lost  mterest.    Real  literature  wac  not  deutachen  Diduung  (5th  ed.,  5  vola.  ed.  Bastsch.  Leipsig. 

produced  until  the  extreme  views  were  modified.     As  1871-74;     Wackernaqbl.    Gese^icftto   d«r   daUechen   LUtera- 

OL  iwo^fi'rkn  aoainaf  naf  iiroliam     '<  BvmKrkliam ''  mftHp  ifA  *«*»'•    ^'    '^^    OOntmued    MARTIN    (2    vols.,    Basle,    1879-04); 

a  reaction  ammst  naturalism,     symbolism     made  its  Sc„j,m.b,  Geachichte  der  deuUchen  Literatur  (lOth  ed.,  Berlin. 

appearance;  but  the  art  which  it  inspired  is  apt  to  be  i905);  tr.  Mr^.  Contbrarx  (2  vols..  Oxford.  1886);  Voor  and 

so  mtangible  and  hyper-aesthetic  as  to  be  limited  for  Koch,  GeachuMederdeutachen  Literatur  von  den  AUeaten  Znten 

•  *x*««.<w.;tt?;ri*i  ♦a  a  rtoi^^nr  o«»/l '^k-^AlitoS^ro  Aimlo  ^  «""  OeoenvMrt  with  excellent  bibliography  and  illustrations 

appreciation  to  a  nan-OW  and  exclusive  circle.  .gnd  ed.,  2  vols.,  Leiosig.  1904).     For  a  pre^Ution  from  the 

In  the  dramatic  field   Herrmann   Sudermann    (b.  Catholic  point  of  view  consult   Lindkmann,   OeaehiehU  der 

1867),  whose  novels  "Frau  Sorge"  (1887)  and  "Der  d«MtocAmLt<ero(ur(7Uied.,SAURR.F^ 

VA*m^w*a*t^f,*f  ^iQQO\    l«o#l  oli«ao/1^  AffMAfAH  o4-fAn4{nn  7Ht«tn«rte(?e»cAicWeder detitecfc«nLiteratur(Munich,  1908 — ).0£ 

Katsensteg     (1889),  had  already  attracted  atten^on,  ^^^^  ^^^^^^^  j^  English  the  best  are:  Robertson,  A  Hiitory 

won  great  success.     His  plays   "Die  Ehre",   "Hei-  ^  German  LaeraturelLondon  and  New  York.  1902) ;  Franckb. 

mat",  "Es  lebe  das  Leben',  and   others,  are  very  Hiatorv  (^German  Literatureaa  Dettrmined  by  Social  Fprcee 

effective,  but  marred  by  sensationalism.    Sudermann  CJ^  iJ^J^'^r^t^^^SL^CSS^^^T^F^i^ 

IS  not  a  representative  naturalist ;  his  technic  is  a  com-  cial  topics  and  periods  some  of  the  most  important  works  are 

promise    between   the    older   practice   and    the    new  Harford,  Studt^  in  the  Liierary  ReUUione  of  En^^^ 

^eoriei.    A   thoroughgoing    nat,«.li8t   iB    Gerhart  'l^jt^^l.'tl^ya^^^^^v'^lhfl^^SJl:; 

Hauptmann  (b.  1863)  m  his  first  dramas  "Yor  Son-  detUachen Literatur im  18.  JahrhundeH(4thed.,HAta9ACK,BTui»- 

nenaufgang"  (1889)  and  "  Die  Weber"  (1892).     Here  ^ck.  1893-94).     For  Lessing  consult  Schmidt.  Leaaing  (2nd 

*u-*  ^iuZ.  To  ««>^«Mk  l^^^^txrx*  *U<^ry  ^liofKiAf  Af  #(f.  an*ir^n  ^d.,  2  vols.,  Bcrlm,  1899) ;  for  hls  religious  views  Baumoartnbr, 

the  miiteu  IS  more  importailt  than  character  or  aj^^  l^^^,inga  religidat^  Entwicklungagar^  in  Stimmen  aua  Maria- 

In  his  comedies  "  Kollege  Crampton     and     Der^lber-  Loach  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1877).     On  Goethe  see  BtBLBCBOWBKT 

pels"  he  showed  that  naturalism  did  not  preclude  (Munich.  1896-1904);  to. Cooper (N^^ 

lT..^.^...      tt;«    ^r^^    f»»»«y>„a    vvlooT     *U^   foi«4r_^iM>mo  Gedonken  Ober  Goethe  (5th  ed.,  Berhn.  1902);   the  best  known 

honour.    His  most  famous  play,  the  fain^-drama  ^^^^^  biography,  though  s<;mewhat  antiquated,  is  that  of 

''Die   versunkene   Glocke"    (1896),    hke    "Hanneles  Lbwbs  (4th  ed.,  London,  1890).     For  an  estimate  from  a 

Himmelfahrt"   before,   and   "Der  arme  Heinrich"  strictly  Catholic  Mint  of  view  see  BAUMaARTNBR,<7«^^^^ 

afterwanis  marks  a  significant  tm^ng  towards  sym-  i^Sle?:^„'.Sl?ttegJ2Shyty  wII^^oLm  (fr^'ed^liipsui: 

bolism    and    neo-romanticism.     So    far    "Fuhrmann  1898).     Of  English  biographies  that  of  Carlylb  is  well  known; 

Henschel "  (1898)  is  the  dramatic  masterpiece  of  nat-  ^^^^  >»  **»•*  oj  Thomas  (New  York,  1901).    On  the  R«man- 

|.  ^       rif  ^4-ul.  A^w^,*4.i^«  ^t  ♦I*;*,  a«.lww>l  »«<>n4;#«n  *»©  School  consult  Hatm.  D%e  romantiache  Schule  (Berlin,  1870); 

uralism.     Of  other  dramatasts  of  this  school  mention  Vauohan,  The  Romantic  RevoU  (Edinburgh,  1907).    fror  the 

may  be  made  of  Max  Halbe   (b.    1865),   author  of  nineteenth  century  consult  Bartbls,  Die  deutache  Dichiunff  der 

"Jugend"  (1893)  and  Otto  Erich  Hartleben,  whose  QegmwaH  (7th  ed... Leipzig.  1907),  written  from  a  stnctly 

ttr^zL^ :A»^»//'innn\  <.u^«.<.Q.,^A,»v««»»'«:*.A,,<««>.»A  national  pomt  of  view  and  not  without  bias;   also  Mbtbr, 

"Rosenmontag     (1900)  shows  Sudermann  S  influence.  ^^^  deuU^e  Literatur  dea  19.  Jahrhunderta  (2nd  ed.,  Beriin. 

A  popular  dramatist,  though  of  no  particular  school,  is  |i900). 

Ludwig  Fulda;  his  plays,  of  which  "D^  Talisman"  Arthur  F.  J.  Remt. 


OBBMAinr 


529 


QBBMIA 


Qfltmuoiy,  Vicariate  Apoerrouc  ov  Northern 
(Vicariate  Apostolic  op  the  Northern  Missions)  . 
— Its  jurisdiction  covers  the  Grand  Duchies  of  Mecklen- 
bui]^-Schwerin  and  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  the  Princi- 
pakty  of  Schaumburg-Lippe,  the  free  Hanse  towns. 
Hambuiv,  LObeck,  and  Bremen,  the  Principality  oi 
Labeck  ^pital  Eutin),  belonging  to  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Oldenburg,  and  the  Island  of  Helgoland.  The 
Northern  Missions,  viewed  in  a  wider  sense,  include 
also  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Schleswie-Holstein, 
coinciding  with  the  Prussian  province  of  uiat  name, 
which  was  placed  imder  a  separate  prelate  in  1868. 
Both  vicariate  and  prefecture  are  under  the  permar 
nent  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  OsnabrQck  as  admin- 
istrator Apostolic.  In  the  vicariate  Catholics  number 
about  79,400  (with  1,925,000  members  of  other  con- 
gre^tions),  under  47  secular  priests  having  care  of  17  , 
parishes  and  17  mission  stations.  The  followine  reli-  ' 
gious  congregations  have  houses  in  the  vicariate :  sisters 
of  Mercv  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  1 ;  Sisters  of  St.  Eliza- 
beth ((jrey  Nims),  5;  Franciscan  Sisters,  2;  Ursulines, 
2.  The  Prefecture  A[)ostolic  of  Schleswig-Holstein 
contains  (1909)  11  plarishes,  31  mission  stations,  34 
secular  priests,  35,900  Catholics,  and  550.000  of  other 
beliefs;  4  communities  of  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth,  and 
3  of  Franciscan  nuns.  In  summer  tlie  Catholic  popu- 
lation of  the  vicariate  and  prefecture  is  increased  by 
17,000  to  20,000  labourers  (chiefly  Poles)  from  other 
parts  of  Germany,  who  return  to  their  homes  at 
the  beginning  of  the  winter.  The  spiritual  intereste 
of  the  faithful  are  inadeq^uately  attended  to  owing 
to  the  extent  of  the  i)anshes,  the  lack  of  priests, 
the  poverty  of  the  majority  of  the  Catholics,  and, 
in  many  places,  owing  to  the  intolerance  of  the 
Protestant  stete  or  municipal  governments.  A  more 
encouraging  picture  is  presented  by  the  numerous 
Catholic  societies,  and  by  the  maintenance  of  private 
Catholic  schools,  despite  the  fact  that  the  Catholics 
are  often  obliged  to  contribute  also  to  the  support  of 
the  state  and  parish  schools.  A  very  fruitful  activity 
has  been  developed  in  these  missions  by  the  Boniface 
Association. 

The  Reformation  in  the  sixteenth  century  caused  the 
loss  of  idmost  all  Northern  Germany  to  the  Qiurch. 
In  1582  the  stray  C&tholics  of  Northern  German v,  as 
well  as  of  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway,  were  puboed 
under  ^e  jurisdiction  of  a  papal  nuncio  in  Colosne. 
The  Conererationde  propaganda  fide,  on  its  estebflsh- 
ment  in  16Z2,  took  charge  of  the  vast  missonary  held, 
which  at  its  third  session  it  divided  among  the  nuncio 
of  Brusseb  (Denmark  and  Norway),  the  nuncio  of 
Cologne  (North  Germany),  and  the  nuncio  of  Poland 
(Sweden).  The  scattered  Catholics  were  chiefly  con- 
fided to  the  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  and  Dominicans. 
Catholics  in  many  places*  had  at  their  disposal  only  the 
chapels  establishea  in  the  houses  of  the  diplomatic 
representatives  of  the  emperor,  and  of  the  Catholic 
Powers,  France  and  Spam.  Sometimes  admission 
even  to  these  chapels  was  rendered  difficult,  or  enturely 
prohibited  to  native  C&tholics. 

In  some  districts  the  conversion  of  the  princes, 
e.  g.  Duke  Johann  Friedrich  of  Brunswick-Ltineburg 
(1651)  and  Duke  Christian  of  Mecklenbuig-Schwerin 
(1663),  brought  Catholics  some  measure  of  freedom. 
The  number  of  Catholics  having  increased  in  1667, 
chiefly  throu^  the  above-mentioned  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, a  vicariate  Apostolic  was  established  for  North- 
em  Germany.  The  first  vicar  was  Valerio  Maccioni,  titu- 
lar Bishop  of  Morocco,  who  resided  at  Hanover.  He 
died  in  1676,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  celebrated 
Danish  convert,  Nicolaus  Steno,  who  in  1680  was 
oblifi^  to  leave  Hanover,  was  made  Auxiliary  Bishop 
of  Milnster,  and  in  1683  returned  to  the  NorUiem  Mis- 
sions. He  died  at  Schwerin  in  1686,  and  was  followed 
in  the  vicariate  successivelv  by  Friedrich  von  HOrde, 
Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Hildesneim  and  titular  Bishop  of 
Joppe  (1686-96),  Jobst  Edmund  von  Brabeck,  Bishop 
VI.— 34 


of  Hildesheun  (1697-1702).  and  Otto  von  Bronck- 
horst.  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  OsnabrQck.  Owin^  to  its 
vast  extent,  the  old  vicariate  Apostolic  was  divided  by 
Pope  Clement  XI  into  two  vicariates  (1709):  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Hanover  (or  Upper  and  Lower 
Saxony),  embracing  the  portions  of  tne  old  vicariate 
situated  in  the  Palatinate  and  Electorates  of  Branden- 
burg and  Brunswick,  which  was  placed  in  charge  of 
Acostino  Steffani,  Bishop  of  Spiga  and  minister  (?  the 
Elector  Palatine,  as  vicar  Apostolic ;  the  rest  of  the  orig- 
inal vicariate  (Denmark,  Sweden,  LQbeck,  Hamburg, 
Altona,  and  Schwerin),  which  retained  the  title  of 
Vicariate  of  the  North  and  was  placed  under  the  Aux- 
iliarv  Bishop  of  Osnabrilck.  This  division  lasted 
imtil  1776,  when  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von  Westfalen, 
Bishop  of  Hildesheim,  reimited  under  his  administra- 
tion tne  vicariates  except  Norway  and  Sweden. 

The  French  Revolution  and  the  Napoleonic  regime 
brou^t  great  relief  to  Catholics  in  many  cities  and 
states;  but  the  equality  granted  them  bylaw  in  some 
countries  was  often  merely  theoretical.  At  the  re- 
organization of  Catholic  affairs  in  Germany  after  the 
Napoleonic  era,  the  greater  part  of  the  Northern  Mis- 
sions was  added  to  adjacent  bishoprics.  The  only  dis- 
tricts remaining  mission  territory  were  the  Kingdom 
of  Saxony^  the  Principality  of  Anhalt,  constituted 
separate  vicariates  Apostolic  in  1816  and  1825  respec- 
tivelv  (see  Anhai/t  and  Saxont),  and  the  North,  which 
in  1826  was  placed  temporarily  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Bishop  of  Paderbom.  In  1839  Pope  Gregory 
XVI  wished  to  entrust  the  vicariate  to  a  bishop  witn 
his  see  at  Hamburg.  Johann  Th^odor  Laurent  was 
appointed  vicar  and  consecrated  bishop.  Protestant 
opposition  prevented  the  realization  01  the  plan  and 
Laurent  was  -unable  to  reach  Hamburg.  The  pope 
thereupon  gave  the  administration  of  the  vicariate  to 
the  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Osnabrilck,  Karl  Anton 
LUppe  (d.  1855).  The  Bishop  of  OsnabrQck  has  since 
then  becuQ  the  regular  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Northern 
Missions,  and  administrator  ot  the  Prefecture  Aposto- 
lic of  Schleswig-Holstein,  separated  from  the  vicariate 
in  1868.  In  1869  Denmark  was  erected  into  a  prefec- 
ture, and  in  1892  into  a  vicariate. 

KuNKHAROT,  Histortache  NaehrichUn  von  twei  apoatoiitdien 
VicaricUen  in  Archiv  dea  Hiatoruehen  Vereina  vcn  Ntederaachaen 

il836);  Mbjbr,  Die  Propaganda^  ihre  Provinzen  und  ihr  AacAi, 
I  (QOttingen,  1863);  Dbbvbb,  QeachichU  der  katKoHad^en  Op- 
meinden  tu  Hamburg  und  Altona  (2nd  ed.,  Schmffbausen,  1860); 
WoKER.  Oeachichte  der  Norddeutachen  framiakaner-Miaaionen 
der  SdcKaiaehen  Ordena-Ftovint  vom  hi.  Krem  (Freiburg  im 
Br.,  1880):  HiatariacfuPolitiadie  BlOUer,  XC  (Munich,  1882); 
WoKBB,  Aua  NorddeuUdten  Miaaionan  dea  17.  und  18,  Jahr^ 
hunderta  (Cologne,  1884);  Idkm,  Aim  den  Papieren  dea  kurpfaU- 
iachen  Mmi^era  Agoatino  Staff ani,  Biachofa  von  Spiga  (Cologne, 
1885);  Idbm,  Agoatino  St^anit  Biachof  von  Spiga  i.  p.  t.,  apoato- 
liacher  Vicar  von  NorddeuUehiand  1709-17t8  (Cologne,  1886); 
PiBPBB,  Die  Propaganda-Congregation  und  die  nordxadten  Mia- 
aionen  im  17.  Jhdt.  (Cologne,  1886);  Gotad,  VAttemagne  reli- 
gieuae:  le  proleatantiame  (Paris,  1002),  tr.  (Einsiedeln,  1906). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Gennia,  a  titular  see  of  Galatia  Secunda,  a  suffra- 
gan of  Pessinus;  mentioned  by  Hierocles  in  the  sixth 
oentuiy  (Svnec.,  698, 4).  About  650  it  was  already  an 
autocephafous  archdiocese  directly  dependent  on  Con- 
stentinople  (Ecthesis  pseudo-Epiphanii,  ed.  Gelser,  n. 
51).  Its  condition  was  the  same  in  the  ninth  century 
(Georgii  Cyprii  Descriptio,  ed.  Gelzer,  n.  51),  under 
Emperor  Leo  the  Wise  (901-07)  (ibid.,  n.  61) ;  under 
Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  (ed.  Gelser,  n.  59) ;  and 
under  Alexius  I  Comnenus  after  1084  (ed.  Parthey, 
n.  87) .  In  the  time  of  Michael  Paheologus,  about  1260, 
Germia  must  have  been  an  autocephalous  metropol- 
itan see,  such  as  it  was  still  under  Andronicus  II,  about 
1300,  and  under  Andronicus  III,  about  1330  (ed. 
Gelzer,  n.  80,  89) .  But  the  see  was  soon  to  disappear. 
Leouien  (Oriens  christ.,  I,  495)  knows  of  four  titular 
Bisnops  of  Germia.  From  the  time  of  Justinian  I  (527- 
565)  tne  city  was  entitled  Mvriangeloi,  on  accoimt  of 
a  church  dedicated  to  St.  Michael  and  the  Holy  Aneels. 
Justinian  went  there  to  teke  the  baths  in  556  (Theo- 


OBBOMA 


530 


OEBSOM 


phanes,  Chronographia,  A.  M.  6056) .  To-day  Germia 
IS  called  Germa.  It  is  a  small  village  in  the  vilayet 
and  caza  of  Aneora,  twenty-one  miles  south-east  of 
Sivri-Hissar  and  twelve  miles  east  of  the  ruins  of 
Pessinus.  The  ancient  baths  and  the  ruins  of  the  inn 
built  by  Justinian  are  still  to  be  seen.  Germia  must 
not  be  confused  with  Germa,  a  suffragan  see  of  Cyzicus 
in  the  province  of  the  Hellespont,  and  later  an 
autocephalous  archdiocese. 


Chriat,  (Parifl,  1740),  I.  767;  CvtJtwr,  fjaTur^ie d*  Atke  (PariB, 
1892),  1, 288;  Tbxxbb,  VAaie  Mineure^  470  sqq. 

S.  Vailh£. 

Qerona,  Diocese  of  (Geritndensis),  in  Catalonia, 
Spain,  suffragm  of  Tarragona,  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  ryrenees,  on  tne  south  and  east  by  the 
Mediterranean,  and  on  the  west  by  the  dioceses  of 
Barcelona  and  Vich.  The  district  is  mountainous, 
with  forests  of  pine,  oak,  and  chestnut,  and  numerous 
mineral  springs.  Several  of  the  towns  are  manufac- 
turing centres,  and  the  main  railway  from  France  to 
Barcelona  runs  through  the  province,  which  possesses 
considerable  commercial  importance.  Its  coal  mines 
are  a  source  of  wealth,  but  agriculture  is  not  in  a  flour- 
ishing condition.  The  episcopal  city  of  Gerona  is  the 
chief  town  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  and  is 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ter  and  the  OfLa. 
The  ancient  portion  of  the  city  with  its  once-formid- 
able fortifications  stands  on  the  steep  hill  of  the  Capu- 
chins, while  the  more  modem  section  is  in  the  plain 
and  stretches  beyond  the  river.  The  bastions  of  the 
walls  which  have  withstood  so  many  sieges  are  still 
to  be  seen.^ 

Gerona  is  the  ancient  Gerundaj  a  city  of  the  Ause- 
tani.  It  is  said  that  Sts.  Paul  and  James,  on  their  ar- 
rival in  Spain,  first  preached  Christianity  there,  and 
tradition  also  has  it  tnat  St.  Maximus,  a  disciple  of  St. 
James,  was  ihe  first  bishop  of  the  district.  It  is  gen- 
erally held  that  the  see  was  erected  in  247.  On  18 
June,  517,  a  sjrnod  was  convened  here,  and  attended 
by  the  Archbishop  of  Tarragona  and  six  bishops. 
Canons  were  promul^ted  dealing  with  the  recitation 
of  the  Divine  Office,  mfant  baptism,  and  the  celibacy 
of  the  clergy.  The  citv  has  undergone  twenty-five 
sieges  and  been  capturea  seven  times.  In  the  time  of 
Charlemagne  it  was  wrested  temporarily  from  the 
Moors,  who  were  driven  out  finally  in  1015.  It  was 
besieged  by  the  French  under  Marshal  Hocquisicourt 
in  1653,  under  Marshal  Bellefonds  in  1684,  and  twice 
in  1694  under  de  Noailles.  In  May,  1809,  it  was  be- 
sieged by  35,000  French  troops  imder  Vergier,  Au- 
gereau,  and  St.  Cyr,  and  held  out  obstinately  \mder 
the  leadership  of  Alvarez  until  disease  and  famine 
compelled  it  to  capitulate,  12  December. 

The  ancient  catnedral,  which  stood  on  the  site  of 
the  present  one,  was  used  by  the  Moors  as  a  mosque, 
and  after  their  final  expulsion  was  either  entirely  re- 
modelled or  rebuilt.  Tne  present  edifice  is  one  of  the 
noblest  monuments  of  the  school  of  the  Majorcan 
architect,  Jayme  Fabre,  and  one  of  the  finest  speci- 
mens of  Gothic  architecture  in  Spain.  It  is  ap- 
proached by  eighty-six  steps.  An  aisle  and 'chapels 
surround  the  choir,  which  opens  by  three  arches  mto 
the  nave,  of  which  the  pointed  stone  vault  is  the  wid- 
est in  Christendom  (73  feet).  Among  its  interior 
decorations  is  a  retable  which  is  the  work  of  the  Val- 
enciah  silversmith  Peter  Bemec.  It  is  divided  into 
three  tiers  of  statuettes  and  reliefs,  framed  in  canopied 
niches  of  cast  and  hammered  silver.  A  gold  and  suver 
altar-frontal  was  carried  off  by  the  French  in  1809. 
The  cathedral  contains  the  tombs  of  Raymond  Beren- 
fjdT  and  his  wife.  The  Collegiate  Church  of  San  Feliu 
IS  also  architecturally  noteworthy.  Its  style  is  four- 
teenth-century Gothic,  the  facade  dating  from  the 
eighteenth,  and  it  is  one  of  the  few  Spanish  churches 


which  possesses  a  genuine  spire.  It  contains, 
the  sepulchre  of  its  patron  and  the  tomb  of  the  valiant 
Alvarez,  a  chapel  dedicated  to  St.  Narcissus,  who  ac- 
cording to  tradition  was  one  of  the  early  bishops  of 
the  see.  The  Benedictine  church  of  San  Pedro  ae  los 
Gallos  is  in  Romanes(][ue  style  of  an  early  date.  The 
present  bishop  Fnuicisco  Pol  v  Baralt  was  bom  at 
Arenys  de  Mar  in  the  Diocese  of  Gerona,  9  June,  1854. 
The  diocese  contains  373  parishes,  780  priests,  325,000 
Catholics.  The  Capuchins  have  a  monastery  at  Olot, 
and  among  the  cloisters  for  women  in  the  diocese  are 
those  of  the  Franciscan,  the  Augustinian,  and  the 
Capuchin  nuns. 

Blanche  M.  Kellt. 

Ctorrhat  a  titular  see  in  the  province  ot  Au^ustam- 
nica  Prima,  suffragan  of  Pelusium  in  the  Patriarchate 
of  Alexandria.  The  city  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  (Hist. 
Nat.,  VI,  29).  Erastosthenes  (46, 10)  asserts  that  the 
district  was  formerly  under  water.  Strabo  (XVI^  2, 
33)  places  Gerrha  between  Pelusium  and  Mt.  Cassius. 
Finally,  in  the  sixth  centiuy  the  geographer  Hierocles 
(Synecdemus,  n.  698)  speaks  of  it  as  being  in  Augus- 
tamnica.  Lequien  (Oriens  ohrist.,  II,  551)  makes 
known  the  names  of  four  bishops  of  the  see:  Eudsmon, 
Pirosus,  and  Nilanmon,  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth;  Stephen,  who  ia  451 
assisted  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  Marshes  have 
encroached  upon  the  land  in  modem  times;  the 
abandoned  city  is  foimd  north  of  Pelusium  on  the 
road  to  El-Arish. 

S.  Vailh^. 

Ctorsen,  Giovanni.    See  Thomas  X  Kbmpis. 

Qerson,  Jean  le  Charlier  de,  the  surname  being 
the  name  of  his  native  place,  b.  in  tiie  hamlet  of  (jerson  • 
14  December,  1363;  d.  at  Lyons,  12  Juljr,  1429.  The 
hamlet  of  Gerson  has  disappeared,  but  it  was  then  a 
dependency  of  the  village  of  Barby  not  far  from 
Bethel,  in  the  Diocese  of  ReimSj  and  now  included  in 
the  department  of  Ardennes.  His  father,  Amauld ,  and 
his  mother,  Elizabeth  La  Chardeni^re,  were  noted  for 
their  integrity  and  pietv.  They  had  twelve  children, 
of  whom  Jean  was  the  eldest.  He  attended  the 
schools  of  Rethel  and  Reims  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen 
entered  the  famous  Coll^  de  Navarre  at  Paris,  where 
he  formed  a  life-lone  friendship  with  the  rector,  the 
illustrious  Pierre  d  Ailly  of  Compi^gne.  In  1381 
Gerson  obtained  the  degree  of  licentiate  of  arts  under 
Mattre  Jean  Lou  trier;  in  1388  he  received  that  of 
Baccalarius  Biblicus;  in  1390  he  lectured  on  the 
''Sententiffi",  and  in  1392  became  a  licentiate  of  the- 
ology. He  was  raised  to  the  doctorate  of  theology  in 
1394,  being  then  thirty-one  years  of  age  (cf .  Denifle, 
Chartul.  Univers.  Pans,  III).  Before  receiving  the 
doctorate  he  had  written  several  works.  In  13»7  he 
preached  before  Pope  Clement  VII  of  Avignon  with  a 
view  to  calling  forth  the  condemnation  of  Jean  de 
Monteson,  a  Dominican,  who  had  denied  the  Immac- 
ulate Conception  of  tiie  Blessed  Vir^,  and  shortly 
afterwards  ne  delivered  a  panegyric  on  St.  Louis. 
King  of  France,  thus  makins  his  debut  in  the  oratorical 
career  that  was  destined  to  oecome  so  brilliant. 

Although  Gerson  had  won  the  doctorate  only  a 
year  before  his  former  teacher,  Pierre  d 'Ailly,  was 
named  Bishop  of  Puv  (1395),  Benedict  XIII  chose 
him  to  succeed  d 'Ailly  m  the  important  position  of 
Chancellor  of  Notre-Dame  and  of  the  university  (13 
April).  Thenceforth  he  was  actively  interested  m  the 
extiroation  of  the  schism  which,  for  seventeen  years, 
had  aivided  the  Church  into  two  hostile  parties  that 
were  numerically  almost  equal.  The  friend  of  peace 
and  union,  he  always  expr^sed  a  sober  and  moderate 
opinion  in  re^rd  to  botn  the  Pope  of  Rome  and  the 
Pope  of  Avignon,  and  on  all  occasions  showed  a 
strong  repugnance  to  the  violent  proceedings  extolled 
by  certam  members  of  the  university  (NoSl  Valois^ 


aSBSON                                531  aSBSON 

III,  71, 180).  Appointed  dean  of  the  church  of  Saint  nicide  in  a  general  way  without,  however,  mentioninjg 
Donatien  at  Bruges,  Gerson  remained  there  four  years  the  name  of  the  powerful  Duke  of  Burgundy;  this 
(1397-1401).  It  was  at  this  period  that  he  wrote  the  half-measure  satisned  neither  Gerson  nor  the  Arma- 
treatise,  strongly  theoloeical  and  sober  in  tone,  enti-  gnacs  who  were  at  the  council.  The  chancellor  ad- 
tied:  "Sententia  de  mooo  se  habendi  tempore  schis-  pressed  the  assemblage  in  the  name  of  the  King  of 
matis"  (Schwab,  Johannes  Gerson,  Professor  der  France,  5  May,  1416,  and  eloauently  protested  agamst 
TheoloeieundKanzlerderUniversit&t  Paris,  97,152).  the  too  moderate  and  indennite  sentence  aimed  at 
He  had  not  voted  to  withdraw  obedience  from  the  John  the  Fearless  C'Opp.  (jersonii",  II,  328;  V,  353. 
Pope  of  Avienon,  for  whom,  in  the  be^nninp,  France  355.  362  sq.;  Labbe  and  Mansi,  XXVII,  728  saq.^ 
haa  declareonerself  (1398).  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  Schwab,  op.  cit.,  609).  Gerson  had  attended  neitner 
show  that  Benedict  should  be  considered  neither  a  the  Gouncil  of  Pisa  (1409),  nor  the  Council  of  Rome 
heretic  nor  a  schismatic,  and  that  it  was  in  no  wise  (1412-13),  but  he  had  highly  approved  of  both.  His 
proper  to  introduce,  on  tJiis  plea,  an  action  against  part  in  the  Gouncil  of  Constance  was,  however,  an 
nim  (0pp.  Gersonii,  II,  ed.  1706,  pasvim).  Accord-  miportant  one.  He  arrived  at  Constance,  21  Febru- 
inglv^  he  energetically  demanded  the  restoration  of  ary,  1415,  with  a  delegation  from  the  University  of 
obedience,  that  is  to  say,  the  cessation  of  that  abnor-  Paris.  It  is  not  necessary  to  enter  here  into  the 
mal  state  that  constituted  a  schism  within  a  schism,  details  of  the  trial  of  John  Hus  (Schwab,  op.  cit.,  540- 
but  this  conciliatory  attitude,  so  conformable  to  his  609),  of  the  condemnation  of  the  Flagellants  C'Opp. 
character,  incurred  much  hatred.  On  18  November,  Gersonii ",  II,  658, 660),  of  Gerson 's  differences  with  the 
1403,  he  was  made  cur6  of  Saint-Jean-en-Gr^ve  at  English,  nor  of  his  doctrinal  strife  (1418)  with  Mat- 
Paris,  accepting  the  chaige  in  addition  to  the  office  of  thew  Grabon,  that  great  enemy  of  new  religious  orders 
chancellor;  this  favour  was  granted  by  Pope  Benedict  (0pp.  Gersonii,  I,  467).  Mention  will  be  made  later 
in  recognition  of  Gerson 's  fidelity  to  him  durii^  his  of  nis  attitude  towards  the  three  popes  who  then  dis- 
four  years  of  enforced  sojourn  in  nis  fortress  at  Avig-  puted  the  tiara,  and  of  the  theories  that  he  set  forth  in 
non.  Hie  chancellor  freely  and  openly  rejoiced  at  the  council  in  order  to  bring  about  the  suppression  of 
the  pontiff's  release  and  the  imiversitv  selected  him  the  schism. 

to  congratulate  Benedict  at  Marseilles.  But  this  It  was  above  all  his  struggles  against  John  the  Fear- 
harmonv  was  not  to  last.  The  university,  again  di»-  less  that  brought  Gerson  into  umnerited  disgrace.  In 
satisfied  with  Benedict,  wished  to  renew  the  with-  Paris  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  had  before  this  provoked 
drawal  of  obedience  that  had  so  poorlv  succeeded  the  a  riotous  disturbance  against  him;  his  house  nad  been 
first  time.  D'Ailly  and  Gerson  tried  to  oppose  the  plimdered  and  he  had  only  escaped  assassination  by 
movement  both  before  and  during  the  Council  of  taking  refuge  for  two  months  up  under  the  vaulted 
Paris  in  1406,  and  strove  to  urge  upon  their  colleagues  roofs  of  Notre-Dame.  After  the  Council  of  Con- 
the  necessity  of  more  moderate  proceeding.  Alter  stance,  whilst  the  pope,  the  emperor,  and  the  fathers 
long  and  animated  discussions,  they  partially  sue-  were  returning  with  all  due  pomp  to  their  respective 
oeeded  in  obtaining  that  the  withdrawal  of  obedience  coimtries  (1418),  Gerson  learned  that  John  the  Fear- 
adopted  by  the  members  of  the  assembly  was  brought  less  had  sworn  his  destruction  and  that  the  "  nation  of 
within  certain  limits  (cf.  L.  Salembier,  ''Le  grand  Picardy"  in  the  imiversity  had  demanded  that  he  be 
Bchisme  d'Occident",  221).  disclaimed,  recalled,  and  punished  atrociter  ("  Opp.  Ger- 
D'Ailly  and  Gerson  also  formed  a  part  of  the  solemn  sonii ",  V,  374;  Denifle,  "  Chartul. ",  etc.,  IV,  300;  Max 
embassy  sent  to  Benedict  in  1407  and  tried  to  prevail  Lenz,  "  Revue  historique",  IX,  470).  TO  prevent  his 
upon  the  pope  to  resign  the  papacy  by  a  formal  Bull ;  persecutor  from  having  an  opportunity  to  destroy  him, 
but  the  pontiff  refused.  Thereupon  some  of  the  del-  he  left  Constance,  15  May,  1418,  and  with  Andr^  and 
egates  wished  openly  to  break  with  him,  but  here  Ciresio,  who  had  acted  as  his  secretaries  at  the  council, 
again  d'Aill^r  ana  Gerson  caused  more  peaceable  senti-  he  took  the  road  to  exile.  He  retired  to  the  Benedic- 
ments  to  triumph  and  laboured  to  retard  the  total  tine  Abbey  of  Melk  (Mdlk)  in  Germany,  the  abbot  of 
rupture  (L.  Salembier,  op.  cit.,  229).  Duri^  the  which  he  nad  known  at  Constance.  The  Archduke 
following  year  Gerson  attended  the  Council  of  Keims  Frederick  wished  to  gain  him  for  the  University  of 
and  delivered  the  opening  discourse.  That  same  year.  Vienna,  and  Gerson  repaired  thither  but  did  not  re- 
because  of  his  efforts  at  reconciliation,  d'Ailly  aroused  main.  Finally  in  November,  1419,  the  chancellor 
the  indignation  of  the  members  of  the  university  in-  learned  of  the  death  of  his  sworn  enemy,  John  the 
censed  against  Benedict.  The  king  espoused  their  Fearless,  who,  by  order  of  the  Dauphin,  had  been 
quarrel  and  wished  to  have  the  Bishop  of  Cambrai  slain  on  the  bridge  of  the  town  of  Montereau.  Gerson 
arrested ;  at  this  juncture  Cl^manges  and  Gerson,  his  at  once  set  out  for  France  but  did  not  return  to  Paris, 
ever^faithful  pupils,  wrote  him  touching  letters  of  which  was  torn  by  factions  and  was  still  in  the  hands 
condolence  [L.  Salembier,  "Petrus  de  Alliaco"  (1886),  of  the  Burgundians.  He  directed  his  steps  towards 
75;  Opp.  Gersonii,  III,  429].  Gerson  himself  was  Lyons,  called  thither  by  his  brother  who  was  prior  of 
soon  to  become  acquainted  with  human  vicissitudes  the  Celestines  and  by  the  archbishop,  Am^^  de 
and  to  be  persecuted  for  another  reason.  On  23  Talaru  (Schwab,  op.  cit.,  767  sqq[.).  Here  he  spent 
November,  1407,  the  Duke  of  Orleans  was  assassi-  his  last  years  in  exercises  of  devotion  and  in  perform- 
nated  in  one  of  the  streets  of  Paris  by  the  cowardly  ing  his  priestly  functions.  He  also  while  at  Lyons 
hirelings  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  With  singular  wrote  various  works,  some  of  edification,  some  on 
audacity,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  John  the  Fearless  mystical  or  pastoral  theology,  one  especially  being  his 
(Jean  sans  Peur),  assumed  the  responsibility  of  the  well-known  treatise,  "De  parvulis  ad  Christum  tra- 
deed,  pleaded  his  own  cause  before  King  Charles  VI  hendis".  Combming  example  with  precept,  he  loved 
and  chose  as  his  defending  counsel,  Jean  Petit  (8  to  surround  himself  with  little  children  in  tne  church 
March,  1408)  who  dared  openly  to  profess  the  immoral  of  Saint-Paul  and  delighted  to  teach  them  the  ele- 
theory  of  tyrannicide.  The  chancellor  deemed  it  his  ments  of  Christian  doctrine.  These  ten  years  were 
duty  to  bring  this  doctrine  before  the  Bishop  of  Paris  the  sweetest  of  his  militant  life,  and  the  regrets  of  all 
and  the  professors  of  theolo^.  The  doctors  first  good  men  followed  him  to  the  grave.  Miracles  were 
condemned  seven,  then  nine  of  Jean  Petit 's  proposi-  attributed  to  him  and  at  least  five  martyrologies  give 
tions  as  erroneous  and  scandalous  and  these  were  him  the  title  of  Blessed.  Over  fifty  particular  coim- 
thrown  into  the  fire.  Later,  in  the  Council  of  Con-  cils  and  many  ecclesiastical  writers  recommend  to 
stance,  Gerson  again  denounced  the  articles  incrimi-  pastors  ''this  great,  pious  and  learned  doctor,  this 
nated  (June,  1415),  and  repeated  the  denunciation  ardent  lover  of  souls,  this  incomparable  director,  this 
seven  times  within  fifteen  days.  The  Fathers  passed  model  of  ministers  of  the  Gospel ".  Stetues  have  been 
•entenoe  on  this  point  (6  July),  by  condemning  tyran-  raised  to  his  memory  at  Paris  and  Lyons;    in  the 


0EB80H 


532 


church  of  the  Sorbonne  his  picture  is  the  companion  to 
that  of  Boesuet. 

Views  as  to  the  ConstUution  of  the  Ckwrch:  CouncU  of 
Constance. — It  is  well  known  that  what  the  theolo- 
gians of  the  early  part  of  the  fourteenth  century 
uicked  meet,  was  a  fixed  doctrine  on  what  theologians 
to-day  call  the  Traits  de  VEglise,  Gallicamsm  was 
bom  of  the  false  principles,  or  rather  of  the  temporary 
expedients  believed  to  be  a  necessity  amid  the  unfor- 
tunate events  of  the  Great  Schism.  Extenuating  cir- 
cumstances can  be  pleaded  in  Gerson's  favour.  He 
had  been  instructed  by  men  who  were  none  too  stable, 
and  had  made  a  close  study  of  William  of  Occam,  the 
most  evil  genius  of  the  fourteenth  century.  As  we 
have  seen,  Gerson  was  generally  more  sensible  and 
moderate  in  practice  than  in  theory.  Besides,  it  is 
now  proved  that  several  treatises,  sometimes  made 
the  basis  of  an  attack  on  his  theological  doctrine,  were 
not  his  at  all  ("De  modis  uniendi;  octo  conclusiones 
c][uarum  doematizatio  utilis  videtur  ad  extermina- 
tionem  moaemi  schismatis;  Sermo  f actus  in  die 
Asoensioms  ",  1409,  etc.).  In  fadt  his  Protestant  or 
GalUcan  editors,  von  der  Hardt,  Richer,  and  Ellies- 
Dupin,  have  done  his  memory  poor  service  by  exa^ 
grating  or  envenoming  some  of  his  propositions,  it 
IS  but  too  true  that  in  regard  to  the  pope  and  the 
council,  the  chancellor  maintained  erroneous  theories 
which  were  censurable  and  later  condenmed.  In  his 
opinion  the  sovereign  pontiff  is  not  the  universal 
bishop  possessing  immeaiate  power  over  all  the  faith- 
ful; his  power  is  only  subjective  and  executive  C*  Opp. 
Gersonii  '\  II,  259,  279) .  Far  from  being  inf alhble,  he 
can  even  sometimes  faU  into  heresy,  in  which  event,  if 
he  still  remain  pope,  the  faithful  are  empowered  to 
bind  him,  imprison  him  and  even  throw  him  into 
the  sea  (Ibid.,  221;  Noel  Valois,  IV,  84).  Gerson's 
doctrine  concerning  the  general  council  is  no 
sounder.  He  admits  the  superiority  of  the  Church 
and  the  oecumenical  council  over  the  pope,  as  he  sees 
no  other  means  of  emerging  from  schism  and  returning 
to  unity.  With  him  temporary  expedients  become 
principles.  It  is  what  might  be  called  ecclesiastical 
opportunism.  Gerson  is  exclusively  rational  and 
practical,  and  the  object  of  all  his  ar^mentation  is  the 
justification  of  the  inost  extraordinary  methods  of 
procedurenn  order  to  attain  the  final  result  desired  by 
him  and  by  all  Christendom.  Hence,  according  to 
him,  the  sovereign  pontiff  is  amenable  to  the  council 
which  may  correct  and  even  depose  him  ("  Opp.  Ger'- 
sonii",  II,  201). 

Regarding  the  convocation  and  composition  of  this 
assembly  he  declares,  with  d'Ailly,  that  the  first  four 
oecumenical  councils  were  not  convened  by  the  author^ 
ity  of  the  pope,  and  that  not  only  cardinals,  but  princes, 
and  in  fact  any  Christian,  can  convoke  a  council  for  the 
election  of  a  single  and  universally  acknowledged  pope 
("De  auferibiUtate  pap®",  in  Opp.  Gersonii,  II,  209 
sqq.).  He  also  maintains  that  pastors  may  be  sum- 
moned to  such  an  assembly  and  may  have  a  deliberate 
voice  as  well  as  bishops  ("  De  potestate  ecclesiastica", 
in  ibid.,  II,  249).  None  of  the  faithful  should  be  ex- 
cluded (ibid.,  II,  205).  In  all  of  these  propositions  is 
seen,  as  it  were,  a  reflection  of  the  extreme  theses 
of  the  revolutionary  Franciscan,  William  of  Occam. 
Moreover,  Gerson's  attitude  in  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance was  in  conformity  with  his  principles.  With 
the  delegates  from'  the  University  of  Paris,  he  de- 
manded that  all  three  popes  immediately  tender  their 
resignation  (Feb. ,  14 1 5) .  A  convinced  partisan  of  the 
superiority  of  doctors  over  bishops,  he  insisted,  like 
d'Aillv,  that  the  doctors  of  canon  and  even  of  civil 
law  should  have  a  voice  in  the  deliberations  of  the 
council.  This  was  in  consequence  of  his  democratic 
tendencies  (cf.  Salembier,  Le  grand  schisme,  212, 299). 
He  exalted  to  excess  the  omnipotence  of  the  general 
council  and  pursued  Pope  John  XXIII  with  unflag- 
ging energy  (Schwab,  op.  cit.,  507;  von  der  Hardt,  it, 


265).  He  voted  for  the  four  famous  articles  of  Coik 
stance  (March,  1415)  which  are  the  code  of  Gallican- 
ism  and  pave  the  wav  for  all  the  schismatic  decisions 
of  the  assembly  of  1682.  Besides,  he  boldly  main- 
tained that  these  revolutionary  principles  were  dogmas 
and  wanted  them  carved  on  the  stone  of  all  the 
churches  (Opp.  Gersonii,  11,  275).  However  in  1416 
he  was  obli^ied  to  admit  with  sadness  that  voices  were 
still  raised  m  denial  of  the  superiority  of  the  council 
over  the  popes.  Gerson  attributed  this  "condemna- 
ble''  obstinacy  to  the  necessity  of  sycophancy,  calling 
it  "  a  deadly  poison  with  which  the  organism  of  the 
Church  is  impregnated  to  the  very  marrow"  (Ibid., 
II,  247).  It  is  because  of  these  openly  erroneous 
principles  that  Gerson^like  d'Ailly,  his  master,  passed 
for  a  precursor  of  the  Protestant  Reformation.  It  is 
also  for  this  reason  that  Protestant  writers,  such  as  A. 
Jepp  and  Winklemann,  in  Germany,  and  de  Bonne- 
chose,  in  France,  compared  him  to  Wydif  and  John 
Hus.  What  has  gone  b^ore^  however,  proves  that 
these  comparisons  do  Gerson  mjustice. 

Gerson's  Mystical  Theology  and  Oratory, — Gerson's 
mystical  theology  has  its  own  peculiar  and  original 
character;  it  is  that  of  an  eminent  and  almost  impec- 
cable master.  First  of  all  he  distinguishes  it  from 
scientific  liieology  which  is  abstract  and  discursive. 
His  mysticism  in  its  essence  is  an  experimental  knowl- 
edge of  God  which,  by  love,  one  perceives  in  himself. 
If  the  inferior  powers  remain  in  darkness,  the  superior 
faculties,  the  intellect,  and  especially  pure  love,  have 
the  freer  play,  and  therefore  constitute  a  sublime  state 
of  transport  which  surpasses  all  theoretical  learning. 
This  theolc^  does  not  require  great  scientific  attain- 
ments, it  is  within  the  reach  of  the  most  simple. 
Moreover,  through  dose  union  with  God,  it  sdves  us 
perfect  contentment  of  soul  with  the  entire  and  defini- 
tive appeasement  of  our  desires  (cf.  Schwab,  opr.  cit., 
325;  £}me&-Dupin,  "Opp.  Gersonii'',  I^  clv.)«  Uerson 
further  distinguishes  a  practical  part  m  his  mystical 
theologjr  and  la3rs  down  the  conditions  and  means 
{industrue)  preparatory  to  contemplation.  These 
indiutrus  are  as  follows:  (1)  to  await  the  call  of  God; 
(2)  to  know  well  one's  own  temperament;  (3)  to  be 
heedful  of  one's  vocation  and  one's  state;  (4)  to  aim 
constantly  towards  greater  perfection;  (5)  to  avoid  as 
much  as  possible  a  multiplicity  of  occupations  and,  in 
any  event,  not  to  become  absorbed  in  them;  (6)  to  set 
aside  all  vain  desire  for  learning,  i.  e.  all  idle  curiosity; 
(7)  to  remain  calm  and  practise  patience;  (S)  to  know 
the  origin  of  the  affections  and  passions;  (9)  to  choose 
the  necessary  time  and  place;  (lO)  to  avoid  extremes, 
either  of  abstinence  or  excess,  m  sleeping  and  eating; 
(11)  to  indulge  in  thoughts  that  excite  pious  affec- 
tions; (12)  to  banish  from  one's  mind  all  images, 
which  is  preeminently  modus  simplificandi  cor  in  rnedi" 
tationibus  and  producendi  contemplationem.  Gerson 's 
many  treatises  are  in  Vol.  Ill  of  his  works.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  to  recognize  and  proclaim  the  super- 
natural vocation  of  Joan  of  Arc.  He  laboured 
diligently  to  promote  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin 
andSt.  Joseph  and  even  dedicated  to  this  saint  a  poem 
of  4600  lines  entitled  '' Josephina".  He  was  not  the 
author  of  the  ''Imitation  of  Jesus  Christ",  and  the 
reasons  for  this  adverse  opinion  advanced  bv  Ros- 
weyde,  Amort,  Malou,  Funk,  and  Vacandara,  seem 
convincing. 

He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  orators  of  his  time 
and  preached  frequently,  either  in  French  or  Latin, 
before  the  university,  at  court,  in  the  principal 
churches  of  the  capital,  or  in  his  parish  of  Samt-Jean- 
en-Gr^ve.  It  was  in  this  parish  that  he  preached  the 
most  of  his  sermons  in  French;  these  discourses,  sixty- 
four  in  number,  have  been  specially  studio  by  the 
Abb4  Bourret,  later  Bishop  of  Rodes  and  cardinal. 
In  plan  these  instructions  are  almost  the  samcj  as 
moaem  sermons,  but  Gerson's  learning  is  often  defi- 
cient in  taste  and  judgment,  and  he  m^es  sometimes 


OSBTBUDX                            533  0SBTBI7DX 

too  pompous  a  display  of  incongruous  quotations,  towards  the  end  of  1292.    She  belonoed  to  the  noble 

From  the  point  of  view  of  doctrine  he  treats,  for  the  Thurinfijan  family  of  Hackebom  and  was  a  sister  of 

{greater  pcurt,  ethical  subjects,  and  inveighs  against  St.  Mechtild.    At  an  early  age  she  entered  the  C^ter- 

mtemperanoe  and  the  dissoluteness  of  morals.    He  cian  convent  of  Rodeisdoif ,  of  which  she  was  elected 

labours  mainly  for  reform  within,  frequently  radiorts  abbess  in  1251  when  she  was  only  nineteen  years  old. 

to  penance,  andthreatenshisflockwith  the  judgments  In  1253  she  founded,  with  the  assistance  of  her  two 

of  God,  but  does  not  leave  them  without  words  of  hope  brothers,  Albert  and  Louis,  the  convent  of  Hedersle- 

and  consolation.    His  style  is  far  from  uniform  and  ben.    Because  her  own  convent  suffered  from  want  of 

differs  according  to  his  hearers.    Cold  and  accurate  in  water  she  obtained  from  her  brothers  the  castle  of 

the  setting  forth  of  dogma,  he  most  frequently  stirs  Helpeda,  or  Helfta,  with  its  surrounding  land,  and 

the  passions  and  resorts  largely  to  allegorjr  and  word-  transferred  her  community  to  that  place  in  1258. 

painting;    his  language,   although  havms  all   the  Durine  her  rule,  the  convent  of  Helfta  became  the 

piquancy,  nalvet6,  and  originalitv  of  the  old  French'  most  uunous  abode  of  asceticism  and  mysticism  in 

chronicles,  is  always  dignified  and  becoming.  Germany.    She  rec^uired  her  nuns  to  be  educated  in 

Gerson's  works  were  published  directly  after  the  the  liberal  arts,  but  insisted  especially  on  the  study  of 

introduction  of  printing,  first  at  Cologne  in  1483  (4  Holy  Scripture.  Gertrude  was  a  model  abbess,  remark- 

vols.  in  fol.,  for  details  consult  Schwab,  op.  dt.  ad  able  for  her  piety  as  well  as  the  prudent  direction  of  her 

finem).    Both  French  editions,  the  one  by  Richer  nuns.  About  a  year  and  a  half  before  her  deatii,  the  ab- 

(Paris,  1606,  4  vols.),  the  other  by  Ellies-Dupin  (Ant-  bess  was  seized  with  apoplexy,  and  during  her  siclmess 

werp,  or  rather  Amsterdam,  1706,  5  vols,  in  fol.)  were  gave  to  all  her  nuns  an  example  of  heroic  patience  and 

prepared  under  the  influence  of  Galilean  ideas  and  resignation  to  the  wUl  of  G<xl.    The  Abbess  Gertrude 

with  a  view  to  religious  polemics.    They  were  hastily  must  not  be  oonf  oimded  with  St.  Gertrude  "  the  Great'', 

and  confusedly  compilea  without  anv  great  care  and  The  Abbess  Gertrude,  quite  in  contrast  with   St. 

contain  serious  defects.    However,  tn^  one  by  Ellies-  Gertrude  "  the  Great'',  never  wrote  an3rthing,  received 

Dupin  is  fairly  complete  and  the  first  four  volumes  ho  extraordinary  revelations  from  God,  and  has  not 

embody  over  400  of  Gerson's  treatises.    The  refer-  been  canonised.    She  was  bom  more  than  20  years 

ences  to  Gerson's  wprks  in  this  article  are  to  this  edi-  before  Gertrude  **  the  Great",  who  lived  as  an  ordmary 

tion.  nun  in  the  same  convent.                                             ' 

Beas,  Johannes  Oencn  tmd  die  kirdienpolitieehen  Parteien  St.  Hbcbtild,  lAber  epeeialia  ffraHa^  pan  V,  i,  ii,  and  the 

Frankreicha  vcr  dem  KoniU  zu  Piaa  (1800);  Boiudau  in  Revue  whole  of  para  VI;  St.  Gbbtbudb,  Leaatua  divina  grxUitBt  lib.  V, 

du  Monde  Catholique  (1881),  X,  00-80,  394-416,  627-45;  Bouzk,  e.  i.  in  the  Solesmes  edition  of  Revelatumee  Gerlrudtana  ac  Mech- 

Traetahf  de  Papa   (1870),   I-^    BouBurr,  Eaaai  hiatorique  et  tUdianm  (Pari^l875,  1877),  I.  497-517:  II,  373-390.  and  the 

crUiquie  eur  lee  eemuma  fmncata  de  Oenon  (Puis,  1858):  Fon-  Pnefatiotol:  Dunbar,  Did.  ofSainlly  Jvomen  (London.  1904), 

atax,  Diacoun  at  Acadhnie  franc  (Paris,  1838,  1843);  Jadabt,  I,  346  sq.;   Michabl,  Geach.  dea  deutach.  Volkea  aeii  dem  15. 

Jeai|  de  Oeraon,  1363-1429  (Reims.  1882);  JouBDAiif.  Doctrina  Jahrh.  (Freiburg  im  Br..  1903),  III,  175  sq. 

Jolumnia  OeraonH  de  theoiogia  myatioa  (Paris,  1838)  in  Diet.  MiCHAEL  Ott. 
scien.  jihiloe.  (1875),  616-9;  Masbon,  Jean  Oeraen,  ea  vie,  eon 

^iTs'ss:^:  '^ir-^^cii  ^^^r  t^Si^^  ^s-^ii.  •"?  »'•"•■'  ^"^y^T'  '^i,^^^ 

Apoicoia  pro  Joanne  Oeraonia  pro  auprema  Bcdeaia  H  concail  01  the  Benedictme  monastery  of  Nivelles  near  Brussels ; 

OfHif^^^.^^a***'!^^.  (Leyden.  1676);    Salbmbibb,  P«irw«  de  b.  in  626;  d.  17  March.  669.    She  was  a  daughter  of 

aon,  Profeaaor  der  Theologie  und  Kantler  der  UniveraiUU  Paria,  AbbesS  Of  Andenne.     One  day,  when  she  was  about 

erne  Monographie  (WOriibunE,  1878):  Thomasst,  Jean  Oeraon  ten  years  old,  her  father  invited  King  Dagobert  and 

frlni  ;^JiS^r^V\^)%]^^^^  «™» "oWemen  to  a  banquet.    When  on  tlS,  oc««ion 

MANN,  Oeraon,  Widefua,  Huaaua,  inter  ae  et  eum  reformataribua  she  WSS  asked  tO  many  the  SOU  Ot  the  Duke  Of  Austrasia 

eomparati  (G6ttin«en,  1857).             Louis  Saubmbier.  she  indignantlv  replied  that  she  would  marry  neither 

him  nor  any  other  man,  but  that  Christ  alone  would  be 

Oertnide  of  Aldenberg,  Blbssbd,  Abbess  of  the  her  bridegroom.    After  the  death  of  her  father  in  639, 

Premotistratensian  convent  of  Aldenberg,  near  Wets-  her  mother  Itta,  following  the  advice  of  St.  Amandus, 

lar,  in  the  Diocese  of  Trier;  b.  about  1227 ;  d.  13  August,  Bishop  of  Macstricht,  erected  a  double  monastery,  one 

1297.    She  was  the  yoimgrat  of  the  three  daughters  of  for  men,  the  other  for  women,  at  NiveUes.    She  ap- 

Louis  VI,  margrave  of  Thurmgia,  and  his  wife  St.  pointed  her  daughter  Gertrude  as  its  first  abbess,  while 

Elisabeth  of  Hungary.    Gertrude  s  father  died  on  his  ghe  herself  lived  there  as  a  nim.  assisting  the  young 

way  to  the  Holy  Land  shortly  before  she  was  born,  abbess  by  her  advice.    Among  the  numerous  pilgrims 

She  was  scarcely  two  years  old,  when  St.  Elizabeth  that  visited  the  monastery  of  Nivelles,  there  were 

brought  her  to  the  convent  of  Aldenberg,  where  she  the  two  brothers  St.  Foillan  and  St.  Ultan,  both  of 

afterwards  became  a  nun.    In  1248,  being  then  only  whom  were  Irish  monks  and  were  on  their  way  from 

twenty-one  years  old,  she  was  elected  Abbess  of  Alden-  Rome  to  Pdroime,  where  their  brother,  St.  Furseus, 

berg,  over  which  she  ruled  forty-nme  years.   With  the  i^y  buried.    Gertrude  and  her  mother  gave  them  a 

inheritance  which  she  received  from  her  uncle,  the  tract  of  land  called  Fosse  on  which  they  built  a  monaa- 

Margrave  of  Meissen,  she  erected  a  church  and  a  poor-  tery.    Ultan  was  made  superior  of  the  new  house, 

house.    She  took  personal  charge  of  the  inmates  of  while  Foillan  remained  at  Nivelles,  instructing  the 

the  poorhouse  and  led  a  life  of  extreme  mortification,  monks  and  nuns  in  Holy  Scripture.    After  the  death 

When  Urban  VI  published  a  crusade  against  the  Sara-  of  Itta  in  662,  Gertrude  entrusted  the  interior  manage- 

oens,  Gertrude  and  her  nuns  took  the  cross  and  obliged  ment  of  her  monastery  to  a  few  pious  nuns,  and  ap- 

themselves  to  contribute  their  share  to  the  success  of  pointed  some  capable  monks  to  attend  to  the  outer 

the  crusade  by  prayer  and  acts  of  mortification.    In  aflPairs,  in  order  that  she  might  gain  more  time  for  the 

1270  she  began  to  observe  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  study  of  Holy  Scripture,  which  she  ahnost  knew  by 

in  her  convent,  thus  becoming  one  of  the  first  to  intro-  heart.    The  large  property  left  by  her  mother  she  used 

duce  it  into  Germany.    Clement  VI  permitted  the  for  building  churches,  monastenes  and  hospices.    At 

ecclesiastical  celebration  of  her  feast  to  the  convent  the  age  of  thirty-two  she  became  so  weak  throu^  her 

of  Aldenberg,  and  granted  some  indulgences  to  those  continuous  abstinence  from  food  and  sleep  that  she 

who  visit  her  relics  at  that  convent.  found  it  necessary  to  resign  her  office.  After  askine  the 

fIl:"lirJ^"S^^^'^^:i'"J^S^!!^o;^  &*oS:  «dvioe  <,f  her  monk8  and  num.,  she  appointed  her  ^ece, 

1904),  1. 345  sq. ;  Kasui.  in  KirAenlex.,  b.  v.  Wulfetrude,  as  her  successor,  m  December,  668.  A  day 

Michael  Ott.  before  her  death  she  sent  one  of  the  monks  to  St. 

Ultan  at  Fosse  to  ask  whether  God  had  made  known 

Oertnide   of   Hackebom,  Cistercian  Abbess  of  to  him  the  hour  of  her  death.     Tlie  saint  answered 

Helfta,  near  Eisleboi;  b.  near  lialberstadt  in  1232;  d.  that  she  would  die  the  following  day  during  Holy 


raphy  yns  written  by  a  contemporary  monk  of  NiveUoB.    It     ulties  afl  to  render  her  insenfiible  to  what  passed  around 
jrS'^'^Tlfl^'a^^^^J^"?^^^^^  her.   She  therefore  begged,  forthe8akeofother8,_that 


OSBTBUDS                             534  OSBTBUDX 

Mass.    The  prophecy  was  verified.    She  was  vener-  mently  condemns  herself  for  past  negligence  (Legatus, 

ated  as  a  samt  immediately  after  her  death,  and  a  II,  ii),  still  to  understand  her  words  correctly  we  must 

church  was  erected  in  her  honour  by  Agnes,  the  third  remember  that  they  express  the  indignant  self-con* 

Abbess  of  Nivelles.    The  towns  of  Geertruidenberg,  demnation  of  a  soul  called  to  the  highest  sanctity. 

Breda,  and  Bergen-op-Zoom  in  North  Brabant  honour  Doubtless  her  inordinate  love  of  study  had  proved  a 

her  as  patron.    She  is  also  patron  of  travellers,  and  is  hindrance  alike  to  contemplation  and  interior  recol- 

invoked  against  fever,  rats,  and  mice,  particularly  lection,  yet  it  had  none  the  less  surely  safeguarded 

field-mice.    There  is  a  legend  that  one  day  she  sent  her  from  more  serious  and  grievous  failings.     Her 

some  of  her  subjects  to  a  distant  country,  promising  struggle  lay  in  the  conquest  of  a  sensitive  and  im- 

that  no  misfortime  would  befidl  them  on  the  journey,  petuous  natiu:e.    In  St.  Gertrude's  life  there  are  no 

When  they  were  on  the  ocean,  a  large  sea-monster  abrupt  phases,  no  sudden  conversion  from  sin  to  holi- 

threatenea  to  capsize  their  ship,  h}it  disappearedupon  ness.    She  passed  from  innocence  to  sanctity  almost 

the  invocation  of  St.  Gertrude.    In  memory  of  this  unconsciously,  and  as  naturally  as  she  had  passed 

occurrence  travellers  during  the  Middle  Ages  drank  from  the  alumnate  to  the  conmnmity.     Outwardly 

the  so-called  "Sinte  Geerts  Minne"  or^'Gertruden-  her  life  was  that  of  the  simple  Benedictine  nun,  of 

minne"  before  setting  out  on  their  journey.    St.  which  she  stands  forth  preenunently  as  the  type.   Her 

Gertrude  is  generally  represented  as  an  abbess,  with  boundless  charity  embraced  rich  and  poor,  learned 

rats  and  mice  at  her  feet  or  running  up  her  cloak  or  and  simple,  the  monarch  on  his  throne  and  the  peasant 

pastoral  staff.  in  the  neld  ;  it  was  manifested  in  tender  sympathy 

Dunbar,  A  Diaionary  of  SainUy  TTom^n  (London.  1904).  I,  towards  the  souls  in  purgatory,  in  a  great  yearning  for 

^^^'^^^^f^trHS^t^u'JJ^'^^'^S^Vi^:  the  oonvenion  of  fners.  and  in  a  vehement  ^ 

8.  v.;    Bbrnoulli.  Die  HeUipen  der  Merowinger  (Tttbingen.  for  the  perfection  of  SOUls  consecrated  tO  God.     Her 

1900),  197-9;  Ada  S8.,  March,  II,  590-602;  mabiixon.  Ada  humility  was  SO  profoimd  that  she  wondered  how  the 

n-^t;l',?^.bl]'ot'l:f^^^^S^!^'JtrSS!^t:^i  ^  could  -wPPOrt  so  einful  a  creature  «  her«.lf. 

du  manasUre  de  Nivdlea  (BruaaeU,  1867).    Her  eariiest  biog-  Her  raptures  were  frequent  and  SO  absorbed  her  fao- 

"  It      "  "  . 

>N, 

loc.  cit.    In  1888  it  was  re-edited  by  Kbubch  in  Mon.  Germ,  ^.              .  ,  ^    •              — ^        j            .i.    x  a*           >  ^r 

Hist.  Mermnng-,  II.  there  might  be  np  outward  manifestations  of  the 

Michael  Ott.  spiritual  wonders  with  which  her  life  was  filled.    She 

had  the  gift  of  miracles  as  well  as  that  of  prophecy. 

Gertrade  the  Great,  Saint,  Benedictine  and  mystic  When  the  call  came  for  her  spirit  to  leave  tne  worn 
writer:  b.  in  Germany,  6  Jan.,  1256;  d.  at  Helfta,  and  pain-stricken  body,  Gertrude  was  in  her  fortv- 
near  Eisleben,  Saxony,  17  Nov.,  1301  or  1302.  Noth-  fifth  or  forty-sixth  year,  and  had  in  turn  assisted  at  tne 
ing  is  known  of  her  family,  not  even  the  name  of  death-bed  and  mourned  for  the  loss  of  the  holy  SiiSter 
her  parents.  It  is  clear  from  her  life  (Legatus,  lib.  I,  Mechtilde  (1281),  her  illustrious  Abbess  Gertrude  of 
xvi)  that  she  was  not  bom  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hackebom  (1291),  and  her  chosen  guide  and  confix 
Eisleben.  When  she  was  but  five  years  of  age  she  dante,  St.  Mechtilde  (1298).  When  the  community 
entered  the  alumnate  of  Helfta.  The  monastery  was  was  transferred  in  1346  to  the  monastery  of  New 
at  that  time  governed  by  the  saintly  and  enlightened  Helfta,  the  present  Trud-Kloster,  within  the  waUs  of 
Abbess  Gertrude  of  Hackebom,  under  whose  rule  it  Eisleben,  they  still  retained  possession  of  their  old 
prospered  exceedingly,  both  in  monastic  observance  home,  where  doubtless  the  booies  of  St.  Gertrude  and 
and  m  that  intellectual  activity  which  St.  Lioba  and  St.  Mechtilde  still  lie  buried,  though  their  place  of 
her  Anglo-Saxon  nuns  had  transmitted  to  their  foimda-  sepulture  remains  imknown.  There  is,  at  least,  no 
tions  in  Germany.  All  that  could  aid  to  sanctity,  or  record  of  their  translation.  Old  Helfta  is  now  crown- 
favour  contemplation  and  learning,  was  to  be  f oimd  in  property,  while  New  Helfta  has  lately  passed  into  the 
this  hallowed  spot.  Here,  too,  as  the  centre  of  all  its  nands  of  the  local  municipalit^r.  It  was  not  till  1677 
activity  and  the  impetus  of  its  life,  the  work  of  works  that  the  name  of  Gertrude  was  inscribed  in  the  Roman 
— ^the  Opus  Dei,  as  St.  Benedict  terms  the  Divine  Mutyrology  and  her  feast  was  extended  to  the  uni- 
Office — was  solemnly  carried  out.  Such  was  Helfta  versa!  Church,  which  now  keeps  it  on  15  November, 
when  its  portals  opened  to  receive  the  child  destined  to  although  it  was  at  first  fixed  for  17  November,  the  day 
be  its  brightest  glory.  Gertrude  was  confided  to  the  of  her  death,  on  which  it  is  still  celebrated  by  her  own 
care  of  St.  Mechtilde,  mistress  of  the  alumnate  and  order.  In  compliance  with  a  petition  from  the  King 
sister  of  the  Abbess  Gertrude.  From  the  first  she  had  of  Spain  she  was  declared  Patroness  of  the  West  Indies: 
the  gift  of  winning  hearts,  and  her  biographer  gives  in  Peru  her  feast  is  celebrated  with  great  pomp,  and 
many  detailsof  her  exceptional  charms,  whicn  matured  in  New  Mexico  a  town  was  built  in  her  honour  and 
with  advancing  vears.  Thus  early  had  been  formed  bears  her  name.  Some  writers  of  recent  times  have 
between  Gertmde  and  Mechtilde  the  bond  of  an  inti-  considered  that  St.  Gertmde  was  a  Cistercian,  but  a 
macy  which  deepened  and  strengthened  with  time,  careful  and  impartial  examination  of  the  evidence  at 
and  gave  the  latter  saint  a  preponderating  influence  present  available  does  not  justify  this  conclusion.  It 
over  the  former.  is  well  known  that  the  Cistercian  Reform  left  its  mark 

Partly  in  the  alumnate,  partly  in  the  community,  on  many  houses  not  affiliated  to  the  order,  and  the 

Gertrude  had  devoted  herself  to  study  with  the  great-  fact  that  Helfta  was  founded  during  the  "golden  age'' 

est  ardour.    In  her  twenty-sixth   year  there  was  of  Ctteaux  (1134-1342)  is  sufficient  to  account  for  uiia 

granted  her  the  first  of  that  series  of  visions  of  which  impression. 

the  wonderful  sequence  ended  onl}r  with  life.  She  now  Many  of  the  writings  of  St.  Gertrude  have  unfortu- 
gauged  in  its  fullest  exient  the  void  of  which  she  had  nately  perished.  Those  now  extant  are: — (1)  The 
been  keenly  sensible  for  some  time  past,  and  with  this  "  Legatus  Divinse  Pietatis";  (2)  The  ''  Exercises  of  St 
'  awakening  came  the  realization  of  tne  utter  emptiness  Gertmde";  (3)  The  "Liber  Specialis  Gratiae"  of  St. 
of  all  transitory  things.  With  characteristic  ardour  Mechtilde.  The  works  of  St.  Gertmde  were  all  writ- 
she  cultivated  the  highest  spirituality,  and,  to  quote  ten  in  Latin,  which  she  used  with  facilitv  and  grace, 
her  biographer,  "from  being  a  grammarian  became  The  "Legatus  Divinse  Pietatis"(Herald  of  Divine  Love) 
a  theologian",  abandoning  profane  studies  for  the  comprises  five  books  containing  the  life  of  St.  Ger- 
Scriptures,  patristic  writings,  and  treatises  on  theol-  tmde,  and  recording  many  of  the  favours  granted  her 
ogy.  To  these  she  brought  the  same  earnestness  which  by  God.  Bk.  II  alone  is  the  wor)E  of  the  saint,  the 
had  characterized  her  former  studies,  and  with  inde-  rest  being  compiled  by  members  of  the  Helfta  com- 
fatigable  zeal  copied,  translated,  and  wrote  for  the  munity.  In  the  "Exercises"  we  have  the  saint  at  her 
SDintual  benefit  of  others.    Although  Gertmde  vehe-  best.    They  were  written  for  her  Sisters  in  religicMiy 


OSBTBUDX 


535 


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and  we  feel  she  has  here  a  free  hand  unhampered  by 
the  deep  humility  which  made  it  so  repugnant  for  her 
to  disclose  favours  personal  to  herself.  The  ''Exer- 
cises", which  are  seven  in  number,  embrace  the  work 
of  the  purification  and  sanctification  of  the  soul  from 
the  reception  of  baptismal  grace  to  the  preparation  for 
death.  Her  glowing  language  deeply  impre|;nated 
with  the  liturgy  and  Scriptures  exalts  the  soul  imper- 
ceptibly to  the  heights  of  contemplation.  When  the 
''Legatus  Divinse  Pietatis"  is  compared  with  the 
"  Liber  Specialis  Gratiae"  of  St.  Mechtilde,  it  is  evident 
that  Gertrude  is  the  chief,  if  not  the  only,  author  of  the 
latter  book.  Her  writings  are  also  coloured  by  the 
Rowing  richness  of  that  Teutonic  genius  which  loimd 
its  most  congenial  expression  in  symbolism  and  alle- 
gory. The  spirit  of  St.  Gertrude,  which  is  marked  by 
freeidom,  breadth,  and  vi^ur,  is  based  on  the  Rule  of 
St.  Benedict.  Her  mysticism  is  that  of  all  the  great 
^contemplative  workers  of  the  Benedictine  Order  from 
St.  Gregory  to  Blosius.  Hers,  in  a  word,  is  that 
ancient  Benedictine  spirituality  which  is  simply  the 
spirit  of  the  Church  and  which  Father  Faber  has  so 
well  depicted  (All  for  Jesus,  viii). 

Thecnaractenstic  of  St.  Gertrude's'piety  is  her  devo- 
tion to  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  symbol  of  that  immense 
charity  which  urged  the  Word  to  take  flesh,  to  in- 
stitute the  Holy  Eucharist,  to  take  on  Himself  our 
sins,  and,  dying  on  the  Cross,  to  offer  Himself  as  a 
victim  and  a  sacrifice  to  the  Eternal  Father  (Congp- 
gation  of  Rites,  3  April,  1825) .  Faithful  to  the  mission 
entrusted  to  them,  the  superiors  of  Helfta  appointed 
renowned  theologians,  chosen  from  the  Dominican 
and  Franciscan  mars,  to  examine  the  works  of  the 
saint.  These  approved  and  commended  them  through- 
out. In  the  sixteenth  century  Lanspergius  and  Blo- 
sius propagated  her  writings.  The  former,  who  with 
his  confrdre  Loher  spared  no  pains  in  editing  her 
works,  also  wrote  a  preface  to  them.  The  writings 
were  warmly  received  especially  in  Spain,  and  among 
the  long  list  of  holv  and  learned  authorities  who  used 
and  recommended  her  works  may  be  mentioned: 
St.  Teresa,  who  chose  her  as  her  model  and  guide, 
Yepez,  the  illustrious  Suarez,  the  Discalced  Carmelite 
Friars  of  France,  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  M.  Olier,  Fr. 
Faber,  Dom  Gu^ranger.  The  Church  has  inserted  the 
name  of  Gertrude  in  the  Roman  Martyrology  with  this 
eulogv:  "On  the  17th  of  November,  in  Germany  (the 
Feast)  of  St.  Gertrude  Virgin,  of  the  Order  of  St.  Bene- 
dict, who  was  illustrious  for  the  gift  of  revelations.'' 

Lxie  of  St.  Gertrude  the  Great  (C.  T.  8.,  London);  db  Vere  in 
The  Month,  1865.  III.  221;  Cath,  World,  1865.  II,  405:  Leoatua 
Divinee  Pietatist  passim  in  KevdcUionea  Gertrudiana  ac  Mechtildir 
anoB.  I  (Poitiers,  1875).  Passim  in  St.  Mbchtilde.  Liber  Spe^ 
cicdxe  Gratia:  Rivilatiane  de  Ste  Gertrude  (Paris,  1906);  Lbdos, 
Ste  Gertrude  (Paris,  1007) ;  Kaulbn  in  Kirchenlex,,  s.  v.; 
PreobBi  Geech.  deutach.  Myetik  im  Mittelalt.  (Leipsis,  1893); 
ZiEaBLBAUER,  Hist.  Lit.  Bened.  (Vienna,  1754)^  Michabx<, 
ZeUachr.  kaih.  Theol.  (XXIII.  1899):  Geseh.  deutach.  Volkea  im 
MittdaUer  (Freiburg,  1899),  II;  Guebanobr,  Annie  lituraiouet 
le  tempa  apria  la  PerUecdtet  t.  YI;  Eng.  tr.  LUurgical  Year,  VI. 

Gertrudb  Casanova. 

Gertmde  van  der  Oosten,  Venerable,  Beguine; 
b.  at  Voorburch,  Holland;  d.  at  Delft,  6  Jan.,  1358. 
She  was  bom  of  peasant  parents,  and  was  remarkable 
from  childhood  for  her  piety  and  prudence.  Later,  in 
order  to  gain  a  livelihood,  she  entered  into  service  at 
Delft,  where  she  likewise  devoted  herself  to  practices 
of  piety  and  charity.  Her  surname  of  "  van  Oosten", 
or  "of  the  East",  is  due  to  her  custom  of  singing  a 
hymn  which  began:  " Het  daghet  iivden  Oosten  ,  i.e., 
"Day  breaketh  in  the  East",  the  composition  of  which 
is  attributed  to  herself.  She  lived  devoutly*  in  the 
world,  spending  much  time  in  exercises  of  piety  and 
works  or  charity,  and  finally  determined  to  abandon 
all  human  ties  and  give  herself  to  the  service  of  God. 
With  this  intent  she  begged,  and  with  difficulty  ob- 
tained, entrance  into  theBeguinage  of  Delft.  Here, 
though  not  a  religious,  nor  bound  by  vows,  she  profited 
by  the  ample  opportunities  aif ordea  for  the  exercise  of 


her  zeal  and  charity,  as  well  as  by  the  atmosphere  of 
prayer  and  seclusion,  to  attain  to  a  very  high  degree  of 
virtue  and  contemplation.  Gertrude  evinced  great  de- 
votion to  the  m3rsteries  of  the  Incarnation,  especially 
to  llie  Sacred  Passion,  on  which  account  she  merited 
to  receive  on  her  body  the  impression  of  the  sacred 
stigmata,  from  which  the  blocni  flowed  freely  seven 
times  a  day  at  each  of  the  canonical  hours.  Dis- 
tressed and  alarmed  at  the  multitude  that  flocked  to 
witness  such  a  wonder,  she  begged  that  the  favour 
might  be  withdrawn,  and  her  prayer  was  so  far 
granted  that  the  blood  ceased  to  flow,  but  the  marks 
of  the  sacred  stigmata  remained.  At  the  same  time 
the  great  spiritual  consolation  she  had  enjoyed  was 
succeeded  by  dryness  and  desolation.  Gertrude  was 
favoured  with  the  gift  of  prophecy,  having  knowledge, 
at  the  actual  time,  of  what  took  place  at  a  distance  as 
well  as  of  what  was  to  happen  in  the  future. 

At  length,  after  many  years  passed  among  the  Be- 
guines  in  great  fervour,  austerity,  and  devotion,  the 
time  of  her  death  approached.  She  had  been  wont  to 
speak  with  great  delight  of  this  day,  to  meditate  on  it 
devoutly,  and  even  to  make  it  a  subject  of  her  frequent 
son^.  She  died  on  the  feast  of  the  Epiphanv  and  was 
buned  in  the  church  of  St.  Hippol3rtus,  Delft,  the  Be- 
guines  having  neither  a  church  nor  a  cemetery  of  their 
own  at  the  time.  Her  name  has  never  been  inscribed 
in  the  Roman  Martyrology,  though  she  is  commemo- 
rated in  various  others,  and  her  cultus  is  merely  a  local 
one.  Her  private  dwelling  is  still  preserved  with  ven- 
eration, and  the  cross  before  which  she  received  the 
stigmata  is  annually  exposed  on  the  anniversary  of  her 

death. 

Acta  SS.,  Jan.,  I;  Kebsbl  in  Kirchenlex.,  a.  v.;  Suiuxtb,  Vita 
SS.,  I;  MS.  9304  of  the  emperor's  private  library •  Vienna. 

Gertrude  Casanova. 

Gervaise,  Dom  Fran(:oxs  Armand,  Discalced  Car- 
melite, b.  at  Paris,  1660;  d.  at  Reclus,  France,  1761. 
After  completing  his  humanities  with  brilliant  success, 
he  joined  the  Discalced  Carmelites,  and  having  been 
nominated  prior  of  a  convent,  he  chanced  to  meet 
Bossuet,  who  recocnized  in  him  a  fervent  reli^ous,  a 
learned  writer,  and  an  eloquent  orator.  Anxious  to 
embrace  a  more  austere  life,  he  entered  La  Trappe  in 
1695,  where  he  became  the  privileged  disciple  of  the 
Abb^  de  Ranc^^and  made  his  profession  in  1696.  In 
the  same  year  Dom  2i0zime,  who  had  succeeded  the 
Abb6  de  Ranc6  after  his  resignation,  died  after  a  few 
months  of  administration,  and  de  Ranc^  then  asked 
the  king,  with  the  pressing  recommendation  of  Bos- 
suet, for  Dom  Gervaise  as  nis  second  successor. 

Dom  Gervaise  had  given  unequivocal  proofs  of  his 
religious  spirit  and  his  eloquence ;  these  qualifications 
led  to  the  nope  that  his  appointment  would  be  of  the 
greatest  advantage  to  the  reform,  and  consequently 
on  20  October,  1696,  he  received  the  abbatial  blessing. 
But  his  turbulent  administration,  which  in  several 
points  was  opposed  to  that  of  the  Abh6  de  Ranc^,  soon 
procured  for  him  numerous  enemies  who  to  well- 
founded  accusations  added  some  that  were  baseless. 
Dom  Gervaise  yielded  before  the  storm  and  tendered 
his  resignation  in  1698.  Soon,  however,  he  regretted 
this  step  and  tried  to  withdraw  his  resignation,  but 
without  success.  Under  the  abbot  chosen  to  fill  his 
place  he  left  La  Trappe  and  began  his  wandering  life 
from  monastery  to  monastery,  exercising  to  good  pur- 
pose his  talent  as  a  writer.  His  style  is  always  well- 
turned  and  flowing,  but  he  is  reproached  for  being 
sometimes  wanting  both  in  exactitade  as  to  his  infor- 
mation and  in  polemical  moderation. 

We  shall  mention  only  a  few  of  his  works:  the  lives 
of  sevefal  Fathers  of  the  Church  and  ecclesiastical 
writers ;  the  life  of  Ab61ard ;  the  life  of  Abbot  Joachim, 
Prophet;  the  life  of  Suger;  a  criticism  on  Marsolier's 
*'Lite  of  the  Abb6  de  Ranc6",  in  which  he  makes  his  own 
apology;  finally,  the  history  of  the  Reform  of  Ctteaux 
in  France,  a  work  in  which  he  does  not  treat  with  suffi- 


0SBVA8X 


536 


0SBVA8X 


cient  oonaideration  the  superiors  of  the  order,  and 
which  caused  his  final  disgrace.  He  was  obliged  to 
interrui)t  its  publication,  and  was  banished  bv  order 
of  the  king  to  the  monastery  of  the  Redus,  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Troyes,  where  he  died.  Until  the  end  of  his 
life  he  remained  faithful  to  the  austerities  of  the  life  of 
La  Trappe,  observing  in  all  its  rigour  the  rule  he  had 
embraced. 

MiCHAUD,  Biogrqphie  univenelle;  Hurtbb,  NomeruicUor 
(Innsbruck,  1883);  Dubois.  Hiatoirt  de  VatM  de  RancS  (PariB, 
ISM);  QAiJAj\w>is,HuUnre  de  La  TVappe  (Paris.  1844):  Lb 
Nain.  Vie  du  Riv.  Pkre  D.  Armand  Jean  Le  BmUUlier  de  Ranoi 
(Paris,  1715);  Chatbaubbiano,  Vie  de  Ranoi  (Paris.  1844). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Gervase  (Jervis),  George,  priest  and  martyr;  b. 
at  Boscham,  Suffolk,  England,  1571 ;  d.  at  Tyburn,  11 
April,  1608.  His  mother's  name  was  Shelly,  and  both 
his  father's  and  mother's  families  had  been  lone 
established  in  the  County  of  Suffolk.  Losing  both 
parents  in  boyhood,  he  was  kidnapped  by  pirates  and 
carried  off  beyond  seas,  remaining  in  captivity  over 
twelve  years.  He  lost  his  religion  during  that  period ; 
but,  when  at  last  he  was  able  to  return  to  England, 
and,  found  that  his  eldest  brother  Henrv  had  become  a 
volimtary  exile  in  Flanders  in  order  to  be  able  to  prac- 
tise his  reli^on,  George  followed  him  there  and  was 
soon  reconcUed  to  the  Church.  He  entered  ^e  Eng- 
lish College  at  Douai  in  1595,  and  was  ordained  priest 
in  1603.  He  at  once  went  on  the  English  mission. 
He  laboured  very  successfully  for  over  two  years,  but 
was  arrested  in  «fune,  1606,  and  banished  with  several 
other  clergy.  He  then  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome, 
and  there  endeavoured  to  enter  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
but,  not  being  admitted  for  some  unknown  reason,  he 
returned  to  Douai,  where  he  received  the  Benedictine 
habit.  His  brother  Henry  had  obtained  for  him  a 
comfortable  living  near  Lille,  being  anxious  to  pre- 
serve him  from  the  persecution  then  raging  in  £jng- 
land.  But  Georgid  was  determined  to  labour  for  the 
conversion  of  his  native  land,  and  succecKled  in  return- 
ing safely  to  England,  but  was  soon  arrest^  and  incar- 
cerated. Refusmg  to  take  the  new  oath  of  allegiance 
on  account  of  ite  infringing  upon  spiritual  mat- 
ters where  Catholics  were  concerned,  ne  was  tried, 
convicted  of  the  offence  of  merely  being  a  priest,  under 
the  statute  of  27  Elizabeth,  and  was  handed,  drawn, 
and  quartered  at  Tyburn.  Some  authorities  say  that 
he  did  not  receive  the  Benedictine  habit  until  a  short 
time  before  his  death  from  Father  Augustine  Brad- 
shaw. 

GxiJiOW,  BibL  Diet.  Eng.  Cath,,  a.  v.;  Challonbb,  Memoin, 
II;  Snow,  Benedictine  Necrology. 

C.  F.  Wemtsb  Brown. 

Oervase  of  Oanterbory  (Gervas  vb  Dorobor- 
nensib),  English  chronicler,  b.  about  1141;  d.  in.  or 
soon  after,  1210.  If  his  brother  Thomas,  who  like 
himself  was  a  monk  of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury,  was 
identical  with  Thomas  of  Maidstone,  they  came  of  a 
Kentish  family.  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury  received 
his  religious  profession  on  16  Feb.,  1163,  and  also 
ordained  him.  He  was  one  of  the  monks  who  buried 
the  saint  after  his  martyrdom,  29  Dec.,  1170.  Later 
on  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  disputes  between 
the  monks  and  Archbishop  Baldwin  (1185-91)  and 
was  one  of  the  monks  sent  to  announce  to  the  arch- 
bishop an  appeal  to  the  pope.  In  1189  he  was  again 
one  ot  a  deputation  sent  to  lay  the  matter  before  King 
Richard  I.  As  yet,  Gervase,  though  one  of  the  senior 
monks,  had  held  no  prominent  office,  but  about  this 
time  he  was  made  sacristan,  for  in  1193  he  attended 
the  new  archbishop,  Hubert  Walter,  in  that  capacity. 
He  probably  ceased  to  hold  this  office  in  1 197  when  he 
speaks  of  one  Felix,  as  sacristan.  The  rest  of  his  life 
is  obscure.  He.  was  still  writing  in  1 199  and  there  are 
slight  indications  in  another  chronicle,  the  "Gesta 
Reeum",  that  he  continued  to  write  till  1210,  when  a 
suclden  change  in  style  and  arrangement  point  to  a 


new  chronicler.  His  death  may  therefore  be  assumed 
in  or  soon  after  that  year.  Gervase  has  occasionally 
been  confused  with  others  of  the  same  name,  notably 
with  Gervase  of  S.  Ceneri,  and  thus  he  is  described  as 

Sriori  of  Dover  by  Dom  Brial  (Recueil  des  Historiena 
e  France,  XVII,  1818),  which  is  imDossible  on 
chronological  grounds.  Sir  Thomas  Hardy  identifies 
him  with  Gervase  of  Chichester,  but  Dr.  Stubbs  shows 
good  reasons  against  this  theory,  as  also  against 
confusing  him  with  Gervase  of  Melkeley. 

The  works  of  Gervase  consist  of:  (1)  "The  Chroni* 
de",  covering  the  period  from  1100  to  1199.  It 
was  first  printed  by  Twysden  in  "Historia  An^- 
cans  Scnptores  Decem'^  (London,  1652).  (2)  Iiie 
"Gesta  Regum",  which  is  in  part  an  abridgment 
of  the  earuer  chronicle,  and  from  the  year  1199 
an  independent  source  of  great  value  for  the  early 
years  ot  John's  reign.  (3)  "Actus  Pontificum  Can- 
tuariensis  Ecclesiss  ,  a  history  of  the  archbishops  of 
Canterbury  to  the  death  of  Hubert  Walter  in  1205, 
also  printed  by  Twysden  with  the  chronicle.  (4) 
"Mappa  Mundi",  a  topographical  work  with  lists  of 
bishoprics  and  ecclesiastical  foundations  in  the  various 
coimties  of  England,  Wales,  and  part  of  Scotland. 
The  works  of  (^rvase  were  published  in  th^  "Rolls 
Series"  in  1879-80  under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  Stubbs. 
whose  introduction  has  been  the  groundwork  of  all 
subsequent  accoimts  of  Gervase. 

Stubbs,  Hietorieal  Worka  of  Oervaee  of  Canierburv  In  RotU 
Seriee  (2  voU.,  London.  1870--80);  Habdy,  Descriptive  Cata^ 
Icgue  (London.  1862-71);  Wasnxb  in  The  Academy,  XVIII, 
109^  XX,  250-1  (1880-81):  Pooub  In  Diet.  Nat.  Bxog.  (ram- 
manzing  Stubbs),  s.  v.;  C^byauxr,  Bio4nJbl.,  s.  v.  Geroaia^ 
giving  iist  of  souroes. 

Edwin  Bxtbtok. 

Oervase  of  Tilbnrjr  (Tilberienbis),  medieval 
writer,  b.  pmbablv  at  Tilbuiy,  in  the  County  of  Essex, 
En^and,  about  1150;  d.  at  Arlington,  about  1220. 
He  IS  supposed  to  have  been  related  to  Engllish  royalty. 
During  nis  youth  he  entered  the  service  of  Henry  of 
Guienne,  later  he  travelled  in  many  parts  of  Europe, 
for  a  time  studied  canon  law  at  Bolosna,  where  for  a 
brief  period  he  also  taught,  and  was  sJterwards  at  the 
court  of  King  William  II  of  Sicilv  till  1189.  Upon  the 
death  of  King  William  he  settled  permanently  m  Aries 
and  was  appointed  Marshal  of  the  Kingdom  of  Ariea 
in  1198  by^  King  Otto  IV;  in  virtue  of  this  office  he 
accompamed  t^e  king  to  Rome  in  1209  on  the  occasion 
of  his  coronation  as  emperor.  During  the  years  1210* 
1214  he  composed  the  "Otia  impenalia'' for  the  in* 
struction  and  entertainment  of  the  emperor,  who  waa 
excommunicated  by  the  pope  in  the  latter  part  of 
1210,  and  in  1214,  after  nis  defeat  at  the  battle  of 
Bouvines.  was  forced  to  retire  to  tiie  princip^ity  of 
Brunswick.  This  work  was  also  entitled  "Liber  de 
mirabilibus  mundi",  " Solatia imperatoris", and  "De- 
scriptio  totius  orbis ' '.  It  was  divided  into  three  parts, 
and  contained  all  facts  then  known  concerning  his- 
toiy»  geography,  and  physics.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  mucn  read  and  was  twice  translated  into 
French  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Opinions  differ  in 
modem  times  concerning  its  value.  Leibniz  calls  it  a 
I'  bagful  of  foolish  old  woman's  tales";  while  by  others 
it  is  considered  very  important  since  in  it  this  medieval 
teacher  of  jurisprudence  reco^izes  the  correctness  of 
the  papal  claims  in  the  conflict  between  Ghurdi  and 
Empire. 

Leibniz  edited  it  (1744)  in  his  "Scnptores  rerum 
Brunsvicensium"  (I,  881-1004)  with  variants  from 
four  Parisian  manuscripts  and  a  supplement  (II,  751- 
784).  Its  account  of  the  Prankish  and  Endish  kings 
is  included  by  Duchesne  in  his  "  Historise  Francorum 
scriptores  cosetanei"  (I,  19;  III,  363-74).  Mader 
edited  the  same  portion  in  his  "  De  Imperio  Romano 
et  Gothorum,  Lan^bardorum,  Brittonum,  Francorum 
Anelonimque  regniscommentatio"  (Helmstadt,  1673). 
Liebrecht  edited  a  number  of  geographical  and  physi- 


OEBVASIUS  537  QlBY 

eal  exoeipts  from  it  (Hanover,  1856).  The  references  spread  in  Italyi  and  churches  were  built  in  their 
to  Virgil  were  published  by  Spatzier  [Altengllische  honour  at  Pavia,  Nola,  etc.  In  Gaul  we  find  chim;hes 
,M&rchen  (Brunswick,  1830),  I,  89-92].  Many  of  the  dedicated  to  them,  about  400,  at  Mans,  Rouen,  and 
writings  of  Gervase  have  perished.  He  was  for-  Soissons.  At  the  Louvre  there  is  now  a  famous 
merly  reputed  to  be  the  author  of  the  "  Antiquus  picture  of  the  saints  by  Lesueur  (d.  1655),  which  was 
dialogus  de  scaccario",  but  many  critics  now  ascribe  formerly  in  their  church  at  Paris.  According  to  the 
the  work  to  another  writer.  "Liber  Pontificalis",  Innocent  I  (402-417)  dedicated 

Pauu  akd  Ldbbbbmann  in  Man.  Oerm,  Hiat.:   Scri^.,    a  church  to  them  at  Rome.    Later,  the  name  of  St. 
SCVII,  362;  PoTTHABT.  Biblioiheea  hiatcriea  medii  »w.  1, 507;     Vitalis,  their  father,  was  added  to  the  title.    Very 

WATTBNBACH,  DeutachUmda  Oe$ehiehUqudlm  (8th  ed.,  Berlin,      po-lv  thpir  TiAmPd  wpt*»  insprtnH  in  iht»  T.ifonir  nf  f>i« 

1893),  848-86;  Htmr  in  DicL  Nat.  BioQ.,  s.  v.  For  extract*  ^^'^  tnejT  names  were  inseriea  m  tne  litany  oi  tne 
from  the  Otia  m6  J.  Stbvbnbon,  RaduLvhi  de  CogmKaU  Chroni-  Samts.  The  whole  history  of  these  samts  has  re- 
con  in  RoUa  Series  (London,  1875),  419-49.  oeived  a  great  deal  of  adverse  criticism.    Some  deny 

Patricius  Schlager.        their  existence,  and  make  them  a  Christianized  version 

of  the  Dioscuri  of  the  Romans.    Thus  Harris,  "The 

Oervasinfl  and   ProtaainBf  Saints,  martyrs   of    Dioscuri  in  Christian  Legend",  but  see  "Analects 
Milan,  probably  in  the  second  century,  patrons  of  the     Boll."  (1904),  XXIII,  427. 

city  of  Milan  and  of  haymakers:  invoked  for  the  dis-        Srons  in  DieL  Chriai.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Kribo  in  KirOienUx.,  a, 

oovery  of  thieves.    Feast,  in  the  Latin  Church,  19  ▼•;  Bvtlmr,  Lives  of  the  Saints  ii9  June). 
June,  the  day  of  the  translation  of  the  relics;  in  the  Francis  Mershman. 

Greek  Church,  14  Oct.,  the  supposed  day  of  their 

death.  Emblems:  scourge,  club,  sword. — ^The  Acts  CMry  (Lat.G auoericub), Saint,  Bishop  of  Cambrai- 
(Acta  SS.,  June,  IV,  680  and  29)  were  perhaps  com-  Arras;  b.  of  Romah  parents,  Gaudentius  and  Austadi- 
piled  from  a  letter  (Ep.  liii)  to  the  bishops  of  Italy,  ola,  at  Eposiiun  (Yvois,  Caiignan),  France,  about  the  ' 
falsely  ascribed  to  St.  Ambrose,  lliey  are  written  m  middle  of  the  sixth  century;  d.  1 1  August,  between  623 
a  very  simple  style,  but  it  has  been  found  impossible  and  626.  The  Diocese  of  Cambrai-Arras  is  of  recent  date 
to  establish  their  age.  According  to  these,  Gervasius  compared  with  the  more  ancient  see  of  Belgium,  Tong- 
and  Protasius  were  twins,  children  of  martyrs.  Their  res,  which  dates  from  the  fourth  century.  The  territory, 
father  Vitalis,  a  man  of  consular  dignity,  suJBTered  which  comprised  the  Diocese  of  Cambrai-Arras,  like  that 
martyrdom  at  Ravenna  under  Nero  (?).  The  mother  of  Toumai  and  T^rouanne,  probably  contained  Chris- 
Valeria  died  for  her  faith  at  Milan.  The  sons  are  said  tians  before  the  date  of  the  ai)pearance  of  its  first 
to  have  been  scouraed  and  then  beheaded,  during  the  known  bishop,  St.  Vaast,  but  their  spiritual  head  must 
reign  of  Nero,  under  the  presidency  of  Anubinus  or  have  resided  at  Reims.  The  great  barbarian  invasicm 
Astasius,  and  while  Cajus  was  Bishop  of  Milan.  Some  of  406  completely  overthrew  the  ecclesiastical  organ- 
authors  place  the  martyrdom  under  Diocletian,  while  isation,  but  from  the  beginning  of  the  Merovingian 
others  object  to  this  time,  because  they  fail  to  under-  period  the  Church  began  to  recover,  the  Diocese  of 
stand  how,  in  that  case,  the  place  of  burial,  and  even  Arras  especially  beine  restored  by  St.  Vaast  about  the 
the  names,  could  be  forgotten  by  the  time  of  St.  Am-  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  G^ry  was  one  of  his 
brose,  as  is  stated.  De  Rossi  places  their  death  before  earliest  successors.  From  his  youth  U^ry  led  a  pious 
Diocletian.  It  probably  occurred  during  the  reign  and  devout  life,  and  already  all  things  combined  to 
of  Antoninus  (161-168).  prepare  him  for  the  career  of  zeal  and  devotion  which 

St.  Ambrose,  in  386,  had  built  a  magnificent  basilica  ne  was  to  embrace  later  on.    During  one  of  his  epi»- 

at  Milan.    Asked  by  the  people  to  consecrate  it  in  the  copal  visitations,  St.  Magneric,  Bishop  of  Trier,  was 

same  solemn  manner  as  was  done  in  Rome,  he  prom-  struck  by  the  exemplary  conduct  of  tne  young  man, 

ised  to  do  so  if  he  could  obtain  the  necessary  relics,  and  conceived  the  project  of  enrolling  him  in  the  ranks 

In  a  dream  he  was  shown  the  place  in  which  such  could  of  his  clerics.    G^ry  was  not  ordain^  deacori,  say  his 

be  found.    He  ordered  excavations  to  be  made  in  the  biographers,  imtil  he  knew  the  whole  Psalter  by  heart, 

cemetery  church  of  Sts.  Nabor  and  Felix,  outside  the  The  episcopal  See  of  Cambrai-Arras  soon  became  va- 

city,  and  there  found  the  relics  of  Sts.  Gervasius  and  cant^  and  Q^ry  was  called  to^fill  it.    King  Childebert 

Protasius.    He  had  them  removed  to  the  church  of  II  gave  his  consent  and  instructed  ^gidius,  Metr<^l- 

St.  Fausta,  and  on  the  next  da^  into  the  basilica,  itan  of  Reims,  to  consecrate  the  new  bishop.    This 

which  later  received  the  name  oan  Ambrogio  Mag-  installation  must  have  taken  place  between  585  and 

giore.    Many  miracles  are  related  to  have  occurred,  587.    Filled  with  apostolic  zeal,  G^ry  devoted  his  life 

and  all  ^atly  rejoiced  at  the  signal  favour  from  to  the  extermination  of  the  paganism  which  infected 

heaven,  given  at  the  time  of  the  great  stru^e  between  the  district  subject  to  his  authority,  and,  since  the 

St.  Ambrose  and  the  Arian  Empress  Justma.    Of  the  worship  of  the  old  gods  was  deeply  rooted  in  the  souls 

vision,  the  subsequent  discovery  of  the  relics  and  the  of  the  Darbarous  peoples,  the  bishop  destroyed  or  pur* 

accompanying  miracles,  St.  Ambrose  wrote  to  his  chased  the  idols,  which  were  the  oojects  of  their  ven- 

sister  Marcellma.    St.  Aueustine,  not  yet  baptized,  eration.     He  erected  the  church  of  St-M6dard  in 

witnessed  the  facts,  and  relates  them  in  his  "(>onfes-  the  chief  town  of  Cambrai.     He  frequently  visited  the 

sions",  IX,  vii;  in  "De  civ.  Dei^',  XXII,  viii;  and  in  rural  districts  and  the  villoB  at  a  distance  from  his 

**  Serm.  286  in  natal.  Ss.  Mm.  Gerv.  et  Prot.",  they  are  episcopal  city,  displaying  particular  solicitude  for  the 

also  attested  by  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola,  in  his  life  of  St.  ransom  of  captives. 

Ambrose.  The  latter  died  397  and,  as  he  had  wished,  ^  But  political  events  soon  introduced  a  new  domin- 
his  body  was,  on  Easter  Sunday,  deposited  in  his  ion,  when  Clotaire  II  (d.  629)  took  possession  of  Cam- 
basilica  oy  the  side  of  these  mart3nrs.  In  835,  Aneil-  brai.  The  bishop  went  to  pay  his  respects  to  the 
bert  II,  a  successor  in  the  See  of  Milan,  placed  the  conqueror  in  his  villa  of  Chelles,  probably  in  613.  At 
relics  of  the  three  saints  in  a  porphyry  sarcophagus,  the  command  of  the  king  he  was  compelled  to  go  to  the 
and  here  they  were  again  found,  January,  1864  sanctuary  and  nationiu  place  of  pilgrimage  of  the 
(CivilUi  Cattolica,  1864,  IX,  608,  and  XII,  345).  Franks,  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  there  to  distribute  alms 
A  tradition  claims  that  after  the  destruction  of  to  the  poor.  In  October^  614,  G^ry  assisted  at  the 
Mflan  by  Frederick  Barbarossa,  his  chancellor  Rainald  Council  of  Paris.  He  died  after  an  episcopate  of 
von  Dassel  had  taken  the  relics  from  Milan,  and  de-  thirty-nine  years,  and  was  buried  in  the  cnurch  of  St- 
posited  them  at  Altbreisach  in  Germany,  whence  M6dard  at  Cambrai.  G^ry  was  honoured  with  a  cult 
some  came  to  Soissons ;  the  claim  is  rejected  by  Milan  immediately  after  his  death.  In  the  time  of  his  suo- 
(Biraghi,  "I  tre  sepolcW,  etc.,  MOan,  1864).  Im-  oessor  Bertoald  his  tomb  was  already  the  object  of 
mediately  after  the  finding  of  the  relics  by  St.  Am-  fervent  veneration,  and  the  monastery  of  St-M^dard 
brose,  the  cult  of  Sts.  Gervasius  and  Protasius  was  which  he  had  founded  profited  largely  by  the  offerings 


OESELLENVEBEINE         538  aESELLXNVEBEINE 

made  to  him.    Mention  of  his  feast  is  abeady  made  in  formed  in  many  Rhenish  towns,  in  Westphalia,  and 

the  additions  to  the  Hieronymic  martyrology,  and  in  finally  throughout  the  German-speaking  world.  When 

the  ninth  century  in  the  martyrologies  of  Wandalbert  Kolpms  died  (4  Dec.,  1865).  the  Gesellenverein  num- 

of  Prum  and  of  Rabanus  Maurus.    This  feast  is  cele-'  bered  about  400  branch  unions.    In  1901  they  had 

brated  on  11  August.    The  institution  of  the  feast  of  reached  the  number  of  1086,  with  a  membership  of 

his  exhumation,  18  November,  and  of  his  translation,  80,000  journeymen  and    120,000  master-workmen. 

24  September,  dates  probably  from  1245,  as  his  relics  There  are  at  present  more  than  1170  unions  affiliated 

were  exhumed  in  that  year  by  Bishop  Guido  of  Cam-  to  the  Central  Union  at  Cologne.    Of  these  there  are 

brai.     Relics  of  the  samt  are  preserved  at  Ste-Marie  in  Prussia  and  Northern  Germany  505,  in  Bavaria  222, 

de  Liessies,  at  the  Church  of  St-G^ry  at  Brussels,  at  in  the  rest  of  Germany  134.    There  are  263  in  Austria 

the  church  of  the  same  name  at  Arras,  at  St-Donatien  and  Hungary,  34  in  Switzerland,  8  in  Holland,  2  in 

at  Bruges,   at  St-Pierre  at  Douai,   and    in  other  Luxemburg,  2  in  Brussels,  2  at  Paris,  1  each  in  Lon- 

churches  of  Belgium.    St-G^ry  is  the  patron  of  Cam-  don,  Stockholm,  Rustchuk  (Bulgaria),  and  Rome. 

brai,sub8idiarypatronof  Brussels,  and  ne  is  honoured  About  360  imions  own  their  own  houses— over  220 

as  a  protector  at  Braine-le-Comte  (Hidnaut,  Belgium),  in  Germany,  and  90  in  Austria-Hungary.    There  are  a 

On  tne  reliquary  in  the  fonn  of  an  ostensorium  at  the  eeneral  burial  fund  (established  1904),  about  195 

Cathedral  of  Cambrai,  which  contains  the  skull  of  St.  local  sick  funds,  besides  the  general  fund,  and  a  gen- 

G^rv,  he  is  represented  in  the  attire  of  a  bishop,  mitre  eral  fund  to  aid  travelling  journeymen, 

on  head,  without  his  crosier,  right  hand  lifted  in  a  These  societies  or  unions  aim,  in  general,  at  the 

gesture   of   benediction  and   left   folded   upon   his  moral,    mental,    and   professional   improvement   of 

breast.  young  German  Catholic  journeymen,   apprentices, 

it^^iSS^  P'^^J^i^J^' tV\.??^^1,'^^  55..  August.  .II.  etc.  (Gesellen).    They  develop  and  cultivate  in  them 

672-693;  Acta  SS.  Bdo,,  II,  271-315;  Mon.  Germ,  HUt.,  Script.  aiyr^na  i^limona  nrinrnnloa  anA   /.Jmri'rt  vtV+iio        T1.0  r^ 

Rtr.  Merovino.,  Ill,  652  aq,:  Krubch,  Das  Leben  dea  ^ischSfa  Strong  rellglOUS  prmciples  and  CIVIC  Virtue.      Ihe  re- 

GAttgerich  von  Cambrai  in  Neuea  Arehiv.,  XVI,  227-234;  Van  BUlt  IS  a  large  and  united  body  of  self-respectmg  and 

BBE  Embn.  Etude  critique  g  litt^raire  nur  lea  VUa  deaaaints  respected  master-workmen,  distributed  over  all  parts 

&X^.l'c:S;,'S5S,*'''?^^^S  J?Sii^i'ii  erf  Germany  Mid  throu^out  the  lands  borderi^  on 

S8,Bdg.,  II,  25&-270\Fi.jiaAvur. Noteaet dorumentardatif a au  the  German  Empire.    Persuaded  that   the   middle 

^A^  ^/^^  ^??,"°H^^?  }^'^^*  ^**  ***  ^-  ^«'/^<v  «*  ^^^  «*»■  classes  can  thrive  only  when  they  repose  on  a  basis  of 

5.  Giry  (Charleville.  1851).  religion  and  practical  faith,  the  Gesellenverein  culti- 

^  '  vates  assiduously  the  religious  and  moral  sense  of  its 
Qesellenvereine,  German  Catholic  societies  for  members.  The  entire  oi^nization  exists  primarily 
the  religious,  moral,  and  professional  improvement  of  for  this  purpose.  .  There  is  a  quarterly  general  Com- 
yoimg  men.  They  owe  tneir  origin  and  present  con-  munion,  and  the  Easter  Communion  is  preceded  by  a 
dition  to  Adolph  Kolping,  surnamed  the  Journey-  retreat,  or  brief  spiritual  preparation.  On  Sundays 
men's  Father  {Oesdlenvater),  He  was  bom  8  Dec.,  and  great  holidays  special  Mass  is  said  for  the  mem- 
1813,  of  poor  parents,  and,  though  he  gave  early  evi-  bers  of  the  society.  Lectures  are  given  on  Sunday 
dence  of  inclination  to  studv,  he  was  obliged  to  learn  evenings  by  clergymen  and  laymen;  the  subjects 
the  trade  of  a  shoemaker.  As  a  poor  young  workman,  treatedare  quite  varied,  ranging  from  religious  topics 
he  became  acquainted  with  the  disadvantages  suffered  to  the  purely  instructive  or  entertaining.  Non-reli- 
by  men  of  his  class  on  their  journeys,  in  factories,  and  gious  festivities,  such  asexcursions^heatncals,  evening 
in  city  lodging-houses.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three  entertainments,  and  the  like,  are  allowed,  but  in  mod- 
Kolpine  felt  drawn  to  the  priesthood  2  but  reached  that  eration,  lest  they  should  develop  in  the  members 
goal  only  in  1845,  after  years  of  patient  study  amidst  that  excessive  love  of  amusement  which  characterizes 
troubles,  privations,  and  sickness.  He  was  first  sent  modem  youth.  Since  1890  much  attention  has  been 
as  chaplain  to  Elberfeld,  where  a  number  of  journey-  paid  to  the  instruction  of  members  in  technical,  indus- 
men  carpenters  had  founded  a  choral  society  with  the  trial,  and  mercantile  subjects  (538  unions  in  1908). 
aid  of  a  teacher  and  the  local  clergy.  It  grew  rapidlv  Besides  providing  for  Chnstian  doctrine,  the  societies 
into  a  Young  Workmefl's  Society  with  the  acknowl-  conduct  classes  ii;  book-keeping,  arithmetic,  drawing, 
edged  object  of  fostering  the  religious  life  by  means  of  literary  composition,  music,  natural  sciences,  etc. 
a  closer  union  among  its  members,  and  at  the  same  In  the  larger  cities  there  are  free  classes  in  several 
time  of  improving  their  mechanical  skill.  Kolping  crafts,  e.  g.,  for  bakers,  tailors,  carpenters,  workers  in 
frequently  addres^  the  members  on  subjects  or  in-  metal,  painters,  shoemakers.  This  instruction  is  de- 
terest  to  mechanics.  He  was  elected  president  in  signea  especially  for  those  workmen  who  aim  at  estab- 
1847,  and  soon  gave  to  the  association  the  features  lishing  a  business  of  their  own.  Frequently,  in  the 
that  have  since  been  distinctive  of  the  Gesellenverein,  It^ge  cities,  these  classes  are  attached  to  local  techni<»l 
or  Society  of  Young  Journeymen.  Hitherto  little  at-  and  industrial  schools,  municipal  or  governmental, 
tention  had  been  paid  to  this  class  of  workmen.  Kol-  In  its  organization  the  Verein  contains  patriarehal, 
pinp  recognized  that,  to  uplift  them  morally  and  monarehical,  and  ecclesiastical  elements.  In  accord- 
socially,  it  was  advisable  to  establish  a  widespread  ance  with  the  "general  statute"  which  Kolping 
organization  of  similar  societies.  Its  first  fruits  could  framed  and  which,  with  various  modifications,  is  stdl  in 
not  fail  to  be  a  respectable  body  of  master-workmen,  foree,  each  Verein  conducts  its  own  affairs  as  local  cir- 
He  resolved  to  make  Cologne,  one  of  the  great  indus-  cumstances  reauire,  yet  always  with  a  reg£u*d  for  the 
trial  centres  of  Germany,  the  seat  of  his  life-work  in  general  principles  of  the  organization.  At  the  head  of 
this  direction.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  assistant-  each  is  a  Catholic  priest,  whose  control  is  supreme, 
priest  at  the  cathedral  of  that  city.  With  a  few  zeal-  He  is  nominated  by  the  diocesan  '^Pneses"  (presi- 
ous  friends,  ecclesiastics  and  laymen,  he  founded  at  dent)  after  consultation  with  the  local  authorities,  and 
once  a  Gesellenverein,  and  began  to  instruct  its  mem-  is  appointed  by  the  bishop.  He  is  assisted  by  a  bc^rd 
bers  gratuitously  on  various  subjects.  The  Cologne  of  managers  composed  partly  of  citizens  actively  inter- 
eociety  soon  acquired  its  own  home,  and  opened  ested  in  the  work  and  partly  of  members  chosen  by  the 
therein  a  refuge,  or  hospice,  for  youne  travelling  iour-  Verein.  The  diocesan  president  acts  as  intermediary 
neymen.  In  his  efforts  to  develop  the  work  Kolping  between  the  bishop  and  the  Vereins,  organizes  meet- 
was  energetic  and  undaimted.  He  was  eloquent  both  ings,  holds  conferences,  etc.  In  Bavaria,  Saxony,  the 
as  speaker  and  writer.  Filled  with  the  zeal  of  an  Netherlands,  and  Switzerland,  there  is,  besides  the 
apostle,  he  visited  frequently  the  great  industrial  diocesan  president,  a  '^ central"  president,  and  in 
centres  of  Germany,  Austria,  Switzerland,  and  Hun-  Hungary  a  "federation"  president.  All  these  asso- 
g^ry.  His  propaganda  bore  good  fruit,  and  in  a  short  ciations  are  united  in  the  "Catholic  Gesellenverein'' 
time  societies  of  young  Catholic  journeymen  were  under  the  headship  of  a  president  general,  who,  ao- 


OESTA  539  OSSTA 


dby 

enna^  Munich,  Breslau,  and  Mdnster  take  part  in  the  the  Orientals  in  referrins  to  the  crusaders,  and  it  is 

election.    As  a  rule,  only  unmarried  Catholic  journey-  evident  that  they  called  tnemselves  by  the  same  name, 
men  between  the  ages  of  17  and  25  are  admitted — ^  ''Qesta  Francorum"  is  the  title  of  one  of  the  chief  ac- 

af  ter  three  months'  probation — to  regular  membership,  coimts  of  the  Crusades.    Since  the  Crusades  the  word 

Those  who  are  married  or  have  completed  their  ap-  Frank  remains  in  the  east  a  synonym  for  Western,  and 

prenticeship  are  retained  on  the  list  of  honorary  or  to-day  the  term  is  still  used  m  that  sense.    Moreover, 

extraordinary  members.     No  member  is  allowed  to  the  idea  that  the  Franks  were  a  people  chosen  by  God 

join  any  association  whose  aims  are  opposed  to  those  arose  soon  after  their  conversion  to  Christianity,  and 

of  the  Verein.  Each  member  of  a  local  verein  is  at  the  finds  expression  many  times  in  the  traditions  relative 

same  time  member  of  all  the  federated  societies;  hence  to  Clovis,  which  Gregory  of  Tours  transmits  to  us. 

the  importance  of  the  federation  as  a  whole.  We  read  in  one  of  the  prologues  of  the  Salic  Law: 

The  discussion  of  political  matters  and  every  kind  ''Glory  to  Christ,  who  K>ve8  the  Franks  I  May  He 
of  religious  polemic  are  forbidden  in  the  local  Verein.  preserve  their  kingdom!  May  He  replenish  theii 
Ample  provision  is  made  for  the  material  welfare  leaders  with  His  grace,  for  this  is  the  strone  and  brave 
of  tne  members.  Each  Verein  must  secure  suitable  nation  which  has  richly  covered  with  gold  the  bodies 
quarters  where  its  members  can  assemble  at  evening,  of  the  holy  martyrs."  With  Charlemaene  the  Franks 
especially  on  Sundays  and  festivals,  for  instruction  protected  the  Roman  Church  from  the  Lombard  inva- 
and  social  enjoyment.  The  hospices  (over  400  in  sion,  destroyed  paganism  amonp  the  Saxons,  drove 
number)  provide  board  and  lodging  for  resident  work-  back  the  Mussulmans,  and  established  their  protector- 
men  at  an  exceedingly  moderate  cost,  and  for  journey-  ate  over  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  Hence  the  crusade 
men  gratuitously  imtil  thev  find  work.  In  places  was,  for  the  men  of  tne  eleventh  century,  merely 
where  there  is  no  regular  hospice,  the  local  Verein  the  crowning  of  that  alliance  between  God  and  the 
secures  proper  accommodation  for  journeymen  in  Franks,  and  after  the  discourse  of  Urban  II  at  Cler- 
houses  imder  its  control.  Excellent  service  nas  also  mont,  it  was  to  the  cry  of  "God  wills  it  I"  that  all 
been  rendered  in  the  way  of  providing  employment,  made  haste  to  take  the  cross. 

establishing  funds  for  the  care  of  the  sick,  and  opening  Guibert,  b.  in  Picardv  about  1053,  was  a  monk  at 

accounts  for  savings.    The  principal  publication  is  Saint-Germer-de-Fly,  elected'  Abbot  of  Nogent-sous- 

the  "Kolpinrablatt".  which  appears  weekly  at  Co-  Coucy  in  1104,  had  been  a  witness  of  the  enthusiasm 

lome  in  an  edition  of  45,000  copies.  aroused  by  the  preaching  of  the  crusade,  perhaps  he 

The  objects  for  which  Kolpmg  strove  have  been  had  even  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Clermont.    Desir- 

realized  to  a  remarkable  degree,  as  is  evident  from  the  ing  to  write  an  account  of  the  Crusades,  he  chose  this 

wide  development  of  the  work  he  founded.     "The  titleof  the  "Doines  of  God  through  the  Franks",  and 

Gesellenverem",  says  Schftfifer,  "has  extended  over  in  his  accoimt,  wherein  the  marvellous  occasionally 

himdreds  of  thousands  its  protective  influence,  teach-  mingles  with  reality,  he  a&ms  at  different  times  the 

ing  the  ignorant,  arousine  the  lukewarm,  filling  the  Divine  mission  of  the  Franks.    This  work,  dedicated 

timid  with  eitmestness  and  self-respect,  strengthening  to  Gaudri,  Bbhop  of  Laon,  is  not  an  original  account 

the  weak  and  saving  them  from  the  perils  to  which  so  of  the  crusade,  and  in  part  follows  the  anonymous 

many  workmen,  especially  through  the  efforts  of  social  au^/hor  of  the  "  Gesta  Francorum  ".    It  is  nevertheless 

democracy,  are  everywhere  exposed".    These  socie-  not  without  great  value,  for  it  shows  the  profound 

ties  are  among  the  few  institutions  of  Catholic  origin  impression  created  throughout  Europe  by  the  con- 

which  have  been  appreciated,  commended,  and  even  quest  of  the  Holy  Land.    Although  Guibert  was  a 

imitated  by  Protestants.    The  latter,  however,  have  contemporary  of  the  events  which  he  relates,  they 

enrolled  but  a  small  number  of  workmen*  receive  already  in  his  account  an  epic  colouring.    The 

Owine  to  special  conditions  the  Gesellen verein  has  interest  of  these  seven  books,  composed  between  1108- 
BO  far  shown  but  little  signs  of  development  in  the  1112  consists  in  their  revealine  to  us  the  doctrine  of 
United  States.  The  almost  total  absence  of  the  old  the  providential  rdle,  which  tne  men  of  the  Middle 
trades'  organization  (apprentice,  journeyman,  master)  Ages  assimed  to  the  Westerns,  but  in  Guibert 's  mind 
in  the  country,  the  reluctance  of  the  young  artisans  the  only  Franks  worth  considering  were  his  compatri- 
to  travel  from  place  to  place,  and  the  jphenome-  ots,  the  French.  To  them  .the  popes  turned  when 
nal  development  of  the  factor^  system  have  pre-  they  suffered  injuries  inflicted  by  other  nations,  and  he 
vented  the  growth  of  these  societies.  To  this  mav  be  contrasts  their  conduct  with  that  of  the  Teutons,  in  re- 
added  the  fact  that  efforts  to  create  the  Gesellen-  volt  against  the  Church.  He  therefore  considers  the 
verein  have  been  made  by  the  German  Catholics  onlv.  crusade  as  a  wholly  French  undertaking  (Bk.  II,  i). 
Branches  of  the  Gesellenverein  exist  in  Davton,  O.,  When,  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
Paterson,  N.  J.,  Chicago,  111.,  St.  Paul  and  Minneap-  Jacques  Bongars  (1546-1612)  undertook  to  publish 
olis,  Minn.,  and  in  New  York.  The  membership  the  works  of  all  the  known  historians  of  the  Crusades, 
varies  from  40  (Paterson)  to  450  (Dayton).  The  he  chose  as  the  title  of  his  collection  "Gesta  Dei  per 
Dayton  branch  has  a  library  of  3500  books.  All  these  Francos"  (Hanover,  2  v.,  1612). 
branches  are  affiliated  to  the  society  at  New  York,  in  „ Guibert db Noobnt in Histor,  Occid.Croi8ad^lY,  1 15-283 
close  relation  with  the  central  authority  in  Germany,  ^onod.  Le  matne  Gutbert  d  .m  temps  (Paris.  1905). 

KoLPiNO,  Der  OeseUenverein  (Coloffne,  1840) ;  ScHXrrBR,  Adoif  LouiS  BrI:HIER. 
Kolpinff,  der  Getdlenvaier  (3d  ed.,  Paderbom,  1894);  Wbxzel, 

/JTo/ptn^cferO'MeZ/enva/tfr  (Berlin,  1896);  Schweitzer,  I>erlCa<A.  ^      ^     •%  ^^ j-        i       «     j.»         t 

OeaelUnverein  Handbueh  (Cologne.  190fo;  Der  Kath.  GeseUenv,  GWBta  Bomanonim,  a  medieval  collection  of  anec- 

in  a,  aoxiaUn  BedetUung  (Cologne,  1907).  dotes,  to  which  moral  reflections  are  attached.     It 

Joseph  Linb.  ^^^a^  compiled  in  Latin^  probably  by  a  priest,  late  in 

Qesta  Dei  per  FrancoSy  the  title  adopted  by  Gui-  the  thirteenth  or  early  m  the  fourteenth  century.  The 

bert  de  Nogent  (d.  about  1124^  for  his  history  of  the  ascription  of  authorship  to  Berehorius  or  Helinandus 

First  CrusflSe.     In  the  eleventh  century  the  name  of  can  no  longer  be  maintained.    The  original  object  of 

"Frank"  was  applied  in  a  general  manner  to  all  the  the  work  seems  to  have  been  to  provide  preachers 

inhabitants  of  Western  Europe,  being  a  survival  of  the  with  a  store  of  anecdotes  with  suitable  moral  applica- 

politicsd  unity  established  by  the  Carolingians  for  the  tions.    Each  story  has  a  heading  referring  to  some 

Benefit  of  the  Franks.    The  Byzantine  chroniclers  virtue  or  vice  (e.  g.  de  di2ec(ume) ;  then  comes  the  anec- 

never  otherwise  refer  to  the  Westerns.    Herv^,  a  Nor-  dote  followed  by  the  moralisatio.    The  collection  be- 

man  adventurer  in  the  service  of  the  Bysantine  em-  came  so  popular  throughout  Western  Europe  that 


,    OSTHSEMtAin                           540  0ETH8EMANI 

oopieB  were  multiplied,  often  with  local  additions,  so  and  he  adds  that ''  the  faithful  were  accustomed  to  fp 

that  ft  is  not  now  poflsiole  to  determine  whether  it  was  there  to  pray ' '.    In  333  the  Pilgrim  of  Bordeaux  vis- 

originaUy  written  in  England,  Germany,  or  France,  ited  the  place,  arriving  by  the  road  which  climbs  to 

Oesterley.  its  latest  critical  editor  (Berlin,  1872),  is  of  the  summit  oi  the  mountain,  i.  e.  beyond  the  bridge 

opinion  that  it  was  ori^nally  composed  in  England,  across  the  valley  of  Josaphat.    In  the  time  of  the 

whence  it  passed  to  the  Continent,  and  that  by  the  Jews,  the  bridge  which  spanned  the  torrent  of  Cedron 

middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  there  existed  three  occupied  nearly  the  same  place  as  the  one  which  is 

distinct  families  of  MSS.:  the  En^ish  group,  written  seen  there  to-day,  as  is  testified  by  the  ancient  stair- 

in  Latin;  the  Latin  and  German  group;  and  a  third  case  cut  in  the  rock,  which  on  one  side  came  down 

group  represented  by  the  first  printed  editions.    The  from  the  town  and  on  the  other  wound  to  the  top  of 

MSS.  diner  considerably  as  to  nuniber  and  arrange-  the  mountain.  Petronius,  Bishop  of  Bologna  (c.  420), 

ment  of  articles,  but  no  one  MS.  representing  the  and  Sophronius,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  speak  of  this 

printed  editions  exists.    Probably  the  editors  m  the  immense  staircase  and  two  other  pilgrims  ooimted  the 

nrst  printed  edition  selected  stories  from  various  MSS.  steps.    Traces  of  it  are  still  to  be  seen  on  the  side  to- 

Their  volume  was  a  folio  issued  from  the  press  of  Kete-  wards  the  citv,  and  numerous  steps,  very  large  an^ 

laer  and  De  Leempt  at  Utrecht,  while  a  second  edition  well-preserved,  have  been  discoveiea  above  the  pres- 

was  published  bjr  Ter  Hoenen  at  Coloene.    Shortly  ent  Garden  of  Gethsemani.    The  Pilgrim  of  Bordeaux 

after  this  collection  had  been  published,  an  enlarged  notes  ''to  the  left,  among  the  vines,  the  stone  where 

edition,  now  known  as  the  Vulgate,  was  issued,  con-  Judas  Iscariot  betrayed  Christ''.    In  translating  the 

taining  181  stories.    This  was  compiled  from  the  "Onomasticon"  of  Eusebius,  St.  Jerome  adds  to  the 

third  group  of  MSS.,  and  was  printed  by  Ulrich  Zell  at  article  Gethsemani  the  statement  that "  a  church  is  now 

Cologne.    All  these  three  editions  appeiu«d  between  built  there"  (Onomasticon,  ed.  Klostermann,  p.  75). 

1472  and  1475,  and  subsequent  reprmts  were  numer-  St.  S^via  of  Aquitania  (385-388)  relates   that  on 

ous.    The  first  English  translation,  based  on  the  Eng-  Holy  Thursday  tne  procession  coming  dowh  from  the 

lish  group  of  MSS.,  was  issued  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  Mount  of  Olives  made  a  station  at  "the  beautiful 

about  1510,  and  was  followed  by  others.    These Eng^  church"  built  on  the  spot  where  Jesus  imderwent  the 

lish  editions  have  many  stories  in  common  with  the  Agony.    "From  there^',  she  adds,  "they  descend  to 

Vulgate,  but  include  others  derived  from  the  English  Gethsemani  where  Christ  was  taken  prisoner"  (^.  Sil- 

MSS.    None  of  the  En^ish  editions,  old  or  new,  give  vis  Aouit.  Peregr.,  ed.  Gamurrini,  1888,  pp.  62-63). 

the  moralizations  in  their  entirety,  tull  as  they  are  of  This  cnurch,  remarkable  for  its  beautiful  columns 

Catholic  teaching,  dogmatic  and  moral.    Though  the  (Theophanes,  Chronogr.  ad  an.  682),  was  destroyed  by 

title  of  the  work  suggests  Roman  history  as  the  chief  the  Persians  in  614;  rebuilt  by  the  Crusaders,  and 

source  of  the  stories,  many  of  them  are  taken  from  finallv  razed,  probably  in  1219.    Aitsulf  (c.  670),  St. 

later  Latin  or  (jerman  chronicles,  while  several  are  Willibald  (723),  Daniel  the  Russian  (1106),  and  John 

Oriental  in  character.    In  estimating  the  wide  influ-  of  WQrzburg  (1165)  mention  the  Church  of  the  Agony, 

ence  of  the  "  Gesta"  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  The  foundations  have  recently  been  discovered  at  the 

collection  proved  a  mine  of  anecdotes,  not  only  for  place  indicated  by  them,  i.  e.  at  a  very  short  distance 

preachers,  but  for  poets,  from  Chaucer,  Lydg^te,  and  from  the  south-east  comer  of  the  present  Garden  of 

Boccaccio  down  through  Shakespeare  to  Schiller  and  Gethsemani. 

Rossetti,  so  that  many  of  these  old  stories  are  now  A  fragmentary  account  of  a  pilerimage  in  the  fourth 

enshrined  in  masterpieces  of  European  literature.  oenturv,  preserved  by  Peter  the  Deacon  (1037),  men- 

Obbtbrlbt,  Oeata  Romanorum  (Berlin.  1872),  critical  edition,  tions    a  grotto  at  the  place  where  the  Jews  took  the 

Latin  text,  and  diasertation;  Swan.  Oeata  Romanorum,  stand-  Gaviniir  <^«tiv«"       X/w%rt\tntw  fr»  fmrlUinn  i*  woa  in 

ard  Eog.  tr..  first  published  in  Bohn's  AnliqiuxTian  Ltbrary  baviour  captive    .     ACCOrdmg  tO  tradition  It  Was  in 

(1824);  edited  by  Wynnabd  Hoopbb  (London.  1877).  with  val-  this  STOttO  that  Chnst  Was  WOnt  to  take  refuge  With 

uable  preface,  and  again  by^  E.  A.  Bamb  (London,  1906).  His  oisciples  to  pass  the  night.    It  is  also  memorable 

Wtnnabd  Hoopbb*8  edition  u  alao  repnnted  in  the  York  L*-  f__„  an««or  ft«/1  o^  w«fllii»iiT«f +Vio  foat  whi<>li  oo^rknlino 

brary  (London,  1905):  Wabtom.  History  of  Enolikk  Potiru,  Dia-  Jor  a  SUpper  SJia  a  wastomg  Of  the  feet  wnicll,  aojorcling 

flertation  iii.  Vol.  Ill  (London.  1781)^  Madpbn,  Old  En^iah  to  the  same  tradition,  took  place  there.    Eutychius, 

Vernon*  of  the  Oeata  Romanorum  (Roxbundbe  Club,  1838);  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (d.  683),  savs  in  one  of  his 

HbBBTAOB.    Introduction  to  EaBLT  EnOUSH  Texts  SoGUTT'b  -oi-mftna   ♦Kot    f Ka   rhnf^H    <v>mmamrki«f aa   tkmA    aiin- 

ediUon  of  Aaddbn's  Old  Enoliah  Verauma  (London.  1879).  sermons  that  the  Uhurch  conunemorat^  three  sup- 

Edwin  Burton.  pen.      The  first  repast  ,  he  says,  "  together  with  the 

purification,  took  place  at  Gethsemani  on  the  Sabbath 

Oethsemani  (Hebrewoa^,  press,  and  semen,  oil)  is  day,  the  first  day,  i.  e.  when  Simday  was  ahneadv  be- 
the  place  in  which  Jesus  Christ  suffered  the  Agony  and  eun.  That  is  why  we  then  celebrate  the  vigil "  (r .  G.. 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Jews.  Saint  Mark  (xiv,  32)  LXXXVI,  2392).  The  second  supper  was  that  of 
calls  it  x^P^^t  "a  place"  or  "estate";  St.  John  Bethany,  and  the  third  was  that  of  Hol^r  Thursday  at 
(xviii,  1)  speaks  of  it  as  r^irot,  a  ''garden"  or  "or-  which  was  instituted  the  Holy  Eucharist.  Theodo- 
chard".  In  the  East,  a  field  shaded  by  numerous  fruit  sius  (c.  530)  describes  this  erotto  in  these  terms: 
trees  and  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  loose  stone  or  a  quick-  "  There  [in  the  valley  of  Josaphat]  is  situated  the  ba- 
set  hedge  forms  the  el  boatdn,  the  garden.  The  name  silica  of  Holy  Mary,  Mother  of  God,  with  her  sepulchre. 
**  oil-^ress"  is  sufficient  indication  that  it  was  planted  There  is  also  the  place  where  the  Lord  supped  with  his 
especially  with  olive  trees.  According  ta  the  Greek  disciples.  There  He  washed  their  feet.  There  are  to 
version  and  others,  St.  Matthew  (xxvi.  36)  designates  be  seen  four  benches  where  Our  Lord  reclined  in  the 
Gethsemani  bv  a  term  eauivalent  to  that  used  by  St.  midst  of  His  Apostles.  Each  bench  can  seat  three 
Mark.  The  Vulgate  renders  x^P^^  by  the  word  vUla,  persons.  There  also  Judas  betrayed  the  Saviour, 
but  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  there  was  a  resi-  some  persons,  when  they  visit  this  spot,  through  de- 
denoe  there.  St.  Luke  (xxu,  39)  refers  to  it  as  "the  votion  partake  of  some  refreshment,  but  no  meat. 
Mount  of  Olives",  and  St.  John  (xviii.  1)  speaks  of  it  They  light  torches  because  the  place  is  in  a  grotto." 
as  being  "over  the  brook  Cedron".  According  to  St.  Antoninus  of  Plaisance  (570),  Arci]df,  Epiphanius  the 
Mark,  tne  Saviour  was  in  the  habit  of  retiring  to  this  Hagiopolite,  and  others  make  mention  of  the  well- 
place;  and  St.  John  writes:  "Judas  also,  who  be-  known  pasch  of  which  the  Grotto  of  Gethsemani  wbs 
trayed  him^  knew  the  place;  because  Jesus  had  often  witness.  In  the  Church  of  the  Agony  the  stone  was 
resorted  thither  together  with  his  disciples".  preserved  on  which,  according  to  tradition,  Jesus 

A  place  so  memorable,  to  which  all  the  Evangelists  knelt  during  His  Agony.    It  is  related  by  Arculf  that, 

direct  attention,  was  not  lost  sight  of  bv  the  early  after  the  destruction  of  the  church  by  the  Persians, 

Christians.    In  his  "  Onomasticon"'  (ed.  Klostermann,  the  stone  was  removed  to  the  srotto  and  there  vener- 

1904,  p.  74),  Eusebius  of  CsBsarea  savs  that  Gethsem-  ated.    In  1165  John  of  WQrzburg  found  it  still  pre- 

ani  is  situated  "at  the  foot  of  the  Mount  of  Olives",  served  at  this  spot,  and  there  is  yet  to  be  seen  on  tlie 


dZTHSSMAin  541 


At:  AM 


oefling  of  the  grotto  an  inscription  concerning  it.    In  in  the  church  of  the  monastery,  29  September  follow* 

the  fourteenth  century  the  piligrimSj  led  astray  by  the  ing.    Dom  Edward  applied  hmiself  especially  to  im- 

presence  of  the  stone  and  the  mscnption,  mistakenly  prove  the  school  attached  to  the  abbey  since  its  foim- 

called  this  sanctuary  the  Grotto  of  the  Agony.  dation.    He  erected  new  buiidingSi  and  transformed 

In  ancient  times  the  g;rotto  opened  to  the  south.^  it  into  a  colleges.   During  a  visit  to  France,  upon  the 

The  surrounding  soil  bemg  raised  considerably  by  advice  of  physicians,  he  had  to  renounce  his  hopes  of 

earth  carried  down  the  mountain  by  the  rains,  a  new  seeing  Gethsemani  again,  and  on  24  Jan.,  1898,  he 

entrance  has  been  made  on  the  north-west  side.    Tlie  was  succeeded  by  Dom  'M.  Edmond  M.  Obrecht,  first 

rocky  ceiling  is  supported  by  six  pillars,  of  which  appointed  superior  and  shortly  afterwards  elected 

three  are  in  masonry,  and,  smoe  the  sixth  century,  aboot  by  unanimous  vote ;  he  received  the  abbatial 

has  been  pierced  by  a  sort  of  skylijght  which  ad-  blessing  at  Gethsemani,  28  Oct.,  1898.   Through  the 

mits  a  little  light.     The  grotto,  which  is  irregular  generosity  of  Mgr.  Batz  of  Milwaukee,  Dom  Eofmimd 

in  form,  is,  in  round  numTOrs,  56  feet  lonjg,  30  feet  was  able  to  create  the  splendid  library  which  contains 

wide,  and  12  feet  high  in  its  largest  dimensions,  more  than  thirty  thousand  volumes  of  the  principal 

It  Is  adorned  with  four  altars,  but  of  the  pictures  authors  on  ecclesiastical  sciences, 

which  formerly  covered  the  walls,  and  of  the  mosaic  That  the  regime  of  La  Trappe  is  entirely  incom- 

floor,  traces  only  can  be  found.      At  a  distance  of  patible  with  the  American  temperament  is  a  prejudice 

about  130  feet  to  the  south  of  the  grotto  is  the  without  foimdation.  The  community  has  always  num- 

Garden  of  Gethsemani,  a  quadrangular-shaped  en-  bered  some,  and  now  numbers  over  one-third,  Ameri- 

closure  which  measurtBS  about  195  feet  on  each  side,  cans  amongst  its  religious,  some  of  whom  were  raised 

Here  are  seven  olive  trees,  the  largest  of  which  is  about  in  luxury,  and  all  have  found  health  and  happiness  at 

26  feet  in  circumference.    If  they  were  not  found  Gethsemani.  Another  prejudice  is  the  belief  that  the 

there  in  the  time  of  Christ  they  are  at  least  the  off-  Trappist  life^  being  a  penitent  life,  is  only  intended  for 

shoots  of  those  which  witnessed  His  Agony.    With  crimmals.  Life  at  Uetnsemani  is  tne  same  as  Cistercian 

the  aid  of  historical  documents  it  has  been  established  life  at  Clairvaux,  a  life  of  contemplation  and  penance, 

that  these  same  trees  were  already  in  existence' in  the  Moreover,  recent  decrees  of  sovereign  pontiffs  and  the 

seventh  cent^iry.    To  the  east  of  the  garden  there  is  a  constitutions  of  the  order  forbid  the  reception  of  men 

rocky  mass  re^urded  as  the  traditions!  spot  where  the  who  have  ^ven  public  scandal.    The  community  of 

three  Apostles  waited.    A  stone's  throw  to  the  south,  Gethsemani  is  at  present  (1908)  coznposed  of  80  reli- 

the  stump  of  a  column  fitted  in  a  wall  pointed  out  to  gious:  34  members  of  the  choir,  22  of  whom  are 

the  native  Christians  theplaoe  where  Jesus  prayed  on  priests,  whilst  the  others  are  preparing  themselves,  by 

the  eve  of  his  Passion.    The  foundations  of  tne  ancient  the  regular  studies,  for  the  pnesthood;  46  are  lay 

church  of  the  Agony  were  discovered  behind  this  wall,  brothers  who  are  more  especially  engaged  in  the  work 

IiBsfeTBa  in  Vio.,  Diet,  de  la  Bibles  a,  vj  Vxoouboux,  Le  N,  of  the  farm 

Teatament  et  lea  diwuverUk  ar^logiquM  (Pyia.  1896) .  Archives  of  the  Abbey  of  Qethaenutni;  Rdationa  of  Dam  Eutn- 

BARNABAB  MEISTERMANN.  piuf  in  Me»9enger  of  the  Sacred  HeaH  (1898);  PFANNENSCHiaiyT, 

^    ..                .     .                   r\       X                    #^1-^1  lUuatrierU  OeechiehU  der  Trappiaten  (Paderborn,  1876);  Taii- 

Qetnsemani,  Abbey  op  Our  Ladt  of,  of  the  Order  lon.  Notice  eur  Ua  monaatireads  la  Trappe  (Paria.  1856). 

of  Reformed  Cistercians,  commonly  called  Trappists,  Edmonp  M.  Obrecht. 

established  in  1848inNel8on  Co.,  Kentucky,  in  the  Dio-  ^      . 

ceseof  Louisville,bemgthefirstabbeyonAmericansoil.  Qeulincx,  Arnold.    See  OccAflioNALiSM. 

On  26  Oct.,  1848,  a  colony  of  forty  Trappists  left  the        ^^^ u  /      t^  ^\        *    r  *       n  4,u  r : 

Abbey  of  Melleray,  in  the'^Diocese  of  NiStes,  France,  ,  W*^  ^'''  ^'nl' u^^'  "^u  ''M'^''  2''^^''^''  ^" 

under  the  leaderstip  of  Dom  Eutrope  Proust,  and  ar^  ^^^  «^'  °^«  u^*"\^,!  ^^"^  ""^^T  ^T^'    J,^^ 

rived  at  New  Orleans  early  in  DeceiSber.    They  trav-  ^^^f^  &«?^,  fe"*-^^*^'7 VV"^  "^"^  f  ^^' 

elled  by  river  to  Louisville,  Ky.,  where  Bishop  tlaget,  ^  ^^W^t/  97S^*''*?fV^i!^^^S^^^ 

who  hid  greatly  desired  thWciming,  receiv^  thim:  ^!:^;.-H^^ih^Pk  ^^m'^^?i<     J^nA^^l^^lt 

On  21  Dicemlir  they  took  possession  of  the  lands  ?^H°^^  ^ ^^J.  ^^P-  <^**'  ^^^'  ^\^h    ^^^^^  *^®  ^^ 

destined  for  their  estoblishm^nTrnd  shortly  after-  ^"^  *^«  ^«^  I^."  regarded  as  an  episcopal, 

wards  their  number  was  increased  by  a  second  colony  ^^,!^"?^rJ"  J?"  archiepiscoiml  see.     Later,  it  was 

of  twenty  religious  from  the  mother-house.    The  JT*^  *^  ?T^'i!'' ?  *1'2^^  "^^  *r^t^^*^^^ 

monks  mfderto^k  the  work  of  clearing  their  lands  with  J^®  <>PP?«*«  ^^  ?ii  w\I1^1/k5;v  1'^ 

indomitable  enei^r,  and  little  by  little  arose  the  im-  the  erection  of  the  Chaldean  Catholic  patriarchate  by 

posing  structureslJhich  form  the  present  abbey.   This  Julius  III,  Gesireh  has  had  its  own  bishops  the  su^ 

S^^immense  quadrilateral,  one  side  of  which  is  ?!?it:^^$?«^:?f  ?,^±^ 

formed  by  the  church,  whflst  the  other  three  sides  con-  PP^'^.'J-    I^!.!^^^;^^^^^^                           iK?& 

4>o;««  ♦!,«  1^/^.^004^:^  ^tt^^^^  «r;+K  «  ^^^^,^:^,^^  ^.^«4.  but,  after  the  conversion  to  Oatnolicism  of  a  portion  of 

Tr..t~.~i  i,.=  j«r*2jr  .fck«*    r^jT-    1  »ifl.r   lOKi  twelve  pninary  echools  for  boys  and  one  for  girls 

S^f^S  7^  tMal  hU^5„^1«,m  Ri.h^^'  Ml'  conducted  by  the  Presentation  Sisters.    The  Fre^h 

^di  of  Lo'ui^vOk,  in  un/S^SeS^l  o?  B.^  Dominicans  Lve  a  r^side^  the..     The  Syrian  dio- 

♦^iwnTT  woo +»,«««♦  Jw»^«!«ri^«f4tTu^2^^^  cese  numbers  fiv«  hundred  faithful,  eleven  native 

tol?ortrAS>?ric5"^n"l^"£^m  Eut"^^^^  Pri^*--  ^^  of  whom  a«  .e.g«lars  five  chu«hes  and 

andn^tumedteFrance.    He  left  Dom^Benget  Be^r  -S^^d^^h'Jr^^S^te^"-^^'' 


in  charge,  who  was  soon  after  elected  abbot,  and  %•    TSf^u^J^'^Ff^^^^^^ 

n«,v«d  SiA ahKofml  KU«,m*, in  ftf  PafVi^rinoV PKitmi,      ^^^  issituatcd  Oil  thc  Hght  bank  of  the  Tims,  about 


on/qiin/i^,.i,;o.>ri»n,-«,;<,4^*<.f;/^,«^k<^oKKitrV^,;iri:»Jl«)~  of  whom  are  Christians  and  nearly  two  thousand 

S:S"KrrcWrs^ay"cJ^a"by  ^^''^J'  «T^*Til'i^  wS^'ie^-'the'i^^ 

Archbishop  Pnrcell  of  Cmdnnati^lS  Nov.,   IsJ  r«^,g7S,o7^ks'^Ld"aSoiWdlS'si^M 

Stncken  with  paralysis  in  1887,  Dom  Benedict  resigned  ajjgi^n^  of  about  l^entv-five  miles              "-^^^  »v 

his  charee  in  1889.    The  administration  then  passed  cuinet.  La  Turquie  d^Aaxe.ll.  sii-sui  Ratme  de  r Orient 

to  Dom  M.  Edward  Chaix-Bourbon,  who  was  elected  ChrHim  (1896),  p.  446;  Miaaionea  Catholicm  (1907),  805,  810. 

abbot  9  May,  1890,  and  received  the  abbatial  blessing  S.  Vailh£. 


ofbObeb 


542 


CMrtfrer,  August  Fribdrich,  German  historian; 
b.  at  Calw,  Wartembere,  5  March,  1803;  d.  at  Karls- 
bad, 6  July,  1861.  Obedient  to  the  wishes  of  his 
parents,  but  against  his  own  inclinations,  he  devoted 
nimself  to  the  study  of  theology;  was  a  student  at  the 
"Little  Evaneelical  Seminary''  of  Tilbingen  from 
1817-21,  and  from  1821-25  continued  his  studies  at 
the  higher  seminary  of  the  same  place.  He  com- 
pleted nis  education  by  a  series  of  scientific  travels 
through  Switzerland  and  Italy,  after  which  he  re- 
tumea  to  his  Alma  Mater.  In  1829,  he  was  ap{)ointed 
vicar  in  the  city  of  Stutteart.  Having  by  this  time 
lost  all  belief  m  revealed  religbn,  he  became  con- 
vinced that  to  continue  his  pastoral  duties  would  in- 
volve him  in  serious  conflicts;  he  therefore  resigned 
his  vicarage.  At  the  recommendation  of  Victor  von 
Bonstetten^  a  friend  of  his  father,  he  was  appointed 
third  librarian  of  the  public  library  of  Stuttgart  (1830) 
with  the  title  of  professor.  During  his  numerous 
hours  of  leisure  he  applied  himself  with  vigour  and 
enthusiasm  to  the  study  of  literature  and  history.  As 
the  fruit  of  these  labours  he  publi^ed  in  the  following 
year  (1831)  his  work  on  "Pnilo  und  die  judisch-alex- 
andrinische  Theosophie"  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1831). 
This  work  was  preparatory  to  his  larger  work  entitled 
"  Kritische  Geschichte  des  Urchristenthums"  (Stutt- 
gart, 1838,  in  5  vols.).  In  it  GfrOrer,  probably  im- 
pelled by  David  F.  Strauss's  ''  Leben  Jesu",  sought  to 
conceive  historically  the  life  and  teaching  of  Cnrist, 
and,  altiiou^  writing  as  a  rationalist  throughout,  he 
strongly  disclaims  bemg  "an  adherent  of  the  moaem 
champion  of  negative  truths"  (i.  e.  of  Strauss).  In 
the  first  i>art,  with  the  sub-title  "  Das  Jahr  des  Heils", 
he  investigates  the  time  in  which  Christ  lived ;  in  the 
second,  entitled  "Heilige  Sage",  he  treats  of  the  au- 
thenticity and  literarjr  character  of  the  first  three 
Gospels,  and  in  the  third,  "Das  Heiligthum  und  die 
Wahrheit",  he  discusses  the  Gospel  of  St.  John.  The 
work,  therefore,  is  a  detailed  investigation  of  the  char- 
acter and  sig^nificance  of  the  New  l^stament  from  an 
historical  point  of  view,  and  is  based  on  a  wealth  of 
materials.  At  the  same  time  he  studied  the  history  of 
the  Thirtv  Years  War,  and  in  1835  (in  Stuttgart)  pub- 
lished "  Gustav  Adolf,  KOnig  der  Schweden  und  seine 
Zeit"  (4th  ed.,  1863),  in  which  bv  emphasizing  the 
political  r61e  of  the  Swedish  king  he  took  a  position 
diametrically  opposed  to  the  views  previously  neld  by 
Protestants. 

An  eaually  profound  impression,  especially  in  Cath- 
olic circles,  was  produced  by  his  "  Allgemeine  Kirchen- 
geschich te"  (4  vols . ,  Stuttgart,  1 841 H16) .  Closing  with 
the  year  1305,  it  brings  mto  prominence  the  impor- 
tant part  played  by  the  Catholic  Cliurch  in  the  devel- 
opment ot  the  German  Empire,  and  justly  extols  the 
policy  of  the  popes.  Shortly  afterwards  ne  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  history  at  the  Catholic  University 
of  Freiburg  (Breisgau) — an  appointment  which  at  first 
sight  appears  surprising,  inasmuch  as  he  was  a  rational- 
ist, the  results  of  whose  investigations  were  not  at  all 
times  in  harmony  with  Christian  doctrine.  His  call, 
however,  is  quite  intelligible  in  view  of  the  tendencies 
of  his  recent  writings,  and  of  his  fair  treatment  of  reli- 
gious questions,  which  seemed  to  indicate  a  gradual 
return  to  more  conservative  religious  opinions.  In 
1848,  he  was  elected  to  the  German  Parliament  at 
Frankfort  as  representative  of  a  district  of  WQrtem- 
berg;  he  belonged  to  the  greater  German  party,  and 
was  a  fanatical  opponent  of  Prussia.  It  is  a  notable 
fact  that,  while  in  Parliament,  he  proposed  a  motion 
for  the  reunion  of  Catholics  and  Protestants,  but  only 
on  condition  that  the  Holy  See  would  promise  never  to 
permit  the  Jesuits  or  Redemptorists  to  settle  on  Ger- 
man soO.  In  1853  he  entered  the  Catholic  Church, 
after  all  the  other  members  of  his  family  had  taken  the 
same  step.  His  later  publications  are:  "Geschichte 
der  ost-  und  westfrankischen  Karolinger"  (Freiburg, 
1848,  2  vols.);  "Die  Urgeschichte  des  menschlichen 


Geschlechts"  (SchafiFhausen,  1855,  2  vols.,  inoom* 
plete),  a  demonstration  that  neither  critical  history 
nor  the  natural  sciences,  in  treating  of  the  origin  and 
eariiest  history  of  the  human  race,  can  lay  claim  to 
certainty,  when  oppcxsed  to  the  earliest  traditions  of 
'jmankind  and  especially  to  Holy  Writ;  "Papst  Gr&- 
^rius VII  undsem  Zeitalter"  (Schaffhausen,  1859-61, 
m  7  vols.),  a  part  of  his  "  Church  Historjr ' ',  notable  for 
its  brilliant  scholarship  and  conscientious  research. 
Many  volumes  of  lectures  were  published  posthu- 
mously: "Geschichte  des  18.  Jahrhunderts"  (Schaff- 
hausen, 1862-73;  Vols.  I-IV  by  Weiss;  second  part  of 
the  fourth  vol.  by  Tiedemann,  Basle,  1884);  "Zur 
Geschichte  deutscher  Volksrechte  im  Mittelalter" 
(Schaffhausen,  1865,  2  vols.) ;  **  Byzantinische  Gei 
schichten  "  (Graz,  1872-74, 2  vols.).  His  "  Prophet© 
veteres  pseudepigraphi  latine  versi"  (Stuttgart,  1840), 
with  tnmslation,  is  critically  unsatisfactorv.  Gfr&rer 
was  a  man  of^usual  ability;  he  possesseo  great  acu- 
men and  greai  powers  of  bold  and  correct  combination. 
He  was  a  prolific  author,  although  his  literary  re- 
searches were  sometimes  lacking  in  method. 

Albbbdinok-Thtm,  a.  F.  Gfrdrer  en  tijne  werken  (Haarlem, 
1870).  It  ahould  be  noted  that  the  author  of  thia  work  is 
Gfr6rer*8  son-in-law.  Allgemeine  deutache  Biofpttphie,  IX,  139- 
144;  VON  Wbbch.  Badiache  Biographien,  I,  300-^04;  RoasN- 
TUAL,  ConverHtenbUder,  I,  2, 807  sqa. 

Fatriciub  Schlaqer. 

Ghardaia,  Prefbcturb  Apostolic  of,  in  the 
French  Sahara,  separated  in  1901  from  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  Sahara  and  the  Soudan.  It  includes  the 
region  between  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Morocco, 
the  Dioceses  of  Algeria  and  Tunis,  the  Mission  of 
Tripoli,  and  20^  N .  lat.  The  inhabitants  number  about 
300,000,  all  Mussulmans,  but  of  different  races,  such  as 
Arabs  and  Berbers.  In  this  vast  region  are  nomadic 
Arab  tribes,  such  as  the  Larba,  the  Chaambas,  and  the 
Said  Otba;  there  are  sedentary  populations  in  the 
oases,  as  those  of  the  oases  of  Wargla  (Uargla),  Gurara, 
Tuat  (Twat),  Tedikelt,  various  tribes  of  the  Tuar- 
regs,  and  lastly  the  strong  and  important  group  of 
Mozabites  in  the  district  olMzab. 

At  present  the  mission  comprises  three  stations, 
Ghardaia,  Wargla  and  Elgolea.  Twelve  missionaries 
and  three  lav  brothers  of  the  Congregation  des  Mis- 
sionaires  d'  Afrique  (White  Fathers!  are  emploved  at 
the  different  tasks  pertaining  to  a  mission  in  a  Mussul- 
man country.  Evangelization  properly  so-called  can- 
not be  at  once  begun  in  such  coimtries.  The  task  of 
the  missionaries  is  wholly  one  of  preparation,  requiring 
long  and  obscure  toil  of  which  statistics  convey  no 
adequate  appreciation.  It  consists  in  overcoming  by 
degrees,  through  benevolent  intercourse,  the  exercise 
of  charity,  and  instruction,  the  ancient  prejudices 
which  the  Mussulmans  haroour  towards  Christians. 

Sreiudices  that  are  rooted  deeply  in  the  very  religion  ot 
[ohammed.  Only  insensibly,  therefore,  and  through 
appreciation  of  the  benefits  conferred  by  the  mission- 
anes  and  through  customary  respect  for  the  latter  as 
men  of  God,  do  these  peoples  become  detached  from 
Islam,  and  a  new  generation  grow  up  in  which  it  is 
possible  to  make  numerous  and  permanent  conversions, 
permanent  precisely  because  more  numerous,  for  occa- 
sional conversions  amid  Mussulman  surroimdings  are 
lUmost  impossible. 

Miaeionea  Caiholiea  (Rome,  1907);  Catholic  Miaauma  (Lon- 
don,   );  AntuUea  de  la  propagation  de  la  Foi  (Lyons,  1901- 

1909).  Charles  GuisaiN. 

Ghent,  Diocese  of  (Gandensib  or  Gaxdavensis), 
at  present  comprises  the  whole  territory  of  East 
Flanders,  one  of  the  nine  provinces  of  Belgium.  It 
numbers  1 , 1 03,930  inhabitants  and  362  parishes.  The 
see  was  erected  by  Paul  IV  ('  *  Super  universi ",  12  May. 
1559)  at  the  request  of  Philip  II,  King  of  Spain  ana 
Sovereign  of  the  Low  Countries.  Till  that  time  Ghent 
had  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Toumai.  Situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Scheldt  (Escaut),  the  new  diocese 


was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  westeni  arm  of  that 
river,  od  the  east  by  the  new  Diocesee  of  Antwerp  and 
Mechlin,  detached  from  Cambrai,  on  the  Bouth  by 
Toumai,  and  on  the  weat  by  the  new  Dioceae  of 
Brugea{"Ex  iniuncto",  PiualV,  I5G0,  and"Regimim 
universalis  Ecclesis"  especially  for  Ghent,  7  August, 


Chubch  or  Saiht-Jacqiibb.  Ohbht 
1561),  Previoua  to  this  Charles  V  had  obtained  from 
Paul  III  the  secularitation  of  the  monka  of  the  Abbey 
of  Saint-Bavon,  at  Ghent  (22  July,  1536),  and  in  1541 
they  traosfened  their  chapter  from  the  ancient  abb^ 
to  the  parochial  church  of  St,  John  the  Baptist,  whico 
henceforth  bore  the  name  of  Saint-Bavon.  In  1559  it 
was  decided  that  this  chapt«r  should  became  that  of 
the  cathe(lral,  and  that  at  the  death  of  Vigllus,  then 
mitred  provost  of  said  chapter,  the  revenues  of  the 
abbacy,  or  provoatehip,  should  become  the  episcopal 


After  the  concordat  between  Pius  VII  and  the 
First  Consul,  Bonaparte  (see  Concordat  op  1801), 
the  pope  called  upon  all  the  bishops  of  France  to  re- 
sim  their  Bees.  Prince  de  Lobkowiti,  the  Bishop  erf 
Ghent,  had  died  at  MQnater  in  1795  and  had  not  been 
replaced.  By  the  Bull  "Qui  Chriati  Domini"  (29 
November,  1801),  Piua  VII  suppreased  all  the  ancient 
dioceses  tbJoughout  the  French  Republic,  and  erected 
aixty  new  dioceses,  among  which  he  re-eatablished 
that  of  Ghent,  comprising  the  two  departments  of 
EacautandLva,  i.e.  the  three  ancient  dioceses  of  Ghent, 
BrUKea,  and  Yprea,  to  which  was  added  a  portion  of 
Mechlin  and  Dutch  Flanders.  Gregory  XVI  detached 
the  part  appertaining  to  Holland  (25  August,  1832), 
and  by  the  erection  of  the  See  of  Bruges  (27  May, 
1834),  determined  the  present  jurisdiction  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Ghent.  Ghent  baa  had  twenty-four  bishopa, 
irf  whom  the  last  is  Mgr  Antoine  Stiftemans, 


The  former,  who  must  not  be  confounded  with 
Janaenius,  Bishop  of  Ypres,  the  author  of  the  "  Au- 
gustinus",  was  professor  of  theology  at  Louvain 
when  Philip  II  sent  him  as  his  representative  to 
the  Council  of  Trent.  On  his  return  to  Flanders,  he 
was  named  by  the  king  first  Bishop  of  Ghent,  in  1568, 
and  this  nomination  waa  confirmed  by  Pius  IV  on  S 
July  of  the  same  year.  His  numerous  and  learned  com- 
mentariea  on  the  Holy  Scriptures  reveal  in  him  an 
exegete  of  great  merit.  The  seventh  bishop,  Antoine 
Triest  occupied  the  see  from  1022  to  1S57.  He  waa  a 
veritable  Macenaa  and  the  cathedral  of  Saint-Bavon 
is  indebted  to  him  For  moat  of  the  masterpieces  which 
adorn  it,  Hia  generosity  towards  the  poor  found  ex- 
pression in  important  cnaritable  foundations  and  in 
the  zeal  which  he  dismayed  in  the  establishment  at 
Ghent  of  the  Moat  de  PiSt^,  an  institution  founded  to 
lend  to  the  poor  without  interest.  Biahop  Triest  be- 
queathed considerable  sums  to  this  work. 

In  1S13,  during  the  episcopate  of  the  Prince  de 


3  aHnfT 

Brt^ie  (1807-1821),  the  seminanana  of  Ghent  offered 
an  heroic  resistance  to  the  despotism  of  Napoleon. 
The  emperor  held  the  bishop  prisoner  ana  twic« 
sought  to  wrest  from  him  his  resignation.  He  undw- 
took  to  name  a  successor,  and  sent  as  Bishop  of  Ghent 
a  canon  of  Dijon,  M,  de  la  Brue  de  Saint-Bauzille,  but 
all  the  clergy,  with  the  exception  of  thirty  out  of  a 
thousand  pnesla,  refuaed  to  recognise  him.  Being 
called  upon  to  submit  to  the  intruder,  the  seminarians 
oppoaea  an  energetic  refusal,  were  compelled  to  enter 
the  imperial  regiments,  and  were  taken,  some  to 
Wesel,  the  othera  to  Paris.  Many  subsequently  died 
at  Wesel  as  a  result  of  contagious  diseases  and  priva- 
tions of  every  sort,  but  all  remained  faithful  to  their 
motto:  "Rather  soldiera  than  schismatics". 

During  the  episcopate  of  Mgr  Delebecque  (1838-64) 
nine  American  bishops  sent  two  of  their  eolleaRues  to 
ttak  priests  from  the  Dioceae  of  Ghent,  intending  to 
placeundertheirdirectionand  instruction  the  seminary 
which  they  proposed  to  found  at  Troy,  New  York. 
Mgr  Delebecque  acceded  to  this  .'Cquest,  and  in  the 
month  of  August,  1864,  HM.  van  den  Hcnde,  Gabriels 


tinued  its  collaboration  in  the  aeminary  at  Troy  until 
July,  1896.  It  was  also  at  Ghent  and  under  the  aus- 
pices of  Mkt  Delebecque  that  the  work  was  founded, 
in  1859,  which  is  now  known  as  It  Denier  de  Saint 
Pierre,  i.  e.  Peter's  Pence. 

Among  the  clergy  of  Ghent  Jean-Frangois  Van  de 
Velde  (1743-1823)  is  most  deserving  of  notice.    While 
be  acquired  a  well-merited  reputation  as  profesaor  of 
Hoiy  Scripture  at  the  University  of  Louvain,  and  his 
published  and  manuscript  works  place  him  in  the  front 
rank  of  the  theologians  of  his  tmie,  he  is  chiefly  en- 
titled to  notice  for  the  important  part  which  he  puyed 
in  the  religiouaatfairs  of  his  country,  first, under  Joseph 
II,  byhismtrcpid  oppoaitionto  the  decrees  with  regard 
to  marriage  (1784),  and  later,  under  Napoleon,  by  his 
decisive  intervention  at  the  national  council,  which 
the   emperor   as- 
sembledatPariein 
1811    and  where, 
aa  the  counsellor 
of  Mgr  de  Broglie, 

"Mimoire  aur 
I 'incompetence  du 
concile  national  k 
changer  la  disci- 
plincderEglise,en 
vertu  de  laquelle 
le  Fape  aeul  donne 
I'institution  can- 
onique    aux  6v^ 

("Memo^rT^um 
concerning  the  i 
incompetency  of 
the  national  coun- 
cil to  alter  the  dis- 
ci p  I  i  n  e  of  the 
Church,  in  virtue 
of  which  the  pope 
alone      c  o  n  I  e  r  a 

canonical  inatitu-  _  >  « 

,,  ,L  •  RiiK  Baibt-Jiah,  Ohbnt 

r  J  L-  u     ",""■  etmwing  mthedral  toner 

nated  bishops). 

One  who  waa  well  entitled  to  be  called  "  the  Vincent 
de  Paul  of  Bel^um  "  also  deserves  mention.  The  inex- 
haustible charity  of  Canon  Pierre-Joseph  Triest  (1760- 
1836)  was  extended  to  all  human  miseries,  and  for 
their  more  efficacious  relief  he  founded  in  succession 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  (1803),  the  Brothers  of  Charity 
(1807),  the  '■  Association  of  Maternal  Charity  "  (1822), 
the  Brothers  of  St.  Jolin  of  God  (1825),  and  the  Sistera 
of  the  Holy  Childhood  of  Jesus  (1835). 


We  shaU  apeak  odIt  of  the  firat  and  aecood  of  these 
loatitutimDa,  the  devetopment  of  which  waa  truly  es- 
traordin&rjr.    l^e  Sisters  of  Charitv  now  number 
more  than  1300,  and  their  benevolent  activity  is 
spread  throughout  Belgium,  Holland,  England,  the 
Congo,  India  (Punjab),  and  Ceylon.     They  are  en- 
eaged  not  only  in  the  instruction  of  children,  but  give 
intelligent  and  devoted  care  to  deaf  mutes,  the  insane 
and     incurables. 
In  Europe  more 
than  6000  infirm 
are  sheltered    in 
their  houses.  The 
Congregation     of 
the    Brothers  of 
Charity,  which 
numbers  about 
1000  reUgiouB,  ia 
spread    through- 
out Belgium  and 
has      been      ex- 
tended   Buecea- 
sivelv  to  Canada, 
the  United  States, 
England,  Ireland, 
and  the  Nether- 
lands.    At  pres- 
ent it  possesaee  44 
establishments 
where  more  than 
0000  insane,  aged, 
and  sick  persons 
and  many  other 
CMrreaarrT  or  Ohbht  unfortunates  are 

cared  for.  The 
Brothers  teach  and  care  tor  more  than  11,000  children 
and  poor  youths^  440  deaf  mules  and  blind  persons, 
450 youthful  delmquentsand  1000  foundlings. 

Truly  remarkable  religious  monuments  of  the  dio- 
cese are :  the  cathedral  of  Saint^Bavon  and  the  churehee 
of  Saint-Nicholas,  Saint-Jacques,  and  Saint-Michel  at 
Ghent,  the  church  of  Saint-Martin  at  Alost,  and  the 
churches  of  Notre-Dame  and  Sainte-Walburge  at  Ou- 
deoarde.  From  an  architectural  point  of  view  the 
cathedral  of  SainUBavon  at  Ghent  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  churches  in  Belgium  and  is  undoubtedly  the 
richest  in  objects  of  art.  Among  its  numerous  works 
of  sculpture  the  tomb  of  Bishop  Trieatj  by  Jdrflme 
Duqueanoy,  is  inconteetably  the  masterpiece,  and  has 
been  rightfully  called  "the  most  beautiful  work  of 
national  statuary".  The  cathedral  of  Ghent  is  de- 
servedly famous  for  the  immortal  altar-piece  of  the 
brothers  Hubert  and  Jan  Van  Eyck,  known  as  "The 
Adoration  of  the  Lamb",  which  was  completed  in  1432. 
The  cathedral  now  possesses  only  the  central  pane!  of 
the  pietin^,  the  moat  important  portion  of  the  work. 
The  side  panels  are  at  Berlin  and  at  Brussels. 

Hellih.  Haloiri  chronoloaiipii  da  (vlqaa  de  Gand  (Ghent, 
1772):  .4InanacA  du  dzTDJ  da  Canff(Ohcnt,  1880- 1909):  Kbb- 
KTMv,  Journal  hittoriqut  tt  lHUmitt  {Li*Ke.  1834-35  to  1881- 
63);  CuEUBHB,  QueJqua  idaxrd—tmenli  >ur  i'tlabtuirmenl 
da  tvldUi  dam  la  Payi-Bat  (Louvaln,  1S59);    Idem,  La  Bd- 

E'  ckrttienne  dtpniM  la  ctmituite  ffancaiae  juamt'h  n«  ioitrt 
■H^  1SS3):  ha  Smkt,  Coup  ^<t3^iur  Vhuloire  BxUtiai- 
dartt  la  premiira  imn*a  dU  XIX' niirU  (Ghcnl.  184a): 
Van  deb  Muebe.  Ridt  de  la  pm^utim  mdurfe  par  la  itmino- 
riUadudiociitdeGandiahent.lS63),  Comult  >I»  N>ufcCHE. 
Court  d'hitlairt  nalUmaU  (Lournln.  18941:  Bracq.  Vic  de  Mar 
dt  Broftit  (QhsrH.  liM4);  Lavadt,  Vit  dt  Mar  Brora  (Ghent, 
1867);  Dabnb.  Vie  de  Mar  LamtrtrlU  (Alost.  I8SS):  Da 
~  "       "ni7t»  Fan  de  Velde  (St,  Nichol»«,  1897):   Fae- 


UBEBBEB,  La  fgiiaee  dt 


.    IMWII;   Kebtth 


(MsnMB,    1(_.    , 

Omd  (Ohent,   1857);  Coetoebdeb,  L'Egtiee  caH^drtUe  de  St- 
Bavm  (Ubent.  1S93>;  Vah  nEN  Greth.  La  aUhidnU  dt  Sir 


t4  OEIBKBTI 

uahered  in  the  early  Renaissance  in  his  native  city  oS 
Florence  as  a  aculptor  in  bionxe,  just  as  Masaceio  led 
the  way  in  the  art  of  painting,  and  Brunellesco  in  arehi- 
teeture.  In  a  competition  for  the  beat  deaign  for  the 
second  bronze  door,  the  one  on  the  north  side  of  the 
baptisteiv,  Ghiberti  carried  off  the  priie  offered  b^ 
the  merchants'  guild  of  Florence  in  1401 ;  among  his 
many  rivals  was  Brunellesco.  The  designs  presented 
by  Ghiberti  and  Brunellesco,  the  subject  of  which  waa 
the  Sacrifice  of  Isaac,  are  preserved  ia  the  Museo  Na- 
tionale  of  Florence.  The  work  of  Andrea  Pisano  on 
the  south  portal  served  as  a  model  for  the  north  portal. 
The  style  of  the  Trecento  (Italian  Renaissance  of  the 
fourteenth  century)  is  apparent  in  the  typical  heads, 
in  the  fines,  and  the  somewhat  stiff  character  of  the 
action,'  but  there  is  more  freedom  in  the  forms,  the  eX' 
pression,  and  the  handfineof  the  spaces.  The  wings 
of  the  doors  are  divided  Dy  vertical  and  horiiontal 
bands  into  twenty-eight  panels,  in  each  of  which  the 
refief  is  enclosed  in  a  modified  quatrefoil.  The  jamba, 
lintels  and  friezes  are  decorated  with  leaves  and  flow- 
eiB.  At  the  angles  of  the  panels  are  the  heads  of 
prophets  and  of  sibyls.  The  twenty  upper  scenes  are 
taken  from  the  life  of  Christ,  the  eight  lower  onea 
represent  the  four  Evangelists  and  four  Fathers  of  the 
Church.  The  whole  compoaition  is  sober,  pleaains, 
and  harmonious.  This  portal  finished  (1403-1424), 
Ghiberti  undertook  the  eastern,  main  portal,  the  work 
in  this  showing  greater  freedom  in  the  treatment  and 
an  advance  in  style.  It  includes  ten  scenes  from  the 
Old  Testament,  most  of  which  are  subdivided  into 
several  subjects.  The  reUefs  produce  a  pictorial 
effect  by  reason  of  the  number  ot  figures,  perspective, 
m^ouping,  landscape  and  architectural  Dadcgmimd. 
TTiey  were  completed  in  1452.  Ghiberti  here  shows 
himself  in  the  development  of  sculpture  the  rival  of 
bis  contemporary  Masaceio.  In  fact  he  compels  the 
leas  responsive  art  of  sculpture  to  vie  with  the 
more  vivacious  sister  art  oi  painting.  His  "Para- 
dise", for  instance,  includes  a  number  of  lesser 
subjects  from  the  creation  of  Adam  to  his  expulsion 
from  Eden;  the  foremost  figures  are  almost  in  tiie 
round,  the  relief  becoming  leaa  marked  as  the  figures, 
that  at  the  same  time  grow  smaller,  recede  from  the 
foreground.  His  effort  to  follow  nature  is  further- 
more shown  by  the  character  expressed  in  the  faces 
and  the  action;  there  is  withal  no  loss  of  ^racO'  or 
beauty.  Ghiberti  ia  a  master  of  technic;  its  per> 
fection  is  everywhere  evident,  even  in  details  ofor- 
nament.  Vases  containing  vines  intertwined  with 
fruits  and  supporting  the  figures  of  various  animals, 
adorn  the  frames  of  Uie  doors.  Each  wing  has  a  sepa- 
rate frame  ornamented  with  statuettes  in  niches  di- 
vided from  eacli  other  by  decorative  busts.  Of  this 
rate  Michelangelo  declared  that  It  was  worthy  to  be 
tbe  entrance  of  Paradise.  Ghiberti  himself,  in  a  de- 
scription of  the  work  found  among  his  papew,  pro- 
nounced it  his  foremost  achievement.  In  one  of  the 
small  medallions  of  the  framework  of  the  houses, 
doubtless  with  ajust  pride  in  his  achievement,  he  luu 
preserved  his  own  portrait. 

The  same  high  art  characterizes  his  treatment  of 
the  reliquary  ofSt.  ZenobJus  in  the  cathedral  of  Flor 
ence.  On  three  aides  are  scenes  descriptive  of  the 
miracles  of  the  saint,  the  fourth  is  adorned  with  a 
wreath  and  angels.  The  reliquary  of  San  Giacinto  ia 
decorated  with  hovering  an^ls,  but  on  the  front  only. 
Among  the  grave-slaiw  designed  by  Ghiberti  the  bas- 
relief  of  Leonardo  Dati  in  Santa  Maria  Novella  de- 
serveseapecial mention.  Tbechurehof OrSanMichele 
possesses  many  specimens  of  the  new  plastic  art  of 
this  era  of  the  Renaissance,  among  them  thi«e  stat- 
ues by  Ghiberti,  the  latest  and  best  of  the  three  being 
that  of  St.  Stephen.  Apart  from  their  many  mat 
merits  these  large  statues  exhibit  one  weakness  of  the 
master,  i.  e.  the  treatment  of  draperies  and  the  pose. 
Originally  a  goldsmith,  and  working  mostly  in  relief. 


aHIBLAllDAJO  5 

be  lacked  practice  in  the  htgpt  style  of  sculpture.  la 
fact,  from  Vasari's  time,  Ghiberti  waa  oftea  unduly 
admired.  He  falls  occasionally  below  Bome  of  bis  con- 
temporariee  in  sharp  characteriiatian,  in  vigorous 
movement  and  unaffected  naturolneaa.  It  must, 
however,  be  admitt«d  that  in  contrast  to  the  harsh 
realism  of  Donat«llo  he  observed  always  the  dictates 
of  grace  and  beauty,  approaching  therein  Lucca  delta 
Robbia.  Hia  art  belongs  to  a  period  of  transition. 
Cl^f  traces  of  the  earlier  Gothic  art  survive  in  Ghi- 
berti, e.  a.  the  mannerism  of  hia  slender  and  pleasing 
rather  than  expressive  figures,  also  a  similar  treat- 
ment of  the  background.    On  the  other  hand  bis 


15  OHIBLA2IDAJ0 

aUrlandftJo  (Douexico  di  Tomuaso  Bioordi),  a 
famous  Florentine  painter;  b.  1449;  d.  11  Jan..  1494. 
His  father,  Tommaso  di  Curradi  Bigordi,  is  spoken  o( 
aa  a  dealer  (senacUe)  in  jenellerv.  According  to  Vasari 
he  owes  his  surname  Gbirlanaajo,  i.  e.  the  Gariand- 
maker",  to  a  branch  of  his  trade  of  which  he  made  a 
speciality,  namely,  the  manufacture  of  silver  or  sold 
crowna  or  diadems,  wbidi  formed  a  kind  of  head-dress 
affected  by  the  younj;  women  of  Florence.  Like  Ver- 
rocchio  and  the  Pollamoli,  Domenico  began  as  a  gold- 
smitb.  There  existed  once  in  the  Florentine  church 
of  the  Annunziata  silver  ex-votos  and  lamps  of  his 
worluDanship,   destroyed   during  the  sack  of  1630. 


Hum  Pobtal 
Baptistery  <(  S.  Oiovanni,  Florenos 

LOHIHEO  OhIBEHTI 


Or  San  Uiobela,  floranoe 


study  of  classic  art  is  visible  in  the  draperies  and  often 
in  the  heads  of  his  figures.  His  fidelity  to  nature, 
moreover,  developed  in  him  a  strong  <uift  towards 
realism. 

His  sense  of  the  beautiful  and  his  originality  stamp 
Ghiberti  as  the  precursor  of  Raphael.  He  was  no 
pioneer  like  Donatella,  yet  his  work,  especially  his 
bronze  doors,  had  a  lasting  influence  on  his  successors. 
In  him  native  genius  was  aided  by  reflection  and 
theory.  In  a  certain  sense,  therefore,  a  new  era  in 
art  mav  be  said  to  date  from  him.  In  bis  "CommcD' 
taries  be  critically  reviewed  the  development  of  art 
from  the  time  of  Cimabue  to  bis  own  day.  While 
dvine  an  account  of  his  own  works  he  clearly  su^eala 
Uiat  he  consciously  strove  after  a  new  art.  He  seems 
to  characterize  himself  in  his  description  of  the  second 
bronse  gate,  when  he  says:  "In  this  work  I  sou^t  to 
imitate  nature  as  cloeely  as  possible,  both  in  propor- 
tions and  in  perspective  as  well  as  in  the  beauty  and 
pictureaqueness  of  the  composition  and  the  numbers 
of  figures;  some  of  these  scenes  contain  nearly  one 
hundred  figures,  others  leas,  but  all  were  execul«d 
with  the  utmost  care ;  the  buildings  appear  as  seen  by 
the  eye  of  one  who  gases  on  them  from  a  distance. 

Fsat,  Vatari^Vila  di  Larmza  GhUmti  wkb  the  CammmlaTia 
of  Ohib^i  (Berlin,  ISSfl);  Pbbkihb,  Hittorical  Handbook  at 
'—-■--   "    i«ture  (London,  1883);  Idbk,  Gkibtrti  a  •on  fcoi* 

A.    GlXTUANN, 

VI.— 35 


(Futa,  ISSg). 


Traces  of  his  early  training  in  the  goldsmith's  art  are 
recognizable  in  the  splendour  of  bis  ornamental  decor- 
ation, the  carvings  of  his  pilasters,  also  in  his  frieiea 
and  the  garlands  with  which  he  adorns  bis  work.  Ar- 
tistic ability  seems  to  have  run  in  the  family,  for  Do- 
menico had  two  brothers,  slightly  younger  than  him- 
self, David  and  Bcnedette,  bis  collaborators  in  nearly 
all  his  great  works.  Together  with  their  brother-in- 
law,  Mainardi,  who  had  married  their  sister  Alessan- 


principalatelierofFloreacefor  the  production  of  works 
of  art.  Domenico's  master  was  that  singularly  dis- 
tinguished collector  and  antiquary,  Alessio  Baldovin- 
etti  (1427-1499).  By  more  than  one  characteristic, 
e.  g.  his  straining  after  realism,  his  anxiety  for  a  per- 
fect expression  of  life,  his  taste  for  analysis,  andi^his 
technical  skill  in  the  use  of  colours,  Alessio  was  a  pre- 
cursor of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Domenico  was  much 
less  impulsive  and  more  fully  master  ofhimself,  buthe 
assuredly  owed  Alessio  bis  success  in  fresco,  ia  which 
many  think  him  the  most  perfect  painter  of  his  age. 
Ghirlandajo's  earliest  works,  e.  g-  the  frescoes  of  St. 
Andrea  Brozzi,  and  those  in  the  \^pucci  chapel  (dis- 
covered in  1898)  of  the  church  of  Ognissanti  at  Flor- 
ence, date  perhaps  from  1472  or  1473,  and  as  yet  ex- 
hibit little  individuality.  His  "Descent  from  the 
Cross",  executed  when  the  artist  was  twenty-three 


amBLAITDAJO  M6  GHtBLAHDAJO 

yeara  1^  age,  is  disfiKured  by  the  coarse  realism  of  Cas'  Florence,  he  ptunted  an  "AnnuDciation"  (1482)  at 

tagno.     His   "Virgin   Most   Pitiful"   (Ver^ne   della  San  Gimignano.     The  remainder  of  his  life  Beeffls  to 

ij^ricordia)  followa  yet  the  medteval  conventional-  have  been  passed  at  Flotence,  wheie  threegieat  under- 

iam,  but  ie  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  portraits,  takings  absorbed  his  octivitv.    From  1482  to  1484,  he 

in  which  line  Ghirlandajo  always  excelled.     Hence-  executedat  the  Palazzo  delUSignoria  the  "Haeat&di 

fortti  his  artistic  genius  seems  to  nave  taken  a  definite  San  Zenobio"  and  the  noble  figures  of  Roman  state»- 

formand  to  have  changed  but  little  initsdevelopment.  men,  modelled  after  those  of  Taddeo  di  fiartolo  in  the 

There  was  little  time  Tor  anything  except  the  regular  Falazso  Publico  of  Siena.    Of  all  the  frescoes  which 

pursuit  of  his  work  in  the  life  of  this  tireless  artist,  made  this  town-hall  of  Florence  the  worthy  compan- 

His'enormousoutputooversaspaceof  little  more  than  ion  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  only  those  of  Ghiriandajo 

fifteen  years  (1475-1491),  and  owing  to  its  steady  have  been  preserved.     In  1485,  he  completed  in  the 

pnwess  can  scarcely  be  divided  into  {wriods.    Un*  Sassetti  chapel  at  the  Trinitit  six  frescoes  illustrative 

troubled  by  passion  or  conQict  his  genius  grew  and  of  the  "Life  of  St.  Francis".    They  were  not  finished 

expanded  like  a  flower.     Though  one  of  the  most  ac-  when  he  received  the  order  for  his  greatest  work,  the 

complished  artists  of  the  fifteenth  century,  his  life  fifteea  frescoes  of  the  "Life  of  St.  John  the  Baptist" 

exbibite  none  of  the  troubles,  complex  situations,  or  and  the  "Life  of  the  Virein"  which  adorn  the  Tc 


contradictions  that  meet  us  in  the  stormy  life  of  Bot-  buoni  chapel  in  Santa  Maria  Novella.    These  paint- 

ticelli.    The  first  characteristic  work  of  the  young  ings,  finished  in  1490,  are  rightfully  numbered  among 

master   was   exe-  the  most  celebrated  in  Florence.    They  are  Ghirlan- 

cuted  when  he  was  dajo's  most  popular  work,  and  are  reckoned  among 

twenty-five (1475),  the  greatest  Italian  masterpieces.    Their  merit  is  not 

in   the   coll^iabe  owing  to  the  subject.    Dramatic  emotion  is  entirely 

church  of  San  Gi-  absent.    Never  did  an  artist,  not  even  Michelangelo  in 

mignano.  He  drew  bis  incident  from  the  Pisan  war,  his  tombs  of  the 

his  inspiration  Uedicis,  permit  himself  such  liberties  with  his  ostensi- 

from  the   life   of  ble  subject;  or  presume  in  the  face  of  all  tradition  and 

Santa   Fina,    a  probability  to  substitute  arbitrarily  a  subject  chosen 

maiden  of  that  city  m  conformity  with  his  own  tastes  and  preferences, 

who  died  in   the  Only  rarely,  and  in  unintereeting  traits,  does  Ghirlan- 

odour  of  sanctity,  dajo  force  himself  to  serious  coritormity  with  the  con- 

12     March,     1254  ventional  treatment  of  his  subject. 
fde' Medici,  "Vita         As  a  rule  Ghirlandajo  avoids  representing  move- 

ai    Santa   Fina",  ment.    His  calm  and  clear  imagination,  well-ordered 

Siena,     1781),   to  and  harmonious,  is  better  adapted  to  depicting  neu- 

whose   memory  a  tral  gestures  and   attitudes  nearly  always  borrowed 

chapel  had  re-  from  daily  life.    In  most  of  his  scenes  and  those  the 

cently  been  erected  most  beautiful,  e.  g.  the  "Nativity  of  the  Virgin"  or 

(1468) by Giuliano  the  "Visitation",  tne  historical  molit  and  the  actuld 

and  Benedetto  da  event  are  of  no  moment.    The  gospel  theme  b  re- 

Hajano.    The  two  duced  to  a  minimum,  and  becomes  a  mere  pretext  for 

scenes  treated  by  a  great  and    magnificently   conceived  "tableau  de 

the     artist,     the  mceurs ' ',  or  representation  of  contemporary  life.    The 

"Vision"of  the  Saint  and  her  "Burid", exhibit  all  beautiful  everywhere  diffused,  reality  in  its  hidieet 

the  elements  of  his  future  great  work.     The  first  scene  forms,  the  artistic  setting  of  things,  daily  life  wiui  its 

is  on  a  large  scale,  is  treated  with  much  taste  and  in  as  infinite  variety  of  subjects,  constitute  tlu  inexhauati- 

familiara  manneraswaspermittedtoanltalianartist.  ble  charm  of  these  marvellous, scenes,  in  which  one 

lntbe"Burial"  of  theSaint  somethingmorepersonal  must  not  seek  depth,  emotion,  or  poetry.    No  one 

appals  to  us.     The  simple  local  event,  the  mere  abso-  ever  conceived  the  life  about  him  under  such  graceful 

lution  pronounced  over  the  remains  of  a  modest  village  and  noble  forms  as  Ghirlandajo.     Devoid  of  imagina- 

maiden,  is  magnified  and  elevated  to  a  lofty  and  power-  tion,  and  compelled  therefore  to  substitute  for  the 

ful  significance,  in  the  treatment  of  the  assemblcNi  mul-  great  drama  of  the  past  the  multitudinous  spectacle  of 

titude.     It  is  no  lon_ger  an  ordinary  burial;  the  entire  the  present,  he  nevertheless  attained,  under  the  cir- 

citi^,representedbyiteclerzy,magistrates,andcitizens,  cumstances,  the  highest  flights  of  fancy.     Instead  of 

assists  at  the  function,  while  the  beautiful  towers  of  the  always  hypothetical  reconstruction  of  an  imagi- 

San  Gimignano  are  shown  as  decoration  of  the  back-  nary  scene,  we  have  the  thousand-fold  more  vsluame 

ground.     In  reality  what  he  seeks  to  put  before  us  is  representation  of  the  very  world  in  which  the  artist 

an  entire  society  harmoniously  Krouped;   the  picture  lived,  and  at  one  of  the  periods  in  which  life  seems  to 

is  a  serene  portrayal  of  national  life  and  a  triumph  have  been  most  agreeable.     The  Plorentine  republic, 

of  national  sentiment.    Of  a  short  journey  to  Rome  at  its  most  dazzling  height,  lives  again  for  us  in  these 

about  this  time  we  possess  no  accurate  information*  incomparable  frescoes.     Still  earlier,  in  his  "Call  of 

the  artist  returned  to  Florence  to  paint  the  fresco  of  the  Apostles"  (Sistine  Chapel),  the  artist  had  intro- 

St.  Jerome  at  Ognissanti  and  his  famous  fresco  of  the  duced  in  a  group  of  fifty  figures  foreign  to  the  subject 

"last  Supper"  m  the  refectory  of  the  same  convent  portraits  ofthe  principal  Florentines  then  in  Rome. 

(1480).     Tliis  very  noble  conwosition  is  the  most  In  his  "Visitation"  we  behold  Flonintineladiesof  the 

idealistic  of  the  artist's  works,  the  only  one  in  which  middle  class  out  walking.    In  "  Zachary  driven  from 

he  deals  with  abstract  concepte  and  does  not  depict  the  Temple"  we  admire  the  portrait  of  the  charming 

contemporary  life.  Lorenzo  Tomabuoni,  prince  of  the  Florentine  voutS 

The  series  of  his  great  works  began  with  a  second  and  husband  of  the  beautiful  Giovanna  degli  AlbiixL 

journey  to  Rome.    From  27  October,  1481,  to  13  also  those  of  the  artist  himself  and  of  his  brother& 

March.  1482,  the  artist  was  at  work  m  the  Sistine  But  it  is  in  the  "  Apparition  of  the  Angel  to  Zachary" 

Chapel.    In  these  six  months  he  painted  six  portraits  that  this  realism  finds  its  fullest  expression.    This 

of  popes  and  two  large  frescoes,  the  "Resuiroction"  interview,  which  must  have  taken  place  in  the  retire- 

(over  which,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  a  mediocre  ment  of  the  sanctuary,  is  presented  by  t^e  artist  be- 

Flemish  work  was  painted),  and  the   "Call  of  the  fore  thirty  members  of  the  Tomabuoni  family,  ma^ 

Apostles".     The  latter,  with  Perugino's  "  Giving  of  nificently  staged  on  the  steps  of  the  Temple.     It  is  m 

the  Keys  to  St.  Peter",  is  yet  the  chief  masterpiece  of  fact  a  solemn  glorification  of  the  great  line  of  Floren- 

that  period  of  Sistine  decoration.    On  his  way  back  to  tine  bankers  who  built  this  admirable  chapel.    In  the 


OHzaLAZN  547 

aforesaid  ''  Life  of  St.  Francis"  may  be  recognized  the  the  most  national  of  the  Italian  masters.    He  was  the 

banker  Sassetti,  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  Agnol6  Acciaiuoli,  instructor  of  Michelangelo. 

Paolo  Strozzi;  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  fresco  the  scholar       Vasabi,  ed.  Milanbsi,  III  (Florenoe,  1879);  Moulu,  L« 

A  ravFnnniilna  afy»  overe  de%  moeHn  ttaltani  nme  gallene  di  Monacot  Dresda  «  Ber- 

^«^v^^^ir*       1-   •  'J,    '     -en  -A     1*  Iwo  (BologasL,  1886);  BwiBxsaos,  The  Florentine  Painten  of  the 

Behmd  these  livmg  persons  it   is  Florenoe  itself  Renaieaance,  2nd  ed.  (London,  1904);  Stxinmann.  Die  Six- 

which  forms  the  background  of  the  scene,  that  admirar  *»»*•<*«  Kapdle,  I  (Munich,  1902};  Idbm.  OhirUmdaio  (Biele- 

ble  city  of  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  in  which  ^^^^Qhl^^oi^  f^T***"*  ^*'*°"^''®'  ^^^^'  ^''• 
Botticelli,  Leonardo,  Angelo  Poliziano.  and  the  young  *  '  Louis  Gillet. 

Michelangelo  were  then  living.    In  tne  ''Life  of  St. 


♦^flSi?  kS?  ^""^^J"^  ??"^  °i^  '^I'^^rl'S^       Ohislato,  Saint,  confessor  and  anchorite  in  Bd- 
the  old  bndge  of  Taddeo  Gaddi,  the  fajades  of  the    rium;  b.'in  the  firet  half  of  the  seventh  century;  d.  at 


race 


1     i™,  v«w  « '«orence  is  ^na*  seen  irom  me  «bi-    j^e  province  of  Hainault  (Bilgium)  in  the  time  of 
B  of  Sm  Miniato  (backgound  of  the  picture  of  the    gt.  j[ ^^d  (d.  679)  and  S^ts  Waudru.  Aidegonde, 


^?!?°i*''''°?S""    *'<li'"JlK^''''***n**^n'^^  and  Madelbljrte.    With  two  unknown  disciples  he 

with  ^e  dome  of  Brmieneschi,  the  campanile  of  Giot-  ^^^  a  clearing  in  the  vicinity  of  Castrilocm  (now 

to,andthetower^the8ignom.    Prof usely  scattered  jj        j^  Hainault),  taking  up  later  his  abode  at  a 

throu^thwe  pictures  are  Renaissance  ornaments,  place  caUed  Ursidongus,  where  he  built  an  oratory  or 

decorated  pflasters,  the  "pretti  '  friezes  like  thcwe  of  Chapel  dedicated  to  Saints  Peter  and  Paul.    Aufert, 

^.e  f«??0"f  *"*>une  of  Dooatelte-"  Nativity  of  the  ^^Q^  of  Cambtai,  summoned  him  to  the  episcopal 

?^  '— **"*^**",^l    »  *  ??'*S'*'u  *°*!9"*  ^^  presence  in  order  to  sound  the  intentions  of  this  almost 

reliefs-"  ApoOTition  of  the  Anjgel  to  Zachary",--quite  Unknown  hermit,  but  he  afterwards  accorded  him 

a  museum  of  the  Mtirtic  fancies  of  Florence.    In  the  efficient  protection.    During  his  visit  to  Cambrai 

^^^^  °^  ^h  'J"*"'  ft*  ^fll*^  V*?*-"*^  *•'  ^*  GWslain  8>ent  some  time  in  the  villa  of  Roisin  and 

"*"\?  '^"T^^liT'"  ItonateUo,  while  m  the  audi-  received  all  gift  the  estates  of  Celles  and  Homu.    He 

ence  the  naked  chUd  seated  among  the  hearers  m  the  g^^  ^nXenA  into  relations  with  St.  Waudru,  who 
foregroundistbereproductionof  a  celebrated  antique,  --     ..         .    „_  _   >    ._ 

"theChUd  with  the  ~  -     - 


able  in  his  power  of  creating  new  "antiques",  i.  e.  of  Qhislain  influen<^  the  reUp^ua  ,^ «. ....  ^^^ 

msprng  at  once  their  «»unterparts  m  actual  life,  gonde,  Abbess  of  Maubeuge,  also  of  St.  Madelberte  and 

Italian  art;  possesses  nothing  more  teautiful,  more  |t.  Aldetrude,  of  whom  tie  first  was  the  sister  and 
Attic,  than  certam  of  his    can^phores    or  young  gins  >.      .       .  ..     —  _       . 


nage  _ 

bronze  wateivbasin  in  the  "Nativity".^  In  fact lOl  sT  Am^dC'BishVof  Ton^^wM^'re^^^ 

this  ideal  summary  of  Florentme  life  breathe  the  Qhislain  visited  the  saint  in  her  viUa  of  Mairieu,  near 

pnde  and  joy  expressed,  in  l^e     Zachary  and  the  Maubeuge,  and  explamed  to  her  that  the  vision  was  an 

Angel  ',  by  the  mscnption:  "IJe  vear  1490,  when  the  announ^ment  of  her  own  approaching  death.    The 

city  beautiful  among  the  beautiful,  fllustnous  for  her  intercourse  between  Ghislain  and  Aidegonde  brought 

wealth,  victones,  arts  and  monuments,  was  sweetly  ^Y>oMi  a  perfect  understanding  between  Maubeuge  and 

enjoying  abundance,  health  and  peace.  ^he  monastery  founded  at  Ursidongus  under  Ghis- 

Ghuilandajo  executed  severdaltaj;-^^^  Iain's  direction.    St.  Waudru  rewarded   her  coun- 

Frameries  and  of 


iprised  within  the 

and  the  "Visitation'' of  the  Louvre  (1491).    Hispor-  ^[^Ij^d^^sr^'dlh'e  m^'^S^*  which  he  had 

traits,  however,  arethe  mcwt  thoroughlv  charactens-  founded  tooTc  his  name.    The  reUcs  of  the  saint  were 

tic  of  his  genius,    mmost^^^  grst  dismterred  c.  929.    They  were  transferred  to 

Gioyanna  degli  Albizzi  (1488,  Paris,  former  Kann  col-  Qrandlieu,  near  Quaregnon,  about  the  end  of  the  tenth 

lection)  has  no  equal  in  Florentme  portraiture  of  the  century  o/  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh,  and  in  1025 

fifteenth  ©entunr,  and  is  far  ^penor  to  Botticelli  s  Qe^ard  I,  Bishop  of  Cambrai,  removed  them  to  Cateau- 

famous  "  Bella  Simonetta'';  indeed.  It  can  s}»r^^^  Cambr^sis.    They  were  visited  several  times  in  the 

compared  with  any  other  than  that  of  PoIImuoIo  at  ^.^urse  of  the  Middle  Ages  by  the  Bishops  of  Cambrai. 

Chantilly.    Fmally  the  '/Old  Man  and  the  Child'' at  j^  1^47  they  were  removed  to  St-Ghislain,  of  which 

the  Ixjuvre  IS  a  work  of  mcompamble  mgenuity,  dis-  place  our  saint  is  patron.    His  feast  is  celebrated  9 

d^ym^  a  cordiality  perhaps  unique  in  Italian  art.  October,  and  his  intercession  is  sought  to  ward  off 

m  picture  is  one  of  tliose  which  most  forcibly  rec^l  convulsions  from  children.    In  icono^uphy  he  is  fre- 

Flemish  good  nature ;  its  tenderness  and  grace  of  senti-  quently  represented  with  a  bear  or  bear's  cub  beside 

Tk''^^?^?^ o^  ^  overlook  the  uglmess  of  the  model.  ^^^^    "^his  is  an  allusion  to  the  popular  legend  which 

About  1480  Ghirlandajo  marned  Costanza  di  Bartol-  ^^^^  that  a  bear,  pursued  in  the  cW  by  King  Dag- 

ommeoNucci(d.l485).    By  her  he  had  two  sons^  Bar-  ^bert,  sought  refuge  with  Ghislain  and  later  showwi 

tolommeo,b.  1481  whoentered  the  Camaldole^  Order;  ^im  the  place  where  he  should  establish  a  monastery, 

and  Ridolfo,  b.  5  Feb.,  1483  who  was, l^e  his  father,  a  Moreover,  the  site  of  the  saint's  cella  was  called  Urii. 

pamter.    In  1488  the  artist  took  as  his  second  wife  ^jigus  "bear's  den" 

Antonia   di  ser   Paolo   di   Simone   Paoli.     He   died,  J^  Sanctorum  Bdoxi!lV,  37&-384:   Andlecta  BoUandiana, 

almost  suddenly,  of  a  malignant  fever,  at  the  age  of  V,  212-239;  Poncelst,  De  vita  S.  Gieleni  a  Rainero  Monacho 

l",^^*!?  r«fvHU  serenity  and  his  joy  in  Iffe  gSS^L."  vlrt^^sa^r^tTSJ^r^'f W^ 

are   topical    of   the    Florentme   ^niUS    prior   to    the  1037.,  GHBaquifeRB.  De  Sancto  Gisleno  confeaaore  commenianue 

mystical  cnsiS  and  the  deep  emotions  of  that  Counter-  praviita   in    Acta  Sanctorum  Bdgii,  TV,  337-375;    Van  DBS 

Renaissance,  which  was  to  let  loose  the  wrath  of  Sa-  EsaBN.  Etude  eriii^ejUia^reau^^^                     M^ovin- 

„^^„ .     _    J  •   A  _r       J              c        ji        'auai-       -J.'  a-  gtena  de  Vanctenne  Betgigtiet  249-259  (LouveLm,  1907);  aee  also 

VOnarola,  and  mterfered  so  profoundly  with  the  artistic  £ahieb,  Camct^riatviuea  dee  aainta  dana  Van  populaire,  II  (Paria. 

vocation  of  a  Botticelli  and  a  Fra  Bartolommeo.  1867),  593. 

Ghirlandajo  was  a  joyous  soul,  amiable,  productive,  L.  Van  deb  Ebsen. 

somewhat  impersonal,  and  had  the  rare  good  fortune 

to  represent  perfectlv  the  Florentine  spirit  in  its  Ghost  Dance,  the  principal  ceremonial  rite  of  a 

golden  prime.    Like  Carpaccio  at  Venice  he  is  perhaps  peculiar  Indian  religion  which  originated  about  1887 


OIANV OHB                              548  OmAULT 

with  Wovoka.  alias  Jack  Wilson,  an  Indian  of  the  Rome,  1895»  3  vols.).  Enticed  to  a  village  in  Savoy, 
Piute  tribe  in  Nevada.  He  claimed  to  have  obtained  he  was  arrested,  imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Geva, 
his  revelation  in  a  vision  in  which  he  had  been  taken  and  transported  thence  to  Turin,  where  he  died.  It  is 
into  the  spirit  world  and  talked  with  God,  Who  had  reported  that  before  his  death  he  was  reconciled 
promised  a  speedy  return  of  the  old  Indian  life  through  with  the  Church.  Giannone's  posthumous  works  are : 
the  reincarnation  of  all  the  dead  Indians,  the  buffalo  ''Opere  postume '^(Lausanne,  1760;  enlaraed,  Venice, 
and  other  game,  upon  a  new  earth,  which  was  already  1768;  new  ed.,  2  vols.,  Capolago,  1841).  Ine  first  vol- 
advancixig  irom  the  west  and  would  push  before  ii  the  ume  contains:  "  Apoloeia  deli'  istoria  civile  del  regno 
alien  whites  to  their  own  proper  country  beyond  the  di  Napoli;  the  second:  Indice  eenerale  dell'  opera  dei 
ocean,  while  the  Indian  believers  would  be  taken  up,  tre  regni".  His  collected  works  appeared  in  Milan 
as  by  wings,  upon  the  new  surface  and  there  reunited  (5  vo&.,  1858).  Liater,  Mancini  published  his  pos- 
with  their  old-time  friends.  By  performance  of  the  thumous  works  in  two  volumes  (Turin,  1859),  entitled 
prescribed  dance  and  songs  the  consummation  would  "Opere  inedite",  containing  the  "Disoorsi  storici  e 
be  hastened,  while  in  the  frequent  hypnotic  trances  politici  sopra  gli  annali  di  Tito  Livio";  ''La  chiesa 
brou^t  about  by  the  efforts  of  the  pnests  the  more  sotto  il  pontificato  di  Gregorio  il  Grande".  The  auto- 
sensitive  subjects  were  enabled  to  anticipate  the  event  biograpny  of  Giannone  was  published  by  Pierantoni 
in  visions.  (Rome,  1890). 

The  belief  spread  among  nearly  all  the  tribes  east-  NouveUe  Btogmphie  GirUrale  (Paris.  1858),  XX.  421-424. 

ward  of  the  Missouri,  and  produced  much  excitement  Patriciub  Schlager. 

SlZ^hSdi!^^urit&£eS^oi^*  <»»•"  ««  B**™*.  »  Maronite  residential  see. 

SthTfe^^  ^dvSjlTSdS    ^  BfiTt  Gibail  is  meielv  the  modem  name  of  Byblos  (q.  v.)  a 

wnen  tne  terment  graauaujr  subsidea.    in  Uaicpta  it  titular  see  of  Phcenicia.    The  diocese,  administered  by 

the  Maronite  patriarch  through  auxiliary  bishops, 

kUUng  01  Sitting  Hull  and  the  massacre  of  Wounded  P°??P™f  n'^f  "'''*  i^*™*L°'  ^ISft  f^^M^  ^n 

KneeT    In  the  Jince,  men  and  women  together  held  *»«!  andBatrun.    It  numbers  70,000  faithful    470 

hands,  facing  towaidk  the  centre,  and  da^  slowly  §"««*«'  2"  churches  and  cha^ls  14  convents  of  fiala- 

in  a  circle,  riSging  the  ghost  songs  without  instrumen-  ^  Mntainmg  177  religious,  2  of  Aleppmes  contaming 

tal  accompanfment,  wSle  the  p?i«te  within  the  cirtsle  30  religious,  and  2  of  Isaltes  with  »  rel«g«o««-    There 

brought  t£e  more  sensitive  subjects  into  the  trance  "^  *"*»  S[°  rel«ious  houses  m  which  there  are  58 

condlSon  by  means  of  hypnotizing  performances.  "«*«."•  J^  patriarch  resides  at  Bkerkey,  where  the 

An  essential  doctrine  of  the  new  reli^on  was  the  Patnfrch^   aemina^y;  of   SainW^i^Maron  is  ^ 

brofiierhood  of  man,  and  in  consequent  of  this  aU  "tufted,  m  which  there  are  30  students.    Another 

acts  and  ceremonies  of  a  warlike  nature  were  pro-  wminary  containing  32  students  has  been  opened  at 

hibited  Rumie.    The  question  of  dividing  the  diocese  m  such 

u     .*     mi  m.  ^  n        i>j-  •     <    <,ii  d    <  z>      a  *  maimer  that  Gibail  should  form  one  diocese,  and 

B  "»~I  "IW-hiSton.^).**"^  ^  ^**  **^  *"'•  "*"•  Batnm  another,  has  been  much  discussed  in  i^oent 

Jahbs  Hoonbt.  years.    Gibail  is  a  town  of  about  1000  inhabitants, 

nearly  all  of  whom  are  Christians,  650  being  Maron- 

Oiaimone.  Pibtko,  Italian  historian,  b.  7  May,  jtes.    There  are  13  churches;  three oHhem dating  from 

1676,  at  Ischitella  in  t^e  province  of  CapiiJata,  Naples  the  Cnwades  are  very  beautiful     The  Catholic  Mel- 

d.  at  Turin,  27  March,  1748.    He  received  his  firet  ?^  title  of  Gibad  is  un'ted  to  ^at  of  Beirut;  smoe 

instruction  in  the  house  of  his  uncle,  GaetanoArgento,  i?^  the  schimoatic  Melchite  Diwjese  of  GibaU  w 

a  lawyer,  and  after  having  received  the  degree  of  Doc^  distmct.  from  Beirut,  and  has  jurisdiction  over  the 

tor  of  Law  at  Naples  he  began  to  practise  his  profession,  ™??P'?'°°S',r^°%°L- i5S?  «» 

following  the  ewmple  ofTiis  father.    He  <levoted  ali  i'"^^"  <?«*.£»  (Rom..  1907).  818.         g  y^^^ 

his  leisure  time  to  the  study  of  history.  After  prepar- 
atory work  extending  over  a  period  of  twenty  years,  Oibftnlt,  Pierre,  missionary,  b.  at  Montreal,  Can- 
he  published  under  the  title  'Dell'  istoria  civile  del  ada,  1737;  d.  at  New  Madrid,  about  1804;  son  of 
regno  di  Napoli"  (1723,  4  vols.),  a  work  which  caused  Pierre  Gibault  and  Marie  Saint-Jean.  He  was  edu- 
a  great  sensation,  especially  on  account  of  its  bitter  oated  at  the  seminary  of  Quebec,  and  ordained  a  priest 
anti-ecclesiastical  bias,  which  led  to  its  repeated  trans-  19  March,  1768.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  sent  by 
lation  into  English  and  German.  In  it  Giannone  com-  Bbhop  Briand  as  missionary,  with  the  title  of  Vicar- 
bined  a  narrative  of  political  matters,  founded  on  his-  General,  to  Illinois.  In  Jiily  he  arrived  at  Michili- 
torical  sources,  with  an  interesting  description  of  the  mackinac,  where  he  spent  a  week  attending  to  the 

i'uridical  and  moral  condition  of  tne  country;  but  as  religious  wants  of  the  CaUiolics,  some  of  whom  had 

le  ascribes  all  existing  evils  to  the  malignant  influence  not  seen  a  priest  for  many  years.    By  September  he 

of  the  Church,  especially  the  Roman  Curia,  we  may  had  fixed  his  residence  at  kaskaskia.    I^ter  he  re- 

justly  assume  it  a  compilation  of  biased  attacks  and  sided  successively  at  St.  Genevieve,  Vinoennes,  and 

misstatements.    It  was  immediately  put  on  the  Index  Cahokia.    In  February,  1770,  he  visited  Vincennes, 

and  its  author  excommunicated  ancl  forced  to  leave  where  he  found  religion  in  a  deplorable  state.    During 

Naples.    He  went  to  Vienna  where  he  was  pensioned  his  sojourn  of  two  months  at  this  place  he  converted  a 

by  Emperor  Charles  VI.    He  was  readmitted  to  the  Presbyterian  family,  and  revived  religious  practices 

Church  soon  after  by  the  Archbishop  of  Naples  who  among  the  Catholics.    In  this  year  also,  he  blessed  the 

was  in  Vienna  at  the  time.    Having  forfeited  his  pen-  little  wooden  chapel  that  hacf  been  erected  at  Pain- 

sion  in  1744  Giannone  went  to  Venice,  but  the  Govern-  court,  the  present  site  of  St.  Louis.    In  spite  of  many 

ment,  suspecting  him  on  account  of  his  political  opin-  difficulties  and  in  the  face  of  ^;rave  dangers  incident  to 

ions,  surrounded  him  with  spies.    He  tried  to  gain  the  long  journeys,  he  succeeded  in  vastly  improving  reli- 

Govemment's  goodwill  by  publishing  a  pamphlet  en-  gious  conditions  in  the  scattered  missions  of  the  sur- 

titled:   *'  Lettera  intomo  al  dominio  del  mare  Adria-  rounding  country.    His  journeys  led  him  to  such  di»- 

tico",eulogizingVenice'sconquestof  the  Adriatic;  he  tant  points  as  reoria,  Ouiatenon,  St.  Joseph's,  and 

was  unsuccessful  and  was  forcibly  expelled  in  the  Michuimackinac.    In  1775  he  wrote  to  the  Bishop  of 

following  year.    After  wandering  to  and  fro  for  a  Quebec:  '^ This  is  the  fourth  voyage  I  have  taken,  the 

while  he  accepted  the  hospitality  of  an  old  book-  shortest  of  which  was  five  hunared  leagues."    For  a 

dealer  in  Geneva.    There  he  composed  his  intensely  long  time  he  was  the  only  priest  in  Illinois  and  Indi- 

anti-clerical  essay:    "II  triregno  ossia  del  regno  del  ana.    When  George  Rogers  Clark  captured  Kaskaa- 

cielo,  della  terra  e  del  papa"  (Geneva,  1735,  new  ed.  kia,  in  1778,  it  was  largely  owing  to  Father  Gibault 's 


GIBBONS  549  OIBEBTI 

influence  that  the  inhabitants  submitted  without  pro-  philosophy  for  ten,  scholastic  theology  for  three  ana 

test,  and  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Conunon-  lor  some  time  also  Hebrew  and  Scripture,  dividing  his 

wealth  of  Virginia.    Through  his  influence  also  the  time  between  Italv,  Spain,  Portu^,  France,  and 

people  of  CahoKia  took  the  same  step.    As  a  volunteer  Belgium.    For  a  while  he  occupied  the  offices  of  pre- 

agent  of  Clark  he  then  proceeded  to  Vincennes,  and  feet  of  studies  at  Louvain,  and  of  preacher  in  the 

won  the  people  of  that  post  to  the  American  cause.  In  Jesuit  College  at  St-Opier.     His  later  years  were 

consequence  of  these  proceedings  many  of  the  Indian  spent  at  Douai,  in  printmg  ancient  manuscripts,  and 

tribes  now  acknowledeed  the  authority  of  the  States,  in  translating,  editmg,  andannotating  various  learned 

But  the  activity  of  ''the  patriot  priest"  did  not  cease  works.    The  following  deserve  to  be  noticed:  ''His- 

here,  for,  a  year  later,  when  Clark  marched  upon  Vin-  toria  admiranda  de  ^u  Christi  stigmatibus  ab  Al- 

cennes,  which  meanwhile  had  been  taken  by  the  Eng-  phonso  Paleato  Archiepisc.  II.  Bononiensi  explicata. 

lish.  there  were  amon^  his  forces  two  companies  of  the  Accessit   tomus    II  .  .  .  Historise   admirancue  .  .  . 

Catholic  citizens  of  Illmois.    Concerning  the  last  years  oomplectens  M.  Vigerii  S.  R.  E.  Cardinalis  de  prae- 

of  Father  Gibault's  life,  little  is  definitely  known.    In  cipuis  Incamati  Verb!  mysteriis  decachordum  Chris- 

1791  he  left  Illinois,  then  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Balti-  tianum"  (Douai,  1616).    ''R.  P.  Francisci  Riberae 

more,  and  retired  to  the  Spanish  territory  beyond  the  ...  in  librum   Duodecim   Prophetarum   commen- 

Mississippi.         '  tarii  ..."  (Douai,  1612).    '' Historia  Andicana  £o- 

Enoubh.  TA«C<m9ueii<o/<A«iyare;^^  OndianapoliB.  1806),  clesiastica  a  primis  gentis  suseeptffi  fidei  mcunabulis 

i^r-K^^^oriZ'^^^T^^S^^^lf^^.  ^  -^j^J^^  tempera  deducta  auctore  Nicolao 

1883);    Law,  Thu  Colonial  Hutory  of  VineenneB  (VinoennM,  Harpsfeldio"    (Douai,    1622).     "LudoviCl   de   Ponte 

1868);  mifurisHUUmealCfeaion^^^  .171;  Peyton  Records  of  Meditationum  de  Vita  et  Passione  Christi,  Libri  II,  ex 

the  Amencan  Caihche  HxtUmeal  Society^  XII,  452;    Catholte  iT:or*on;«^  ;«   T  o^imivm  ••»»<•:"  /rv.i^»»A     i«io\       "A 

Huiarieal  Researches,  II,  66.  117;    V,  62;   VI.  136.  ?^R?°*?°  *^  Latmum  versi      (Coloene,   1612).        A 

John  J.  O'Brien.  Spintual  D^rine,  cpnteming  a  Rule  to  Live  Wei, 

with  divers  Praiers"  (Louvain,  1599).    ''Meditations 

Oibbons,  James.  See  Baltimore,  Archdiocese  of.  uppon  the  Mysteries  of  our  Holy  Faith,  with  the  Prao- 

Oibbons,  John,  Jesuit  theologian  and  controver-  ^^^  ^ent^  Praier  .  .  ."OJouai?,  1610).    "The 

malist:  b.  1544,  at  or  near  Wells,  Somersetshire:  d.  First  Part  of  the  Meditations  of  the  Passion^^ 

16  Aug.  or  3  Dec.,  1589,  during  a  visit  to  the  monas-  ^''^''^^^^'',^'^''^  S^^^fP'      translation 

tery  of  Himmelbrode,  near  Tner.    He  entered  Lin-  °'  Bellarmme  s  Christian  Doctnne  . 

coin  CoUege  Oxford,  in  1561  but  left  the  umVersity  Bigj^^;;  i^iiS^io^Zi'A^^ 

without  a  degree.     After  studymg  philosophy  and  Hubtbb,  NomenekUor. 

theology  for  seven  vears  in  the  German  College,  Rome,  A.  J.  Maas. 

he  obtained  the  doctorate  in  both,  1576.    Gregory 

XIII  gave  him  a  canonry  in  the  Cathedral  Church  of        Oiberti  Jean-Pierre, canonist;  b.  at  Aix, Provence, 

Bonn,  in  Germany,  but  he  resigned  this  on  entering  in  1660;  d.  at  Paris  in  1736.    He  became  a  cleric  at 

the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Trier,  in  1578.    In  the  college  an  eariy  age,  receiving  the  tonsure  only ;  he  studied  at 

of  this  latter  place  he  filled  successively  the  offices  of  Aix,  and  became  doctor  of  theology  and  canon  law. 

confessor,  professor  of  theology,  professor  of  Sacred  He  taueht  ecclesiastical  law  in  the  seminaries  of  Tou- 

Scripture,  prefect  of  studies,  and  rector.    Though  Ion  ana  Aix,  and  settled  in  Paris  in  1703,  where  he 

remarkable  for  his  zeal,  charity,  and  admirable  admm-  lived  and  worked  in  retirement. 

istrative  ability,  he  became  more  eminent  on  account        His  principal  works  are:    "Doctrina  canonum  in 

of  his  controversial  talents,  which  he  displayed  in  fr&-  corpore  juris  indusorum,  circa  consensum  parentum 

Guent  contests  with  the  Lutherans  of  Germany,  requisitum    ad    matrimonium    filiorum    minorum" 

When  Dr.  Allen  suggested  Father  Gibbons  as  a  fit  can-  (Paris,  1709) ;  "  Institutions  eccl^siastiques  et  b^n^fi- 

didate  for  the  Eneush  mission,  the  latter  wrote  both  ciales  suivant  les  principes  du  droit  commun  et  les 

to  the  General  of  the  Society  and  to  Dr.  Allen,  that  he  usages  de  France'^  (Pans,  1720  and  1736) ;  "  Usages 

hoped  he  should  ^ye  no  disedification  by  saying  that  del%glise  gallicaneconcemant  les  censures  et  Tirr^u- 

he  nad  not  the  spiritual  strength  necessary  for  such  an  larit^  consid^r6ss  en  g^n^ral  et  en  particulier"  (Paris, 


"Concertatio  EcclesisB  Catholicss  in  Anglia,  adversus  1725,  and  1750);  "Corpus  juris  canonici  per  regulas 

Calvino-Papistas  et  Puritanos"  (Trier,  1583).    The  naturaliordinedigestas,  usuquetemperatas,exe^em 

work  was  republished  on  a  larger  scale  in  1588  and  jure  et  conciliis.  patribus  atque  aliunde  desumptas" 

1594,  by  Dr.  John  Bridgewater,  who  numbered  among  (Geneva,  1736;   Lyons,  1737).  a  masterly  work  on 

his  assistants  Cardinal  Allen  and  Dr.  Humphrey  Ely.  canon  law  in  which  the  writer  deviates  from  the  order 

Dr.  Bridgewater  also  edited  (see,  however.  Diet.  Nat.  of  the  Corpus  Juris.    Gibert  was  a  moderate  Galilean. 

Biog.,  8.  V.)  a  posthumous  work  of  Gibbons  entitled  MoRtm,OrandIHetumnairehistorimieCPaai8, 1759),  quotes  a 

"Confutatio  virulentse  disputationis   theologicae  in  i®**^' '~3  Gibe?m1fe*  N?cT^^ 

qua  Georgius  Sohn,  Professor  Academi»  Heidelber-  S?e^ %miffjf  hiJi^es ^deX^r^mMut^ ^^iSS  (P«iSi 

fmsiS,  Conatus  est  docere  Pontlficem  Romanum  esse  1727 — ),  XL  264;  Schui/tb,  GeschichU  der  Oudlen  und  LUeratur 

ntichristum  a  prophetis  et  apostolis  pwedictum"  de*  oemo»iwA«i  fiecW*  (Stuttgart.  1880),  If,  637. 

(Trier,  1589).    The  Calvinist  aspersions  on  the  Ro-  ^'  Boudinhon. 

man  pontiff  are  disposed  of  without  much  di£Qculty.  -., ^   ^        .,  ^j-t        jt>»i_        « 

Coo«R  in  Diet.  N^ioa,,  a.  v.;  Hurtbr,  Nomenciator.  I.  „  Oibertl,  Gi^  Mattbo,  Cardmal,  and  Bishop  of 

56  (Innsbruck,  1892);  SoMifsRvoGBx^  Bibli^hkque  de  la  Com-  Verona,  the  natural  Bon  of  Francesco  Giberti,  a  Geno- 

vagnie  de  JUua,  III;  Soutbwxll,  BtW.  Script.  8oc.  Jesu,  463.  ese  naval  captain,  b.  at  Palermo  in  1495;  d.  at  Verona, 

A.  J.  Maas.  30  Dec.,  1543.   In  1513  he  was  admitted  to  the  house- 
hold of  Cardinal  Giulio  de*  Medici,  and  advanced  so 

Gibbons,  Richard,  brother  of  Father  John  Gib-  rapidly  in  Latin  and  Greek  that  he  soon  became  an 

bons,  b.  at  Winchester,  1550  or  1549;  d.  at  Douai,  23  eminent  member  of  the '' AccademiaRomana".  Later 

June,  1632.    After  making  his  early  studies  in  Eng-  he  was  appointed  the  cardinal's  secretary,  and  Leo  X, 

land,  and  completing  a  two  years'  course  in  philoso-  with  whom  he  had  political  dealings,  valued  his  opin- 


nation,  he  taught  mathematics  for  thirteen  years,    struggling  men  of  letters.   The  choicest  intellects  met 


OmrXT                              550  OIBftALTAft 

at  his  house.    He  led  a  severely  reli^ous  life,  and  was  dom  in  Spain,  after  an  existence  of  300  years,  was  torn 

a  member  of  the  Sodalitium  Divtni  Amaris  of  St.  with  internal  strife.    Amid  this  dissension  the  Moors 

Cajetan  and  Cardinal  Caraffa.   After  his  ordination  to  crossed  from  Africa,  for  the  second  time  (711),  under 

the  priesthood,  and  the  death  of  Leo  X,  he  was  sent  bv  their  leader  Tarik-Ion-Zevad,  who  sent  a  detachment 

Cardinal  Giulio,  his  patron,  on  a  mission  to  Charles  V,  of  soldiers  to  Mount  Calpe,  and  had  a  castle  built 

and  returned  to  Rome  with  the  new  pope,  Adrian  VI.  there,  the  ruins  of  which  yet  excite  admiration.    The 

Clement  VII  immediately  after  his  election  made  him  mountain  was  thenceforth  known  as  Gibel-Tarik,  the 

Datario(1523),andinl524.  atthereauestof  theDoge  mountain  of  Tank,  or  Gibraltar.    Thus  began  the 

of  Venice,  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Verona.    Being  Moorish  conquest  of  Spain.    Gibraltar  was  besieged, 

obliged,  against  his  will,  to  remain  in  Rome,  he  had  in  1309,  and  retaken  irom  the  Moors  by  Alonzo  de 

himself  represented  at  Verona  by  a  very  sealous  vicar-  Guzman.    By  1462  it  had  sustained  eight  sieges,  with 

general.    Giberli  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Reform  varving  fortune.    The  last  of  these  was  imder  Alonzo 

ommittee  decreed  by  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council,  but  de  Arcos,  who  captured  it  from  the  Moors  in  1462,  the 

political  events  soon  put  an  end  to  these  labours.    At  surrender  on  this  occasion  taking  place  on  20  August, 

ravia  (1525)  he  tried  to  make  peace  between  Francis  I  the  feast  of  St.  Bernard,  in  coiisequence  of  whicn  he 

and  Charles  V.    It  was  at  his  prompting  that  Clement  became  the  patron  of  Gibraltar.    The  Infante  Don 

VII  espoused  the  cause  of  France;  the  League  of  Co-  Alonzo  gave  the  city  and  territory  of  Gibraltar  to  the 

gnac  (22May,  1526)  was  also  his  work.    After  the  sack  Duke  of  Medina-Sidonia  In  absolute  and  perpetual 

of  Rome  (1527)  he  was  made  to  feel  the  vengeance  of  possession  for  himself  and  his  successors.    Ferdinand 

the  Imperialists;   being  one  of  the  hostages,  he  was  and  Isabella  confirmed  this  ^t,  conferring  on  the 

put  in  prison  and  barely  escaped  death.   He  succeeded  Duke  of  Medina-Sidonia  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Gib- 

m  making  his  escape,  and  went  to  Verona  (1528)  in-  raltar;  at  a  later  period,  however,  during  the  same 

tending  to  devote  himself  entirel^^  to  the  ruling  of  his  reiflsi,  the  place  was  annexed  b;^  the  Crown, 

diocese.    He  was  done  with  politics,  all  the  more  be-  During  the  War  of  the  Spazush  Succession,  which 

cause  the  pope  had  gone  over  to  the  imperial  cause,  began  in  1701,  Gibraltar  was  besieged  (1704)  by  a 

However,  he  appeared  from  time  to  time  m  the  Curia,  squadron  commanded  by  Sir  George  Kooke  and  a  land 

Paul  III  recalled  him  to  Rome  for  the  work  of  the  foree  of  1800  English  and  Dutch  under  Prince  George 

Reform  Committee;    among  other  missions  he  was  of  Hesse-Darmstadt;  after  three  days  the  city  was 

sent  to  Trent  to  make  preparations  for  the  council,  captured  (24  July).    Hie  fortress  had  100  cannon  and 

His  wise  and  unwearying  efforts  to  reform  his  diocese,  ammunition,  but  a  garrison  of  only  150  men;  the  in- 

whose  clergy  were  in  a  deplorable  state,  were  crowned  habitants  were  redu<^  to  6000.    After  a  bombard- 

with  unhoped-for  success.    In  that  see  Tridentine  re-  ment  of  six  hours  the  garrison  surrendered, 

forms  were  put  in  foree  long  before  the  council  assem-  Before  a  year  had  passed  Spain  endeavoured,  with 

bled.    St.  Charles  Borromeo,  before  taking  charge  of  the  help  of  France,  to  recapture  Gibraltar.    In  this, 

his  see  at  Milan,  wished  to  study  Giberti's  system  at  the  twelfth  siege  of  Gibraltar,  the  attacking  party  haa 

Verona,  and  chose  as  his  vicar-eeneral  a  pnest  from  a  great  preponderance  of  numbers,  but  the  fortress 

Verona  trained  in  Giberti's  school.    His  first  aim  was  to  successf  ullv  resisted  all  their  efforts  to  capture  it.    By 

improve  the  standard  of  ecclesiastical  knowledge.    In  a  special  decree  of  February,  1706,  Queen  Anne  de- 

his  own  palace  he  set  up  a  printing-press  which  turned  dared  Gibraltar  a  free  port.    In  1713,  by  the  Treaty 

out  man^r  splendid  editions  of  the  Greek  Fathers,  in  of  Utrecht,  it  became  definitively  a  Britisn  possession, 

whose  writings  he  was  very  learned.   He  reformed  the  thoujgh  niany  attempts  were  made  by  the  Spaniards  to 

choir-school  of  Verona  which  had  long  been  famous;  regain  it.    The  last  siege,  the  fourteenth  in  its  history, 

for  the  instruction  of  the  young  he  had  printed  the  began  14  July,  1779,  and  continued  for  3  years,  7 

catechism  known  as  "Dialogus  ,  the  work  of  TuUio  months,  and  12  days.    In  April,  1782,  the  French  an4 

Crispoldi  (Rome,  1539).     At  Verona,  moreover,  he  Spaniaixis  again  bombarded  Gibraltar  by  land  and  sea. 

gathered  around  him  a  group  of  learned  men  to  assist  but  without  success.    A  peace  was  finally  concluded 

him  in  his  efforts  at  reform.    His  complete  works  were  by  which  Spain  received  tne  island  of  Minorca  in  place 

edited  by  the  famous  scholars  Pietro  and  Girolamo  of  Gibraltar.    When  the  city  was  occupied  by  the 

Ballerini  ("Constitutiones  Gibertinse",  "Costituzioni  English  in  1704,  the  Spaniards  carried  away  whatever 

ger  le  Monache",  "Monitiones  generales",  "Edicta  they  .could  and  settled  in  the  neighbouring  district  of 

electa",  "LettereScelte",  etc.,  Verona,  1733,  1740},  San  Rocco.    Scarcely  a  dozen  persons  remained  in 

together  with  an  appendix  containing  the  story  of  his  Gibraltar.    It  was  subsequently  populated  by  people 

life,  a  "  Dissertatio  ae  restitute  ante  concilium  Tnden-  of  every  nation,  especially  bv  Genoese  and  Maltese,  as 

tinum  per  Jo.  Matth.  Giberti  ecclesiastic^  discipline",  is  evident  from  the  various  family  names.    Spanish  is 

and  two  panegrrics,  one  in  Latin  by  Fumani,  the  other  generally  spoken  by  the  people,  though  English  is  the 

in  Italian  by  Castiglione.  tongue  of  public  administration. 

DmBicain Hiat.  Mrbudi  der06rre»oe8dUchaft(l8Se\yn,  The  population   (1908)   numbers  about  25,000,  of 

l;Si„{l^"p!2^r^aJp^J^Tlf fe%'SSr"""*  whom  ^000  to  18,000  are  Catholics;  and  the  r^ 

U    Benigni  Jews,  Protestants,  etc.    The  garrison  vanes  in  number 

Oib«y.  MXTTHEW.    8e.V..rs,T>roc^.o..   '  !r;'ira*"J&Tvemori^^^^^^^ 

Oibraltar,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. — Gibraltar  is  lonial  secretary.    The  Anglican  Bishop  of  Gibraltar 

a  rugged  promontory  in  the  province  of  Andalusia,  does  not  reside  there.    Until  1806  Gibraltar  belonged 

Spain,  about  6  miles  in  circumference.     Its  almost  to  the  See  of  Cadiz.    In  that  year  it  was  made  a 

perpendicular  walls  rise  to  a  height  of  1396  feet.    The  vicariate  Apostolic  (since  1840  tne  vicar  is  always  a 

town  is  on  the  west  side ;  on  the  north  a  narrow  isthmus  titular  bishop) .    The  Catholic  clergy  number  1 1  secu- 

(neutral  ground)  connects  the  fortress  with  the  main-  lar  priests  and  5  religious.    There  are  8  churches  and 

land  of  Spain.    The  great  rock  itself  is  the  ancient  chapels;  3  religious  houses  for  men  and  4  for  women, 

Mount  Calpe,  which  with  Abyla  (Ceuta)  constituted  with  a  total  of  28  and  61   members  respectively, 

the  famous  Pillars  of  Hercules.    In  antiquity  Gibral-  There  is  but  one  parish,  though  three  of  the  churches 

tar  belonged  in  turn  to  the  Phoenicians,  Carthaginians,  have  each  a  resident  priest.    Catholic  elementary  edu- 

Romans,  and  Visigoths.    Scipio  took  it  from  the  Car-  cation  is  provided  for  by  6  bojrs'  schools  (1136)  under 

thaginians,  and  it  remained  Roman  territory  until  the  Christian  Brothers  and  the  Brothers  of  St.  John  of 

A.  D.  412^  when  the  Goths  became  masters  of  Spain.  God,  and  8  girls'  schools  (1126).    There  is  also  an 

Bein^  Anans,  they  built  two  churches  of  their  faith  in  institute  for  the  higher  education  of  boys  (141)  and 

the  vicinity  of  Calpe;  one  at  San  Rocco,  the  other,  a  two  similar  ones  for  girls  (174).    There  are  many 

chapel,  on  the  rock  itself.    In  710  the  Visigothic  king-  other  private  institutions  and  schoob,  the  most  im- 


OIDEOK                               S51  dtFFABd 

portant  of  which  is  the  Rook  Academy  under  the  elder  brother  Walter  became  Archbishop  of  York 

direction  of  M.  Sitman.    The  poor  are  cared  for  in  3  (d.  1279).    During  the  earlier  part  of  his  life  his 

asylums,  and  there  are  2  orphan  asylums  (65) ;  for  the  success   was  bound  up  with    that  of  his  brother, 

aged,  also,  there  is  a  house  of  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  When  in  May,  1264,  Walter  was  elected  Bishop  of 

Poor.    Guido  Remigio  Barbieri,  a  former  Benedic-  Bath  and  Wells,  <jodfrey  became  canon  and  subse- 

tine,  bom  ii^  1836,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Theo-  quently  archdeacon  of  Wells;   he  also   held  many 

dosiopolis  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Gibraltar  in  1901.  other  benefices,  although  only  in  minor  orders,  and,  as 

AfiMione*CaMo»m  (Rome.  1907),  73-74:  £[(a<Mman'«  Year-  his  enemies  alleged,  not  learned.    When  in  August, 

fw9).^                      •     "^               "*  /Hracion/  (London.  i265,  Walter  became  chancellor,  Godfrey  in  1266  was 

Remigio  Guido  Barbieri.  appointed  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  with  leave  to 

appoint  a  substitute  to  act  during  his  absence;  and 

Oiaaon .    See  Gedeon.  when  in  October,  1266,  Walter  was  translated  to  York. 

Oillard,    BoNAVBNTURB,  b.  at    Wolverhampton,  Godfr^  succeeded  him  as  Chanwllor  of  Ene^^^ 

England,  1642;  d.  at  Hammersmith,  Middlesex,  12  received  further  benefices  from  the  new  Archbishop  of 

MaJch,  1734;  second  son  of  Andrew  Giffard,  of  (Jhil-  y5fJ''J^?^8oi?^*'^^''n^^'''"M-^'*i  ^^^j,?^ 

Ungton,    Staffordshire.    His    father,    who    married  Adlmgfleet  m  1267.    Wh^  Bishop  Nicholas  of  p^ 

Catherine,  daughter  of  Sir  Walter  L^veson,  was  slain  ^^  ^^T**^?""  ^^  ^  ''IJ^u'^^''  ^  *^**  u  ^ 

in  a  skirmish  near  his  own  home,  during  the  Civil  ^*°?^^*ff '  Godfrey  was  elated  by  the  monks;  he 

War.    Owing  to  the  reUgious  persecutions,  Bona-  Jf^'^fi^^S  temporalities  of  his  see  m  June,  12^. 

venture  was  sent,  with  his  youn^r  brother  Andrew,  ^^«  ^{  ^"^  ^^^  ^Jl  ^  bishop-elect  was  to  obtamli- 
to  Douai  to  be  educated.    Fi 


1667,  hewentto  Paris  to  pursue  ....>w<v^.w»>/»>o»uu4«>,       f  ■.  v  -•       i.       ^v-     -•    •    ■      •- 

and  was  ordained  for  the  secular  mSion.    Some  wEich  has  evw^ce  been  the  principal  palace 

years  later,  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divin-  bishops  of  Wore^r.    Hm  consecration  took  place  at 

fty  at  the  Sorbonne.    Havin^ttracted  the  attention  fe**'t^''''  ^  ^ept.,  1268,  and  his  enthronement  26 

of  King  James  II  by  his  piety  and  learning,  he  was  ^^^P^\  m  T?i ''"'/M*S*l'?"t'P  *  parliament 

appoi^  preacher  to  the  coiit.    Religionlad  been  f "  ^^^  **  M^ndge  (52.  H.  3)  where  many  useful 

i£  iore  straits  in  England  for  the  previous  fifty  years.  ^'^  "^^  Pf^  t"'  ««8t~>nmg  the  abuse  of  dis- 

Dr.  Smith  had  been  appointed  vi^  Apostohc  of  the  *'««*«'  i«g«latmg  the  mcidenoe  of  tenure  and  un- 

whole  coiinttv '~  *'»"'*    "---^  *-  •'-  ■•  nrovini?  civil  and  cnminal  nrooenurft ;   thA  knowlAriffA 

that  he  was  f< 
where  he- remained 

thirty  years  more  his  place  in  Englan<f  rem^ed  uiT-  ««^"  \?'  Mvingnaa  tne  wit  to  employ  tne  superior 

fiUedl  finally,  in  1685,  Dr.  LeybuiiTwas  appointed  to  ""??,  tt°r^'^\o^ contmued  m  ofice  as  chancellor 

succeed  bxA.    Pope  innocent  XI  now  entered  into  S*  1  '         '         •  over  the  seal  to 

negotiations  with  James  II;  and,  as  a  result,  four        i"?*;      ^.-_j.      ^.v      w^iv  »v 

vi^riates  were  formed.  Dr.  Giffard  being  put  in  charge  j.  ^  ^'^°^  ?"?*«^  ^T^  himself  to  the  care  of  his 

of  the  Midlands.    h4  was  consecratlj  bishop,  it  ?»°?f«  "^^"^  ^fS!^  ^°'  "^''^  thirty-four  years. 

Whitehall,  by  the  nuncio,  on  22  April,  1688.    fire-  In  the  course  of  those  years  two  affwrscausea  him 

ligious  matters  James  II  (displayed  too  little  prudence,  considerable  trouble:  the  disputes  with  the  monks  of 

aid  by  his  high-handed  actions  gave  great  offence  t<^  H*"^**'  f^^f^.'  ^PJ.  «»*  T'*Il*l^l*™  ^P^T 

the  P^testants.    Not  only  did  hrcoml^l  the  authori-  ^he  Worcester  feud  lasted  down  to  the  bishop's  death, 

ties  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  to  accept  Bishop  a?d  reached  such  a  height  that  when,  m  1300,  Arch- 

Parkera8tfeirpresident;l^ut,  on  Piker's  death  (1688),  *"**'?  Wmchelsey  visited  the  pno^,  the  monks  pre- 

he  had  twelve  Catholic  felloWs  appointed,  and  made  ?ent^  a  formal  accusation  against  the  bishop  contain- 

Dr.  Giffard  president,  despite  the  fact  that  the  college  J?§r*^^^"*?  t'*!"  **  "*  varying  importance  to  which 

electors  had  selected  a  Pritestant,  John  Hough.    TEe  ^fflard's  satisfactory  answers  are  stm  extant.    The 

king's  nominee  took  up  his  residence  there  on  15  June,  V^^^  *5?^*1?    •  ^*     »°iu     u      u  ",  w  "    . 

1688.    A  storm  of  opiiosition  arose,  and  he  was  ejected  f"!?'^!!*^.*^^*  ^^  ^8^^  of  the  chureh  of  Worcester 

about  five  months lito-.    The  Revolution  followed,  ^.  ^"^  mfnnpd  by  the  bishops  refusal  to  allow 

and  the  bishop  was  seized  and  imprisoned  at  New-  their  precentor  to  summon  those  who  were  to  be  or- 

•mte.  where  he  remainM  nearlv  two  veftn.     w«  w««  <lamed_at  an_ordmation_  at  Westbury.,   The  feelmg 


Cmi  died,  in  1703,  BiShop  Giffard  was  charged  to  «ded  P  the  bishop's  favourin  the  ArchesCourtm  1297. 
look  after  his  district,  and  from  1708  till  1713  Ee  had  R«  ations  were  moreover,  strained  beoiuse  of  the  un- 
to govern  the  Western  vicariate  as  well.  In  this  he  ?;'""»8ne88  of  the  pnory  to  admit  the  bishop's  visita- 
wal  aided  by  his  brother  Andrew,  his  vicar-general,  *«»^-    ^«»  difliculty  with  the  pnory  at  CTreat  Mal- 


but,  as  he  died  before  his  consecration,  Benjamin  "fSFLZc:^T^^^l>ZK^^.Tli^r.f^^ 

Petre  was  appointed.    The  old  bishc^  i^ssed  away  ?^  ^^^*"i'^'-    S*!,  !^'?VT  ^^t^.  ^^J^ 

fourteen  yeareTater,  in  1734,  at  the  age  of  ninety-twa  ^""^  5^  ^"  settled  m  1217.    Giffard  s  predeces- 

He  was  Lried  bekide  his'  brother^drew,  Tn  the  "»"  ^  ^  fZ^^^^t^^^^lt^lTJw^TtS^/^ 

feZn,^*^^  i;  ?hP  «rt?Ll?^  MfJ?u„^^  "^ally  ended  then.    The  climax  was  reached  in  Sep- 

1826  a^W  Miscellany  ,  m  ^^^^^  jjgg,  ^hen  Giffard,  as  visitor,  at  the  requ^ 

LraoARD.  Hutorv  of  En^and,  X  (Dublin,  1849);  Bradt,  ^.f°F^  of  the  monks,  deposed  the  unworthy  prior, 

Bpiiujfpal  3veee$sion;  Qiixow,  BM.  Dial.  Sfw.  CaA.,  r.  v.  William  of  LedburT.     A  Violent  conflict  followed,  full 

A.  A.  MacEblean.  of  incidente,  appeals,  and  counter-appeals  and  finally 

the  king  had  to  intervene  to  bring  about  a  compro- 

CMttard,  GoDniET,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  b.  about  mise. 
1235;  d.  26  Jan.,  1301.    He  was  the  son  of  Hudi        Besides  building  the  castle  at  Hartlebury,  and  re- 

Giffard  of  Boyton    in   Wiltshire,   and    Sybfl,   the  building  the  church  there,  Giffard  built  magnificent 

daughter  and  coheiress  of  Walter  de  Cormeifles.    His  mansions  at  Wick  and  Alvechureh.    Moreover  he 


OIFFABD 


652 


OIFFOBD 


ornamented  the  eastern  part  of  the  cathedral  with  the 
small  columns  of  marble  having  joints  of  gilded  brass, 
which  form  one  of  the  most  graceful  characteristics  of 
the  present  choir  and  Ladv  chapel.  Even  after  re- 
tiring from  the  chancellorship  he  is-  still  found  exer- 
cising judicial  functions,  as  wnen,  in  1272.  with  Roger 
Mortuner  he  enauired  into  the  injuries  done  by  the 
townspeople  of  Oxford  to  the  scholars;  and,  in  1278, 
he  was  at  the  head  of  the  justices  itinerant  for  the 
counties  of  Hereford,  Hertford,  and  Kent.  He  was 
buried  on  4  Feb.  in  his  cathedral  church  (Ann.  Monast., 
IV.  561). 

Thomas,  AtUiquitaUa  prioratus  majcrU  Malvemia  in  agro 


—  Survey  of  L,..  , 

at  the  Bteh&pe  thereof  (Loodoo,  1736).  135-145;  Annalet  Monaa- 
tud,  ed.  LuARo  in  R.  S.  (London,  I860).  IVj  Regietrum  Bpia- 
toUsrum  J.  Peckham,  ed.  Mabtin  in  R.  8.  (London,  1884).  11; 
Toxrr  in  Diet.  Nat.  Bioff.,  s.  ▼.;  Smith  and  Onbu>w,  Dioceean 
Hietonea:  Woreettef  (London,  1883). 

Edward  Mtbrs. 

Oiffardy  Willlui,  second  Norman  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester from  1 100  to  1 129.  Little  is  known  of  his  his- 
tory anterior  to  his  episcopate,  except  that  he  was  suc- 
cessively canon  and  dean  of  Rouen,  and  ably  filled  the 
office  of  chancellor  to  William  the  Conqueror  (d.  1087), 
William  Rufus  (d.  1100),  and  Henry  I.  Since  the 
death  of  Bishop  Walkelin  in  1098,  no  appointment  had 
been  made  to  tne  See  of  Winchester  dunng  the  remain- 
ing two  years  of  the  reign  of  Rufus,  and  the  revenues 
were  appropriated  by  the  king.  The  very  first  act  of 
Henry  I  (Stubbs,  "Const.  Hist.",  Oxford,  1891-5,  I, 
329),  after  his  election  as  kin^  at  Winchester,  in  Aug., 
1100,  was  to  cdve  a  token  of  his  goodwill  to  the  Church 
by  filing  the  See  of  Winchester,  and  he  caused  William 
Griffard,  who  was  still  only  a  deacon,  to  be  duly  elected 
bishop.  Henry  may  have  wished  to  provide  himself 
with  a  strong  supporter  in  the  episcopal  body,  but. 
from  the  first,  William  would  appear  to  have  realised 
that  the  points  at  issue  between  the  king  and  the 
Church  had  become  part  of  the  great  European  quarrel 
of  investitures,  and  declined  to  accept  the  pastoral 
stafif  from  the  king's  hands.  At  the  moment,  the  sup- 
port of  churchmen  was  necessaiy  to  assure  Henry's 
position;  he  was  too  prudent  to  force  the  acceptance 
of  the  sacied  symbol,  and  Giffard  was  immeoiately 
invested  with  the  temporalities  of  the  see.  It  only 
remained  to  arrange  for  his  consecration.  Meanwhile 
St.  Anselm  had  returned  from  exile,  and,  strengthened 
by  the  decision  of  the  council  held  at  the  Vatican  in 
1099,  declined  to  become  the  homo  of  a  lawman. 

An  uneasy  time  followed,  and  embassies  were  sent 
to  Rome.  As  bishop-elect,  Giffard  assisted  at  the 
council  held  at  Westminster,  20  Sept.,  1102.  In  spite 
of  his  agreement  with  Anselm,  Henrv  invested  the 
Bishops-Elect  of  Salisbury  and  Hereford,  and  requested 
Anselm  to  consecrate  them.  Anselm  was  willing 
to  consecrate  Giffard,  but  in  spite  of  the  king's  re- 
peated insistence  declined  to  consecrate  the  others. 
Gerard  of  York  having  undertaken  to  do  so,  one  of  the 
bishops-elect  returned  his  crosier;  the  consecration 
ceremony  of  the  remaining  two  had  already  begun 
when  Ginard,  conscience-stncken,  declined  to  take  fur- 
ther part  in  it.  The  king  failed  to  intimidate  him  and 
he  was  sent  into  exile,  and  his  poods  confiscated.  He 
had  a  constant  friend  and  adviser  in  St.  Anselm,  and 
when  the  latter  set  out  for  Rome  in  April,  1103,  Giffard 
went  with  hinL  Anselm's  long  stay  at  Lyons  beean 
about  Christmas,  1 103.  In  the  meantime  Giffard  had 
been  allowed  to  come  back  to  England,  for  in  1105  he 
signed,  togetiier  with  the  bishops,  the  petition  begging 
Anselm  to  return.  Eventually  a  compromise  was 
effected,  Anselm  returned  1  Aug.,  1107;  the  realities 
of  feudal  homage  were  retained,  but  the  special  form 
of  the  gift  of  rins  and  crosier  was  given  up  by  the  king. 
Giffard^  who  had  been  ordained  priest  quietly  the  day 
before,  was  consecrated  by  Anselm  on  11  Aug.,  1107. 


He  regained  Hennr's  confidence  and  acted  for  him  in 
several  matters  of  ecclesiastical  interest.  As  Bishop 
of  Winchester  one  of  his  first  duties  was  to  act  as  chi^ 
commissioner  in  the  completion  of  the  Domesday 
Record  of  Winchester,  that  royal  city  having  been 
omitted  from  the  Domesday  of  the  Conqueror.  In 
1110  he  negotiated  with  the  king  and  the  community 
the  removal  of  the  so-called  "New  Minster"  (or  St, 
Grimbald's  Abbey)  founded  b^  King  Alfred,  which 
stood  in  very  inconvenient  proximity  to  the  cathedral 
on  the  north  side,  to  a  new  site  outside  the  city,  imder 
the  name  of  Hyde  Abbey. 

Eventually  tnis  led  to  serious  difficulties  with  the 
monks  of  the  cathedral  community,  in  consequence  of 
the  bishop's  having  alienated  certain  revenues  whidi 
they  conceived  to  belong  to  them.  The  difficulty  cul- 
minated in  1122  in  a  strange  symbolical  pageant  by 
the  monks,  and  the  interference  of  the  kmg.  Peace 
was  made,  and  the  bishop  grew  more  and  more  attached 
to  the  commimity,  spending  most  of  his  time  among 
them,  taking  his  meals  with  them,  wearing  the  cowl, 
and  eventually  dying  in  their  infirmary.  Tiie  Canons 
Regular  of  St.  Augustine  were  welcomed  to  England 
by  him  and  a  home  was  found  for  them  at  St.  Maiy 
Overy's  (now  St.  Saviour's)  in  Southwark:  near  their 
stately  chureh  he  built  the  town-house  of  the  Bishops 
of  Winchester.  To  him  also  belonss  the  honour  of 
havinp  given  a  first  home  in  En^nd  to  the  monks  of 
the  Cistercian  Order,  by  establishing,  in  Nov.,  1128, 
the  abbey  of  Waverley,  near  Famham,  in  Surrey,  a 
filiation  of  L'Aum6ne  m  the  Diocese  of  Chartres.  He 
died  on  25  Jan.,  1 129,  and  was  buried  in  the  nave  of  his 
cathedral  chureh  near  his  predecessor  Walkelin. 

Vbnablbb  in  Diet.  Nat.  Bioq.  indicateB  the  chief  original 
aouroes:  Hxlnbb,  Wincheater  (Hiuenbeth's  ed.,  Winchester, 
8.  d.),  1,  163-6;  II.  130,  243;  Rulb,  Life  and  Times  of  8t. 
Aneelm  (London,  1883),  II,  229,  259;  &»phbnb,  A  Hiatory  of 
the  Bnt^uh  Chureh  (London,  1904),  II,  vii;  Stbphbnb  akd 
Capm,  Z%«  Buh4fp9  Of  Windmter  (Winchester,  1907),  pt.  II,  5-9. 

Edwabd  Mtebs. 

Oiflord,  WiLUAH,  Arehbishop  of  Reims;  b.  in 
Hampshire,  1554;  d.  at  Reims,  11  April,  1629.  He 
was  tne  son  of  John  Gifford,  Esc[uire,  of  Weston-undei^ 
Edge,  Gloucestershire,  and  Elisabeth,  daughter  of  Sir 
George  Throckmorton,  Knight,  of  Coushton,  Warwick- 
shire fWood,  **  Athen.  Oxon.",  below;.  He  was  sent 
to  Oxford  in  1569,  where  he  was  entrusted  to.  the  care 
of  John  Bridgewater,  President  of  Lincoln  CoU^, 
who  was  a  Catholic  at  heart.  Gifford  remained  at  Qkt 
ford  for  about  four  years,  part  of  which  time  he  spent  in 
the  celebrated  boarding  school  kept  by  the  Catholio 
physician  Etheridge,  whither  he  had  been  removed  on 
the  compulsory  retirement  of  Bridgewater  for  refused 
to  conform.  After  this  period,  Gifford,  accompanied 
by  his  tutor,  proceeded  to  Louvain  (1573).  resumed 
there  his  studies,  and  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  (Athen. 
Oxon.).  After  having  also  obtained  his  baccalaureate 
in  theology  on  the  completion  of  a  four  years'  course 
in  that  science  under  Bellarmine,  Gifford  was  forced 
to  quit  Louvain  owing  to  the  disturbances  in  the  Low 
Countries.  Proceeding  thence,  he  pursued  his  eccle- 
siastical studies  at  Paris,  at  Reims,  which  he  visited 
(1577)  at  the  invitation  of  Dr.  Allen,  and  at  the  English 
College  at  Rome,  of  which  he  was  admitted  a  member 
on  15  Sept.,  1579  FFoley,  "Records  of  the  English 
Province",  etc.,  VI  (London,  1880),  139;  but  compare 
statement  there  given  as  to  age  with  date  of  birth 
above].  Having  been  ordained  priest  in  March,  1582 
(Foley,  ''Recoros",  loc.  cit.),  he  was  recalled  to  Reims 
by  Allen  as  professor  of  theology  at  the  English  Collcjge 
("Douay  Diaries",  infra:  Dianum  Primum,  11;  Dia- 
rium  Secundum,  189 — note  statement  as  to  age) .  The 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  was  conferred  on  him  in 
December  of  1584  at  Pont-li-Mousson  in  Lorraine, 
after  which,  returning  to  Reims,  Gifford  tau^t  the- 
ology at  intervals  for  nearly  twelve  years. 

On  Allen's  elevation  to  the  cardinalate,  Gifford 


am                       553  Qur 

accompanied  him  to  Rome  in  the  capacity  of  chaplain,  Le.  bevond  the  reach  of  all  created  nature  (even  of  the 

and  it  is  said  that  during  this  yisit  he  resided  for  a  angels),  and  elevate  the  creature  to  a  dif^ty  and  per- 

time  in  the  household  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  About  fection  natural  to  God  alone;  others  are  only  relatively 

this  time  (1597)  Gifford  was  preferred  to  the  deanery  supernatural  (preternatural),  i.e.  above  human  nature 

of  Lille,  which  office  Clement  VIII  conferred  on  him  only,  and  elevate  human  nature  to  that  state  of  higher 

at  the  instance,  it  is  alleged,  of  the  Archbishop  of  peitection  which  is  natural  to  the  angels.   Theorigmal 

Milan.    This  di^ty  he  retained  for  about  ten  years,  state  of  man  comprised  both  of  these,  and  when  he  fell 

and.  after  his  withdrawal  from  Lille  (c.  1606) ,  he  was  he  lost  both.    Christ  has  restored  to  us  the  absolutely 

made  "rector  magnificus"  of  Reims  University.    In  supernatural  gifts,  but  the  preternatural  gifts  He  has 

IQOSt  Gifford,  who  had  always  held  the  Benedictines  not  restored. 

in  hijgh  esteem  and  befriended  them  in  many  ways,  The  absolutelv  supernatural  gifts,  which  alone  are 
took  the  habit  of  that  order  and  subsequentlv  oecame  the  supernatural  properly  so  called,  are  summed  up  in 
prior  at  Dieulouard  (Dieulewart).  In  1611,  Father  the  Divine  adoption  of  man  to  be  the  son  and  heir  of 
Gabriel  of  St.  Mary,  as  Gifford  was  known  in  religion.  God.  This  expression,  and  the  explanations  given  of 
went  into  Brittany  and  laid  the  foundation  of  a  small  it  by  the  sacred  writers,  make  it  evident  that  the  son- 
community  of  his  order  at  St.  Malo.  He  was  favour-  ship  is  something  far  more  than  a  relation  founded 
ably  received  by  the  bishop,  and  a  chair  of  divinity  upon  the  absence  of  sin;  it  is  of  a  thoroughly  intimate 
was  assigned  to  him  (Petre,  op.  cit.  infra).  He  was  cnaracter,  raising  the  creature  from  its  naturally  hum- 
one  of  the  nine  definitors  chosen  in  1617  to  arrange  the 
terms  of  imion  among  the  Benedictine  congregations 
in  England,  of  which  province  he  was  elected  first 

president  in  Mav  of  the  same  year.    In  1618,  Gifford  ^  

was-consecratea  coadjutor  to  Cardinal  Louis  de  Lor-  Son  .  .  .  that  he  mi^t  redeem  them  who  were  under 

raine.  Archbishop  of  Reims,  with  the  title  of  EjyU-  the  law:  that  we  might  receive  the  adoption  of  sons 

eopua  ArchidaUoB  (Bishop  of  Archidal).    Gn  the  death  (t^p  vlo$wiaw).    And  oecause  you  are  sons,  God  hath 

of  Guise,  he  succeeded  to  the  archbishopric,  becoming  sent  the  Spirit  of  his  Son  into  your  hearts,  crying: 

also,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  Diike  of  Reims  and  First  Abba,  Fatner.    Therefore  now  he  is  (Gr.  text:  thou 

Peer  of  France.  art)  not  a  servant,  but  a  son.    And  if  a  son,  an  heir 

Before  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1629.  he  had  also  through  God''  (Gal.,  iv,  4-7)  "Who  hath  blessed 

acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher.    His  writ-  us  with  [aU]  spiritual  blessings  in  heavenly  places,  in 

ings   include:    "Oratio   Fimebns   in   exequiis  ven-  Christ  .  .  .  who  hath   predestinated   us  imto  the 

erabilis  viri  domini  Maxsemiliani  Manare  prspositi  adoptibn  of  children  ^vUewlaw)  through  Jesus  Christ 

ecclesiffi  D.  Petri  oppidi  Insulensis"  (Douai,  1598);  unto  himself"  (Eph.,  i,  3-5).    "Behold  what  manner 

"  Orationes  diverse    (Douai) ;  "Calvino-Turcismus" ,  of  charity  the  Father  hath  bestowed  upon  us,  that  we 

etc.  (Antwerp,  1597  and  1603).    The  latter  work^  be-  should  be  called,  and  should  be  the  sons  of  God" 

gm  by  Dr.  Reynolds,  Gifford  completed  and  edited.  (I  John,  iii,  1).    Further,  this  exalted  estate  is  de- 

e  translated  from  the  French  of  Fronto-Ducseus.S.  J.,  scribed  as  a  communication  or  partnership  with  the 

"The  Inventory  of  Errors,  Contradictions,  and  false  only-begptten  Son  of  God,  a  participation  in  the  privi- 

Citations  of  Philip  Momay,  Lord  of  Plessis  and  Mor-  leges  wmch  are  peculiar  to  Him  in  opposition  to  mere 

nay".    He  also  .wrote,  at  the  request  of  the  Duke  of  creatures.     "That  they  all  may  be  one.  as  thou. 

Guise,  a  treatise  in  favour  of  the  League.    The  "Ser-  Father,  in  me,  and  I  in  thee;  that  they  aiao  may  be 

mones  Adventuales"  (Reims,  1625)  were  a  Latin  ren-  one  in  us.  .  .  .  And  the  glory  which  thou  hast  given 

dering  by  Gifford  of  discourses  originally  delivered  in  me,  I  have  given  to  them;  that  they  may  be  one,  as  we 

French.    He  assisted  Dr.  Anthony  Champney  in  his  also  are  one:  I  in  them,  and  thou  in  me;  that  they  may 

"Treatise  on  the  Protestant  Ordinations"  (Douai,  be  made  perfect  in  one"  (John,  xvii,  21-23).   It  is  also 

1616) ;  other  of  Gifford's  MSS.  were  destroyed  in  the  styled  fellowship  (Koivwla)  "  with  the  Father,  and 

burning  of  the  monastery  at  Dieulouard  in  1717.  with  his  Son "  (I  John,  i,  3) ;  and  "the  communication 

Wood,  ii<AemB  Oxonien«u.  ed.  BuiB.  n  (London.  1815).  coL  (^  Koipwpta)  of  the  Holy  Ghost"   (II  Cor.,  xiii,   13). 

453  «aq..  essays  sn  orderly  narration  of  the  events  in  Gifford's  Divine  adoption  is  a  new  birth  of  the  soul  (John,  i,  12, 

^^r?-S»^i>i:[?Ll^Sd'^nT:i8?ri?L^  13;  iii.  6;  f  John,  iii,  9;  y   1;  I  Pet    i^;  and  i,  23; 

BiW.  Did.  EnO'  Cath.,  s.  v.  Giffnrd;  Abtrb,  NoScea  of  Ike  Eng.  James,  1,  18;  Titus,  ill,  5;  Eph.,  u,  6).    This  regenera- 

CoUegea  and  ConvenU  on  the  Continent,  etc.  (Norwich.  1849),  28,  tion  implies  the  foundation  of  a  higher  State  of  being 

f.^rB^^\SruJctZll^^  ^f  !jl?»  resulting  from  a  special  Divine  influence,  anS 

Douaieienne  (Douai.   1842),  46-47   (no.  119);  L»wi8  Owiin.  admitting  US  tO  the  dignity  of  SOUS  of  God.     "For 

Running  Reoister  (1626).  91:  Pits,  De  Anglia Scriptoribua.sod;  whom  he  foreknew,  he  also  predestinated  to  be  made 

Gifford's  character,  see  Butlbb  in  The  Month,  CIII  (1904);  the  firstborn  amongst  many  brethren     (Rom.,  Vlll, 

PoLLBN.  ibid.  (1904);  Knox.  Letters  of  Card.  AUen  (1882);  29).     Cf.  also  II  Cor.,  iii,  18;  Gal.,  iii,  26,  27;  IV,  19; 

^:\';^i::'W:L^^  ^^^-^  ^^>  14.    as  a  consequence  of  this  Divine  «iop- 

(326).  W  (395).  etc.;  and  Dodd.  Church  HiSTii  England, ed.  ^lon  and  new  birth  we  are  made  "partakers  of  the 

TzBBMST  (London.  1839),  IL  divine   nature"  {Oelas  koipwpoI  ^^can,  II  Pet.,  i,  4). 

P.  J.  MacAulet.  The  whole  context  of  this  passage  and  the  passages 

already  quoted  show  that  this  expression  is  to  be  taken 

Oifty  SuPERNATCRAL,  mav  be  defined  as  something  as  literally  as  possible;  not,  indeed,  as  a  generation 

conferred  on  nature  that  is  above  all  the  powers  (vtres)  from  the  substance  of  God,  but  as  a  communication  of 

of  created  nature.    When  God  created  man.  He  was  Divine  life  by  the  power  of  God,  and  a  most  intimate 

not  content  with  bestowing  upon  him  the  essential  indwelling  of  His  substance  in  the  creature.    Hence, 

endowments  required  by  man's  nature.    He  raised  too,  the  inheritance  is  not  confined  to  natural  goods, 

him  to  a  higher  state,  adding  certain  ^fts  to  which  his  It  embraces  the  possession  and  fruition  of  the  good 

nature  had  no  claim.     They  comprise  qualities  and  which  is  the  natural  inheritance  of  the  Son  of  God,  vis., 

Serfections,  forces  and  energies,  dignities  and  rights,  the  beatific  vision.   "  We  are  now  the  sons  of  God;  and 

estination  to  final  objects,  of  which  the  essential  con-  it  hath  not  yet  appeared  what  we  shall  be.    We  know, 

stitution  of  man  is  not  the  principle;  which  are  not  that,  when  he  snail  appear,  we  shall  be  like  to  him: 

required  for  the  attainment  of  the  final  perfection  of  because  we  shall  see  him  as  he  is"  (I  John,  iii,  2). 

the  natural  order  of  man;  and  which  can  only  be  com-  "  We  see  now  through  a  glass  in  a  dark  manner;  but 

municated  by  the  free  operation  of  God's  goodness  and  then  [in  the  beatific  vision]  face  to  face  "  (I  Cor.,  xiii, 

power.    Some  of  these  are  absolutely  supernatural,  12).  The  Fathers  have  not  hesitated  to  call  this  super- 


GIFT 


554 


GILBERT 


natural  union  of  the  creature  with  God  the  deification 
of  the  creature.  This  is  a  favourite  expression  of  St. 
Ir^UBUS  ("Adv.  HaBr.",  Ill,  xvii,  xix;  IV,  xx,  etc.), 
and  is  frequently  used  by  St.  Athanasius  (see  Newman, 
"St.  Athanasius",  II,  88).  See  also  St.  Augustine 
(?  Serm.  cxd,  "In  Nat.  Dom."),  quoted  by  St. 
Thomas  (III,  9.  i,  a.  3). 

In  order  to  live  worthy  of  our  Divine  dignity  and  to 
attain  our  Divine  end,  we  stuid  in  need  of  supernat- 
ural aid.  This  supernatural  aid  to  a  supernatural  end 
is  called  grace  (q.  v.).  For  our  present  purpose  it  will 
be  sufficient  to  note  that  grace  is  either  habitual  (i.  e. 
sanctifying,  making  us  pleasing  to  God)  or  actual  (i.  e. 
enabling  us  to  produce  works  deserving  of  salvation). 
There  are  other  aids  sometimes  bestowed  less  for  our 
own  benefit  than  for  the  benefit  of  others.  These  are 
cidled  gratioB  gratis  dattx  {chariamataf  q.v.).  They  do 
not  directly  and  immediately  help  to  the  attainment 
of  our  end,  but  assist  as  it  were  from  without.  The 
theological  virtues  and  the  moral  virtues  are  graces 

SropeiSy  so  called.   So,  too,  are  the  gifts  of  the  Holy 
[host  (see  Holt  Ghost). 

It  may  be  well  here  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  preter- 
natural (relatively  supernatural)  gifts  bestowed  on  our 
first  parents,  which  are  sometimes  confused  with  the 
supernatural  gifts  properly  so  called.  In  the  begin- 
ning God  exempted  man  from  the  inherent  weakness 
of  his  nature,  i.  e.  the  infirmities  of  the  flesh  and  the 
consequent  infirmities  of  the  spirit.  He  made  man 
immortal,  impassible,  free  from  concupiscence  and 
ignorance,  sinless,  and  lord  of  the  earth.  These  privi- 
leges are  beyond  man's  nature,  but  not  beyond  that  of 
some  higher  creature  (e.  g.  the  angels) ;  hence  they  are 
preternatural  {prceter  naturam).  The  Fatherg  look 
upon  them  as  a  glorification  of  nature,  applying  the 
words  of  Ps.  viii,  5-9.  In  point  of  fact  these  gifts  were 
not  coxiierred  apart  from  the  supematurai  gifts;  a 
preternatural  state  is,  however,  conceivable,  and  the 
separability  of  the  two  sets  of  gifts  is  clear  from  our 
now  possessing  the  supematurai  without  the  preter- 
natural gifts.  "  Although  distinct  and  separable,  ^ret 
integrity  and  grace,  when  bestowed  together,  unite 
into  one  harmonious  and  organic  whole.  The  Fathers 
look  upon  this  union  in  the  original  state  of  man  as  an 
anticipation  of  his  state  of  final  beatitude  in  the  vision 
of  Goa.  so  that  grace  bears  to  integrity  the  same  relar 
tion  wnich  the  future  glory  of  the  soul  bears  to  the 
future  glory  of  the  body.  Integrity  and  grace^  when 
combined,  elevate  man  to  the  most  perfect  likeness 
with  God  attainable  in  this  life;  they  dispose  and  pre- 
pare him  for  the  still  more  complete  likeness  of  eternal 

life." 

RiPALDA,  Ds  EtUe  Supematuralij  lib.  I,  disp.  i  (PariB,  1871); 
ScHRADBR,  De  Tripliei  Ordine  (Vienna,  1804);  Palmibbi,  De 
ChtUid  (Qulpen,  1885);  Wilhblm  and  Scannbll,  Manual  of 
Catholic  Theolooy,  I,  428  a^q.  (3rd  ed.,  London,  1906);  Schbb- 
BBN ,  Handbuch  aer  Katholxaehen  Dogmatik,  II.  240  Baa. ;  Ulla- 
THORNB,  The  EndowmenU  of  Man  (3rd  ed.,  London.  1888};  and 
the  various  works  mentioned  in  the  articles  referred  to  in  the 
text. 

T.   B.  SCANNELL. 

Gift  of  Ctonstantine.    See  Donation  of  Con- 

BTANTINE. 

Gift  of  Tongues.    See  Tongxtes,  Gift  of. 

Gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost.    See  Holt  Ghobt. 

Gilbert,  Nicolas-Joseph-Laurent,  poet,  b.  at 
Fontenoy-le-ChAteau,  1761 ;  d.  at  Paris,  12  November, 
1780.  His  parents  were  poor  farmers.  He  pursued  his 
studies  at  the  College  de  I'Arc  at  D6le,  where  the  pro- 
fessor of  literature  boasted  of  having  made  poets  of  all 
his  pupils  except  Gilbert.  Upon  leaving  college  in 
1769,  he  settled  at  Nancy  and  tried  to  open  a  public 
course  in  literature.  In  1772  he  competed  unsuccess- 
fully for  a  prize  at  the  French  Academy.  In  1774  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  Fr^ron  won  for  him  the  favour 
of  the  archbishop.  Youn^  and  unknown,  he  had  the 
courage  to  oppose  the  tnumphant  and  all-powerful 


chiefs  of  the  philosophical  party.  Although  there  is  a 
little  juvenile  audacity  in  the  fury  of  his  attacks,  the 
sincerity  of  his  religious  convictions  cannot  be 
doubtea.  He  died  of  brain  fever  caused  by  a  fall  from 
his  horse.  His  enemies  reported  that  he  died  insane; 
his  partisans  claimed  that  he  died  in  misery  at  the 
hospital.  Neither  report  is  true.  After  the  accident 
which  caused  his  death,  he  was  taken  to  the  H6tel- 
Dieu,  but  was  soon  removed  to  his  own  house,  where 
he  died.  The  story  of  his  poverty  is  untrue,  for  at  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  drawing  th/ee  pensions,  which 
constituted  for  that  time  a  rather  large  income.  Gil- 
bert's works  consist  of  a  Persian  novel,  **  Les  famUles 
de  Darius  et  d'Eridame"  (Paris,  1770),  a  satire  in 
prose,  "  Le  camaval  des  auteurs"  (Paris,  1773),  a  few 
odes,  and  satires.  Three  pieces,  one  ode  and  two 
satires,  have  given  him  a  lasting  reputation:  the  "  Ode 
imit^e  de  plusieurs  psaumes"  (1788),  usually  known 
imder  the  title  of  "  Adieux  k  la  vie'',  struck  the  first 
personal  and  melancholy  notes  which  were  the  char- 
acteristic of  the  Romantic  school:  in  the  satires  "Le 
dix-huitidme  si^cle"  (1775)  and  "Mon  apologie" 
(1778)  there  is  a  force,  movement,  and  eloquence 
which  one  does  not  find  elsewhere  in  the  poetry  of  that 
time.  He  vigorously  opposes  the  manners  of  the  time 
and  castigates  the  philosophers  and  the  Academy. 
His  words  are  those  of  a  man  who  writes  with  free- 
dom, emotion,  and  sincerity,  though  his  style  is  not 
always  equal  to  the  thought. 

Pmr  DB  JuLLCViLLB,  HiBloire  de  la  langue  Udela  littirature 
franfaiaee  (Paria,  1898),  VI;  Gidkl,  HieUrire  de  la  liiUrature 
franpaiae  (Paxis,  1808),  ill. 

Louis  N.  Delamarre. 

Gilbertf  Sir  John  Thomas,  Irish  archivist  and 
historian,  b.  in  Dublin,  23  January,  1829;  d.  there,  23 
May,  1898.  He  was  the  son  of  John  Gilbert,  an  Eng- 
lish Protestant,  Portuguese  consul,  at  Dublin,  and 
Marianne,  an  Irish  Catholic,  daughter  of  Henry  Coe- 
tello.  From  her  the  future  historian  inherited  his 
ardent  patriotism,  which  was  surpassed  only  by  a  deep 
spirit  of  religion  which  characterized  him  through 
life.  His  early  days  were  spent  at  Branackstown, 
Meath.  He  was  educated  at  Dublin,  and  at  Prior 
Park,  near  Bath,  England.  He  received  no  imiver- 
sity  training,  as  his  mother  preferred  to  sacrifice  that 
rather  than  allow  his  faith  to  be  imperilled  in  the 
Protestant  University  of  Dublin.  In  1846  his  family 
moved  to  Blackrock,  a  suburb  of  the  Irish  metropolis, 
where  he  resided  till  his  death,  fifty-two  years  later. 

From  his  boyhood,  he  manifested  a  decided  taste  for 
histoiT  and  archaeology.  When  only  nineteen,  he 
was  elected  to  the  Council  of  the  Celtic  Society,  and 
thus  became  associated  with  some  of  the  famous 
writers  and  orators  of  the  age.  Butt,  Duffy.  Ferguson, 
Mitchell,  O'Hagan,  and  Smith  O'Brien.  In  1851  ap- 
peared his  essay,  ''Historical  Literature  of  Ireland  '. 
Four  years  later  he  became  a  Member  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy,  and  secretary  of  the  Irish  Archseolog* 
ical  Society,  among  whose  members  were  OVurryp 
O'DonovMi,  Graves,  Todd,  and  Wilde.  In  1854-9  he 
published  his  "History  of  the  City  of  Dublin"  in  3 
vols.,  a  work  of  remarkable  erudition,  which  placed 
him  among  the  greatest  historians  of  the  country.  In 
1863  his  "History  and  Treatment  of  the  Public 
Records  of  Ireland"  caused  considerable  sensation  by 
demonstrating  to  the  government  the  futility  of  en- 
trusting the  publication  of  Irish  State  documents  to 
men  unskillea  in  the  language  and  history  of  the  na- 
tion. From  this  time  till  his  death  his  pen  was  never 
idle,  and  he  filled  the  most  important  nosts  in  all  the 
historical  and  antiquarian  societies.  He  was  librarian 
of  the  Royal  Irish  Academv  for  thirty-four  years.  In 
1891  he  married  the  brilliant  Irish  novelist,  Rosa 
MuIhoUand.  He  received  the  honorary  degree  of 
LL.D.  from  the  Royal  University  in  1892,  and  five 
years  later  was  knighted  for  his  services  to  archsology 
and  history.    In  addition  to  the  works  already  me&- 


tioDed,  hia  most  important  writinKa  are  the  "History 
of  the  Viceroya  of  Iieknd"  (1865),  "Calendar  of  the 
Ancient  Records  of  Dublin"  (7  vols.,  1889-98); 
"  History  of  the  Irish  Confederation  and  the  War  in 
Ireland,  1641-9"  (7  voU.,  1882-91);  "  Jacobite  Narra- 
tive of  the  War  in  Ireland,  1688-91"  (1892).  Celtic 
scholatB  are  indebted  to  him  for  the  photographic 
reproductions  of  the  celebrated  ancient  Irish  MS3.,  for 
the  establishment  of  the  Todd  lectureship  in  Celtic, 
and  also  for  editions  of  "Leabhor  oa  h-Uidhre"  and 
"  Leabhar  Breac." 

Lira   by   Rosa   Hdlholuhd    Gilbbbt    (LondoD,    1905]; 
rAuauzR  ia  Die.  Nal.  Bioa.  ,.,,,, 

A.  A.  HacErlban. 

■  QUbort  d*  la  Poirio  (Gilbertub  PoRRBTA^u8), 
Bishop  of  Poitiers,  phUosopher,  theologian  and  eeo- 
eral  scholar;  b.atPoitiersin  1076;  d.  in  1154;  studied 
under  Hilary  in  Poitiers,  under  Bernard  of  Chartrea  at 
the  famous  school  there,  and  finally  under  Anselm  at 
IJM3n,  where  he  probably  first  met  Peter  Abelard.  Re- 
turning later  to  Chartres,  he  tau^t  philosophy  and 
the  arts  tliere  for  about  fifteen  years,  receiving  a  caa- 
onry  and  holding  at  intervals  tne  office  of  chancellor 
of  the  school.  He  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Sens 
(1141),  at  which  Abelani  was  censured.  The  follow- 
ine  year  we  find  him  teaching  in  Paris,  with  John  of 
Sdisbuiy  among  his  pupils;  but  only  for  a  brief  space, 
for  in  1142  he  became  Bishop  of  Chartres.  His  high 
character  for  learning  and  ecclesiastical  seal  seems  to 
have  won  tor  him  the  universal  respect  and  veneration 
of  his  contemporaries.  But  his  teaching  regarding  the 
Blessed  Trinity  involved  him  in  trouble  for  a  tune- 
Two  of  his  own  archdeacons,  alarmed  at  its  novelty, 
reported  it  to  Eugene  III,  and  induced  St.  Bernard  to 
oppose  Gilbert's  doctrines  in  the  pope's  presence  at  the 
Councils  of  Paris  (1147)  and  Reuns  (114S).     The  di»- 

Sute  ended  amicably  without  any  veiv  definite  issue. 
3bert  died  universally  regretted  in  tne  year  1154. 
He  lived  and  taught  durmg  the  critical  epoch  when 
the  ereat  scholastic  synthesis,  both  in  philosophy  and 
in  theology,  was  just  beginning  to  take  shape.     The 
"     '     inadoctrme      '         '       ■■      ■ 


5  OILBEBT 

it  quite  near  identity.  The  created  essence  (Jormano- 
tiva,  (ISot)  of  the  mdividual  member  of  a  class  is  a 
copy  of  the  Divine  exemplar,  "singularis  in  singulari- 
bus.  Bed  in  omnibus  universalis"  (John  of  Salisbury, 
Metal.,  II,  xvii).  He  means  that  the  /onna  no- 
tiva  is  not  reallv  (numerically)  one  and  the  same  tn 
omnibus,  but  only  conceptually,  i.  e.  by  the  considera- 
tion of  the  mind;  so  much  is  fairiy  evident  from  an- 
other reference  of  his  to  "universalia  .  .  awe  ab 
ipeis    iodividuis    htunana    ratio    quodam 

Ji—UU"  ID    I        I  VTT7     irjTJ^  if-.'^i 


strahit"  (P.  L.,  LXIV,  1374).  Yet  there  are  grounds 
forsupposii^tbathe  attributed  to  the  lorma.naliva,  as 
it  is  in  the  mdividual,  the  universality  of  the  logical 
concept.  In  the  actual  individual  he  distinguishes 
between  the  common  or  class  essence  which  he  calls 
sub»i«(en/ia,  e.g.  "humanity"  or  "human  nature" in 
the  abstract,  and  that  which  makes  it  an  existing  in- 
dividual and  which  he  calls  rubstantia,  e.  g.  "Plato". 
This  process  of  objectifying  and  dividing  off  the  ab- 


principles;  methcds,  a: 


a  doctrmes  of  purely  rational 
ended  from  philoaopny  t< 
ology  and  applied — often  rashly,  as  with  Abelar 


researeh  w 


the  elucidation  of  revealed  truth.    Aristotle'L    

ophy  was  finding  its  wa^  through  Moorish  and  Jewi^ 
channels  into  the  Christian  schools  of  Europe,  gradu- 
ally to  Buptriant  Platonic  influences  there,  and  the  dis- 
cussion 01  the  great  central  problem  of  the  validity  of 
knowledge — the  controversy  on  the  Universals,  as  it 
was  then  called — was  waxing  warm  and  vehement. 
Gilbert's  place  among  his  contemporaries  was  a  lead- 
ing and  honoured  one;  while  his  philosophical  writ- 
ing secured  for  him  a  fame  that  long  survived  him. 
Inhis  "Liber  Sex  Principiorum  "  he  explained  the  last 
six  categories  of  Aristotle,  the  latter  having  treated 
expressly  only  the  first  four.  The  work  immediately 
took  its  place  as  a  scholastic  textbook,  side  by  side 
with  the  "Isagoge"  and  the  "Categonos",  and  was 
studied  and  expounded  for  three  centuries  in  the  me- 
dieval schools.  His  "Commentaryon  the  Four  Books 
of  Boethiua",  especially  on  the  two  "  De  Trinitate", 
contain  those  applications  of  his  doctrine  on  the  Uni^ 
veraals  which  for  a  time  brought  his  orthodoxy  under 

Gilbert's  attitude  on  the  controverted  question  of 
the  Universals  has  been  very  variously  interpreted : 
as  ontolog^ic  realism  (Frantl),  empiric  realism 
(Clerval,  Zigliara),  moderate  realism  ill-defined  (de 
Wulf,  Turner).  "ITie  latter  is,  perhaps,  nearest  to  the 
truth.  Gilbert's  doctrine,  like  that  of  Abelard,  is  an 
attempt,  though  only  partially  successful,  to  repudi- 
ate the  extreme  realism  of  the  epoch,  with  its  panthe- 
istic tendencies.  The  universal  concept  (of  the  genut 
or  class)  has  corresponding  to  it  in  the  world  of  sense 
a  number  of  similar  singular  objects.  This  similarity 
is,  however,  explained  by  Gilbert  in  away  that  brings 


stract  from  the  concrete,  in  the  individual,  he  carried 
so  far  as  to  allege  that  in  it  "universality"  was  a  dis- 
tinct aubniletdia,  difTercnt  from  "singularity",  and 
that  the  "unity  of  the  individual  was  a  tubtiMeniia 
distinct  from  the  individual  which  it  made  "one". 
He  thus  mistook  mental  distinctions  for  real-  and  he 
carried  his  error  into  theology.  Between  God  and  His 
Divinity,  the  Father  and  His  Paternity,  the  Son  and 
His  Sonship,  the  Holy  Ghost  and  His  Procession,  the 
Divine  Persons  and  the  Divine  Nature,  he  saw  a  dis- 
tinction which  is  really  due  to  our  human  way  of 
grasping  reality — as  a  concrete  embodying  an  ab- 
stract, a  singular  containing  a  universal,  an  essence 
determined  by  an  existence — but  which  Gilbert,  with 
his  Platonizing  tendency  to  model  the  ontological  upon 
the  logical,  conceived  to  be  due  to  a  division  and  plu- 
rality in  the  Godhead  Itself.  This  was  an  excessive 
reaction  against  the  Pantheism  which  would  subme^e 
all  the  real  distinctions  of  things  in  an  identity  wiui 
one  indivisible  Divine  existence. 


OILBSRT 


556 


OILBEBTZNES 


Gilbert's  "Liber  Sex  Principiorum"  and  his  "Com- 
mentary on  Boethius"  are  in  P.  L.,  CLXXXIV  and 
LXIV.  He  also  left  numerous  commentaries  on  vari- 
ous books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  A  philo- 
sophical work  called  ''Liber  de  Causis'',  sometimes 
attributed  to  him,  is  in  reality  an  abndged  Latin 
translation,  throu^  the  Arabic,  of  the  "Elevatio 
Theologica''  of  Proclus,  a  Greek  Neo-Platonist  of  the 

fifth  century. 

Bbbthaud.  Oilbert  de  la  PorrSe  (Fftris,  1892):  Clbbyal,  Lm 
Beolm  de  Chartree  au  mouen  Age  (Paris,  1905);  Poolb,  lUuetro' 
Hone  of  the  Hietoru  of  Medieval  Thottokl  (London,  1884);  db 
WuLT,  Hiatoire  de  la  philoeqphie  mSdiivaie  (Louvain  and  Fans, 
1895);  TuHNBB,  Hietory  cf  PhUoeophy  (Boston,  1903). 

P.  Coffey. 

Oilbert  Foliot,  Bishop  of  London,  b.  early  in  the 
twelfth  century  of  an  Anglo-Norman  famUy  and  con- 
nected with  the  earls  of  Hereford;  d.  at  London  in 
1186.  He  became  a  monk  at  Cluny  in  France,  where 
he  rose  to  the  rank  of  prior;  then  he  was  abbot  at 
Abbeville,  and  later  at  Gloucester.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Hereford  in  1 147.  As  abbot  and  bishop  he  took  an 
important  part  in  ecclesiastical  and  national  affairs, 
was  a  supporter  of  Empress  Matilda  and  a  confidential 
adviser  of  Theobald,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  In 
1163  he  was  transferred  to  the  Bishopric  of  London, 
though  such  a  translation  was  very  exceptional  at  the 
time;  but  he  received  the  support  of  Becket  and  the 
special  consent  of  Alexander  ill.  Foliot  was  a  man 
of  learning  and  eloauence  and  a  good  administrator. 
Tlie  austerity  of  his  life  was  almost  too  widely  known. 
However,  in  the  ereat  struggle  for  the  rights  of  the 
Church  between  Henry  II  and  St.  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bury he  definitelv  took  the  king's  side.  In  the  stormy 
scenes  at  Clarendon  and  Northampton  and  during  the 
prolonged  negotiations  of  the  years  of  St.  Thomas's 
exile,  his  name  is  foremost  among  the  opponents  of  his 
archbishop;  and  he  was  one  of  the  prelates  who,  by 
their  remonstrances  against  a  renewed  excommunicar 
tion  in  1170,  brought  about  indirectly  St.  Thomas's 
martyrdom.  It  may  be  true  that  Gilbert  was  opposed 
to  Becket 's  personahty  and  methods  more  than  to  his 
aims,  but  Henry  II  would  have  been  more  than  a 
match  for  a  diplomatic  bishop.  A  king  who  combined 
to  such  an  extent  intelligence  and  passion  could  have 
been  checked  only  by  a  wave  of  popular  enthusiasm. 
(See  Thomas  Becket,  Saint). 

Gilbert  Foliot*8  name  appears  on  nearly  every  page  of  the 
Becket  controversy  and  reference  must  be  made  to  the  bibliog- 
raphy of  St.  Thomas. 

The  treatment  of  Foliot's  character  is  particularly  full  in 
L'HuiLUSB,  St  Thamae  de  CanttMru,  2  vols.  (Paris,  1891); 
see  also  Pbrrt  in  DicL  Nat.  Biog./XJX,  358  soq. 

F.  F.  Urquhart. 

Oilbertines,  Order  of,  founded  by  St.  Gilbert, 
about  the  year  1130,  at  Semprin^ham,  Gilbert's  native 
place,  where  he  was  then  parish  priest.  His  wish 
originally  had  been  to  found  a  monastery,  but  finding 
this  impossible,  he  gave  a  rule  of  life  to  the  seven 
young  women  whom  as  children  he  had  taught  at 
sempringham,  and  built  for  them  a  convent  and  clois- 
ter to  the  north  of  his  parish  church.  He  received  the 
support  of  his  bishop,  Alexander  of  Lincoln,  and  in  a 
year's  time  the  seven  virgins  of  Sempringham  made 
their  profession.  Gilbert  seems  to  have  been  deteiv 
mined  to  copy  the  Cistercians  as  much  as  possible. 
At  the  suggestion  of  William,  Abbot  of  Rievaulx,  he 
instituted  lay  sisters  to  attend  to  the  daily  wants  of 
the  nuns,  and  soon  added  a  company  of  lav  brothers 
to  do  the  rougher  work  in  the  farms  and  fields.^  These 
he  recruited  mm  among  the  poorest  serfs  of  his  ]>arish 
and  estates.  For  eight  vears  the  little  community  at 
Sempringham  continued  to  flourish,  and  it  was  not 
till  aoout  1139  that  the  infant  order  was  increased  by 
another  foundation.  Alexander  of  Lincoln  gave  to 
the  nuns  of  Sempringham  the  island  of  Haverholm, 
near  Sleaford,  in  Lincolnshire,  the  site  of  one  of  his 
castles  destroyed  in  the  contest  between  King  Stephen 


and  his  barons.  Alexander's  deed  of  gift  makes  it 
clear  that  the  nuns  had  by  this  time  adopted  the  Cis- 
tercian rule  "as  far  as  the  weakness  of  their  sex  al- 
lowed". The  fame  of  Sempringham  soon  spread  far 
and  wide  through  that  part  of  England,  and  the 
convent  sent  out  several  colonies  to  people  new  foun- 
dations. In  1148  Gilbert  travelled  to  Clteaux  in  Bur- 
gundy to  ask  the  Cistercian  abbots  there  assembled  in 
chapter  to  take  charge  of  his  order.  This  they  re- 
fused to  do,  declining  to  undertake  the  government  of 
women,  and  so  Gilbert  returned  to  England,  deter- 
mined to  add  to  each  of  his  convents  a  community  of 
canons  re^lar,  who  were  to  act  as  chaplains  and 
spiritual  directors  to  the  nuns.  To  these  he  gave  the 
Rule  of  St.  Aupustine.  Each  Gilbertine  house  now 
practically  consisted  of  four  communities,  one  of  nuns, 
one  of  canons,  one  of  lay  sisters,  and  one  of  lay 
brothers.  The  popularity  of  the  order  was  consider- 
able, and  for  two  years  after  Gilbert's  return  from' 
France  he  was  continually  founding  new  houses  on 
lands  granted  him  by  the  nobles  and  prelates.  These 
houses,  with  the  exception  of  Watton  and  Malton, 
which  were  in  Yorkshire,  were  situated  in  Lincoln- 
shire, in  the  low-lvin^  oountrv  of  the  fens.  Thirteen 
houses  were  founcfed  m  St.  Gilbert's  life,  four  of  which 
were  for  men  onlv. 

The  habit  of  the  Gilbertine  canons  consisted  of  a 
black  tunic  reaching  to  the  ankles,  covered  with  a 
white  cloak  and  hood,  which  were  lined  with  lamb's 
wool.  The  nuns  were  in  white,  and  during  the  winter 
months  were  allowed  to  wear  in  choir  a  tippet  of 
sheepskin  and  a  black  cap  lined  with  white  wool. 
The  scapular  was  worn  both  by  the  canons  and  the 
nuns.  The  whole  order  was  ruled  by  the  '^ master", 
or  prior  general,  who  was  not  Prior  of  Sempringham, 
but  was  called  ''Prior  of  All".  His  authority  was 
absolute,  and  the  year  formed  for  him  a  continual 
round  of  visitations  to  the  various  houses.  He  ap- 
pointed to  the  chief  offices,  received  the  profession  of 
novices,  affixed  his  seal  to  all  charters,  ete.,  and  gave 
or  withneld  his  consent  regarding  sales,  transfers,  and 
the  like.  He  was  to  be  chosen  by  the  general  chapter, 
which  could  depose  him  if  necessary.  This  general 
chapter  assembled  once  a  year,  at  ^mprineham,  on 
the  rogation  days,  and  was  attended  by  the  prior, 
cellarer,  and  prioress  of  each  house. 

St.  Gilbert,  soon  finding  the  work  of  visitetions  too 
arduous,  ordained  that  certain  canons  and  nyns  should 
assist  him.  These  also  appeared  at  the  general  chap- 
ter. A  "  priest  of  confession ' '  was  ehosen  to  visit  each 
house  ana  to  act  as  confessor  extraordinary.  A  Gil- 
bertine monasterv  had  onlv  one  church:  this  was 
divided  unevenly  Sy  a  wall,  the  main  part  ot  the  build- 
ing being  for  the  nuns,  the  lesser  part,  to  the  south,  for 
the  canons.  These  had  access  to  the  nuns'  part  only 
for  the  celebration  of  Mass.  The  nunnery  lav  to  the 
north,  the  dwelling  of  the  canons  were  usually  to  the 
south.  At  Sempnnsdiam  itself,  and  at  Watton,  we 
find  them  at  some  distance  to  the  north-east.  The 
number  of  canons  to  be  attached  to  each  nunn^  was 
fixed  by  St.  Gilbert  at  seven.  The  chief  difficulty 
Gilbert  experienced  was  the  government  of  the  lay 
brothers.  They  were  mostlv  rough  and  untamed 
spirits  who  needed  the  control  and  guidance  of  a  firm 
man,  and  it  would  have  been  surprismg  had  there  been 
no  cases  of  insubordination  and  scandal  among  them. 
Two  instances  especiallv  claim  our  attention.  The 
first  is  related  by  St.  ^Ired,  Abbot  of  Rievaulx,  and 
raves  us  an  unpleasant  story  of  a  girl  at  Watton 
Priory  who  had  oeen  sent  there  to  be  brought  up  by 
the  nuns:  the  second  was  an  open  revolt,  K>r  a  time 
successful,  of  some  of  the  lay  brothers  at  Sempringham. 

From  their  foundation  till  the  dissolution  of  the 
monasteries  the  Crown  showed  great  favour  to  the 
Gilbertines.  They  were  the  only  purely  English  order 
and  owed  alleraanoe  to  no  foreign  superiors  as  did  the 
Cluniacs  and  Cistercians.    AU  the  Gilbertine  houses 


GILBERT 


567 


0ILDA8 


were  situated  in  England,  except  two  which  were  in 
Westmeath,  Ireland.  Notwithstanding  the  liberal 
charters  granted  by  Henry  II  and  his  successors,  the 
order  had  fallen  into  great  poverty  by  ihe  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  Henry  V I  exempted  all  its  houses 
from  payments  of  every  kind — ^an  exemption  which 


ill-favoured  and  deformed,  he  was  not  destined  tor  a 
military  or  knightly  career,  but  was  sent  to  France  to 
study.  After  spending  some  time  abroad,  where  he 
became  a  teacher,  he  retiuned  as  a  young  man  to  his 
lincoln^ire  home,  and  was  presented  to  uie  livings  of 
Sempringham  and  Tirington,  which  were  churches  in 


could  not  and  did  not  bind  his  successors.  Heavy  his  father's  gift.  Shortly  afterwards  he  betook  him- 
sums  had  occasionally  to  be  paid  to  the  Roman  Curia,  self  to  the  court  of  Robert  Bloet,  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
and  expenses  were  incuired  m  suits  a^inst  the  real  or  where  he  became  a  clerk  in  the  episcopal  household, 
pretended  encroachments  of  the  bishops.  By  the  Robert  was  succeeded  in  1123  by  Alexander,  who  re- 
time of  the  Dissolution  there  were  twenty-six  houses,  tained  Gilbert  in  his  service,  ordaming  him  deacon  and 
They  fared  no  better  than  the  other  monasteries,  and  priest  much  against  his  will.  The  revenues  of  Sem- 
no  resistance  whatever  was  made  by  the  last  Master  of  prin^am  had  to  suffice  for  his  maintenance  in  the 
Sempringham,  Robert  Holgate,  Bishop  of  Uandaff,  a  court  of  the  bishop;  those  of  Tirington  he  devoted  to 


great  favourite  at  court,  who  waspromoted  in  1545 
to  ihe  Archbishopric  of  York.  The  Gilbertines  are 
described  as  surrendering  ''of  their  own  free  will", 
each  of  the  nuns  and  canons  receiving  ''a  reasonable 


the  poor.  Offered  the  archdeaconry  of  Lincoln,  he 
refused,  saying  that  he  knew  no  surer  way  to  perdition. 
In  1131  he  returned  to  Sempringham  and,  his  father 
bein^  dead,  became  lord  of  the  manor  and  lands.    It 


yearly  pension".    Only  four  of  theu:  houses  were  was  m  this  year  that  he  founded  the  Gilbertine  Order, 

ranked  among  the  greater  monasteries  as  having  an  of  which  he  was  the  first "  Master",  and  constructed  at 

income  above  £200  a  year,  and  as  the  order  appears  to  Sempringham,  with  the  help  of  Alexander,  a  dwelline 

have  preserved  to  the  end  the  plainness  and  sunplicity  and  cloister  for  his  nuns,  at  the  north  of  the  church  of 

in  church  plate  and  vestments  enjoined  by  St.  Gilbert,  St.  Andrew. 

the  Crown  did  not  reap  a  rich  harvest  by  its  suppreeh  His  life  henceforth  became  one  of  extraordinary 

austerity,  its  strictness  not  diminishing  as  he  grew 


sion. 


For  bibliognphy  Me  th«  article  on  Oilbbrt.  Saint;  alao  older,  though  the  activity  and  fatigue  caused  by  the 

?^;T?:  S.r^6r'f  B'^r^  ^2S^  iiZS^rJi&ft  P'r""^^  »f  t^e  o«ler  were  consTderable.    In  1147 

CPnns,  1792);   Flotd.  An  Extinct  Rdioioua  Order  and  lis  he  travelled  to  Cfteaux,  m  Burgundy,  where  he  met 

Founder  in  The  CaikoUc  Worid,  LXU  (New  York.  1890).  Eugene  III,  St.  Bemardf,  and  St.  Malachy,  Archbishop 

R.  Urban  Btttleb.  Qf  Arma|^.    The  pope  expressed  regret  at  not  having 

known  oi  him  some  years  previously  when  choosing  a 

Gilbert  Islands,  Vicabiatb  Apostolic  of,  com-  successor  to  the  deposed  Archbishop  of  York.   In  1165 

prises  the  group  of  that  name,  besides  the  islands  of  he  was  summoned  before  Henry  Irs  justices  at  West- 

Ellice  and  Fanapa.    The  mosf  important  members  of  minster  and  was  chanred  with  havmg  sent  help  to  the 

tiie  group,  which  consists  of  sixteen  low  atolls,  are  exiled  St.  Thomas  k  Becket.    To  dear  himself  he  was 

Tapiteuca,  Arorai,  Apemama.  Maiana,  Marakei,  and  invited  to  take  an  oath  that  he  had  not  done  so.    He 

Nonouti,  which  cluster  near  the  Equator,  and  consti-  refused,  for,  thoiigjb  as  a  matter  of  fact  he  had  not  sent 

tute  the  most  easterly  hnk  m  the  cham  of  islands  which  help,  an  oath  to  that  effect  mirfit  make  him  dppear  an 

make  up  Micronesia.    Tlie  natives  are  of  Malay  m  enemy  to  the  archbishop.    He  was  prepared  for  a  sen- 

type,  and  untU  the  advent  of  the  white  man  were  given  tence  of  exfle,  when  letters  came  from  the  king  in  Nor- 

over  to  savagery  and,  m  some  mstences,  cannibalism,  mandy,  ordering  the  judges  to  await  his  return.    In 

NommaUy  under  the  protection  of  Great  Bntam,  the  1170  when  Gilbert  was  already  a  very  old  man,  some 

islands  we  practically  self-governed,  and  a  sort  pij^  of  his  lay-brothers  revolted  and  spread  serious  calum- 

pubhcanism  prevails.    The  principal  mdustry  is  the  nies  against  him.    After  some  years  of  fierce  contro- 

preparation  ^d  exportation  of  copra,  which  is  very  yeray  on  the  subject,  in  which  Henry  II  took  his  part, 

plentiful,  although  there  is  some  httle  traffic  m  Alexander  III  freed  hhn  from  suspicion,  and  confirmed 

BhBTk  fans.                      r  xu    TT-      •  X      t  tr-           -  *^o  privileges  granted  to  the  order.    Advancing  age 

X,.  ^R??^  the  i^rtition  of  the  Vicariate  of  Micronesia,  induced  Gitoert  to  give  up  the  government  of  his  order, 

the  GUbert  Islands  were  erected  mto  an  mdependent  He  appointed  as  hS  successor  Roger,  prior  of  Malton. 

^canate  by  a  dewee  of  the  Swjred  Congregation  of  Very  infirm  and  almost  blind,  he  now  made  his  religious 

Propaganda,  dated  17  July,  1897,  aad  the  present  profession,  for  though  he  had  founded  an  orde?and 

^car  Apoetohc,  Mgr.  Joseph  Leray,  titular  Bishop  of  njed  it formany  years  he  had  neverbecome  a  religious 

Remesiana,  w;as  placed  at  its  head,  and,  witti  sever^  i^  the  strict  sense.    Twelve  years  after  his  death,  at 

missionary  pneste  from  the  Congregation  of  the  Sacred  the  earnest  request  of  Hubert  Walter,  Archbishop  of 

Heart,  he  entered  upon  the  evangelization  of  the  Canterbury,  he  was  canonized  by  Innocent  III,  and 

islands.    The  p^lation  of  the  vicariate  is  estimated  his  reUcs  were  solemnly  translated  to  an  honourable 

at  between  30,000  and  40,000,  of  whom  14,000  are  place  in  the  church  at  Semprinrfiam,  his  shrine  be- 

Catholics.    There  are  12  churehes  and  56  chapeb  coming  a  centre  of  pilgrima^.  iBesiJes  the  compila- 

under  the  care  of  19  pn^ts,  96  partial  schools,  with  tion  of  his  rule,  he  hasleft  aBttle  treatise  entitled*^  De 

an  attendance  of  1700  bo^  and  1500  gu-ls,  2  schoob  constructione  monasteriorum".   His  feast  is  kept  in 

for  catechiste  with  a  combed  attendance  of  60   12  the  Roman  calendar  on  11  February, 

orphanages  which  shelter  400  orphans,  11  houses  of  the  Acta  88.,  4  Feb. :  Abchbr  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v. ;  Dal- 

Congregation  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  with  35  religious,  gairnb.  Life  of  St.  GUbert  in  Newman,  JAvee  of  Enolieh  Sainta 

and  8  houses  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart  with  ik22?°v*  l^L^y^^'iy^hM^i^  Anfiiiamum  (liondon. 

on  *ii«*tci  1846),  V,  2;  Graham,  St.  GUbert  of  Semprtngham  and  the  Oil' 

.7.^;  .r  ^          ,^^x    «              ^               ....  bertinee  fLondon,  1901);    Z6cklbr,  Gilbert    in  HsBZOO  and 

Mtaa.  Cath.  (Rome,  1907);  Hbrdbr.  iTonrerso/um^  Lex.:  Ann.  Havck,  Realencuklop&die  (Leipzig,  1899),  VI,  664-5.    See  also 

Bed.  (1909);  Statesman's  Year  Book  (1909):  Spitz,  Catholic  bibUography  under  GiLBBBTiNaar 

Pro(preB$  in  the  OiUterilelande  in  The  Tablet  (Jjoadon,  April  1904),  R    UrBAN  ButlEB 

Stanley  J,  Quinn. 

Gilbert  of  Sempringham,  Saint,  founder  of  the 
Order  of  Gilbertines,  b.  at  Semprineham,  on  the  border 
of  the  Lincolnshire  fens,  between  Bourn  and  Heckine- 
ton.  The  exact  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown,  but  it 
lies  between  1083  and  1089 ;  d.  at  Semprin^am.  1189. 
Hk  father,  Jocelin,  was  a  wealthy  Norman  knight 
holding  lands  in  Lincolnshire;  his  mother,  name  un- 
known, was  an  En^ishwoman  of  humble  rank.  Being 


Oildas,  Saint,  sumamed  the  Wise;  b.  about  516: 
d.  at  Houat,  Brittany,  570.  Sometimes  he  is  callea 
"Badonicus'',  because,  as  he  tells  us,  his  birth  took 
place  the  year  the  Britons  gained  a  famous  victory 
over  the. Saxons  at  Mount  Badon,  near  Bath.  Somer- 
setshire (493  or  516).  Two  biographies  of  Gildas  ex- 
ist—one written  by  an  unknown  Breton  monk  of  the 
Abbey  of  Rhuys  in  the  eleventii  century,  the  other  by 


on. 


558 


on. 


CSaradoc,  a  Welshman,  in  the  twelfth  century.  Both 
biographies  contain  unchronological  and  misleading 
statements,  which  have  led  some  critics  to  reject  the 
lives  as  altogether  valueless.  Ussher,  Ware,  Bale, 
Pits,  and  Colgan  endeavour  to  adjust  the  discrepancies 
by  contending  that  there  were  at  least  two  saints 
named  Gildas,  hence  their  invention  of  such  distinc- 
tive surnames  as  "  Albanicus'',  "  Badonicus",  **  Hiber- 
nicus",  "Historicus",  etc.  The  more  ceneral  opin- 
ion, however,  adopted  by  Lanigan,  L^and,  Healy, 
Stillingfleet,  Mabillon,  BoUandus,  and  O'Hanlon,  is 
that  there  was  but  one  St.  Gildas.  The  discrepancies 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  lives  were 
drawn  up  in  separate  countries,  and  several  centuries 
after  the  saint  existed.  As  to  Caradoc's  statement 
that  Gildas  died  at  Glastonbury,  O'Hanlon  remarks 
that  Glastonbury  appropriated  more  saints  than 
Gildas  (Lives  of  Irish  Saints,  I,  493). 

Both  narratives  a^ree  in  several  striking  details,  and 
may  thus  be  harmonized :  Gildas  was  bom  in  Scotland 
on  the  banks  of  the  Clyde  (possibly  at  Dumbarton),  of 
a  noble  British  family.  His  fa,ther's  name  was  Cau  or 
Nau ;  his  brother's^  Huel  or  Cuil.  He  was  educated  in 
Wales  under  St.  Iltut,  and  was  a  companion  of  St. 
Samson  and  St.  Peter  of  I4on.  Having  embraced  the 
monastic  state,  he  passed  over  to  Ireland,  where  he 
was  advanced  to  the  priesthood.  He  is  said  to  have 
lived  some  time  in  Armagh,  and  then  to  have  crossed 
to  North  Britain,  his  teaching  there  being  confirmed 
b^  miracles.  On  his  return  to  Ireland,  at  the  invita- 
tion of  King  Ainmire,  he  strengthened  the  faith  of 
many,  and  built  monasteries  and  churches.  The  Irish 
annalists  associate  him  with  David  and  Cadoc  in  giv- 
ing a  special  liturey  or  Mass  to  the  second  order  of  Insh 
samts.  He  is  saia  to  have  made  a  pil^dmage  to  Rome. 
On  the  homeward  journey  his  love  S.  solitude  caused 
him  to  retire  to  the  Isle  of  Houat,  off  Brittany,  where 
he  lived  a  life  of  prayer,  study,  and  austerity.  His 
place  of  retreat  having  become  known,  the  Bretons 
mduced  him  to  establish  a  monasterv  at  Rhuvs  on 
the  mainland,  whither  multitudes  docked  (Marius 
Sepet, "  St.  Gildas  de  Rhuys  "^  Paris,  s.  d.)«  It  was  at 
Rhuys  he  wrote  his  famous  epistle  to  the  British  kings. 
His  relics  were  venerated  there  till  the  tenth  century, 
when  thev  were  carried  for  safety  into  Berry.  In  the 
eighteentn  century  they  were  said  to  be  preserved  in 
the  cathedral  of  Vannes.  He  is  the  patron  of  several 
churches  and  monasteries  in  Brittany  and  elsewhere. 
His  feast  is  locally  observed  on  29  January;  another 
feast,  11  May,  commemorates  the  translation  of  his 
relics. 

The  authentic  work  of  St.  Gildas,  "DeexcidioBri- 
tanniffi  liber  querulus'',  is  now  usually  divided  into 
three  parts:  (1)  The  prefa^oe;  (2)  A  sketch  of  British 
history  from  the  Roman  invasion  to  his  own  time; 
(3)  An  epistle  of  severe  invective  addressed  to  five 
petty  British  kines — Gonstantine,  Vortipor,  Gyneglas, 
C^an,  and  Maelgwn.  In  the  same  epistle  he  ad- 
dresses and  rebukes  the  clergy  whom  ne  accuses  of 
sloth  and  simony.  His  writings  are  clearly  the  work 
of  a  man  of  no  ordinary  culture  and  sanctity^  and  indi- 
cate that  the  author  was  thoroughly  acquamted  with 
the  Sacred  Scriptures. 

Gildas  is  regarded  as  the  earliest  British  historian, 

and  is  quoted  by  Bede  and  Alcuin.    Two  MSS.  copies 

of  his  writings  are  preserved  in  Cambridge  University 

library. 

Stanton,  Menolooy  cf  England  and  Wales  (London,  1887); 
Challonsr,  Britannta  Sancta  (London,  1745);  Butiar,  Lives 
of  the  Saints,  29  January;  Haddan  and  Stubbs,  Councils  (Ox- 
ford. 1809),  I,  44  sq.;  Ubshbr,  Works,  V.  506,  Vl,  216;  Lani- 
OAN,  Bed.  Hisl,  Ir.,  I,  ix;  O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints, 
29  January;  Forbbs,  Kalendar  Scottish  SS.;  Hbalt,  Irdand's 
Ancient  Schools  aaid  Scholars:  Qilbs.  Works  of  Gildas  and  Nen- 
nius  (London.  1841);  P.  Zr..  LXIX;  Coloan.  Acta  SS.  Hib., 
176  0q.;  Mabillon.  Acta  SS.  O.S.B.  (Venice,  1733,  1740),  I. 
138  sq.;  Acta  SS.,  Januarv,  III.  573  sq.;  Tour  in  'Did.  Nat. 
BioQ.,  «.  v.;  Gammacx  in  DteL  Christ.  Biog.,  s.  ▼. 

CoLUMBA  Edmonds. 


Oil  deAlbomoi,  Alvarez  Cabillo,  a  renownea 
cardinal^  general,  and  statesman;  b.  about  1310  at 
Cuenca  m  New  Castile;  d.  23  Aug.,  1367,  at  the  Castle 
of  Donriposo,  Aear  Viterbo,  in  Italy.  His  father,  Don 
Garcfa,  was  a  descendant  of  King  Alfonso  V  of  Leon, 
and  his  mother,  Teresa  de  Luna,  belonged  to  the  royal 
house  of  Aragon.  After  studying  law  at  Toulouse,  he 
became  royalalmoiier,  soon  after  Archdeacon  of  Cala- 
trava,  and,  finally,  on  13  Ma;|^,  1338,  Archbishop  of 
Toledo.  In  1340  ne  accompanied  King  Alfonso  XI  on 
his  campaign  against  the  Moors,  sayea  the  life  of  the 
king  in  the  Dattle  of  Rio  Salado  on  30  Oct.,  1340.  and 
took  part  in  the  si^e  of  Algeciras  in  1344.  As  Arch- 
bishop of  Toledo  he  held  two  reform  synods,  one  at 
Toledo  in  May,  1339  (Mansi,  XXV,  1143-8),  the  other 
at  Alcald  in  April,  1347  (Mansi,  XXVI,  123-6).  In 
March,  1350,  Alfonso  XI  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Pedro  "El  Cruel",  whom  Albomoz  on  yarious  occa- 
sions seyerely  rebuked  for  his  cruelty  and  lasciyious- 
ness.  As  a  result  the  king  conceiyed  a  deadly  hatred 
of  him  and  sought  his  life.  The  archbishop  fled  from 
Spain  and  took  refuge  at  the  papal  court  in  Ayignon, 
wnere  Clement  VI  receiyed  him  kmdly  and  created  him 
Cardinal-Priest  of  San  Clemente,  17  Dec.,  1350,  where- 
upon Albomoz  resigned  as  Archbishop  of  Toledo. 
Two  years  and  a  half  later  Ixmocent  VI  entrusted  him 
with  the  restoration  of  papal  authority  in  the  eccle- 
siastical territories  of  Italy.  The  Bull  appointing  him 
legate  and  yicar-general  of  the  Papal  States  with  ex- 
traordinary powers  was  issued  on  30  June,  1353.  Dur- 
ing the  sojourn  of  the  popes  at  Ayignon  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal territories  of  Italy  had,  to  all  intents  and  purposes, 
become  lost  to  the  popes.  The  intrepid  cardinal  set 
out  for  Italy  in  the  autumn  of  1353  at  the  head  of  a 
small  army  of  mercenaries.  After  gaining  the  support 
of  the  innuential  Archbishop  Gioyanm  Visconti  of 
Milan  and  that  of  Pisa,  Florence,  and  Siena,  he  began 
his  military  operations  against  the  powerful  Gioyanni 
di  Vico,  Prefect  of  Rome,  Lord  of  Viterbo  and  usurper 
of  a  lar^  tract  of  papal  territory.  The  latter  was  de- 
feated m  the  battle  bl  Oryieto,  10  March,  1354.  A 
treaty  was  concluded  at  Montefiascone  on  5  June, 
whereupon  Gioyanni  di  Vico  made  his  submission  to 
the  cardinal  at  Oryieto.  In  order  to  gain  the  support 
of  the  prefect  for  the  future,  the  cardinal  appointed 
him  Goyemor  of  Cometo  for  twelye  years.  Innocent 
VI  was  displeased  at  the  easy  terms  of  the  treaty,  but 
the  cardinal  justified  his  act  by  pointing  out  the  neces- 
sity of  prudence  for  his  final  success.  The  pope  had 
already  preyiously  sent  Cola  di  Rienzi,  the  former 
tribune  of  Rome,  to  Italy  to  be  used  by  the  cardinal 
as  he  saw  fit.  The  cardinal  did  not  trust  the  yisionary 
Rienzi,  and  for  a  time  kept  him  at  Perugia;  but  upon 
the  repeated  request  of  the  Romans  and  of  Rienzi  him- 
self, he  finally  appointed  him  Senator  of  .Rome,  to  re- 
place Guido  deir  Isola  who  showed  himself  powerless 
against  the  intrigues  of  the  Roman  nobility.  On  1 
Aug.,  1354,  Rienzi  entered  Rome  and  was  hailed  by 
the  people  as  a  liberator.  Soon,  howeyer,  his  cruelty, 
his  oppressiye  taxes,  and  his  costly  reyelries  made 
him  hated,  and  during  a  popular  tumult  on  8  Oct., 
1354,  he  fell  a  yictim  to  tne  fury  of  the  mob.  After 
the  fall  of  Rienzi,  the  cardinal  restored  order  in  Rome. 

The  submisson  of  Gioyanni  di  Vico  resulted  in  the 
return  of  the  Papal  States  (in  their  narrow  sense)  and 
the  Duchy  of  Spoleto  to  papal  authority.  Albomoz 
now  turned  his  attention  to  the  restoration  of  the 
March  of  Ancona  and  the  Romagna.  After  gaining  to 
his  side  Gentile  da  Mogliano  of  Fermo  and  Kidolfo  da 
Varano  of  Camerlno,  he  began  military  operations 
against  the  two  powerful  Mabitestas  of  Rimini.  The 
Alalatestas  allied  themselyes  with  their  enemy,  Fran- 
cesco degli  Ordelaffi,  who  had  usurped  a  large  part  of 
the  Romagna.  They  also  won  oyer  the  faithless  Genr 
tile  da  Mogliano.  Ridolfo  da  Varano,  to  whom  the 
cardinal  had  giyen  the  supreme  command  of  the  papal 
army,  gained  a  signal  yictory  oyer  Galeotto  de'  Mal»> 


GILES                                  559  GILES 

testa  near  Paterao,  and  on  2  June,  1355,  a  treaty  was  bom  tyrant  was  now  only  a  question  of  time.    But  the 

concluded  with  the  Malatestas,  which  was  approved  by  idea  of  a  crusade  a^inst  the  Turks  had  so  completely 

Innocent  VI  on  20  June.    Henceforth  the  llalatestas  taken  possession  ofthe  pope  that  on  13  March,  1364,  a 

were  faithful  allies  of  the  papal  forces.    Their  submis-  hurried  peace  was  concluded,  the  conditions  of  which 

sion  was  soon  followed  by  that  of  Montefeltro,  which  were  extremely  favourable  to  Bemabd,  who  received 

brought  the  districts  of  Urbino  and  Cagli  under  the  500,000  ^old  florins  for  his  smrender  of  the  city  and 

power  of  the  cardinal.    Shortly  after,  the  cities  of  principahtv  of  Bologna. 

Sinigaglia  and  Ancona,  and  the  two  brothers  Bemar-  The  cardinal  had  now  completed  the  difficult  task 
dino  and  Guido  da  Polenta,  Lords  of  Ravenna  and  that  had  been  entrusted  to  him  by  Innocent  VI.  He 
Cervia,  submitted  to  the  cardinal.  Towards  the  end  had  again  subjected  the  whole  pontifical  territory  to 
of  1355  Albomoz  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Sabina.  the  papal  authority  and  thereby  made  it  possible  for 
Giovanni  and  Riniero  de'  Manfredi,  of  Faenxa,  and  the  pope  to  return  to  Rome.  But  he  did  not  receive 
Francesco  degli  Ordelaffi,  of  the  Romagna,  stubbornly  the  gratitude  wfadch  he  had  so  well  earned.  Urban  V 
refused  to  submit.  In  1356  a  crusade  was  preached  save  credence  to  the  cardinal's  enemies  who  accused 
against  them  by  order  of  the  pope.  The  Mantredi  sur-  him  of  having  misappropriated  papal  monevs.  In 
rendered  Faenza  to  Albomoz.  10  Nov.,  1356,  but  Or-  consequence  the  management  of  the  temporal  affairs 
delaffi  and  his  wife,  the  warlike  Marzia,  were  still  un-  of  the  Romagna  was  taken  from  Albomoz  and  given 
conquered.  The  cardinal  had  repeatedly  asked  Inno-  to  the  Bishop  of  Ravenna.  Hereupon  the  cardinal 
cent  VI  to  be  recalled  to  Avignon.  Now  that  all  the  asked  to  be  recalled  from  Italy  and  addressed  a  letter 
usurpers  of  the  Papal  States  witii  the  exception  of  Or-  to  the  pope  in  which  he  gave  an  account  of  his  man- 
delam  had  been  subdued,  the  pope  grantea  his  request  a^ment.  The  pope  discovered  his  mistake  and  in 
and  sent  Androin  de  la  Roche,  Abbot  of  Cluny,'  to  re-  his  answer  gave  due  credit  for  the  inestimable  service 
place  him  in  Italy.  Before  returning  to  Avignon,  the  which  Albomoz  had  performed  for  the  papacy.  In 
cardinal  held  a  meeting  of  the  vicars  of  the  papal  ter-  1367  Urban  V  returned  to  Rome;  Albomoz  received 
ritory  on  29  April,  1357,  and  the  two  following  days,  him  at  Viterbo,  but  died  before  the  pope  came  to 
At  this  meeting  he  published  his  famous  Constitutions  Rome.  In  accordance  with  his  wish  he  was  buried  in 
for  the  Papal  States,  "Constitutiones  Sanctse  Matris  the  church  of  St.  Francis  at  Assisi,  but  four  years 
Ecclesise",  generally  known  as  the  "EgidianConstitu-  later  his  remains  were  transferred  to  Toledo.  His 
tions''.  When  he  made  known  to  the  assembled  Constitutions  for  the  Papal  States  were  among  the 
vicars  his  intention  to  return  to  Avignon,  they  all  urged  earliest  books  printed  in  Italy  (Jesi,  1473);  they  re- 
him  to  remain,  at  least  till  September.  He  reluo-  mained  in  force  until  1816.  He  is  also  the  author  of  a 
tantly  consented  and  at  once  began  military  operations  compilation  of  all  the  documents  relating  to  the  sub- 
against  Ordelaffi.  On  21  June  he  took  Uesena,  and  jection  of  the  March  of  Ancona.  Th^  are  preserved 
Bertinoro  fell  into  his  hands  on  25  July.  When  the  m  the  papal  archives  under  the  title  "Codex  legationis 
cardinal  departed  for  Avignon  in  September,  Ordelaffi  Cardinalis  Egidii  Albomotii".  In  his  will  (29  Sept., 
was  still  master  of  Fori!  and  a  few  otner  strongholds  of  1364)  he  provided  for  the  foundation  of  the  Spanish 
the  Romagna.  On  23  October  the  cardinal  arrived  at  College  of  St.  Clement  at  Bologna  (Collegium  Aibomo- 
Avignon,  was  received  with  high  honours  by  the  pope,  tianum)  with  24  Spanish  students  and  2  chaplains, 
and  hailed  as  ''Pater  Ecclesite".  Rashdall  (Hist,  of  Universities,  Oxford,  1895.  I, 
Albomoz  remained  only  a  sfiort  time  at  Avignon.  200)  says  that  it  was  the  first  Continental  college 
His  successor  in  Italy,  the  Abbot  of  Clunv,  lacked  the  '*  on  a  scale  at  all  approaching  that  with  which  we  are 
military  training  to  contend  successfuUv  with  the  familiar  in  Hie  English  Universities",  and  was  tiie 
skilled  and  vfdiant  Ordelaffi.  Moreover,  the  intrigues  model  of  many  others  in  Italy  and  Spain.  It  still 
of  Giovanni  di  Vico  in  the  Papal  States  and  fresh  dis-  flourishes  upon  its  ancient  site,  in  sumptuously 
turbances  in  Rome  required  the  presence  of  Albomoz  adorned  sixteenth-century  buildings,  under  control 
in  Italv.  The  pope  ordered  him  to  return  thither  in  of  the  Spanish  Government,  which  sends  thither  can- 
December,  1358.  He  at  once  began  operations  against  didates  for  the  diplomatic  service  who  have  the  B.A. 
Ordelaffi,  whose  endeavours  to  buy  the  Condottiere  *  d^ee  of  a  Spanish  imiversity. 

Lando  and  his  Grand  Company  into  his  service  he  Wubm,  Cardinal  AlbomM,  dt»  xtoeiie  BemUnder  de»  Ktrdien- 

frustrated  by  a  contract  with  Lando.    Ordelaffi  was  *<*»?  ^.?*i?fe"?j:  ,^%?^'.  95S?^f^&  "^^h  ^  IS  ^^^ 

2;      I,  ^^^     ^„  ^^***'*'^''  "»«"  •""  ]*'"•      y  y  ,       ,oe7r  pendant le X IV^ necU  (Pans,  1853),  II;  Salvi,  II  CardtnaU  Egi- 

nnally  compelled  to  surrender,  and  on  4  July,  1359,  dia  Albomoz  ef^iardiividi8an{nnesio,documenUontn^ 

the  cardinal  took  possession  of  Forli.     He  allowed  Or-  UoaxwM  (Cftmerino,  1890);    Mubatori,  Annali  flUdia  (yen' 

delaffi  to  rule  as  papal  vi<»r  over  ForlimpopoU  and  •^'p^^i^'^l,^kfr2^:^J^%t^''dL^XTe 

Castrocaro.     In  Rome,  dunng  the  cardinal  S  absence,  vitd  et  r^ua  o^aHa  jEgidii  Albomalii  CarUli  S.  R.  B.  Cardinalis 

the  people  had  established  the  septemviri  to  rule  libri  tna  (Rom«.  1621).  8p.  tr.  by  Vbla  (Toledo.  1666).  and 

jointly  with  the  senator.    Deeming  it  impmdent  to  go  ggg^  (Bologna.  1612);   It.  tr.  by  Stsfhano  (Bologna, 

against  the  will  of  the  people,  he  consented  to  the  new  Michael  Ott. 
arrangement,  but  reserved  the  appointment  of  the 

senator  to  the  pope.  With  the  exception  of  Bologna.  Giles  (Lat.,  JEgidius),  Saint,  Abbot,  said  to  have 
the  entire  pontifical  territory  now  again  acknowledged  been  bom  of  illustrious  Athenian  parentage  about  the 
the  soverei^ty  of  the  pope.  Giovanni  d'Ollegio,  who  middle  of  the  seventh  century.  Early  in  life  he  de- 
had  possession  of  Bologna,  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  voted  himself  exclusively  to  spiritual  things,  but, 
Bemab6  Visconti  of  Milan,  who  attempted  to  become  finding  his  noble  birth  and  high  repute  for  sanctity  in 
master  of  Bologna.  Unable  to  contend  with  the  pow-  his  native  land  an  obstacle  to  his  perfection,  he  passed 
erful  Bemab6,  Giovanni  d'Ollegio  surrendered  Bo-  over  to  Gaul,  where  he  established  himself  firat  in  a 
logna  to  the  cardinal,  who  tried  in  vain  to  arrive  at  an  wilderness  near  tiie  mouth  of  the  Rhone  and  later  by 
amicable  arrangement  with  Bemabd.  Meanwhile  In-  the  River  Gard.  But  here  again  the  fame  of  his 
nocent  VI  had  died  (12  Sept.,  1362).  Albomoz  re-  sanctity  drew  multitudes  to  him,  so  he  withdrew  to  a 
fused  the  tiara  which  was  offered  him,  and  Urban  V  dense  forest  near  Ntmes,  where  in  the  ^atest  solitude 
was  elected  pope.  Under  him  Albomoz  continued  his  he  spent  many  years,  his  sole  companion  being  a  hind, 
military  operations  a^inst  Bemab6,  whose  stubborn  This  last  retreat  was  finally  discovered  by  the  king's 
resistance  was  the  principal  obstacle  to  the  crusade  hunters,  who  had  pursued  the  hind  to  its  place  of  refuse, 
which  Urban  V  intendea  to  undertake  against  the  The  kin^  [who  according  to  the  legend  was  Wamba 
Turks.  When  all  other  attempts  failed,  the  pope  pub-  (or  Flavius?),  King  of  the  Visigoths,  but  who  must 
lished  a  crusade  against  Bemaod  in  the  spring  of  1363.  have  been  a  Frank,  since  the  Franks  had  expelled  the 
In  April  the  canOnal  gained  a  victory  at  Salaruolo,  Visigoths  from  the  nei^bourhood  of  Ntmes  almost  a 
near  Modena,  and  the  complete  subjection  of  this  stub-  century  and  a  half  earher]  conceived  a  high  esteem  for 


OILLI8PZE                      560  onus 

the  solitary,  and  would  have  heaped  every  honour  Bertrand,  Michigan.  On  15  August,  1855,  she  trans- 
upon  him :  but  the  humility  of  the  saint  was  proof  ferred  the  academy  to  its  present  location  near  Notre 
against  all  temptations.  He  consented,  however,  to  Dame,  Indiana,  and  procured  for  it  a  charter  from 
receive  thenceforth  some  disciples,  and  built  a  mon-  the  Indiana  legislature.  When  the  Civil  War  broke 
astery  in  his  valley,  which  he  placed  under  the  rule  of  out  Mother  Angela  organised  a  corpo  of  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Benedict.  Here  he  died  m  the  early  part  of  the  the  Holy  Cross  to  care  for  the  sick  and  wotmded 
eighth  century,  with  the  highest  repute  for  sanctity  soldiers.  She  established  hospitals,  both  temporary 
and  miracles.  and  permanent,  and,  when  generals  failed  to  secure 
His  cult  spread  rapidly  far  and  wide  throughout  needed  aid  for  the  sick  and  wotmded,  she  made  flying 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  as  is  witnessed  by  the  trips  to  Washington  on  their  behalf.  Her  head- 
numberless  churches  and  monasteries  dedicated  to  <|uarters  were  at  Cairo,  Illinois,  in  ill-provided  build- 
him  in  France,  Germany,  Poland,  Hungary,  and  the  ings.  The  close  of  the  war  left  her  physically  enfee- 
'British  Isles;  by  the  numerous  MSS.  in  prose  and  bled,  but  she  returned  to  St.  Mary's  and  resumed  her 
verse  commemorating  his  virtues  and  miracles;  and  educational  work,  and  compiled  two  series  of  readers 
especially  by  the  vast  concourse  of  pilgrims  who  from  for  use  in  Catholic  schools,  the  "Metropolitan"  and 
all  Europe  nocked  to  his  shrine.    In  1562  the  relics  of  "  Excelsior". 

the  saint  were  secretly  transferred  to  Toulouse  to  save  In  1869,  at  the  advice  of  Bishop  Luers  of  Fort 

them  from  the  hideous  excesses  of  the  Huguenots  Wayne,  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  in  the  United 

who  were  then  ravaging  France,  and  the  pilgrimage  in  States  determined  on  a  separation  from  the  members 

consequence  declined.    With  the  restoration  of  a  of  the  congregation  in  France.    This  was  effected, 

great  part  of  the  relics  to  the  church  of  St.  Giles  in  withMotherAngela  as  superior  of  the  new  community. 

1862,  and  the  discovery  of  his  former  tomb  there  in  Under  her  rule  thirty-five  institutions  were  founded 

1865,  the  pilgrimages  have  recommenced.    Besides  throughout    the    United  States,  among  them  St. 

the  city  of  St-Gilles,  which  sprang  up  around  the  Cecilia's  and  Holy  Cross  Academies,  Washington, 

abbey,  nineteen  other  cities  bear  his  name.    St-Gilles,  D.  C. ;  St.  Mary's  Academy,  Sidt  Lake  City,  Utah^  St. 

Toulouse,  and  a  multitude  of  French  cities,  Antwerp,  Mary's   Academy,  Austin,  Texas;    St.   Cathenne'ft 

Bruges,  and  Toumai  in  Belgium,  Cologne  and  Bam-  Normal  Institute,  Baltimore, Maryland;  and  Hawke's 

berg  in  Germanv,  Prague  and  Gran  in  Austria-Hun-  Hospital,    Mt.    Carmel,    Columbus,    Ohio.    Mother 

gary,  Rome  and  Bologna  in  Italy,  possess  celebrated  Angela  was  the  moving  spirit  in  the  establishment  in 

relics  of  St.  Giles.    In  medieval  art  he  is  a  frequent  1865  of  the  "Ave  Mana'^.  to  whose  pages -she  made 

subject,  being  always  depicted  with  his  symbol,  the  many  contributions.    On  laying  down  the  burdens  of 

hind.    His  feast  is  kept  on  1  September.    On  this  day  her  superiorship.  Mother  Angela  was  chosen  mistress 

there  are  also  commemorated  another  St.  Gil^  an  of  novices  at  St.  Mary's,  and  in  September,  1886,  she 

Italian  hermit  of  the  tenth  century  (Acta  SS.,  aLI,  was  again  made  the  head  of  St.  Mary's  Aoeuiemy,  at 

a05),  and  a  Blessed  Giles,  d.  about  1203,  a  Cistercian  which  post  she  remained  until  her  death, 

abbot  of  Castafieda  in  the  Diocese  of  AstOlga,  Spain  In  Memoriam,  Mother  Mary  cff  St,  Angda  (Notre  Dame.  Indi- 

(op.  cit.,  XLI,  308).  •»«•  1887). 

Acta  88^  XLI,  284-^304:   Analeda  BoOofultatMi,  Vm,  103;  /ov  vr«AT  TT«nirDvPTTT»oiiT»  K«/v4^kA,^r4l.Ar^«<wwv:«,». 

IX.  393;  ixjTiMR,  Liveaol  the  8ainU,llh  401;  6uAaiN,  L«  •      (2)  NBAI.HENBT GiLLBSPIB,  brother of  the fOPMOmg; 

Petiu  Bottandi$te9,  X,  401.  b.  m  Washmgton  co\mty.  Pa.,  19  January,  1831:  d. 

John  F.  X.  Mubfht.  at  St.  Mary's,  Notre  Dame.  Indiana,  12  November, 

^111       1     r^v  T^        ««         /•       I-  •     »#  xi_    «r  1874.    He  was  one  of  the  nrst  students  of  the  Uni- 

Omespie,  (1)  Euza  BIaria  (in  religion  MotherMABT  ^ersity  of  Notie  Dame,  Indiana,  and  m  1849  received 

-    -                        .«      .-  .«  ...                                                               ^ 

the 


V^'^rx      VV  t    tT — 'i%A-t\ — •'  — j\#       w  Tl  •  uongregauon  oi  ine  noiy  ltoss  at  JNOire  uame,  ma., 

daughter  of  John  PurceUGiUeroie^dMaiyM^  ma^  his  religious  prof^ion  15  August,  1853,  and! 

Miers,  the  ^tter  a  convert  to  the  Chmrch.    After  her  ^^s  ordained  priest  29  June,  1856,  at  Rome,  where  he 

husband's  death.  Mrs.  GiUeepie  hi  1838  went  with  W  had  been  sent  to  complet4  his  theological  studies. 

^5^1?^**^*°.*     i^T??     u™®(  Lancaster,  Ohio.  Returning  to  America,  he  filled  the  post  of  vice- 

El«aMar»  first  attended  the  Khool  of  th^  president  and  directo^  of  studies  atTotre  Dame 

sisters  at  Somerset,  Ohio  and  completed  her  studies  [i856-59),  and  then  was  appointed  president  of  the 

at  the  Visitation  Convent  at  Geoi^town    D.  C,  m  College  of  St.  Mary  of  the  liike,  Chic^o,  lUinois.    In 

1844.    Her  kinsman,  Thomas  Ewmg  of  Ohio,  was  i863lie  was  call^  to  the  mother-h^  of  the  eon- 

then  emment  m  public  hfe,  and  this  fact,  jomed  to  her  gregation  at  Le  Mans,  France,  where  he  remained  untfl 

beautj  and  accomplishments,  made  her  at  once  a  fgee.    He  then  returned  to  Notre  Dame,  and  assumed 

prominent  figure  m  the  social  hfe  of  Washington  and  the  editorship  of  the  "Ave  Maria",  which  position  he 

""IS?*?-.  Her  sympathy  was  roused  by  the  sufferings  fiUed  until  l5s  death.    In  addition  to  hw  editorial 

of  the  Insh  people  durmg  the  famine,  and  she  and  her  labours,  he  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  ite  pages,  as 

cousm,  Eleanor  Ewmg,  by  their  joint  efforte,coUe^  weU  as  to  many  other  Catholic  periodicals, 

a  large  sum  of  money  for  their  rehef.    In  1853  she  *^  John  G.  Ewing. 
felt  the  call  to  the  religious  life  and  determined  to 

enter  the  order  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercv.  She  went  to  Oillis,  James,  Scottish  bishop:  b.  at  Montreal,  Can- 
Notre  Dame,  Indiana,  to  bid  farewell  to  her  brother,  ada,  7  April,  1802;  d.  at  Edinburgh,  24  February, 
who  was  there  enga^d  in  his  studies  for  the  priesthood,  1864.  He  was  the  only  son  of  a  native  of  Banffshire, 
and  here  she  met  Kev.  Edward  Sorin^  provincial  of  who  had  emigrated  to  Canada  and  married  there, 
the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross  m  the  United  Educated  in  the  Sulpician  college  at  Montreal,  where 
Stetes,  through  whose  influence  she  was  led  to  cast  her  he  acquired  a  perfect  knowl^ge  of  French,  he  came 
lot  with  this  small  and  struggling  community.  She  to  Scotland  in  1816,  and  next  year  entered  the  semi- 
received  the  religious  habit  in  1853,  teking  the  name  of  nary  at  Aquhorties,  studying  afterwards  at  St.  Nicho- 
Sister  Mary  of  St.  Angela.  She  was  then  sent  to  las's  College  in  Paris,  and  at  Issy.  He  was  ordained 
France^  where  she  made  her  novitiate  at  the  con-  priest  on  9  June,  1827,  and  was  stationed  at  Edin- 
vent  ot  the  Sisters  of  Bon  Secours,  at  Caen,  making  burgh,  where  his  preaching  soon  attracted  attention, 
her  religious  profession  by  special  dispensation  8  He  visited  France  in  1829  to  collect  money  for  his 
.December,  1853,  at  the  hands  of  Very  Rev.  Father  chureh,  and  again  in  1831  to  raise  funds  for  the 
Moreau,  the  founder  of  the  congregation.  foundation  of  an  Ursuline  convent — ^the  first  religious 
In  January,  1855,  Sister  Angela  returned  to  America  house  esteblished  in  Scotland  since  the  sixteenth  cen- 
and  was  made  superior  of  St.  Marjr's  Academy  at  tury — ^which  was  opened  in  1835.    In  July,  1838,  he 


aiLMOBE  561  aiNDABUS 

was  consecrated  at  Edinburgh  as  Bishop  of  Limyra  the  entire  country.  Fourteen  years  after  his  death, 
and  Coadjutor  of  the  EastemDistrict.  A  subsequent  on  15  May,  1006,  under  the  auspices  of  an  illustrious 
visit  to  PariSj  where  he  was  much  esteemed,  resulted  committee  and  directorship,  a  great  Gilmore  Memorial 
in  the  acquisition  of  what  remained  of  the  library  of  Concert  was  given  in  Madison  Square  Garden  (origi- 
the  Scotcn  College,  and  in  the  promise  of  an  annual  nallv  Gilmore  s  Garden),  and  an  audience  of  ten  thou- 
g^rant  to  Scotland  from  the  Society  for  the  Propagar  sana  honoured  his  memory.  P.  S.  Gilmore  won  his 
tion  of  the  Faith.  In  1852  Bishop  Gillis  succeeded  title  of  ''Father  of  Military  Bands'',  by  his  elevation 
Bishop  Carruthers  as  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Eastern  of  the  brass  band  to  a  dignified  musical  status.  He 
District.  During  his  twelve  years'  tenure  of  this  office  was  the  first  to  mellow  the  brasses  bv  the  introduction 
he  did  much  for  the  advancement  of  Catiiolicism,  of  reeds,  to  claim  a  place  for  the  band  on  the  con- 
founding many  new  missions,  introducing  several  reli-  cert-platform,  and  to  popularize  classical  music  by 
fiouB  orders  (mcluding  Jesuits,  Oblates  of  Mary,  and  adapting  orchestral  arraneemente  for  reed-band  inter- 
isters  of  Mercy)  into  his  district,  and  receiving  into  pretation.  From  the  quicK-steps,  marches,  and  dances 
the  Church  many  converts,  among  them  Viscount  and  characterizing  band-music  at  its  start,  his  unique  per- 
ViscountesB  Feildin^  afterwards  Earl  and  Countess  of  sonal  effort  attained  in  the  sinele  programme  of  his 
Denbigh.  In  1857  ne  preached  in  Orleans  cathedral  representative  last  concert,  to  me  great  works  of  the 
an  eloquent  pane^jrric,  m  French,  of  Joan  of  Arc  (pub-  tone-masters,  Bach,  Schumann,  Handel,  Rubenstein, 
liahed  m  London  m  the  same  year),  receiving  in  return  Wagner,  and  Liszt.  He  was  at  once  a  popular  enter- 
from  the  Mayor  of  Orleans  the  heart  of  King  Henry  II  tainer  and  an  educator  of  the  people.  Many  songs 
of  England,  who  had  died  at  Chinon,  on  the  Loire,  in  (words  and  music),  marches,  etc.  were  composed  by 
1 189.  Bishop  Gillis  was  buried  in  St.  Margaret's  con-  Mr.  Gilmore,  who  also  wrote  "  The  History  of  the  Bos- 
vent,  his  own  foundation,  on  26  February,  1864.    The  ton  Peace  Jubilee''.  Mart  G.  Carter. 

°Z.Si»^*cl£'^SS^lXJiS?^*5,f8^?K?;       Oilinonr.  R.CHAHD.    SeeCLEyKLAND.DiocES.or. 
S5i;?^ffr*%n%t  ^'jL?*^*^^/***^  A'^"^*"^*  *L-  ^^^^S";"*^*        ^il  o'  Santarem,  Blessed,  a  Portuguese  Domini- 

l^^WAS^Hi^sl'uSi^  ^^  ^^"^  can;  b.  at  Vaozela,  diocese  of  tiseu,  about  1185;  d.  at 

D.  O.  Hunter-Blazb.  ^antarena,  14  May,  1265.    His  father,  Rodrigo  Pelayo 

Valladaris,  was  governor  of  Coimbra  and  coimcillor  of 

Gilmore,  Patrick   Sarsfibld,  musician;    b.  at  Sancho  I.    It  was  the  wish  of  his  parents  that  Gil 

Ballygar,  Galway,  Ireland,  25  Dec..  1829;  d.  at  St.  should  enter  the  ecclesiastical  state,  and  the  king  was 

Louis,  24  Sept.,  1892 ;  a  kinsman  of  Daniel  O'Connell.  ^^©^T  lavish  m  bestowing  ecclesiastical  benefices  upon 

In  1848  he  arrived  at  Boston,  Mass.,  becoming  leader  ^"Ja.    When  he  was  still  a  boy,  he  already  held  pre- 

successively  of  the  Suffolk,  Boston  Brigade,  smd  Salem  bends  at  Braga,  Coimbra,  Idanha,  and  Santarem.  Gil, 

bands.    In  1858  he  founded  "Gilmore's  Band",  in  however,  had  no  desire  to  be  an  ecclesiastic ;  hisambi- 

later  years  famous  as  the  leading  military  and  con-  ^^^  ^*s  *®  become  a  famous  physician.    After  devot- 

cert-band  of  America.    When  war  was  declared,  Mr.  ^8  some  time  to  the  study  of  philosophy  and  medicine 

Gilmore  and  band  enlisted  with  the  24th  Mass.  Volun-  **  Coimbra,  he  set  out  for  Pans,  with  the  mtention  of 

teers,   accompanying   General   Bumside   to   South  perfecting  himself  in  the  science  of  medicine  and  ob- 

Carolina.    After  the  temporary  dischaige  of  bands  taming  the  doctor's  degree.    If  we  may  give  credence 

from  the  field.  Governor  Andrews  placed  their  reor-  ^  ^^  unknown  contemporaneous  biographer,  he  waa 

ganization  in  Mr.  Gilmore 's  hands,  and  General  Banks  accosted  on  his  iourney  by  a  courteous  straneer  who 

created  him  bandmaster  gnnentl.    For  patriotic  and  promised  to  teach  him  the  art  of  magic  at  Toledo.    As 

musical  services  at  the  mauguration  of  Governor  I»yment,  so  t^e  Iwnd  runs,  the  stranger  required 

Hahn  of  Louisiana,  one  hundred  prominent  represent-  ^**  G"  should  make  over  his  soul  to  the  devil  and 

atives  of  the  army,  navy,  and  New  Orieans  civic  gov-  «ga  *^e  compact  with  his  blood.    Gil  obeyed  and, 

emment,   tendered  Mr.  Gilmore  a  complimentary  "^r  devoting  himself  seven  yeare  to  the  study  of 

banquet  at  the  historic  old  St.  Charies  Hotel,  present-  niaeic  under  the  direction  of  Satan,  went  to  Paris, 

ing  him  with  an  inscribed  silver  goblet  containing  five  ©""7  obtamed  the  deeree  of  doctor  of  medicme,  and 

hundred  gold  pieces,  and  a  letter  from  Governor  Hahn  performed  many  wonderful  cures.    One  night  while 

to  President  Lincoln,  introducing  "  P.  S.  Gilmore  "  as  J^®  ^as  locked  up  in  his  libranr  a  gigantic  knight,  armed 

"a  musician  of  the  highest  abiliues  and  a  true  gentle-  ^^^  ^  ^oo^»  appeared  to  him  and,  with  his  sword 

man,  who  had  rendered  important  aid  to  the  nation's  drawn,  demanded  that  Gil  should  change  his  wiCked 

cause  by  his  faithful  and  patriotic  services".  ^^^'    The  same  spectre  appeared  a  second  time,  and 

In  celebration  of  the  establishment  of  national  threatened  to  kill  G'»  if  he  would  not  reform.  Gil  now 
peace,  Mr.  Gilmore  organiased  and  conducted  two  of  repented  of  his  evil  ways,  burnt  his  books  of  magic  and 
the  most  gigantic  popiSar  festivals  known  in  musical  returned  to  Portugal,  where  he  took  the  habit  of  St. 
history— Uie  National  and  International  Peace  Jubi-  Dominic  in  the  newly-erected  monastery  at  Palencia, 
lees,  held  at  Boston  in  1869  and  72,  in  which  thirty  about  1221.  Shortly  after,  his  superiors  sent  him  to 
thousand  singers,  two  thousand  instrumentalists,  the  *^^  Dominican  house  at  Scallabis,  the  present  San- 
most  famous  composere,  vocal  and  instrumental  art-  tarem.  Here  he  led  a  life  of  prayer  and  penance,  and 
ists  of  the  day,  and  the  best  military  bands  of  Europe  ^^^  eeven  years  his  mind  was  tormented  by  the 
participated.  Coliseums  were  erected  for  the  occar  thought  of  Uie  compact  which  was  still  in  the  hands  of 
nans,  holding  respectively  sbtty  thousand  and  one  Satan.  Finally,  his  biographer  narrates,  the  devil  was 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  persons.  In  recogni-  compelled  to  surrender  the  compact  and  place  it  be- 
tion  of  these  achievements,  Mr.  Gilmore  was  pre-  ^o^  t*^®  a^^^r  of  the  Blessed  Vir^.  Gil  returned  to 
sented  by  the  citizens  of  Boston  with  gold  medals  and  Pa™  ^  study  theology  and  on  his  return  to  Portugal 
the  sum  of  fifty  thousand  doUara.  In  1873  he  went  to  became  famous  for  his  piety  and  learning.  He  was 
New  York,  as  bandmaster  of  the  22nd  Regiment.  In  ^^^ce  elected  provmcial  of  his  order  m  Spam.  Bene- 
1878,  during  a  concert-tour  of  the  principal  cities  of  diet  XIV  ratified  his  cult  on  9  March,  1748. 
Europe,  he  received  a  medal  from  the  French  covem-  « j!/** S^'6s^^^'  ?^^''  '^rS^^\?JS^iii^ hommee <Uu8tre$ de 

^*^'t     iorto    aVin^^j    t>      j»>       ^^"^T^  ^^wvo***  Vordre  de  St  Domxntque  (Pana,  1743),  76-04;  Quinr-EcHARD, 

ment.     In  1892,  "Gflmore's  Band",  numbering  one  Saiptorm  Ord.  Prod,  (Paris,  1719),  I,  241-4;  GuIsrin,  Fin  des 

hundred  men,  were  celebrating  by  a  great  national  ^"»f»  (15™»  l^hS^J^^'^*  ^^^A^\  ^*'  ^»^«  Pndumn 

festival-tour    the    four-hundredth    anniversary    of  ff5?^'^Ti®l?LM^^•    ^°*^^ 

America's  discovery  by  Columbus,  when  his  death  ^747).  n.  378-«o.  Michael  Ott. 

occurred  suddenly,  consoled  by  the  last  Sacraments  of        Oindams,  a  titular  see  of  Syria  Prima,  in  the  Patri- 

theChureh.  Both  civic  and  muitaij  honours  were  paid  archate  of  Antioch.   Pliny  (Hist,  nat.,  V,  81)  locates  it 

him  in  death,  and  memorial  services  were  held  over  in  Qyrrtiestica,  as  does  Strabo  (XVI,  2, 8),  who  says  it 
VT.— 36 


OZNOULHIAO  562  OIOBSBTZ 

was  a  celebrated  haunt  of  brigands.  Ptolemy  (V,  xiv)  mont,  though  at  a  later  date  he  became  its  opponent, 
speaks  of  it  as  being  in  the  region  of  Seleucia,  and  At  tms  time  imder  the  pen-name  "  Demofilo  '  he  was 
Stephen  of  Byzantium  (s.  v.)  makes  it  a  small  town  writing  articles  in  Mazzmi's  "Giovane  Italia",  printed 
situated  near  Antioch.  The  first  and  only  known  at  Marseilles.  In  1833  he  resigned  his  court  chap- 
Bishop  of  Gindarus  was  Peter,  who  assisted  at  the  laincy,  and  soon  after  was  arreted  on  suspicion  of 
Council  of  Nicsea  in  325  (Gelzer,  Patrum  Nicsenorum  politiciEtl  intrigues.  Nothing  could  be  proved  acainst 
nomina,  p.  61)  and  at  that  of  Antioch  in  341  (Lequien,  nim,  but  he  was  expelled  from  the  country  ana  went 
Oriens  Cnrist.,  II,  789).  Yet  the  episcopal  see  is  not  to  Paris,  where  he  made  many  friends.  He  now  ceased 
mentioned  in  the  sixth-century ''Notitia"  of  Antioch  contributing  to  the  "Giovane  Italia",  and  Cousin 
(EJchos  d'Orient,  1907,  144),  nor  in  that  of  the  tenth  offered  him  a  chair  of  philosophy  on  condition  that  he 
century  (op.  cit.,  1907, 94) ;  it  is  also  missing  from  the  would  not  oppose  Cousin's  own  philosoi)hical  sjrstem. 
list  of  cities  of  Syria  given  by  the  geographer  Hierocles  Though  financiallv  in  very  straitened  circumstances, 
and  George  of  Cyprus.  It  is  probable  that  it  was  never  Gioberti  refused  the  offer.  He  then  accepted  an  offer 
an  importieint  town,  and  that  its  see,  of  early  creation,  to  teach  philosophy  in  a  private  school  at  Brussels 
soon  disappeared.  Under  the  Emperor  Theodosius  conductea  by  an  Italian.  Durine  his  stay  in  Brussels 
the  Great,  Gindarus  was  onlv  a  small  villa^  which  he  most  of  his  works  were  publishea. 
fortified  (P.  G.,  XCVII,  517),  and  in  the  time  of  Jus-  In  1841.  on  the  appearance  of  his  book  ''Del 
tinian  I,  when  the  relics  of  the  martyr,  St.  Marinus,  Buono'',  tne  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  offered  him  a 
afterwards  transferred  to  Antioch,  were  found  there,  chair  in  the  Pi&a  University,  but  King  Charles  Albert 
Gindarus  possessed  only  a  periodeules  and  not  a  bishop,  objected,  and  the  offer  came  to  nothine.  His  fame  in 
It  is  now  Djend^ris,  on  the  Afrin-Sou,  in  the  vilayet  Italy  dates  from  18^3  when  he  published  his  "Del 
and  the  sanjak  of  Aleppo,  not  far  from  Kal  'at  Semaan,  primato  morale  e  civile  degli  Italiani ' ',  which  he  dedi- 
the  famous  monasteiy  of  St.  Simon  Stylites.  cated  to  Silvio  Pellico.    Starting  with  the  greatness  of 

S.  Vailh£.  ancient  Rome  he  traced  history  down  throueh  the 
Ti  ,  splendours  of  the  papacy,  and  recoimting  all  that 
OmoumiaCi  Jacqubs-Mabie-Achillb.  a  French  science  and  art  owed  to  the  genius  of  Ita^,  he  de- 
bishop;  b.  at  Montpellier  (department  of  H^rault),  3  dared  that  the  Italian  people  were  a  model  for  all 
Dec.,  1806;  d.  there,  17  Nov.,  1875.  Immediately  nations,  and  that  their  then  insignificance  was  the  re- 
after  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  (1830)  he  was  suit  of  their  weakness  politically,  to  remedy  which  he 
appointed  professor  in  the  seminary  at  Montpellier.  proposed  a  confederation  of  all  the  states  of  Italy  with 
and  later  (1839)  vicar-general  at  Aix.  Consecrated  the  pope  as  their  head.  It  is  curious  that  in  this  work 
Bishop  of  Grenoble  in  1853.  he  was  ^pointed  the  fol-  he  is  very  severe  on  the  French,  yet  he  has  not  a  word 
lowing  year  assistant  to  the  pontifical  throne,  and  to  say  about  the  Austrians  who  then  occupied  Lom- 
knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  At  the  Council  of  hardy  and  the  Venetian  territory.  Pope  and  prince 
the  Vatican,  Ginoulhiac  spoke  publicly  on  philosophi-  received  the  work  very  coldly,  and  a  few  Jesuits  wrote 
cal  errors  (30  Dec.,  1869),  on  the  rule  of  faith  (22  March  against  it.  In  1845  he  was  once  more  m  Paris  and 
and  1  April,  1870),  and  on  the  pope's  infallibility  (23  published  the  "  Prolegomeni  al  Primato",  in  which  he 
May  and  28  June,  1870).  On  this  latter  point  he  sided  attacked  the  Jesuits;  and  in  1847  he  printed  "II  Ge- 
with  the  minority  and  left  Rome  before  the  session  of  suita  Modemo",  a  large  sized  pamphlet,  full  of  vulgar 
18  July,  in  which  the  doctrme  was  defined.  In  1870  invective;  m  1848  this  was  followed  by  an  "Apologia 
he  was  transferred  from  Grenoble  to  the  arohiepiscopal  del  Gesuita  Modemo ' '.  These  works  were  answered 
See  of  Lyons.  Fearing  the  Prussian  invasion,  the  m-  in  1849  by  the  Jesuit  Father  Curci's  "  Divinazione  sulle 
habitants  of  Lyons  vowed  to  erect  a  basilica  at  Four-  tre  ultime  opere  di  V.  Gioberti".  Early  in  1848,  when 
vidres  if  the  city  were  spared.  The  written  pledge,  Italy  was  burning  with  hopes  of  liberty  and  independ- 
signed  by  thousands  of  mhabitants,  was  placed  on  the  ence,  Gioberti  returned  to  his  native  land  and  was 
altar  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  by  the  arohbishop  himself .  joyously  received  by  his  fellow-townsmep.  Soon 
In  1873,  m  fulfilment  of  this  promise,  he  laid  the  cor-  afterwards  he  went  to  Milan  to  calm  the  over-impet- 
ner-stone  of  the  magnificent  edifice  which  to^ay  uous  and  to  oppose  Mazzini;  from  there  he  visited 
stands  on  the  hill  of  Fourvidres.  While  at  Grenoble,  King  Charles  Albert  at  Sommacampagna.  He  re- 
Bishop  Gmoulhiac  wrote  and  published  several  letters  "  '  *  *  *  -r^  .  <  **  .  .  ,  . 
and  pastorals,  especially  on  the  condition  of  the  Ponti- 
fical States  (1860),  on  Kenan's  "  Life  of  Jesus"  (1863), 
and  on  the  accusations  of  the  press  against  the  Encyc- 
lical of  8  Dec.,  1864,  and  the  Syllabus 
works  are "  Histoire  du  dogme  catholiqu _                   __      _ 

iJ?*?  I?T®JS^®'?  ^*?Sl^  ^.®«l'S8^x®*  ij"3^'a^  concile  de  ^binetT    After  ^e'"unfortimate'^asco  armis'tice  he 

Nic6e"  (Pans.  1852,  1865);  "Les  6pttr^  pastorales,  broke  up  the  cabinet,  declared  for  a  continuation  of 

ou  reflexions  dogmatiquesetmorolessur  1m  6^^^^  the  war  against  Austria,  and  bitterly  assailed  the 

Saint  Paul  k  Timoth^e  et  k  Tite  "  (P^,  1866) ;     Le  Revel  minStry .  He  next  founded  a  society  to  propa- 

concile  CBCum^ique"  (Pans,  1869);  "Le  sermon  sur  gate  the  idea  of  a  federated  Italy,  with  the  King  of 

la  montagne    (Lyons,  1872);  "  Les  onpnes  du  chns-  ftedmont  and  not  the  pope  at  its  head.  In  December 

tianisme  ,  a  posthumous  work  pubhshed  by  Canon  hebecamepresident  of  the  ministry  (with  Rattazzi  and 

Servonnet  (Pans,  1878).  other  democrats),  but  whereas  the  new  cabinet  was  all 

/™'^£rrtho'»ST£i^SS5JS2^'^  h^r^  !»' ''»'.  G«?b«rti  had  learned  caution  and  was  «moua 

C.  A.  DuBRAY.  ^  reorganize  the  army.    Moreover,  he  wanted  Pied- 
mont to  re-establish  in  their  estates  the  pope  and  the 

Gioberti,  Vincekzo,  Italian  statesman  and  philos-  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  who  had  been  driven  out  by 

opher;  b.  at  Turin,  6  April,  1801 ;  d.  at  Paris,  26  Octo-  the  revolution ;  so  he  quarrelled  with  his  fellow-mini»- 

bei\  1852.    When  still  very  young  he  lost  his  parents,  ters  and  resigned  on  20  February,  1849,  but  in  the 

ana  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  admitted  among  the  newspapers  he  carried  on  the  quarrel.    After  the  dis- 

clerics  of  the  court;  he  studied  theology  at  the  Turin  astrous  battle  of  Novara  (23  March,  1849),  Victor 

University,  and  obtained  there  the  doctorate ;  he  was  Emmanuel  II  offered  him  a  portfolio ;  he  agreed  to  join 

ordained  priest  in  1825  and  appointed  court  chaplain  the  ministry  but  would  not  take  a  portfolio.    He  was 

and  professor  in  the  theological  college.    In  1828  he  then  sent  as  plenipotentiary  minister  to  Paris  to 


made  a  journey  through  Lombardy,  and  became  licit  French  aid  in  Italy.  He  was  unsuccessful,  and 
friendly  with  Manzoni  and  other  c|reat  men.  He  finding  he  was  out  of  favour  at  Turin  he  resigned  his 
caused  Rosmini's  philosophy  to  be  Known  in  Pied-    post,  but  remained  in  Paris,  where,  after  three  yean 


reco^izing  that  this  would  be  an  exception  to  the 
" logical"  law  of  methexis,  he  denied  this  eternal  im- 


OIOOONDO                             563  OIOOONDO 

passed  in  study,  he  died.    In  1851  he  published  his  preach  or  keep  away  from  being;  hence  the  origin  of 

"  Rinnovamento  civile  d'ltalia"  which  contains  an  im-  evil ;  and  when  such  aversion  from  being  is  endless  it 

passioned  criticism  of  political  events  from  1848  on-  becomes  necessary  and  immanent.    Later,  however, 

wards.    This  last  book,  while  it  clings  to  the  idea  of  a '— ' — ^^-^  ^^- u  i--    _  .. 

federated  Italy,  shows  that  Gioberti  was  a  republican.  ^^^^^m.    «».*  »« 

and  that  he  hoped  the  loss  of  the  papal  temporal  manence  of  evU. 

power  would  bnng  about  the  religious  renovation  of  It  is  noteworthy  that,  in  politics,  he  denied  the 

Italy.    Thereupon  all  his  works  were  put  on  the  In-  sovereignty  of  the  people.    In  Gioberti's  theory  the 

dex.    His  closing  years  were  embittered  by  seeing  his  object  of  religion  is  the  supernatural  and  the  superin- 

hopes  shattered,  and  this  bitterness  finds  an  echo  in  teliigible,  which  meant  according  to  him  the  essence  of 

his  works.                                                               ^    ^  b^ine  revealed  by  means  of  speech.    On  the  other 

Gioberti's  phUoeophy  is  a  mixture  of  pantheistic  hand  he  treats  at  len^h  of  the  harmony  between  reli- 

ontologism  with  Platonism  and  traditionalism.    The  gion  and  science  or  civilization.    But  as  a  rule  all  his 

ontologism  of  Malebranche,  as  modified  by  Cardinal  vague  theorizing  was  tinged  with  rationalism,  and 

Gerdil,  had  been  taught  him  at  the  Turin  University,  even  in  his  latest  works  he  writes:  ''science  and  civili- 

His  first  principle  is  that  the  primum  cogniium  of  zation  must  go  on  throwing  light  on  what  is  supemat- 

thehumanintellectisideaor  being;  i.e.,  absolute  and  ural  and  superintelli^ble  in  religion";  and  again, 

eternal  truth  as  far  as  "human  intuition"  can  grasp  it  "modem  rationalism  is  destined  to  bring  about  the 

is  God  Himself.    "Being"  he  calls  the  jirimum  ^hilo-  union  of  orthodoxy  and  science".    His  pnilosophical 

aophicumj  because  in  the  mental  order  it  is  the  primum  works  are :  "  Teorica  del  sovrannaturale  "  (1838 ;  2nd 

psychologicumf  and  in  the  order  of  existing  things  it  is  ed.,  with  replies  to  critics,  1850) ;  "  Introduzione  alio 


judgment,  .. 

sarily",  which  is  not  the  result  oi  any  mental  process,  nio  Rosmini"  (1842).    Mention  should  also  be  made 

but  IS  the  spontaneous  effect  produced  .when  being  of  his  posthumous  works:  "Riforma  Cattolica";"Filo- 

presents  itself  to  the  mind.    But  in  being  we  merelv  sofia  aella  Rivelazione";    "Protologia".    His  com- 

see   its  relative   attributes,  not  its  essence,  which  plete  works  in  thirty-five  volumes  were  published  at 

remains  unknown  (the  superintelligible)  and  is  the  Naples,  in  1877. 

object  of  revealed   religion.     Among  these   relative         Massari,  Ricordi  e  CaHeggio  di  V.  Gioberti  (Turin,  i860); 

attributes  is  comprised  the  creative  act,  by  intuition  ^au"'  Pj^^^jJUfja^^i^  ^i*'*'^ft«5S®°^'  }^K  ??^' 

^g 1.  i_»u*        •         Ai  ijr'A  VHNTA,  La /UtwoAa  at  Gio6«rtt  (Naples,  1864):  Cxvilth  Cattoltea. 

of  which,  in  being,  we  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  its  re-  n.  serl  IV.  143;  III.  8er.  IV,  481. 641,  Ser.  V,  280;  Libbratorb; 

suits,  namely,  continent  things,  and  thus  establish  the  Delia  conoacenza  uuetlatuale  (Naples,  1870).  I,  ii. 
formida  idecdiSf  "being  creates  existing  things ",  ens  ^  U.  Beniqni. 

creat  existerUiaa,  This  judgment  is  synthetical  a  priori, 

notintheKantiansense,  but  by  "objective synthesis"        Oiocondo,  Fra  Giovanni,  Italian  architect,  anti- 

resulting  from  the  revelation  of  beine.    However,  in-  quary,  archseologist,  and  classical  scholar,  b.  in  Ver- 

tuition  of  the  idea  remains  too  indeterminate;  and  ona,  c.  1445;  d.  in  Venice  (?),  c.  1525.     He  became 

hence  the  necessity  of  speech  which  so  circumscribes  a  Dominican  at  the  age  of  eighteen  and  was  one  of  the 

the  idea  that  we  can  contemplate  or  re-think  it  (this  many  of  that  order  who  oecame  pioneers  of  the 

is  pure  traditionalism).  Renaissance;    afterwards,  however,  he  entered  the 

His  theory  of  creation  is  the  most  impoftant  part  of  Franciscan  Order.    Giocondo  began  his  career  as  a 

his  system  and  requires  a  lon^r  explanation.     He  teacher  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  Verona  where  Scaliger 

caDs  the  idea  also  tne  Ease  UniveradUj  which  is  com-  was  one  of  his  pupils.    The  young  priest,  a  learned 

mon  to  and  identical  in  all  things,  and  which  is  nothing  archaeologist  ana  a  superb  draughtsman,  early  visited 

more  or  less  than  their  possibility  itself.    Before  the  Rome,  sketched  its  ancient  buildings,  wrote  the  story 

creation  the  idea  (being,  God)  is  universalis  and  ab-  of  its  great  monuments,  and  completed  and  explained 

stract.    It  becomes  concrete  by  its  own  act,  individu-  manv  defaced  inscriptions.    He  stimulated  the  re- 

ating  itself,  making  itself  finite,  and  multiplying  it-  vival  of  classical  learning  by  making  collections  of 

self.     "To  create  is  therefore  to  individuate."    In  ancjent  MSS.,  one  of  which,  completed  in  1492,  he 

this  process  the  intelligible  that  was  absolute  becomes  presented  to  Lorenzo  de'  Medici.     Giocondo  soon 

relative;    there  are  two  cycles  to  the  process,  one  returned  to  his  native  town  where  he  built  bridges  and 

descending,  inasmuch  as  the  idea  infringes  on  the  planned  fortifications  for  Treviso,  acting  as  architect, 

concrete  (mimesis),  the  other  ascending,  inasmuch  as  engineer,  and  even  head-builder  during  the  construc- 

it  reaches  out  more  and  more  towards  the  intelligible  tion.    The  most  beautiful  building  in  Verona  and  one 

absolute  (melhexis),  and  participates  of  the  Divine  of  the  most  perfect  in  all  Europe,  the  Palazzo  del 

Being  (this  is  pure  Platonism).    Thus  he  arrives  at  Consiglio,  the  decorations  of  whose  loggia  are  famous, 

the  conclusion  that  in  the  intellectual  order  the  ideas  was  designed  by  Giocondo  at  the  request  of  Emperor 

of  created  things  are  so  many  steps  in  the  scale  of  the  Maximilian,  and  de  Quincey  attributes  also  the  church 

Divine  Essence.     And  as  regards  creation,  he  adopts  of  Santa  Maria  della  Scala  to  him.    Venice  then  sum- 

the  saying  of  Hegel  that  ''logic  ...  is  nothing  but  moned  him  with  other  celebrated  architects  to  discuss 

creation".    From  all  this,  Gioberti's  pantheism  is  the  protection  of  the  lagoons  against  the  rivers ;  Gio- 

evident.    No  doubt  he  is  always  asserting  that  God  conoo's  plan  of  altering  the  Brenta's  bed  and  leading 

was  distinct  from  His  creatures;  but  the  sincerity  this  river  to  the  sea  was  accepted  by  the  Venetians, 

of  these  statements  is  not  beyond  question.    As  a  and  the  undertaking  was  a  complete  success, 
matter  of  fact,  after  his  separation  from  the  Mazzin-        Between  1496  and  1499  Giocondo  was  invited  to 

ians  they  published  a  letter  of  his  to  the  "  Giovane  France  by  the  king,  and  made  roval  architect.    There 

Italia"  in  which  he  expressly  stated  that  "pantheism  he  built  two  bridges  of  remarkable  beauty,  the  Pont 

is  the  only  true  and  sound  philosophy".     His  theory  Notre-Dame  and  the  Petit  Pont,  and  designed  the 

of  mimesis  and  methexis  is  also  used  to  prove  the  im-  palace  of  the  Chambre  des  Comptes,  the  Golden  Room 

mortality  of  the  soul.    Then  again  the  idea  of  being  of  the  Parliament,  and  the  Ch&teau  of  Gaillon  (Nor- 

is  made  the  foundation  of  moral  obligation  as  a  binding  mandy),  one  fagade  of  which  has  been  removed  Uf  the 

force,  and,  inasmuch  as  it  approves  or  disapproves, we  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  to  serve  as  a  model  for  students 

have  the  concepts  of  merit  and  demerit,    llie  aim  of  of  architecture.    In  France  Giocondo  discovered  a 

the  moral  law  is  to  bring  to  pass  the  perfect  union  of  manuscript  of  PHnv  the  Younger,  containing  his  cor- 

existences  and  being,  in  other  words  to  complete  the  respondence  with  Trajan.    He  published  this  in  Paris. 

methexio  cyde.    Man  endowed  with  freedom  can  ap-  dedicating  the  work  to  Louis  XII.    Between  1506  and 


OIOBDANI 


564 


oiOBOion 


1508  he  returned  to  Italy,  wrote  four  dLssertations  on 
the  waters  and  waterwajrs  of  Venice  and  constructed 
the  splendid  Fondaco  del  Tedeschi  (1508),  decorated 
by  Titian  and  Giorgione.  When  in  1513  the  Rialto 
and  its  environs  were  burned,  Giocondo  was  one  who 
presented  plans  for  a  new  bridge  and  surrounding 
structures,  out  he  left  Venice  for  Kome  when  the  de- 
signs of  a  rival  (Michelangelo?)  were  chosen  by  the 
republic  for  which  he  had  done  such  monumental 
work.  The  Vatican  welcomed  him  (1514)  and  on 
Bramante's  death  he  superintended  (withHaphael  and 
San  Gallo)  the  erection  of  St.  Peter's;  but  it  was  Fra 
Giocondo  alone  who  improved  and  strengthened  the 
foundations  of  the  gjeat  basttica  and  the  piers  inade- 
quately supporting  its  dome. 

Two  Italian  editions  of  Pliny's  ''Epistles"  were 
published  by  Giocondo,  one  printed  in  Bologna  (1498) 
and  one  from  the  press  of  Aldus  Manutius  (1508).  He 
edited  Csesar's  "Commentaries"  and  made  the  firat 
design  (drawing)  of  CsBsar's  bridge  across  the  Rhine. 
He  was  among  the  first  to  produce  a  correct  edition  of 
Vitruvius,  printed  at  Venice  in  1511,  illustrated  with 
figures  and  dedicated  to  Pope  Julius  II;  and  pub- 
lished the  works  of  Julius  Obsequens,  Aurelius  Victor, 
and  Gate's  "  De  re  rustic^".  In  addition  to  his  clas- 
sical and  mathematical  knowledge  he  was  a  master  of 
scholastic  theology.  His  last  work  was,  probably, 
the  rebuilding  of  the  bridge  of  Verona  (1521),  for  in  a 
letter  to  Giuliano  de'  Meoici,  in  1513,  Giocondo  then 
called  himself  "an  old  man". 

CuMMiNas,  fliatory  of  ArehiUdure  in  Italy;  Yrxabtb,  Venice, 
tr.  SrrwBLXi  (Philadelphia,  1806);  LoNorBLLOw,  ArchHedure  in 
Italy,  Oreeee  and  the  Levant  (New  York,  1903);  Michaud,  Biop. 
Umver^elle,  Ancienne  et  Modeme  (Paris,  1855);  Mabinklu  iq 
Raeaegna  dtArU  (Milan,  1002),  GO  sqq. 

Leigh  Hunt. 

Oiordani,  Tommabo,  composer,  b.  at  Naples  in 
1738;  d.  at  Dublin.  Ireland,  February.  1806.  The 
family  came  to'Lonaon  in  1752,  and  settled  in  Dublin 
in  17d4.  Tommaso  was  one  of  the  leading  musicians 
in  the  Irish  capital  from  1764  to  1781,  when  he  re- 
turned to  London ;  after  two  years,  he  came  back  to 
Dublin,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
was  concerned  in  an  opera-house  and  in  a  musio-shop, 
neither  of  which  was  financially  successful.  Among 
his  compositions  are  a  number  of  operas,  an  oratorio 
**  Isaac '  ^  (1767),  and  a  vast  quantity  of  overtures,  sonar 
tas,  concertos,  quartets,  songs,  etc.  He  was  oreanist 
of  the  pro-cathedral  from  1784  to  1798,  and  con- 
ducted a  Te  Deum  of  his  own  at  the  celebration  upon 
the  recovery  of  King  Georae  III,  30  April,  1789. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Lady  Morgan,  Tom  Cooke,  and 
others,  and  it  was  at  one  of  his  Rotunda  concerts  that 
John  Field,  the  inventor  of  the  nocturne,  made  his 
debut  (4  April,  1792).  His  last  opera,  "The  Cottase 
Festival'',  was  produced  at  the  Theatre  Royal,  Dub- 
lin, 28  Nov.,  1796.  His  song  "Caro  mio  ben"  is  stiU 
occasionally  heard. 

Orotb,  Did,  of  Music  and  Muticianat  ed.  Mattland  (London, 
1006).  II {  EirNSR,  QyelUnlexikan  (1000-1004);  Grattan- 
Flood,  Htd,  of  Irish  Music  (3d  ed.,  Dublin,  1000);  contempo- 
rary files  of  Dublin  papers. 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

OiordanOy  Luc  a,  Neapolitan  painter;  b.  at  Naples, 
1632;  d.  in  the  same  place,  12  Jan.,  1705.  He  was 
esteemed  the  marvel  of  his  age  for  the  rapiditv  with 
which  he  covered  with  frescoes  vast  ceilings,  domes, 
and  walls  in  Italy  and  Spain,  and  was  known  as  Luca 
"  Fa  Presto"  (make  haste),  as  the  demand  for  his  work 
was  so  great  that  his  father  was  continually  urging 
him  to  ^ater  dispatch,  until  at  length  he  was  abte  to 
worfb  with  extraordinarjr  speed.  He  was  undoubtedly 
the  chief  of  the  MachimsH,  as  the  popular  quick- 
painting  decorators  of  Italy  came  to  be  called,  and 
Sirhaps  no  other  painter  has  left  so  many  pictures, 
e  was  a  pupfl  of  Kibera,  and  then  of  Pietro  da  Cor- 
tona,  and  a  constant  copyist  of  the  works  of  Raphael. 


Some  of  his  earliest  painting  were  for  the  churches  ot 
Naples,  but  in  1679  he  was  mvited  to  Florence,  and  in 
1692  to  Madrid,  where  he  painted  the  immense  ceiling 
and  staircase  of  the  Esconal,  and  an  enormous  number 
of  separate  pictures.  In  1702  he  accompanied  the 
King  of  Spam  to  Naples,  and  there  he  spent  the  last 
three  years  of  his  life.  There  are  sixtjr  ox  his  pictures 
in  Madrid,  and  about  half  that  number  in  Naples,  while 
the  galleries  of  Dresden,  Munich,  Paris,  Vienna,  Rome, 
and  St.  Petensbuig,  all  boast  of  a  large  niunber  of  his 
works.  He  executed  several  etchings,  and  is  believed 
to  have  also  worked  in  pastel. 

DoiONiGi,   Vite  d^  PiOori  Seuliari  e  An^itetU  Napolitani 

i Naples,  1742-45);  CSonca,  Deserinone  odeparica  delta  Spagna 
Parma,  1703);  Haxbst,  MemoriedtF  PiUcrx  Messinesi  (Naples, 
702). 

GeOBGE  ChaRLBS  WiLLIAMaON. 

Giordano  Brtno.    See  Bruno,  Giordano. 

Oiorgione  (Giorgio  Barbarelu,  Zorzo  da  Cas- 
telfranco),  Italian  painter,  b.  at  Castelfranco  in  or 
before  1477;  d.  in  Venice  in  October  or  November, 
1510.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  His  ver^r  origin 
haa  been  disputed,  some  authorities  claiming  his 
father  to  have  been  of  the  great  Barbarelli  family  and 
his  mother  a  peasant  girl  of  Vedelago,  while  later  in- 
vestigators find  no  proof  of  this,  c»ll  the  Barbarelli 
tradition  false,  and  make  him  the  descendant  of  peas- 
ants from  the  March  of  Treviso.  Giorgione  means 
"big  Georee";  Ruskin  calls  him  "stout  George";  aU 
agree  that  ne  was  a  large,  handsome  man,  of  splendid 
and  attractive  presence.  In  Venice  he  studied  under 
Giovanni  Bellini,  with  Titian  as  a  fellow-pupil.  His 
great  artistic  talent  developed  rapidly,  he  outstripped 
his  master,  broke  awav  from  the  timid  and  traditional 
style  of  the  day,  and  became  a  great  influence  in  art, 
even  Titian  foUowine  his  teachings  and  imitating  his 
colour,  method^  and  st^e.  To-day  there  is  much 
confusion  even  m  the  great  Continentalgalleriee  con- 
cerning the  attribution  of  pictures  to  Titian  and  to  / 
Giorgione.  With  rare  musical  skill  on  the  lute  and 
with  a  fine  voice,  the  talented  youth  was  earlv  ad- 
mitted to  the  best  Venetian  society,  and  painted  por- 
traits of  nearly  all  the  great  people ;  Caterma  Comaro, 
Gonzales  (Gonzalvo)  of  Cordova,  and  two  doges  being 
a  few  of  his  sitters.  His  portraits  were  the  first  to  be 
painted  in  the  "modem  manner'',  and  are  full  of  dig- 
nity, truth  of  characterization,  simplicity,  and  a  su- 
very  quality  unsurpassed  even  by  Velazquez.  The 
precocious  and  versatile  young  man  was  the  first  to 
paint  landscapes  with  figures,  the  first  to  paint  genre 
— ^movable  pictures  in  their  own  frames  with  no  de- 
votional, allegorical,  or  historical  purpose — and  the 
first  whose  colours  possessed  that  anient,  growing, 
and  melting  intensity  which  was  so  soon  to  typify  the 
work  of  all  the  Venetian  School. 

Giorgione  was  the  first  to  discard  detail  and  substi- 
tute breadth  and  boldness  in  the  treatment  of  nature 
and  architecture;  and  he  was  the  first  to  recognize 
that  the  painter's  chief  aim  is  decorative  effect.  He 
never  subordinated  line  and  colour  to  architecture, 
nor  an  artistic  effect  to  a  sentimental  presentation. 
He  possessed  the  typical  artistic  temperament,  and 
this,  with  his  vigour  and  ^iety,  made  him  the  true 
poet-painter^  a  "lyrical  genius '  (Morelli) .  He  is  well 
callea  the  "joyous  herald  of  the  Renaissance".  The 
vigour  of  his  chiaroscuro,  the  superb  "relief"  in  his 
work,  the  "grand  st^le",  and  his  mastery  of  perspeo- 
tive  may  have  come  in  part  from  a  study  of  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  who  was  in  Venice  when  Giorgione  was 
twenty-four  years  old;  but  no  trustworthy  records 
show  that  the  two  ever  met.  Giorgione  painted  the 
widest  range  of  subjects  from  altai^piece  to  /^to-cAom- 
pd^s,  employed  few  figures — ^usually  three — in  his 
compositions,  and  imitated  the  actual  texture  of 
draperies  as  none  had  ever  done  before.  ^  His  method 
was  to  paint  in  tempera  and  then  glaze  in  oil,  a  pro- 
cess contributing  to  great  brilliance,  transparency. 


THE  CASTELFRANCO  ALTAR-PIECE 

THE    lUDONNA  ENTHRONED    WITH    BT.    LIBERAIJ:    AND    ST.    FRANCIS 
OIORQIONE,    COBTANII    CHArai.,    CHCRCH    OF    CASTELFRANCO 


ii: 


11 


iS 


OIOTTO 


565 


aiOTTO 


and  permanence  of  colour.  Giorgione  introduced  into 
Venice  the  fashion  of  painting  the  fronts  of  houses  in 
fresco  (in  1507-08  he  thus  decorated,  with  Titian,  the 
magnificent  Fondaco  dei  Tedeschi);  and  cauoni 
(marriage-chests)  and  other  pieces  of  furniture  were 
not  too  humble  for  his  magic  orush. 

All  his  life  was  spent  in  Venice  where  his  extraordi- 
nary personality  started  a  School  of  Giorgione,  and 
where  his  pictures,  in  great  demand  during  his  life- 
time, had  a  host  of  imitators  and  copvists.  Very 
little  of  his  work  is  authenticated,  and  only  three 
paintings  have  never  been  called  in  question  pv  any 
expert  or  critic.  The  first  of  these  is  the  (ISastelfranoo 
alUir-piece,  painted  when  he  was  twenty-seven  years 
old  for  the  church  of  his  native  town.  Here  are  the 
Madonna^and  Child  enthroned,  with  Sts.  Liberale  and 
Francis  below,  "one  of  the  two  most  perfect  pictures 
in  existence"  (Ruskin);  it  is  full  of  reverie,  serenitv, 
and  religious  sentiment,  the  very  landscape-back- 
ground awakening  devotional  feelings.  The  other 
unquestioned  works  are  the  "Adrastus  and  Hypsi- 
pyle"  (called  for  350  years  the  "Giovanelli  Figures'' 
or  the  ''Stormy  Landscape  with  Soldier  and  Gypsy"), 
more  sombre  than  the  altar-piece  but  more  romantic 
in  treatment,  and  the  "^neas,  Evander.  and  Pallas" 
(the  "Three  Philosophers"  or  the  "CSialdean  Sages ")> 
probably  completed  by  Sebastiano  del  Piombo, 
Giorgione 's  pupil.  The  greatest  rival  authorities  are 
agreed  that  four  other  works  are  undoubted  Gior- 
giones:  the  "Knight  of  Malta",  "Judgment  of  Solo- 
mon", the  "Trial  of  Moses"  (all  in  the  Uffizi),  and 
"(!)hnst  Bearing  the  Cross"  in  Mrs.  Gardner's  collec- 
tion (Boston,  U.  S.  A.).  Many  ^at  canvases  are 
denied  Giorgione  by  modem  negative  criticism  simply 
because  they  do  not  quite  attain  the  hig^  standard  of 
excellence  arbitrarily  set  for  this  master  by  con- 
noisseurs. Tradition  says  his  death  was  due  to  grief 
because  his  lad}r-love  proved  false;  probably  the 
plague — then  ragine  in  Venice — carried  nim  off.  He 
was  buried  on  the  island  of  Poveglia.  Other  works 
attributed  to  Giorgione  are:  "The  Concert", 
Pitti  Gallery,  Florence;  "Venus",  Dresden  Gallery; 
"F^  Champ^tre",  Louvre;  "Madonna  and  C^hild^', 
Prado. 

Cook.  Giorgione  (Londoii,  1000);  Oronau  In  Oazetie  det 
BeauX'Arta  (lo04);  Idem  in  ReperlortumjUr  KtuMtwi9aef%teha% 
Vol.  XVIIIj,  pt.  IV;  MoRSLLi.  Italian  Painten,  tr.  Ffoulkes 
(LoQclon,  1802);  Anonimo,  NoU9  on  Pieturea  . . . .  «n  Italy,  tr. 
if  uasi,  ed.  Wilxiambon. 

Lbioh  Hunt. 

Oiotto  di  Bondone,  a  FlOTcntme  painter,  and 
founder  of  the  Italian  School  of  painting,  b.  most 
probably,  in  1266  (not  1276),  in  the  village  oi  Vespi- 
gnano  near  Florence,  in  the  valley  of  the  Afugello;  d. 
at  Milan,  8  Jan.,  1337.  Very  little  is  known  of  his 
early  history.  Vasari  relates  that  Cimabue,  rambling 
one  day  in  the  nei^bourhood  of  Colle,  saw  a  joung 
shepherd  lad  drawmg  one  of  his  sheep  on  a  piece  3 
smooth  slate  with  a  pointed  stone,  and  that  Cimabue 
thereupon  took  the  lad  with  him  and  instructed  him. 
The  story  is  a  pret^  bit  of  fancy.  There  is  no  reason 
for  believing  tnat  Giotto  was  ever  a  shepherd.  It  is 
possible  that  his  father  was  a  peasant;  if  so.  he  was 
in  easy  circumstances  and  certainly  a  freeholder.  A 
document  dated  1320  styles  him  vir  proedarus;  such  an 
epithet  would  not  be  applied  to  a  man  in  straitened 
circumstances.  As  a  matter  of  fact  nothing  is  known 
of  Giotto  until  he  was  thirty  years  old.  This  unfortu- 
nate gap  in  his  personal  history  robs  us  of  a  story  which 
would  be  of  intense  interest  as  showing  the  growth  of 
his  genius,  and  reduces  us  to  the  merest  conjectures. 
However,  without  in  any  way  detracting  from  Giot- 
to's pre-eminence  in  Italian  art,  it  is  impossible  to 
accord  him  that  quasi-miraculous,  providential  im- 
portance that  Florentine  nationalism  soon  raised  to  a 
kind  of  dogma  in  the  history  of  art.  According  to 
Vasari  he  arose  in  a  barbarous  age  and  straightway 


revealed  a  fully  developed  art  to  a  wondering  world. 
This  is  not  credible.  Tne  thirteenth  century,  the  cen- 
tury of  the  great  cathedrals  and  of  the  Frencn  school  of 
carving  whose  numerous  pupils  were  met  with  in  all 
parts  of  Christendom,  cannot  be  called  a  barbarous 
age.  In  Italy  itself  a  widespread  renaissance  was 
takine  place.  At  Naples  and  at  Rome  the  admirable 
school  of  the  marmorarii  of  which  the  Cosmati  are  the 
most  illustrious,  recalled  to  life  much  antique  beauty 
of  form.  The  mosaic- workers,  with  Jacopo  Torriti  and 
the  artiste  who  created  the  marvels  of  the  Baptistery 
of  Florence,  likewise  the  painters,  with  Pietro  Cavai- 
lini  whose  fresco  cycles  in  Santa  Maria  in  Trastevere 
(Rome)  exhibit  all  Giotto's  breadth  of  form,  are  satis- 
factory proof  of  an  earlier  renewal  of  artistic  spirit  and 
power.  The  "Rucellai  Madonna"  by  Duccio  dates 
trom  1285.  Twenty  years  earlier,  perhaps  the  very 
year  of  Giotto's  birth,  Nicold  Pisano  haa  completed 
the  pulpit  in  the  Baptistery  of  Pisa.  That  of  Siena 
followed  in  1272.  Tlie  lovely  fountain  at  Perugia 
dates  from  1278.  Then  came  the  works  of  Giovanni 
Pisano,  whose  S3rmpathetic  genius  is  in  more  than  one 
way  alcin  to  that  of  Giotto.  Amid  this  rich  and  won- 
drous development  of  art  the  young  master  grew  up. 
Though  he  was  by  no  means  its  creator,  it  certainly 
reached  in  him  its  highest  expression. 

As  an  artist  Giotto  is  a  true  son  of  St.  Francis.  It 
is  at  Assisi  that  he  is  first  found,  in  that  very  basilica 
which  was  the  cradle  of  Italian  painting,  and  which 
still  enshrines  ^e.  most  perfect  records  of  its  early 
history.  There  eveiy  master  of  note  in  the  peninsula 
might  have  been  seen  at  work.  Giunta  of  Pisa  was 
decorating  the  lower  church,  while  Cavallini  or  one  of 
his  pupils  was  painting  scenes  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  upper  church.  Cimabue  was  at  the  same 
time  omamentmg  the  choir  and  the  transept.  It  was 
doubtless  in  the  train  {brigata)  of  Cimabue  that  Giotto 
came  to  Assisi  in  1294,  and  that  he  became  acauainted 
with  l^e  works  of  the  marmorarii,  whose  style  so  in- 
fluenced his  own.  In  1296  Cimabue  set  out  tor  Rome, 
whereupon  Giovanni  da  Muro,  General  of  the  Francis- 
cans (1296-1304),  entrusted  to  Giotto  the  execution  of 
the  wonderful  story  of  St.  Francis  which  the  painter 
accomplished  in  the  famous  twenty-eight  scenes  of  the 

>per  church.  This  is  at  once  the  source  of  Giotto's 
and  tiie  earliest  example  of  the  Italian  School, 
lese  scenes  Giotto  followed  St.  Bonaventure's  life 
of  St.  Francis  officially  approved  by  the  chapter  of 
1263  as  the  only  official  text.  The  first  twenty-one 
frescoes  are  entirely  by  Giotto's  hand;  the  remaining 
seven  were  finished  from  his  designs  by  his  pupils. 
All  have  sufifered  greatly  from  the  humidity  and  from 
restorations.  They  are,  nevertheless,  incomparable 
monuments  of  art,  and  in  many  ways  the  very  great- 
est for  the  history  of  modem  paintmg.  The  intense 
impression  created  by  St.  Francis,  the  historical  near- 
ness of  his  truly  evangelical  personality,  and  his  like- 
ness to  Jesus  Christ  borne  out  by  the  miracle  of  the 
stigmata,  thenceforth  influenced  art  to  an  incalculable 
degree.  For  the  first  time  in  centuries  painters^  until 
then  limited  to  the  repetition  of  consecrated  themes, 
to  an  unvarying  reproduction  of  hieratic  patterns, 
were  free  to  improvise  and  create.  Painting  was  no 
longer  an  echo  of  tradition,  but  rose  at  once  to  all  the 
dignity  of  invention.  In  tne  portrayal  of  the  wonder- 
fullife-story  of  St.  Francis,  to  his  own  age  a  real  image 
of  Jesus  Christ,  current  events  and  the  everyday  life  of 
the  period  were  seized  on  and  appropriated.  Art  no 
longer  worked  on  conventional  models,  abstract  and 
ideal;  its  models  were  to  be  the  realities  of  nature, 
which  the  humblest  intelligence  is  capable  of  appre- 
ciating. Representation  of  real  life  was  to  become 
the  object  of  all  painting.  Henceforth  there  must 
always  be  a  likeness  between  the  painting  and  the 
object  painted.  The  true  portrait  of  St.  Francis  had 
to  be  given  to  the  public,  which  must  see  his  actions 
and  the  place  where  be  lived,  must  also  grasp  all  local 


aiOTTO  5f 

peculiariUes  o!  topt^raphy,  people,  dreaa,  and  archi- 
tecture. This  principle  of  actuality  and  reality  under- 
lay the  artiatic  revolution  initiated  by  Giotto.  Since 
the  days  of  the  catacombe  nothing  so  important  had 
occurred  in  the  history  of  painting. 

The  germ  of  all  this  was  to  be  found  in  the  very 
earliest  portrait  of  St.  Francis,  e.  g.  that  of  the  "  Sagro 
Speco"  at  Subiaco  and  in  those  of  the  lower  church  at 
Aaaiai  and  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli,  . 
where  the  figure  of  the  saint  is  inset  between  two  rows 
of  small  panel-pictures  descriptive  of  events  in  hia 
life..  To  enlar^  these  vignettes  into  frescoes  and 
thereby  tell  the  story  of  Francis  in  heroic  outlines  was 
equivalent  to  equating  the  power  of  artistic  expression 
and  the  new  vastnesp  of  the  pictorial  framework; 
this  prompted,  in  consequence,  a  background  over- 
flowing, BO  to  speak,  with  contemporary  life.  This 
much  Giotto  undertook  to  do,  and  his  success  was 


6  OIOTTO 

famous  moeaio  that  adorns  the  vestibule  of  St.  Peter's, 
was  done  in  collaboration  with  Cavallini;  moreover, 
the  origiiial  has  long  since  disappeared  beneath  suc- 
cessive restorations.  A  fourteentb-century  copy  may 
l>e  seen  in  the  Spanish  Chapel  at  Florence. 

The  frescoes  from  the  life  of  Christ,  which  Giotto 
executed  for  St.  Peter's,  were  destroyed  in  the  time  of 
Nicholas  V,  when  the  choir  of  old  St.  Peter's  was  beiDg 
remodelled.  His  Roman  masterpieces,  however,  wn« 
the  three  frescoes  ordered  by  Boniface  VIII  for  the  log- 
gia or  balcony  of  the  Lateran  to  commemorate   the 


ica,  and  the  proclamation  of  the  jubilee.  The  first  and 
second  have  perished,  and  only  a  fragment  of  the 
third  remains,  inset  in  the  eighteenth  century  in  one 
of  the  ^eat  pillars  of  the  ba^ica,  where  it  is  yet  vis- 
ible.   The  pope  stands  between  two  acolytes,  in  the 


It  puntlnc,  BanM  Ciooe,  Florai 

marvelloua.     One  is  astounded  at  the  multitude  of  act  of  giving  bis  bleasinK-     The  loss  of  this  fresco  ia 

things   he   suddenly    brin^   within   the   domain   of  somewhat  compensated  for  by  a  seventeenth-century 

painting.     Such  an  invasion  of  realism  is  not  met  sketch  (ia  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan)  whicn 

with  again  till  the  seventeenth  century,  when  Rubens  restores  the  ensemble  of  the  original  scene.     It  was  a 

gives  us  its  counterpart  in  his  life  of  Marie  de'  Medici,  magnificent  representation  of  an  actual  spectacle,  a 

All  Italy  is  there;  cities  and  their  environs,  the  walls  vast  historical  panorama  of  which  the  pauilt«r  must 

of  Arezzo,  the  temple  of  Minerva  and  the  church  of  have  been  an  eyewitness,  an  immense  portrait  gallery 

San  Damiano  at  Assisi,  the  facade  of  the  Lateran,  the  showing  the  pope,  the  cardinals,  the  army,  and  the    ' 

graceful  interior  of  the  Greccio  ehurohj  the  landscapes  Roman  people;  all  this  on  the  occasion  of  a  momen- 

'  =■■'-""" ' •■'"■  =•  ^ "■-  tous  event  m  the  history  of  Christendom. 


•M  tike  St.  Francis's 


of  Alvemia  and  Subasio,  rural 
sermon  to  the  birds,  domestic 
"  Death  of  the  Lord  of  Celano  ",  scenes  from  ecclesias- 
tical life,  6.  K.  chapter  meetings  and  choir  services. 
Every  type  of  existence  ia  laid  under  tribute:  monks, 

Feasants,  townfolk,  burghers,  popes,  bishope,  singers 
y  the  roadside,  men  at  drink,  at  feasts,  "~ ""     '" 

No  peculiarity  of  place,  condition,  coetu: 
escapes  the  far-sweeping  eye  of  the  painter. 


d  funerals. 


From  Rome  Giotto  returned  to  Florence,  perhaps  ir. 
1301,  and  painted  the  "Last  Judgment  "in  the  chapel 
of  the  Podesti.  This  fresco  is  m  a  way  a  political 
manifeski,  being  a  kind  of  idealized  grouping  of  all 
classes  of  Florentine  society,  somewhat  after  the  man- 
ner of  Dante's  great  poem.  Therein  can  be  recc^iied 
Dante  himself,  Brunetto  Latini,  Corso  Donati,  Cai^ 
dinal   d'Acquasparta,   and   Charles   of   Valois.     The 


put  mto  his  paintings  every  phase  of  life,  and  it  isall  "Lifeof  Mary  Magdalen"  which  completed  the  chapel 

so  genuine  and  accuratej  so  true  to  reality  that  in  his  decorations,  is  now  so  faded  and  discoloured  as  to  De 

work,  after  five  centuries,   the  Italian  trecento  still  beyond  recognition.     In  1306,  Giotto  was  called  to 

lives  for  us,  despite  the  deplorable  state  of  the  frescoes,  Padua  to  paint  the  Capelta  dell'  Arena,  built  by  En- 

the  defects  of  his  perspective,  and  the  childlike  archa-  rico  Scrovegni  in  expiation  of  the  crimes  of  hia  father, 

ism  of  certain  technical  formula.     No  painter  has  ever  the  famous  usurer  Reginaldo.     On  the  lateral  walls 

surpassed  Giotto  in  this  power  of  gathering  details  the  artist  treated  in  thirty-six  frescoes  scenes  from 

from  real  life,  and  of  surrounding  the  commonplace  the  life  of  Christ  and  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.     Beneath 

with  an  artistic  halo.    Herein  also  ties  the  power  of  these  scenes  he  placed  fourteen  small  cameo  figured, 

all  literary  creators  of  life,  from  Dante  in  his  "  Divina  allegories  of  the  vices  and  virtues;    on  the  end  wall 

Commedia"  to  Balzac  in  the  "Comfdie  Humaine".  above  the  scene  of  the  Annunciation,  he  painted  a 

The  genius  of  Giotto  was  brought  into  further  prom-  "Last  Judgment".   With  this  work  a  new  epoch  opens 

inence  by  the  works  he  executed  at  Rome,  whither  he  in  the  career  of  Giotto.     It  is  the  first  of  those  vast 

was  called  in  1298  by  Cardinal  Stefaneschi.    It  may  complete  series,  or  great  decorative  poems,  conceived 

be  noted  at  once  that  the  "Navicella",  i.  e.  the  by  him  with  systematic  Uioroughness,  and  meant  to 


OIOTTO  567  OIOTTO 

develop  fully  a  single  great  idea.  It  is  truly  a  liyinjg  churoh  of  Santa  Maria  del  Carmine  and  the  palace  of 
organism,  at  once  pictorial  and  theological,  such  as  is  the  Podest^,  where  he  painted  an  allegory  of  Good 
met  with  later  in  the  Spanish  Chapel,  on  the  ceiling  of  Government  (a  theme  of  Ambrogio  Lorenzetti  at 
the  Sistine  Chapel,  and  in  the  Camera  della  Segnatura.  Siena  in  1337),  has  almost  entirely  perished.  Of  all 
This  introduction  of  allegory,  on  an  elevated  and  his  work  in  the  Bardi  and  Penuzi  chapels  in  the  Fran- 
magnificent  scale,  is  his  new  master-concept.  His  ciscan  church  of  Santa  Croce  there  siurive  but  some 
wonc  is  henceforth  dominated  by  an  attempt  to  bring  remnants.  The  Bardi  chapel  contains  in  six  scenes 
out  the  moral  meaning  and  by  unity  of  purpose.  The  a  new  life  of  St.  Francis,  besides  four  figures  of  the 
historical  element,  of  course,  still  held  the  place  of  greater  Franciscan  saints:  St.  Clare,  St.  Elizabeth, 
honour;  it  had  not  varied  for  centuries,  had  been  the  St.  Louis  IX,  King  of  France,  and  St.  Louis  oTTou- 
same  since  the  mosaics  of  Sant'  Apollinare  Nuovo  at  louse.  (St.  Louis  of  Toulouse  was  canonized  in  1317; 
Ravenna  and  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  at  Rome,  the  decoration  of  the  chapel  must,  therefore,  be  of 
Giotto,  indeed,  continued  to  use  the  earlier  concep-  later  date.)  The  Peruzzi  chapel  contains  six  scenes 
tions,  but  could  not  fail  to  imbue  with  his  own  from  the  lives  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
wonderful  realism  the  traditional  treatment  of  These  frescoes  were  whitewashed  over  in  the  eight- 
these  sacred  scenes.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  pictorial  eenth  century,  were  discovered  in  1840,  and  have  suf- 
tjrpe  more  striking  than  Giotto's  Judas  in  the-  scene  fered  much  in  the  course  of  restoration.  In  this  final 
of  the  kiss.  Circumstances  here  forced  the  art-  evolution  of  his  art,  Giotto,  now  a  master  and  sure  of 
ist's  genius  into  a  new  path.  Since  his  imagination  his  own  powers,  seems  to  lean  towards  the  abstract  in 
had  not  in  these  sacred  scenes  the  freest  play,  he  the  treatment  of  his  subjects.  He  appears  to  subordi- 
tumed  to  the  perfection  of  artistic  style;  conse-  nate  all  to  the  rhythm  of  the  composition.  An  almost 
quently  the  Padua  frescoes  are  a  new  phase  in  his  real-  excessive  desire  for  balance  ana  symmetry  gives  to 
ization  of  the  beautiful.  In  the  mind  of  Giotto  life  these  later  works  an  aspect  of  stiffness,  somewhat  the 
now  appears  as  conditioned  by  art.  This  preoccupa-  impression  of  bas-reliefs.  They  seem  somewhat  cold 
tion  with  the  artistic  presentation  of  thin^  is  striking  and  academic.  And  yet  they  reveal  incomparable 
at  Padua  from  the  earlier  scenes,  those  depicting  the  beauty  and  figures  of  genuine  sculpturesque  perfec- 
stor^  of  St.  Joachim  and  the  marriage  of  tne  Blessed  tion.  In  the  Resurrection  of  St.  Paul "  the  group  of 
Virgin,  where  there  are  charming  pastorals  rarely  the  Disciples  leaning  over  the  empty  sepulchre, 
equalled,  such  as  "Joachim  among  the  shepherds  ,  though  two  centuries  earlier  than  Raphael^  is  almost 
the  ''Meeting  at  the  Golden  Gate".  One  scene  in  the  same  as  the  group  of  yotmg  geometricians  in  the 
particular,  the  marriage  cortege  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  latter 's  "School  of  Atnens". 

IS  introduced  merely  that  the  artist  may  develop  a        There  is  no  evidence  that  Giotto  ever  visited  Fer- 

beautiful  plastic  theme^  a  frieze  of  white-veiled  girls,  rara,  Ravenna,  or  any  of  the  other  places  where  fre&- 

quite  like  the  procession  of  Greek  maidens  in  the  coes  are  attributed  to  him.     King  Robert  of  Anjou 

Panathensean    festivals.     Ghiberti    mentions    other  induced  him  to  visit  Naples  in  1330,  and  he  remained 

Paintings  made  by  Giotto  for  the  Friars  Minor  at  there  three  years,  but  left  no  trace  of  his  influence  on 
adua.  However,  the  most  perfect  examples  of  the  the  local  school.  As  for  the  pretended  journey  to 
master's  maturer  skill  are  his  frescoes  at  Assisi,  be-  Avignon  and  his  death  there^  it  is  well  known  to  be  a 
tween  1310  and  1320,  in  the  lower  church  of  the  fiction.  Simone  di  Martino  is  the  true  author  of  the 
famous  basilica  of  St.  Francis.  He  began  in  the  ri^t  admirable  frescoes  in  the  papal  palace  at  Avignon.  In 
transept  with  the  addition  of  two  miracles  of  the  saint  his  later  years  Giotto,  recognized  as  chief  among  Italian 
as  a  kind  of  appendix  or  supplement  to  the  "  Life "  artists,  was  more  or  less  capamaestro  or  Master  of  the 
which  he  had  painted  twenty  years  earlier  in  the  upper  Works  for  all  public  constructions  in  Florence.  We 
church.  Facing  these  he  painted  nine  frescoes  of  the  are  told  that  he  aided  in  designing  the  Porta  San  Gio- 
Holy  Childhood^  a  replica  of  the  Padua  frescoes  but  vanni  of  the  Baptistery,  the  work  of  Andrea  Pisano 
superior  for  delicacy  and  charm.  In  his  quality  of  (1330).  It  is  certain  that  he  drew  the  plans  for  the 
historian  Giotto  never  rose  above  this  work,  the  most  Campanile  in  1334.  Perhaps  the'desims  for  the  fifty- 
exquisite  of  all  his  narrative  frescoes.  His  crowning  eight  bas-reliefs  by  Andrea  are  partly  nis,  recalling  as 
work,  however,  in  this  period,  was  the  decoration  of  they  do  in  more  than  one  particular  the    Virtues  and 


trionfi  which  from  the  the  "Life  of  St.  Peter"  painted 

Campo  Santo  at  t^isa  to  Mantegna  and  Titian  are  a  Stefaneschi  is  preserved  m  the  sacristy  of  the  canons 

favourite  theme  of  Italian  art.    It  is  moreover  the  at  St.  Peter's.    Finally,  his  "St.  Francis  receiving 

earliest  masterpiece  of  monumental  art.    The  earlier  the  Stigmata",  at  the  Louvre,  is  a  youthful  r6sum6  of 

"Psychomachia"  of  the  poet  Prudentius,  so  often  the  noble  frescoes  at  Assisi. 

treat^  by  French  sculptors  and  outlined  by  Giotto  No  painter  ever  made  such  an  impression  on  his  age 
himself  in  the  aforesaid  tiny  allegories  of  the  Capella  as  Giotto.  All  fourteenth-century  art  betrays  his  in- 
deir  Arena,  takes  on  here  a  larger  development.  We  fluence.  No  school  was  ever  so  numerous  nor  so 
seem  to  hear,  as  it  were,  an  orchestration  of  incom-  homo^neous  as  the  GioUeachi.  Taddeo  and  Agnolo 
parably  greater  variety  and  significance.  The  inti-  Qaddi,  Orcagna,  Spinello,  and  others,  it  is  true,  are 
mate  meaning  of  life  and  thought,  the  power  of  plastic  weak  enough  imitators  of  their  master.  Indeed,  out- 
art,  and  the  genius  of  beautiful  symbols;  the  majesty  side  of  Florence  there  is  no  originality  save  at  Siena 
of  harmonious  order,  the  beauty  of  the  types,  persom-  where  Simone  di  Martino  and  the  Lorenzetti  worked, 
fications,  and  persons ;  the  wondrous  blending  of  fact  and  later  at  Padua  in  the  days  of  Jacopo  Avanzo  ana 
and  fancy;  the  perfect  preservation  of  the  original  Altichieri.  The  triumph  of  Giotto^  and  the  thorough 
colours,  all  combine  to  make  this  magnificently  manner  in  which  his  successors  imitated  him,  proved 
planned  ensemble  one  of  the  immortal  works  of  paint-  how  fully  he  embodied  the  national  genius.  In  paint- 
mg.  It  seems  to  breathe  the  puissant  moral  ideas  of  ing  he  invented  that  dolce  stil  nuovo^  that  mdgare  elo- 
the  Middle  Ages,  while  one  of  its  lovely  figures,  the  quium  which  Dante  created  in  the  realm  of  poetry, 
well-known  Lad^r  Poverty,  suggests  from  afar  all  the  He  is  truly  the  founder  of  the  art  of  painting  in  Italy, 
mystic  and  quaintly  modem  poetry  of  Botticelli's  He  was  not  handsome,  says  Petrarch,  who  was  his 
"Primavera".  friend,  as  was  also  Dante,  whose  portrait  he  so  often 
The  closing  years  of  Giotto's  life  (1320-27)  were  painted.  Nor  must  it  be  imagined  that  this  great 
spent  at  Florence.    His  work  at  this  period  in  the  painter  of  St.  Francis  was  either  a  mystic  or  an  ascetic. 


OIOVANSLLI 


568 


amALDus 


He  loved  life  too  well  for  that.  He  has  left  us  in  a 
canzone,  mediocre  enough  as  poetry,  a  satire  on  "  Holy 
Poverty"  and  the  excesses  of  the  "Fraticelli",  the 
radicals  among  the  Franciscans  of  that  time.  More- 
over, the  Florentine  novelists,  Boccaccio  and  Sao- 
chetti,  tell  many  anecdotes  of  him  in  which  he  figures 
as  a  bon-vivant,  jovial,  good-natured,  with  a  sense 
of  humour  and  a  pardonable  eccentricity.  He  may 
have  bee^  wealthy,  as  he  worked  diligently  and 
charged  good  prices  for  his  work.  He  married  Cinta 
di  Lapo  del  Pela  by  whom  he  had  eight  children. 
Hie  eldest,  Frsmcesco,  registered  in  1341  as  a  member 

of  the  guild  of  painters  at  Florence. 

Vasabi,  VUe  tU'  Pittori  (ed.  Florence,  1878),  I:  Cbowb  and 
Cavalcabblub,  Hiatory  of  Italian  Paintinp,  ed.  Douglas,  II, 
Oiotto  and  the  Giotteaquea  (London,  1903) ;  Ybntubx,  Storia  ddV 
ArU  italiana  (Milan,  1907),  V;  BaHCNSON,  Tke  FlorerUine 
Painten  cf  the  Renaiaeance  (New  York,  1896)  |  Thodb,  FroiiM 
von  Aeeiat  und  die  Anffinge  der  Kun^  der  Rena%»aanee  in  Italien 
^Berlin,  1885);  Idbm,  Oiotto  (Bielefeld,  1899);  Zimmbbican, 
Oiotto  und  die  Kitnat  Italiena  %m  MittelaUer  (2  voLk,  Leipiig, 
1899*1900):  Ruskin,  Oiotto  and  Hie  Works  in  Padua  (London, 
1853-60):  IDBM,  Fore  Clavigera  (London,  1871-1874);  Idbm, 
Momvnga  in  Florence  (London,  1875);  F^t,  Oiotto  in  Monthly 
Review,  Dee.,  1900,  and  Feb.,  1901;  Pbbkins,  Oiotto  (London, 
1902).  LoUia  GiLLBT. 

Oiovanelli,  Rugoiero,  composer,  b.  at  Velletri, 
near  Rome,  in  1560 ;  d.  at  Rome,  7  January,  1625.  In 
1584  he  was  appointed  choir-master  at  the  church  of 
San  Luigi  de'  Francesi  in  Rome,  and  subsequently  at 
the  Chiesa  dell'  Anima.  As  a  composer  of  madrigals 
he  was  exceedingly  fertile,  and  his  six  books  of  them, 
with  one  of  canzonets  and  vilanelles,  appeared  be- 
tween the  years  1585  and  1606.  So  great  was  his  fame 
as  a  choir-master  and  composer  that  on  the  death  of 
the  illustrious  Palestrina,  he  was  appointed  his  suc- 
cessor, 12  March,  1594.  Among  his  sacred  works  are 
some  beautiful  masses  for  eicht  and  twelve  voices,  and 
some  pleasing  motets.  So  uttle  is  known  of  his  later 
years  that  biographers  could  formerly  find  no  trace  of 
Oiovanelli  after  1615,  at  which  date  ne  published  the 
second  volume  of  his  new  edition  of  the  Graduale 
known  as  the  "  Medicean ' '.  However,  thanks  to  the 
researches  of  W.  H.  Frey,  of  Berlin,  it  is  now  certain 
that  Oiovanelli  lived  ten  years  longer.  He  was  buried 
in  the  church  of  Santa  Marta. 

Baxni,  Memorie  atorico-crUiche  (Rome,  1828};  Eitnbr,  <}uel- 
lenlexikon  (1900-1904);  Grovb,  Diet,  of  Muatc  and  Mueicutne, 
ed.  BfAiTX.Ain>  (London,  1906),  II;  Kirchenmuaikaliediee  Jahr^ 
6ucA  (Ratisbon,  1909),  XXII. 

W.  H.  Orattan-Flood. 

Giovanni  Bosco,  Venerable.  See  Bosco,  Oio- 
VANNi  Melchior,  Venerable. 

Oiovinauo.  See  Molfbtta,  Oiovinazzo,  and 
Terlizzi,  Diocese  op. 

Oiraldiy  Oiovanni  Battista  (sumamed  Cintio), 
Italian  dramatist  and  novelist;  b.  at  Ferrara,  Italy. 
1504;  d.  there,  1573.  He  studied  philosophy  ana 
medicine  in  his  native  town.  Under  tne  patronage  of 
the  family  ruling  over  his  native  region,  he  served  for 
a  while  as  secretary  to  the  dukes  of  ferrara,  but  weary- 
ing of  his  duties,  he-gave  himself  up  to  academic  life  as 
a  professor  in  turn  at  the  Universities  of  Mondovi, 
Turin,  and  Pa  via.  Among  his  minor  works  there  is  a 
disquisition  on  the  methods  to  be  observed  in  the  com- 
position of  epic,  romance,  drama,  etc.  (Disconri  in- 
tomo  al  compor  romanzi,  commedie  e  tragedie,  ecc.), 
which  shows  him  to  be  one  of  the  leading  literary 
critics  of  the  time.  He  essayed  the  pastoral  drama 
with  the  "Egle",  and  the  epic  with  the  "Ercole". 
His  dramatic  labours  extended  further,  to  the  produc- 
tion of  one  comedy,  the  "  Eudemoni",  and  nine  trage- 
dies, among  which  are  the  ^'Didone'',  the  "Cleopa- 
tra*', the"SeIene",  and  his  best  play,  the  "Orbecche". 
Even  more  than  for  the  ''Orbecche",  a  rather  gory 
piece,  Oiraldi  is  remembered  for  his  collection  of  tales, 
the  "  Ecatommiti  * '  (Hecatommithi) .  In  this  he  feigns, 
therein  imitating  the  framework  of  Boccaccio's  "Do- 
oameroD  ",  that  a  company  of  men  and  womffll,  flo^g 


from  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1527,  take  ship  at  Civitaveo- 
chia  for  Blarseilles,  and  beguile  the  tediimti  of  the  jour- 
ney by  reciting  a  hundred  tales,  divided  into  ten  dec- 
ades. As  a  matter  of  fact  there  are  112  tales  in  the 
work.  The  style  of  the  "  Hecatommithi "  has  little  to 
recommend  it,  being  rather  cold  and  colourless;  and 
although  the  author  announces  his  purpose  of  telling 
stories  that  shall  stigmatize  vice,  and  ezJBklt  virtue  and 
religion,  he  does  not  wholly  avoid  the  licentious  and 
unMcoming.  It  is  worthv  of  note  that  the  seventh 
tale  of  the  third  decade  teUs  the  story  of  the  Moor  of 
Venice,  later  used  in  Shakespere's  "Othello". 

Tragedie  (ed.  Venioe,  1581-3};  EoaUmmiti  (ed.  Florenoe, 
1834);  BiLANCiNi,  O.  B»  Oiraldt  e  la  tragedia  italiana  net  eee. 
XVI  (AquilA,  1889);  Vboou,  L*intento  morale  degdi  BoatommiU 
(Ounajore,  1890).  J.  D.  M.  FoBD. 

Oiraldii  Ubaldo  (Ubaldus  a  Sancto  Cajetano), 
an  Italian  canonist;  b.  in  1692 1  d.  in  1775.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Piarists  (Clenci  regulcares  Scholarum 
piarum)f  was  twice  assistant  general-councillor  of  his 
congregation,  was  provincial  of  the  Roman  province, 
rector  of  the  Piarist  college  at  Kome^  and  Apostolic 
examiner  for  the  Roman  clergy.  He  published  an 
edition,  with  additions  (Rome,  1757),  of  the  "Insti- 
tutiones  CanonicsB"  of  Remy  Maschat,  also  a  Piarist. 
The  "Expositio  juris  pontificii"  of  Oiraldi  (Rome, 
1769;  re-edited.  1829-1830)  is  not  a  treatise  on  canon 
law.  The  autnor  merely  reproduces  the  principal 
texts  of  the  Decretals  and  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
adding  thereto  such  papal  documents  as  interpret  or 
modify  their  meaning,  with  a  brief  commentary  of  his 
own.  His  last  work,  on  which  his  reputation  is  chiefly 
based,  was  a  new  edition  with  notes  and  additions  of 
Barbosa's  great  work  on  parish  priests,  "Animadver- 
siones  et  additamenta  ex  posterioribus  summorum 
pontificum  constitutionibus  et  sacrarum  congrega- 
tionum  decretis  desumpta,  ad  Aug.  Barbosa,  de 
Officio  et  Potestate  parochi"  (Rome,  1773,  new  ed., 
1831). 

ScHUi/ra,  Oeechiehle  der  QueUen  und  Literatur  dee  eanonieehei^ 
Rechtee  (Stuttgart,  1875-1880).  HI,  634-^535;  Huktbr.  JVohmii- 
dalor.  A.  Van  Hovb. 

Oiraldiu  Oambrenais  (Obrald  db  Babbt)  was  a 
distinguished  writer,  historian,  and  ecclesiastic  of  the 
early  Middle  Ages;  b.  in  Manorbeer,  Pembroke^iire, 
about  the  year  1147;  d.  probably  between  the  years 
1216  and  1220.  His  father,  WiUiam  de  Barry,  was 
one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Welsh  nobility  at  the 
time.  Though  Gerald's  brothers  adopted  tiie  profes- 
sion of  arms  he  himself  followed  a  more  peaceful 
course,  devoted  himself  to  study^  and,  influenced  by 
his  uncle,  the  Bishop  of  St.  David's,  resolved  to  be- 
come an  ecclesiastic.  He  went  to  Paris  to  continue 
his  studies;  and,  if  we  are  to  believe  his  own  account, 
he  was  looked  upon  here  as  a  model  of  piety  ana 
learning.  He  returned  to  Endand  about  1172,  and 
was  employed  b^  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  mi 
various  ecclesiastical  missions  in  Wales,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  for  his  efforts  to  remove  the  abuses 
then  flourishing  in  the  Welsh  Chureh.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Arehdeacon  of  Brecknock.  On  the  death  of 
his  uncle,  the  Bishop  of  St.  David's  (1176),  the  chapter 
fixed  upon  Oiraldus  as  the  man  most  likely  to  with* 
stand  the  aggressions  of  the  Arehbishop  of  danterbuiy 
and  submitted  his  name  to  Henry  II.  The  king 
promptly  rejected  him  in  favour  of  one  of  his  Norman 
retainers;  the  chapter  ac<]^uiesced  in  the  decision;  and 
Oiraldus,  disappomted  with  the  result,  withdrew  to 
Paris  and  here  continued  his  studies.  In  1180  he  re- 
turned to  Wales  and  received  an  appointment  from 
the  Bishop  of  St.  David's,  which  he  soon  resigned,  and 
was  sent  by  Henry  II  to  accompany  Prince  John  on 
his  Irish  expedition  ( 1 184) .  While  in  Ireland  he  con^ 
posed  his  work  "Topo^phia  Hibemica".  which  pur- 
ports to  give  a  description  of  the  country,  but  is  full  of 
legends  and  tales,  as  well  as  the  "  Expugnatio  Hiber- 
^icf^  '\    The  latter  work  is  not  entirely  imreliable,  bu^ 


ontAftS                           569  OmABD 

f^quires  to  be  read  with  care.  He  left  Ireland  in  de  Barry's  title  of  historian,  and  meets  his  char^ 
1186,  and  two  years  later  accompanied  Archbishop  against  the  Irish  people.  Giraldus  is  impeached  with 
Baldwin  in  his  journeys  through  Wales,  preaching  the  ignorance  of  the  language,  and  unfamilianty  with  the 
crusade.  Here,  according  to  his  own  account  (Itin-  coimtry;  he  is  said  to  have  embodied  in  his  works 
erariimi  Cambris),  his  eloquence  met  with  such  a  unauthenticated  narratives,  with  httle  regard  for 
response  that  Wales  was  denuded  of  its  fitting  men.  chronologv;  his  own  admission  that  he  had  **  followed 
He  went  to  France,  but  was  recalled  toEn^nd  in  the  pK>puiar  rumours  of  the  land''  is  extended  in 
1190,  where  he  informs  us  he  was  offered  the  Bishopric  meaning,  and  perhaps  imdidv  insisted  upon, 
of  Bangor  and,  in  1191,  that  of  Uandaff.  Nor  is  the  '^Cambrensis  Eversus"  merely  a  colleo- 
On  the  death  of  Peter  de  Lela,  1198,  the  chapter  of  tion  of  arbitrary  accusations  and  unsubstantial  re- 
st. David's  again  nominated  Giraldus  for  the  bishop-  joinders,  made  with  a  view  to  effect  the  discredit  of 
ric;  but  Huwsrt,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  refused  de  Barry  as  a  writer  of  history.  What  might  be 
4K>nfirmation.  Representatives  of  the  canons  followed  uiged  as  the  greatest  imperfection  of  Lynch 's  polemic, 
Richard  to  France,  but  before  thev  could  interview  its  too  great  wealth  of  detail,  had  not  escaped  the  at- 
him  he  died;  his  successor,  TCing  John,  received  them  tention  of  the  able  author,  wno  excuses  the  diffuseness 
kindly,  and  granted  them  permission  to  hold  an  elec-  to  which  he  is  compelled  dv  asseverating  his  determi- 
tion.  They  were  unanimous  in  their  selection  of  nation  to  follow  Giraldus  closely  to  the  end.  What- 
Giraldus;  and,  as  Hubert  still  refused  to  confirm  the  ever  may  be  said  as  to  the  ability  with  which  Lynch 
election,  Giraldus  started  for  Rome,  where  he  had  an  discharged  his  task  of  controversialist,  there  can  be  no 
interview  with  Innocent  III.  The  archbbhop,  how-  denial  of  the  thoroughness  and,  above  all,  the  sincel^ 
ever,  had  anticipated  him,  and,  as  the  pope  was  not  ity  of  his  methods.  He  does  not  pick  out  the  weak 
convinced  that  St.  David's  was  independent  of  Can-  points  in  his  opponent's  armour,  and  never  shirks  the 
terbury,  the  mission  of  Giraldus  proved  a  failure.  It  issue;  but  grapples  with  every  difficulty,  as  the  order 
was  in  connexion  with  this  that  he  wrote  his  book  of  his  opponent  su^ests. 

**  De  jure  Menevensis  Ecclesis  ".  Giraldus  returned.  Perhaps  the  most  serious  accusation  levelled  against 
and  was  supported  by  the  chieftains  of  Wales,  while  Giraldus,  next  to  the  indictment  of  bias  and  dishon- 
King  John  warmlv  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Arch-  esty,  is  that  wherein  he  is  impeached  of  being  ad- 
bishop  of  Canterbury.  After  a  long  struggle  the  dieted  to  the  cult  of  the  superstitious  and  the  practice 
chapter  of  St.  David's  deserted  Giraldus.  andnaving  of  witchcraft.  If  this  be  true,  and  Merlin  woiud  seem 
been  obliged  to  escape  secretly  from  Wales  he  fled  to  to  have  exercised  a  considerable  sway  oyer  the  mind  of 
Rome,  rope  Innocent  III  annulled  both  elections,  de  Barry,  then  it  would  be  vain  to  seek  in  the  writings 
and  Geoffrey  Henlaw  was  appointed  to  the  See  of  St.  of  the  latter  the  reflex  of  that  calm  discrimination  and 
David's,  despite  the  strenuous  exertions  of  Giraldus,  sober  balance  ofjudgment  which  should  characterize 
who  afterwards  was  reconciled  with  the  king,  and  re-  the  historian.  Finally,  it  may  be  said  that  the  stu- 
ceived  from  him  a  small  pension.  At  the  next  election  .dent  of  Irish  history,  by  reading  the  works  of  Giraldus 
in  St.  David's,  1214,  his  name  was  passed  over  in  si-  in  the  lieht  of  "Cambrensis  Eversus''^  cannot  fail  to 
lence.  He  was  alive  after  1216,  as  it  is  evident  from  derive  a  nelpful  knowledge  of  the  penod  which  they 
the  way  in  which  he  speaks  of  John  that  that  king  was  embrace, 
already  dead.  GmALDUs,  Z)«  Rebn*  a  te  peatu,  and  De  jure  Menepemnt 

T%a  Uam^  xxraa  a  wi^ti>t>  nf  Mkmai^lraKIn  Knllian/nr  an/I  EcdeaUB.'     BrOWer'S   lotroductlOD    tO  VOl,    I   Ol    the   edition   of 

De  Barry  was  a  Wnter  of  remw-kable  bnUiancy  and  ^o^ka  o!  Giraldus  in  the  RoUe  Series;  life  of  Giraldus  m  JUnera- 

force,  a  narrator  rather  than  a  historian,  full  of  self-  Hum  Cambriai,  tr.  Hoabb  (London,  1806);   Whabton,  Anglia 

confidence,  and  at  times  courage,  and  on  the  whole  §oara,  II,  374;  Lynch,  Cambreneia  Evereua,  ed.  ^LLT  (3  vols., 

neither  the  model  of  perfection  which  he  proclaims  ^^^'  1848-51).                        Jambs  MacCafprey. 
himself  to  be,  nor  the  despicable  character  which  he  is 

oftentimes  painted.    His  works  are  published  in  the  Oirardy  Jean-Baftiste.  known  as  Pdre  Qirard,  a 

Rolls  Series;  and  in  the  prefaces  to  tne  volumes  ma^  Swiss  pedagogue,  b.  at  Fribour^,  17  December,  1765; 

be  sought  indications  as  to  probable  dates  of  composi-  d.  there,  6  March,  1850.    At  sixteen  he  entered  the 

tion  and  publication.    Ap^nded  is  a  list  of  de  Barry's  novitiate  of  the  Franciscans  at  Lucerne ;  after  spend- 

writings:    "  Topographia  Hibemica";    "Eimugnatio  ing  some  time  teaching  in  the  colle^  of  the  order,  he 

Hibemica";     ^' Itinerarium    Cambrise";     ''Gemma  went  to  WQrzburg  for  his  philosophical  and  theological 

Ecdesiastica";  ''De  Instructione  Principum";  "De  studies,  and  was  there  ordained  to  the  priesthood. 

Rebus  a  se  gestis";    "Vita  S.  Davidis  II  episcopi  Returning  to  Fribourg  in  1789,  he  spent  ten  years  in 

Menevensis"  (which  Brewer  considers  as,  more  prob-  missionary  work  and  in  teaching  pnilosophy  to  the 

ably,  the  work  of  Giraldus);  "Descriptio  CambrisB"  young  men  of  his  order.    His  admiration  for  Kantian 

(publi^ed  as  the  last) ;  "  Vita  Galfrim  Arch.  Ebora-  ideas,  although  restricted,  was  the  occasion  of  sus- 

censis";    "Symbolum  Electorum":    "Invectionum  picion  of  his  orthodoxy.    Upon  the  invitation  of 

libellus";  " Speculum  Ecdesifie";  "  VitaS.Remigii";  Stapfer,  minister  of  arts  and  sciences,  Girard  wrote  a 

"Vita  S.  Hugonis'';   "Vita  S.  Davidis  ajt^iepiscopi  plan  for  education  in  Switzerland  and  was  called  to 

Menevensis";    "Vita  S.  Ethelberti";    "£^istola  ad  Berne  where  he  remained  four  years.    In  1804  he  was 

Stephanum  Langton";    "De  Giraldo  Ardiidiacono  recalled  to  Fribourg,  and  took  up  work  in  the  primary 

Menevensi";  "De  libris  a  se  scriptis";  "Catalogus  schools. 

brevier  librorum";  "Retractationes";  "De  jure  As  director  of  the  schools  in  Fribourg  (1807-1823), 
Menevensis  Ecclesise''.  See  introduction  to  his  works  Girard  made  education  compulsory,  organized  the 
by  the  editors,  Brewer  and  Dimock.  school  administration,  insisted  on  the  adoption  of 
The  works  of  Giraldus  dealing  especially  with  Ire-  good  textbooks  and  methods,  and  introduced  the 
land:  the  "Topography",  and  "History  of  the  Con-  monitorial  system,  avoiding  the  abuse  of  mere  mem- 
quest",  though  long  regarded  as  possessing  consider-  ory  exercise  and  making  every  study  converge  to  the 
able  authority,  did  not  escape  hostile  criticism.  Li  child's  complete  education.  These  reforms,  though 
"Cambrensis  Eversus"  (1662),  under l;he  pseudon3nn  crowned  with  success,  were  the  occasion  for  bitter 
of  Gratianus  Lucius,  Dr.  L3mch,  of  whose  personal  opposition  from  those  who  did  not  realize  the  impor* 
history  little  is  known,  produced  a  work  which,  thou^  tance  of  education,  or  adhered  to  the  old  routine 
controversial  in  character,  entitles  the  author  to  repute  methods.  In  1809  Girard  was  sent  to  Yverdun  to 
rather  as  a  painstaking  chronicler  than  as  a  controver-  make  a  report  to  the  (Government  on  Pestalozzi's  insti- 
sialist  of  a  nigh  order.  After  criticizing  the  "Topo-  tution.  He  had  met  the  latter  in  Berne  and  professed 
graphy"  adversely,  and  showing  that  the  title  of  the  the  greatest  admiration  for  his  ability  as  an  educator, 
second  book,  the  "Conquest  or  Ireland",  is  a  mis-  while  difiPering  from  him  on  several  important  points^ 
oomer,  the  writer  of  "  Cambrensis  E versus ' '  disproves  especially  on  the  value  of  the  monitorial  eysteoL  This 


OmAftDOM 


570 


OmOENTI 


method,  in  fact,  which  Girard  applied,  was  opposed  by 
the  bishop  ana  the  civil  authorities  of  Fribourg,  in 
1823.  Girard  abandoned  his  school  and  went  to  Lu- 
cerne as  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  gymnasium. 
In  1834  he  returned  to  Fribour^,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death,  engaged  in  educational  pursuits  and  in 
the  publication  of  some  of  his  works.  He  had  a  great 
reputation  in  France,  being  a  Knight  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour,  and  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Acaud^mie 
des  Sciences  morales  et  politiques. 

Besides  many  reports  and  memoirs^  his  principal 
writings  are:  "Cours  de  philosophic  fait  au  Lyc^  de 
Lucerne"  (1829-31);  "Des  moyens  de  stimufer  I'ac- 
tivit^  dans  les  ^coles"  (1835);  "Paralldle  entre  la 
philosophic  et  la  physique"  (1840);  and  "Cours  ^u- 
catif  de  langue  matemelle"  (Paris,  1840-48).  These 
works  banisn  abstractions  that  are  above  the  child's 
intelligence,  principles  and  rules  being  taught  chiefly 
by  means  of  concrete  examples,  and  difficulties  being 
introduced  gradually.  They  contain  the  foundation 
of  modem  educational  textbooks,  and  are  still  well 
worth  stud^ng.  P^re  Girard  ranks  next  to  Pestalozzi 
among  Swiss  pedagogues. 

MiCHBU  BioffratJiie  du  Pbrt  Ovrard  In  Viducation  protupu 

Snarls,  1839-40);  Coicpatr6  in  La  Grande  Bneydop^te,  a.  v.; 
AOUBT  in  BuisaoN,  Dietionnaire  de  pidagogie  (Paris,  1887), 
1, 1. 1178. 

C.  A.  DUBRAT. 

Girardon,  Franpois,  noted  sculptor  of  the  reien  of 
Louis  XIV,  b.  at  Troves,  France,  1630;  d.  at  Paris, 
1715.  The  son  of  a  oronze-founder,  he  studied  first 
under  the  sculptor  Francois  Anguier  and  afterwards  at 
Ronie.  Returning  to  France  ne  was  taken  into  the 
service  of  the  king,  working  imder  Lebrun,  whose  fav- 
ourite he  was.  After  Lebrun 's  death  in  1690  he  exerted, 
great  influence  as  professor  of  the  academy  of  sculp- 
ture and  painting,  of  which  institution  he  later  became 
the  chancellor.  Like  the  other  sculptors  of  his  time 
he  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Bernini,  but  the  influ- 
ence of  the  old  school  of  Fontainebleau  was  also  per- 
ceptible in  his  work.  The  Louvre  possesses  the  model 
of  nis  spirited  equestrian  statue  of  the  king  which  was 
erected  in  the  Place  Venddme  and  destroyed  during 
the  Revolution.  One  of  his  finest  works  is  the  monu- 
ment to  Richelieu,  in  the  church  of  the  Sorbonne;  the 
dying  cardinal  lies  on  a  richly  draped  sarcophagus, 
supported  by  the  figure  of  religion,  while  the  ngure  of 
science  mourns  at  his  feet.  .£nong  his  o^er  sepul- 
chral monuments  are  those  in  memory  of  his  wife,  the 
Princess  de  Gonti,  and  the  minister  Louvois.  The  bust 
of  Boileau  is  forceful,  but  the  wig  on  the  beardless 
head  reveals  the  tendency  of  the  art  of  the  age  of 
Louis  XIV  to  weaken  its  stateliness  by  effeminacy. 
Both  these  qualities  are  seen  in  the  "Rape  of  Proser- 
pine", an  imitation  of  Bernini,  which  relies  on  the 
effect  of  contrast.  The  "Nymphs  Bathing",  a  relief 
intended,  like  the  work  just  mentioned,  for  the  park  of 
Versailles,  is  a  good  example  of  his  decorative,  volup- 
tuous style.  Among  other  figures  in  the  park  of  Ver- 
saUles,  either  produced  by  him  or  under  his  direction, 
•attention  may  be  called  to  the  allegorical  statue, 
"Winter  as  an  Old  Man". 

CoRRARD  DB  BrAban,  NoHce  aur  la  vie  «l  lee  auvrea  de  Ft, 
Oirardon  (Pftris  and  Troyes,  1850). 

G.  GiBTMANN. 

Oiiaad  de  BomeU,  a  Provencal  troubadour,  b. 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century^  at  Excideuil  in 
the  Viscounty  of  Limoges.  The  precise  dates  of  his 
life  are  not  known,  but  according  to  the  best  authori- 
ties, it  fell  between  1160  and  1219.  Although  of  hum- 
ble birth  Giraud  de  Bomeil  counted  among  his  patrons 
many  kin^,  as:  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Palestine,  on  the  Third  Crusade;  Bohe- 
mond  III,  Prince  of  Antioch;  Fernando  III  of  Castile; 
Alfonso  IX  of  Leon;  Pedro  II  of  Aragon,  to  whom  he 
addressed  several  poems,  and  Sancho,  King  of  Na- 
varre, who  did  not  deserve  the  admiration  the  poet 


bestowed  upon  him.  With  his  feudal  lord,  Gui  V, 
Viscount  of  Limoges,  however,  he  was  not  always  on 
good  terms.  His  life  was  simple  and  studious.  In 
winter  he  frequented  the  schools  of  learning  and 
studied  literature  imder  the  most  celebrated  teachers 
of  the  period.  In  summer,  accompanied  by  two  singers 
who  recited  his  songs,  he  visited  the  courts  of  his  royal 
patrons.  He  never  married,  and  at  death  divided  his 
property  between  some  poor  relations  and  his  parish 
church  of  Saint-Gervais.  Giraud  enjoyed  in  his  time  a 
very  high  reputation.  Dante,  in  the  "  De  vulgari  elo- 
quio"  (II,  2),  reckons  him  one  of  the  three  great  trou- 
badours, Amaud  Daniel  and  Bertrand  de  Bom  being 
the  other  two.  An  anonymous  Provengal  biographer 
of  the  thirteenth  centuiy  goes  so  far  as  to  say:  He 
was  the  best  troubadour  orthoee  who  lived  before  him 
or  came  after  him,  and  for  that  reason  was  called  Uie 
master  of  the  troubadours,  a  title  which  is  still  applied 
to  him  in  the  opinion  of  those  who  know  sometning 
about  poetry  and  love."  Dante,  however,  challenges 
this  verdict  and  places  Amaud  Daniel  far  above  Giraud 
de  Bomeil  (Pui^tory,  XXVI).  No  complete  edition 
of  Giraud  de  Bomeil's  works  has  as  yet  appeared. 
The  eighty  poems  ascribed  to  him  with  some  certainty 
are  scattered  through  various  collections^  including: 
Raynouard,  "Choix  des  poesies  originales  des  trouba- 
dours" (Paris,  1816),  and  Millot,  *^Histoire  Utt^raire 
des  troubadours"  (Paris,  1774).  His  early  poems,  in 
which  the  influence  of  Amaud  Daniel  is  felt,  oelong  to 
that  form  called  in  Provencal  trohar  dus,  in  which  the 
meaning  is  involved  and  obscure.  He  soon  rejected 
this  manner  and  claimed  in  a  ienson  (poem  in  form  of  a 
dialogue)  that  "easy  and  simple  poetry  is  more  es- 
teemed and  liked".  Among  the  oest  of  his  poems 
are:  an  alba  (song  at  daybreak),  where  he  makes  a 
graceful  compromise  between  the  popular  and  the 
studied  forms  of  poetry;  the  love  songs  addressed  to 
Alamanda  d'Estanc;  a  few  sirventea  (political  and 
satirical  poems),  in  which  the  poet  gives  expression  to 
the  chivalrous  ideals  of  the  age,  and  some  fostordaa. 

Dibs,  Ltbtn  tuid  Werke  der  Trovbadoura  (Zwickau.  1829); 
Hiatoire  IxtUraire  de  la  France  (ParU.  1832).  XVII ;  Miluit. 
Histoire  lUUraire  dea  troubadours  (Paris,  1774),  II;  La  Cboix  dd 
Mains,  Bibliographie  franQoiee  (Paris,  1772). 

LouiB  N.  Delamabbb. 

Oirba,  a  titular  see  in  the  province  of  African  Tri- 
poli. It  is  an  island,  in  ancient  times  called  Meninx. 
and  included  three  principal  cities,  Meninx,  Tipasa,  ana 
Girba,  whence  its  present  name.  At  least  two  bishops 
of  Girba  are  known,  Monnuius  and  Vincent,  who  as- 
sisted at  the  Councils  of  Carthage  in  255  and  525  (Tou- 
lotte.  Geographic  de  I'Afrique  chr^tienne  Proconsu- 
laire,  Paris,  1892,  pp.  353  and  380).  In  the  seventh 
century  it  is  a^in  found  under  the  name  of  Terepi- 
ton,a  con-upt  Torm  for  Gergiton  or  Gerbiton  (Bysant. 
Zeitschrift^  II,  1893,  26,  31) .  During  the  Middle  Ages 
the  Christians  of  Sicily  and  Aragon  disputed  its  pos- 
session with  the  Arabs,  and  the  Spaniaras  seized  upon 
it  several  times  during  the  sixteenth  century,  notably 
in  1510  and  1535.     In  1560  the  Corsair  Dragut  sur- 

Srised  the  Spanish  fleet,  which  lost  thirty  vessels  and 
ve  thousand  men.  The  garrbon  was  put  to  death, 
and  with  the  bones  of  the  slain  the  Turks  built  a  pyra- 
mid called  Bordj-er-Rious,  the  fortress  of  the  skulls, 
which  existed  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, when  the  bones  were  removed  to  the  Christian 
cemetery  of  Houmt^ouk.  To-day  the  island  of 
Djerba  numbers  forty  thousand  souls,  several  hun- 
dreds of  whom  are  Maltese  Catholics  who  earn  a  liveli- 
hood as  sponge-fishers.  The  climate  is  mild  and  the 
soil  well  cultivated.  The  island  belongs  to  the  re- 
gency of  Tunis,  which  is  under  French  protectorate. 

SifiTH.  Diet,  of  Or.  and  Roman  Qeog.  (London.  1828).  II, 
329.  8.  V.  Meninx.  S.  VaILh£. 

Girdle.    See  Cincture. 

Oirgenti,  Diocese  of  (Aqrigentina). — Girgenti  ia 
the  capital  of  a  province  in  Sicily  and  is  situated  about 


Bulpbur,  soda,  chalk,  copper,  and  iron,  .ui  lu^iuii, 
quarries  are  also  rich.  The  Greeks  called  it  Acragas; 
Uie  Romana  Agrigentum.  It  wns 
founded  bj  a  Greek  colooy  from  Gela 
about  582  b.  c.  The  upper  portion 
of  the  town  waa  already  in  exist- 
ence. It  was  called  Camicum  from 
its  position  on  a  platform  of  Ht. 
Camieus,  and  was  surrounded  by 
crctopean  walls.  The  Greeks  set- 
tled at  the  foot  of  this  acropolis, 
which  they  made  the  acropolis  of 
their  city;  soon  the  town  wasdoing 
a  rich  trade  with  the  Carthaginiaoa, 
and  was  reckoned,  after  Syracuse, 
the  first  town  in  Sicily.  Lite  other 
Doric  towns,  it  became  a  republic, 
but  was  often  under  the  control  of 
tyrants,  e.  o.  Piuilaris  the  Cruel 
(570-555),  Theron  (488-472).  who 
with  Gelon  of  Syracuse  defeated  the 
Carthaginians  under  Hamilear  near 
Himera  (480  b.  c).  The  war  of 
Thrasydeus,  son  and  successor  of  Rnms  ot  Tmtm. 
Theron,    on    Hieron   of    Syracuse,  roixor. 

brought  Agrigentum  under  the  tyrants  of  Syracuse 
(471  B.  c),  but  it  Boon  regained  its  freedom.  In  406 
the  Carthaginians  under  Hannibal  and  later  under 
HimilcD  b^eged  the  city,  captured  it,  slew  the  in- 
habitants, and  despoiled  the  temples  at  their  artistic 
treasures,  which  were  car- 
riedofTtoCarthage.   Once 

tonomy,  only  to  fall  under 
the  tyranny  of  Pbintias 
(288  B.  c).  After  this  it 
became  the  centre  of 
CarUiaginian  resistance  to 
Rome.  In  262  the  Ro- 
mans captured  it  for  the 
first  time,  and  in  210  thev 
^ned  complete  controL 
The  wealth  and  splendour 
of  the  ancient  city  are  at- 
tested by  all  writers,  and 
by  ruins  that  remain  till 
this  day.  The  principal 
antiquities  ore:  the  temple 
of  Jufiiter  on  the  acropolis, 
of  which  seven  columns  of 
the  peristyle  remain;  that 
of  Minerva,  to  which  many 
of  the  townsfolk  fled  in 
406  B.  c,  seeking  death 
under  its  ruins  rather  than 
fall  into  the  hands  oS  the 
Carthaginians;  in  the  dis- 
trict known  as  Neapolis 
the  temple  of  Hercules 
mentioned  by  Cicero  in  his 
"Oratio  in  Verrem";  the 
Temple  of  Concord,  in  old 
Ionic  style,  the  best  pre- 
served of  them  all,  because  Lowbr  Pun  or  Cahpahii. 
used  as  a  church  in  later 

times;  over  one  of  the  cornices  was  carved  a  treaty  of 
alliance  between  Agrigentum  and  Litybieum.  There 
are,  moreover:  the  temple  of  Juno  I.acinia;  the  tem- 
ple erf  £sculaptua,  which  contained  a  bronie  statue  of 
the  god  (this  work  of  Myron  was  carried  away  to 
Carthage  but  restored  by  Scipio  Africanus) ;  the  tera- 

E'e  of  Olympian  Jove,  according  to  Polybius  the 
rgest  and  most  beautiful  in  Sicily.     In  1401  three 
colossal  caryatides  supporting  an  architrave  were  dis- 


rl  GIBBXBT 

covered;  the  fact  was  commemorated  in  the  coat  f^ 
arms  of  Oirgenti.    Other  edifices  of  the  city  were:  the 
temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  of  which  there  remains 
an  architrave  supported  on  four  pillars;  the  temple  of 
Vulcan;   that  of  Cerea  and  Proserpine;   and  the  re- 
mains of  a  stadium.    In  827  the 
'    Arabs,  called  in  by  the  Byzantine 
tribune   Euphemios,   captured   the 
city,   and   spread   over   the   whole 
island.     In  the  eleventh  century 
Girgenti  was  the  centre  of  Saracen 
resistance   to    the    Normans,   who 
finally  captured  it  in  1087;  thence- 
forth it  shared  the  fortune  of  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

In  the  roll  of  its  illustrious  citizens 
are  found  the  names  of  the  philoso- 

EheiB  Empedoclea  and  Acron;   the 
istorian  Philinos;  the  musician 
Metellos,  Plato's  master;  the  dram- 
atists Archion  and    Carenos;    the 
orator  Sophocles;    the  humanist 
Nicold  la  Valle;  and  the  dramatist 
Francesco  del  Carretto.    Among  the 
natural   curiosities  of  note  in  the 
nei^bourhood  is' the  hill  of  Moo- 
■  OF  Cabiob  AMD       calubba,  studded  with  small  craters, 
about  thirty  inches  deep,  spouting 
cold  water,  carbonic  acid,  and  hydrogen  mixed  wit£ 
asphaltum,  chalk,  sulphate  of  lime,  ete.     The  cathe- 
dral is  built  of  ancient  materials,  and  has  a  beautiful 
Madonna  by  Guido  Reni,  and  painting  by  Nuniio 
Magro.    The  chureh  of  8.  Nicol6  eihibits  a  very  .fine 
Norman  doorway.     Gir- 
genti venerates  St.Liber- 
tinua  as  ite  earliest  apos- 
tle;   he   is  said   to  have 
been  sent  thither  b^  St. 
Peter.  The  earliest  bishop 
of  whose  date  we  are  cer- 
tain  is    St.   Potamius,   a 
contemporary     of     Pope 
Agapetus  T  (535-36).  St. 
Gregory  I,  Bishop  of  Agri- 
gentum, said  to  have  been 
martyred  in  262,18  proba- 
bly only  a  double  of  the 
homonymous  bishop  who 
was  a  contemporary  of  St. 
Gr^ory  the  Great.    The 
list  of  bishops,  interrupted 
by  the  Saracen  invasion, 
began  again  in  1093  with 
St.  Gerlando.  Other  bish- 
ops of  note  are:  Rinaldo 
di  Acquaviva  (1244),  who 
restored    the      cathedral 
and  crowned  King  Man- 
fred, for  which  latter  ac- 
tion he  was  excommuni- 
cated  by  Alexander  IV; 
and  Fra  MatteoGimmara, 
called  the  Blessed.    Gir- 
genti  is   a   suffragan   d 
Monreale,  has  66  parishes 
and  381  000  souls,   10  re- 
1.  Cathbdkal  or  OiBaann         ligious    houses   for   men, 
and  42  for  women.     It  is 
also  a  centre  for  the  Azione  Cattolica  Sociale  in  Sicily. 
PiHHi.  SKiiia  SaCTu  11839),  11.  263-384;  3rded,.  I.  881-761; 
Ci,rnLUwm,LeMae(nialia.XXli  Picojik.  MrmoneUBnche 
amemUnt;    Rocco,   (pirmnii    iii    IbUia  Ariitlica   (BetBuno. 


'.:  Chbvaubb,  Topa-bibl,,  a.  v. 


n.  Beniqki. 


Oisbert,  Blaise,  French  rhetorician  and  critic; 
b.  at  Cahors,  21  February,  1657;  d.  at  Montpellier,  21 
February,  1731.    Having  entered  the  Society  of  Jesui 


anTLio                     572  aiuLio 

in  1672,  he  tausht  the  humaniiies,  rhetoric,  and  phi-  Roof  was  unoorered  in  1512),  which,  however,  he  mi8' 

iosophy,  after  wnich  he  devoted  hixnself  for  a  lon^  time  interpreted  as  the  brute  force  of  physical  strength, 

to  preaching.   The  pleasure  which  Gisbert  took  in  dis-  Thus  Raphael 's  graceful  figures  often  became  in  GiuBo's 

cussing  pulpit  eloquence  with  Lamoignon,  the  inten-  hands  coarse  muscular  giants  like  the  "Ignudi"  and  the 

dant  m  Languedoc,  impelled  him  to  write  an  essay  on  "  Prophets  ".    Giulio  is  also  responsible  for  the  bricb- 

sacred  eloquence^  which  he  entitles  "Le  bon  godt  de  coloured  tones  and  plaster  flesh-tints  of  the  men  and 

r^loquence  chr^tienne  "  (Lyons,  1702).    He  spent  ten  women  in  Raphaers  later  works,  the  artistic  defects  of 

years  in  retouching  this  essay,  and  augmented  it  con-  which  are  in  many  cases  entirely  due  to  Giulib.    A 

siderably  by  adding  to  the  rules  examples  drawn  from  number  of  the  master's  most  beautiful  conceptions 

Holy  Scripture  and  the  Fathers,  especiallv  St.  John  have  come  down  to  us  only  under  this  imperfect  form, 

Ch^^sostom.    The  second  edition  appearea  at  Lyons  spoiled  for  ever  by  the  triviality  and  lack  of  delicacy 

in  1715  under  the  title  "L'Eloquence  chr§tienne  dans  of  the  execution,  and  the  pity  of  it  is  that,  on  the 

I'id^e  et  dans  la  pratique".    The  work,  which  com-  strength  of  Raphael's  signature,  these  works  seemed 

prises  twenty-three  chapters,  does  not  follow  the  to  impress  the  seal  of  sanction  on  many  serious  de- 

rigorous  order  of  a  didactical  treatise  and  is  without  fects  in  the  French  School  of  the  seventeenth  century, 

the  dryness  of  a  scholastic  manual.   It  has  been  rightly  Much  time  and  discussion  would  have  been  saved  if  m 

called  "un  livre  Eloquent  sur  T^oquence".    It  con-  arguing  over  the  famous  ''Transfiguration"  (1520), 

tains  a  series  of  talks  on  the  faults  to  be  avoided  in  the  for  instance,'  it  were  admitted  that  in  its  present  state, 

pulpit,  on  the  qualities  necessary  to  the  preacher,  on  the  as  completed  by  Giulio,  it  is  impossible  to  say  what 

matter  and  form  of  sermons,  on  oratorical  action  and  the  master's  original  idea  was,  since  the  secret  of  it  is 

decorum.    Gisbert 's  book  sufficed  to  make  its  author  buried  with  him  in  the  grave.    As  for  the  "  Battle  of 

famous  not  only  among  the  Catholic  clerffy*  but  even  Constantine",  and  the  '"(Coronation  of  the  Virgin"^  it 

among  ^x>testant  pastors.   One  of  them,  Jacques  Len-  would  be  as  well  to  admit  that  they  retain  nothing 

fant  (1661-1728)  carefully  annotated  it,  and  another,  whatever  of  Raphael. 

Komrumpff,  translated  it  into  Gierman.    An  Italian  Although  the  sole  interest  of  this  eariy  poHion  of 

translation  also  appear^  during  Gisbert's  lifetime,  Giulio's  career  consists  in  the  li^t  it  throws  on  Ra- 

and  later  a  Latin  translation.    The  latest  and  best  phael's  work,  it  is  of  greater  artistic  importance  than 

French  edition  is  that  of  Grampon  and  Boucher  (Paris,  all  Giulio's  subsequent  independent  efforts.    Yet  even 

1865).    As  a  sort  of  supplement  Gisbert  wrote  refleo-  they  are  not  without  interest.    They  show  us  Giulio 

tions  on  the  collections  of  sermons  printed  in  France  developing,  thou^  with  undoubted  tident.  some  of  the 

from  1570  to  about  1670.  In  this  he  considers,  accord-  defects  and  deadly  vices  which  lay  hidden  in  the 

ing  to  the  somewhat  narrow  ideals  of  his  age.  ten  Renaissance  movement.    The  most  serious  of  these 

orators  before  Bossuet  and  Bourdaloue.    TheMS.  of  defects  is  dilettanteism,  or  virtuosity  for  its  own  sake, 

this  interesting  "Histoire  critique  de  la  chaire  fran-  Giulio  had  not  with  impunity  devoted  ten  years  simply 

^aise  depuis  Frangois  I*"  was  lost,  but  was  finally  to  the  execution  of  another's  ideas;  he  came  to  believe 

recovered  by  Mgr  Puyol  and  published  by  Fathers  that  in  art  the  thought  is  of  no  accoimt,  the  form 

Ch^rot  and  Gris^e,S.J.,  in  the ''Revue  Bourdaloue",  everything.    The  necessary  connexion  between  the 

1902-04.  idea  and  its  expression,  between  art  and  life,  quite 

SoioaBvoGBi..  BMioihimu  de  la  eompa4fn%e  de  JSmia,  III.  escaped  him.    This  was  the  grave  defect  of  the  Ital- 

1461;  Revue  Bourdaloue,  1902, 128.       _,        T^  ""*  spirit — ^the  abuse  of  art,  the  worship  of  form,  the 

Paul  Dbbucht.  indifference  to  subject,  and  it  could  haidly  fail  to 

prove  fatal  to  an  artist  whom  it  had  obsessed. 

Oinlio  Bomano,  proneriy  Giulio  dei  Giannuzzi.  An  opportunity  of  translating  this  erroneous  prin- 

also  known  as  Giuuo  Pippi,  a  famous  architect  ana  ciple  to  canvas  on  a  large  scale  was  afforded  to  Giulio 

by  the  Duke  of  Mantua.    For  22  years  (1524-1546) 
the  artist  was  absolute  master  of  ul  the  works  of  art 


painter,  the  best-known  of  Raphael's  pupils,. and  the 
unique  representative  of  the  so-called  ''Roman  School"; 


b.  at  Rome  in  1492;  d.  at  Mantua  in  1546.    At  the  executed  in  that  town.    He  entirely  remodelled  the 

age  of  19,  Giulio  placed  himself  imder  Raphael,  who  interior  decoration  of  the  old  palace  (^e  Palazzo  di 

had  just  finished  after  three  years  (1509-12)  the  Halls  Gorte),  lavishing  on  it  all  the  resources  of  his  ine^diaust- 

of  the  Se^natura  and  Heliodorus.    In  1514,  Raphael  ible  fancy.    He  refashioned  the  interior  of  the.cathe- 

was  appomted  general  overseer  of  works  by  Leo  X,  dral ;  he  raised  the  important  chureh  of  San  Benedetto, 

conducted  in  1519  the  excavations  of  ancient  Rome,  and  he  built  from  roof  to  cellar  the  famous  Palace  of 

and  found  it  difficult  to  carry  out  aU  his  undertakings.  Tajetto,  near  the  ^tes  of  the  town. 
It  came  thus  to  pass  that  the  assistant  was  soon  the        It  is  especially  m  these  two  palaces,  which  were 

factotum  and  right  hand  of  the  master,  who  during  almost  entirely  painted  by  him  or  his  pupfls,  that 

the  later  portion  of  his  career  seldom  found  time  Giulio  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  art.    His 

(except  for  a  few  portraits)  to  take  a  brush  into  his  lively  but  superficial  fancy,  incapable  of  deep  emotion, 

hands.  ^  ...  ^^  religious  reeling,  or  even  of  observation,  attractea 

As  an  artist,  Giulio  has  no  originality;  as  a  painter,  him.  to  neutral  subjects,  to  mythological  paintings, 

he  is  merely  a  temp^merU,  a  prodigious  worker.    His  and  imaginary  scenes  from  the  world  of  fable.    Tliere- 

manual  dexterity  is  unaccompanied  by  any  creat-  in  under  the  cloak  of  humanism,  he  gave  expression  to 

ness  of  conception  or  high  moral  principle.    He  en-  a  sensualism  rather  libertine  than  poetical,  an  epi- 

larged  and  executed  in  fresco  or  on  canvas  the  draw-  cureanism  unredeemed  by  any  elevated  or  noble 

ings  and  studies  completed  by  Raphael  for  his  pictures,  quality.    It  is  this  that  wins  for  Giulio  his  distinctive 

In  this  way  were  completed,  withm  eight  years,  "  Fire  place  m  art.    His  conception  of  form  was  never  quite 

in  ^e  Borgo"  (1513),  the  cartons  of  the  '^Acts  of  the  original;  it  was  always  a  clever  and  "bookish"  com- 

Apostles"  (1512-1514),  the  lo^ias  of  the  Vatican  promise  between  Raphael  and  Michelangelo.     His 

(1514-1519),  the  frescoes  of  theFamesina  (1518)^  and  sense  of  colour  grows  ever  louder  and  uglier,  his  ideas 

many  other  famous  works  such  as  the  "  Lo  Spasimo"  are  void  of  finesse,  whatever  brilliancy  they  ehow  is 

(Chnst  bearine  the  Gross),  the  "Pearl",  the  "Virgin  second-hand.     His  single  distinctive  characteristic 

with  the  Fish"  (Madrid),  the  "St.  Michael"  of  &e  is  the  doubtful  ease  with  which  he  played  with  the 

Louvre,  and  "The  Holy  Family"  executed  for  Francis  commonplaces  of  pagandom.    In  this  respect  at  least, 

I  (1518).    With  all  his  cleverness  Giulio  never  caught  paintings  like  those  of  the  "Hall  of  Psyche"  (1532)  are 

the  real  glow  of  Raphael's  genius;  the  master's  divme  historical  landmarks.    It  is  the  first  time  (even  if  we 

ideas  became  vul^ized  in  passing  throug^^  Giulio 's  include  the  Famesina)  that  an  appeal  is  made  to  the 

more  material  bram.    Moreover  he  was  carried  away  senses  with  all  the  brutal  frankness  of  a  modem  work, 

by  the  power  of  Michelangelo's  works  (the  Sistine  Unlike  Raphael's  ''Galatea"  and  his  "Three  Graces", 


0XU8KPPI 


examples  of  Mysian  happiness  ii 


\", 


^.__  ._      ^_.     ._.,, Q  the  state 

ot  innocence,  Giulio's  decorfttjons  resemble  saturnalia 
of  lubricity  iteelf .  The  vulgarity  of  the  drawing  leaves 
no  illusion  as  to  the  nature  of  ita  intention;  nothing 
remMns  of  the  ancient  myth,  thus  stripped  of  all  its 
ideal  signification,  but  what  serves  to  excite  the  aenses. 
Titus  art,  losing  all  moral  import,  sinks  inevitably  to 
the  level  of  a  game  of  conventional  rules,  and  the  cloak 
of  fiction  serves  only  to  disguise  the  ^tiesneea  of  the 
instincts,  which  have  ousted  every  laudable  ideal. 
Such  was  the  result  of  "art  for  art's  sake"  in  his 
case,  and  the  danger  of  such  piinciples  was  aggra- 
vated by  the  auperstitiaus  reverence  for  the  antique 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  word  afUique  was  held 
to  purify  and  sanctify  everything;  all  things  were  law- 
ful in  Uie  name  of  erudition,  the  antique  became  a 
fetish.  In  the  Hall  of  Troy  (1534-1538)  m  the  Palaiao 
di  Cort«j  and  in  his  "Triumph  of  Titus  and  Vespasian" 
in  the  Louvre,  GiuUo,  following  in  the  footsteps  of 
Mantegna,  had  given  evi- 
dence that  he  too  was  among 
the  learned,  the  connoisseurs, 
the  men  of  disial«rested  cul- 
ture, and  no  doubt  con- 
cluded that  he  was  thereby 
entitled  to  dispense  with  the 
cl^ms  of  mora 
of  his  works. 

long  until  the  same  specious 
reasoning  became  the  fash- 
ion in  Europe.  Primatice 
introduced  it  to  the  Court 
of  Fontainebleau;  and  Ru- 
bens, who  spent  eight  years 
(1600-1608)  at  the  Court  of 
Mantua,  brought  it  back 
with  him  to  Flanders.  GiuUo 
is  the  originator  of  those 
lascivious  pictures,  dating 
fronilS30tol63S,  which  are 
in  t^e  Prado  and  Torre  de  la 
Pareja  galleries  at  Madrid. 
Mantua,  Giulio's  town,  rather 
than  Rome  was  the  teacher 
of  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  consequences  of  these 
rnindples  were  disastrous. 
The  antiaue,  indeed,  could 
only  bo  tne  rehgion  of  the 
few,  but,  by  constituting 
fable  the  sole  vehicle  of  the 
beautiful,   Giuho,  vulgarian 

though  be  was,  fell  into  the  error  oi  "  anstocratis- 
ing"  art,  and  thus  of  severity  ita  indispensable 
bond  with  the  real.  Henceforth  its  public  became 
fewer;  art,  becoming  the  property  of  an  intellectual 
class,  was  esposed  to  all  the  risks  inherent  in  caste  and 
party  spirit.  Itwas  now  a  privileged  poBseesion,  acode- 
Unguage  for  use  only  among  the  initiated.  Emanci- 
pated from  morality  (thanks  to  the  sophism  of  the 
antique),  deprived  of  the  necessary  support  of  reality, 
and  immune  from  the  common-sense  verdict  of  the 
geiwral  public,  it  gave  utterance  only  to  aimless,  use- 
iesB,  soulless,  lifeless  abstractious.  As  an  example  may 
be  cit«d  the  most  famous  of  Giulio's  works,  the  "Hall 
of  the  Giants"  (1532-1534)  in  the  Palace  of  the  Ta^ 
ietto.  It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  the  artist  was 
here  the  dupe  of  his  imagination,  or  whether  the  work 
was  the  result  of  a  jocose  wa^r,  for  it  is  certainly  a 
freak,  a  shock  like  those  that  used  to  startle  the 
yokels  in  the  Gardens  of  Castello  and  of  Pratolino. 
But  the  effect  here  is  brought  about  by  such  palpable 
illusion,  the  imposture  is  so  enormous,  it  demands  so 
many  concessions  from  the  spectator,  it  presupposes 
such  a  lack  of  all  critical  power  on  his  part,  that  it  is 
hard  to  underr'"-^  —-'-  -  '  "  '  '  '  * 
Giulio's  sake  c 


3  aznsEppx 

effort  is  so  out  of  proportion  to  the  result  Itiat  ooe  can- 
not Impress  a  feeung^f  pity.  Such  a  lack  of  dignity 
comes  as  a  shock.  There  is,  d  course,  in  the  Italian 
genius  a  substratum  of  scepticism,  of  irony,  of  parody, 
which  outsiders  can  never  quite  realize.  But  was  it 
worth  while  to  heap  Pelion  on  Ossa,  to  shake  the  whole 
worid,  to  create  such  a  cataclysm  of  colour,  merely  to 
raise  a  smileT  Or  can  it  be  that  the  logical  outcome 
of  the  doctrine  of  "art  for  art's  sake"  is  nothing  more 
or  less  than  the  bicarre  and  the  biiriee<|ueT 

Distiofmished  by  such  charaeleristica  and  marked 
by  such  defects,  GiuUo  Romano  occupies  nevertheless 
an  important  place  iri  the  history  of  art.    Hore  than 
any  other,  he  sided  in  propagating  the  pseudo-classi- 
cal,  half-pagan  style  of  art  so  fashionable  durine  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  it  is  mainly  throiuE  his 
influence  that  after  the  year  1600  we  rind  bo  kw  re- 
ligious painters  in  Europe.     It  was  reserved  to  a 
Dutchman — Rembrandt — to  reconcile  art  and  moral- 
i^  once  more.     By  his  inflU' 
ence  as  a  pupil  of  Raphael, 
Giulio  contributed  to  spread 
the  evil  germs  of  Italian  Art 
— carefessneHs  of  finish, 
bravura,  lack  of   sincerity, 
lack   of   truth,   mannerisra, 
love  of  the  grotesque.      He 
ptuBted   many   altar-pieces; 
the  best  is  the  "Stoning  of 
St.  Stephen"  in  S.  Stelano 
at    Genoa,  executed   before 
leaving   Rome,   when  -  the 
mantle  of  Raphael  was  still 
on    him.       His    Madonnas, 
such  as  the  "Madonna  della 
Qatta"  (Naples),  the  "Ma- 
donna della  Catina"  (Dres- 
den), are  mere  genre  pictures 
without  feeling  or  religious 
depth,  having  the  sort  of  ab-' 
Btract  beautv  we  expect  in 
bas-reliefs.     The  "Nativity" 
of  the  Louvre  is  an  attempt 
to  reproduce  the  chiaro- 
OHCuro  of  Corregio. 

VaubiI   Vilt  d^  pii  tca^tnti 
piOari,  ed.    *"'"  "^' 

1878);  D^A 


g    (ii   Gi< 


a  daia  n 


(1838;  2iid  «1.  vith  sppenilii. 
1842);  Ariitdani^  di  MoBlma 
lMantu»,  1857i:  Wobhuanm, 
OacMchte  der  Maltrei,  II  <Leip- 
n«.    1882);    Cbowb  and  CiVii, 

(UBBLU,  HittoTvatllalian  PanUmg:  BnnH.Hin-.  />«■  Cirrram. 

ed.  BoDK  (Bnlin.  1S7B):  Bsunwih, 

0/  tiu  Rmaiumea  (Neir  York,  1903) 


nuo  RoiuHo 

Uffiii  QiUeiy,  Florence 


Cmirai  TIalian  Famten 


1649;  d.  m  Rome,  1  January,  1713.  thou^  destmed 
by  his  father  for  the  Spanish  Court,  he  joined  the 
Clerks  Regular  of  the  Theatine  Order  at  Palermo,  24 
March,  1^5,  renouncing  his  primogeniture  and  the 
princedom  in  favour  of  his  brotner.  He  was  professed 
25  March,  1666.  He  studied  philosophy,  first  at  Mes- 
sina, and  later,  owing  to  poor  health,  at  Ferrara  and 
Modena;  and  theology  in  Rome  and  Palermo.  He 
was  ordained  priest  on  Christmas  Day,  1673.  To  a 
wide  knowledge  of  Greek,  he  united  the  study  of  Ethi- 
opic,  Arabic,  Syriac,  Chaldaic  and  Hebrew — convert- 
ing his  master,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  to  Christianity.  From 
the  Psalters  in  these  different  languaees,  he  collected 
the  titles  of  the  Psalms.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  Scripture  and  the  Fathers.  Searching  the 
chief  libraries,  archives,  and  monuments,  he  retraced 
the  ancient  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  liturgy. 
His  valuable  works  {Codid  TomTnatiani),  published 


OIU8TI 


574 


OLABIB 


chiefly  from  ancient  codices  in  the  Vatican  and  Valli- 
oellian  Libraries  and  the  Library  of  Christina  of 
Sweden,  were  highly  praised  by  the  different  acade- 
mies of  Europe,  even  Protestant.  Chief -among  his 
publications  are  the  "Codices  sacramentorum  non- 
g^ntis  annis  antiauiores"  (Rome,  1680),  partly  tran- 
scribed by  Mabillon  in  his  "Liturgia  Gallicana''. 
Following  these,  in  order  of  time,  were :  **  Psalteriimi ' ' 
(Rome,  1683),  according  to  the  Roman  and  Gallican 
editions,  published  under  the  name  of  "Giuseppe 
Maria  C^aro".  In  this  work  Tommasi  introduced 
Origen's  symbols  (obeli  and  asterisks),  obsolete  for 
nine  centuries.  Under  the  same  pen-name  Tommasi 
wrote  "Responsalia  et  Antiphonaria  Rom.  Eccl.", 
etc.  (Rome,  1686);  "Sacrorum  Bibliorum  TituH,  sive 
capitula"  (Rome,  1688);  "Antiqui  libri  Missarum 
Rom.  Eccl."  or  the  Antiphonary  ot  Pope  Saint  Greg- 
ory, entitled  "  Comes  *',  written  by  Alcum  at  the  order 
of  C)har]emagne  (Rome,  1691);  "Officium  Dominicse 
Passionis",  used  by  the  Greeks  on  Good  Friday,  trans- 
lated into  Latin  (Rome,  1695).  Under  his  proper 
name  he  published  "Speculum"  (Rome,  1679);  "£x- 
ercitium  Fidei,  Spei  et  Caritatis"  (Rome,  1683); 
"Breviurium  psalterii  (Rome,  1683);  "Vera  norma 
di  glorificar  Dio*'  (Rome,  1687);  "Fermentum'* 
(Rome,  1688);  "Psalterium  cum  canticis"  (Rome, 
1697) ;  "  Indiculus  institutionum  theologicarum  vet- 
erum  Patnim"  (3  vols.,Jlome,  1709;  1710;  1712),  an 
exposition  of  theological  theory  and  practice,  derived 
from  original  patristic  sources.  Tommasi  also  wrote 
numerous  ojmsctda^  the  last  four  published  by  G. 
Mttt^ati  (Rome,  1905).  In  1753  Vezzosi  published  his 
works  in  eleven  quarto  volumes. 

Tommasi's  efforts  at  reform  were  directed  not  to  the 
introduction  of  the  new,  but  \fi  the  restoration  and 
maintenance  of  the  old.  He  was  not  always  upheld 
and  was  sometimes  rebuked  for  his  zeal.  Innocent 
XII  made  him  examiner  of  the  bbhops,  or  of  the 
clergy.  Clement  XI  appointed  him  consultor  of  the 
Theatine  Order,  theologian  of  the  "Congregatio  super 
Disciplinil  Regulari"  and  other  congre^tions,  con- 
sultor of  the  Congregations  of  Rites  and  Indulgences, 
and  qualificator  of  the  Holy  Office.  The  same  pope 
created  him  cardinal-priest  of  the  Title  of  S.  Martino  ai 
Monti  and  compelled  nim  to  accept  the  honour.  Tak- 
ing St.  Charles  Borromeo  for  nis  model,  Tommasi 
practised  humility  and  charitv  towards  the  poor.  He 
taught  catechism  to  the  children  of  the  poor  in  his 
titular  church.  He  introduced  the  use  of  Gregorian 
chant  in  his  church.  On  his  death  he  was  mourned  by 
all,  even  by  the  pope,  who  so  admired  his  sanctity 
that  he  consulted  him  before  accepting  the  papacy. 
He  was  beatified  by  Pius  VII,  5  June,  1803.  Every 
year  the  Arcadians  hold  a  religious  and  literary  com- 
memoration in  his  honour.  His  body  rests  in  the 
church  of  S.  Martino  ai  Monti. 

Borromeo,  VUa  (Venice,  1713) ;  Fontaninz  in  Giamale  dei 
LiUerati  (T Italia,  XVIII-XXVI;  Bernini.  Vita  (Rome.  1714); 
Vbzsosi  in  introduction  to  the  works  of  Tommasi;  Mabillon, 
IMurgia  GaUicana  (168»>1729);  Benedict  XIV,  Brief,  20 
March.  1745,  in  0pp.  <nnnia,  XV  (1840),  509;  Opuscoli  inediti 
dd  Beaio  Card.  Oiuaeppt  Tommaai,  ed.  Mercati  in  Studi  e  Testi 
(Rome,  1905);  Carini.  L* Arcadia  dal  1690  al  1890  (1891). 
73'-81;  WiCKHAM  Lboo.  The  Rearmed  Breviary  of  Cardinal 
Tommaei  in  The  Church  Hialorieal  Society  (London,  1904), 
LXXX,  5  aqq.;  Vbszosi,  Scritton  di  Chteriei  RegoiaH  deUi 
Teatini,  II  (1780).  40^414.  41(^-427. 

Francesco  Paoli. 

Oiostii  Giuseppe,  poet  and  patriot;  b.  1809,  at 
Monsumano  near  Peseta,  Italy;  a.  31  March,  1850,  at 
Florence.    He  received  his  early  training  under  a 

grivate  tutor  and  in  an  academy  at  Florence.  Then 
e  entered  the  University  of  Pisa  to  take  up  the  study 
of  jurisprudence.  He  cfid  not  give  overmuch  atten- 
tion to  nis  legal  course,  vet  eventually  he  secured  his 
degree,  in  1834,  after  a  delay  due  in  part  to  a  political 
satire  written  by  him  which  displeased  the  authorities. 
Now  establi^ing  himself  in  Florence,  ostensiblv  for 
the  practice  of  law,  he  really  devoted  himself  to 


literary  pursuits.  When  his  health  began  to  fail,  he 
travelled  about  the  peninsula  with  the  hope  of  recover- 
ing it,  visiting  Rome,  Naples,  Le^om,  Milan,  Fisa, 
and  other  pla^.  In  the  meantime  he  had  been  active 
as  a  poet,  and,  trusting  in  the  reform  promised  by  the 
grand  duke,  Leopold  II,  he  addressed  to  him  an  en- 
comiastic ode  quite  different  from  the  satirical  verses 
with  which  he  had  assailed  him  previously.  He 
was  admitted  into  membership  in  tfie  Ao^uiemia 
della  Crusca.  Sintering  seriously  into  political  life  as 
a  legislator,  he  was  elected  a  deputy  to  the  first  and 
second  Tuscan  Legislative  Assemblies,  in  which  he 
signalized  himself  oy  his  patriotic  endeavours.  At 
firat  he  favoured  the  return  of  the  grand  duke,  but 
when  the  latter  came  under  Austrian  auspices  Giusti 
withdrew  from  public  life.  By  this  time  tuberculosis, 
the  fatal  malaay  threatening  him,  began  to  assert 
itself  all  too  plainly,  and  on  31  March,  1850,  he  died 
of  it  in  the  mansion  of  his  friend,  the  Marquis  Gino 
Capponi,  who,  like  himself,  was  a  sturdy  Catholic 
and  patriot. 

Among  his  early  compositions  there  G^aie  his 
scherzi,  as  he  called  them,  little  Ivrics  of  which  some 
were  amorous  and  others  of  variea  import,  and  which 
were  scattered  broadcast  through  the  land  in  manu- 
script form.  In  1844  they  were  published  at  Leg^m 
with  his  sanction.  It  is  obvious  that  he  began  his 
lyric  career  under  the  influence  of  Petrarch;  later, 
however,  he  developed  a  romantic  and  elegiac  strain  of 
his  own.  Notable  among  his  purely  lyrical  composi- 
tions b  the  "Fiducia  in  Dio'^,  which  sets  forth  his 
hope  and  faith  as  a  Catholic  Christian.^  With  tremen- 
dous force  does  he  express  himself  in  his  political 
satires,  in  which,  departing  from  the  conventional 
employment  of  the  terza-rima  and  the  blank  verse,  he 
uses  a  variety  of  lyric  measures.  Taken  in  their  en- 
tirety, his  political  satires  present  a  picture  of  Italy 
in  his  day.  They  are  directed  against  social  abuses  of 
manv  sorts,  and  at  the  same  time  they  express  a  long- 
ing for  political  and  moral  regeneration.  In  view  of 
the  frankness  and  the  acritude  with  which  he  assailed 
the  grand-ducal  government  and  the  Austrians,  it  is 
surprising  that  he  escaped  the  dungeon  to  which  so 
many  other  Italian  patriots  of  the  time  were  con- 
demned. In  prose  he  published  but  little.  Mention 
may  be  made,  however,  of  his  "Pipoverbi  toscani".  a 
collection  of  proverbs  annotated  by  him,  and  nis 
"Epistolario**,  a  collection  of  his  letters.  These  let- 
ters are  rather  too  studied  and  polished  in  form,  but 
they  remain  valuable  for  the  autobiographical  infor- 
mation that  they  contain.  On  the  basis  of  them^  the 
librarian,  Guido  Bi£^^  has  prepared  a  volume  entitled 
''Vita  di  Giuseppe  Giusti,  scntta  da  lui  medesimo'' 

(Florence,  1893). 

Mabtinz.  Memorie  inediie  (Milan,  1894);  Fbash,  Vita  di  O. 
Giusti  (Florence.  1859):  Poeeie  di  G.  Giuati,  with  an  assay  by 
Carducci,  Delia  vita  e  adle  opera  di  G.  Gifueti  (Florence,  1859); 
Verei  e  proee^  an  edition  by  Oiuan  himMlf  (Florence,  1846). 
Annotated  selections  from  his  works,  edited  by  Ftobxito 
(Verona,  1876);  by  Fjuzsi  (Milan,  1880);  and  by  Biaoi  (Flor- 
ence, 1890). 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Oiostiniaiii,  Lorenzo,  Saint.  See  Lawrence 
Justinian,  Saint. 

Olaber,  Raoul,  Benedictine  chronicler;  b.  in  Bur- 
gundy before  1000 ;  d.  at  Cluny  about  1050.  In  earty 
boyhood  he  was  so  wayward  and  mischievous  that  his 
uncle,  a  monk,  to  safeguard  him,  forced  him  to  enter 
the  monastery  of  St-L^ger  de  Champeauz  at  the  age  of 
twenty.  However,  he  adopted  only  the  monastic 
habit.  He  tells  us  that  through  pride  he  resisted  and 
disobeyed  his  superiors,  and  quarrelled  with  his  breth- 
ren. Finally  he  was  expelled.  He  then  entered  the 
monasteries  of  Notre-Dame  du  Moutier  and  St-Beni^- 
nus  at  Dijon.  Abbot  William  of  Dijon^  who  appreci- 
ated Raoul 's  literary  talents,  became  his  warm  mend 
and  took  him  in  1028  as  his  companion  on  a  journey  to 


OLABRXO 


675 


OLAOOLmO 


Suza  in  Italy.  Yielding  again  to  his  roving  disposi- 
tion, Glaber  quietly  ran  away  and  entered  the  monas- 
tery of  St-Gennain  d'Auxerre.  Thanks  to  his  learn- 
ing, he  was  sure  of  a  refuge,  as  he  tells  us,  wherever  he 
chose  to  gp.  Judgpig,  uien,  by  the  mediocre  talent 
displayed  in  his  writings,  this  fact  alone  shows  us  to 
what  depths  literary  culture  had  simk  in  his  time. 
The  monks  at  St-Germain  got  him  to  restore  or  com- 
pose the  inscriptions  on  the  numerous  idtars  in  their 
church,  and  on  the  tombs  of  the  saints  who  were 
buried  in  it.  When  this  was  done  his  wanderings  be- 
gan again,  and  he  tried  the  religious  life  at  Beza,  and 
at  Climy  under  St.  Odilo.  He  seems  at  this  time  to 
have  acauired  with  increasing  ^rears  a  disposition 
more  in  keeping  with  his  pro^ssion,  and  he  died  at 
Cluny  about  lOSo.  His  was  a  proud,  indocile,  rest- 
less spirit.  From  his  writings  we  learn  that  he  alwaj[B 
had  a  lively  faith,  but  was  extraordinarily  supersti- 
tious. Of  his  works  there  remain: ''  Wilheuni  abbatis 
gestorum  liber",  the  life  of  his  superior  at  Dijon, 
printed  in  Acta  SS.,  1  Jan.,  57  sqa.;  and  his  "Chroni- 
cle * ',  for  which  he  is  chiefly  remembered .  This  is  a  his- 
tory of  the  world,  as  he  knew  it,  from  the  year  900  till 
1045.  It  was  written  in  Latin,  partly  at  Clunv  and 
partly  at  St-Germain .  Glaber  is  quite  devoid  of  liter- 
aiy  style;  and  critical  spirit  he  has  none,  the  most 
trivial  events  and  tales  beine  put  on  exactly  the  same 
plane  as  the  most  important  racts.  His  chronoloey  and 
geography  are  quite  deficient ;  yet,  despite  all  its  mults, 
me  work  is  interesting  and  useful,  as  it  gives  us  an  in- 
sist into  the  customs  and  morals  of  an  age  when  Chris- 
tianity on  the  continent  had  reached  a  very  low  ebb. 

Prou,  Raoul  Glaber  (PariB*  1887);  Sackub.  Studim  Hber 
Olaber  in  Neu.  Archiv  Ges.  &U,  deu.  GeacK.  (1888),  XIY.  377-418; 
OuizoT,  CoU.  da  nUm.,  VI  (Paris,  1823);  Pbttt,  RaouL  Glaber  in 
Reo.  hiitorique  (1892),  XLYIII,  283-^00;  Gbbhabt.  Moinea  tt 
papea  (Pftris.  1896),  1-62. 

A.  A.  MacErlban. 

Olabxio,  Manius  Acinus,  consul  at  Rome  during 
A.  D.  91,  with  Trajan.  He  belonged  to  one  of  the 
noblest  families  of  Rome,  no  fewer  than  nine  of  his 
name  having  held  the  consular  office,  the  first  being 
that  Acilius  Glabrio  who  was  consul  in  a.  u.  c.  563 
(191  B.  c),  conquered  the  Macedonians  at  the  battle 
of  Thermopyke,  and  in  whose  honour  the  Temple  of 
Piety,  now  the  church  of  S.  Nicola  in  Caroere,  was 
erected.  The  family  attained  great  wealth  and  power, 
and  their  sardens,  in  the  ear^  imperial  perioa,  cov- 
ered the  whole  of  what  is  now  the  Pincian  Hill.  The 
subject  of  the  present  memoir  was  put  to  death  bv 
Domitian  in  the  year  95.  Suetonius  (Domit.,  c.  x) 
tells  us  that  the  emperor  caused  several  senators  and 
ex-consuls  to  be  executed  on  the  charge  of  conspiring 
against  the  empire — qtmsi  molUarea  rerum  novarumf ''  as 
contrivers  of  novelty" — ^and  among  them  he  names 
"Acilius  Glabrio,  who  had  previoumY  been  banished 
from  Rome".  The  charge  of  "contnving  novelties" 
seems  in  this  particular  case — not,  however,  in  the 
others  which  are  mentioned  with  it-— to  denote  adhe- 
sion to  the  Christian  religion.  Dio  Cassius  G^vii,  12, 
14)  tells  us,  as  also  does  Juvenal  (Sat.,  iv,  94),  that, 
during  his  consulship  an4  before  hb  banisiiment, 
Glabno  was  forced  by  Domitian  to  fi^t  with  a  lion 
and  two  bears  in  the  amphitheatre  adjoining  the  em- 
peror's villa  at  Albanum.^  This  amphitheatre  still 
exists,  and  was  excavated  in  1887.  It  is  partly  hol- 
1ow€k1  out  of  the  side  of  the  mountain,  and  commands 
a  remarkable  view.  Xiphilinus,  speaking  of  the  exe- 
cutions of  95,  says  that  some  members  of  the  imperial 
family  and  other  persons  of  importance  were  con- 
demned for  atheism,  as  having  embraced  "the  cus- 
toms and  persuasions  of  the  Jews",  that  is,  of  course, 
the  Christian  Faith.  Among  these  he  mentions  Clem- 
ens and  Domitilla,  of  whose  Christianitv  there  is  no 
doubt.  Glabrio  was  involved  in  this  trial  and  suffered 
under  this  indictment,  so  that  we  could  have  little 
doubt  that  he  too  was  a  Christian,  even  if  we  had  not 


the  archseobgfcal  evidence  of  which  we  shall  now 
speak* 

Glabrio  was  put  to  death  in  his  place  of  exile,  con- 
cerning the  location  of  which  we  have  no  knowledge. 
But  his  body  was  brought  to  Rome,  and  buried  on  the 
Via  Salaria.  in  the  catacomb  of  Priscilla.  Here  the 
crypt,  in  wnich  he  with  many  of  his  family  and  de- 
pendents was  laid  to  rest,  was  discovered  in  1888. 
Henceforth  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  his  religion,  or 
concerning  the  cause  of  his  execution.  Unfortunately, 
the  crypt  nad  been  wrecked  by  treasure-seekers,  the 
date  of  whose  vandalistic  action  can  be  fixed  as  the 
time  of  Clement  VIII  (1667-70).  The  hypogaum  was 
of  very  imusual  form,  consisting  of  a  sinele  lar^ 
ambulacrum  or  "cryptoporticus  m  gamma  ,  that  is^ 
turned  at  right  angles  with  its  own  staircase.  The 
places  for  tombs  were  all  large  "arcosolia",  or  niches 
for  sarcophagi;  there  was  not  a  single  loculus  of  the 
usual  cemeterial  pattern  in  the  walls.  At  the  end  of 
the  longer  arm  of  the  gamma  a  passage  was  opened 
into  a  large  hall,  nine  yards  by  four  and  a  half,  barrel- 
vaulted  and  with  a  square  "lucemarium",  which  had 
apparently  originally  oeen  a  cistern  for  water.  It  had 
contained  an  eltar^  raised  over  a  tomb,  with  spiral  col- 
'  umns  of  eiallo  antico,  and  was  at  one  time  beautifully 
decoratea,  but  had  been  entirely  wrecked .  In  it,  how- 
ever, were  found  fragments  of  a  marble  sarcophagus, 
with  the  inscription  acilio  glabrio  .  .  .  filio  still 
legible.  Other  fragments  were  afterwards  discovered, 
which  placed  it  beyond  doubt  that  here  was  a  burying- 
place  of  the  Acilian  family,  round  one  of  their  race 
who  apparently  had  been  a  martyr.  The  lettering 
of  the  cnief  inscription  being  of  the  time  of  Domitian 
or  thereabouts,  and  the  fact  that  the  h^rpo^um  itself 
belongs  to  the  eariiest  a^  of  Christiamty,  is  sufficient 
to  enable  us  to  feel  certam  that  we  have  here  the  tomb 
of  the  famous  consul .  The  date  and  the  circumstances 
connected  with  the  translation  of  his  relics  to  Rome 

from  the  place  where  he  suffered  are  not  known. 

Db  Rossi.  BuUeUino  di  arch.  Criat.  (1888-9).  p.  15;  (1890).  p. 
97;  Lancxani,  Paoan  or  Chriatian  Rome  (London,  1892),  p.  4; 
Idbm,  in  Atlantic  Monthly  (Boston,  July,  1891);  Frotting- 
BAM,  in  American  Journal  of  ArcKaology  (Boston,  June,  1888); 
Lb  Blant,  Ccmptea  rendua  de  VAcad,  dea  InacripL  (Paris, 
1888),  p.  113;  Marucchi.  Le  Caiacombe  Romane  (Rome,  1903), 
pp.  459=e6;  Armbllxni.  GH  aniichi  eimileri  (Rome,  1893); 
AiiLABD,  Lea  eataeombea  da  Rome  (Paris,  1896). 

Arthur  S.  Barnes. 

Olagolitic  (or  Glagolitba;  Slavonic glaool,  a  word; 
gfagoUUi,  to  speak).  An  ancient  alphabet  of  the 
Slavic  languages,  also  called  in  Russian  bukvitsa. 
The  ancient  Slavonic  when  reduced  to  writing  seems 
to  have  been  orieinally  written  with  a  kind  of  runic 
letters,  which,  when  formed  into  a  regular  alphabet, 
were  called  the  Glagolitic,  that  is  the  signs  which 
spoke.  St.  Cjrril,  who,  together  with  his  brother  St. 
Methodius,  translated  the  Greek  liturgy  into  Slavonic 
when  he  converted  the  Bulgarians  and  Moravians, 
invented  the  form  of  letters  derived  from  the  Greek 
alphabet  with  which  the  church  Slavonic  is  usually 
written.  This  is  known  as  the  Cyrillic  alphabet  or 
KiriUUsa,  The  Cvrillic  form  of  letters  is  used  in  all 
the  liturgical  books  of  the  Greek  Churches,  whether 
Catholic  or  schismatic,  which  use  the  Slavonic  language 
in  their  liturgy,  and  even  the  present  Russian  lupha- 
bet,  the  Grazhdanska,  is  merely  a  modified  form  of  the 
Cyrillic  with  a  few  letters  omitted.  The  order  of  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  in  the  Glagolitic  and  in  the 
Cyrillic  is  nearly  the  same,  but  the  letters  bear  no 
resemblance  to  each  other,  except  possibly  in  one  or 
two  instances.  Jagii  upholds  the  theory  that  St. 
Cyril  himself  invented  the  Glagolitic,  and  that  his 
disciple  St.  Clement  transformed  it  into  Cyrillic  by 
imitating  the  Greek  uncial  letters  of  his  day.  There 
is  a  tradition,  however,  that  St.  Jerome,  who  was  a 
Dalmatian,  was  the  inventor.  Some  of  the  earliest 
Slavic  manuscripts  are  written  in  the  Glagolitic  charac- 
ters.   The  Cyrillic  alphabet  continued  to  be  used  for 


.OLAIRI                               576  OLANVILLl 

writing  the  Slavonic  in  Bulgaria,  Russia,  and  Galicia,  Olairei  Jban-Baftzstb,  priest,  hebraist,  and  Bibli* 
while  the  Southern  and  Western  Slavs  used  the  Gla-  cal  scholar;  b.  at  Bordeaux,  1  April,  1798;  d.  at  Issy, 
golitic.  These  Slavs  were  converted  to  Christianity  near  Paris,  25  Feb.,  1879.  Having  completed  a  course 
and  to  the  Roman  Rite  by  Latin  missionaries,  and  of  serious  study  at  Bordeaux,  he  went  to  the  seminanr 
gradually  the  Roman  alphabet  drove  out  the  use  of  of  Saint-Sulpice  at  Paris,  the  courses  of  which  he  fol- 
the  Glagolitic,  so  that  the  Bohemians,  Slovenians,  lowedsimultaneously  with  those  of  Oriental  langua^ 
Moravians,  and  part  of  the  Croatians  used  Roman  at  the  Sorbonne  (State  Faculty  of  Theology).  Aner 
letters  in  writing  their  languages.  In  Southern  his  ordination  to  priesthood,  in  1822,  he  began  to 
Croatia  and  in  Dalmatia  (often  treated  as  sjmonymous  teach  Hebrew  at  the  seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice.  In 
with  Illyria  in  ancient  times)  the  Glagolitic  has  con-  1825  he  was  made  assistant  to  the  Abb6  Chaunac  de 
tinned  in  use  as  an  ecclesiastical  alphabet  in  writing  Lanzac,  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  Sorbonne,  and 
the  ancient  Slavonic.  Although  the  Slavic  peoples  succeedea  him  as  lecturer  in  1831.  He  was  prof essor  of 
bordering  on  the  Adriatic  Sea  were  converted  to  the  Sacred  Scripture  in  1836,  became  dean  of  the  faculty 
Roman  Kite,  they  received  the  privilege,  as  well  as  in  1841.  and  retired  in  1851.  His  numerous  works  are 
their  brethem  of  the  Greek  Rite,  of  having  the  Mass  out  of  date,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  he  did 
and  the  offices  of  the  Church  said  in  their  own  tongue,  much  for  the  study  of  Holy  Scripture,  and,  further- 
Thus  the  Roman  Mass  was  translated  into  the  Sla-  more,  in  a  very  conservative  way. 
vonic,  and^  in  order  to  more  fuUy  distmguish  the  The  following  are  his  chief  publications. — OnOrien- 
Westem  Rite  from  the  Eastern  Rite  among  tne  Slavic  tal  langua^:  "'  Lexicon  manuale  hebraicum  et  dial- 
peoples,  the  use  of  the  Glagolitic  alphabet  was  reserved  daicum ' ',  Paris,  1830  (correction  of  the  "  Lexicon  "  of 
exclusively  for  the  service  books  of  the  Roman  Rite,  Gesenius) ;  "  Principes  de  erammaire  h^braldue  et 
just  as  the  Cyrillic  was  used  for  the  Greek  Rite.  chaldalque  ",  Paris,  1832  ana  1843 ;  ''  Manuel  de  lli€- 


whlle  permitted  in  general  among  the  Slavs  of  Dal-  arabe'',  Paris,  1861.  On  Holy  Scnpture: 
matia  and  Croatia  from  the  earnest  times  since  the'  tion  historiqueet  critique  aux  livres  de  I'Ancien  etdu 
Slavonic  became  a  liturgical  language  under  Pope  Nouveau  Testament",  Paris,  1836,  several  times  re- 
John  VIII,  was  definitely  settled  by  the  Constitution  edited ;  he  summarized  it  in  his  ''  Abr^  d'introduo- 
of  Urban  VIII,  dated  29  April,  1631,  in  which  he  tion"  etc.,  Paris,  1846,  which   also  went  throu^ 

Provided  for  a  new  and  corrected  edition  of  the  Slavic  several  editions;  **  Les  Livres  saints  vengjSs,  ou  la  v^ 

[issal  conformable  to  the  Roman  editions.    In  1648  rit4  historiaue  et  divine  de  I'Ancien  et  du  Nouveau 

Innocent  X  provided  likewise  for  the  Slavic  Brevity,  Testament  ,  Paris^  1845.    The  portion  of  his  work 

and  by  order  of  Innocent  XI  the  new  edition  of  the  which  endures  consists  of  his  translations  of  the  Bible: 

Roman-Illvrian   Breviary  was  published   in   1688.  "  La  sainte  Bible  en  latin  et  en  francais",  Paris,  1834; 

In  the  preface  to  this  Breviary  the  pope  speaks  of  the  "Torah  Mosch^,  le  Pentateuque",  Hebrew  text  with 

language  and  letters  employed  therem,  and  gives  St.  translation  and  annotations;  "La  sainte  Bible  selon 

Jerome  the  credit  for  the  invention  of  the  Glagolitic  la  Vulgate",  Paris,  1871-1873,  an  exact  but  too  literal 

characters:  "Quum  igitur  Illyricanmi  gentium,  qusB  version;  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  also 

longe  lateciue  per  Europam  diffusse  sunt,  atque  ab  freauently  published  separately,  was  specially  exam- 

ipsis   gloriosis   Apostolorum   Principibus   Petro   et  inea  and  approved  at  Rome.    Crlaire's  translation  was 

Paulo   potissimum   Christi   fidem   edoctse   fuerunt,  insertedintne"Biblepolyglotte"ofVigouroux,  Paris, 

libros  sanctos  jam  inde  a  S.  Hieron^ini  temporibus,  1889-1890.     With  Viscount  Walsh,  Glaire  edited  the 

ut  pervetusta  ad  nos  detulit  traditio,  vel  certe  a  "Encyclopedic   catholique"    (Paris,    1854 ),   to 

Pontificatu  fel.  rec.  Joannis  Papas  VIII,  prsedecessoris  which  he  contribuj^  a  number  of  articles, 
nostri,  uti  ex  ejusdem  datft  super  e&  re  epistol&  con-  A.  Boudinhon. 

stat,  ritu  quidem  romano,  sed  idiomate  slavonico,  et 

charactere  S.  Hieron^rmi  vulgo  nuncupato  conscriptos,        OlanTiUe,  Ranulf  de.  Chief  Justiciar  of  England ; 

opportune  recognitione   indigere   compertum   sit."  b.  at  Stratford,  Suffolk,  England,  date  unknown;  d. 

Tne  new  edition  of  the  Roman  Ritual  in  Glagolitic  before  Acre,  Palestine,  1190.    He  was  of  a  baronial 

form  had  previously  been  published  in  the  year  1640.  house  which  got  its  name  from  Glanville,  in  Normandy, 

The  latest  editions  of  the  Missal  and  ritual  are  those  and  which  in  England  held  property  in  Norfolk  and 

of  the   Propaganda,   "Missale   Romanum,   Slavic^  Suffolk.    His  father  was  William  de  Glanville,  of 

ling^uA,  j^a^olitico   charactere''   (Rome,   1893),  and  whom  he  was  a  younger  son,  though  eventually,  on  the 

"Rlmski  Ritual  (Obrednik)  izdan  za  sapoviedi  Sv.  death  of  an  elder  brother,  he  inherited  the  family 

Otca  Pape  Paula  V"  (Rome,  1894).    There  was  a  estates  and  honours.    Botn  before  and  after  his  ap- 

former  edition  of  the  Glagolitic  Missal,  "Ordo  et  pointmenttothe  judicial  bench,  he  held  the  shrievalty 

Canon  Missse,  Slavice"  (Rome^  1887),  but  on  account  of  various  counties,  which  seems  to  betoken  employ- 

of  the  numerous  errors  in  pnnting  and  text  it  was  mentintheExchequer;inparticularhe  wasShenff  of 

destroyed,  and  only  a  few  copies  are  in  existence,  the  great  Coimty  of  York  from  1163  till  the  death  of 

The  use  of  the  Latin  language  in  the  Dalmatian  King  Henry  II,  save  a  short  break,  and  in  1173  he 

seminaries  since  the  year  1828  has  had  the  effect  of  became  Sheriff  of  Lancashire.    In  tne  latter  year,  in 

increasing  the  use  of  the  Latin  in  the  Roman  Rite  concert  with  William  the  Lion,  King  of  Scots,  and  the 

there,  and  the  use  of  the  Glagolitic  books  has  accord-  French  king,  there  broke  out  the  great  rebellion  of 

ingly  diminished.    Of  course  the  non-Slavic  inhabi-  King  Henry's  sons  against  their  father,  and  in  the 

tants  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia  have  always  used  the  following  year  the  Scottish  king  entered  England  witn 

Latin  language  in  the  Roman  Rite.    At  present  the  a  mighty  host.  King  Henry  being  then  in  Poitot 

Slavonic  uinguage  for  the  Roman  Rite,  printed  in  However,  in  Jul^r,  Robert  Stuteville,  Sheriff  of  York- 

Glagolitic  clmracters,  is  used  in  the  Slavic  churches  shire,  and  Glanville,  the  latter  doubtless  at  the  head 

of  the  Dioceses  of  Zen^,  Ve^lia,  Zara,  and  Spalato,  of  the  men  of  Lancashire,  encoimtered  the  invaders 

and  also  by  the  Franciscans  in  their  three  churches  near  Alnwick  and  utterly  routed  them.  King  William 

in  Ve^a,  one  in  Cherso,  two  in  Zara,  and  one  in  Se-  himself  becoming  Glanville's  prisoner, 
benico.  Priests  are  forbidden  to  mingle  the  Slavonic  and        In  1176  we  find  Glanville  a  justice  itinerant,  and  in 

lAtin  languages  in  the  celebration  of  the  Mass,  which  1180  he  became  Chief  Justiciar  of  EIngland.    He  had 


1905)/^  negotiations,  and  warlike  expeditions,  and  in  1182  was 

Andrew  J.  Shipman.        appointed  an  executor  of  the  king's  wilL    In  1189 


'A 


OLABEUr  577  aUUGOW 

HeoTf  n  died.    At  the  coronation  of  bis  BucoesBor,  muaio  and  ceoKraphv.    He  published  &t  Bade,  In 

Riobard  I,  the  Bame  year,  Chief  JuBticiar  GlAnviUe  waa  1547,  his  "DodekkchordoD",  which  was  bsMd  on 

present,  and  when  that  prince  took  the  cross,  Glan-  twentyyears'studyof  ancientandeccleaiaeticalmusio, 

ville  joined  him,  contributing  a  laive  sum  tow^s  the  and  introduced  twelve  tones,  instead  of  the  eii^t  only 

orusade.    In  the  autumn  of  1 190  he  died  at  the  siege  which  bad  been  known  until  then.    The  "  Dodek^ 

of  Acre,  a  victim  to  the  unwbolesomeness  of  the  cu-  chordon"  was  recently  published  in  the  sixteenth 

mate.     By  his  wife.  Bertha,  a  daughter  of  a  neigh-  volume  of  the  "Publikation  filterer  praktJscher  und 

bouriag  Suffolk  landowner,  Theobald  de  Valognee,  he  theoretischer  Musikwerke"  (Leipzig,  1888-90).     The 

left  three  daughters.    Glanville  ia  the  reput^author  atandingof  Glareanasageograpner  restsonhis  "Hel- 

of  acelebratea  workentitled  "Tractatusde  Legibuset  velis  Deacriptio",  a  verae  composition  (Basle,  151S; 

de  Conauetudinibua  Regni  Anglis",  the  oldest  known  also  re-edited  by  Bernoulli  in  lS90),  oneof  theeariiest 

treatise  on  En^ish  jurisprudence,  more  likely  written  andmo6t  widely  read  descriptions  of  Switzerland;  also 

■""   his   illustrious    nephew   and   secretary,    Hubert  on  his  "Liber  de  Geographic  unua"  {BaslBj  1527), 

.  ter.     Furthermore,  he  founded  two  abbeys,  both  which  is  an  exhaustive  and  specific  study,  m  forty 

in  Suffolk,  vis.,  Butley,  for  Black  Canons,  in  1171.  and  chapters,  of  the  principles  of  mathematical  ^graphy. 

Leiston,   for  White  Canons,   in   1183;  also  a  leper  A  mid  of  historical  intereat  was  a  manuacnpt  map  of 

hospital  at  Somerton,  in  Norfolk.  the  world,  dated  1610,  in  which  he,  like  WaldseemOI- 

Maitlahd  ill  Diri.  Mil.  Biogr.,  qbw  ed.,  VTI,  I20S~4  (LoDdon,  ler,  used  for  the  newly  discovered  continent  the  name 

1»8);   f™,  BiMT  Dici   Judea  at  Emrfrnd  (London   1870).  of  "Terra  America".    The  library  of  Glarean  eventtt- 

SriSiiTrSHhe  fl^i  \^,^oi  .tSu't  ^Ut  ^n  E^  !^  <^7  pa»ed,  through  his  friend,  Biihop  S.B.  von  KnOi- 

Uiioo  by  Joha  Bcames  appeared  in  London  in  Igisl  ingen,  to  the  University  of  Ingolstadt,  and  u  now  at 

C.  T.  BooTHHAN.  Hunicb. 

EicRUiaiR.    Hrinrich   Leriti  Olartarmt    (Freiburs.    1837): 

Qlareftn  (LORm),  HbNrt,  the  most  distinguished  /aadichr^aicht  KaHm  da  Olanami*  in  dtt  WOntAiur  Univtr- 

of  Swiss  humanists,   poet,   philosopher,  KetMnapher,  n(AU6ibJui<A<fcin  AAn*fr«dUrfa'i«anipA.0iHllKA.  (Uunkfa, 

mthemaUcta,  mJ  iiiciJn,  wni  bom  at  SiiJi.  \S'i!?il*iInS-J^'!!i%2SS:S3^SS. 

near  Glania,  Switzeriand,  m  June,  1488,  and  died  at  gtaphlieai  Jounat  (iwa),  XXV.  647-M. 
Freiburg-im-Brei^au,   27  March,   1563.    Loriti,  or  Otto  Hartio. 

Glarean,  aa  he  came  to  be  called  after  1511,  from  the         OlM,  John.     See  Sandemanianb. 
name  of  the  town  near  which  he  was  bom,  rweivftd        aiMp,^,  j.  Archoiocese  op  (Gi-asouensib),  tn 

h»  first  i^tmct«m   „  did  Oswald  My«.n. us,  Rudo  f  ^^^^  ^^.^^t  of  Scotland,  comprising  at  the  ^ 

^.'"'Klrus*l^'^Td'^;^\^atan^to^^^^  -^  day  the  Counties  of  Lanark,  D^barton.*^ 
development  of  his  pupil's  musical  talent.  In  1566 
Glarean  entered  the  University  of  Cologne,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  philosophical  and  theological  atud- 
iee,  and  learned  music  and  mathematics  from  Coch- 
IsUB,  and  Greek  from  Ccesarius.  In  1510  he  became  a 
licentiate  and  Maatorof  Arts.  In  1512  Maximilian  I 
showed  his  appreciatioQ  of  a  poem  which  Glarean  com* 
posed  in  his  honour  by  raising  its  author  to  the  dig- 
nity of  poet  laureate.  In  1514  the  University  of  Basle  - 
received  him  among  its  Magieiri  and  licensed  him  to 
conduct  a  bursa,  or  students'  hall.  Among  his  pupils 
'was  i£gidius  Tschudi,  who  was  afterwards  to  become 
famous  as  an  historian  of  Switzerland  and  as  a  zealous 
defender  of  Catholicism  in  the  Canton  of  Glanis. 

While  at  Basle  Glarean  formed  a  strong  attachment 
tor  Erasmus,  who  in  turn,  acting  as  parens  et  prtrcep- 
tor,  remainea  to  the  last  a  devot^  friend  and  no  doubt  „ 

influenced  his  attitude  in  the  midst  of  religious  agita- 

tion  and  troubles.    Glarean  carried  a  recommenda-  ,  .     r  <  n.  l 

tion  from  him  when  he  started  for  Paris  in  1517 ;  here,  Renfrew,  part  of  Ayrshire  north  of  Lugfon  Water,  the 

too,  he  gathered  pupUs  around  him  in  a  burm  and  en-  districtofBaldemockinStirhngshire,andtheCumbrae 

tered  into  close  scientific  intercourse  with  Budteus,  Isles.   The  see  was  founded  betw^n  540  and  560  by 

Faber  Stapulensis,  and  Fauatus  Andrelinus.     On  the  St.  Kentisem.  or  Mungo,  who  died  13  Jan,,  601.    He 

death  of  the  last-named,  Glarean  became  the  recipient  also  esUbliahed  on  the  Welsh  model  a  religious  com- 

of  a  royal  allowance,  although  he  received  no  mandate  munity,  which  served  as  a  much  needed  centre  to  pre- 

to  lecture  publicly.     In  1522  he  settled  at  Basle,  serve  the   Faith   among  the   surrounding  Christian 

where  he  had  a  lai^  following;  but  the  continued  ad-  population.    In  his  time  Cathures,  aa  the  place  w^ 

vance  of  the  rdigious  movement  which  he,  as  an  ad-  onginally  called,  stood  at  the  northern  limit  of  the 

mirer  of  Luther's  writmgs  and  an  intimate  friend  of  little  kingdom  of  the  Strathclyde  Britons,  which  ex- 

Zwingli  Myconius,  and  (Ecolompadius,  had  origmally  tended  on  the  west  of  the  island  southwards  as  far  aa 

sympathized  with,  gave  him  little  satisfaction.     He  Carlisle  in  Cumberland.    On  the  north-west  were  the 

severed  his  relations  with  the  partisans  of  the  Refoi^  Scots  of  Dalriada,  and  on  the  north-east  Uie  Picta, 

mation,  and  in  1529  emigrated  with  Ber,  Amerbach,  who  were  then  being  converted  to  Chnatianity  by  St. 

and  Erasmus,  to  Freiburg-im-Breisgau.     He  laboured  Columba  and  his  missionary  monks  from  lona.    On 

in  this  university  until  hia  death,  and  was  one  of  its  the  east  the  Strathclyde  Britons,  like  their  brethren 

most  celebrated  professors.  in  Wales,  were  pressed  by  the  Angles  and  Saxons 

Glarean  was  the  author  of  numerous  and  important  westward  to  the  sea. 
works.     In  the  course  of  hia  public  and  private  teach-         On  account  of  the  struggle  of  races  tor  mastery  and 

ing  he  produced  a  multitude  of  editions  of,  and  com-  the  confusion  of  the  times  that  followed  there  appeare 

mentanee   on,   ancient  writera,   among   whom   were  to  have  been  no  regular  succession  of  bishops  till  the 

Uvy,  Dionysiua  of  Halicamassus,  Horace,  Ovid,  Don-  time  of  Alexander  I  of  Scotland,  son  of  St.  Margaret, 

atus,  C^sar,  Sallust,  Terence,  Boethius,  Lucan,  Vale-  His  brother  and  successor  on  the  throne,  St.  David, 

rius  Maximus,   Eutropius,   and   Curtius.     He  made  while  prince  of  this  region  under  the  name  of  Cumbria, 

distinguished  contributions  to  his  favourite  sciences,  may  be  said  to  have  restored  the  Diocese  of  Glasgow. 
VI.— 37 


SLASOOW  578  OLABOOW 

lliefiratbiBhopof therestoredaeewasJohnEoohj.or  Glaagow  was  re-eatablUhed,  and  Archbishop  Eyre 
Achaius,  who  aetd  it  from  1115  till  1147.  He  had  was  transferred  to  the  restored  see.  He  had  consoli- 
twenty-three  succesaors  in  actual  possession  till  1560,  dated  the  work  of  bis  predecessors  in  the  former 
when  the  Catholic  Faith  was  abolished  by  act  of  the  vicariate,  and  had  laid  the  foundations  for  a  complete 
Scottish  Parliament.  Nearly  all  these  bishops  of  Glas-  diocesan  organization.  In  1884  he  obtained  from  the 
gow  took  an  active  share  in  the  government  of  the  Holy  See  the  erection  of  a  cathedral  chapter  with  a 
country,  whether  as  chancellors  or  treasurers  of  the  provost  and  eleven  eanons.  He  introduced  a  thor- 
kingdom  or  as  members  of  reeencyduring  the  MiinoritT  ough  system  of  inspection  in  religious  knowledge  for 
of  a  sovereign.  Robert  Wishart  (consecr.  1272,  d.  the  schools  i3f  the  archdiocese.  He  was  also  the  foun- 
1316)  was  conspicuous  for  his  patriotism  during  the  der  in  1874  of  the  diocesan  college  for  bi^er  studieo. 
War  of  Independence,  and  was  the  close  friend  of  to  house  which  he  erected  in  1892  at  his  own  cost  a 
Wallace  and  Bruce.  William  Tumbull  (consecr.  1447,  building  worthy  of  the  purpose.  He  was  succeeded 
d.  1454}  obtained  in  1450  from  Pope  Nicholas  V  the  in  1902  by  John  Aloysius  Haguire  (b.  1851),  who  had 
charter  of  foundation  for  the  University  of  Glasgow,  been  consecrated  as  auxiliary  bishop  in  1894.  The 
On  9  January,  1492,  Innocent  VIII  raised  the  see  to  Catholics  of  the  Glasgow  district  are  computed  at 
metropolitan  rank,  attachingto  it  the  suffragan  dio-  380,000  out  of  a  general  population  within  the  same 
ceaes  of  Argyle,  Dumblane,  Dunkeld,  and  Galloway,  bounds  of  1,180,CKX).  The  number  of  Catholic  bap- 
JamesBeaton,nephewof  the  celebrated  cardinal  of  the  tismein  1906  was  14,785.  Taking  the  statistics  avail- 
same  surname,  was  the  fourth  and  last  archbishop  of  able  for  1908,  there  are  91  quBsi-parishes,  with  271 
the  old  hierarchy.  In  1560,  ei^ht  years  after  his  nom-  priests  on  active  service  distributed  over  21  deaneries, 
inatkin,  be  was  forced  to  retire  to  France,  where  be  There  are  7  religious  communities  of  men.  and  16  of 
acted  as  confidential  agent  of  Queen  Mary,  and  later  women.  There  are  Catholic  elementary  schools  in  all 
the  quasi-parishes,  besides  14  upperschools  and  ft 
I  trainmg  college  for  female  teachers.     The  teaching 

staff  of  the  archdiocese  numbers  1230.    The  number 
!  of  children  presented  in  1907  for  rehgiousexamination 

in  the  elementary  schools  was  65,350.  There  are  15 
charitable  institutions  of  various  kinds,  and  there  is  a 
conference  of  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society  in  nearly 
every  quaai-parish. 

Rtffutrum    Ejtiscopattia    Gituoufnna,     with     Inlroduoljod, 

BrlDted  for  the  llailiuid  Qub  (Edinburtb,  lS43)i  Thr  Cathclie 
^Ttetorv  tar  SaMand  (Edioburih,  16081;  TTke  WaUm  CoMolM 
CaUndar  (Olasgoo.  ISOB). 

John  RrrcHiE. 

11.  Glasgow  UNivEnsiTT. — Forty  yeara  later  than 

St.  Andrews,  Glasgow  University  was  founded  by  Bull 
of  Nicholas  V,  datM  7  January,  1450-1,  granted  at  the 
request  of  James  II,  who  acted  on  the  advice  of  Wil- 

i™«o.  OF  C*TB.i.a.t,  OF  8,.  McKoo.  O-uoow  Ij?""  Tumbull,  Bishop  of  Gla^w.     The  bishop  and 
his  successors  were  to  be  ex-oincio  chancellors  of  the 

openly  as  ambassador  for  James  VI,  till  his  death  in  university;  the  foundation  also  provided  for  a  rector, 

Paris,  25  April,  1603.    He  carried  away  with  him  the  doctors  and  masters  in  the  four  faculties.     Originally, 

diocesan  records,  two  of  which  deserve  special  men-  it  appears,  most  of  the  students  enrolled  were  eccle- 

tion:  (l)"RegistrumVetusEccle8iieCathedralisGlas-  siastics,  secular  and  regular,  esi>ecialty  of  the  Domini- 

guensLs",  in  handwriting  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  can  Otder:  "many  of  the  Friars  Predicatora  were 

centuries,  and  (2)  "Liber  Ruber  Ecclesiee  Glasguen-  diligent  students"  (Munim.,  i,  34)  "and  took  a  deep 

sis",  with  entries  from  about  1400  to  1476.    These,  interest  in  the  sueceas  of  the  university"  (Stewart,  p. 

along  with  other  records,  were  in  1843  printed  in  a  siii);  and   Bishop  TurnbuU  warmly  encouraged  his 

bantuome  volume  for  the  Maitland  Club  under  the  clergy  both  to  learn  and  to  teach.     He  also  procured 

title:    "Registrum    Episcopatus   Glasguenais:    Muni-  from  James  II  a  royal  charter  in  1453.     TheBuUcon- 

menta  EccleRi£B  Metropolitans  Glasguensis  a  sede  res-  stituted  a  "studium  generate,  tam  in  theolo^  aa 

tauratA  ssculo  ineunte   XII  ad   reformatam   religi-  lure  canonico  et  civili  quam  in  artibus  et  quavis  alift 

onem".  A  more  splendid  memorial  of  those  times  still  licita  f acultate  ",  after  the  pattern  of  Bologna.     The 

remains  in  the  old  cathedral  of  St,  Mungo,  which  whs  foundation  of  a  college  followed  soon;  it  stood  at  first 

b^Eun  by  Bishop  Jocelyn  {consecr.  1175,  d.  1199)  and  near  Rotten  Row;  later,  on  a  site  given  by  Lord  Hamil- 

received  its  last  additions  from  Archbishop  Blackader  ton  in  High  Street,  where  it  remained  ttll  1870.     The 

(consecr.  1484,  d.  1508).    The  buiUing  as  a  national  college  (Padagogium)  was  ruled  by  three  "regento"; 

monument  is  administered  by  a  department  of  Gov-  the  students  were  distributed  in  four  "  nations  .origj- 

ertiment,  and  the  chancel  is  used  for  the  Presbyterian  n^y  called  Clidisdalue,  Tkeindalia,  Albania,  Boaay, 

worship  of  the  State  Church.  now  surviving  as  GlcUiana,  Loudoniana,  Trantjor- 

Glasgow  did  not  a^in  become  a  centre  of  Catholic  thana,  Rolkseiana.     Among  the  roost  famous  names  in 

life  till  about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  theearlyannalsof  the  university  are:  William  Elphin- 

The  great  industrial  development  which  then  began  stone,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Aberdeen  and  founder  (in 

drew  to  the  city  and  its  neighbourhood  Catholics  from  1494^5)   of  Aberdeen   Univeraity:   the   poet  Robert 

the  Scottish  Highlands  and  later,  in  far  greater  num-  Heniysonj  John  Knox;  Cardinal  Beaton;  and  James 

ben,  from  Ireland.   In  1828  the  Holy  See  erected  the  Beaton,  his  nephew,  chancellor  of  the  university  and 

Western  District  orVicariate  of  Scotland,  and  the  first  Archbishop  of  Glasgow  in  1560,  when,  upon  the  estab- 

vicar  Apostolic  to  reside  in  Glasgow  was  Andrew  Scott,  lishment  of  ProteatantiBm,  he  fied  to  France. 

BishopofEretria(b.l772,d.l846).  He  was  succeeded  The  university,  almost  destroyed  in  the  religious 

by  John  Murdoch,  Bishop  of  Castabata  (b.  1796,  d.  troubles,  was  refounded  by  James  VI,  then  a  minor 

1865)  amd  John  Gray,  Bishop  of  Hypsopolis  (b.  1817,  under  Morton's  regency,  in  1577  (Nova  Errdio),  with 

d.  1872).     On  the  resignation  of  Bishop  Gray  in  1869  increased  endowments,  and  reorganiied  by  Andrew 

Charles  Eyre  (b.  1817,  d.  1902)  was  consecrated  Areh-  Melville  or  Melvin.     From  that  time  it  has  continued 

bishop   of  Anaiarba   and   appointed   administrator  to  increase;  Dr.  Weir  (op.  cit.)  calculated  the  number 

Apostolic.  On  the  restoration  oi  the  Scottish  hierarchy  of  students  at  various  epochs  as  follows:  at  beginnins 

by  Leo  XIII,  4  March,  1878,  the  Archbishopric  of  of  si^tteenth  century,  60;  at  beginninn  of  seventeenth^ 


OLASTONBUBT          579  OLASTONBUBT 

century,  100;  at  beginning  of  eighteenth  century,  400;  St.  Philip  the  Apostle.    The  king  of  the  period,  Avira- 

at  beginning  of  nineteenth  century,  700;  in  1870-1,  gus,  jgave  to  these  twelve  holy  men  the  Island  of  Ynys- 

1279;  in  1889-90,  2180.    In  1907-8  there  were  1905  witnn  and  there,  in  obedience  to  a  vision,  they  biult  a 

men  students  (arts,  691;  science,  275;  theology,  56;  church  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.    This 

medicine,  623;  law,  208).     In  1892  a  neighbouring  church,  called  the  vetiuia  eccUsia  or  lignea  basUicaf 

institution,  established  in  1883,  for  the  l^gher  edu-  from  its  being  constructed  of  osiers  wattled  together, 

cation  of  women  (Queen  Margaret  College)  was  incor-  was  found  more  than  one  himdred  years  later  by  Tagan 

porated  into  the  university,  and  there  are  now  some  and  Deruvian,  missionaries  sent  to  Lucius,  King  of  the 

600  female  students.  Britons,  by  Pope  Eleutherius.    Here  therefore  the 

The  development  of  the  university  kept  pace  with  missionaries  settled,  repaired  the  vetiuta^  eccUsia^  and, 
.  the  growth  of  Glasgow,  and  the  increasing  commercial  on  their  departure,  chose  twelve  of  their  converts  to 
importance  of  the  citv  was  reflected  in  the  advance  of  remain  in  tne  island  as  hermits  in  memory  of  the  ori^- 
scientific  studies.  The  brothers  William  and  John  inal  twelve.  This  community  of  twelve  hermits  is 
Hunter,  in  medicine;  the  philosophers  Francis  Hutche-  described  as  continuing  unmodified  until  the  coming 
son,  Thomas  Reid,  and  Adam  Smith,  are  the  great  of  St.  Patrick,  the  Apostle  of  the  Irish,  in  433,  who 
names  in  the  eighteenth  centuiy,  as  teachers;  Tobias  taught  the  hermits  to  live  together  as  cenobites,  him- 
SmoUett,  James  Boswell,  Francis  Jeffrey,  and  Thomas  self  jbecame  their  abbot,  and  remained  at  Glastonbury 
Campbcdl  as  students.  The  university  was  also  made  until  his  death,,  when  his  body  was  buried  in  the  tie- 
famous  by  the  Foulis  printing  press  and  the  mechanical  tutia  ecdena.  After  St.  PatricK  his  disciple,  St.  Benig- 
experiments  of  James  Watt,  inventor  of  the  steam-  nus,  became  abbot  at  Glastonbury,  whUe  St.  David  of 
engine.  But  perhaps  the  most  world-wide  celebrity  Menevia  is  also  stated  to  have  come  thither,  built  ah- 
that  Glasgow  University  can  boast  is  the  late  William  other  church,  and  presented  a  famous  jewd  known  as 
Thomson,  Lord  Kelvin,  who  tau^t  and  carried  on  his  the  Great  Sapphire  of  Glastonbury.  The  chronicler 
researches  here  for  fiftv  years  till  his  retirement  in  then  goes  on  to  record  the  death  and  burial  of  King 
1899.  Sir  Richard  Jebb  and  Dr.  Gilbert  Murray  were  Arthur  at  Glastonbury  and  gives  a  list  of  British  saints 
successively  professors  of  Greek  from  1874  to  1899;  who  either  died  and  were  buried  at  Glastonbury,  or 
the  Cairds,  John  and  Edward,  were  great  names  in  whose  bodies  were  translated  thither  on  the  gradual 
Scotland;  and  the  medical  faculty  has  been  and  is  still  western  advance  of  the  conquering  English. 
eraced  by  men  of  European  reputation,  such  as  Lord  The  first  impression  produced  on  a  modem  mind  by 
Lister  and  Sir  W.  MacEwen.  William  of  Malmesbury's  pages  is  that  the  whole  is  one 

The  government  of  the  university  has  been  sub-  barefaced  invention,  but  on  this  point  the  late  Profes- 

jected  to  revision  by  royal  commission  manv  times,  sor  Freeman  may  be  quoted  as  an  unbiased  authority 

particularly  in  1830,  1858, 1889.    The  old  college  was  (Proc.  of  Somerset  Archeoloeical  Soc.,  vol.  XXVI): 

abandoned  in  1870  for  the  large,  and  still  lar^y  ez-  "  We  need  not  believe  that  uie  Glastonbury  legends 

panding,  buildings  on  Gilmorehill.    The  teachmg  staff  are  facts ;  but  the  existence  of  those  legends  is  a  great 

numbers  32  professors,  50  lecturers,  and  40  assistants,  fact.  .  .  .    The  legends  of  the  spot  go  back  to  the 

The  total  revenues  from  all  sources  (including  Govern-  days  of  the  Apostles.    We  are  met  at  the  very  begin- 

ment  annual  grant  of  £20,0(X))  amount  to  about  £80,-  nin^  with  the  names  of  St.  Philip  and  St.  James,  of 

000.    Magnificent  additions  to  the  equipment  of  the  thep  twelve  disciples,  with  Joseph  of  Arimathea  at 

scientific  and  medical  faculties  have  recently  been  their  head,  ...  we  read  the  tale  of  Fagan  and  Deru- 

made,  the  cost  of  which  has  been  defrayed  partly  by  vian ;  we  read  of  Indractus  and  Gildas  and  Patrick 

the  Carnegie  Trust  and  partly  h^  special  subscription,  and  David  and  Columb  and  Bridget,  all  dwellers  in  or 

Munimmta  Univenitaiu  Glaaffuentit  (OlMgow.  1864);  R»ii>.  visitors  to  the  first  spot  where  the  Gospel  had  shone  in 

5^^122^  ll.'S^rBltsSSSnai;^^^  Brita«:    No  fiction  no  dream  could  have  dared  to  eet 

MemonaU  of  iA«  Old  CoUege  (Glasgow,  1871);  &tbwaiit.  Unir  down  the  names  of  SO  many  worthies  of  the  earlier 

vwsUy  0/  QkMopw,  Old  and  New  (1891);  Coutm.  A  Short  Ac-  races  of  the  British  Islands  m  the  Liber  ViUe  of  Dur- 

?J^''^i^^rS^/?'SnSS';iX?'S.TKSS';S?kt  hamorPeterboroudi     Now  I  do  not  ask  you  to  be- 

pxeparation.    Raxt  in  TroMoetioM  of  tK«  GUugow  Arehaol.  Soe,,  lieve  these  legends ;  I  do  ask  you  to  believe  that  there 

V,  1908.                                         T   Q   T>  ^^  some  special  cause  whv  legends  of  this  kind 

J.  S.  Fhilumore.  should  grow,  at  all  events  why  they  should  erow  in 

such  a  shape  and  in  such  abundance,  round  Gla»- 

Olastonbnry   Abbey    [GLiBsnNGABURH ;    called  tonbiiry  alone  of  all  the  great  monastic  churches  of 

also  YNYSwrraiN  (Isle  of  Glass)  and  Avalon  (Isle  Britain."    And  he  explains  the  ''special  cause"  as 

of  Apples)],  Benedictine  monastery.  Somersetshire,  follows:  ''The  simple  truth  then  is  this,  that  among 

England,  pre-eminently  the  centre  ot  eariy  Christian  all  the  greater  churches  of  England,  Glastonbuiy  is  the 

tradition  m  Ekidand.    Though  now  thirteen  miles  in-  only  one  where  we  mav  be  content  to  lav  aside  the 

land  from  the  Bristol  Channel,  it  was  ancientlv  an  name  of  England  and  fall  back  on  the  older  name  of 

island  encircled  by  broaa  fens,  the  steep  conical  hill  Britain,  ...  as  I  have  often  said,  the  talk  about  the 

called  (Glastonbury  Tor  risine  therefrom  to  a  height  of  ancient  British  Ghurch,  which  is  simply  childish  non- 

about  four  hundred  feet.    Tnus,  difficult  of  access  and  sense  when  it  is  talked  at  Canterbury  or  York  or  Lon- 

easy  of  defence,  it  formed  a  natural  sanctuary  round  don,  ceases  to  be  childish  nonsense  when  it  is  talked  at 

which  has  gradually  clustered  a  mass  of  tradition.  Glastonbury."    This  much  therefore  seems  certain, 

legend,  and  fiction  so  inextricably  mingled  with  real  that  when  at  last  the  West  Saxons  captured  Qlaston- 

and  important  facts  that  no  power  can  now  sift  the  bury  there  already  existed  there,  as  at  Glendalough  or 

truth  from  the  falsehood  with  any  certainty.  Gonmacnoise,  a  group  of  small  churches  built  in  the 

TRADrriONAL  Account  of  Foundation. — For  the  t3rpical  Celtic  faSiion  and  occupied  by  the  British 

early  historv  of  the  foundation  the  chief  authoritv  is  monks.    One  of  these,  the  oldest  and  most  venerated 

William  of  Malmesbury  in  iiis  "  De  antiquitate  Gibs-  of  all,  the  vettLsta  ecdesia  or  lignea  Inmlicaf  was  pre- 

toniensis  Ecclesise"  and  "  De  Gestis  Regum"  (lib.  I),  served,  and  by  its  survival  stamped  the  later  buildmgs 

The  former  work,  composed  apparently  about  1135,  at  Glastonbuiy  with  their  special  character.    Inde^ 

was  written  for  the  express  glorification  of  Glaston-  its  successor,  falsely  called  the  Chapel  of  St.  Joseph,  is 

bury  and  consequently  gives  the  legendary  historv  the  chief  feature  and  loveliest  fragment  in  the  ruins 

much  more  fully    than  the  latter.      Malmesbury^  that  exist  to-day.                      * 

story  of  the  foundation  and  early  years  is  briefly  as  With  the  commg  of  the  English  the  mist  clears.    In 

follows:  the  first  years  of  the  eighth  century  Ina,  King  of  the 

In  the  3rear  63  a.  d.  St.  Joseph  of  Arimathea  with  West  Saxons,  founded  the  ereat  church  of  the  Apos- 

eleven  companions  was  sent  to  Britain  from  Gaul  by  ties  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  endowed  the  monastery. 


OLASTONBUBT          580  GLASTONBUBT 

granting  certain  charters  which,  in  substance  at  anjr  Archbishop  Wariiam,  who  then  ordered  the  suppne- 

rate,  are  admitted  as  genuine  (see  Dugdale,  ''Monasti-  sion  of  the  Glastonbury  shrine  under  pain  of  excom- 

con  Aofilicanum",  I).    The  monastery^  thus  firmly  munication  f Wharton,  AngUa  Sacra,  II,  222-33). 

established,  maintained  a  high  reputation  until  the  Second  only  to  St.  Dunstan's  shrine  as  an  attraction 

advance  of  the  Danes  in  the  ninth  century,  when  it  to  pilgrims  was  the  tomb  of  King  Arthur.    The  claim 

was  rava^^ed  and  despoiled  and  sank  into  a  low  state,  that  Arthur  was  buried  at  Glastonbury  seems  to  be  a 

From  this  it  was  raised  by  the  work  of  St.  Dunstan  late  one.    In  the  ''Gesta  Regum"  (I,  xxviii)  William 

who.  as  a  boy,  received  hu  education  in  the  cloister  of  Malmesbury  says  expressly  that  the  burisJ-place  of 

at  Glastonbury,  and  later  became  abbot  there,  ruling  Arthur  was  unknown.    However,  in  his  ''De  antiqui- 

the  monastery,  except  for  one  brief  period  of  banish-  tate  Glastoniensis  eoclesisB"  (Cap.  De  nobilibus  Gla»- 

ment,  until  his  elevation  to  the  episcopate.     (See  tonis  sepultis),  the  text  of  whicn  is  in  a  verv  corrupt 

Dunstan,  Saint.)    There  can  be  no  doubt  that  St.  state,  a  passajge  asserts  that  Arthur  was  Duried  at 

Dunstan  enforced  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  at  Glaj»-  Glastonbury  inter  diuu  piramidea.    Professor  Free- 

tonbury  as  a  part  of  his  reform  there,  the  fact  being  man  rejects  this  as  an  interpolation  added  after  Geof- 

expressly  recorded  by  his  first  biographer  and  intimate  frey  of  Monmouth's  time,  when  the  Arthurian  legend 

friend ''  the  priest  B.^',  who  also  tells  us  that  in  his  day  had  reached  its  final  form  through  that  writer's  fabri- 

Irish  pilerimSy  learned  men  from  whose  books  Dunstan  cations.    There  is  clear  evidence  that  the  two  pyra- 

himself  learned  much,  were  in  the  habit  of  comine  to  mids  did  actually  exist,  and  in  1191,  we  are  told, 

Glastonbury  to  worship  at  the  tomb  of  one  of  their  Abbot  Henry  de  Soliaco  made  a  search  for  Arthur's 

worthies,  a  Patrick,  though  doubtless  not  the  Apostle  body   between   them.    Giraldus   Cambrensis,    who 

of  the  Irish,  which  seems  a  clear  proof  of  an  independ-  writes  apparently  as  an  eyewitness  of  the  scene,  relates 

ent  Irish  tradition  confirming  the  local  one  mentioned  (Speculum  Ecclesife,  dist.  ii,  cap.  ix)  that  at  a  depth 

i^ve.  of  seven  feet  a  large  flat  stone  was  found,  on  the  under 

From  St.  Dunstan's  date  until  the  Norman  Conquest  side  of  which  was  fixed  a  leaden  cross.    This  was 

the  abbey  prospered  exceedingly,  but  in  1077  Egelnoth,  removed  from  the  stone  and  in  rude  characters  facing 

the  last  Saxon  abbot,  was  deposed  by  the  Conoueror,  the  stone  were  the  words  Hie  jacet  sepuUus  indiiue  Rex 

and  Tliurstan,  a  Norman  monk  of  Caen,  installed  in  Artwrius  in  insula  AvdUania,    Under  this  at  a  oon- 

his  place  (Anklo-Saxon  Chronicle,  1077).    The  new  siderable  depth  was  a  hufle  coflin  of  hollowed  oak 

abbot  at  ondb  oegan  to  chanee  the  local  use  as  to  the  containing  the  bones  of  the  king  and  his  Queen  Guine- 

liturgy  and  chant  for  that  of  Fecamp.    Violent  dis-  vere  in  separate  compartments.    These  were  later 

putes  followed,  which  in  1083  ran  so  high  that  the  removed  to  a  shrine  m  the  great  church.    Leland 

abbot,  to  enforce  obedience,  called  in  armed  soldiers,  (Assertio  Arthuri,  43, 50, 51)  records  that  he  saw  both 

by  whom  two  or  three  of  tne  monks  were  slain  and  the  tomb  and  the  leaden  cross  with  the  inscription, 

many  more  wounded.    After  this  the  king  removed  and  Camden  (Britannia,  Somerset)  states  that  tiie 

Thurstan,  who  was  restored,  however,  by  William  latter  still  existed  in  his  day,  though  he  does  not  say 

Rufus  and  died  as  abbot  in  1 101.    Under  his  successor  where  it  was  when  he  saw  it. 

Herlewin  the  abbey  revived,  but  in  1184  a  great  fire  Suppression  of  the  Abbey. — In  1525  Abbot  Bere 

destroyed  almost  the  entire  monastery,  including  the  died,  and  Richard  Whiting,  chamberlain  of  the  abbey, 

vettuta  ecclesia.    Rebuilding  was  begun  at  once.    The  was  chosen  for  the  post  by  CardiniJ  Wolsey,  in  whose 

beautiful  stone  chapel  buut  on  the  site  and  in  the  hands  the  commumty  had  agreed  to  place  the  appoint- 

shape  of  the  lignea  basilica  was  finished  and  conse-  ment.    For  ten  years  he  ruled  his  monastery  in  peace, 

crated  on  St.  Barnabas'  day,  1186,  and  the  major  winning  golden  opinions  on  all  hands  for  his  learning, 

ecclesia  and  other  buildings  commenced.    Soon  after  piety,  and  discreet  administration.    Then  in  August, 

this,  however,  with  the  consent  of  King  Richard  I,  the  1535,  came  Dr.  Richard  Layton,  the  most  contempti- 

abbey  with  all  its  revenues  was  annexed  to  the  See  of  ble  of  all  the  **  visitore"  appointed  by  Thomas  Crom- 

Bath  and  Wells,  the  bishop  styling  himself  Bishop  of  well,  to  hold  a  visitation  m  the  name  of  King  Henry 

Bath  and  Glastonbunr.     This  meant  disaster  to  the  VIII.    He  found  eveijthing  in  perfect  order,  thougn 

abbey,  and  an  appeal  was  made  to  the  pope.    After  he  covers  his  disappointment  with  impudence.     ''At 

much  costly  litigsation  the  monks  were  upheld  by  Uie  Bruton  and  Glastonbury",  he  writes  to  Cromwell, 

Holy  See  on  every  point,  and  the  abbey's  independ-  'Hhere  is  nothing  notable;  the  brethren  be  so  straight 

ence  secured.    To  this  incident  must  be  assigned  the  kept  that  they  cannot  offend:  but  fain  they  wouldif 

long  delay  in  completing  the  great  church,  which  was  they  might,  as  they  confess,  and  so  the  fault  is  not 

not  consecrated  until  1303,  one  hundred  and  nineteen  with  them".    But  the  end  was  not  far  distant.    The 

years  after  the  fire.    From  this  date  until  its  suppres-  lesser  monasteries  had  gone  already,  and  soon  it  was 

sion  the  history  of  the  abbey  is  without  exceptional  the  turn  of  the  greater  houses.    By  January,  1539, 

incident.    It  continued  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  pil-  Glastonbury  was  the  only  religious  house  left  standing 

grim  centres  of  Ensland,  and  its  connexion  with  the  in  all  Somerset,  and  on  19  September,  in  the  same  year, 

ancient  British  and  Saxon  Churches  seems  to  have  the  royal  commissioners  arrived  without  previous 

created  a  tendency  to  rec^uxi  it  almost  as  the  repre-  warning.    Abbot  Whiting  was  examined,  arrested, 

sentative  of  the  "nationalist"  aspect  of  the  Churcn  in  and  sent  up  to  London  to  the  Tower  for  Cromwell  to 

England,  as  distinct  from,  and  at  times  opposed  to,  the  examine  in  person.    Meanwhile  the  commissioners, 

'international"  forces  centred  at  Christchurch,  Can-  regarding  Glastonbury  as  part  of  the  royal  possessions 

terbury.    This  was  accentuated  and  embittered  by  a  already  in  view  of  the  intended  attainder  of  the  abbot, 

personal  rivalry  due  to  the  claim  of  both  churches  to  proceeded  to  "dispatch  with  the  utmost  celerity" 

possess  the  body  of  the  great  St.  Dunstan.    No  one  Both  their  business  as  spoilers  and  the  monks  them- 

denied  that  the  saint  hadbeen  buried  at  Canterbury,  selves.    Within  six  weeks  all  was  accomplished,  and 

but  the  Glastonbury  claim  was  based  on  a  pretended  they  handed  over  to  the  royal  treasurer  the  riches 

transfer,  alleged  to  have  taken  place  in  101 2;  the  reUcs,  still  remaining  at  the  abbey,  which  had  previously 

on  their  arrival  at  Glastonbury,  being  hidden  away  been  relieved  of  what  the  king  chose  to  call  its  "suner- 

and  not  produced  for  public  veneration  until  after  the  fluous  plate",  amone  which  is  specially  mentioned  "a 

neat  fire  in  1184,  when  a  shrine  was  erected.    That  superaltar  garnished  with  silver  snlt  and  part  gold, 

we  whole  story  was  a  fabrication  b  clear  from  a  letter  called  the  Great  Sapphire  of    Glastonbury".    The 

of  Eadmer,  a  monk  of  Canterbury,  who  declares  that  words  of  Layton,  quoted  above,  bear  witness  to  the 

he  had  himself  been  present  when  the  body  was  moved  admirable  condition  of  the  monastery   as  regards 

durins  the  buildine  of  Lanfranc's  cathednd  at  Canter-  spirituals  under  Abbot  Whiting.    As  one  of  the  in- 

bury  m  1074,  and  also  from  the  formal  search  and  dictmentsbrought  against  him  was  that  of  mismanage- 

fincung  of  the  body  in  the  Canterbury  shrine  in  1508  by  ment  in  temporals,  it  is  worth  while  to  quote  Crom- 


0LA8T0NBUBY 


581 


OLA8T0NBUBT 


well's  own  note  in  his  manuscript  "Remembranoee" 
as  to  the  booty  obtained  from  Glastonbury  at  this,  the 
second,  spoliation:  ''The  plate  of  Glastonbury,  11,000 
ounces  and  over,  besides  golden.  The  furniture  of  the 
house  of  Glaston.  In  ready  money  from  Glaston 
£  1 ,  100  and  over.  The  rich  copes  from  Glaston.  The 
debts  of  Glaston,  (evidently  due  to  the  abbey]  £2,000 
and  above.  **  Whde  his  monastery  was  bein^  sacked 
and  his  community  dispersed.  Abbot  Whiting  was 
kept  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower  of  London  and  subjected 
to  secret  examination  by  Cromwell.  It  is  curious  that 
the  ordinary  procedure  of  law,  by  which  a  bill  of 
attainder  should  have  been  presented  to  and  passed  by 
Parliament,  was  utterly  ignored  in  his  case;  mdeed  his 
execution  was  an  accompushed  fact  before  Parliament 
came  together.  His  condemnation  and  execution  and 
the  appropriation  of  his  monastery  with  its  possessions 
to  the  Crown  could  only  be  justified  legally  by  the 
abbot's  attainder,  but  no  trace  that  any  trial  did,  take 
place  can  be  found.  Such  an  omission,  however,  was 
not  likely  to  trouble  Cromwell,  as  is  shown  by  the  note 
in  his  autograph  ''Remembrances":  "Item.  The 
Abbott  of  Glaston  to  be  tryed  at  Glaston  and  also 
executyd  there  with  his  complycys."  Accordingly 
Abbot  Whitinjg  was  sent  back  to  Somersetshire,  still 
apparently  in  ignorance  of  the  fact  that  there  was  now 
no  Glastonbury  Abbey  for  him  to  return  to.  He 
reached  Wells.on  14  November,  where  some  sort  of  a 
mock  trial  seems  to  have  taken  place,  and  the  next 
day,  Saturday,  15  November,  he  with  two  of  his  monks, 
John  Thome  and  Roger  James,  was  carried  from  Wells 
to  Glastonbury.  At  the  outskirts  of  the  town  the 
three  mart3rT8  were  fastened  to  hurdles  and  dragged 
by  horses  up  the  steep  sides  of  Tor  Hill  to  the  foot 
of  St.  Michael's  tower  at  its  summit.  Here  all  were 
hanged,  their  bodies  beheaded  and  cut  into  quarters, 
Ab1x>t  Whiting's  head  being  fixed  over  the  g^t  gate- 
way of  his  ruined  abbey  as  a  ghastly  warning  oT  the 
punishment  prepared  for  such  as  opposed  the  royal 
will  (see  Richard  Whiting,  Blessed).  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  a  special  example  was  deliberately  made 
of  Glastonbury,  masmuch  as  by  its  wealth,  its  vast 
landed  possessions,  its  munificence,  and  the  halo  of 
sanctity  with  which  its  past  history  and  present  obser- 
vance had  crowned  it,  it  was  by  far  the  greatest  spirit- 
ual and  temporal  representative  of  Catholic  interests 
still  surviving  in  England.  The  savagery  with  which 
it  was  attacked  and  ruined  was  intended  to  and  did 
strike  terror  into  all  the  West  of  England,  and  during 
Henry's  lifetime  there  was  no  further  resistance  to  \^ 
feared  from  that  part  of  his  realm.  During  the  brief 
restoration  of  Catholicism  in  Queen  Mary's  reign,  some 
of  the  surviving  monks  petitioned  the  queen  to  restore 
their  abbey  again,  as  having  been  the  most  ancient  in 
Eneland.  The  queen's  death,  however,  put  an  end  to 
all  hopes  of  restoration. 

BuiLDiNQS. — Very  little  of  the  vast  pile  of  buildings 
now  remains  above  ground,  but  in  its  main  lines  the 
abbey  followed  the  usual  plan,  a  vast  cruciform  church 
on  the  north  side,  with  cloister,  conventual  building, 
abbot's  lodpings,  and  rooms  for  guests  all  south  of  this. 
The  one  unique  feature  was  at  the  west  end  of  the  great 
church,  where  the  west  door,  instead  of  opening  to  the 
outer  air  in  the  usual  way,  gave  entrance  to  a  so-called 
"Galilee",  which  in  turn  Ted  into  the  church  of  St. 
Mary,  the  westernmost  part  of  the  entire  edifice.  This 
famous  church,  now  often  called  in  error  the  Chapel  of 
St.  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  was  built  between  1184  and 
1186  to  take  the  place  of  the  originid  velusta  ecclena 
which  had  been  entirely  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of 
1 184.  It  is  said  to  preserve  exactly  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  original  building  and  measures  sixty  feet  by 
twenty-four.  The  Galilee  was  added  about  a  century 
later  when  the  western  part  of  the  great  church  was 
being  completed  to  form  a  connexion  between  the  two 
churches,  thus  making  the  whole  western  extension 
about  one  hundred  and  nine  feet  long.    This  western 


part  is  the  most  perfect  of  all  the  ruins.  The  Norman 
work  of  1184,  exquisite  in  design  and  very  richly  dec* 
orated,  has  stood  perfectly,  although  in  the  fifteenth 
century  a  crypt  was  excavated  beneath  it  to  the  depth 
of  some  eleven  feet.  At  the  same  period  tracery  in  the 
Perpendicular  style  was  inserted  m  the  Norman  win- 
dows at  the  west  end,  portions  of  which  still  remain. 
Of  the  great  church  (400  feet  by  80),  the  piers  of  the 
chancel  arch,  some  of  the  chapels  at  the  east  side  of 
the  transepts,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  outer  wall 
of  the  choir  aisles  are  practically  all  that  remains.  The 
nave  consisted  of  ten  bays ;  the  transepts  of  three  each^ 
the  outer  two  on  either  side  being  extended  eastward  to 
form  chapels.  The  choir  at  first  had  four  bays  only, 
but  was  increased  to  six  in  the  later  fourteenth  century, 
the  chapels  behind  the  high  altar  being  again  modified 
in  the  nf teenth  century.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted 
that  so  large  a  part  of  the  buildings  has  been  destroyed, 
but  since  the  ruins  were  for  long  used  as  a  kind  of 
quarry,  from  which  anyone  might  carry  off  materials 
at  sixpence  a  cartload,  the  wonder  is  that  anything  at 
all  is  left.  The  ruins  have  recently  been  purchased  at 
the  cost  of  £30,000  ($150,000)  through  the  action  of 
the  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  (Anglican)  and  are  now 
held  by  trustees  as  a  kind  of  nationcd  monument. 
Every  effort  is  being  made  to  preserve  what  is  left,  and 
also,  by  means  of  excavation,  to  recover  all  possible 
knowledge  of  what  has  b^n  destroyed. 

One  curious  relic  still  exists.  The  church  clock, 
formerly  in  the  south  transept  of  the  great  church,  wad 
removed  in  1539,  carried  to  Wells,  and  placed  in  the 
north  transept  of  the  cathedral  tiiere.  It  bears  the 
inscription  Petrus  Liqhijoot  manachua  fecit  hoc  opus^ 
and  was  constructed  m  the  time  of  Aboot  de  Sodbury 
(1322-35).  The  outer  circle  of  the  dial  has  twenty- 
four  hours  on  it,  another  within  this  shows  the  minutes, 
and  a  third  again  gives  the  phases  of  the  moon.  Above 
the  dial  is  an  embattled  tower  in  which  Imiehts  on 
horseback  revolve  in  opposite  directions  every  hour  as 
the  clock  strikes  and  represent  a  mimic  tournament. 
The  original  works  were  removed  from  Wells  some 
years  ago  and  may  be  seen,  still  working,  in  Uie  Vic- 
toria and  Albert  Museum  at  South  Kensington.  This, 
with  Lightfoot's  other  clock  at  Wimbome  Minster, 
Dorset,  are  commonlv  held  to  be  the  oldest  known. 
Of  the  conventual  buildings  the  abbot's  kitchen  and  a 
small  part  of  the  hospice  alone  survive.  The  former 
is  an  octagon  set  withm  a  scjuare  and  crowned  with  an 
octagonal  p3rramid.  Withm  it  is  square  in  plan,  the 
roof  rising  in  the  centre  to  the  height  of  seventy-two 
feet.  The  upper  part  forms  a  double  lantern  of  stone, 
which  was  formerly  fitted  wiUi  movable  wooden 
shutters  so  that  the  smoke  might  always  be  let  out  on 
the  side  away  from  the  wind.  Practically  all  the  rest 
is  level  with  the  ground,  but  mention  must  be  made  of 
the  library,  of  which  Leland,  who  saw  it  in  Abbot 
Whiting's  time,  declares  that  no  sooner  was  he  over  the 
threshold  but  he  was  struck  with  astonishment  at  the 
sight  of  so  many  remains  of  antiquity;  in  truUi  he  be- 
lieved it  had  scarce  an  equal  in  all  Britain.  In  the 
town,  amongst  other  buildings  erected  by  various 
abbots,  are  the  court-house,  the  churches  of  St.  Benig- 
nus  and  St.  John  the  Baptist,  the  tithe  bam,  a  four- 
teenth-century building  and  the  finest  existing  speci- 
men of  this  class  of  structure,  also  the  Pilgrim's  Inn,  a 
late  Perpendicular  work  built  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  where,  it  is  said,  all  visitors  used  to  be  treated 
as  guests  and  entertained  for  two  days  at  the  abbot's 
expense. 

Still  in  the  neighbourhood,  in  many  places,  one  sees 
the  ruined  abbey's  coat  of  arms:  Vert,  a  cross  botonie 
argent;  in  the  first  quarter  the  Blessed  Mother  of 
God  standing,  on  her  right  arm  the  Infant  Saviour, 
a  sceptre  in  ner  left  hand. 

The  Glastonbury  Thorn  (Crategua  Oxyacantha 
ProBcoz)  is  a  variety  of  hawthorn,  original^  found 
only  at  Glaatonbuiy,  which  has  the  peculiarity  of 


GLEBS 


582 


OLXNDALOUOH 


flowering  twice  in  the  year,  first  about  Christmas 
time  and  again  in  May.  By  a  curious  irony  of  fate  the 
first  mention  of  the  Holy  Thorn  flowering  at  Christmas- 
tide  is  contained  in  a  letter  written  by  Dr.  Layton  to 
Thomas  Cromwell  from  Bristol,  dated  24  August,  1535. 
"  By  this  bringer,  my  servant",  he  writes,  "I  send  you 
Relicks:  First,  two  flowers  wraped  in  white  and  black 
sarsnet,  that  on  Christen  Mass  Even,  hora  ipsa  qua 
Christus  naiua  fuerat,  will  spring  and  bursen  and  bare 
blossoms.  Quod  expertum  est  saith  the  raor  of  May- 
den  Bradley.''  In  a  life  of  St.  Joseph  of  Arimathea, 
printed  in  1520  by  Richard  Pyerson,  a  pupil  of  Caxton, 
there  is,  however,  an  earlier  notice  of  Jts  coming  into 
leaf  at  Christmas: 

The  Hawthomes  also,  that  groweth  in  Werall 
[Wearyall  Hill] 

Do  burge  and  here  grene  leaves  at  Christmas 

As  freshe  as  other  yn  May  .  .  . 
Later  references  to  the  fact  abound,  e.  g.  Sir  Charles 
Sedley's  verse: 

Cornelia's  charms  inspire  my  lays, 

Who,  fair  in  nature's  scorn. 
Blooms  in  the  winter  of  her  days, 
Like  Glastonbury  Thorn 
and  the  lines  in  Tennyson's  "Holy  Grail": 
.  .  .  Glastonbury,  where  the  winter  thorn 
Blossoms  at  Christmas,  mindful  of  Our  Lord. 
The  original  thorn  tree  on  Wearyall  Hill  was  cut 
down  in  1653  by  some  fanatical  soldier  of  Cromwell's 
army,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  Bishop  Goodman  of 
Gloucester  who  wrote  to  the  Lord  Protector  complain- 
ing of  the  outrage ;  but  before  that  date  slips  haa  been 
taken  from  it,  and  many  specimens  now  exist  which 
blossom  about  Christmas  tmie.  The  blossoms  of  the 
Christmas  shoots  are  usually  much  smaller  than  the 
May  ones  and  do  not  produce  any  haws.  It  is  note- 
worthy also  that  plants  grown  from  the  haws  do  not 
retain  the  characteristics  of  the  parent  stem,  and  the 
Glastonbury  ^rdeners  propagate  the  thorn  by  bud- 
ding and  grafting  only.  Botanists  are  not  yet  agreed 
as  to  the  orie;in  ot  the  Glastonbury  thorn.  Some  nave 
desired  to  iaentify  it  with  the  Morocco  thorn,  intro- 
duced into  England  about  1812,  which  puts  forth  its 
leaves  very  early  in  the  year,  sometimes  even  in  Janu- 
ary;  while  others  claim  it  as  the  Siberian  thom^  which 
begins  to  produce  its  shoots  in  Januarv.  Neither  of 
these  varieties,  however,  has  the  special  peculiarity  of 
the  Glastonbury  thorn,  that  of  flowering  twice.  Pos- 
sibly the  truth  may  be  that  the  Glastonbury  thorn 
was  originally  an  inaividual  or  "sport",  and  not  a  true 
variety ;  but  if  this  is  so  it  is  certainly  remarkable  that 
for  four  hundred  years  the  peculiarity  of  the  tree  has 
been  preserved  and  transmitted  to  its  progeny.  The 
legend  that  the  original  tree  grew  from  the  staxF  of  St. 
Joseph  of  Arimathea,  which  was  thrust  into  the  ground 
and  took  root,  is  found  before  the  destruction  of  the 
abbey,  but  the  date  of  its  origin  cannot  now  be  asoer- 

tainea. 

Tannbr,  Notitia  MoruuHea  (London,  1744)»  458-60;  Wixr 
UAM  OF  Malmebburt,  De  AntiguiUUe  GUutonieruis  DccUsioB 
in  Gaub,  Scriptores  XV  (Oxford,  1691),  alao  ed.  HsARmi 
(Oxford,  1722);  Idem,  Oata  Regimit  ed.  Stubbs,  in  RoUa  Series 
(London,  1887);  Idem,  Oeala  Pontificum,  ed.  Hamilton,  in 
Rolls  Series  (London,  1870);  all  three  works  in  P.  L.,  CLXXIX; 
John  OF  QLA0TON BURT.  Chronica  .  .  .  derebtisGlaslonieneibus, 
ed.  Hbarnb  (Oxford,  1726);  Adam  db  Dombrham,  Hietoria  de 
rebua  .  .  .  Glaatonieneibua^  ed.  Hbarnb  (Oxford,  1727};  Gir- 
ALDUS  Cambrbnsis,  Speculum  Eceleaia,  ed.  Brewer,  in  Rolls 
Series  (London,  1873);  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  ed.  Thorpe,  in 
Rolls  Series  (London,  1861);  Kbmble,  Codex  Divlomaiieus  cm 
Saxonict  (London.  1839);  db  Gray  Birch,  Carituarium  Saxoni- 
cum  (London,  1885);  Wharton,  Anglia  Sacra  (London,  1691), 
II;  Memorials  of  St.  Ehmstan,  ed.  Stubbs.  in  Rolls  Series  (Lon- 
don, 1874);  Lbland,  Itinerary^  ed.  Hbarnb  (Oxford.  1710); 
Idem,  De  Scriptoribtts  Britannicis,  I,  xli,  ed.  Hall  (Oxford, 
1709);  Idbm,  CoUedanea,  ed.  Hbarnb  (Oxford.  1715);  Idem, 
Aasertio  Arlhuri  (London.  1544)^  tr.  Robinson  (London,  1582); 
Mabillon,  Annmes  O.S.B.  (Pans,  1703);  Yepes.  Corsica  gen^ 
eral  de  la  Orden  de  San  Benito  (Valladolid.  1613),  IV;  Brown- 
WiLUB,  History  of  Mitred  Abbies  (London,  1718),  I;  Duodaub, 
Monastieon  Angl%canum  (London,  1846),  I;  Retner,  Aposto- 
latus  Benedictinorum  in  Anglia  (Douai,  1626):  Crbsst,  Cfkurdi 
Hilary  of  Brittany  (Rouen.  1668);  Etton,  Domesday  Studies: 


Somerset  (London,  1880):  Qasqubt,  Henry  VII J  and  the 
English  Monasteries  (London,  1888);  Idem.  Last  Abbot  ^ 
Glastonbury  and  other  Essays  (London,  1908);  BIumbr,  Die 
Benedictuier-MHrhfrer  in  Enmand  unter  Heutrieh  VIII  in 
Studien  O.S.B.,  Vlll,  502-31;  IX.  22-38.  213-234;  Hmtoricax. 
Manuscripts  (>>mmi8sion.  Third  Report,  182. 201, 260, 301, 351, 
360.  362;  Arch  bold.  Somerset  Religious  Houses  (Cambndce, 
1892);  Collinson,  History  of  Somerset  (Bath,  1791),  II; 
Phelps,  History  of  Somersetshire  (London,  1836);  Robinson, 
History  of  Glastonbury  Abbey  (London,  1844);  Etston,  LiUle 
Monument  to  the  .  .  .  Abbey  .  .  .  of  GUutonbury,  ed.  Hbarnb 
(Oxford,  1722) ;  Warner,  History  of  the  AbbeiTbf  Glaston  (Bath, 
1826);  See.  Antiq.,  Vetusta  Monumenia,  Iv  (London.  1815); 
Willis,  Ar<Aiteclural  History  of  Glastonbury  Abbey  (Cambridge, 
1866);  Guest,  Origines  CeUxca,  ed.  Stubbs  (London,  1883).  II; 
Inquisition  of  the  Manors  of  Glastonbury  Abbey,  ed.  Jackson 
(London,  1882);  \Renla/»ae(Cus<umana  .  .  .  Monasterii  B.  M. 
Olastonia,  ed.  Elton  and  Hobhousb  (London,  1891);  Will- 
iams, Somerset  Mediaval  Libraries,  45-98  (Bristol,  1897);  Ga»- 
QUBT  AND  Bishop.  The  Bosworth  Psalter,  15,  18-21  (London, 
1908);  Harson,  Glastonbury ,,  .the  Bn(^ish  Jerusalem  (Bath, 
1909);  Notes  and  Queries  for  Somerset  and  Dorset  (1890 — ), 
passim.  The  foUowms  are  some  of  the  more  important  articles 
m  the  Proceedings  of  the  Somerset  Archeologieal  Society:  Fhbb- 
MAN,  Presidential  Address  at  Glastonbury,  ibid.,  vol.  XXVI; 
Idem,  King  Ine,  t6t(/.,  XX;  Green,  St.  Dunstan  at  Glastonbury, 
ibid.,  XI:  Parker,  Glastonbury  Abbey  Ruins,  ibid.,  XXVI; 
Warbb,  Glastonbury  Abbey,  ibid.,  I;  Idem,  The  Ruins  of  das' 
tonbury  Abbey,  t&ui.,  IX;  jonbb.  The  Reputed  Discovery  of  King 
Arthurs  Remains  at  Glastonbury,  ibid.,  IX  ;  Bond,  Report  on 
Excavation  at  GlasUmbury  in  1908.  ibid.,  LIX;  Jackson,  Savaric. 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Glastonbury;  Batten,  The  Holy  Thorn  ef 
GlastorUnary,  ibid. ,  XXVI.  On  this  last  subject  see  also  Loudon, 
Arboretum  .  .  .  Britannicum,  II.  833,  838,  839;  Gerard,  tfer- 
baU  (London,  1597);  Camden,  Britannia:  Somerset. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Olebe  (Lat.  glo^)  originallv  signified,  in  common 
law,  any  farm,  estate,  or  parcel  of  bind,  and  the  word 
ia  80  used  in  the  Theodosian  Code.  But  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal law  it  has  become  the  technical  term  for  luid  per- 
manently assigned  for  the  maintenance  of  the  incum- 
bent of  a  parish,  and  is  the  oldest  form  of  parochial 
endowment.  This  use  of  the  word  is  found  m  numer- 
ous medieval  charters,  of  which  Du  Cange  gives  a 
few  examples,  and  formerly  no  church  could  be  conse- 
crated unless  thus  endowed  with  a  house  and  glebe. 
The  fee-simple  was  held  to  be  in  abeyance,  that  is, 
without  an  owner  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  but  the  free- 
hold belonged  to  the  incumbent.  It  could  be  leased, 
sold,  or  excnanged,  with  the  bishop's  consent,  and  was 
sometimes  allowed  to  be  mortgaged  for  the  purpose  of 
repairing  the  parsonage  or  church.  In  England  and 
Scotland,  where  glem  is  held  by  the  established 
Churches  of  those  countries,  there  are  now  special  laws 
regarding  the  leasing,  sale,  or  exchange  of  such  prop- 
erty, and  all  such  transactions  are  suoject  to  tluC  ap- 
proval of  the  land  commissioners.  In  the  Catholic 
CJiurch,  glebe,  where  it  exists,  is  regarded  as  mensal 
property,  ana  canon  law  regulates  the  conditions 
which  govern  its  possession.  The  alienation  of  men- 
sal  property  is  now  held  by  most  legists  to  require  the 
special  permission  of  the  pope,  and  even  then  only 
certain  justifying  causes  are  recognized,  viz:  (1)  neces- 
sity, as  when  a  church  is  overburaened  with  debt;  (2) 
utility,  or  the  opening  for  an  advantageous  exchange; 
(3)  to  redeem  captives  or  feed  the  poor  in  time  of 
famine;  (4)  convenience,  as  when  the  land  is  so  situ- 
ated that  its  produce  cannot  be  gathered  without  great 
expense.  Certain  specified  formalities  have  also  to  be 
complied  with.   (S€«  Property,  Ecclesiastical.) 

Bouix,  De  parocho  (Paris,  1852);  Fberabis,  Bibl.  prompt. 
(Rome,  1886-95);  Smith,  ElemenU  of  Ecd.  Latr  (New  York. 
1877-89).  For  the  End)sh  law  see  Philumorb,  Ecclesiastical 
Lew  (London,  1905).    See  also  bibliography  under  Fbopbstt, 

ECCLBUASnCAL. 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 
Olendalough,  Diocese  of.    See  Dublin. 

Olendaloagh,  School  of. — Glendalough  (the  Val- 
ley of  the  Two  Lakes)  is  a  picturesque  and  lonely  glen 
in  the  heart  of  the  Wicklow  Mountains.  The  fame  of 
its  monastic  school  is  chiefly  due  to  its  founder,  St. 
Kevin  (q.  v.),  and  to  Laurence  O'Toole,  the  last  of  the 
canonized  saints  ci  Ireland.  Kevin  (Ir.  Coemghen, 
the  fair-begotten)  was  bom  near  Rathdrum  towards 
the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  and  lived  to  the  age  of 


OLENMON 


583 


OLOBIA 


120  years.  His  earliest  tutor  was  St.  Petroc  of  Corn- 
wall, who  had  come  to  Leinster  about  492,  and  de- 
vot^  himself  with  considerable  ardour  to  the  study  of 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,  in  which  his  pupil  also  became 
proficient.  Kevin  next  studied  under  his  imcle,  St. 
Eugenius,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Ardstraw,  who  at  that 
time  lived  at  Kilnamanagb  in  Wicklow.  where  he 
taught  his  pupils  all  the  sacred  learning  wnich  he  had 
acquired  in  the  famous  British  monastery  of  Rosnat. 

Young  Kevin  was  at  this  time  a  hanclsome  youth, 
and  had  imconsciously  won  the  affections  of  a  beauti- 
ful maiden,  who  once  followed  him  to  the  woods.  The 
young  saint  perceiving  her,  threw  himself  into  a  bed  of 
nettles,  and  then  gathering  a  handful  scourged  the 
maiden  with  the  burning  weeds.  "  The  fire  without ", 
says  the  biographer,  ''extinguished  the  fire  within", 
and  Kathleen  repenting  became  a  saint.  There  is  no 
foundation  for  the  story,  which  Moore  has  wedded  to 
immortal  verse,  that  Kevin  flung  the  unhappy  Kath- 
leen from  his  cave,  in  the  face  of  Lugdun,  mto  the 
depths  of  the  lake  below.  Kevin  then  retired  into  the 
wilds  of  the  Glendalough  valley,  where  he  spent  many 
years  in  a  narrow  cave,  living  alone  with  uod  in  the 
practice  of  extreme  asceticism.  In  the  course  of 
time,  holy  men  gathered  round  him,  and  induced  him 
to  build  the  monastery,  whose  ruins  still  remain  lower 
down  in  the  more  open  valley  to  the  east.  Here  his 
fame  as  a  saint  and  scholar  attracted  crowds  of  dis- 
ciples, so  that  Glendalough  became  for  the  east  of  Ire- 
land what  the  Arran  Islands  were  for  the  west — a 
great  school  of  sacred  learning,  and  a  novitiate  in 
which  the  young  saints  and  clergy  were  trained  in 
virtue  and  self-denial. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  pupils  of  St. 
Kevin  at  Glendalough  was  St.  Moling,  tne  founder  of 
the  well-known  monastery,  called  from  him  St.  Mul- 
lins,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Barrow  in  the  south-west 
of  the  County  Carlow.  Like  his  master  Kevin,  he 
was  a  man  of  learning  and  extreme  austerity,  Uving,  it 
is  said,  for  a  long  time,  as  Kevin  did,  in  a  hollow  tree. 
He  was  also  an  elegant  writer  both  in  Latin  and  in 
Irish.  Several  Irish  poems  have  been  attributed  to 
him,  his  prophecies  were  in  wide  circulation,  and  the 
''Yellow  Book  of  St.  Moling"  was  one  of  those  which 
Keating  had  in  his  hands,  out  which  has  since  been 
unfortunately  lost.  Of  ail  the  scholars  of  Glenda- 
lough, however,  St.  Laurence  OToole  was  by  far  the 
most  distinguished.  A  great  scholar,  bishop,  patriot, 
and  saint,  he  owed  his  entire  training  in  virtue  and  in 
learning  to  this  school.  So  far  did  he  carry  his  devo- 
tion to  St.  Kevin  that,  even  after  he  had  become 
Archbishop  of  Dublin,  he  made  it  a  practice  to  retire 
from  the  city,  and  spend  the  whole  Lent  in  the  very 
cave  in  the  face  of  tne  rock  over  the  lake  where  St. 
Kevin  had  lived  so  long  alone  with  God. 

The  existing  ruins  at  Glendalough  still  form  a  very 
striking  scene  mthat  wildly  beautiful  mountain  valley. 
Within  the  area  of  the  original  enclosure  are  the  great 
church,  or  cathedral,  built  probably  in  the  time  of  St. 
Kevin,  a  fine  round  tower  still  110  feet  in  height,  the 
building  called  St.  Kevin's  Cro  or  kitchen,  and  Ihe 
Church  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  for  whom  Kevin,  like 
most  of  the  Irish  saints,  had  a  particular  devotion. 
The  building  called  St.  Kevin's  kitchen  was  doubtless 
the  private  oratory  and  sleeping-chamber  of  the  saint, 
the  latter  being  in  the  crott  overhead,  as  in  St.  Co- 
lumba's  house  at  Kells. 

Hbalt,  IrdaiKTa  Ancient  SeKoolt  and  SehdUm;  Lanioan, 
Hiatory  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1827);  Fbtboi.  Round  Tcwera; 
O'Hanloit,  Livea  of  the  Jrieh  Sainte, 

John  Healt. 

Olennon,  John  Joseph.  See  St.  Louis,  Arch- 
diocese OF. 

Gloria  in  Ezcelsis  Deo. — ^The  great  doxology 
(hvmnMs  angelicua)  in  the  Mass  is  a  version  of  a  very 
old  Greek  form.  It  begins  with  the  words  sune  by  the 
angels  at  Christ's  birth  (Luke,  ii,  14).    To  this  verse 


others  were  added  very  early,  forming  a  doxology.  In 
a  slightly  different  form  it  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  a 
"morning  prayer  (irpoffeux^  iuOir/i)"  in  the  " ApostoHo 
Constitutions'',  VII,  xlvii.  This  text,  which  has  a 
subordination  colouring  (01)  ijJbvoi  icdptos  'Ii^^oC  Xpurrov)^ 
will  be  foimd  in  Duchesne,  "Origines  du  Culte  chr^ 
tien"  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1898,  p.  158,  n.  I).  It  goes  back 
at  least  to  the  third  centurv;  Probst  (Lehre  und 
Gebet  der  drei  ersten  christl.  Jahrhunderte",  Tubingen, 
1870,  p.  290)  thinks  even  to  the  first.  A  very  similar 
form  is  found  in  the  Codex  Alexandrinus  (fifth  century) 
and  in  Pseudo-Athanasius,  **de  Virmnitate",  §20  (be- 
fore the  fourth  century),  in  P.  G.,  XXVIII,  275.  Ex- 
tended further,  and  with  every  trace  of  subordina- 
tionism  corrected,  it  is  sung  by  the  Byzantine  Church 
at  the  Orthros.  In  this  form  it  has  more  verses  than 
in  the  Latin,  and  ends  with  the  Trisagion  {&po\Aytop 
rb  fijiya,  Rome,  1876,  p.  57).  It  is  not  used  in  the 
Liturgy  by  any  Eastern  Church.  Only  the  first  clause 
(the  text  of  Luke  ii,  14)  occurs  as  part  of  the  people's . 
answer  to  the  words, "  Holy  things  for  the  holy^',  at  the 
elevation  in  the  Litur^  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
(Brightman,  EastemXiturgies,  Oxford,  1896,  p.  25), 
as  part  of  the  Offertory  and  Communion  prayers  in  St. 
James's  Liturgy  (ibid.,  pp.  45,  64),  at  the  kiss  of  peace 
in  the  Abyssinian  Kite  (p.  227),  in  the  Nestorian  Pro- 
Uiesis  (p.  248)  and  agam  at  the  beginning  of  their 
Liturgy  (p.  252),  in  the  Byzantine  Prothesis  (p.  361). 
The  tr^tion  is  that  it  was  translated  into  Latin  by 
St.  Hilary  of  Poitiers  (d.  366).  It  is  quite  possible  that 
he  learned  it  during  his  enle  in  the  East  (360)  and 
brought  back  a  version  of  it  with  him  (so  Belethus, 
''Rationale  divinorum  officiorum",  c.  36;  Durandus, 
"  Rationale",  IV,  13,  who  thinks  that  he  only  added 
from  "Laudamus  te"  to  the  Mass,  and  notes  that 
Innocent  III  attributes  it  to  Telesphorus,  others  to 
Symmachus).  In  anv  case,  the  Latin  version  differs 
from  the  present  Greek  form.  They  tcorrespond  down 
to  the  end  of  the  Latin,  which  however  adds:  "Tu 
solus  altissimus"  and  "Cum  sancto  Spiritu".  The 
Greek  then  goes  on:  "  Every  day  I  will  bless  thee  and 
will  glorify  3iy  name  for  ever,  and  for  ever  and  ever" 
and  contmues  with  ten  more  verses,  chiefly  from 
psalms,  to  the  Trisagion  and  Gloria  Patri. 

The  "Liber  pontificalis"  says  "Pope  Telesphorus 
[128-139?]  ordered  that  .  .  .  on  the  Birth  of  the  Lord 
Masses  should  be  said  at  night  .  .  .  and  that  the 
angelic  h3rmn,  that  is  Gloria  in  Excelsis  Deo,  should 
be  said  before  the  sacrifice"  (ed.  Duchesne,  1, 129) ;  also 
"that  Pope  Symmachus  [498-514]  ordered  that  the 
hymn,  Gloria  m  excelsis,  should  be  said  every  Sunday 
and  on  the  feasts  [natalicia]  of  martyrs. ''  liie  Gloria 
is  to  be  said  in  its  present  place,  after  the  "Introit" 
and  "Kyrie",  but  only  by  bishops  (ibid.,  263).  We 
see  it  then  introduced  first  for  Christmas,  on  the  feast 
to  which  it  specially  belongs,  then  extended  to  Sun^ 
days  and  certain  great  feasts,  but  only  for  bishops. 
The  "Ordo  Romanus  I"  says  that  when  the  Kvrie  is 
finished  "the  pontiff,  turning  towards  the  people,  be- 
gins Gloria  in  Excelsis,  if  it  be  the  occasion  for  it  [si 
tempus  f uerit]"  and  notes  speciallv  that  priests  may 
say  it  only  at  Easter  (ed.  C.  Atchley,  London,  1905, 
pp.  130, 148).  The  "Ordo  of  St.  Amand"  (Duchesne, 
"  Origines",  appendix,  p.  460)  eives  them  leave  to  do 
so  only  on  Easter  Eve  and  on  the  day  of  their  ordina- 
tion. ^  The  Gregorian  Sacramentary  (dicitur  Gloria  in 
excelsis  Deo,  si  episcopus  fuerit,  tantummodo  die 
dominico  sive  dieous  festis;  a  presbyteris  autem 
minime  dicitur  nisi  solo  in  Pascna)  and  Walafrid 
Strabo,  "Liber  de  exordiis",  c.  22,  in  P.  L.,  CXIV, 
945,  note  the  same  thing.  Bemo  of  Constance  thinks 
it  a  grievance  still  in  the  eleventh  century  (LibeUus  de 
quibusdam  rebus  ad  Missas  officium  pertinentibus, 
c.  2,  in  P.  L.,  CXLII,  1069).  But  towards  the  end  of 
the  same  century  the  Gloria  was  said  by  priests  as  weU 
as  by  bishops.  The  "  Micrologus"  (by  the  same  Bemo 
of  Cionstance,  1048)  tells  us  that  "On  every  feast  that 


GLORIA 


584 


GLORIA 


has  a  full  office,  except  in  Advent  and  Septuagesima, 
and  on  the  feast  of  the  Innocents,  both  the  priests  and 
the  bishop  say  Gloria  in  excelsis"  (c.  ii).  it  then  be- 
came, as  it  is  now,  an  element  of  every  Mass  except  in 
times  of  penance.  Even  in  Advent,  until  it  began  to 
be  considered  such  a  time,  it  was  said.  As  early  as 
Amalarius  of  Meti  (ninth  century)  (De  officiis  eccl. 
libri  IV,  IV,  30),  it  was  said  during  Advent  ''in  some 
places".  This  would  apply,  of  course,  to  bishops' 
Masses  on  Sundays  and  feasts  at  that  time.  So  also 
Honorius  of  Autun  (1145)  in  the  twelfth  century, 
^  Gemma  animae",  III,  1 .  White  vestments  were  used, 
and  the  Gloria  said,  in  Rome  during  Advent  to  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century,  ''Ordo  Komanus  XI",  4. 
After  that.  Advent  was  gradually  considered  a  time 
of  penance,  in  imitation  of  Lent.  The  Te  Deum  and 
Gloria  were  left  out  during  it,  and  the  use  of  purple 
vestments  introduced. 

The  so-called7aroecf  Glorias  were  a  medieval  develop- 
.  ment.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Kvrie,  verses  were  intro- 
duced into  its  text  for  special  occasions.  Such  ex- 
panded forms  were  veiy  popular,  especially  one  for 
feasts  of  the  Blessed  Viijgm  that  seems  to  have  been 
used  all  over  Europe.  Thus  in  the  Sarum  Missal,  after 
the  words  ^'Domme  Fili  imigenite,  Jesu  Christe", 
'^Spiritus  et  alme  orphanorum  paraclyte"  is  added; 
after  " Filius  Patris"  is  inserted  ''Primoeenitus  Maris 
virginis  matris".  Again:  ^'Suscipe  deprecationem 
nostram,  ad  Maris  gloriam",  and  tne  end:  ''Quoniam 
tu  solus  sanctus,  Mariam  sanctificans,  Tu  solus  Domi- 
nus,  Mariam  gubemans,  Tu  solus  altissimus,  Mariam 
coronans,  Jesu  Christe"  (ed.  Burntisland,  1861-1883, 
col.  685-6).  The  following  rubric  says:  ''In  omnibus 
aliis  missis  ouando  dicendum  est,  dicitur  sine  prosa"; 
that  is,  in  other  Masses  than  those  of  the  B.  V.  m.,  the 
additional  tropes— called  prosa — ^are  to  be  omitted. 
These  tropes  ciaded  to  liturgical  texts  ad  ItbUum  were 
contained  in  special  books,  '"Libri  troparii".  In  spite 
of  repeated  commands  to  expunge  them,  they  were 
still  sung  in  places  when  the  Mi^al  was  revised  by 
order  of  Pius  V  in  1570.  In  the  Bull  "  Quo  primum*' 
of  that  year  (printed  at  the  beginning  of  the  Missal) 
the  pope  forbids  anything  to  be  added  to,  or  changed 
in,  tne  text  of  the  blooks  then  published.  The  popu- 
larity of  the  forms  about  the  Blessed  Vir^  accounts 
for  the  rubric  in  the  Missal  after  the  Gloria:  "Sic 
dicitur  Gloria  in  excelsis,  etiam  in  missis  B.  Maris 
quando  dicendum  est."  Since  then  these  ''farced" 
forms  have  happily  disappeiu^.  It  mav  be  noted 
here  that  the  Gloria,  originally  foreign  to  the  Milanese 
and  Mozarabic  Rites,  has  displaced  tne  older  Trisagion 
in  them  since  the  seventh  century — an  obvious  Roman 
importation  (Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  p.  183  and  note). 

The  present  law  about  the  use  of  the  Gloria  is  given 
by  Uie ''  Rubrics  generales"  of  the  Missal,  VIII,  3.  It 
is  to  be  said  in  Mass  whenever  the  Te  Deum  is  said  at 
Matins — with  two  exceptions.  It  is  therefore  omit- 
ted on  ferias  (except  m  Easter-tide),  Ember  dajrs, 
vigils,  during  Advent,  and  from  Septuagesima  till 
Easter,  when  the  Mass  is  de  tempore.  The  feast  of 
Holy  Innocents,  but  not  its  octave,  is  kept  with  purple 
vestments  and  without  the  Te  Deum  or  Gloria.  We 
have  seen  this  alreadv  in  the  "Micrologus"  (above). 
Nor  is  the  Gloria  said,  at  Requiem  or  votive  Masses, 
with  three  exceptions:  votive  Masses  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  on  Saturaavs,  of  Angels,  and  those  said  "  pro  re 
gravi"  or  for  a  puolic  cause  of  the  Ghurch,  unless  with 
purple  vestments,  have  the  Gloria.  The  two  cases  in 
which  it  occurs  without  the  Te  Deum  in  the  Office  are 
Maundy  Thursday  (when  the  whole  Mass  is  an  excep- 
tion in  Passion-tide  and  has  no  correspondence  with 
the  canonical  hours)  and  Holy  Saturday  in  the  first 
Easter  Mass.  The  Gloria  always  involves  "  Ite  missa 
est"  at  the  end  of  Mass.  When  it  is  not  said  that 
versicle  is  changed  to  "Benedicamus  Domino"  or,  in 
Requiems,  to  "  Requiescant  in  pace. " 

llie  manner  of  saying  it  is  described  in  the  "  Ritus 


celebrandi  Missam",  IV,  7.  In  the  ''Ordo  Romanua 
I"  (above)  the  celebrant  turns  to  the  people  to  say  the 
first  words.  That  is  no  longer  observ^.  At  hi^ 
Mass  as  soon  as  the  Kyrie  is  finished  the  celebrant, 
facing  the  altar  in  the  middle,  intones:  ''Gloria  in 
excelns  Deo",  raising,  joining,  and  lowering  his  hands, 
and  bowine  his  head  at  the  word  Deo.  Meanwhile  the 
deacon  and  subdeacon  stand  behind  him  in  line.  They 
then  come  to  his  right  and  left  and  with  him  continue 
the  Gloria  in  a  low  voice.  Ail  bow  at  the  holy  name 
(it  occurs  twice)  and  at  the  words:  "Adoramus  te", 
"Gratias  agimus  tibi",  "Suscipe  deprecationem  nos- 
tram", and  make  the  sign  of  the  cross  at  the  last  clause. 
They  then  go  ver  viam  breviorem  (genuflecting  first, 
according  to  tne  usual  rule)  to  the  sedilia  and  sit. 
Meanwhile  the  choir  immediately  continues:  "Et  in 
terra  pax",  and  sings  the  text  straight  through.  In 
the  former  Missal  tour  chants  were  printed  for  the 
celebrant's  intonation  (for  Doubles,  Masses  of  B.  V. 
M.,  Sundays,  and  Simples).  This  intonation  ought  to 
be  in  every  way  part — the  beginning — of  the  melodv 
continued  by  the  choir;  so  in  the  new  ("Vatican") 
edition  of  the  missal,  eighteen  alternative  chants  are 
given,  one  for  each:  Gloria  in  the  Gradual.  Obviouslv, 
when  a  plain-song  Mass  is  sung,  the  celebrant  should 
intone  the  Gloria  to  the  same  cnant  (and  at  the  same 
pitch)  as  its  continuation  by  the  choir.  The  ideal  is 
tor  the  choir  to  go  on  at  once  without  any  sort  of  pre- 
lude by  the  organ;  "Et  in  terra  pax"  etc.  is  the 
second  half  of  the  same  sentence  as  "Gloria  in  excelsis 
Deo  *\  In  a  figured  Mass  so  exact  a  correspondence  is 
not  possible.  But  in  any  case  the  choir  may  never 
repeat  the  celebrant's  words.  Every  Gloria  in  a 
figured  Mass  must  begin:  "Et  in  terra  pax".  The 
custom — once  very  common — of  ignoring  tine  celebrant 
and  beginning  again  "Gloria  in  exclesis"  is  an  unpar- 
donable abomination  that  should  beput  down  without 
mercy,  if  it  still  exists  anywhere.  While  the  Gloria  is 
sung,  the  celebrant,  ministers,  and  servers  bow  (or 
uncover)  at  the  holy  name  and  the  other  clauses,  as 
above.  During  the  last 'clause  the  celebrant  and 
ministers  rise  and  go  to  the  altar  per  viam  lonaiorem 
(genuflecting  at  the  foot,  according  to  rule)  and  go  to 
their  places  for  the  "  Dominus  vobiscum"  before  the 
Collect.  At  a  simg  Mass  the  same  order  is  observed 
by  the  celebrant  alone.  At  low  Mass  he  recites  the 
Gloria  straight  through  clara  voce,  making  the  sign  of 
the  cross  during  the  last  clause  (In  gloria  Dei  Patris. 
Amen). 

Mystic  and  edif  3ring  reflexions  on  the  Gloria  will  be 
found  in  Durandus  and  Gihr  (see  below).  Durandus 
sees  much  s3rmbolism  in  the  fact  that  the  Church  (that 
is,  men)  continues  the  angels'  hymn.  By  the  birth  of 
Christ  who  restores  all  things  in  heaven  and  on  earth 
(Eph.,  i,  10),  aneels  and  men,  separated  by  original  sin, 
are  now  reconcued ;  men  may  now  hope  some  day  to 
join  in  the  angels'  h3rmns.  Gihr  gives  a  devotional 
commentary  on  the  text,  word  for  word.  He  sees  a 
mystic  reason  for  the  order  of  the  words:  Laudamus, 
benpdicimus,  adoramus,  ^lorificamus.  One  may  be 
edined  by  such  considerations  without  attributing  so 
much  subtlety  to  the  unknown  subordinationist  who 
apparently  first  arranged  them.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  Gloria  is  a  hymn  of  praise  addressed  to  each 
Person  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  turn,  although  the  clause 
about  the  Holy  Ghost  is  very  short  usum  sancto 
Spiritu)  and  is  evidently  an  afterthou^t.  It  does 
not  occur  in  the  text  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions. 
It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  clauses  are  arranged  in 
parallels  with  a  certain  loose  rhythm.  This  rhythm 
is  much  more  evident  in  the  Greek  original  (measured 
of  course  by  accent);  for  instance: 

Kt^^cf  /Satf'tXeC  frovpdrie, 
6c^  vdrtp  rarroKpdrtap, 

Lastly,  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  in  any  Liturgy  a 
more  beautiful  example  of  poetry  than  our  hymnus 


OLOBIA                                585  OLOBT 

angdicua.    The  Gloria  and  the  Te  Deum  are  the  only  with  the  glory  to  come".  Rom.,  viii,  18.   "  Because  the 

remains  we  now  have  of  the  paalini  idioHci  (psalms  creature  also  itself  shall  be  delivered  from  the  servitude 

composed  by  private  persons  mstead  of  being  taken  of  corruption,  into  the  liberty  of  the  glory  of  the  chil- 

from  the  Biblical  Psalter)  that  were  so  popular  in  the  dren  of  God",  ib.,  21.    The  texts  cited  above  are 

second  and  third  centuries.    These  private  psidms  representative  of  multitudes  similar  in  tenor,  scattered 

easily  became  or^ns  for  heretical  ideas,  and  so  fell  into  throughout  the  sacred  writings. 

•   disfavour  by  thelourth  century  (Batiffol,"Histoiredu  II.  THBOLoaiCAL.--The  radical  concept  present 

Br^viaire  romain".  Paris,  1895,  9-12).    The  extraor-  under  various  modifications  in  all  the  above  expressions 

dinary  beauty  of  these  two  (to  which  one  should  add  is  rendered  by  St.  Augustine  as  dara  notitia  cum  laude, 

the  *Q9  IXopdr)  is  a  witness  to  the  splendour  of  that  "  brilliant  celebrity  with  praise".    The  philosopher 

outburst  of  lyric  poetry  among  Christians  during  the  and  theologian  have  accepted  this  definition  as  the 

time  of  persecution.  centre  around  which  they  correlate  their  doctrine 

For  texts  and  variationa  of  the  Gloria  see  Bunmn.  Analeda  regarding  glOTV,  divine  and  human. 

ante^ieana  (London.  1854),  III;   Probst,  Lehre  u.  Oebel,  p.  1.  Divine  Glory. — ^The  Eternal  God  has  by  an  act 


Rerum  lUuroiearum  libri  dw,  II,  2;  Bbnbdict  XLV^DeSS.  so-  He  coiud  not  act  aimlessly;  He  had  an  objective  for  His 

cr^iifiMa..n.iv.9-l7;  Dtc  action;  He  created  with  a  purpose;  He  destined  His 

S^^ifc^i™ii.'fr'^li1?7^.fe^  creatures  to  some  end.    T^t  Sd  .^^  could  be,  no 

mr^e  antique  (Paris,  1900),  IX,  150-156;  na  Hxbdt.  Sacra  other  than  Himself;  for  nothing  existed  but  Himself, 

ZUurgimjnaxU  (9th  «?.,  Louvain  ig4).  «§  211,  314;  TJhaiu-  nothing  but  Himself  could  be  an  end  worthy  of  His 

normi^^^andbu^^  der  kaih,  iMurgtk  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1890).  I.  action.  "  I  am  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  beginifing  and 

Adrian  Fortescue.  the  end,  saith  the  Lord  God"  (Apoc..  i,  8) ;  "  The  Lord 

^1  _t    «.  x-i      a     Tx  bath  made  all  things  for  himself'^  (Prov.,  xvi,  4). 

OlorU  Patri.    See  Doxoloqt.  Did  g©  then^  create  in  order  that  from  His  creatures 

Olorieuz,  Alfhonse  Joseph.    See  Boise,  Did-  He  might  derive  some  benefit?    That,  for  example,  as 

CESE  OF.  some  present-day  theories  pretend,  through  the  evolu- 
tion of  things  towards  a  higher  perfection  the  sum  of 

Olonr. — This  word  has  many  shades  of  meaning  His  Being  might  be  enlarged  or  i)erfected7    Or  that 

which  lexicographers  are  somewhat  puzzled  to  dif-  man  by  co-operating  with  Him  might  aid  Him  in  the 

ferentiate  sharply.    As  our  interest  in  it  here  centres  elimination  of  evil  which  He  by  mmself  is  unable  to 

around  its  ethical  and  religious  si^ificance,  we  shall  cast  out?    No;  such  conceits  are  incompatible  with 

treat  it  onl^  with  reference  to  the  ideas  attached  to  it  the  true  concept  of  God.    Infinite,  He  possesses  the 

in  Holy  Scripture  and  theology.          ^  plenitude  of  Being  and  Perfection;  He  needs  nothing, 

I.  Scripture. — In  the  English  version  of  the  Bible  and  can  receive    no  complementary   increment  or 

the  word  Glory,  one  of  the  commonest  in  the  Scripture,  superfluous  accession  of  excellence   from   without, 

is  used  to  translate  several  Hebrew  terms  in  the  Old  Omnipotent,  He  stands  in  need  of  no  assistance  to 

Testament,  and  the  Greek  d^a  in  the  New  Testament,  carry  His  will  into  execution. 

Sometimes  the  Catholic  versions  employ  brightness,  But  from  His  infinity  He  can  and  does  give;  and 
where  others  use  glory.  When  this  occurs,  the  orig-  from  His  fullness  have  we  all  received.  All  things  are, 
inal  signifies,  as  it  frequently  does  elsewhere,  a  phys-  only  because  they  have  received  of  Him;  and  the 
ical,  visible  phenomenon.  This  meaning  is  found  for  measure  of  His  giving  constitutes  the  limitations  of 
instance  ia  Ex.,  xxiv,  16:  "And  the  glory  of  the  their  being.  Contemplating  the  boundless  ocean  of 
Lord  dwelt  upon  Sinai";  in  Luke,  ii,  9,  and  in  the  His  reality.  He  perceives  it  as  imitaUe  ad  extra,  as  cm 
accoimt  of  the  Transfiguration  on  Mount  Thabor.  In  inexhaustible  fund  of  exemplar  ideas  which  may^  if 
very  many  places  the  term  is  employed  to  signify  the  He  so  wiUs,  be  reproduced  in  an  order  of  finite  exist- 
witness  wnich  the  created  universe  bears  to  the  nature  ence  distinct  from,  yet  dependent  on  His  own,  deriv- 
of  its  Creator,  as  an  effect  reveals  the  character  of  its  ing  their  dower  of  actuauty  from  His  infinite  full- 
cause.  Fre()uently  in  the  New  Testament  it  signifies  ness  which  in  imparting  sustains  no  diminution.  He 
a  manifestation  of  the  Divine  Majesty,  truth,  goodness,  spoke  and  they  were  made.  Everything  which  His 
or  some  other  attribute  througn  His  incarnate  Son,  fiat  has  called  into  existence  is  a  copy — ^finite  indeed 
as,  for  instance,  in  John,  1, 14:  "  (and  we  saw  his  glory,  and  very  imperfect,  yet  true  as  far  as  it  goes— of  some 
the  glory  as  it  were  of  the  only  begotten  of  the  Father,)  aspect  of  His  infinite  perfection.  Each  reflects  in  fixed 
full  of  ^race  and  truth'';  Luke,  ii,  32,  "A  lieht  to  the  limitation  something  of  His  nature  and  attributes, 
revelation  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  glory  of  thy  people  The  heavens  show  forth  His  power;  earth's  oceans  are 

the  i^ea  that  the  perception  of  this  manifested  truth  Classes  itself  m  tempests .... 

works  towards  a  union  of  man  with  God.    In  other  The  summer  flower,  though  only  to  itself  it  live  and 

passages  glory  is  equivalent  to  praise  rendered  to  God  die,  is  a  silent  witness  before  Him  of  His  power,  good- 

m  acknowlea^ent  of  His  majesty  and  perfections  ness,  truth,  and  unity;  and  the  harmonious  order 


manifested  objectively  in  the  world,  or  throueh  super-    which  binds  all  the  innumerable  parte  of  creation  into 
natural  revelation:  "Thou  art  worthy,  O  Lord  our 


one  cosmic  whole  is  another  reflection  of  His  oneness 


[cf.  Ps.  cv,  i^.  finitely  inadequate  representetion  of  the  Great  Ex- 

The  term  is  used  also  to  mean  judgment  on  personal  emplar.     Nevertheless,  the  unimaginable  variety  of 

worth,  in  which  sense  the  Greek   Mt^  reflecte  the  existing  things  conveys  a  vague  hint  of  that  Infinite 

signification  of  the  cognate  verb  ^oKita:  "  How  can  which  must  ever  defy  any  complete  expression  exter- 

you  believe,  who  receive  glory  one  from  another:  and  nal  to  Itself.     Now  this  objective  revelation  of  the 

the  ^ory  which  is  from  God  alone,  you  do  not  seek?"  Creator  in  terms  of  the  existences  of  thines  is  the  glory 

John,  V,  44;  and  xii,  43:  "For  they  loved  the  gloiy  of  God.    This  doctrine  is  authoritetively  formulated 

of  men  more  than  the  glory  of  God' .    Lastly,  glory  is  by  the  Council  of  the  Vatican:  "If  any  one  shall  say 

the  name  given  to  the  blessedness  of  the  future  life  in  that  the  world  was  not  created  for  the  glory  of  God, 

which  the  soul  is  united  to  God:  "  For  I  reckon  that  the  let  him  be  anathema"  (Sess.  Ill,  C.  i.  can.  5). 
sufferings  of  this  time  are  not  worthy  to  be  compared        This  objective  manifestetion  of  tne  Divine  nature 


GLOSSES 


686 


GLOSSES 


constitutes  the  Universe — ^the  book,  one  might  say, 
in  which  God  has  recorded  His  greatness  and  majesty. 
As  the  mirror  of  the  telescope  presents  an  image  of  the 
star  that  shines  and  wheels  in  the  immeasurably 
remote  depths  of  space,  so  does  this  world  reflect  in 
its  own  fashion  the  nature  of  its  Cause  between  Whom 
and  it  lies  the  gulf  that  separates  the  finite  from  the 
Infinite.  The  telescope,  however,  knows  not  of  the 
image  which  its  surface  bears;  the  eye  and  mind  of  the 
astronomer  must  intervene  in  order  that  the  sigm'fi- 
cance  of  the  shadow  and  its  relation  to  the  substance 
may  be  grasped.  To  praise,  in  the  exact  sense  of  the 
term,  demands  not  alone  that  worth  be  manifest,  but 
also  that  there  be  a  mind  to  acknowled^.  The  un- 
conscious testimony  of  the  imiverse  to  its  Creator  is 
rather  potential  than  actual  glor^.  Hence,  this  ^ory 
which  it  renders  to  Him  is  csuUed  in  theological  phrase 
gloria  malerialis,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  formal 
ghry  rendered  to  God  by  His  intelligent  creatures. 
They  can  read  the  writing  in  the  book  of  creation, 
understand  its  story,  accept  its  lessons,  and  reverently 
praise  the  Majesty  which  it  reveals.  This  praise 
mvolves  not  merely  intellectual  perception,  but  also 
the  practical  acknowledgment  by  neart  and  will  which 
issues  in  obedience  and  loving  service.  The  endow- 
ment of  intelligence  with  all  that  it  implies — spirit- 
uality and  free-will — ^renders  man  a  higher  and  nobler 
image  of  the  Creator  than  is  anv  other  being  of  this 
visible  world.  The  gift  of  intellect  also  imposes  on 
man  the  duty  of  returning  to  God  that  formal  glory 
of  which  we  have  iust  spoken. .  The  more  perfectly 
he  discharges  this  obli^tion,  the  more  does  he  develop 
and  perfect  that  initial  resemblance  to  God  which 
exists  in  his  soul,  and  by  the  fulfilment  of  this  duty 
serves  the  end  for  whicn  he,  like  all  else,  has  been 
created. 

The  natural  revelation  which  God  has  vouchsafed 
of  Himself  through  the  world  interpreted  by  reason 
has  been  supplemented  by  a  higner  supernatural 
manifestation  whidi  has  culminated  in  the  Incar- 
nation of  the  Godhead  in  Jesus  Christ:  "and  we  saw 
his  glory,  the  glory  as  it  were  of  the  Father,  full  of 
grace  and  truth".  Similarly  the  natural  resemblance 
to  God  and  the  gelation  of  our  beine  to  His,  as  estab- 
lished by  creation,  are  supplemented  and  carried  into 
a  h^her  order  by  His  communication  of  sanctifyinjg 
grace.  To  know  God  through  the  medium  of  this 
supematurally  revealed  truth,  to  serve  Him  in  love 
springing  from  this  grace  is  to  be  "  Filled  with  the  fruit 
of  justice,  through  Jesus  Christ,  imto  the  glory  and 
praise  of  God  "  (Fnil .,  i,  11 ) .  In  manifesting  the  glory 
of  God  by  the  development  of  their  proper  powers 
and  capacities,  inanimate  creatures  reach  that  per- 
fection or  fulness  of  existence  which  God  has  pre- 
scribed for  them.  Likewise  man  achieves  his  perfection 
or  subjective  end  bv  giving  dory  to  God  in  the  com- 
prehensive sense  above  inoicated.  ^  He  attains  the 
consummation  of  his  perfection  not  in  this  life^  but  in 
the  life  to  come.  That  perfection  shall  consist  in  a 
direct,  immediate,  intuitive  perception  of  God;  "We 
see  now  throueh  a  glass  in  a  dark  manner ;  but  then  face 
to  face .  Now  I  know  in  part ;  but  then  I  shall  know  even 
as  I  am  known"  (I  Cor.,  xiii,  12).  In  this  transcendent 
knowledge  the  soul  shall  become,  in  a  higher  measure 
Hian  that  which  obtains  by  virtue  of  creation  alone, 
a  participant  and  therefore  an  image  of  the  Divine 
nature;  so  "we  shall  be  like  to  him:  oecause  we  shall 
see  him  as  he  is  "  (I  John,  iii,  2).  So  that  objectively 
and  actively  the  l^e  in  heaven  shall  be  an  imending 
ineffable  manifestation  and  acknowledgment  of  the 
Divine  majesty  and  perfections.  Thus  we  under- 
stand the  Scriptural  language  in  which  the  future  life 
of  the  blessed  is  describe  as  a  state  in  which  "  we  all 
beholding  the  glorv  of  the  Lord  with  open  face,  are 
transformed  into  tne  same  image  from  giory  to  glory, 
as  by  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord"  (fl  Cor.,  in,  18). 

Tne  Catholic  doctrine  on  this  subject  is  defined  by 


the  Council  of  Florence  (see  Denzinger,  688).    (pee 
Creation;  Good.) 

2.  Human  Glory, — ^To  enjoy  ^ory  before  men  is  to 
be  known  and  honoxired  on  account  of  one's  character, 
qualities,  possessions,  position,  or  achievements,  real 
or  imaginary.  The  moral  question  arises,  is  the  de- 
sire and  pursuit  of  this  gloiy  lawful?  The  doctrine 
on  the  subject  is  succinctly  stated  by  St.  Thomas  (II- 
II,  Q.  cxxxii).  Posins  the  question  whether  the  de- 
sire of  glory  is  sinful,  ne  proceeds  to  answer  it  in  the 
following  sense:  Glory  imports  the  manifestation  of 
something  which  is  estimated  honourable,  whether  it 
be  a  spiritual  or  a  corporal  good.  Glory  does  not 
necessarily  require  that  a  large  number  of  persons 
shall  acknowledge  the  excellence;  the  esteem  of  a 
few,  or  even  of  oneself,  may  suffice,  as,  for  example, 
when  onejudges  some  good  of  his  own  to  be  worthv  of 
praise.  That  any  person  esteem  his  own  good  or 
excellence  to  be  worthy  of  praise  is  not  in  itseS  sinful ; 
nor,  in  like  manner,  is  it  sinful  that  we  should  desire 
to  see  our  eood  works  approved  of  men.  "  Let  your 
light  shine  before  men,  tnat  they  may  see  your  good 
works"  (Matt.,  v,  16).  Hence  the  desire  of  glory  is 
not  essentially  vicious.  But  a  vain,  or  perverse  de- 
sire for  renown,  which  is  called  vainglory,  is  wrong; 
for  it  is  founded  not  on  tru^  but  ralsehood.  The 
desire  of  glory  becomes  perverse,  (a)  when  one  seeks 
renown  because  of  something  not  really  worthy;  (b) 
when  one  seeks  the  esteem  of  those  whose  judgment 
is  undiscriminating;  (c)  when  one  desires  ^ory  before 
men  without  suborainating  it  to  ri^teousness.  Vain- 
glory may  become  a  deadly  sin,  if  one  seek  Uie  esteem 
of  men  for  something  that  is  incompatible  with  the 
reverence  due  to  God ;  or  when  the  thmg  for  which  one 
desires  to  be  esteemed  is  preferred  in  one's  aflfections 
before  God;  or  again,  when  the  judgment  of  men  is 
sought  in  preference  to  the  judgment  of  God,  as  was 
the  case  with  the  Pharisees,  who  "loved  the  glonr 
of  men  more  than  the  glory  of  God"  (John,  xU,  43). 
The  term  "  vainglory"  denotes  not  alone  the  sinful  act, ' 
but  also  the  vicious  habit  or  tendency  engendered  by 
a  repetition  of  such  acts.  This  habit  is  ranked  amonjg 
the  capital  sins,  or,  more  properly  vices,  because  it  is 

grolific  of  other  sins,  viz.,  disob^ience,  Boastfulness, 
ypocrisy,  contentiousness,  discord,  and  a  presump- 
tuous love  of  pernicious  novelties  in  moral  and  re- 
ligious doctrine. 

%.  Thomas,  I-I,  QQ.  zii.  xliv,  xIt.  zdii.  ciil;  n-II,  QQ.  eiii, 
oxxxii;  Idem,  Cont.  Oenl.,tr.Rlc:KABr^OodandHx8Creatuna, 
II,  ch.  xlv:  III,  ch.  xxviii,  xxix,  Ivi-lxiii;  IV,  ch.  liv.  See  also 
theological  and  philoiiophical  textbooks,  in  which  the  subject 
is  treated  under  Oeation,  The  End  of  Man,  Eternal  uia; 
WiLHEui  AND  ScANNBLi^,  Manual  of  Catholic  7Aeo2o(m(New 
York,  1899),  vol.  I,  bk.  Ill,  pt.  I;  Orat  and  Mabsib  in  Hast.. 
Did.  of  the  Bible,  a.  v.;  Hastimos,  A  JHetionary  of  Chriet  and 
the  OoepeU  (New  York,  1906).  a.  v.:  Pacb,  The  World-eoj^ 
according  to  St,  Thomae  in  The  Catholie  Xmiversity  BuUettnt 
vol.  V. 

James  J.  Fox. 

OlosseSi  Scriptural. — ^I.  Ettmology  and  Prin- 
cipal Meanings. — The  modem  En^ish  word  gloss  is 
derived  directly  from  the  Latin  glossa,  itself  a  trans^ 
cript  of  the  Greek  yXOffca,  In  classical  Greek  YXwo-tf'a 
(Attic  y\QTra)  means  the  tongue  or  orean  of  speech  and 
figm'atively  a  tongue  or  language.^  In  the  course  of 
time  Greek  grammarians,  commenting  on  the  works  of 
Greek  authors,  used  the  word  y\va<ra  to  designate  first 
a  word  of  the  text  which  needed  some  explanation,  and 
next  the  ex^anation  itself.  And  it  is  in  this  last 
sense  that  Christian  writers  have  principally  em- 
^oyed  the  word  glossa,  gloss,  in  connexion  with  Holy 
Writ.  Among  them,  as  among  Greek  grammarians,  a 
gloss  meant  an  explanation  of  a  purely  verbal  diffi- 
culty of  the  text,  to  the  exclusion  of  explanations  re- 
quired by  doctrinal,  ritual,  historical,  and  other 
obscurities;  and  the  words  wnich  were  oommonlv  the 
subject  of  their  glosses  may  be  reduced  to  the  follow- 
ing five  classes:  (1)  foreign  words;  (2)  provincial  dia- 
lectical terms;    (3)  obsolete  words;    (4)  technical 


OL088B                               587  OI<068BI 

terms;  or  (5)  words  actually  employed  in  some  uor  They  give  various  readings,  alternate  renderings, criti- 

usual  sense  or  in  some  peculiar  grammatical  form.  As  cal  remarks,  etc.,  and  by  their  number  and  character 

these  fosses  consisted  of  a  sin^e  explanatory  word,  have  startled  the  Protestant  public.    The  marginal 

they  were  easily  vmtten  between  the  lines  of  the  text  notes  of  the  American  Standard  Revised  Version 

or  in  the  margin  of  manuscripts  opposite  the  words  of  (1900-1901)  are  of  the  same  general  description  as 

which  they  supplied  the  explanation.    In  the  process  those  found  in  the  British  Revised  Version  of  Holy 

of  time  the  glosses  naturally  grew^  in  nimiber,  and  Writ. 

in  consequence  they  were  ^thered  in  separate  books  III.  Glosses  as  Textual  AnDrnoNS. — As  stated 
where  they  appeared,  first  m  the  same  order  of  sucoep-  above,  the  word  gloss  designates  not  only  maiginal 
sion  as  they  would  have  had  if  written  in  the  mai]gin  notes,  but  also  words  or  remarks  inserted  for  various 
of  the  codices,  and  ultimately  in  a  regular  alphabetical  reasons  in  the  very  text  of  the  Scriptures.  The  exist- 
order.  These  collections  of  fosses  thus  formed  kinds  enoe  of  such  textual  additions  in  Holy  Writ  is  univer- 
of  lexicons  which  gave  the  concrete  meaning  of  the  sally  admitted  by  Biblical  scholars  with  regard  to  the 
difficult  words  of  Uie  text  and  even  historical,  geo-  Hebrew  text,  although  there  is  at  times  considerable 
graphical,  biographical,  and  other  notices,  which  the  disagreement  among  them  as  to  the  actual  expressions 
collectors  deemed  necessary  or  useful  to  illustrate  the  that  should  be  treated  as  glosses  in  the  Sacred  Writ- 
text  of  the  Sacred  writings.  A  lexicon  of  the  kind  is  ings.  Besides  the  ei^teen  corrections  of  the  Scribes 
usually  called  a  ^ossary  (from  Lat.  glossarium),  but  which  ancient  Rabbis  regard  as  made  in  the  sacred 
bears  at  times  in  English  the  simple  name  of  a  doss,  text  of  the  Old  Testament  oefore  their  time,  and  which 
From  a  sin^e  explanatory  word,  mterlined  or  placed  were  probablv  due  to  the  fact  that  marginal  explana- 
in  the  margin,  the  word  ^loss  has  also  been  extended  tions  had  of  old  been  embodied  in  the  text  itself,  recent 
to  denote  an  entire  expository  sentence,  and  in  many  scholars  have  treated  as  textual  additions  many  words 
instances  even  a  sort  of  running  commentanr  on  an  and  expressions  scattered  throughout  the  Hebrew 
entire  book  of  Sacred  Scripture.  Finally  tne  term  Bible.  Thus  the  defenders  of  the  Mosaic  authorship 
gloss  designates  a  word  or  a  remark,  perhaps  intended  of  the  Pentateuch  naturally  maintain  that  the  more 
at  first  as  an  explanation  of  the  text  of  Holy  Writ,  and  or  less  extensive  notices  found  in  the  Mosaic  writings 
inserted  for  some  time  either  between  the  lines  or  in  and  relative  to  matters  geographical,  historical,  etc.. 
the  margin  of  the  Sacred  Books,  but  now  embodied  decidedly  later  than  Moses'  time,  should  be  regardea 
in  the  text  itself,  into  which'it  was  inserted  by  owners  as  post-Mosaic  textual  additions.  Others,  stru&  with 
or  by  transcribers  of  manuscripts,  and  in  which  it  the  lack  of  smoothness  of  style  noticeable  in  several 
appears  as  if  an  integral  part  of  the  Word  of  God,  passages  of  the  ori^nal  Hebrew,  or  with  the*apparent 
mereas  it  is  but  a  late  interpolation.  ^  meonsistencies  in  its  parallel  statements,  have  ap- 
II.  Glosses  as  Marginal  riorss. — As  is  quite  nat-  pealed  to  textual  additions  as  offering  a  natural  and 
ural,  the  margin  has  always  been  the  favourite  place  adequate  explanation  of  the  facts  observed.  Some 
for  recording  explanatory  words  or  remarks  of  various  have  even  admitted  the  view  that  Midrashim,  or  kinds 
kinds  concemine  the  text  of  the  Bible.  And  in  point  of  Jewish  commentaries,  were  at  an  early  date  utilised 
of  fact,  marginal  notes  of  varying  nature  and  impor-  in  the  framing  or  in  the  transcription  of  our  present 
tsince  are  found  in  nearly  all  manuscripts  and  printed  Hebrew  text,  and  thus  would  account  for  what  tiiey 
editions  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  With  regard  to  the  consider  as  actual  and  extensive  additions  to  its  prim- 
Hebrew  text,  these  glosses  or  marginal  notes  are  itive  form.  And  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  by 
mostly  extracts  from  the  Masorah  or  collection  of  tra-  means  of  the  literary  feature  known  as  **  parallelism'^ 
ditional  remarks  concerning  Holy  Writ.  They  usu-  in  Hebrew  poetry,  many  textual  additions  can  be  de- 
ally  bear  on  what  was  regardea  as  a  questionable  tected  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  poetical  books,  not- 
reading  or  spelling  in  the  text,  but  yet  was  allowed  to  ably  in  that  of  Job.  All  scholars  distinctly  TnaintAin, 
remain  unmodified  in  the  text  itself  throu^  respect  however,  and  indeed  justly,  that  all  such  glosses, 
for  its  actual  form.  Thus,  at  times  the  margin  bids  the  whether  actually  proved,  or  simply  conjectured,  do 
reader  to  transpose,  interohan^,  restore,  or  remove  a  not  interfere  materiallywith  the  substantial  integrity 
consonant,  while  at  other  times  it  directs  him  to  omit  or  of  the  Hebrew  text.  The  presence  of  similar  textual 
insert  even  an  entire  word.  Some  of  these  glosses  are  additions  in  the  text  of  the  Septuagint,  or  oldest  Greek 
of  considerable  importance  for  the  correct  reading  or  translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  is  an  established  fact 
understanding  of  the  original  Hebrew,  while  neariy  which  was  well  known  to  the  Roman  editors  of  that 
all  have  effectually  contributed  to  its  uniform  trans--  version  under  Sixtus  V.  One  has  only  to  compare 
mission  since  the  eleventh  century  of  our  era.  The  attentively  the  words  of  that  ancient  version  with 
marginal  notes  of  Greek  and  Latm  manuscripts  and  those  of  the  original  Hebrew  to  remain  convinced  that 
editions  of  the  Scriptures  are  usually  of  a  wider  im-  the  Septua^nt  translators  have  time  and  again  delib- 
port.  Annotations  of  all  kinds,  chiefly  the  results  of  erately  deviated  from  the  text  which  they  rendered 
exegetical  and  critical  study,  crowd  the  margins  of  into  Greek,  and  thus  made  a  number  of  more  or  less 
these  copies  and  printed  texts  tar  more  than  those  of  the  important  additions  thereunto.  These  translators  f  re- 
manuscripts  ana  editions  of  the  original  Hebrew.  In  quently  manifest  a  desire  to  supply  what  the  original 
regard  to  the  Latin  Vulgate,  in  particular,  these  glosses  had  omitted  or  to  clear  up  what  appeared  ambiguous, 
gradually  exhibited  to  readers  so  larep  and  so  perplex-  Fre(]uently,  too,  they  adopt  paraphrastic  rendenngs  to 
mg  a  number  of  various  textual  reading  that  to  rem-  avoid  the  most  marked  anthropomorphisms  of  the 
ed^  the  evil,  Sixtus  V,  when  publishing  his  official  text  before  them:  while  at  times  they  seem  to  be  guided 
edition  of  the  Vulgate  in  1588,  decreed  that  henceforth  in  their  additions  by  Jewish  Halacha  and  Haggadah. 
copies  of  it  shouldnot  be  supplied  with  such.variations  Glosses  as  textual  additions  exist  also  in  manuscripts 
recorded  in  the  margin.  Inis  was  plainly  a  wise  rule,  of  the  New  Testament,  owing  to  a  variety  of  causes, 
and  its  faithfid  observance  by  Catholic  editors  of  the  the  principal  among  which  may  be  given  as  follows: 
Vulgate  and  by  its  translators,  notably  by  the  authors  copyists  have  embodied  marginal  notes  in  the  text  it- 
of  the  Douay  Version,  has  secured  the  object  intended  self ;  at  times  they  have  supplemented  the  words  of  an 
by  Sixtus  v.  Despite  the  explicit  resolve  of  James  I  Evangelist  by  means  of  the  parallel  passages  in  the 
that  the  Protestant  Version  of  Holy  Writ  to  be  pub-  other  Gospels ;  sometimes  they  have  completed  the 
lished  during  his  reign  should  not  have  any  marginal  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New. 
notes,  that  version — the  so-called  Authorized  Version  Finally,  textual  additions  appear  in  the  manuscripts 
— appeared  in  161 1  with  such  notes,  usually  recording  and  printed  editions  of  the  Latin  Vulgate.  Its  author, 
various  readings.  The  fosses  or  marginal  notes  of  St.  Jerome,  has  freely  enough  inserted  in  his  render- 
the  British  Revised  Version  published  1881-85,  are  ing  of  the  original  Hebrew  historical,  geographical, 
greatly  in  excess  over  ^ose  of  the  Version  of  1611.  doctrinal  remarks  which  he  thought  more  or  less 


OL06SK8  588  OL088BI 

necessary  for  the  Tinderstanding  of  Scriptural  passages  the  fourteenth  century  onward,  the  "Postilla"  of 

by  ordinary  readers.    He  complains  at  times  that  dui^  Nicholas  of  Lyra  and  the  "Additions"  of  Paulus 

ing  his  own  life  copyists,  instead  of  faithfully  tran-  Brugensis  were  added  at  the  foot  of  each  pa|^.    Some 

scribing  his  translation,  embodied  in  the  text  notes  early  printed  editions  of  the  Vulgate  exnibit  all  this 

found  m  the  margin.     And  after  his  death  manu-  exegetical  apparatus;  and  the  latest  and  best  among 

scripts  of  the  Vulgate,  especially  those  of  the  Spanish  them  is  the  one  by  Leander  a  S.  Martino,  O.  S.  B.  (six 

type,  were  supposedly  enriched  with  all  kinds  oi  addi-  vols.  foL,  Antwerp,  1634). 


Testament  or  of  the  Latin  Vulgate.  Francis  E.  Gigot. 

IV.  Glosses  as  Scriptural  Lexicons. — With  re- 
gard to  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  most       Qlogges,  Qlossaries,  Olossarists  (m  Canon  Law^. 

rabbinical  commentaries  are  little  more  than  coUec-  — ^A  gloss  (Gk.  y\C»ffcaj  Lat.  gloBsat  tongue,  speech)  is 

tions  of  glosses,  or  "glossaries",  as  they  are  usually  an  interpretation  or  explanation  of  isolated  words.  To 

(billed,  inasmuch  as  their  chief  object  is  to  supply  ex-  gloss  is  to  interpret  or  explain  a  text  by  taking  up  its 

planations  of  Hebrew  words.    A  part  of  the  Masorah  words  one  after  another.    A  ^ossary  is  therefore  a 

may  also  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  glossary  to  the  collection  of  words  about  which  observations  and 

Hebrew  Bible;  and  the  same  thinp  may  be  said  in  ref-  notes  have  been  gathered,  and  a  glossarist  is  one  who 

erence  to  the  collections  of  Onental  and  Western  thus  explains  or  illustrates  given  texts.    In  canon  law, 

readings  given  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  London  Poly-  glosses  are  short  elucidations  attached  to  the  import- 

glot.    As  regards  the  Greek  Bible  texts,  there  are  no  ant  words  in  the  juridical  texts  which  make  up  the 

separate  coUections  of  glosses;  yet  these  texts  are  collections  of  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici"  (q. v.).  But 

taken  into  account,  together  with  the  rest  of  the  the  term  gloM  is  also  eiyen  to  the  ensemble  of  such 

Greek  literature,  in  a  certain  number  of  glossaries  notes  in  any  entire  collection,  e.g.  the  Gloss  of  the 

which  afford  explanations  of  difficult  words  in  the  "Decretum"of  Gratian,  of  the  "Liber  Sextus",  etc. 

Greek  Isenguage.    The  following  are  the  principal  The  Glossarists  are  those  canonists  who  lived  during 

glossaries  of  that  description:  (1)  the  lexicon  of  Hesy-  the  classic  period  of  canon  law,  from  the  twelfth  to  the 

chius,  a  Greek  grammarian  of  the  fourth  century  of  fifteenth  century,  though  many  left  works  other  than 

our  era;  (2)  the  "A^$eo»i'0'vwi7(inr^" (collection of  glosses)  glosses.    The  canonists  of  Bologna  in  particular,  fa- 

of  the  celebrated  patriarch  Photius  (d.  891) :  (3)  the  voured  the  method  of  the  glossarists,  and  affixed  to 


(5)  the  **'Lvwa,y<ay^  Xd^eup^'  of  the  Byzantine  monk  by  way  of  r^sum^,  and  as  a  help  in  their  lectures;  in 
Zonaras;  (6)  the  '^  Dictionarium"  of  the  Benedictine  course  of  time  such  notes  passed  into  the  copies  of 
Varius  Phavorinus,  published  early  in  the  sixteenth  their  pupils.  These  brief  notes,  at  first  inserted  be- 
century.  Most  of  the  glosses  illustrating  the  language  tween  tne  lines,  soon  overflowed  the  margins,  and 
of  Scnpture  which  are  found  in  the  works  of  Hesy-  became  copious  enough  to  form  a  framework  within 
chius,  Suidas,  Phavorinus,  and  in  the  ''Etvmologium  which  the  real  text  was  enshrined,  as  may  be  seen  by 
Magnum",  were  collected  and  published  by  J.  C.  an  examination  of  ancient  manuscripts  and  certain 
Emesti  (Leipzig,  1785-86).  The  best  separate  ^loss  editions  of  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canom'ci''.  Moreover, 
on  the  Latin  Vulgate,  as  a  collection  of  explanations  later  glosses  were  of  such  ample  proportions  as  to 
chiefly  of  its  woras,  is  that  of  St.  Isidore  of  Seville,  become  at  times  small  commentanes  containing  dis- 
which  he  completed  in  632,  and  which  bears  the  title  cussions  on  the  opinions  of  previous  canonists.  As 
of  "Originum  sive  Etymolo^rum  libri  XX".  It  is  each  master  added  his  own  gloss  the  notes  began  to 
found  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXXII.  swell  in  volume;  but  care  was  always  taken  to  indicate 
V.  Glosses  as  Commentaries. — As  Scriptural  com-  the  particular  author  by  placinjg  a  significant  abbre- 
mentaries  there  are  two  celebrated  glosses  on  the  Vul-  viation  after  his  gloss,  thus:  Hug.  or  H.  Hugucck)); 
gate.  The  former  is  the  ''Glossa  Ordinaria",  thus  Jo.  Fa.  or  F.  (Joannes  Faventinus),  ete.  Gnidualqr 
call^  from  its  common  use  during  the  Middle  Ages,  this  mass  of  glosses  took  on  in  the  schools  a  permanent 
Its  author,  the  German  Walafrid  Strabo  (d.  849),  had  form,  a  necessary  condition  to  its  usefulness  in  teach- 
some  knowledge  of  Greek  and  made  extracts  chiefly  ing;  and  became  a  kind  of  secondary  canonical  text, 
from  the  Latin  Fathers  and  from  the  writings  of  his  less  authoritative,  of  course,  than  the  orimnal,  but 
master,  Rabanus  Maurus,  for  the  purpose  of  mustrat-  supplying  material  for  oral  commentary.  iJius  arose 
inff  the  various  senses-Horincipall^  the  literal  sense— of  "oitiinary  gloss"  {glossa  ordinaria),  endowed  with  a 
^the  books  of  Holy  Writ.  This  gloss  is  quoted  as  a  certain  authority,  not  indeed  official  (as  thou^  it  were 
high  authority  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  it  was  actually  the  law  on  the  point),  but  none  the  less  real, 
known  as  "the  tongue  of  Scripture".  Until  the  since  it  represented  the  opinion  and  authority  of  the 
seventeenth  century  it  remained  the  favourite  com-  canonists  who  wrote  it  down,  but  chiefly  because  it 
mentary  on  the  Bible ;  and  it  was  only  gradually  supei^  expressed  the  teaching  at  the  time.  Hence  it  comes 
seded  by  more  independent  works  of  exegesis.  The  to  pass  that  a  medieval  canonical  gloss  is  often  quoted 
''Glossa Ordinaria"  is  found  in  vols.  CXIIIand  CXIV  even  in  our  day;  the  quotation  is  made  quite  as  the 


some  acquaintance  with  Hebrew  and  Greek.   After  the    gloss  on  the  word  "  f alsitatis",  in  ch.  Licet,  fifth  book 
twelfth  century  copies  of  the  Vulgate  were  usually  sup-    of  the  Decretals) . 

Plied  with  both  these  glosses,  the  ''Glossa  Ordinaria"        It  is  not  easy  to  illustrate  in  a  few  words  the  legal 


QLOBBOLALU.  5S9  OLOTIS 

miiUitiOD  of  tbe  quution  to  be  solved;  (c)  diviuon  ornamented  on  the  back  wiUi  a  cross:  the  border  ol 
of  the  text  and  statement  of  conclusioTU  drawn;  (d)  tbe  opening  for  tbe  hand  ia  also,  as  a  rule,  embellished, 
interpretation  of  important  words;  (e)  examples  of  Tbe  colour  of  tbe  etoves  must  correspond  with  the 
real  or  fictitious  cases  showing  the  application  of  the  liturgical  colour  of  tbe  feast  or  day  in  tbe  services  of 
law;  (0  discussion  of  the  various  reiuungs  of  tbe  same  whicn  tbey  are  worn;  episcopal  gloves,  however,  are 
text  as  given  in  different  manuscripts;  (g)  countless  never  black,  as  Uiey  are  not  used  on  Good  Friday  nor 
nfeiences  to  parallel  texts-  (h)  axioms  or  mnemonic  at  the  celebration  of  Masses  for  the  dead.    When  a 
helps  (brocardica)  often  in  leonine  bexamcter  verses;  bishop  is  consecrated  theglovesareput  oDhiroby  the  ' 
(i)  allusions  to  the  teaching  of  various  masters,  and  consecrator,  aided  by  tbe  assisting  bishops,  just  after 
to  solutions  given  dd  various  occasions  by  pontifical  the  Blessing.     Tbe  use  of  episcopal  gloves  became 
letters.    Evidently  the  juridical  value  of  tnese  glosses  customary  at  Rome  probably 
for  the  teaching  of  canon  law  in  our  dav  has  greatly  in  tbe  tenth  century,  outside 
lessened;  historically,  however,  they  stul  offer  mucn  of  Rome  tbey  were  employed 
precious  information.     The  more  eminent  of   the  somewhat  eariier.   Apparently 
glostarists  will  be  treated  biograpblcally,  in  their  own  tbev  were  first  used  in  France, 
places  among  the   canonists  of  renown.     Attention  as  the  cariiest  traces  of  the  cus- 
will  be  confined  here  to  what  is  attictly  essential  in  tom  are  found  in  this  country, 
this  connection.     The  gloss  of  the  "Decretum"  of  whence  it  gradually  spread  into 
Qratian  was  tbe  worlc  of  John  Zimcke,  called  the  Teu-  all  other  parts  and  even  to 
tonic  (Joannes  Simeca  Teutonicus},  between  1211  and  Rome,     Tbe  chief  reason   for 
121S;.he  profited  by  the  notes  of  nis  predeceesors  as  the  introduction  of  the  usage 
well  as  those  which  ne  had  made  himself.    This  work,  was  probably  tbe  desire  to  pro- 
remodelled  and  completed  by  Bartholomew  of  Bresda  vide  a  suitaole  adornment  for 
(Barthotgnueus  Brixiensis)  m  1246  or  1246,  became  tbe  bands  of  the  bi^op,  rather 
the  "ordinary  gloss"  of  the  "Decretum".    Before  than  practi(»l  considerations 
their  incorporation  in  tbe  collection  of  Gregdrv  IX,  tbe  such  as  the  preservation  of  tbe 
so-called  Five  Compilations  of  papal  Decretals  (Quin-  cleanliness  of  the  hands,  etc. 
que  compilationes  antiquee)  had  all  been  glossed.  Episcopal  gloves  appertained 
Tancredus,  archdeacon  of  Bol^na,  bad  written  on  tbe  originally  to  bishops,  but  at  an 
fitBtoftheseooUections  (tbe  "Breviarium"  of  Bernard  eariy  date  their  use  was  also        Eramrti.  Guitb 
of  Pavia)  a  gloss  which  was  received  as  its  "glossa  nanted  to  other  ecclesiastics,    XV  €0111117,  Catbcdial 
ordinaria"  until  the  appearance  of  the  Decretals  of  Qius  no  later  than  1070  the  ab-  "^  Bnim 
Gregory  IX  in  1234.     This  last  collection,  as  is  known  bot  of  the  monastery  of  San  Pietro  in  Cielo  d'Oiti  at 
(see  C08PUB  Juris  Canonici),  caused  the  Five  Com-  Pavia  received  this  privilege,  tbe  first  certain  instano* 
pilations  to  disappear;  in  turn  it  was  ^osaed  by  tbe  of  auch  permission. 

maaters  of  Bologna.    The  author  of  its  "ordinary        In  the  Middle  Ages  these  gloves  were  either  knitted 

gloss"  was  Bernard  of  Botone,  also  known  as  Bernard  or  otherwise  produced  with  tbe  needle,  or  else  they 

of  Parma  (Bemardus  Parmensis),  who  composed  it  were  made  of  woven  material  sewed  together;    the 

shortly  before  1263;  afterwards  it  received  many  former  way  seems  to  have  been  the  more  usual. 

additions,  especiallv  from  Joatmee  Andres,  identified  Gbves  made  by  both  methods  are  still  in  exiatence  as 

by  the  prefix  Add.  and  at  the  end  the  initials  Jo.  forexample,  in  Saint-Semin  at  Toulouse,  at  Brignoles, 

Andr.     It  is   to  this  famous  canonist  we  owe  tbe  in  S.  TrinitA  at  Florence,  in  the  cathedrals  of  Halber- 

"{^oaaa  ordinaria"  of  the  "Liber  Sextus";  he  wrote  stadt  and  Brixen,  in  New  College  at  Oxford   Conflens 

this  gjoBsa  about  tbe  year  1305.     Many  manuscripts  in  Savoy,  and  other  places.     In  tbe  later  Middle  Ages 

contain  also  the  (^oss  of  Joannes  Uonacbus,  famous  it  became  customary  to  enlarge  the  lower  end  givmg 

as  Cardinal  Lemome.  written  also  about  1305.    The  it  the  appearance  of  a  cuff  or  gauntlet,  and  even  to 

gloss  of  Joannes  Andrete  on  the  "Clementina",  00m-  form  the  cuff  with  a  long   point 

filed  soon  after  the  appeaiuice  of  this   collection  which  hung  downwards  and  was 

1317),  has  become  its  ''^osaa  ordinaria",  with  addi-  decorated  with  a  tassel  or  little 

tions  however  by  Franciscus  de  Zabarellis,  later  a  bell.    The  back  of  the  glove  was 

cardinal,  and  Archbishop  of  Florence  (d.  1417).    The  always  ornamented,  sometimes 

"Extravaganlca"  of  John  XXII  were  glossed  as  early  with  an  embroidered  medallion  or 

aal32S,byZenieIin(Zeiuelinus)deCasBanis.  (Seealso  some  other  form  of  embroidery, 

CoHPCS  Jtmia  Canonici;  Decretals,  Papal.)      The  sometimes  with  a  metal  disk  hav- 

"Extravaganl«8Commune8"badnoregularElo8e,but  ing  on  it  a  representation  of  the 

when  Jean  Cbappuis  edited  this  collection,  in  1500,  be  Lamb  of  God,  a  cross,  the  Right 

included  glosses  of  many  authors  that  he  came  across  Hand  of  God,  sainta,  etc,,  the  d^k  "^ 

in  his  manuscripts.    All  the  glosses  of  the  Corpus  being  aewn  on  to  tbe  glove,  or,  at  I 

Juris  are  ^ven  in  the  official  edition  of  Gregory  XIII  times,  the   ornamentauon  was   of 

(1582);  smce  then  tbey  have  not  been  revised,  and  pearis   and   precious  stones.     The 

recent  critical  editions  of  the  text  omit  them.  gloves  were  generally  made  of  silk 


i    ScBVun,  Dit  bachidite  dtr  QutUtn  do  canonUchai 


uiread  or  woven  fabric,  rarely  o- 
woollen  thread,  sometimes  of  Imen 


RteMit  ton  Omtian  bit  avi  ditOtgatmirt,  I  tod  II  (.atuttevi,  woven  inatenal.     Up  to   the  end    „_.,_    ,  n,„„ 

1875-1877).  ^^  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  usual  colour    Epistowl  Qlo™ 

A.  BotmiNHOif.  was  white,  althou^  the  gloves  at  jSiSStot 

aloaioUlU.     See  ToNonEB,  Gnr  OF.  New  CpUep,  Oxford,  are  red ;  ap- 

parently  it  was  not  untd  tie  sixteenth  century  Uiat 

aiOTei,  Epibcoi-al.— Liturgical  gloves  (ehirothxca,  the  ordinances  as  to  liturgical  coloure  were  applied  to 

called  also  at  an  eariier  date  manica,  wanti)  are  a  U-  episcopal  gloves.    Even  m  the  Middle  Ages  the  occa- 

tur^cal  adornment  reserved  for  bishops  and  cardinals,  sions  on  which  tbe  gloves  were  worn  were  not  many. 

Other  ecclesiastics,  including  abbots,  cannot  use  them  but  their  use  was  not  so  limited  as  to-day,  for  in  the 

without  a  special  papal  privilege.    Tbey  are  worn  eariier  period  they  were  occasionally  worn  at  the  pon- 

onlv  at  a  pontifical  Mass,  never  at  any  other  function,  tifical  Mass  after  Communion,  at  solemn  offices,  and 

and  then  oriyto  tbe  wasbingof  the  hands  before  the  during  processioris.     Episcopal  gloves  are  symbolical 

Sacrifice.     Episcopal  gloves  at  the  present  day  are  ofpuntyfromsin,  the  performance  of  good  works,  and 

knitted  by  machine  or  hand  from  silk  thread,  and  are  carefuliiesB  of  procedure. 


OLUTTOHT 


590 


Babbaud,  Dm  ganU  dant  lea  drimonieB  reUffieugea  in  BuiUUn 
monumental  (Paru,  1867),  XXXIII;  db  Montault,  Lea  oanta 
pontificaux  (Paris),  XLII,  XLIII;  db  Lin  as,  PantifUxUia  de  S, 
Louis  d'Anjou  in  Revue  de  Vati  chritien  (Paris,  1861),  V;  Bocx, 
OeaehiehU  der  lituro.  Qewdnder  (Bonn,  1866),  II;  Braun,  Die 
ponHfieaUn  OewAnder  dea  Abendlandea  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1898^; 
IDBM ,  Die  liturffiadie  Oewandtmg  im  Occident  und  Orient  (Frei- 
burg im  Br.,  1907);  db  Flbubt,  La  Meaae  (Paris,  1889),  VlII. 

JosEFH  Braun. 

Qhittony  (From  Lat.  glvUire^  to  swallow,  to  ^p 
down),  the  excessive  indulgence  in  food  and  dnnk. 
The  moral  deformity  discernible  in  this  vice  lies  in 
its  defiance  of  the  order  postulated  by  reason,  which 
prescribes  necessity  as  the  measure  of  indulgence  in 
eating  and  drinking.  This  deordination,  according  to 
the  teaching  of  the  Angelic  Doctor,  may  happen  in 
five  ways  which  are  set  forth  in  the  scholastic  verse: 
''Prse-propere,  laute,  nimis,  ardenter,  studiose",  or,  ac- 
cording to  the  apt  rendering  of  Father  Joseph  Rick- 
aby :  too  soon,  too  expensively,  too  much,  too  et^rlv, 
too  daintily.  Clearly  one  who  uses  food  or  drmk  m 
such  a  way  as  to  injure  his  health  or  impair  tiie  mental 
equipment  needed  for  the  dischar^  of  his  duties,  is 
guilty  of  the  sin  of  gluttony.  It  is  incontrovertible 
tnat  to  eat  or  drink  for  the  mere  pleasure  of  the  expe- 
rience, and  for  that  exclusively,  is  likewise  to  oonmiit 
the  sin  of  gluttony.  Such  a  temper  of  soul  is  eguiva- 
lently  the  direct  and  positive  shutting  out  ot  that 
reference  to  our  last  end  which  must  be  K>und,  at  least 
implicitly,  in  all  our  actions.  At  the  same  time  it 
must  be  noted  that  there  is  no  obligation  to  formallv 
and  explicitly  have  before  one's  mind  a  motive  whicn 
will  immediately  relate  our  actions  to  God.  It  is 
enou^  that  sucn  an  intention  should  be  implied  in  the 
appr3iension  of  the  thing  as  lawful  with  a  consequent 
virtual  submission  to  Almighty  God.  Gluttonv  is  in 
general  a  venial  sin  in  so  far  forth  as  it  is  an  undue  in- 
dulgence in  a  thing  which  is  in  itself  neither  good  nor 
bad.  Of  course  it  is  obvious  that  a  different  estimate 
would  have  to  be  given  of  one  so  wedded  to  the  pleas- 
ures of  the  table  as  to  absolutely  and  without  qu^ifi- 
cation  live  merely  to  eat  and  drmk,  so  minded  as  to  be 
of  the  number  of  those,  described  by  the  Apostle  St. 
Paul,  "whose  god  is  their  bcUy"  (Phil.,  iii,  19). 
Such  a  one  would  be  guilty  of  mortal  sin.  Likewise  a 
person  who,  by  excesses  in  eating  and  drinking,  would 
nave  greatly  impaired  his  healtn,  or  unfittedhimself 
for  duties  for  the  performance  of  which  he  has  a  grave 
obligation,  would  be  justly  chargeable  with  mortal 
sin.  St.  John  of  the  Gross,  in  his  work  ''The  Obscure 
NLzht  of  the  Soul''  (I,  vi),  dissects  what  he  calls  spirit- 
uaTgluttony.  He  explains  that  it  is  the  disposition  of 
those  who,  in  prayer  and  other  acts  of  religion,  are 
always  in  searcn  of  sensible  sweetness ;  they  are  tiiose 
who  ''will  feel  and  taste  God.  as  if  he  were  palpable 
and  accessible  to  them  not  only  in  Communion  but  in 
all  their  other  acts  of  devotion  .  This  he  declares  is  a 
very  great  imperfection  and  productive  of  great  evils. 

Bauabini,  Opua  Theoloffieum  Morale  (Prato,  1898);  Gbni- 
OOT,  TheoloauB  Moralia  htatUutionea  (Louvain,  1898);  Jobbph 
RicKABT,  Aguinaa  Ethieua  (London,  1896);  Dbvxnb,  Manual 
of  Myatioal  ThetAogy  (London,  1903). 

Joseph  F.  Delant. 

Qnesen-PoBen,  Archdiocese  of,  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Prussia.  The  archdiocese  includes  the  Dioceses  of 
Gnesen  and  Posen,  which  were  separate  up  to  1821. 
Since  that  time  they  have  been  united  under  one  arch- 
bishop. Besides  these  dioceses  the  ecclesiastical 
province  also  embraces  the  Bishopric  of  Culm  (q.v.). 

I.  History. — The  Bishopric  of  Posen  (Lat.,  Po9- 
nania;  Polish,  Poznan)  was  founded  in  968  under 
Miecyslaw  or  Mesko,  Duke  of  Poland.  Unable  to 
oope  with  internal  enemies,  he  sought  the  support  of 
the  German  Eknperor  Otto  I  and  became  one  of  bis 
vassals.  Converted  by  his  pious  wife,  Dubravka» 
dau^ter  of  Duke  Boleslaw  1  of  Bohemia,  he  was 
baptised,  and,  in  order  to  promote  the  Christianization 
of  nis  dominions,  undertook  to  establish  a  pennanonl 


ecclesiastical  organization.  The  first  bishop  was 
Jordan  (968-^2),  who  was  appointed  suffragan  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  in  970.  Posen  continued 
to  be  the  only  bishopric  in  Poland  until  the  Diocese  of 
Gnesen  was  created  (Lat.,  Gneana;  Polish,  Gniezno). 
The  latter  place  was  chosen  bv  Duke  £k)leslaw  as  a 
suitable  location  for  a  shrine  for  the  remains  of  St. 
Adalbert,  who  had  suffered  martyrdom  at  the  hands 
of  the  heathen  Prussians.  When  the  Emperor  Otto 
III  made  his  pilerimage  to  the  crave  of  St.  Adalbert  in 
1000,  he  estaoliSied  an  archbi£opric  in  Gnesen  with- 
out consulting  Bishop  Un^r  of  Posen  (982-1012), 
and  placed  it  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Radim  or 
Gaudentius,  brother  of  St.  Adalbert.  At  the  same 
time  he  created  the  Bishoprics  of  Cracow,  Breslau,  and 
Kolberg,  and  incorporated  them  in  the  new  arch- 
diocese. On  the  death  of  Boleslaw,  Posen  was  severed 
from  Magdebure  in  the  course  of  the  strife  engendered 
by  the  national  opposition  to  Germanism.  Bishop 
Pauiinus,  elected  in  1037,  was  the  first  bishop  conse- 
crated in  Gnesen.  St.  Norbert,  Archbishop  of  Magde- 
bure,  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  papal  rescript  in  1 133, 
in  which  the  metropolitan  jurisdiction  of  his  archiepis- 
copal  see  over  Posen  was  still  recognized.  But  smce 
the  twelfth  centiiry,  Posen  has  imdisputedly  been 
de  facto  a  buffra^an  of  Gnesen.  Both  bishoprics  were 
dependent  on  the  temporal  rulers  of  the  countij,  who 
nominated  the  bishops  at  will,  disposed  arbitrarily 
of  the  benefices  and  prebends,  andT  confiscated  the 
estates  of  the  bishops  on  their  death. 

The  archiepiscopal  See  of  Gnesen,  richly  endowed 
with  estates  and  tithes,  soon  surpassed  the  older 
Bishopric  of  Posen  both  in  extent  and  importance, 
and  mw  to  be  the  most  influential  bishopric  in  the 
dukedom.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the  archbishops 
acquired  the  Principality  of  Lowicz.  The  diocese  was 
f uither  augmented  by  the  addition  of  the  suffragan 
Bishoprics  of  Lebus,  Wlbotawek,  and  Plock  in  the 
thirteenth  century  |  of  Wilna  and  Lutzk  in  the  four- 
teenth; of  Samofi;itia  in  the  fifteenth,  and  of  Culm  in 
the  sixteenth,  its  prelates  also  obtained  manv  ex- 
tremely valuable  privileges,  both  ecclesiastical  and 
temporal     At  the  Council  of  Constance  they  were 

g'ven  the  rank  and  title  of  Primas  Polonise  et  Ma^gni 
ucatus  Lithuaniae.  thereby  gettins  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  over  all  the  Bishops  of  Poland  and 
Lithuania.  At  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council  in  1515  they 
were  honoured  witli  the  title  of  papal  LegaJtuf  naJtu8. 
In  1741  they  received  the  privilege  of  wearing  car- 
dinal's vestments  with  the  exception  of  the  hat.  The 
frimacy  entitled  them  to  rank  as  princes  of  the  empira 
'rom  1572  they  held  authority  as  re^nts  of  the 
empire  during  an  interregnum,  supenntended  the 
election  of  the  king  and  crowned  the  successful  can- 
didate. 

The  domestic  condition  of  both  bishoprics  left 
much  to  be  desired  during  the  first  few  centuries  of 
their  existence,  even  with  respect  to  the  spiritual  and 
moral  training  of  the  clergy.^  Such  was  the  charae 
made  by  Pope  Innocent  ill  in  a  letter  to  Henry  I, 
Archbishop  of  Gnesen  (1200-19),  in  1207.  He  cen- 
sured the  prelate  on  the  ground  that  the  majority  of 
the  priests  were  living  in  open  matrimony,  that  the 
dergy  were  presenting  frivolous  plays  before  the  Xdltf^ 
that  theatrical  performances  were  being  given  m 
churches,  and  so  forth.  Most  of  the  credit  for  the 
improvement  of  both  dioceses  is  due  to  the  activi- 
ties of  ihe  monasteries,  mainly  of  German  foundation. 
These  included  abbeys  of  the  Benedictines^  Cistercians, 
Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Augustinians,  l6i]ghts  Tem- 
plar and  Knichts  of  St.  John,  and  convents  of  Poor 
Clares,  all  of  which  became  centres  of  prosperous 
dev^opment.  Many  of  the  bishops,  also,  displayed 
a  beneficent  solicituae  for  education,  althou^  on  this 
point  there  is  very  little  precise  information  to  be 
obtained .  But  at  least  we  know  that  in  the  synodical 
statutes  of  1257  Archbishop  Fulk  of  Gnesen  (1232-58) 


591 


directed  the  parish  priests  to  establish  and  maintain 
schools;  also  that  Bishop  John  VII  (Lubra^ki)  of 
Posen  (1499-1520)  founded  a  college  at  Posen,  and 
other  educational  establishments. 

Hussitism  became  widely  disseminated  throughout 
both  dioceses  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Its  progress 
was  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  a  great  number  of  the 
sons  of  the  Polish  nobility  attended  the  University 
of  Prague.  Bishop  Stanislaus  I  (Go^)  of  Posen 
(1428-37)  found  himself  at  open  variance  with  the  citv 
'of  Bentsdien*  whose  inhabitants  had  become  prevail- 
izigly  Hussite,  and  was  even  compelled  to  flv  from  his 
diocese.  His  successor,  on  the  other  hand.,  Andreas 
of  Bnin  (1439-79),  forced  the  city  to  deliver  into  his 
hands  five  Hussite  preachers,  whom  he  had  burned  at 
the  stake  in  1439.  The  further  spread  of  the  Hussite 
movement  was  checked  by  the  rec^l  of  all  Poles  living 
in  Bohemia,  and  by  the  prohibition  of  all  commer- 
cial intercourse  wi&  that  country.  The  doctrines 
of  Luther,  however,  found  some  ready  supporters 
amongst  the  inhabitants,  thanks  largely  to  feuds  b^ 
.  tween  the  clergy  and  the  nobility.  They  found  accept- 
ance first  in  the  towns — in  Danzie  as  early  as  1518.  In 
Posen,  Bishop  John  Lubra^ki  (1499-1520)  favoured 
the  cause  of^  the  Reformation^  sent  to  Leipzig  for 
Christopher  Endorf  the  humanist,  and  gave  him  an 
appointment  in  the  high  school.  Petrus  Tomicki 
(ld20-25),  the  new  bishop,  seemed  blind  to  the  danger 
that  menaced  the  Church.  It  was  not  until  1523  that 
strict  measures  for  the  preservation  of  Uie  Faith  were 
iAken  at  the  instance  of  the  king^  A  kind  of  inquisi- 
tion tribimal  was  instituted^  and,  at  a  synod  con- 
voked at  Lenczvc  by  Archbishop  John  Laski  (1510- 
31)  of  Gnesen,  tne  bull  of  Pope  Leo  X  excommimicat- 
ins  Luther  was  published.  In  1534  the  young  men  of 
Pmand  were  forbidden  to  attend  forei^  schools. 
This  restraint  was  somewhat  relaxed  imder  Laski's 
successors,  Matthias  Drzewicki  (1531-35)  and  Andreas 
Krzycki  (1535-37),  the  latter  of  whom  was  the  com- 
poser of  songs  to  Venus  Vulgivaga  and  on  other  de- 
grading themes.  The  conduct  of  Archbishop  Jacob 
Ucha^ki  (1562-81)  in  his  attempts  to  establish  a 
national  church  was  marked  by  the  greatest  duplicity. 
The  Moravian  Brethren  meanwhile  obtained  a  footine 
in  the  Bishopric  of  Posen  in  spite  of  the  opposition  en 
Bishop  Benedict  Izdbiefiski  (1546-53). 

The  defeat  of  the  Reformation  in  Poland  was  mainly 
due  to  the  energy  of  Cardinal  Hosius.  He  instigated 
the  promul^tion  and  execution  of  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  throughout  the  country,  and  had 
tiie  Jesuits  sent  thither.  Bishop  Adam  Konarski 
(1562-74)  brou^t  them  into  Posen  in  1571,  and  in 
Gnesen  Archbishop  Stanislaus  Kamkowski  (1582- 
1603)  entrusted  them  with  the  direction  of  the  semi- 
naries of  Gnesen  and  Kalisch.  From  a  national 
standpoint,  the  effect  of  the  victory  of  the  Counter- 
Reformation  was  that  the  German  element  in  both  dio- 
ceses became  almost  completely  Polonized.  Among 
the  most  important  of  the  subsequent  prelates  may  be 
mentioned:  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Gnesen,  Cardinal 
BemhardMaciejowski  (1604-08),  LaurentiusGembicki 
(1616-24),  Matthias  Lubie^ki  (1641-52),  Cardinal 
Michael  Radziejowski  (1687-1705),  and  Stanislaus 
Szembek  (1706-22);  of  Posen,  Andreas  Opale^ski 
(1607-23),  Andreas  Szotdrski  (1636-50),  Bartholo- 
mew Tarto  (1710-15),  Prince  Theodore  Czartoiyski 
(1739-68).^ 

The  decline  of  Poland  resulted  in  its  partition  among 
Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia  (1773.  1793,  and  1795). 
The  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  retained  jurisdiction  only 
over  that  part  of  the  kingdom  that  fell  to  the  share 
of  Prussia,  and  the  Diocese  of  Posen  was  also  reduced 
^  in  extent.  When  the  Prussian  occupation  took  effect, 
*  the  Church  was  assured  of  the  continued  enjoyment  of 
all  her  possessions,  but  after  the  insurrection  of  1797 
all  her  estates  were  confiscated.  Pius  VII  transferred 
the  primacy  to  the  Archbishop  of  Warsaw;  but  the 


title  of  prince  was  still  attached  to  the  Archbishopric 
of  Gnesen  until  it  too  was  withdrawn  in  1829  by 
order  of  the  cabinet.  At  the  reorganization  of  ec- 
clesiastical affairs  in  Prussia  in  1821,  the  Russian- 
Polish  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Posen  was  cut  off ;  the  see 
was  raised  to  an  archbishopric,  and  joined  to  Gnesen 
under  one  prelate.  Each  bishopnc,  however,  re- 
tained its  own  suffragan,  its  own  cathedral  chapter, 
and  its  own  consistory.  Timotheus  G6rze^ki  (d. 
1825)  was  consecrated  first  Archbishop  of  Gnesen- 
Posen,  after  he  had  been  Bishop  of  Posen  since  1809. 
The  citv  of  Posen,  which  in  the  interim  had  out- 
stripped Gnesen  in  size  and  importance,  was  desig- 
nated the  official  seat  of  the  diocese.  Since  the 
Prussian  regime  be^an,  both  chapters  have  had  the 

J'oint  right  of  electmg  the  archbishop.  This  right, 
Lowever,  has  already  proved  illusory  in  several  elec- 
tions, the  archiepiscopal  throne  having  been  left 
vacant  on  several  occasions  for  lenfi;uy  periods. 
After  the  brief  incumbency  of  Theopnilus  Wolicki 
(1828-2^),  the  archdiocese  was  ruled  by  Martin  Dimin 
(1831-42),  a  graduate  of  the  Collegium  Germanicum. 
Althot^  he  met  the  views  of  the  government  as  far 
as  possible  on  all  questions  concemins  the  schools 
and  religious  seminaries,  he,  with  the  Archbishop  of 
Cologne,  Clement  August  von  Droste-Vischering,  de- 
fended the  discipline  of  the  Church  regarding  mixed 
marriages  so  steadfastly  that  he  was  removed  from 
his  see,  exiled  from  his  diocese,  and  later,  on  his  return 
to  Gnesen,  was  arrested  and  confined  in  the  fortress 
of  Kolberg.  It  was  onlv  in  1840  that  he  was  rein- 
stated, as  the  result  of  the  personal  interposition 
of  King  Frederick  William  IV.  Leo  Przltiski  (1845^ 
65)  was  succeeded  by  Miecislaus  Halka  Led6chowski 
(1866-86),  one  of  the  first  victims  of  the  "Kultur- 
kampf".  On  the  24  November.  1873,  he  was  re- 
Quested  to  abdicate  his  office  by  tne  chief  president  of 
tne  Province  of  Posen.  Upon  his  refusal,  he  was 
summoned  to  appear  before  the  court,  arrested  on  the 
3  February,  1874,  and  kept  in  prison  at  Ostrowo  until 
February,  1876.  Forbioden  to  stay  in  I^iissia,  he 
went  to  Home,  and  was  raised  to  the  cardinalate  by 
Pius  IX  in  March.  1876.  The  Prussian  government 
had  him  deposed  by  the  supreme  court  of  the  state, 
and  ordered  a  new  election.  Both  cathedral  chapters 
refused  to  carry  out  this  order,  whereupon  the  Prussians 
confiscated  the  episcopal  possessions.  Both  suffragan 
bishops,  the  official  Korytkowski,  and  other  cleiigy- 
men  were  persecuted  by  the  government,  and  had 
variously  to  suffer  imprisonment,  exile,  fines,  the 
suspension  of  stipends,  and  deposition.  In  1883,  165 
of  the  555  parishes  in  the  two  dioceses  were  without 
a  pastor,  and  of  these  131,  embracing  165,000  souls, 
were  absolutely  without  any  clercyman  whatsoever. 
In  the  beginning  of  1886  Led^chowski  resigned  his 
incuinbency  into  the  pope's  hands.  The  latter 
appointed  a  German,  Juhus  Dinder,  to  the  arch- 
bishopric (1886-90).  From  the  outset  his  German 
nationality  inspired  the  distrust  of  the  Poles.  He  was 
bitterly  attacked  by  Polish  newspapers  and  at  public 
meetings,  becaiise  ne  carried  out  the  wishes  of  the 
administration  in  ordering  religious  instruction  to  be 
^iven  to  the  higher  classes  of  the  secondary  schools 
m  the  German  tongue.  Even  his  attitude  in  espous- 
ing in  general  the  cause  of  the  Poles  wherever  their 
rignts  were  affected  did  nothing  to  miti^te  his  un- 

gopularity.  He  was  succeeded  by  a  Pole,  Florian  von 
tablewski  (1891-1906),  who,  as  m  the  case  of  Dinder, 
was  nominated  by  the  pope.  He  did  his  best  to  keep 
on  good  terms  with  the  civil  government,  promoted 
the  education  and  training  of  Uie  cler^  bv  foundins 
seminaries  and  preparatory  collets  m  Gnesen  and 
Posen,  improvea  the  Catholic  imions  and  societies, 
and  causea  the  publication  of  several  Catholic  daily 
and  weekly  journals.  But  in  spite  of  his  conciliatory 
policy  he  was  subjected  to  the  attacks  of  both  the 
German  and  Polish  elements  as  a  result  of  the  eac* 


GN08TIOIBM  592  aNOBTIOIBM 

oessivelyobnoxious conditions  that  prevailed  through-       Bibllognphy  In  Finkbl,  Biblioffnfla  Hiaiaryi  PoUkie,  In 

out  the  archdiocese.     Since  his  death  it  has  been  with-  Bibliography  of  Polish  History  rCracow,  1876).    Authorities  'in 

out  a  spiritual  head.    The  diocese  is  at  present  in  a  BSfr'isiuSS?  /^I'wJSSL^??^.^^^^^  /1i7°*'' 

very.  titTubled  state..  The  Polish  population  is  bitterly  ^u%\^?^i:S:SS^^t:S^^ 

hostile  to  the  administration  in  consequence  of  the  Ui^owski,  suuuta  Capituhrum  Qnunmtxt  h  Ponumienti* 

the  plantation  laws  and  expropnationjpohcy  inaugu-  cow.  1909—);  Idbm,  Ada  eapittdorum  PonumiSuU  h  WbuO-- 
rated  by  the  Prussian  government.  The  schools  have  if>vien«it  (Craoow,  1909—).  The  earlier  books  on  the  Arch- 
been  altogether  removed  from  the  influence  of  the  K^^^Mw^STr^JK^  TJ^^ 
wchbishop  the  clergy,  and  the  parents  of  the  pupils;  ^SJ^'oSSJS^iS^oaS'^J^^^ 

the  mtermediate  schools  are,  for  the  most  part,  under  ^^  Gnesen,  primates  and  metropolitans  of  Poland  from  the  yeaf 

consequent  of  the  plantation  of  German  settlers,  "The  preUtes  and  canons  of  the  metropoIUan  cathedral  at 


if  XL — /Vii    !•    >n^       1    "^  *»%/v.**Mw**v««  w  Mxo  ui WXVWI0  umcmenna  a  romanimna  ^unesen,   itum);    oonoeming  ine 

01  the  Catholic  Church.  churches  cf.  Kohtb  ano  Warschaukb,  VerxeieKnia  der  KunH" 

II.  STATi8nc8.-The  Archdiocese  of  Gneeen-Poeen  vS!S^%J^k!S^  oUZiit^^h  J^^xke  ®Sth2dkd*'S 

embraces  the  Prussian  governmental  department  of  Qnesen",  Qnesen.  1874).    Numerous  essays  dealing  with  both 

Posen,  the  department  of  Brombei^   (with  the  ex-  dioceses  can  be  found  in  the  ZeitBckHft  der  Hiatoriaehen  Geaetl' 

oeption  of  the  circle,  or  district,  of  Bromberg),  the  gJ^^J*'  ^**  ^^"'^  ^^^  ^^***"'  1885—).   a.  also  art. 

cuxles  of  Deutsch-Krone  and  the  circle  of  Thorn  in  '                                                JoaKPH  LiNfl 
Western  Prussia  and  several  small  places  in  Pome- 

rania.  The  total  population  in  1900  consisted  of  OnoBticdsm,  the  doctrine  of  salvation  by  knowledge. 
1.272,499  souls,  of  whom  some  110,000  were  Germans.  This  definition,  based  on  the  etymology  of  the  word 
Each  of  the  dioceses  has  a  suffragan  and  its  own  (7»'t!^tt  "knowled^",  ywiacTLxU,  |'goodat  knowing")i 
cathedral  chapter.  During  the  vacancy  of  the  see  the  ^  correct  as  far  as  it  goes,  but  it  gives  only  one,  thou^ 
administration  of  the  Diocese  of  Posen  is  administered  perhaps  the  predominant,  characteristic  of  Gnostic 
by  the  suffragan  as  capitular  vicar  and  administrator  systems  of  thought.  Whereas  Judaism  and  Chris- 
general.  The  cathedral  chapter  is  composed  of  a  tianity,  and  almost  all  pt^an  svstems,  hold  that  the 
provost,  a  dean,  eight  canons  and  four  honorary  soul  attains  its  proper  end  by  obedience  of  mind  and 
canons  (1  vacant).  At  the  beginning  of  1909  the  7^^^  ^  the  Supreme  Power,  i.e.  by  faith  and  works,  it 
bishopric  included  26  deaneries,  348  parish  churches,  >s  marjkedly  peculiar  to  Gnosticism  that  it  places  the 
104  cnapelsnof-ease,  91  oratories  and^public  chapels,  salvation  or  the  soul  merely  in  the  possession  of  a  quasi- 
69  private  chapels,  554  priests,  97  derics,  951,020  intuitive  knowledge  of  the  m^rsteries  of  the  universe 
souls.  There  is  a  cleric^  seminary  (Seminarium  &nd  of  magic  formulse  indicative  of  that  knowledge. 
Leoninum)  at  Posen  with  5  professors  and  97  alunmi.  Gnostics  were  "people  who  knew",  and  their  Imowl- 
and  2  preparatory  colleges.  There  have  been  no  ed^  at  once  constituted  them  a  superior  class  of 
male  orders  in  either  diocese  since  the  Kulturkampf.  bemgs,  whose  present  and  future  status  was  essenr 
The  following  female  orders  and  congr^tions  have  tially  different  from  that  of  those  who,  for  whatever 
institutions  in  the  diocese :  the  Sisters  of  Qiarity  of  St.  reason^  did  not  know.  A  more  complete  and  historical 
Vincent  de  Paul  have  13  convents  with  112  sisters;  definition  of  Gnosticism  would  be:  "A  collective  name 
the  Grey  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth  have  21  with  141  for  a  large  number  of  greatlv-varying  pantheistic- 
sisters;  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  St.  Qiaries  Borromeo  idealistic  sects,  which  flourished  from  some  time  before 
3  with  28  sisters;  the  Servants  of  the  Immaculate  the  Christian  Era  down  to  the  fifth  century,  and  which, 
Conception,  8  with  42  sisters.  The  church  at  Posen  while  borrowing  the  phraseology  and  some  of  tiie 
is  the  official  cathedral  of  the  diocese.  It  was  built  tenets  of  the  chief  religions  of  the  day,  and  especially 
between  1772  and  1775  on  the  site  of  an  older  structure,  of  Christianity,  held  matter  to  be  a  deterioration  of 
It  contains  numerous  memorial  tablets  and  monu-  spirit,  and  the  whole  universe  a  depravation  of  the 
ments  of  former  bishops,  and  also  the  famous  golden  Deity,  and  taught  the  ultimate  end  of  all  being  to  be 
chapel  of  Ranch.  A  collegiate  chapter  with  a  provost,  the  overcoming  of  the  g^rossness  of  matter  and  the 
a  dean,  and  two  canons  is  attached  to  the  parish  return  to  the  Parent-Spirit,  which  return  they  held  to 
church  ad  Sanctam  Mariam  Magdalenam,  formeny  the  be  inaugurated  and  facilitated  by  the  appearance  of 
church  of  the  Jesuits.  In  the  Diocese  of  Gnesen  the  some  God-sent  Saviour".  However  unsatisfactory 
provost  of  the  cathedral  chapter  has  jurisdiction  as  this  definition  may  be,  the  obscurity,  multiplicity,  and 
vicar  capitular  and  administrator  general.  The  wild  confusion  of  Gnostic  systems  will  haroly  allow  of 
chapter  consists  of  the  provost  and  six  canons.  At  another.  Many  scholars,  moreover,  would  nold  that 
the  Deginnine  of  1909  the  diocese  induded  17  deaneries  every  attempt  to  give  a  generic  description  of  Gnostic 
207  parish  churches,  29  diapels-of-ease,  64  oratories  sects  b  labour  lost. 

and  chapels,  277  priests,  438,425  Catholics.    There  is  Origin. — ^The  beginnings  of  Gnosticism  have  long 

one  seminary  at  Gnesen,  with  3  professors  and  31  been  a  matter  of  controversy  and  are  still  largely  a 

students,  one  archiepiscopalpreparatory  college,  and  subject  of  research.    The  more  these  ori^ns  are  stud- 

9  ecclesiastical  hcepitals.    lliere  are  o  convents  of  ied,  the  farther  they  seem  to  recede  in  the  past, 

the  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth  wiUi  38  sisters,  5  of  the  Whereas  formerly  Gnosticism  was  considered  mosUy 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  with  33  in-  as  a  corruption  of  Christianity,  it  now  seems  clear  that 

mates,  and  six  of  the  Servants  of  the  Immaculate  the  first  traces  of  Gnostic  systems  can  be  discerned 

Conception  with  38  sisters.    The  Gothic  cathedral  at  some  centuries  before  the  Christian  Era.    Its  Eastern 

Gnesen,  the  largest  religious  sanctuary  in  all  Poland,  origin  was  already  maintained  by  Gieseler  and  Nean- 

dates  from  the  14th  century.    It  contains  the  silver  der;  F.  Ch.  Bauer  (1831)  and  Lassen  (1858)  sou^t  to 

sarcophagus  enclosing  the  relics  of  St.  Adalbert,  to  prove  its  relation  to  the  religions  of  India;  Lipsius 

which  thousands  make  pilgrimages  each  year.    There  (I860)  pointed  to  Svria  and  Phoenicia  as  its  home,  and  - 

are  ooU^;iate  chapters  at&chea  to  the  diurch  of  St.  Hilgenteld  (1884)  tnought  it  was  connected  with  later 

Geoi^ge  in  Gnesen,  and  to  the  parish  diurdh  in  Krusch-  Ma»leism.    Joel  (1880),  Weingarten  (1881),  Koff- 

witi.  mane  (1881),  Anrich  (1894),  and  Wobbermin  (1896) 


QNOBTIOISM                            593  GNOSTIOISM 

sought  to  account  for  the  rise  of  Gnosticism  by  the  in-  trate  their  great  idea  of  the  essential  evO  of  this  pres^ 
fluence  of 'Greek  Platonic  philosophy  and  the  Greek  ent  existence  and  the  duty  to  escape  it  by  the  help  of 
mysteriesy  while  Hamack  aescribed  it  as  ''acute  Hel-  magic  spells  and  a  superhuman  Saviour.  Whatever 
lenisation  of  Christianity".  For  the  last  twenty-five  they  borrowed,  this  pessimism  they  did  not  borrow — 
years,  however,  the  trend  of  scholarship  has  steadily  not  from  Greek  thought,  which  was  a  joyous  acknowl- 
moved  towards  proving  the  pre-Christian  Oriental  ed^ent  of  and  homage  to  the  beautu  id  and  noble  in 
origins  of  Gnosticism.  At  the  Fifth  Congress  of  Ori-  this  world,  with  a  studied  disregard  of  the  element  of 
entalists  (Berlin,  1882)  Kessler  brou^t  out  the  oon-  sorrow;  not  from  Egyptian  thought,  which  did  not 
nexion  between  Gnosis  and  the  Babylonian  religion.  aUow  its  elaborate  speculations  on  retribution  and 
By  this  latter  name,  however,  he  meant  not  the  orig-  judgment  in  the  netherworld  to  cast  a  gloom  on  this 
inal  religion  of  Babylonia,  but  the  syncretistic  religion  present  existence,  but  considered  the  universe  created 
which  arose  filter  we  conquest  of  C3rrus.  The  same  or  evolved  imder  the  presiding  wisdom  of  Thoth ;  not 
idea  is  brought  out  in  his  "Mani"  seven  years  later,  from  Iranian  thought,  which  held  to  the  absolute  su- 
In  the  same  year  F.  W.  Brandt  published  his  "  Man-  premacy  of  Ahura  Mazda  and  only  allowed  Ahriman  a 
dftische  Religion".  This  Mandsean  religion  is  so  un-  subordinate  share  in  the  creation,  or  rather  counter- 
mistakably  a  form  of  Gnosticism  that  it  seems  beyond  creation,  of  the  world ;  not  from  Indian  Brahminic 
doubt  that  Gnosticism  existed  independent  of,  and  thought,  which  was  Pantheism  pure  and  simple,  or 
anterior  to,  Christianity.  In  more  recent  years  (1897)  God  dwelling  in,  nay  identified  with,  the  urn  verse, 
Wilhelm  Ans  pointed  out  the  close  similarity  between  rather  than  the  Universe  existing  as  the  contradictory 
Babylonian  astrology  and  the  Gnostic  theories  of  the  of  God;  not,  lastly,  from  Semitic  thought,  for  Semitic 
Hebdomad  and  Ogdoad.  Though  in  many  instances  religions  were  strangely  reticent  as  to  the  fate  of  the 
speculations  on  the  Babylonian  AstraUehre  have  gone  soul  after  death,  and  saw  all  practical  wisdom  in  the 
beyond  all  sober  scholarship,  yet  in  this  particular  in-  worship  of  Baal,  or  Marduk,  or  Assur,  or  Hadad,  that 
stance  llie  inferences  made  by  Anz  seem  sound  and  they  might  live  long  on  this  earth.  This  utter  pessim- 
reliable.  Researches  in  tiie  same  direction  were  con-  ism,  bemoaning  the  existence  of  the  whole  universe  as 
tinned  and  instituted  on  a  wider  scale  by  W.  Bous-  a  corruption  and  a  calamity,  with  a  feverish  craving 
set,  in  1907,  and  led  to  carefully  ascertained  results,  to  be  freed  from  the  body  of  this  death  and  a  mad 
In  1898  the  attempt  was  made  by  M.  Friedl&nder  hope  that,  if  we  only  knew,  we  could  by  some  mystic 
to  trace  Gnosticism  in  pre-Christian  Judaism.  His  words  undo  the  cursed  spell  of  this  existence — this  is 
opinion  that  the  Rabbinic  term  Minmm  designated  the  foundation  of  all  Gnostic  thought.  It  has  the 
not  Christians,  as  was  commonly  believed,  but  An-  same  parent-soil  as  Buddhism;  but  Buddhism  is  etlii- 
tinomian  Gnostics,  has  not  found  universal  accept-  cal,  it  endeavours  to  obtain  its  end  by  the  extinction 
anoe.  In  fact,  E.  SchQrer  brought  sufficient  proof  of  all  desire;  Gnosticism  is  pseudo-intellectual,  and 
to  show  that  Minnim  is  the  exact  Aramaean  dia-  trusts  exclusively  to  magical  knowledge.  Moreover, 
lectic  equivalent  for  l^ny.  Nevertheless  Friedlfinder's  Gnosticism,  placed  in  other  historical  surroundings, 
essay  retains  its  value  in  tracing  strong  antinomian  developed  from  the  first  on  other  lines  than  Buddhism, 
tendencies  with  Gnostic  oolourmg  on  Jewish  soil.  When  Cyrus  entered  Babylon  in  539  B.C.,  two  great 
Not  a  few  scholars  have  laboured  to  find  the  source  worlds  of  thought  met,  and  syncretism  in  religion,  as 
of  Gnostic  theories  on  Hellenistic  and,  specificidly,  far  as  we  know  it,  began.  Iranian  thought  b^m  to 
Alexandrian  soil.  In  1880  Joel  sought  to  prove  mix  with  the  ancient  civilization  of  Babylon.  The 
that  the  germ  of  all  Gnostic  theories  was  to  be  found  idea  of  the  preat  struggle  between  evil  and  good,  ever 
in  Plato.  Though  this  may  be  dismissed  as  an  ex-  continuing  m  this  imiverse,  is  the  parent  idea  of  Maz- 
aggeration,  some  Greek  influence  on  the  birth,  but  deism,  or  Iranian  dualism.  This,  and  the  imagined 
especially  on  the  growth,  of  Gnosticism  cannot  be  existence  of  numberless  intermediate  spirits,  angels 
denied.  In  Trismegistic  literature,  as  pointed  out  and  devas,  was  the  conviction  which  overcame  the 
by  Reitzenstein  (Poimandres,  1904),  we  find  much  contentedness  of  Semitism.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
that  is  strangely  akin  to  Gnosticism.  Its  Egyptian  unshakable  trust  in  astrology,  the  persuasion  that  the 
origin  was  defended  by  E.  Am^lineau,  in  1887,  and  planetary  system  had  a  fatalistic  influence  on  tiiis 
illustrated  by  A.  Dietrich,  in  1891  (Abraxas  Studien)  world's  aAairs,  stood  its  ground  on  the  soil  of  Chaldea. 
and  1903  (Mithrasliturae).  The  relation  of  Plo-  The  greatness  of  the  Seven — the  Moon,  Mercury, 
tinus's  philosophy  to  (Tnosticism  was  brought  out  Venus,  Mars,  the  Sun,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn — the  sacred 
by  C.  Schmidt  ia  1901.  That  Alexandrian  thou^t  Hebdomad,  symbolized  lor  millenniums  by  the  staged 
had  some  share  at  least  in  the  development  of  Christian  towers  of  Babylonia,  remained  undiminished.  They 
Gnosticism  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  the  bulk  of  ceased,  indeed,  to  be  worshipped  as  deities,  but  thev re- 
Gnostic  literature  which  we  possess  comes  to  us  from  mained  Apx"*^^*  and  dvrd/Actf,  rulers  and  powers  whose 
S Egyptian  (Coptic)  sources.  That  this  share  was  not  a  almost  irresistible  force  was  dreaded  by  man.  Prao- 
redominant  one  is,  however,  acfmowledged  by  O.  ticaUy,  thev  were  changed  from  gods  to  devas,  or  evil 
ruppe  in  his  ''Griechische  Mythologie  und  Religions-  spirits.  The  religions  of  the  invaders  and  of  the  in- 
geschichte"  (1902).  It  is  true  that  the  Greek  mys-  vaded  effected  a  compromise:  the  astral  faith  of  Baby- 
teries,  as  G.  Anrich  pointed  out  in  1894,  had  much  in  Ion  was  true,  but  bevond  the  Hebdomad  was  the 
common  with  esoteric  Gnosticism ;  but  there  remains  infinite  li^t  in  the  Ogdoad,  and  every  human  soul  had 
the  further  Question,  in  how  far  these  Greek  mysteries,  to  pass  the  adverse  influence  of  the  god  or  gods  of  the 
as  they  are  Known  to  us,  were  the  genuine  product  of  Heodomad  before  it  could  ascend  to  the  only  good  God 
Greek  thought,  and  not  much  rather  due  to  the  over-  beyond.  This  ascent  of  the  soul  through  the  plane- 
powering  influence  of  Orientalism.  tary  spheres  to  the  heaven  beyond  (an  idea  not  un- 
Although  the  origins  of  Gnosticism  are  still  largely  known  even  to  ancient  Bab vloman  speculations)  b^an 
enveloped  in  obscunty,  so  much  light  has  been  shea  on  to  be  conceived  as  a  struggle  with  adverse  powers,  and 
the  problem  by  the  combined  labours  of  many  schol-  became  the  first  and  preoominant  idea  in  Gnosticism.* 
ars  that  it  is  possible  to  ^ve  the  foUowing  tentative  The  second  great  component  of  Gnostic  thought  is 
solution:  Although  Gnosticism  may  at  first  si^t  ap-  magic,  properly  so  called,  i.  e.  the  power  ex  opere 
pear  a  mere  thoughtless  syncretism  of  well  nigh  lul  operato  of  weird  names,  sounds,  gestures,  and  actions, 
religious  systems  of  antiauity,  it  has  in  reality  one  as  also  the  mixture  of  elements  to  produce  effects  to- 
deep  root-principle,  which  assimilated  in  ever^  soil  tally  disproportionate  to  the  cause.  These  magic 
what  it  needed  for  its  life  and  growth;  this  principle  is  formulae,  which  caused  laughter  and  disgust  to  out- 
philosophical  and  religious  pessimism.  The  Gnostics,  siders,  are  not  a  later  and  accidental  corruption,  but 
it  is  true,  borrowed  their  terminoloey  almost  entirely  an  essential  part  of  Gnosticism,  for  they  are  found  in 
from  existing  religions,  but  they  onl^  used  it  to  iUus-  all  forms  of  Christian  Gnosticism  and  likewise  in  Man* 
VI.— 38^ 


QNOSTICISM 


594 


QNOSTIOZSM 


dfleism.  No  Gnosis  was  essentially  complete  without 
the  knowledge  of  the  formuls,  whicn,  once  pro- 
nounced, were  the  undoing  of  the  higher  hostile  powers. 
Magic  is  the  original  sin  ofGnosticism,  nor  is  it  difficult 
to  guess  whence  it  is  inherited.  To  a  certain  extent  it 
formal  part  of  every  pagan  religion,  especially  the 
ancient  m3rsteries,  yet  tne  thousands  of  magic  tablets 
unearthed  in  Assjma  and  Babylonia  show  us  where  the 
rankest  growth  of  magic  was  to  be  found.  Moreover, 
the  terms  and  names  of  earliest  Gnosticism  bear  an 
unmistakable  similarit;^  to  Semitic  sounds  and  words. 
Gnosticism  came  early  into  contact  with  Judaism,  and 
it  betrays  a  knowledge  of  the  Old  Testament,  if  oxily  to 
reject  it  or  borrow  a  few  names  from  it.  Considerine 
the  strong,  well-organuEcd,  and  highlv-cultured  Jewish 
colonies  m  the  Euphrates  valley,  tnis  early  contact 
with  Judaism  is  peitectly  natural.  Perhaps  the  Gnos- 
tic idea  of  a  Redeemer  is  not  xmconnected  with  Jewish 
Messianic  hopes.  But  from  the  first  the  Gnostic  con- 
ception of  a  Saviour  is  more  superhuman  than  that  of 
popular  Judaism;  their  Manaa  d'Haye,  or  Soter,  is 
some  immediate  manifestation  of  the  Deity,  a  Li^t- 
King,  an  .£on  (A(c6r),  and  an  emanation  of  the  «>od 
God.  When  Gnosticism  came  in  touch  with  Chris- 
tianity, which  must  have  happened  almost  immedi- 
ately on  its  app^trance,  Gnosticism  threw  itself  with 
strange  rapidity  into  Christian  forms  of  thought,  bor- 
rowed its  nomenclature,  acknowledged  Jesus  as  Sav- 
iour of  the  world,  simulated  its  sacraments,  pretended 
to  be  an  esoteric  revelation  of  Christ  and  His  Apostles, 
flooded  the  world  with  apocryphid  Gospels,  and  Acts, 
and  Apocalypses,  to  substantiate  its  claim.  As  Chris- 
tianity ^w  within  and  without  the  Roman  Empire, 
Gnosticism  spread  as  a  fungus  at  its  root,  and  claimed 
to  be  the  only  true  form  of  Christianity,  unfit,  indeed, 
for  the  vulgar  crowd,  but  set  apart  for  the  gifted  and 
the  elect.  So  rank  was  its  poisonous  ^wth  tliat 
there  seemed  danger  of  its  stifling  Christianity  alto- 
gether, and  the  earliest  Fathers  devoted  their  energies 
to  uprooting  it.  Though  in  reality  the  spirit  of  Gnos- 
ticism is  utterly  alien  to  that  of  Christianity,  it  then 
seemed  to  the  unwarv  merely  a  modification  or  re- 
finement thereof.  When  domiciled  on  Greek  soil. 
Gnosticism,  slightly  changing  its  barbarous  and  Semi- 
tic terminology  and  giving  its  ''emanations''  and 
"syzygies''  Ureek  names,  sounded  somewhat  like 
neo-Flatonism,  though  it  was  strongly  repudiated  by 
Plotinus.  In  Egypt  the  national  worship  left  its 
mark  more  on  Gnostic  practice  than  on  its  theories. 
In  dealing  with  the  ori^ns  of  Gnosticism,  one  might 
be  tempted  to  mention  ManichseiBm,  as  a  number  of 
Gnostic  ideas  seem  to  be  borrowed  from  Manichseism, 
where  they  are  obviously  at  home.  This,  however, 
would  hardly  be  correct.^  Manichseism,  as  historically 
connected  with  Mani,  its  founder,  could  not  have 
arisen  much  eariier  than  a.  d.  250,  when  Gnosticism 
was  already  in  rapid  decline.  Manichseism,  however, 
in  many  of  its  elements  dates  back  far  be^rond  its  com- 
monly accepted  founder;  but  then  it  is  a  parallel 
development  with  the  Gnosis,  rather  than  one  of  its 
sources.  Sometimes  Manichseism  is  even  classed  as  a 
form  of  Gnosticism  and  styled  Parsee  Gnosis,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  Syrian  and  Egyptian  Gnosis.  Thb 
classification,  however,  ignores  the  fact  that  the  two 
systems,  though  they  have  the  doctrine  of  the  evil  of 
matter  in  common,  start  from  different  principles, 
Manichsism  from  dualism,  while  Gnosticism,  as  an 
idealistic  Pantheism,  proceeds  from  the  conception  of 
matter  as  a  gradual  deterioration  of  the  Godhead. 

Doctrines. — Owing  to  the  multiplicity  and  diver- 
gence of  Gnostic  theories,  a  detailed  exposition  in  this 
article  would  be  unsatisfactory  and  contusing  and  to  a 
certain  extent  even  misleading,  since  Gnosticism  never 
possessed  a  nucleus  of  stable  doctrine,  or  any  sort  of 
depontum  fidei  round  which  a  number  of  varied  devel- 
opments and  heresies  or  sects  might  be  grouped;  at 
most  it  had  some  leading  ideas,  which  are  more  or  less 


dearlv  traceable  in  different  schools.  Moreover,  s 
fair  idea  of  Gnostic  doctrines  can  be  obtained  from  the 
articles  on  leaders  and  phases  of  Gnostic  tiiought  (e.  g. 
Basilides;  Valbntinus;  Marcionj  Docetjb;  Dbmi- 
uroe).  We  shall  here  only  indicate  some  main 
phases  of  thought,  which  can  be  regarded  as  kevs  and 
which,  though  not  fitting  all  systems,  will  unlock  most 
of  the  mjTsteries  of  the  Gnosis. 

(a)  Cosmogony, — Gnosticism  is  thinly  diaguised 
Pantheism.  In  the  beginning  was  the  Depth:  the 
Fulness  of  Being;  the  Not-Being  God;  tne  First 
Father,  the  Monad,  the  Man;  the  First  Source,  the 
unknown  God  {fivfUt  rXi^/w/ia,  o^k  dr  Ms,  Tpowirttp, 
f/6pas,  dp$pwros,  «-poa/>x4f  dyptaaras  0e6r),  or  by  whatever 
other  name  it  might  be  called.  This  undefined  infinite 
Something,  thoi^  it  might  be  addressed  by  the  title 
of  the  Good  God,  was  not  a  personal  Beine,  but,  like 
Tad  or  Brahma  of  the  Hindus,  the  "  Great  Unknown ' ' 
of  modem  thought.  The  Unknown  God,  however, 
was  in,  the  beginning  pure  spirituality;  matter  as  yet 
was  not.  This  source  of  all  being  causes  to  emanate 
(rpo/SdXXec)  from  itself  a  number  of  pure  spirit  forces. 
In  the  different  systems  these  emanations  are  differ- 
ently namedj  classified,  and  described,  but  the  emana- 
tion theorv  itself  is  common  to  all  lonns  of  Gnosti- 
cism. In  tne  BasHidian  Gnosis  th^  are  cidled  wnthips 
(vl6ri7res),  in  Valentinianism  they  form  antithetic  pairs 
or  ''syzygies"  (tr^rkorot);  Depth  and  Silence  produce 
Mind  and  Truth;  these  produce  Reason  and  Life, 
these  again  Man  and  State  {kxKkn^la),  According  to 
Marcus,  they  are  numbers  and  sounds.  These  are  the 
primary  roots  of  the  .£ons.  With  bewildering  fertil- 
ity hierarchies  of  .£ons  are  thus  produced,  sometimes 
to  the  number  of  thirtv.  ^  These  .£ons  belong  to  the 
purelv  ideal,  noumenal,  intelli^le,  or  supersensible 
world;  ^ey  are  immaterial,  they  are  hypostatic  ideas. 
Together  with  the  source  from  which  they  emanate 
they  form  the  rXi^/w/ia.  The  transition  from  the  imma- 
terial to  the  material,  from  the  noumenal  to  the  sensi- 
ble, b  broufllit  about  by  a  flaw,  or  a  passion,  or  a  sin,  in 
one  of  the  JSons.  According  to  Basilides^  it  is  a  flaw  in 
the  last  sonship;  according  to  others  it  is  the  passion 
of  the  female  .£on  Sophia ;  according  to  others  the  sin 
of  the  Great  Archon,  or  .£on-Creator,  of  the  Universe. 
The  ultimate  end  of  all  Gnosis  is  melanxa^  or  repen- 
tance, the  undoine  of  the  sin  of  material  existence  and 
the  return  to  the  Fleroma. 

(b)  Sophia-Myth, — In  the  greater  number  of  Gnos- 
tic svstems  an  important  r61e  is  played  by  the  JEon 
Wisdom — Sophia  or  Achamoth  (n)D3n)>  In  some 
sense  she  seems  to  represent  the  supreme  female  prin- 
ciple, as  for  instance  m  the  Ptolemaic  svstem,  in  which 
the  mother  of  the  seven  heavens  is  called  Achamoth, 
in  the  VaJentinian  system^  in  which  If  diw  2o0(a,  the 
Wisdom  above,  is  distineuished  from  ^  jcdrw  Zo^la,  or 
Achamoth,  the  former  being  the  female  principle  in 
the  noumenal  world,  and  in  the  Archontian  sjrstem. 
where  we  find^  a  "Liehtsome  Mother"  (^  M^V  i 
^wtirlj),  and  in  which  beyond  the  heavens  of  the 
Archons  is  ^  ^ikilP  f^^  Tdmaw  and  likewise  in  the 
Barbelognosis,  where  the  female  Barbelos  is  but  the 
counterpart  of  the  Unknown  Father,  which  also  occurs 
amongst  the  Ophites  described  by  Iren»us  (Adv. 
Hseres.,  Ill,  vii,  4).  Moreover,  the  Eucharistic 
prayer  in  the  Acts  of  Thomas  (ch.  1)  seems  addressed 
to  tnis  supreme  female  principle.  W.  Bousset's  sug- 
gestion, that  the  Gnostic  Sophia  is  nothing;  else  than  a 
disguise  for  the  Dea  Syra,  tne  great  goddess  Istar,  or 
Astarte,  seems  worthy  of  consideration.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  JSon  Sophia  usually  pla3rs  another  rftle;  she 
is  4  lipo69tiKOi  or  Hhe  Lustful  One",  once  a  virginal 
goddess,  who  by  her  fall  from  original  puritv  is  the 
cause  of  this  sinful  material  world.  One  of  tne  earli- 
est forms  of  this  mvth  is  found  in  the  Simonian  Gnosis, 
in  which  Simon,  the  Great  Power,  finds  HeAena,  who 
during  ten  years  had  been  a  prostitute  in  l^re,  but 
who  IS  Simon's  frwia,  or  understanding,  and  whom 


GNOSTICISM                            595  QNOSTIOISM 

« 

his  followers  worshipped  under  the  form  of  Athena,  ism  the  process  is  extraordinarily  elaborate.    When 
the  goddess  of  wisdom.    According  to  Valentinus's  this  world  has  been  bom  from  Sophia  in  consequence 
system,  as  described  by  Hippolvtus  (Book  VI,  xzv-  of  her  sin,  Nous  and  Aletheia,  two  .£ons,  b^r  command 
xxvi),  Sophia  is  the  youngest  of  tne  twenty-eight  eons,  of  the  Father,  produce  two  new  JEoTaj  Christ  and  the 
Observing  the  multitude  of  eeons  and  the  power  of  Holy  Ghost;  tnese  restore  order  in  the  Pleroma,  and 
begetting  them,  die  hurries  back  into  the  depth  of  the  in  consequence  all  JEjOus  tojgether  produce  a  new  Mon, 
Father,  and  seeks  to  emulate  him  by  producing  ofif-  Jesus  Logos,  Soter,  or  Christ,  whom  they  ofifer  to  the 
spring  without  conjugal  intercourse,  but  only  projects  Father.    Christ,  the  Son  of  Nous  and  Aletheia,  has 
an  alx)rtion,  a  formless  substance.    Upon  tnis  she  is  pity  on  the  abortive  substance  bom  of  Sophia  and 
cast  out  of  the  Pleroma.    According  to  the  Valentin-  gives  it  essence  and  form.    Whereupon  Sophia  tries 
ian  system  as  described  by  Irenseus  (op.  cit.,  I)  and  to  rise  again  to  the  Father,  but  in  vain.    Now  the 
Tertullian  (Adv.  Valent.,  ix),  Sophia  conceives  a  pas-  Mon  Jesus-Soter  is  sent  as  second  Saviour,  he  unites 
sbn  for  the  First  Father  himself,  or  rather,  under  pre-  himself  to  the  man  Jesus,  the  son  of  Mary,  at  his  bap- 
text  of  love  she  seeks  to  know  him,  the  Unknowable,  tism,  and  becomes  the  Saviour  of  men.    Man  is  a 
and  to  comprehend  his  greatness.    She  would  have  creature  of  the  Demiurge,  a  compound  of  soul,  body, 
suffered  the  consequence  of  her  audacity  by  ultimate  and  spirit.    His  salvation  consists  in  the  return  of  ms 
dissolution  into  the  immensity  of  the  Father,  but  for  rvcC/ia  or  spirit  to  the  Pleroma;  or  if  he  be  only  a  Psy- 
the  Boundary  Spirit.    According  to  the  Pistis  Sophia  chicist,  not  a  full  Gnostic,  his  soul  (^xv)  shall  return 
(ch.  xxix)  ^phia,  daughter  of  Barbelos,  originally  to  Achamoth.    There  is  no  resurrection  of  the  body, 
dwelt  in  the  highest,  or  thirteenth  heaven,  but  she  is  (For  further  details  and  dififerences  see  Valbntinus.) 
seduced  by  the  demon  Authades  by  means  of  a  ray  of  In  Marcionism,  the  most  dualistic  phase  of  Gnostio- 
li^t,  which  she  mistook  for  an  emanation  from  the  ism,  salvation  consisted  in  the  possession  of  the  knowl- 
First  Father.    Authades  thus  enticed  her  into  ChacMs  edgeof  the  Good  God  and  the  rejection  of  the  Demiurge, 
below  the  twelve  JEona,  where  she  is  imprisoned  by  evil  The  Good  God  revealed  himself  in  Jesus  and  appeared 
powers.    According  to  these  ideas,  matter  is  the  fruit  as  man  in  Judea :  to  know  him,  and  to  become  entirely 
of  the  sin  of  Sophia;  this,  however,  was  but  a  Yalen-  free  from  the  yoke  of  the  World-Creator  or  God  of  the 
tinian  .development;   in  the  older  speculations  the  Old  Testament,  is  the  end  of  all  salvation.    TheGnos- 
existenoe  of  matter  is  tacitly  presupposed  as  eternal  tic  Saviour,  therefore,  is  entirely  different  from  the 
with  the  Pleroma,  and  through  her  sin  Sophia  falls  Christian  one.    For  (1)  the  Gnostic  Saviour  does  not 
from  the  realm  of  light  into  the  Chaos  or  realm  of  save.    Gnosticism  lacks  the  idea  of  atonement.   There 
darlmess.    This  original  dualism,  however,  was  over-  is  no  sin  to  be  atoned  for,  except  ignorance  be  that  sin. 
come  by  the  |>r&dominant  spirit  ot  Gnosticism,  panthe-  Nor  does  the  Saviour  in  any  sense  benefit  the  human 
istic  emanationism.  The  Sophia  myth  is  completely  -  race  by  vicarious  sufferingi.    Nor,  finally,  does  he 
absent  from  the  Basilidian  and  kindred  systems.    It  is  immediately  and  actively  affect  any  individual  human 
suggested,  with  great  verisimilitude,  that  the  Ecrptian  soul  by  the  power  of  grace  or  draw  it  to  God.    He  was 
myw  of  Isis  was  the  original  source  of  the  Gnostic  a  teacner,  he  once  brought  into  the  world  the  truth, 
**  lower  wisdom ' '.    In  many  systems  this  Kdrw  Zo^la  which  alone  can  save.    As  a  flame  sets  naphtha  on  fire, 
b  sharply  distinguished  from  the  Higher  Wisdom  men-  so  the  Saviour's  light  ignites  predisposed  souls  moving 
tioned  above;  as,  for  instance,  in  the  magic  formula  down  the  stream  of  time.    Of  a  resJ  Saviour  who  with 
for  the  dead  mentioned  by  Irenseus  (op.  cit.,  I,  xxi,  S),  love  human  and  Divine  seeks  out  sinners  to  save  them, 
in  which  the  departed  has  to  address  we  hostile  Gnosticism  knows  nothing.    The  Gnostic  Saviour  (2) 
archons  thus:  '*  I  am  a  vessel  more  precious  than  the  has  no  human  nature,  he  is  an  aeon,  not  a  man ;  he  only 
female  who  made  you.    If  your  mother  ignores  the  seemed  a  man,  as  the  three  Angels  who  visited  Abra- 
source  whence  she  is,  I  know  myself,  and  I  know  ham  seemed  to  be  men.    (For  a  detailed  exposition  see 
whence  I  am  and  invoke  the  incorruptible  Sophia,  who  Doceta.)    The  .£on  Soter  is  brought  into  the  strang- 
is  in  the  Father,  the  mother  of  your  mother,  who  has  est  relation  to  Sophia:  in  some  systems  he  is  her  bro- 
neither  father  nor  husband.    A  man-woman,  bom  ther,  in  others  her  son,  in  others  a^in  her  spouse.    He 
from  a  woman,  has  made  you,  not  knowing  her  is  sometimes  identified  with  Christ,  sometimes  with 
mother,  but  thinking  herself  alone.    But  I  invoke  her  Jesus ;  sometimes  Christ  and  Jesus  are  the  same  seon, 
mother."    This  agrees  with  the  system  minutely  de-  sometimes  they  are  different;  sometimes  Christ  and 
scribed  by  Iren»us  (op.  cit.,  I.  iv-v),  where  Sophia  the  Holy  Ghost  are  identified.    Gnosticism  did  its 
Achamoth,  or  Lower  Wisdom,  tne  dauditer  of  Higher  best  to  utilise  the  Christian  concept  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
Wisdom,  becomes  the  mother  of  the  Demiurge;  she  but  never  quite  succeeded.    She  made  him  the  Horos, 
being  the  Ogdoad,  her  son  the  Hebdomad,  they  form  a  or  Methonon  Pneuma  C^P^'»  Me&6piop  Ili^i;^),  the 
counterpart  of  the  heavenly  Ogdoad  in  the  Pleromata.  Boundary-Spirit,  the  Sweet  Odour  of  the  Second  FiUa- 
This  is  evidently  a  clumsy  attempt  to  fuse  into  one  tion,  a  companion  seon  with  Christos,  etc.,  etc.    In 
two  systems  radically  different,  the  Basilidian  and  the  some  systems  he  is  entirely  left  out. 
Valentinian;    the  ignorance  of  the  Great  Arehon,  (d)  Eachatology, — It  is  the  merit  of  recent  scholar- 
which  is  the  central  idea  of  Basilides,  is  here  tran^  ship  to  have  proved  that  Gnostic  eschatology,  con- 
ferred to  Sophia,  and  the  hybrid  system  ends  in  be-  sisting  in  the  soul's  struggle  with  hostile  arohons  in  its 
wildering  confusion.  attempt  to  reach  the  rleroma,  is  simply  the  soul's 
(c)  Soteriology, — Gnostic  salvation  is  not  merely  in-  ascent,  in  Babylonian  astrolo^,  through  the  realms 
dividual  redemption  of  each  human  soul ;  it  is  a  cosmic  of  the  seven  planets  to  Anu.    Origen  (Contra  Celsum, 
process.    It  is  the  return  of  all  things  to  what  they  VI,  xxxi),  referring  to  the  Ophitic  system,  gives  us  the 
were  before  the  flaw  in  the  sphere  of  the  .£ons  brought  names  of  the  seven  archons  as  Jaldabaoth,  Jao,  Sab- 
matter  into  existence  and  imprisoned  some  part  of  the  aoth,  Adonaioe,  Astaphaios,  Ailoaios,  and  Oraios,  and 
Divine  Light  in  the  evil  Hyle  (*TXi|).    This  setting  free  tells  us  that  Jaldabaoth  is  the  planet  Saturn.    Asta- 
of  the  light  sparks  is  the  process  of  salvation ;  when  all  phaioe  is  beyond  doubt  the  planet  Venus,  as  there  are 
light  shall  have  left  Hyle,  itwill  be  burnt  up,  destroyed,  gnostic  gems  with  a  female  figure  and  the  legend 
or  be  a  sort  of  everlastine  hell  for  the  Hylicoi.    In  AZTA^H,  which  name  is  also  used  in  magic  spells  as 
Basilidianism  it  is  the  Third  Filiation  that  is  captive  in  the  name  of  a  goddess.    In  the  Mandsan  system  Adon- 
matter,  and  is  graduaUy  being  saved,  now  that  the  aios  represents  the  Sun.    Moreover,  St.  Irenseus  tells 
knowledge  of  its  existence  has  been  brought  to  the  us:  "Sanctam  Hebdomadem  VII  stellas,  quas  dicunt 
first  Arenon  and  then  to  the  Second  Arehon,  to  each  planetas,  esse  volunt."    It  is  safe,  therefore,  to  take 
by  his  respective  Son;  and  the  news  has  been  spread  the  above  seven  Gnostic  names  as  designating  the 
through  the  Hebdomad  by  Jesus  the  Son  of  Mary,  who  seven  stars,   then   considered  planets,  Jaldabaoth 
died  to  redeem  the  Third  Filiation.    In  Valentinian-  (Arm^^— Child  of  Chaos?— Saturn,  called  "the  *" 


QHOSTI0I8M 


596 


GN0BTI0I8M 


faoed"i  X0orroci5i)t)  is  the  outermost,  and  therefore 
the  chief  ruler,  and  later  on  the  Demiur^  par  excel- 
lence. Jao  ( Ia«6,  perhaps  from  \ni^  Jahu.  Jahveh,  but 
possibly  also  from  Uie  magic  cry  iaii  in  tne  mysteries) 
IS  Jupiter.  Sabaoth  (n^MnV  the  Old-Testament  title- 
God  of  Hosts)  was  misunderstood;  ''of  hosts"  was 
thought  a  proper  name,  hence  Jupiter  Sabbas  (Jahve 
Sabaoth)  was  Mars.  Ajstaphaios  (taken  from  magic 
tablets)  was  Venus.  Adonaios  (^^IMy  Hebrew  term 
for  *'  the  Lord",  used  of  God ;  Adonis  of  the  Syrians 
representing  the  Winter  sun  in  the  cosmic  tragedy  of 
Tammus)  was  the  Sun;  Ailoaios,  or  sometimes  Ailoein 
(D^r^K  Elohim,  God),  Mercury;  Oraios  ('Opoibf-ni^ 
Jar^ah?  or  "ilM  light?),  the  Moon.  In  the  heUenisied 
form  of  Gnosticism  either  all  or  some  of  these  names 
are  replaced  b^  personified  vices.  Authadia  (AMdSrit) , 
or  Audacity,  is  the  obvious  description  of  Jiudabaoth, 
the  presumptuous  Demiurge,  who  is  lionfaced  as  the 
Archon  Authadia.  Of  the  Archons  Kalda,  Zelos, 
Phthonos,  Errinnys,  Epithymia,  the  last  obviously 
represents  Venus.  The  number  seven  is  obtained  by 
placing  a  proarchon  or  chief  archon  at  the  head.  That 
these  names  are  only  a  disguise  for  the  Sancta  Heb- 
domas  is  clear,  for  Sophia,  the  mother  of  them,  retains 
the  name  of  Ogdoas,  Octonatio.  Occasionallv  one 
meets  with  the  Archon  'Hd-aXdaZof,  which  is  evidently 
the  El  Shaddai  of  the  Bible  (nCT  ^K),  and  he  is  described 
as  the  Archon  "number  four"  (ipt0fup  rtrdpros)  and 
must  represent  the  Sun.  In  the  S3rstem  of  the  Gnos- 
tics mentioned  bv  Epiphanius  we  find,  as  the  Seven 
Archons.  lao,  Saiclas,  Seth,  David,  Eloiein,  Elilaios, 
and  Jalaabaoth  (or  no.  6  Jaldabaoth,  no.  7  Sabaoth). 
Of  these,  Saklas  is  the  chief  demon  of  Manichaeism- 
EHlaios  is  probably  connected  with  En-lil,  the  Bel  oi 
Nippur,  the  ancient  god  of  Babylonia.  In  this,  as  in 
several  other  S3rstems,  the  traces  of  the  planetary 
seven  have  become  obscured,  but  hardly  in  any  have 
ihey  become  totally  effaced.  What  tended  most  to 
obhterate  the  sevenfold  distinction  was  the  identifica- 
tion of  the  God  of  the  Jews,  the  Lawgiver,  with  Jalda- 
baoth and  his  designation  as  World-creator,  whereas 
formerly  the  seven  planets  together  ruled  the  world. 
This  confusion,  however,  was  suggested  by  the  verv 
fact  that  at  least  five  of  the  seven  archons  bore  Old- 
Testament  names  for  God — ^El  Shaddai,  Adonai,  Elo- 
him, Jehovah,  Sabaoth. 

(e)  Doctrine  of  the  Primeval  Man, — ^The  specula- 
tions on  Primeval  Man  (TLfHordpOponrotf  Adam)  occupv 
a  prominent  place  in  several  Gnostic  systems.  Accorci- 
ing  to  the  '^Evangelium  Mariae",  the  Father  is  I^t- 
anthr6po6;  Barbelo  became  Pr6tanthrdpos.  Accord- 
ing to  Irenaeus  (I,  xxix,  3)  the  Man  Autogenes  emits 
the  true  and  perfect  Anthr6pos,  also  callM  Adamas ; 
he  has  a  helpmate, "  Perfect  Knowledge",  and  receives 
an  irresistible  force,  so  that  all  things  rest  in  him. 
Others  sav  (Irenseus.  I,  xxx)  there  is  a  blessed  and 
incorruptible  and  endless  light  in  the  power  of  Bythos 
(BtMt)  'this  is  the  Father  of  all  things  who  is  invoked 
as  the  First  Man,  who,  with  his  Ennoea,  emits  ''the 
Son  of  Man",  or  Deuteranthrftpos.  According  to 
Valentinus,  Adam  was  created  in  the  name  of  An- 
tiir6pos  and  overawes  the  demons  by  the  fear  of  the 
pre-existent  man  (rov  wpo6rrot  dpBp6rov),  In  the  V^- 
entinian  syzygies  and  in  the  Marcosian  system  we  meet 
in  the  fourtn  (originally  the  third)  place  Anthr6pos 
and  Ecclesia.  In  the  Pistis  Sophia  the  JEon  Je£  is 
cidled  the  First  Man,  he  is  the  overseer  of  the  Light, 
messenger  of  the  First  Precept,  and  constitutes  the 
forces  of  the  Heimarmene.  In  the  Books  of  the  Jet 
this  "Great  Man"  is  the  King  of  the  Light-treasure,  he 
IS  enthroned  above  all  things  and  is  the  goal  of  all  souls. 
According  to  the  Naassenes,  the  Pr6tanthr6pos  is  the 
first  element;  the  fundamental  being  .before  its  differ- 
entiation into  individuals.  "The  Son  of  Man"  is  the 
same  being  after  it  has  been  individualized  into  exist- 
ing tldngs  and  thus  simk  into  matter.  The  Gnostic 
Anthr6po6,  therefore,  or  'Ada/idt,  as  it  is  sometimes 


called,  is  a  cosmogonic  element,  pure  mind  as  distinct 
from  matter,  mind  conceived  hvpostatically  as  ema- 
nating from  God  and  not  yet  darkened  by  contact  with 
matter.  This  mind  is  considered  as  the  reason  of 
humanity,  or  humanity  itself,  as  a  personified  idea, 
a  category  without  corporealit>r,  the  himian  reason  con- 
ceived as  the  World-Soul.  This  speculation  about  the 
Anthr6pos  is  completely  developed  in  Manichseism, 
where,  in  fact,  it  is  the  basis  of  the  whole  system. 
God,  in  danger  of  the  power  of  darlmess,  creates  with 
the  help  of  the  Spirit,  the  five  worlds,  the  twelve  ele- 
ments, and  the  Eternal  Man,  and  makes  him  combat 
the  darkness.  But  this  Man  is  somehow  overcome  by 
evil  and  swallowed  up  by  darkness.  The  present 
universe  is  in  throes  to  dehver  the  captive  Man  from 
the  powers  of  darkness.  In  the  Clementine  Homilies 
the  cosmojgonic  Anthr6pos  is  strangely  mixed  up  with 
the  historical  figure  of  the  first  man,  Adtun.  Adam 
"was  the  true  prophet,  running  through  idl  ages,  and 
hastening  to  rest" ;  "  the  Christ,  who  was  from  the  be- 
ginning and  is  always,  who  was  ever  present  to  every 
generation,  in  a  hidden  manner  indeed,  yet  ever  pres- 
ent". In  fact  Adam  was,  to  use  Modernist  language, 
the  Godhead  immanent  in  the  world  and  ever  manifest- 
ing itself  to  the  inner  consciousness  of  the  elect.  The 
same  idea,  somewhat  modified,  occurs  in  Hermetic 
literature,  especially  the  "  Poimandres".  It  is  elabor- 
ated by  Philo,  who  makes  an  ingenious  distinction  be- 
tween the  human  being  created  first  "after  God's  image 
and  likeness"  and  the  historic  figures  of  Adam  and 
Eve  created  afterwards.  Adam  mr  €U6pa  is:  "Idea, 
Genus,  Character,  belonging  to  the  world  of  Under- 
standing, without  body,  neitner  male  nor  female;  he  is 
the  Beginning,  the  Name  of  God,  the  Logos,  immortal, 
incorruptible"  (De  opif.  mund.,  134-148;  De  oonf. 
ling.,  146).  These  ideas,  in  Talmudism,  Philonism, 
Gnosticism,  and  Trismegistic  literature,  all  come  from 
one  source,  the  late  Mazdea"^  development  of  the 
Gayomarthians,  or  worshipper  of  the  sjiper-Man. 

(0  The  Barbelo. — This  Gnosuc  figure,  appearing  in 
a  number  of  systems,  the  Nicolaites,  the  "Gnostics"  of 
Epiphanius,  the  Sethians,  the  system  of  the  "  Evangel- 
ium  Maris"  and  that  in  Iren.,  I,  xxix,  2  sq.,  remains 
to  a  certain  extent  an  enigma.  The  name  papPifkii, 
PapPfiki^f  Pap$4pos  has  not  been  explained  with  cer- 
tainty. In  any  case  she  represents  the  supreme  female 
principle,  is  in  fact  the  highest  Godhead  in  its  female 
aspect.  Barbelo  has  most  of  the  functions  of  the 
dtw  2o0(a  as  described  above.    So  prominent  was  her 

§lace  amongst  some  Gnostics  that  some  schools  were 
esignated  as  Barbeliotee,  Barbelo  worshippers  or  Bar- 
belognostics.  She  is  probably  none  other  than  the 
Light-Maiden  of  the  Pistis  ^phia,  the  Bvyarip  rcS 
0wr^  or  simply  the  Maiden,  Tap$4pos,  In  Epiphanius 
(Hser.,  xxvi,  1)  and  Philastrius  (Hser.,  zxxiii)  Par- 
thenos  (Barbelos)  seems  identical  with  Noria,  who 
plays  a  great  r61e  as  wife  either  of  Noe  or  of  Seth. 
Tlie  suggestion,  that  Nona  is  my^, "  Maiden",  wapdims, 
Istar,  Mhena,  Wisdom,  Sophia,  or  Achamoth,  seems 
worthy  of  consideration. 

Rctes. — We  are  not  so  well  informed  about  the 
practical  and  ritual  side  of  Gnosticism  as  we  are  about 
its  doctrinal  and  theoretical  side.  However,  St. 
Irenaeus's  accoimt  of  the  Marcosians,  Hippol3rtus'8 
account  of  the  Eloesaites,  the  litursical  portions  of  the 
"Acta  Thonue",  some  passajges  in  me  Pseudo-Clemen- 
tines, and  above  all  Coptic  Gnostic  and  Mandiean 
literature  g;ive  us  at  least  some  insight  into  their  litur- 
gical practices. 

(a)  Baptiem. — All  Gnostic  sects  possessed  this  rite 
in  some  way;  in  Mandseism  daily  baptism  is  one  of  the 
ffreat  practices  of  the  system.  The  formuke  used  by 
Christian  Gnostics  seem  to  have  varied  widely  from 
that  enjoined  by  Christ .  The  Marcosians  said :  "In  [tb] 
the  name  of  the  unknown  Father  of  all,  in  [i^t]  the 
Truth,  the  Mother  of  all,  in  him,  who  came  down  on 
Jesus  [fit  rdr  KaT€K$6rra  ds  'Iiy^oOy]".    The  Eloesaites 


OHOSTIOISM 


597 


QVOSTZOISM 


great  importance ;  in  what  the  i 
or  Bign  coEuisted  wherewith  they 
were  mariced  ia  not  easy  to  say. 
There  was  also  the  tradition  of  a 
name  either  by  utterance  or  b^ 
bonding  a  tablet  with  rame  myetio 

(b)  Confinnation. — The  anoint- 
ing of  tbe  candidate  with  chrism, 
or  odoriferouB  ointment,  is  a 
Gnostic  Ate  which  overahadoi 


■aid:  "  In  |.lr]  the  name  of  the  great  and  hisheet  God  one  with  water,  the  other  with  wine,  and  brancbetot 
Bad  in  the  name  of  bis  Son.  the  great  Kmg".  In  tite  vine  are  uaed.  Christ  crowns  the  Apoetlea  with 
Inn.  (I,  xxi,  3)  we  find  the  lormiila:  "  In  the  name  olive  wreaths,  begs  Melchisedech  to  come  and  change 
that  was  hidden  from  every  divinity  and  lordship  and  wine  intowaterforbaptism,puto  herbs  in  tlieApoBtlee' 
truth,  which  [name]  Jraus  the  Naiarene  baa  put  on  in  mouths  and  hands.  Whether  these  actions  m  some 
the  t^ons  of  light  and  several  other  formuue,  which  sense  reflect  the  ritual  of  Gnosticism,  or  are  only  im- 
were  sometimes  pronounwd  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic,  aginations  of  the  author,  caoQot  be  decided.  The 
The  Mandsans  said:  "Tbe  name  of  the  Life  and  the  Gnostics  seem  also  to  have  used  oil  sacramentally  for 
name  of  the  Manda  d'Have  is  named  over  thee".  In  the  healing  of  the  sick,  and  even  the  dead  were  anoin- 
with  Baptism  tlie  Sphragit  (Sppayh)  was  of    ted  by  them  to  be  rendered  safe  and  invisible  in  their 

J 1 — .  (k^^.i  transit  through  the  realms  of  the 

Bjchons. 

(d)  The  N'ymphOn.—They  poe- 
setned  a  special  Gnostic  sacrament 
of  tbe  bridechamber  (jv/i^iir)  in 
which,  through  some  symbolical 
actions,  their  souls  were  wedded 
to  Uieir  angels  in  the  Pleroma. 
Details  of  its  rites  are  not  as  yet 
known.  Tertullian  no  doubt 
alluded  to  them  in  the  words 
"  Eleusinia  fecerunt  lenocinia". 

(e)  The  Maijic  Vouels.— An  ex- 
traordinary prominence  is  given  , 
to  the  utteraikce  of  the  vowels: 
maiuam.  The  Saviour  and  His 
disciples  are  supposed  in  the 
midst  of  their  sentences  to  have 
broken  out  in  an  interminable 
gibberish  of  only  vowels;  ma^ 
spells  have  come  down  to  us  con- 
sisting of  vowels  by  the  fourscore ; 
on  ami^ets  the  seven  vowels,  re- 
peated according  to  all  sorts  of 
artificea,  form  a  very  common 
inscription.    Within  the  last  few 

i'ears  these  Gnostic  vowels,  so 
ong  a  my8t«ry,  have  been  the 
object  of  careful  study  by  Ruelle, 
Poir^e,  and  Leclercq,  and  it  mav 
be  considered  proven  that  each 
vowel  repreaentB  one  of  the  seven 
planets,  or  archons;  that  the 


the  i: 


In 


Acta  Thomse' , 

schdars  muntain,  it  had  com- 
pletely replaced  baptism,  and  was 
the  sole  sacrament  of  initiation. 
This  however  is  not  yet  proven. 
The  Harcosians  went  so  for  as  to 
reject  Christian  baptism  and  to 
substitute  a  mixture  of  oil  and 
water  which  they  poured  ovei 
the  head  of  the  candidate.  By 
confirmation  the  Gnostics  in- 
tended not  so  much  to  give  the 
Holy  Ghost  as  to  seal  the  candi- 
date against  the  attacks  of  the 
anions,  or  to  drive  them  away 
by  the  sweet  odour  which  is  above 
all  things  (t^  &rjp  tA  SXa  (dwDfai) . 
The  bdsaim  was  somehow  sup- 
posed to  have  flowed  from  the 
Tree  of  Life,  and  this  tree  was 

r'n  mystically  connected  with 
Cross;  for  the  chrism  Is  in  the 
"Acta  Thorns"  called  "tbe  hid- 
den mystery  in  which  the  Cross  is 
shown  te  us". 

(c)  The  Eucharia.—lt  is  re- 
markable that  so  little  is  known 
of  the  Gnostic  substitute  for  the 
Eucharist.  In  a  number  of  pas- 
sages we  read  of  the  breaking  of 
the  bread,  but  in  what  this  con- 
sisted is  not  easy  to  determine. 
The  use  of  salt  in  this  rite  seems  to 
have  been  important  (Clem.,  Horn, 
xiv),  for  we  read  distinctly  how 
St.  Peter  broke  the  bread  of  the 
Eucharist  and  "putting  salt 
thereon,  he  gave  Grst  to  the 
mother  and  then  to  us".  There 
is  furthermore  a  great  likelihood,  though 
tatnty,  that  the  Eucharist  referred  to  '     " 


they  represent  the  Ideal  and  In- 
finite not  yet  imprisoned  and 
limited  by  matter;  that  they  rep- 
resent a  musical  scale,  probably 
like  the  Gregorian  1  tone  re-re,  or 
d,  e,  f,  g.  a,  b,  c,  and  many  a 
Gnostic  sheet  of  vowels  is  in  fact 
a  sheet  of  music.  But  research 
on  this  subject  has  only  just  be- 
gun. Among  the  Gnostics  the 
Ophites  were  particularly  fond  of 
representing  their  eosmogonic 
Speculations  by  diagrams,  circles 
within  circles,  squares,  and  par- 
allel  lines,  and  other  mathemati- 
cal figures  combined,  with  names 
D  cer-  written  within  them.  How  far  these  sacred  diagrams 
.._„.  ._  ._  ..._   "Acta     were  used  as  symbols  in  their  litui^,  we  do  not  know. 

Thoma"  was  merely  a  breaking  of  bread  without  ScroolsopGnobticism.— Gnosticism  possessed  no 
the  use  of  the  cup.  This  point  is  strongly  con-'  centralautbority for eitherdoctrineordiscii)line;con- 
troverted,  but  the  contrary  can  hardly  be  proven.  It  sidered  as  a  whole  it  had  no  oreanisation  similar  to  the 
is  beyond  doubt  that  the  Gnostics  often  substituted  vast  organization  of  the  CathiMic  Church.  It  was  but 
water  for  the  wine  (Acta  Thoms,  Baptism  of  Myg-  a  large  conglomeration  of  secte,  of  which  Marcionism 
donia,  ch.  cxxi).  What  formula  of  consecration  was  alone  attempted  in  some  wav  to  rival  the  constitution 
used  we  do  not  know,  but  the  bread  was  certainly .  of  tbe  Church,  and  even  Marcionism  had  no  unity, 
signed  with  the  Cross.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  -  No  other  classification  of  these  secte  is  possible  than 
Gnostics  called  the  Eucharist  by  Christian  sacrificial  that  according  to  their  main  trend  of  thought.  We 
terms — rpoa4api,  "oblation", Ovvla  (II  Bk.of  JeA,  46).  can  therefore  distinguish:  (a)  Syrian  or  Semitic;  (b) 
In  the  Coptic  Books  (PistisSophia,  142;IIJea,  45-47)  Hellenistic  or  Alexandrian;  (c)  dualistic;  (d)  antino- 
we  find  a  long  description  of  some  apparently  Euchar-     mian  Gnostics. 

tstio  ceremonies  carried  out  by  Jesus  Himself.     In        (a)  The  Syrian  School.— Thia  school  represente  th« 
o  flasks,  and  also  two  cups,    olivet  phase  of  Gnosticism,  as  Weetem  Asia  was  tha 


the 


these  Gre  and  incense,  two  fl 


QNOBTICISM 


598 


aNOBTIOZSM 


birthplaoe  of  the  movement.  Dositheus,  Simon 
Magus,  Menander,  Cerinthufl,  Gerdo.  Satummus  Jus- 
tin, the  Bardesanites,  Severians,  Ebionites,  Encra- 
tites,  Ophites,  Naassenes,  the  Gnostics  of  the  "Acts  of 
Thomas",  the  Sethians,  the  Peratse,  the  Cainites  ma^ 
be  said  to  belong  to  this  school.  The  more  fantastic 
elements  and  elaborate  genealogies  and  syzygies  of 
seons  of  the  later  Gnosis  are  still  absent  in  these  sys- 
tems. The  terminology  is  some  barbarous  form  of 
Semitic;  "Egypt  is  the  symbolic  name  for  the  soul's 
land  of  bondage.  The  opposition  between  the  good 
God  and  the  World-Creator  is  not  eternal  or  oosmo- 
conic,  though  there  is  strong  ethical  opposition  to 
Jehovah  the  God  of  the  Jews.  He  is  the  last  of  the 
seven  angels  who  fashioned  thb  world  out  of  eternally 
pre-existent  matter.  The  demiurgic  angels,  attempt- 
mig  to  create  man,  created  but  a  misersui>le  worm,  to 
which  the  Good  God,  however,  gave  the  spark  of 
divine  life.  The  rule  of  the  god  of  the  Jews  must  pass 
away,  for  the  good  God  calls  us  to  his  own  immediate 
service  through  Christ  his  Son.  We  obey  the  Supreme 
Deity  by  abstaining  from  flesh  meat  and  marriage,  and 
by  leadmg  an  ascetic  life.  Such  was  the  system  of 
Sattiminus  of  Antioch,  who  taught  durine  the  reign  of 
Hadrian  (c.  a.  d.  120).  The  Naassenes  (from  Naha^ 
KTI^,  the  Hebrew  for  seri>ent)  were  worshippers  of  the 
serpent  as  a  symbol  of  wisdom,  which  the  God  of  the 
Jews  tried  to  hide  from  men.  The  Ophites  ifi^wol, 
from  5^if,  serpent),  who,  when  transplanted  on  Alex- 
andrian soil,  supplied  the  main  ideas  of.  Valentinian- 
ism,  became  one  of  the  most  widely  spread  sects  of 
Gnosticism.  Though  not  strictly  serpent-worshippers, 
they  recognized  the  serpent  as  symbol  of  the  supreme 
emanation,  Achamoth  or  Divine  wisdom.  They  were 
styled  Gnostics  par  excellence.  The  Sethians  saw  in 
Seth  the  father  of  all  spiritual  (ryevMarucoO  men;  in 
Cain  and  Abel  the  father  of  psychic  {^fvxMoC)  and 
hylic  (dXixoO  men.  According  to  the  Perats  there 
exists  a  trinity  of  Father,  Son,  and  HylS  (Matter). 
The  Son  is  the  Cosmic  Serpent,  who  freed  Eve  from 
the  power  of  the  ruler  of  Hylfi.  The  universe  they 
symbolized  by  a  triangle  enclosed  in  a  circle.  The 
number  tjiree  is  the  key  to  all  mysteries.  There  are 
three  supreme  principles:  the  not-generated,  the  self- 
generated,  the  generated.  There  are  three  logoi.  or 
gods;  the  Saviour  has  a  threefold  nature,  threefold 
body,  threefold  power,  etc.  They  are  called  Pera- 
tiB  \T€piv)  because  they  have  "crossed  over"  out  of 
Egypt,  through  the  Rea  Sea  of  generation.  They  are 
the  true  Hebrews,  in  fact  ("l^y,  to  cross  over).  The 
Peratee  were  founded  by  Euphrates  and  Celbes  (Acem- 
bes?)  and  Ademes.  lliiB  Euphrates,  whose  name  is 
perhaps  connected  with  the  name  Peratse  itself,  is  said 
to  be  the  founder  of  the  Ophites  mentioned  by  Celsus 
about  A.  D.  175.  The  Cainites  were  so  called  because 
they  venerated  Cain,  and  Esau,  and  the  Sodomites, 
and  Core,  and  Judas,  because  they  had  all  resisted  the 
god  of  the  Jews. 

(b)  The  HeUeniatie  or  Alexandrian  School. — ^These 
systems  were  more  abstract,  andphilosophical,  and 
self-consistent  than  the  Syrian.  Tne  Semitic  nomen- 
clature was  almost  entirely  replaced  by  Greek  names. 
The  cosmogonic  problem  had  outgrown  all  proj^r- 
tions,  the  ethical  side  was  less  prominent,  asceticism 
less  strictly  enforced.  The  two  ^-eat  thinkers  of  this 
school  were  Basilides  and  Valentinus.  Though  bom 
at  Antioch,  in  Syria,  Basilides  founded  his  scnool  at 
Alexandria  (c.  a.  d.  130),  and  was  followed  by  hb  son 
Isidorus.  His  system  was  the  niost  consistent  and 
sober  emanationism  that  Gnosticism  ever  produced. 
His  school  never  spread  so  widely  as  the  next  to  be  men- 
tioned, but  in  Spain  it  survived  for  several  centuries. 
Valentinus,  who  taught  first  at  Alexandria  and  then  at 
Rome  (c.  a.  d.  160),  elaborated  a  S3rstem  of  sexual 
duality  in  the  process  of  emanation ;  a  long  series  of 
male  and  female  pairs  of  personified  ideas  is  employed 
to  bridge  over  the  distance  from  the  unknown  God  to 


this  present  world.  His  system  is  more  confused  than 
Basuidianism,  especially  as  it  is  disturbed  by  the  in- 
trusion of  the  figure  or  figiires  of  2o^(a  in  the  cosmo- 
gonic process,  ^eing  Syrian  Ophitism  in  Egyptian 
guise,  it  can  claim  to  be  the  truest  representative  of 
the  Gnostic  spirit.  The  reductio  ad  absurdum  of  these 
unbridled  si)eculationB  can  be  seen  in  the  Pistis 
Sophia,  in  which  light-maidens,  paralemptores,  spheres, 
Heimarmene,  thirteen  seons.  bg^t-treasures,  realms  of 
the  midst,  reiUms  of  the  riffht  and  of  the  left,  Jalda- 
baoth,  Adamas,  Michael,  CSibriel,  Christ,  the  Saviour, 
and  mysteries  without  number  whirl  past  and  return 
like  witches  in  a  dance.  The  impression  created  on 
the  same  reader  can  only  be  fitly  described  in  the  words 
of  "Jabberwocky":  "©rre  and  eimble  on  the  wabe". 
We  learn  from  Hippolytus  (Adv.  Har.,  IV,  xxxv), 
Tertullian  (Adv.  Valent.,  iv),  and  Clemens  Alex.  (Exc. 
ex  Th^od.,  title)  that  there  were  two  main  schools  of 
Valentinianism,  the  Italian  and  the  Anatolian  or 
Asiatic.  In  the  Italian  school  were  teachers  of  note: 
Secundus,  who  divided  the  Ogdoad  within  the  Fleroma 
into  two  tetrads.  Right  and  Left;  Epiphanes,  who 
described  this  Tetras  as  Monotes,  Henotes,  Monas,  and 
To  Hen ;  and  possibly  Colorbasus,  unless  his  name  be  a 
misreading  of  Kol  Arba  yaiK  ^3  "  All  Four".  But  the 
most  important  were  Ptolemy  and  Heradeon.  Ptol- 
emy is  especially  known  to  fame  by  his  letter  to  Flora, 
a  noble  lady  who  had  written  to  him  as  Roman  Pres- 
byter (Textc  u.  Unters.,  N.  S.,  XIII,  Anal.  z.  alt. 
(jesch.  d.  Chr.)  to  explain  the  meaning  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Tliis  Ptolemy  split  up  the  names  and 
numbers  of  the  eeons  into  personified  substances 
outside  the  deity,  as  Tertuluan  relates.  He  was 
given  to^  Biblical  studies,  and  was  a  man  of  un- 
bridled imagination.  Clemens  Alex.  (Strom.,  IV, 
ix,  73)  calls  Heracleon  the  most  eminent  teacher  of 
the  Valentinian  school.  Origen  devotes  a  larRe  part 
of  his  commentary  on  St.  John  to  combating  mracle- 
on's  commentary  on  the  same  Evanselist.  Heracleon 
.called  the  source  of  all  being  Anthropos,  instead  of 
Bythos,  and  rejected  the  immortality  of  the  soul — 
meaning,  probably,  the  merely  psychic  element.  He 
apparently  stood  nearer  to  the  Catholic  Church  than 
Ptolemy  and  was  a  man  of  better  judgment.  Tertul- 
lian mentions  two  other  names  (Valent.,  iv),  Theoti- 
mus  and  (De  Came  (Ilhristi,  xvii)  Alexander.  The 
Anatolian  school  had  as  a  prominent  teacher  Axioni- 
cus  (Tertull.,  Adv.  Valent.,  iv;  Hipp.,  Adv.  Hser.,  VI, 
30)  who  had  his  coUeqium  at  Antiocn  about  a.  d.  220, 
"the  master's  most  faithful  disciple".  Theodotus  is 
only  known  to  us  from  the  fragment  of  his  writings 
preserved  by  Clement  of  Alexandria.  Marcus  the  Con- 
juror's system^  an  elaborate  speculation  with  ciphers 
and  numbers,  is  given  by  Irensus  (1, 11-12)  ana  also 
by  Hippolytus  (VI,  42) .  Irensus's  account  of  Marcus 
was  repudiated  by  the  Marcosians,  but  Hippolytus 
asserts  that  they  did  so  without  reason.  Marcus  was 
probably  an  Egyptian  and  a  contemporary  of  Irensus. 
A  system  not  unlike  that  of  the  Marcosians  was  worked 
out  by  Monoimus  the  Arabian,  to  whom  Hippolytus 
devotes  chapters  v  to  viii  of  Book  VIII,  and  who  is  men- 
tioned only  oy  Theodoret  besides  him.  Hippolytus  is 
right  in  calling  these  two  Gnostics  inferior  imitations  of 
Pythagoras  rather  than  C]lhristians.  According  to  the 
Epistles^  of  Julian  the  Apostate,  Valentinian  coUegia 
existed  in  Asia  Minor  up  to  his'own  times  (d.  363). 

(c)  The  Dualistic  School. — Some  dualism  was  indeed 
congenital  with  Gnosticism,  yet  but  rarely  did  it  over- 
come the  main  tendency  of  Gnosticism,  i.  e.  Panthe- 
ism. This,  however,  was  certainly  the  case  in  the 
sjTstem  of  Marcion,  wno  distinguished  between  the  God 
of  the  New  Testament  and  the  God  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, as  between  two  eternal  principles,  the  first  being 
Good,  dya&6s;  the  second  merely  9(muot,  or  just;  yet 
even  Marcion  did  not  carry  this  sjrstem  to  its  ultimate 
consequences.  He  may  be  considered  rather  as  a 
forerunner  of  Mani  than  a  pure  Gnostic.    Three  of  hie 


QHOBTI0I8M 


599 


t^NOSTIOISM 


discipleSy  Potitus^  Baailicus,  and  Lucanus^  are  men- 
tion^ bv  Eusebius  as  beine  true  to  their  master's 
dualism  (H.  £.,  V,  xiii),  but  Apelles,  his  chief  disciple, 
tiioujdi  he  went  farther  than  his  master  in  rejecting  the 
Old-Testament  Scriptures,  returned  to  monotheism  by 
considering  the  Inspirer  of  Old-Testament  prophecies 
to  be  not  a  god^ut  an  evil  an^.  On  the  other  huid. 
Syneroe  and  Prepon,  also  his  disciples,  postulated 
three  first  principles.  A  somewhat  different  dualism 
was  tau^t  by  Hermogenes  in  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century  at  Carthaee.  The  opponent  of  the 
sood  God  was  not  the  Gocf  of  the  Jews,  but  Eterxial 
Matter,  the  source  of  all  evil.  This  Gnostic  was  com- 
bated by  Theophilus  of  Antioch  and  Tertullian. 
Id)  The  ArUtnomian  Scliool, — ^As  the  moral  law  was 

S'ven  by  the  God  of  the  Jews,  and  opposition  to  the 
od  of  the  Jews  was  a  duty,  the  breaking  of  the  moral 
law  to  spite  its  giver  was  considered  a  solenm  obU- 
eation.  Such  a  sect,  called  the  Nioolaites,  existed  in 
Apostolic  times,  their  principle,  according  to  Ori^n, 
was  rapax/nj^Bai  rj  aapxi  Carpocrates,  whom  Ter- 
tullian (De  animd,  xxxv)  calls  a  magician  and  a  forni- 
cator, was  a  contemporary  of  Basuides.  One  could 
only  escape  the  cosmic  powers  through  discharging  one's 
obheations  to  them  by  infamous  conduct.  To  disre- 
gara  all  law  and  sink  oneself  iato  the  Monad  by  re- 
membering one's  pre-existence  in  the  Cosmic  Unit — 
such  was  Uie  Gnosis  of  Caroocrates.  His  son  Epiph- 
anes  followed  his  father's  aoctrine  so  closely  that  he 
died  in  consequence  of  his  sins  at  the  age  of  seventeen. 
Antinomian  views  were  further  maintained  by  the 
Prodicians  and  Antitacts.  No  more  ghastly  instance 
of  insane  immorality  can  be  found  than  the  one  men- 
tion^ in  Pistis  Sophia  itself  as  practised  by  some 
Gnostics.  St.  Justin  (ApoL,  I,  xxvi),  Irenseus  (I, 
xxy,  3),  and  Eusebius  (H.  E.,  IV,  vii)  make  it  clear 
that  "the  reputation  of  these  men  brought  infamy 
upon  the  whole  race  of  Christians". 

Literature. — ^The  Gnostics  developed  an  astound- 
ing literary  activity,  which  produced  a  quantity  of 
wntinffls  far  surpassing  the  contemporary  output  of 
Cathouc  literature.  They  were  most  prolific  m  the 
sphere  of  fiction^  as  it  is  safe  to  sav  that  three-fourths 
of  the  early  Christian  romances  aoout  Christ  and  His 
disciples  emanated  from  Gnostic  circles.  Besides 
these — often  crude  and.  clumsy — romances  they  poe- 
aeaaed  what  may  be  called  "  theoeophic  "  treatises  and 
revelations  of  a  highly  mystical  character.  These  are 
best  described  as  a  stupefying  roar  of  bombast  occa- 
sionally interrupted  by  a  tew  words  of  real  sublimity. 
Taine  remarks  with  justice:  ''Anyone  who  reads  the 
teachings  of  the  Gnostics  breathes  m  an  atmosphere  of 
fever  and  fancies  himself  in  a  hospital,  amongst  deliri- 
ous patients,  who  are  lost  in  gazing  at  their  own  teem- 
ing thou^t  and  who  fix  their  lustrous  eyes  on  empty 
space"  (£2ssais  de  crit.  et  d'histoire,  raris,  1904). 
Gnostic  literature,  therefore,  possesses  little  or  no  in- 
trinsic value,  however  great  its  value  for  histoi^  and 
psychology.  It  is  of  unparalleled  importance  m  the 
study  of  the  surroundings  in  which  Cnristianity  first 
arose.  The  bulk  of  it  is  unfortunately  no  longer  ex- 
tant. With  the  exception  of  some  Coptic  translations 
and  some  expurgatea  or  Catholicised  Syriac  versions, 
we  possess  only  a  number  of  fragments  of  what  once 
must  have  formed  a  large  libranr.  Most  of  this  litera- 
ture will  be  found  catalogued  under  the  names  of 
Gnostic  authors  in  the  articles  Basiudes;  Barde- 
SANEs;  Cerinthus;  MARaoN;  Simon  Magus;  Ptol- 
Birr;  Valentiku^.  We  shaU  enumerate  in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs  only  anonymous  Gnostic  works 
and  such  writings  as  are  not  attributed  to  any  of 
the  above  authors. 

The  Nicolaites  possessed  "some  books  imder  the 
name  of  Jaldabaoth",  a  book  called  "Ndria"  (the 
mythical  wife  of  Noe),  a  prophecy  of  Barcabbas,  who 
was  a  soothsayer  among  the  Banlidians,  a  "  Gospel  of 
the  Consummation",  and  a  kind  of  apocalypse  called 


"the  Gospel  of  Eva"  (Epiph.,  Adv.  H«r.,  ^.,  ^,.. 
Philastr.,  33).  The  Ophites  possessed  " thousands'' 
of  apocrypha,  as  EpipaiBinius  tells  us;  among  these  he 
specially  mentions:  "Questions  of  Mary,  great  and 
small"  ^some  of  these  questions  are  perhaps  extant  in 
the  Pistis  Sophia) ;  also  manv  books  under  the  name  of 
"  Seth  ",  "  Revelations  of  Aoam  ",  Apocryphal  Gospels 
attributed  to  Apostles;  an  Apocalypse  of  Elias,  and  a 
book  caUed  "  Genua  Marias  ".  Of  tnese  writings  some 
revelations  of  Adam  and  Seth,  eight  in  number,  are 
probably  extant  in  an  Armenian  translation,  pub* 
lished  in  the  MechitaHst  collection  of  Old-Testament 
apocrypha  (Venice,  1896).  See  Preuschen,  "  Die  apo- 
cr3rph.  Gnost.  Adamschr."  (Giessen,  1900).  The 
Cainites  possessed  a  "  Gospel  of  Judas  ",  an  "  Ascension 
of  Paul'' (dMi/3arur6r  Ila^Xov)^  and  some  other  book,  of 
which  we  do  not  know  the  title,  but  which,  accordinj; 
to  Epiphanius,  was  full  of  wickedness.  The  Prodi- 
cians, according  to  Clem.  Alex.,  possessed  apocrypha 
under  the  name  of  Zoroaster  (Strom..  I,  xv,  69).  The 
Antinomians  had  an  apocryphon  "  full  of  audacity  and 
wickedness"  (Strom., III. iv. 29;  Origen,  "In  Matth.", 
xxviii).  The  Naassenes  had  a  book  out  of  which  Hip- 
polytus  largely  quotes,  but  of  which  we  do  not  know 
the  title,  it  contained  a  commentary  on  Bible  texts, 
hymns,  and  psalms.  The  Peratee  possessed  a  similar 
book.  The  Sethians  possessed  a  "  Paraphrasis  Seth  ", 
consisting  of  seven  books,  explanatory  of  their  sys- 
tem, a  book  called  'AXKoyewtU.  or  "Foreigners",  an 
"  Apocalypse  of  Adam  ",  a  book  attributed  to  Moses, 
and  others.  The  Archontians  possessed  a  large  and 
small  book  entitled  "Symphoma":  this  is  possibly 
extant  in  Pitra's  "Analecta Sacra"  (Paris.  1888).  The 
Gnostics  attacked  by  Plotinus  possessed  apocrypha 
attributed  to  Zoroaster,  Zostrian,  Nicotheus,  Allo- 
genes  (the  Sethian  Book  "Allogeneis"?),  and  others. 
In  addition  to  these  writings  the  foUowins  apocrv- 
pha  are  evidently  of  Gnostic  authorship:  (1)  "The 
Gospel  of  the  Twelve  ".-^This  is  first  referred  to  by 
Origen  (Hom.  i,  in  Luc.),  is  identical  with  the  Gospel  of 
the  Ebionites,  and  is  also  called  the  "  Gospel  according 
to  Matthew  ",  because  in  it  Christ  refers  to  St.  Matthew 
in  the  second  person,  and  the  author  speaks  of  the 
other  Apostles  and  nimself  as  "we".  This  (}ospel 
was  written  before  a.  d.  200,  and  has  no  connexion  with 
the  so-called  Hebrew  St.  Matthew  or  the  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrews.  (2)  "The  Gospel  according 
to  the  Egyptians",  i.  e.  Christian  coimtryfolk  en 
E^pt,  not  Alexandrians.  It  was  written  about  a.  d. 
1^  and  referred  to  byClem.  Alex.  (Strom.,  Ill,  ix,  63; 
xiii,  93)  and  Orisen  (Hom.  i,  in  Luc),  and  was  lai^ly 
used  in  non-Catnolic  circles.  Only  small  fragments 
are  extant  in  Clem.  Alex.  (Strom,  and  Excerp.  ex 
Theod.).  Some  people  have  referred  the  Oxvrhynchus 
'  'Logia"  and  the  Strasburg  Copticpapyri  to  this  Gospel, 
but  this  is  a  mere  guess.  (3)  "The  Gospel  of  Peter", 
written  about  a.  d.  140  in  Antioch  (see  DocETis). 
About  another  Petrine  Gospel,  see  description  of 
the  Ahmin  Codex.  (4)  A  "  (joepel  of  Matthias  "  writ- 
ten about  A.  D.  125,  used  in  Basilidian  cireles  (see  Ba- 
siudes). (5)  A  " Gospel  of  Philip''  and  a  " Gospel 
of  Thomas".  Accordmg  to  the  Pistis  Sophia,  the 
three  Apostles  Matthew  ^ead  Matthias],  Thomas,  and 
Philip  received  a  Divine  commission  to  report  aU 
Christ's  revelations  after  His  Resurrection.  The 
Gospel  of  Thomas  must  have  been  of  considerable 
len^h  (1300  lines) ;  part  of  it,  in  an  expurgated  recen- 
sion, is  possibly  extant  in  the  once  popular,  but  vulgar 
and  foolish,  "stories  of  the  Infancy  of  Our  Lord  oy 
Thomas,  an  Israelite  philosopher^',  of  which  two 
Greek,  a  Latin^  Syriac,  and  a  Slavonic  version  exist. 
(6)  "Acts  of  Peter"  {Hf^is  Uh-pov),  written  about 
A.  D.  165.  Large  frag^nts  of  this  Gnostic, produc- 
tion have  been  preserved  to  us  in  the  original  Greek 
and  also  in  a  Latin  translation  under  the  title  of  "  Mar- 
tyrdom of  the  Holy  Apostle  Peter",  to  which  the 
Latin  adds,  "a  Lino  episcopo  conscriptum".  Greater 


QHOBTICISM  600  aHOBTICISM 

portions  of  this  apocryphon  are  translated  in  the  so-  need  of  Gnostic  repentance.    In  fact  the  vhole  is  a 

called  ''Actus  Petri  cum  Simone'',  and  likewise  in  treatise  on  repentance,  as  the  last  two  books  only 

Sahidic  and  Slavonic,  Arabic,  and  Kthiopic  versions.  appl3r  in  practice  the  example  of  penance  set  by 

These  fragments  have  been  gathered  Iw  Lipsius  and  Sopma.    The  work  consists  of  a  numoer  of  questions 

Bonnet  in  "  Acta  apostolorum  apocr."  (Leipzig,  1891),  and  answeis  between  Christ  and  His  male  and  female 

I;   Though  these  recensions  of  the  "Acts  of  Peter''  disciples  in  which  five  ''Odes  of  Solomon",  foUowed 

have  been   somewhat   Catholicised,    their  Gnostic  by  mystical  adaptations  of  the  same,  are  inserted.   As 

^1 i. :- ««:-A-l— .UI-. ]     XI t 1 * At^     Jl Ai I *i- Xl_.       J !___»» Al-_      T«     ... 


Mary 

''Acts  of  John",  which  three  ^ave  perhaps  one  and  extracts  from  the  "Book  of  the  Saviour".    The 

the  same  author,  a  certain  Leucius  CHarinus.  and  were  dreary  monotony  of  these  writings  can  only  be  realised 

written  before  a.  d.  200.    They  have  come  down  to  us  by  those  who  have  read  them.    An  English  transla- 

in  a  number  of  Catholic  recensions  and  in  different  tion  of  the  Latin  translation  of  the  Coptic,  which  itself 

versions.    For  the  Acts   of   Andrew   see   Bonnet,  is  a  translation  of  the  Greek,  was  made  by  G.  R.  S. 

"Acta",  as  above  (1898),  II,  1,  pp.  1-127;  for  "Acts  Mead  (London,  1896).    The  Bruce  papyrus  is  of  about 

of  John",  ibid.,  pp.  151-216.    To  find  the  primitive  the  same  date  as  the  Askew  vellum  coaex  and  contains 

Gnostic  form  in  the  bewildering  variety  and  multiplic-  two  treatises :  (a)  the  two  books  of  JeO,  the  first  specu- 

ity  of  fragments  and  modifications  is  still  a  task  for  lative  and  cosmogonic,  the  second  practical,  viz.,  the 

scnolars.     (8)  Of  paramount  importance  for  the  un-  overcoming  of  the  hostile  world  powers  and  the  secur- 

derstanding  of  Gnosticism  are  the  "Acts  of  Thomas",  ing  of  salvation  by  the  practice  of  certain  rites;  this 

as  they  have  beenpreserved  in  their  entirety  and  con-  latter  book  is  styled  "  Of  the  Great  Logos  according  to 

tain  the  eariiest  Cfnostic  ritual,  poetiy,  and  specula-  the  mystery",     (b)  A  treatise  with  unknown  title,  as 

tion.    They  exist  in  two  recensions,  the  Greek  and  the  the  first  and  the  last  pages  are  lost.    This  work  is  of  a 

Syriac.    It  seems  most  likely,  though  not  certain,  purely  speculative  character  and  of  great  antiquity, 

that  the  original  was  Syriac;  it  is  suggested  that  they  written  oetween  a.  d.  150  and  200  in  Sethian  or 

were  written  about  a.  d.  232,  when  the  relics  of  St.  Arehontian  circles,  and  containing  a  reference  to  the 

Thomas  were  translated  to  Edessa.    Of  the  greatest  prophetsMarsanes,  Nikotheus,  andPhosilampes.    No 

value  are  the  two   prayers   of   Consecration,    the  complete  English  translations  of  these  treatises  exist; 

"Ode  to  Wisdom"  and  the  "Hymn  of  the  Soul",  some  passt^ges,  however,  are  translated  in  the  afore- 

which  are  inserted  in  the  Syriac  narrative,  and  which  said  G.  R.  S.  Mead's  "Fragments  of  a  Faith  Forgot- 

are  wanting  in  the  Greek  Acts,  though  independent  ten".    Both  the  Bruce  and  Askew  Codices  have  l^en 

Greek  texts  of  these  passages  are  extant  (Synac  with  translated  into  German  by  C.  Schmidt  (1892)in  "Texte 

English  translation  by  W.  Wright  "  Apocr.  Acts  of  the  u.  Unters."  and  (1901)  in  the  Berlin  "  Greek  Fathers". 

Apost.",  London,  1871).    The  "Hymn  to  the  Soul"  A  Latin  translation  exists  of  the  "Pistis  Sophia"  by 

has  been  translated  many  times  into  English,  especially,  Schwartze  and  Petermann  (Berlin ,  185 1 )  and  a  French 

by  A.  Bevan,  "Texts  and  Studies",  Cambridge,  1897;  one  of  the  Bruce  Codex  by  Am^lineau  (Paris,  1890). 

cf.  F.  Burkitt  in  "Journal  of  Theological  Studies"  The  Akhmim  Codex  of  the  fifth  century,  found  in  1896, 

K>xford,  1900).    The  most  complete  edition  of  the  and  now  in  the  Egyptian  Museum  at  Berlin,  contains 

Greek  Acts  is  by  M.  Bonnet  in  "  Actaj\  as  above,  II,  2  (a)  a  "Gospel  of  Mary",  called  in  the  subscriptions 

(Leipzig^  1903 ;  see  Bardesanes)  .    The  Acts,  thoueh  "  An  Apocryphon  of  John" ;  this  Gospel  must  be  of  the 

written  m  the  service  of  Gnosticism,  and  full  of  tne  highest  antiquity,  as  St.  Irenaeus,  about  a.  d.  170, 

weirdest  adventures,  are  not  entirely  without  an  his-  made  use  of  it  in  nis  description  of  the  Barbelo-Gnos- 

torical  background.  tics;  (b)  a  "Sophia  Jesu  Cnristi",  containing  revela- 

There  are  a  number  of  other  apocrypha  in  which  tions  of  Christ  after  His  Resurrection;  (c)  a  "Praxis 
scholars  have  claimed  to  find  traces  of  Gnostic  author-  Petri",  containing  a  fantastic  relation  of  the  miracle 
ship,  but  these  traces  are  mostly  vague  and  unsatis-  worked  on  Peter's  daughter.  The  study  of  Gnosticism 
factory.  In  connexion  with  these  undoubtedly  Gnostic  is  seriously  retarded  by  the  entirely  unaccountable  de- 
apocrypha  mention  must  be  made  of  the  Pseudo-  lay  in  the  publication  of  these  treatises ;  for  these  thir- 
Clementine  Homilies.  It  is  true  that  these  are  more  teen  years  past  we  possess  only  the  brief  account  of 
often  classed  under  Judaistic  than  under  strictly  Gnos-  this  oxlex  publishea  in  the  "  Sitzungsber.  d.  k.  preus. 
tic  literature,  but  their  affinity  to  Gnostic  speculations  Acad."  (Berlin,  1896),  pp.  839-847. 
is  at  least  at  first  sight  so  close  and  their  connexion  This  aocoimt  of  Gnostic  literature  would  be  incom- 
with  the  Book  of  Eliai  (cf .  ELCESArrss)  so  generally  plete  without  reference  to  a  treatise  commonly  pub- 
recognised  that  they  cannot  be  omitted  in  a  list  of  ushed  amount  the  works  of  Clement  of  Alexandria 
Gnostic  writing.  If  tJie  theory  maintained  by  Dom  and  called  "  Excerpta  ex  Theodoto".  It  consists  of  a 
Chapman  in  ''The  Date  of  the  Clementines''^  (Zeit-  number  of  Gnostic  extracts  made  by  Clement  for  his 
schnft  f .  N.  Test.  Wiss.,  1908)  and  in  the  article  Clem-  own  uise  with  the  idea  of  future  refutation ;  and,  with 
ENTiNES  in  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  be  correct,  Clement's  notes  and  remarks  on  the  same,  form  a  very 
and  consequently  Pseudo-Clemens  be  a  crypto- Arian  confusing  anthology.  See  O.  Bibelius,  "Studien  sur 
who  wrote  a.  d.  330,  the  "Homilies"  mi^t  still  have  Gesch.  cter  Valent/'  in  "Zeitschr.  f.  N.  Test.  Wiss." 
at  least  some  value  in  the  study  of  Gnosticism.    But  (Giessen,  1908). 

Dom  Chapman's  theory,  though  ingenious,  is  too  dar-  Oriental  non-Christian  Gnosticism  has  left  us  the 

ing  and  as  yet  too  unsupported,  to  justify  the  omis-  sacred  books  of  the  Mandaeans,  viz.,  (a)  the  "GensA 

sion  of  the  "Homilies"  in  this  place.  rabA"  or  "Great  Treasure",  a  large  collection  of  mis- 

A  great,  if  not  the  greatest,  part  of  Gnostic  liters-  cellaneous  treatises  of  different  date,  some  as  late, 
ture,  which  has  been  saved  from  the  general  wreck  of  probably,  as  the  ninth,  some  as  early,  perhaps,  as  the 
Gnostic  writings,  is  preserved  to  us  in  three  Coptic  third  century.  The  GensA  was  translated  into  Latin, 
codices,  commonly  called  the  Askew,  the  Bruce,  and  by  Norberg  (Copenhagen,  1817),  and  the  most  impor- 
the  Akhmim  Codex.  The  Askew  Codex,  of  the  fifth  tant  treatises  into  German,  by  W.  Brandt  (Leipsig, 
or  sixth  century,  contams  the  lengthy  treatise  "  Pistis  1892).  (b)  Kolasta,  Hvmns  and  Instructions  on  bap- 
Sophia",  i.  e.  Faith-Wisdom.  This  is  a  work  in  four  tism  and  the  journey  of  the  soul,  published  in  Mandss- 
books,  written  between  a.  d.  250  and  300 ;  the  fourth  an  by  J.  Euting  (Stuttgart.  1867).  (c)  Drdsh^  d  'Jahya. 
book,  however,  is  an  adaptation  of  an  earlier  work,  a  biography  of  John  the  Baptist  "ab  utero  usque  ad 
The  first  two  books  describe  the  fall  of  the  Exm  tumuTum"— as  Abraham  Echellensisouts  it— not  pub- 
Sophia  and  her  salvation  by  the  ^k)n  Soter :  the  last  lished.  Alexandrian  non-Christian  Gnosticism  is  per- 
two  books  describe  the  origin  of  sin  and  evil  and  the  ceptible  in  Trismegistic  literature,  published  in  EDg> 


QHOSTIOISM 


601 


OHOSttOttM 


lish  translation  by  G.  R.  8.  Mead  (London  and  Benares, 
1902,  three  volumes).  Specifieally  Jewish  Gnosticism 
left  no  literature,  but  Gnostic  speculations  have  an 
echo  in  several  Jewish  works,  such  as  the  Book  of 
Enoch,  the  Zohar,  the  Talmudio  treatise  Chagi^  XV. 
See  GfrOrer,  "Philo",  Vol.  I,  and  Karppe,  "Etudes 
sur.  or  e.  nat.  d.  Zohar"  (Paris,  1901). 

Refutation  of  Gnosticism. — From  the  first  Gnos- 
ticism met  with  the  most  determined  opposition  from 
the  Catholic  Church.  Tlie  last'  words  or  the  aged  St. 
Paul  in  his  First  Epistle  to  Timothy  are  usually  taken 
as  referring  to  Gnosticism,  which  is  described  as  "pro- 
fane novelties  of  words  and  oppositions  of  knowledge 
falsely  so  called  [dm04a€it  rfjs  ^ev8«i^fwv  7yc60'cwf — 
the  antitheses  of  so-called  Gnosis]  which  some  profess- 
ing have  erred  concerning  the  faith''.  Most  probably 
St.  Paul's  use  of  the  terms  pUroma,  the  cum  of  ihv8 
warldf  the  archon  of  the  power  of  the  airy  in  Ephesians 
and  (3olossians,  was  su^ested  by  the  abuse  of  these 
terms  bv  the  Gnostics.  Other  allusions  to  Gnosti- 
cism in  the  New  Testament  are  possible,  but  cannot  be 
proven,  such  as  Tit.,  iii,  9;  I  Tim.,  iv,  3;  I  John,  iv, 
1-3.  The  first  anti-Gnostic  writer  was  St.  Justin 
Martyr  (d.  c.  165).  His  "Syntagma"  C^^rray/ta  jcarA 
vcurQp  tQv  ytyenifiiiwp  alp4aeup)f  long  tliought  lost,  is 
substantiaUy  contained  in  the  ''LibeUus  adv.  omn. 
hseres",  usually  attached  to  Tertullian's  **  De  Prsscrip- 
tione";  such  at  least  is  the  thesis  of  J.  Kunze  (1894) 
which  is  largely  accepted.  Of  St.  Justin's  anti-Gnos- 
tic treatise  on  me  Resurrection  (Utpl  apoardetiat)  con- 
siderable fragments  areextant  in  Methodius'  ^'Dialogue 
on  the  Resurrection"  and  in  St.  John  Damascene's 
"  Sacra  Pamllela".  St.  Justin's  "Compendium  against 
Marcion  ",  quoted  by  St.  Irexusus  (IV,  vi,  2 ;  V,  xxvi,  2), 
is  possibly  identical  with  his  "Syntagma".  Immedi- 
ately i^ter  St.  Justin,  Miltiades,  a  Christian  philoso- 
6 her  of  Asia  Minor,  is  mentioned  by  Tertuluan  and 
[ippol3rtus  (Adv.  Valent.,  v,  and  Eus.,  H.  E.,  V., 
xxviii,  4)  as  having  combated  the  Gnostics  and  spe- 
cially the  Valentinians.  His  writings  are  lost.  Tne- 
ophiius  of  Antioch  (d.  c.  185)  wrote  against  the  heresy 
of  Hermogenes,  and  also  an  excellent  treatise  against 
Marcion  (xariL  MapKttapot  Aiyos.  Eus.,  H.  E.,  IV,  xxiv). 
The  book  aeainst  Marcion  is  probably  extant  in  the 
''  Dialogus  de  rectA  in  Deum  fide"  of  Pseudo-Origen. 
For  Agrippa  Castor  see  Basilides.  Hegesippus,  a 
Palestinian,  travelled  bv  way  of  Corinth  to  Rome, 
where  he  arrived  under  Anicetus  (155-166),  to  ascer- 
tain the  sound  and  orthodox  faith  from  Apostolic  tradi- 
tion. He  met  many  bishops  on  his  way,  who  all  tau^t 
the  same  faith  and  in  Rome  he  made  a  list  of  the  popes 
from  Peter  to  Anicetus.  In  consequence  he  wrote  nve 
books  of  Memoirs  ('Tro/bu^MAra)  "  in  a  most  simple  style, 
sivingthe  true  tradition  of  Apostolic  doctrine'%  becom- 
mg  "a  champion  of  the  truth  against  the  godless  here- 
sies" (Eus.,  H.  E.,  IV,  vii  sqq.,  xxi  sqa.).  Of  this 
work  only  a  few  fragments  remain,  and  tnese  are  his- 
torical rather  than  theological.  Rhodon,  a  disciple  of 
Tatian,  Philip,  Bishop  of  Gortyna  in  Crete,  and  a 
certain  Modestus  wrote  against  Marcion,  but  their 
writings  are  lost.  Irensus  (Adv.  Hser.,  I,  xv,  6)  and 
Epiphanius  (xxxiv,  11)  quote  a  short  poem  against 
the  Oriental  Valentinians  and  the  conjuror  Marcus 
by  ''an  aged"  but  unknown  author;  and  Zachsus, 
Bishop  of  Csesarea,  is  said  to  have  written  against  the 
Valentinians  and  especially  Ptolemy. 

Beyond  all  comparison  most  important  is  the  great 
anti-Gnostic  work  of  St.  Irexueus,  'EXryxo'  '^1  dparpow^ 
rfjs  }l^€vdwr6iiov  ypdaewt,  usually  called  "Adversus 
Hsereses".  It  consists  of  five  books,  evidently  not 
written  at  one  time;  the  first  three  books  about  a.  d. 
180,  the  last  two  about  a  dozen  years  later.  The  greater 
part  of  the  first  book  has  come  down  to  us  in  the  origi- 
nal Greek,  the  rest  in  a  very  ancient  and  anxiously 
close  Latin  translation,  and  some  fragments  in  Syriac. 
St.  Irensus  knew  the  Gnostics  from  personal  mter- 
oourse  and  from  their  own  writings  and  gives  minute 


descriptions  of  their  S3r8tems,  especially  of  the  Valen- 
tinians and  Barbelo-Gnostics.  A  good  test  .of  how  St. 
Irensus  employed  his  Gnostic  sources  can  be  made 
b;^  comparing  the  newly  found  "Evangelium  Maris" 
with  Adv.  Hsr.,  I,  xxix.  Numerous  attempts  to  dis- 
credit Irensus  as  a  witness  have  proved  failures  (see 
iRENiEUB,  Saint).  Besides  his  great  work,  Irensus 
wrote  an  open  letter  to  the  Roman  priest  Florinus, 
who  thought  of  joining  the  Valentinians;  and  when 
the  unfortunate  priest  had  apostatized,  and  had  become 
a  Gnostic,  Irensus  wrote  on  his  account  a  treatise 
''On  the  Ogdoad",  and  also  a  letter  to  Pope  Victor, 
begging  him  to  use  his  authority  against  him.  Only^  a 
few  passives  of  these  writing^  are  extant.    Eusebius 

S^.  £..  lY ,  xxiii,  4)  mentions  a  letter  of  Dionvsius  of 
rinth  (c.  170)  to  the  Nicomedians,  in  wnich  he 
attacks  the  heresy  of  Marcion.  The  letter  is  not  extant. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  (d.  c.  215)  only  indirectly  com- 
bated Gnosticism  by  aefending  the  true  Christian 
Gnosis,  especially  in  ''Psdagogos",  Bk.  I,  "Stroma- 
teis",  Bk.  II,  III,  V,  and  in  the  so-called  eighth  book 
or  "  Excerpta  ex  Theodoto".  Origen  devoted  no  work 
exculsively  to  the  refutation  of  Gnosticism  but  his 
four  books  "On  First  Principles"  (Uepl  dpxQv),  written 
about  the  year  230,  and  preserved  to  us  on]y  in  some 
Greek  fragments  and  a  free  Latin  translation  by  Ru- 
finus,  is  practically  a  refutation  of  Gnostic  dualism, 
Docetism,  and  Emanationism.  About  the  year  300 
an  unknown  Syrian  author,  sometimes  erroneously 
identified  with  Origen,  and  often  called  by  the  literary 
pseudon^  Adamantlus,  or  "  The  Man  of  Steel",  wrote 
a  long  dialogue  of  which  the  title  is  lost,  but  which  is 
usually  designated  by  the  words,  "De  rectA  in  Deum 
fide".  This  dialogue,  usually  divided  into  five  books, 
contains  discussions  with  representatives  of  two  sects 
of  Marciomsm,of  Valentinianism,  and  of  Bardesanism. 
The  writer  plagiarizes  extensively  from  Theophilus  of 
Antioch  and  Methodius  of  Olympus,  especially  the 
latter's  anti-Gnostic  dialogue  ^'On  Free  Will"  (H^ 

The  greatest  anti-Gnostic  controversialist  of  the 
early  Christian  Church  is  Tertullian  (b.  160),  who 
practically  devoted  his  life  to  combating  this  dreadful 
sum  of  all  heresies.  We  need  but  mention  the  titles  of 
his  anti-Gnostic  works:  |'De  Prsscriptione  hsreti^ 
corum  " ;  "  Ad  versus  Marcionem  " ;  a  book  "  Ad  versus 
Valentinianos";  "Scorpiace";  "De  Came  Christi"; 
"De  Resurrectione  Camis":  and  finally  "Ad versus 
Praxeam".  A  storehouse  ol  information  rather  than 
a  refutation  is  the  great  work  of  Hippolytus,  written 
some  time  after  a.  d.  234^  once  called  "Philosophou- 
mena"  and  ascribed  to  On^en,  but  since  the  discovery 
of  Books  IV~X,  in  1842,  known  by  the  name  of  its 
true  author  and  its  true  title,  "  Refutation  of  All 
Heresies ' '  (jcar d  waaQp  oXfiictwp  9\tYx^)  •  The  publica- 
tion of  the  Athos  Codex  bv  E.  Miller  (Oxford,  1851) 
revolutionized  the  study  of  Gnosticism  and  rendered 
works  published  previous  to  that  date  antiquated  and 
almost  worthless.  To  students  of  Gnosticism  this 
wOrk  is  as  indispensable  as  that  of  St.  Irensus.  There 
is  an  English  translation  by  J.  Macmahon  in  "The 
Ante-Nicene  Library"  (Edmburgh,  1868).  Hippol- 
ytus tried  to  prove  that  all  Gnosticism  was  denved 
from  heathen  philosophy;  hb  speculations  may  be 
disregarded,  but,  as  he  was  in  possession  of  a  great 
numbBr  of  Gnostic  writings  from  which  he  quotes,  his 
information  is  priceless.  As  he  wrote  nearlv  fifty 
vears  after  St.  Irensus,  whose  disciple  he  had  been, 
he  describes  a  later  development  of  Gnosis  than  the 
Bishop  of  Lyons.  Besides  nis  greater  work,  Hippoly- 
tus wrote^  many  ^ears  previously  (before  217),  a  small  >^ 
compendium  against  sul  heresies,  giving  a  list  of  the 
same,  thirty-two  in  number,  from  Dositheus  to  Noe- 
tus;  also  a  treatise  against  Marcion. 

As,  from  the  be^ning  of  the  fourth  century,  Gnos- 
ticism was  in  rapid  decline,  there  was  less  need  of 
champions  of  orthodoxy,  hence  there  is  a  long  interval 


OOA  602  Ck>A 

between  Adamantius's  dialogue  and  St.  Epiphanius's  clearly  the  method  of  warfare  which  alone  was  poaai- 

"  Panarion",  b^un  in  the  year  374.    St.  Epiphanius,  ble,  but  which  also  alone  sufficed  to  secure  the  vwtoiy 

who  in  his  youth  was  brought  into  closest  contact  with  in  the  conflict,  a  method  whidi  TertuUian  some  yean 

Gnostic  sects  in  Egypt,  and  especially  the  Phibionists,  later  scientiflcally  explained  in  his  "De  Prsescrip-' 

and  perhaps  even,  as  some  hold,  belonged  to  this  sect  tione".    Both  Hegesippus  and  Iremeus  proved  that 

himself,  is  still  a  first-class  authority.    With  marvel-  Gnostic  doctrines  did  not  belong  to  that  deposit  of 

lous  inaustry  he  gathered  information  on  all  sides,  but  faith  which  was  taught  by  the  true  succession  of  bish- 

his  injudicious  and  too  credulous  acceptance  of  many  ops  in  the  primary  sees  of  Christendom;  both  in  tri- 

details  can  hardly  be  excused.    Philastrius  of  Brescia,  mnphant  conclusion  drew  up  a  list  of  the  Bishops  of 

a  few  ^ears  later  (383),  gave  to  the  Latin  Chureh  what  Rome,  from  Peter  to  the  Roman  bishop  of  their  day ; 

St.  Epiphanius  had  given  to  the  Greek.    He  counted  as  Gnosticism  was  not  taught  by  that  Qiureh  with 

and  described  no  fewer  than  one  hundred  and  twenty-  which  the  Christians  ever3n^ere  must  agree,  it  stood 

eight  heresies,  but  took  the  word  in  a  somewhat  wiae  self-condemned.    A  just  verdict  on  the  Gnostics  la 

and  vaffue  sense.    Thoueh  dependent  on  the  ''S^rn-  that  of  O.  Gruppe  (AusfQhrunKen,  p.  162):  the  cir- 

tagma''  of  Hippolytus,  nis  account  is  entirely  in-  cumstances  of  the  period  gave  them  a  certain  impor- 

dependent  of  that  of  Epiphanius.    Another  Latin  tance.    But  a  living  force  they  never  were^  either  in 

writer,  who  probably  lived  m  the  middle  of  the  fifth  ^neral  history  or  in  the  history  of  Christendom, 

oentunr  in  Southern  Gaul,  and  who  is  probably  identi-  Gnosticism   deserves    attention    as   showing  what 

cal  with  Amobius  the  Younger,  left  a  work,  commonly  mental  dispositions  Christianity  found  in  existence, 

called  "  Prsedestinatus '',  consisting  of  three  books,  in  what  obstacles  it  had  to  overcome  to  maintain  its  own 

the  first  of  which  he  describes  nmety  heresies  from  life;  but  "means  ofmental  progress  it  never  was." 
Simon  Magus  to  the  Prsedestinatwnists.     This  work        db  Jong,  Dob  antike  Myaterienwesen  (Leipiig,  1909);  Dna- 

unfortunately  contains  many  doubtful  and  fabulous  uub,  Studten  zur  Oeachickte  der  Valenitnianer  in  ZeUa.  N.-T, 


history 

of  Gncjrtician  be«i««  it  rivwln  a  very. concise  and  ^^^}t^l^^x^S%U^S^^^'^, 

objective  way  the  history  of  the  heresies  smce  the  tune  1907^  1268-88;  soodaqg.;  6i4Bqq.:  Idbm,  UEtpoffneChrHienne 

of  Simon  Magus,     St.  Augustine's  book  "De  Hseresi-  (Pans,  1905);  Mead.  FraomenU  of  a  Faith  ForgoUen  (LoDdoa 

bu8"  (written  about  428)]s  too  dependent  on  Phiiaa-  5Sl^!3Srbi.^i/»!5^trfe?,5S?J» 

tnus  and  Epiphamus  to  be  of  much  value.     Amongst  Bxschoff.  Jm  Reiefu  der  Gnoata  (Leipsis.  1906);  Pbithmann, 

anti-Gnostic  writers  we  must  finally  mention  the  neo-  Chriatl.  Gtheindehre  (A  .Onoetio  Catecbiam— Leipiig,   1906); 

Platoni«t  Plotinufl  (d.  a.  n.  270),  wto  w«te  a  treatiae  ^ftfj^i^SS^I^t^'^^^llfiS^'^^^iV  \^ 

Against  the  Gnostics  '.     These  were  evidently  SChol-  Ein  vmirenaeiach.  on.  Originalwerk  in  Pruuian  Acad,  of  icSncm 

ars  who  frequented  his  collegia,  but  whose  Oriental  and  (Berlin,  1896).  837;  db  Fatb,  hurodiustim^  A  ritude  du  GnosU- 

fantastic  pessimism  was  ipreooncilable  with  Hotinue's  |f;3^*KSkioT<JAi&'S>te'i^^*i^^ 

views.  __  _  ^^  Cent,  {Hulaean  Lectures,  1902-3);  Ri3KhUivrToiEtB,Leekani 

Conclusion. 

as  a  mighty  mo  ^  «•«»««..««>,«.  ««.^     r.  ^w-..^,.  «,.««^  -«.*-*,  «»^«^« 

noblest  and  highest  truth,  a  movement  in  some  way  bardbnhkwbr.  b^dii^ed^ eUtHrdd.  Lit.  (i^r2bui\7552ri! 

parallel  to  that  of  Christianity,  has  completely  failed.  315-^46;  386-459;  481-495;    BiULVVt.MandlkieeKeSekr^ 

It  has  been  abandoned  by  recent  unprejudiced  schol-  Wttingen.  1893);  Die  -Mf,'^^^*  «<^hc»o»  (L«p«g  i§9); 

^  "*»  wc^4*  a*y«i*v»wM«*^  i^j  i^^""  «**^*^j«^*v«v.  a^s^  KaaBLEE,  UdtfT  Qnoets  u.  alt-bab.  Religion  m  Report  of  the  Fifth 

ars  such  as  W.  Bousset  and  O.  Gruppe,  and  it  is  to  be  Conoreu  ^  Orient4diH8  (Berlin,  1882);    Id.,  Maki  (Leipiig, 

regretted  that  it  should  have  been  renewed  by  an  EJng-  1889).  I;  Wobbbbmin,  Rdiifionigeadi,  studim  (Leipxic.  ia»); 

l^  writer  G.  R.  8.  Mead  in  "Fragments  of  aFlS3»  f^t^%'!^^^„^^LfZ'S:,^}S^%S\  /^^ 

Forgotten*',    an   unscholarly   and    misleadmg   work,  i,  103  gqq.;  Mansbl.  The  Onoatie  Hereaiea  of  the  nrat  and  aee- 

which  in  English-speaking  countries  may  retard  the  <md  centuriea  (London,  1875);  Lipsius,  Zur  QueUenkritik  dea 

joter  and  true  appreciation  of  Gnosticbm  as  it  was  in  f^HSTcS^^lS'tS^'^f^  MTtT^STS 

historical  fact.    Gnosticism  was  not  an  advance,  it  was  lihriat,  Bioar.  (London.  1887);  StAhbun,  Die  Onoatiadten  Q^ 

a  retrogression.     It  was  bom  amidst  the  last  throes  len  Hippdyta  (Leipiig,  1890);    Mattbb,  Hiatoire  critique  du 

of  expiring  cultsjmd  civilization  in  Western  Asia.and  ^^^^S^.^T^^^a:,  ^cZ^^^Tidfif^i^Jt:''!^ 

Egrpt.     Though  hellenized,  these  countries  remained  Onoatiad^e  Syatem  dee  Budtea  FiatZ  Stmhia  in  Thed.  Jahfb. 

Oriental  and  Semitic  to  the  core.     This  Oriental  spirit  (1854);  Hbinbici,  Die  Valentinianiadie  Onoaia  u.  die  H,  Schrift 

-Attis  of  A«a  Minor,  Istar  of  Babylonia.  piS  of  ^^^ti^'^^t^^it'^^^t^'ii^^SS^in'bliSiiS^ 

Egypt,  with  the  astrological  and  COSmogomc  lore  of  Jrenaua,  I,  899-971  (Leipiig,  1848).   See  also  Kbnnbdt.  Budd" 

the  Asiatic  world — first  sore  beset  by  Ahuramazda  in  hiet  Gnoatu:iam:  TheSyatem  of  Banlidea  in  Journal  of  the  Royal 


fusion  of  both  Parseeism  and  Christianity  with  itself,  ^v^nn  <»/ j?^"^^_^]f^^fj^  Vjff  5^'V'^-Jf^°*l??-\J®?®^' 

It  tried  to  do  for  the  East  what  Neo-Platonism  "  ^         '"^  '"   '"'*   ^  —'-  '-o-.x, 

to  do  for  the  West.    During  at  least  two  centuries 

was  a  real  danger  to  Christianity,  though  not  so  great  ,«  ^      ^       *        ^.«, 

^  some  modern  writers  would  make  us  telieje.  as  if  ^^f^L'  ^S?SSJ?'?;jP.tef^^):T»i^  5ffiS 

1895);  Idbm.  Lev 
Rtligiene  (PbHs, 
'  Literatur  (Lmp' 

against  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ.    But  these  say-  loiu^TSiitory^^DogmaTi^n^^^  1894)!  lT222-65riDwi?^r 

ines  have  more  piquancy  than  objective  truth.   Chns-  QueUenkritik  der  Geadi.  dea  Gnoatia  (I^ipsig.  1873);  Idbm  In 

♦ittnifv  fliirvivAH     unH    nn*    OnnntipisTn     hAOAtim   the  Zeitadvr.  /.  hiatonad^.  Thed,   (1874);    HiLOBNrBLD,   Aetefivtf- 

tianity  ^survived,   ana  ?Ol^°<>SUClMn^  oecause  ine  ^^^^^  ^^  Urdtriatentuma  (Leipzig,  1884):  Idbm,  Judenthum 

1886);  lr>mu,  Der  Gnoatixiamua  in 

[1890);  KoNCB,  De  hiatoria  gnoati* 

vHirr*.  /lAfMK/M.  vjure.H««««  .wu^^);  Anbich,  D(U  outU^e  Myaterien^ 

^,  *  ._..  -i-x       X         a     J'       t:^     t  t       J  i-i  v>eaenin8,Einfluaaa,d.Chriatenth.{X9M)\H6jsnQ,DieOphiteH 

theosophistic  literature,  flooding  English  and  German    (Berlin,  1889). 

markets,  can  give  life  to  that  which  perished  from  J.  P.  Arendzen. 

intrinsic  and  essential  defects.    It  is  striking  that  the 

two  earliest  champions  of  Christianity  against  Gnos-        Oca,  Archdiocese  of  (Goanensib),  Patriarchate 

ticism — Hegesippus  and  Ireneeus — ^broi^t  out  so  of  the  East  Indies,  the  chief  see  of  the  Portuguese 


QOA  6( 

dominiona  in  the  Eaat;  metropolitan  to  the  present 
province  of  Goa,  which  compnees  as  suBraeans  the 
Bees  of  Cochin,  Hylai>oie,  and  DamSo  (or  DuuauB) 
in  India,  Hocoo  in  China,  and  Hotambique  in  Eaat 
Africa.  The  archbiabop,  irho  resides  at  Panjim,  or 
New  Goa,  has  the  honorary  litlee  of  Primate  of  the 
East  and  (from  1886)  Patriarch  of  the  East  Indies. 
He  enjoys  the  privilege  of  predding  over  all  national 
councils  of  the  East  Indies,  which  must  ordinarily  be 
held  at  Goa  (Concordat  of  1886  between  the  Holy  See 
and  Portugal,  art.  2).  The  patronage  of  the  see  and 
of  its  suffragans  belong  to  the  Crown  of  Portugal. 

Foundation  and  Histobt.— The  history  of  the 
Portuguese  conquests  in  India  dates  from  the  arrival 
of  Vasco  da  Gama  in  1498,  followed  by  the  acquisition 
of  Oranganore  in  ISOO,  Cochin  in  1606,  Goa  m  1510, 
Chaul  in  1512,  Calieut  in  1513,  DamSo  in  1631,  Bom- 
bay, Salaette,  and  Bassein  in  1634,  Diu  in  1635,  etc. 
From  the  year  1500,  miaaionarieB  of  the  different 
orders  (Franciscans,  Dorainicaos,  Jesuits,  Augustin- 
ians,  etc.)  flocked  out  with  the  conquerois,  and  t>e^an 
at  once  to  build  churches  along  the  coast  diatncts 
wherever  the  Portuguese  power  made  itself  felt.  In 
1634  Goa  was  created  an  episcopal  see  suffragan  to 
Funchal  in  the  Madeiras,  with  a  jurisdiction  extending 
potentially  over  all  past  and  future  con(]uests  from 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  China;  in  1567  it  was  made 
an  independent  archbishopric,  and  its  first  suffragan 
sees  were  erected  at  Cochin  and  Malacca.  In  1576  the 
suffragan  See  of  Macao  (China)  was  added;  and  in 
1588,  that  of  Funai  in  Japan,  In  1600  another  suffra- 
gan see  was  erected  at  Angamale  (transferred  to  Cran- 
^nore  in  1605)  for  the  sake  of  the  newly-united 
Thomas  Christians  (see,  under  Eastkrn  Churches, 
MoMtar  Chriaians,  V,  234,  and  Unial  Church  of  Maia- 
boT,  V,  236);  while  in  1606  a  sixth  suffragan  see  was 
established  at  San  Thom£,Mylapore,  near  the  modem 
Madras.  In  1612  the  prelacy  of  Moiambitjue  was 
added,  aikd  in  1690  two  other  sees  at  Pelung  and 
Nanking  in  China.  By  the  Bulls  establishing  these 
sees  the  right  of  nomination  was  conferred  in  perpetu- 
ity on  the  King  of  Portugal,  under  the  titles  of^founda- 
tion  and  endowment. 

The  limits  between  the  various  sees  of  India  were 
defined  bv  a  papal  Bull  in  1616.  The  suffragan  sees 
comprised  rou^ly  the  south  of  the  peninsula  and  the 
east  coast,  as  far  as  Burma  inclusive,  the  rest  of  India 
remaining  potentially  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
archdiocese;  aikd  this  potential  jurisdiction  was  ac- 
tually exercised  even  outside  Portuguese  dominions 
wherever  the  Faith  was  extended  by  Portuguese  mis- 
sionaries. Missionary  work  progtesaed  on  a  large 
scale  and  with  great  success  along  the  western  coasts, 
etdefly  at  Chaul,  Bombay,  Salsettc,  Bassein,  Dam&o, 
and  Diu ;  and  on  the  eastern  coasts  at  San  Thom6  of 
Hylapore,  and  as- far  aa  Ben^  etc.     In  the  southern 


The  mission  of 

^^m.Ajui,  uu  buciuaiauaL  wuaab,  rfCB  oujO  One  Of  tbC  mOSt 

fruitful.  Several  misBions  were  also  estdilished  in  the 
interior  northwards,  e.  g.,  that  of  Agra  and  Lahore  in 
1570  and  that  of  Tibet  in  1624.  Still,  even  with  these 
efforts,  the  greater  part  even  of  the  coast  line  was  by 
DO  means  fully  worked,  and  many  vast  tracts  of  the 
interior  northwards  were  practically  untouched. 

The  decline  of  Portuguese  power  m  the  seventeenth 
century,  followed  as  it  was  by  a  decline  in  the  supply 
of  missionaries,  etc.,  soon  put  limits  to  the  extension 
of  missionary  work;  and  it  was  sometimes  with  diffi- 
culty that  the  results  actually  achieved  could  be  kept 
up.  ConsequentFy,  about  this  time  the  Holy  See  be- 
gan, through  the  Congr^ation  of  Propaganda,  to  send 
out  missionaries  independently  of  Portugal — appoint- 
ing vicars  Apostolic  over  several  districts  (The  Gteat 
Mogul,  1637;  Verapoly,  1657;  Burma,  1722;  Kamatio 
and  Madura,  after  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in 


3  GOA 

1773;  Tibet,  1826;  Bengal,  Madnu, and  Cevlon,  1834, 
and  others  later).  In  certain  places  wnere  theae 
vicara  ApoatoUc  came  into  contact  with  the  Portuguese 
elei^,  tnerearose  a  conflict  of  jurisdiction.  This  was 
particularlytbe  case  inBombay,  which  had  been  ceded 
to  the  British  in  1661.  Here  the  Portuguese  clergy 
were  at  first  allowed  to  remain  in  chai^  of  the 
churches;  but  in  1720,  on  the  ground  that  they  caused 
disaffection  among  the  people  against  the  British 
power,  they  were  expell«l  from  the  island,  and  the 
Vicar  of  the  Great  Mogul,  with  his  Carmelite  mission- 
aries,  was  invited  to  take  their  place.  The  Holy  See, 
in  authorizing  this  arrangement,  did  not  deny  or  abro- 
gate the  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Goa,  but  merely  intended  to  make  a  temporary 
provision  till  such  time  as  the  British  Government 
should  allow  the  Portuguese  clergy  to  return.     (See 

BOHBAT,  AbCH- 

DiocESB  or).  Ef- 
forts were  made 
from  time  to  time 
on  the  part  of  th« 
Goan  party  to  re- 
cover their  place, 
and  thia  ulti- 
mately, tbroiwb 
a  division  of  the 
churches  in  1794, 
gave  rise  to  the 
existence  of  two 
rival  juriadictjons 
in  Bombay — Pa- 
droada  and  Propa- 
ganda. The  Holy 
See    had     for    a 


general  s 
and  especiallv 
with  the  opposi- 
tion shown  to  the 

vicars  Apoatolic         „  a-  -r^  -^ 

I.     iu.  ri-1 1  Bhkijo  or  St.  FaAncn  XAnia 

by  the  Goan  pre!-  church  of  tbo  Bom  J«u>.  a« 

ates    and    clergy. 

After  the  revolution  of  1834  in  Portugal,  the  expul- 
sion or  abolition  of  the  religioua  orders,  and  the  sever- 
ing of  diplomatic  relations  with  the  Vatican  came  tjie 
famous  Brief  "Multa  prsclare",  on  24  April,  1838, 
provisionally  withdrawing  jurisdiction  from  the  three 
suffragan  sees  of  Cochin,  Cranganore,  and  Mylapore, 
and  assigning  their  territories  to  the  nearest  vicars 
Apostolic — at  the  same  time  implicitly,  or  at  leaat  by 
subsequent  interpretation  and  enactments,  restrict- 
ing the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Goa  to 
actual  Portuguese  territory.  Thia  Brief  was,  however, 
rejected  by  the  Goan  party  as  spurious  or  at  least 
BUrreptitiouB,  since  they  contended  that  even  the 
Holy  See  could  not  rightly  legislate  in  thia  manner 
without  the  consent  of  the  King  of  Portugal,  aa  was 
declared  in  the  original  Bulls  of  toundation,  cto.  The 
principles  underlying  this  dispute  fall  outside  the 
scope  of  the  present  article,  which  is  concerned  solely 
with  the  main  historical  facts.  The  resistance  whica 
followed,  both  in  Bombay  and  in  other  parts  of  ladia, 
has  uniformly  been  called  the  "Goan  or  Indo-Portu- 
gueseSchism"by  writers  outside  the  Padroado  party; 
and  the  term  schism  occurs  frequently  in  the  pro- 
nouncements of  the  Holy  See;  but  the  Padroauists 
themselves  have  always  resented  this  title,  on  the 
^und  that  the  fault  lay  with  the  Holy  See  mis- 
informed by  the  vicars  Apoatolic,  and  that  they 
were  only  contending  for  their  canonical  and  natural 
rights,  eto.  In  1857  a  concordat  was  entered  into 
which  gave  peace  for  a  time;  but  a  final  settlement 
was  not  arrived  at  till  1386,  when  a  further  con- 
cordat was  drawn  up,  and  a  Bull  ("Humans  Salutis 
Auctor",  1  Sept.,  1886)  issued,  by  which  the  suspended 


OOA  604  MA 

iurisdictionofCoobinandHylaporeWEia  restored,  and  Mven^-nmedecT«eswerafnmed.  Hie apedal Synod 
a  third  suffragan  diocese  (that  of  DamSo)  added- — all  of  Diamper,  held  in  1599,  bad  for  its  eoope  the  reunion 
in  British  temtory;  and  after  subHequentadjuatmeats  of  the  Inomss  Christians,  for  whom  the  See  of  Anga- 
the  preeect  delimitations  were  a^'eed  to.  At  the  male  was  established  in  the  following  year. 
same  time  the  Indian  hierarchy  was  established,  and  The  Citt  of  Goa. — The  city  of  Goa,  originally  a 
tht  whole  of  the  comitry  divided  into  provinces,  dio-  fortress  inthehandsfirstof  the  Hindus  and  thenofuie 
ceses,  and  prefectures  Apostolic.  Hohanunedans,wastakenbyAlbuquerqueinlS10.  As 

In  the  following  LUt  of  Prelatet  of  the  Ste  of  Ooa,  soon  as  he  became  master  of  the  place  he  built  the  first 
dates  still  under  dispute  are  given  in  parentheses:  church — that  of  St.  Catherine,  who  thus  became  the 
patron  of  the  new  city.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a 
vast  series  of  churches,  lai^  and  small,  numbering 
over  fifty,  with  convents,  hospices,  and  other  institu- 
tions attached,  which  made  Goa  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting eccleaiaatical  cities  in  the  worid.  The  civil 
splendour  was  in  keeping  with  the  ecclesiastical.  But 
the  situation  was  an  unfortunate  one.  Lying  on  a 
low  stretch  of  coast-land,  surrounded  on  two  sMes  b^ 
shallow  creeks  and  on  the  other  two  by  miasmic 
marshes,  the  place  was  soon  found  unhealthv  to  audi 
a  degree  that,  after  several  ravages  by  epiaemics,  it 
was  gradually  abandoned  in  favour  of  Panjira,  five 
miles  nearer  the  sea.  The  transfer  of  the  government 
'a  1759  soon  led  to  the  total  desertion  of  ue  old  city. 


decay  c 


materials,  and,  especially  after  the  expulsion  of  th« 
religious  orders  in  1835,  many  churches  and  monaa- 
lenes  followed  suit.    In  place  of  houses  thick  palm- 
„  „    „  -  groves  sradually  grew  up,  which  now,  with  the  excei>- 

C*™«rB»L  OF  St.  C.TH.R.N..  Go.  ^„„  „f  I  fg„  opiJn  spaoesVoccupy  the  whole  area.  TU 

Jo&o  AffoQBO  d 'Albuquerque,  1538-1553;  Caspar  de    original  city  extended  almost  two  miles  from  east  to 
LeAo  Pereira,  1560-1567,  and  again  1574-1576;  Hen-     west  along  the  river,  and  comprised  three  low  bilb 
rique  de  Tavora,  transferred  from  Cochin,  1578-1581;     crowned  with  relieioua  edificea. 
JoSo  Vicente  da  Fooseca,   1580-1586  (1581-1587);        Most  of  the  churches  have  disappeared,  leaving 
Matheus  de  Medina,  transferred  from  Cochin,  1588-     nothing  but  a  cross  to  mark  their  site.     Others  are  in 
1592;  Aleixo  de  Menezes,  1595-1610  (1612);  Christo-     variousstagesofdecav,  while  a  few  are  kept  in  repair. 
vam  de  Si  e  Lisboa,  from  the  Bishopric  of  Malacca    ThefinestofthoseatillatandinKare  grouped  about  the 
(1610)  1616-1622;  SebastiSo  de  B.  Pedro,  from  the     great  square:    the  cathedral  (built   1571),  in  which 
Bishopric  of  Hylapore  (1623)    1625-1629;  Manoel  "alone  the  full  litur^  is  kept  up  by  a  body  of  resident 
Telles  de  Brito,  1631  (died  on  voyage);  Francisco  dos     canona,   and   adjoining   which   is   an   archiepiscopal 
Martyrea,  1036-1652;  Christov&o  da  Silveira,  1671  or     palace;  the  Bom  Jesus  church  (Jesuit,  built  c.  1586), 
1672  (died  on  voyage);  Antonio  de  BrandiU),   1675-     containing  the  body  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  incorrupt  in 
1678;  Manoel  de  Souia  e  Heneiea,  1681-1684 ;  Alberto    a  rich  shrine  |  St.  Cajetan's.  built  about  1655,  belonging 
deSilva,  1087-1688;  Pedro  de  Silva,  from  the  Bishop-     to  the  Theatmea ;  the  Franciscan  church  of  St.  Francis 
He  of  Cochin,  1689-1691 :  Agostino  da  Annuncla^&o,     of  Assisi,  built  on  the  site  of  a  mosque,  1517-21 ;  and 
1691-1713;  Sebastifio  d'Andrado  Pessanha,    1716-    finally  the  little  chapel  of  St.  Catherine,  built  in  1510. 
1721;  Ignacio  de  Santa  Therexa,  1721-1739;  Eugenio 
Triguleros,  1741,  from  the  Bishopric  of  Macao  (died 
on  voyage) ;  Louren;«  de  Santa  Maria  e  Mello,  1744- 
1750;  Antonio  Taveira  de  Neiva  Brum  e  Silveira, 
1750-1775;  Francisco  de  AaaumpfSo  e  Brito,  1775- 
1780;  Manoel  de  Santa  Catharina,  transferred  from 
Cochin  (1780)  1784-1812;  Manoel  de  Sfio  Gualdino, 
1812-1831;  Jos«  Maria  de  Silva  Torres,  1844-1849; 
Jo&o  Chrysostome  d'Amorim  e  Pessoa,   18S3-1869 
(1874);  Ayres  de  Omellas  Vasconaellos,   1875-1880: 
Antonio   Sebastifio   Valente   (first   patriarch)   1882- 
1908.     The   present    prelate,    Matbsus    d'Ofiveira 
Xavier,  transferred  from  Cochin,  took  poaaession  <A 
his  see  1  July,  1909. 

During  the  vacancies  (some  of  which  extended  to  6, 
7, 13,  and  one  even  to  23  years)  the  aee  was,  according 
to  the  rules  laid  down  by  Gregory  XIll  in  1562  and 
Leo  XII  in  1826,  administered  by  the  Bishop  of 
Cochin,  or,  failing  him,  by  the  Bishop  of  Mylapore; 

and  failing  both,  sometimes  by  some  prelate  from  else-  Tjli^cm  or  thb  PiTauaca.  Pinjni  os  Naw  Oo* 

where,  sometimes  by  a  coadjutor  or  vicar  capitular,  as 
circumstances  allowed.  Farther  away,  on  the  western  hill,  stand  the  great 

StfUoda. — The  first  and  second  provincial  synods  nunnery  of  St.  Monica  (1598),  still  in  full  repair,  for* 
were  presided  over  by  Dom  Caspar  de  Lefio  Pereira  in  merly  occupied  by  a  lai^  community  of  native  nuns 
1667  and  1575  respectively;  the  third,  in  1585,  by  — the  only  female  religioua  in  Goa;  the  Augustinian 
Dom  Vicente  da  Fonseca ;  trie  fourth,  in  1592.  by  Dom  church  and  convent  ouilt  in  1572,  now  m  ruins; 
Hatheus  de  Medina;  the  fifth,  in  1606,  by  Dom  Aleixo  convent  and  church  of  St.  John  of  God  (1685),  now 
de  Meoeses.  In  these  five  councils  316  decrees  were  partly  in  ruins;  the  Rosary  church  of  the  Dominicans, 
framed  relating  to  ecclesiastical  discipline  (Fonseca,  builttiefore  1543;  the vicerenl  diapelof  St.  Anthony, 
"  67).    In  recent  times  one  provincial  council  was    of  about  the  same  date.    The  last  two  are  still  m 

Id  (1894)  by  Dom  Antonio  S.  Valente,  in  which    full  repair.    To  the  south  are  the  ruins  of  the  Jesuit 


l: 


GOA 


605 


GOA 


eoUege  of  St.  Paul,  built  about  1541,  and  the  Carmelite 
church  and  convent,  built  about  1612,  occupied  after 
1707  by  Oratorians.  The  chapel  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier,  the  scene  of  the  "Domine,  satis  est",  built 
before  1542,  is  still  in  repair.  The  following  either 
have  entirely  disappeared  or  their  sites  are  marked 
only  by  ruins:  the  chapel  of  St.  Martin,  built  shortly 
after  1547;  college  and  chiuxsh  of  St.  Bonaventure 
(about  1602);  Nossa  Senhora  de  Serra  (1513);  con- 
vent and  diurch  of  St.  Dominic,  built  about  1548,  re- 
built 1550;  Santa  Luzia,  at  Daujim  (about  1544); 
chiuxsh  of  St.  Thomas,  built  to  receive  the  relics  of  St. 
Thomas  brought  from  Mylapore  in  1560 ;  church  of  St. 
Alexis,  built  before  1600;  cnurch  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
bu3t  about  the  same  time;  convent  and  church  of 


cans,  with  61  inmates;  9  of  Au^ustinians,  with  79 
inmates;  1  of  Carmelites,  with  28  mmates;  1  of  Thea- 
tines,  with  13  inmates;  4  of  St.  John  of  God,  with  30 
inmates;  2  of  Oratorians,  with  61  inmates,  and  the 
convent  of  St.  Monica,  with  61  inmates;  total.  38 
houses,  with  486  inmates.  Collectively  their  funds  at 
this  time  amounted  to  a  capitid  of  £96,378  (about 
$481,000),  with  a  resultant  income  of  £5876  (about 
$29,000)  per  year  (Fonseca,  p.  69).  On  the  expulsion 
of  the  religious  orders  in  1835,  their  property,  with  an 
aggregate  value  of  £122,566  (about  $610,000).  was 
appropriated  bv  the  government,  while  the  number  of 
religious  expelled  was  248.  Their  missions  were 
transferred  to  the  secular  clergy,  who  received  some 
portion  of  the  confiscated  funds  for  their  support. 


ECCLESIASTICAI.  REMAIN'S 

OF 
ANCIENT  GOA 


Lu 


Cruz  dos  Mflagres,  built  after  1619;  Nossa  Senhora  da 
Luz.  built  before  1543 ;  new  college  and  church  of  St. 
Paiu  (alias  convent  of  St.  Roch)  used  as  a  college  in 
1610,  church  rebuilt  later.  From  the  church  ofOur 
Lady  of  the  Mount,  on  the  eastern  hill,  which  is  still 
in  repair,  a  magnificent  panorama  is  obtained. 

Besides  these  convents  and  churches,  there  were 
others  attached  to  the  Royal  Hospital,  the  Santa  Casa 
de  Misericordia,  the  retreats  of  N.  S.  de  Serra  and 
Santa  Maria  Magdalena,  the  hospital  of  St.  Lazarus, 
the  hospital  of  All  Saints,  etc.,  to  say  nothing  of  a  long 
list  of  cnurches  and  chapels  in  the  suburbs. 

The  Inquisition,  whicn  was  introduced  into  Goa  in 
1560,  pos^ssed  a  majestic  buildine  in  the  great  square 
close  to  the  cathedral.  The  staff  (Dominicans)  con- 
sisted originally  of  three  principal  officials.  In  1565 
there  were  five,  whose  joint  salaries  amounted  only  to 
about  $355  per  annum.  In  1682  their  number  was 
raised  to  thirty-two,  in  1800  it  had  increased  to  forty- 
seven.  This  institution,  which  had  been  once  dis- 
banded in  1774  and  restored  a^in  in  1779,  was  finally 
abolished  in  1812.  The  decaying  building  was  pulled 
down  in  1820,  and  at  present  only  the  site  is  preserved. 

From  a  government  list  drawn  up  in  1804^  we  learn 
the  number  of  convents  and  regulars  existmg  under 
the  Portuguese  at  that  time.  There  were  3  convents 
of  Observantine  Franciscans,  with  63  inmates;  7  of 
Reformed  Franciscans,  with  72  inmates ;  10  of  Dbmini- 


According  to  the  budget  of  1873-74  the  state  contribu- 
tion to  the  maintenance  of  1 10  missionaries  was  £2145, 
whQe  the  total  ecclesiastical  expenditure  for  the  same 
year  was  £4955  (Fonseca,  p.  70) .  These  figures  include 
the  suffragan  dioceses.  In  1908  the  total  govern- 
ment expenditure  amounted,  it  is  said,  to  over  £16,000. 
Present  CoNDmoN  of  the  Archdiocese. — In  ac- 
cordance with  the  concordat  of  1886  (with  subsequent 
adjustments)  the  Archdiocese  of  Goa  comprises  the 
whole  of  the  Portuguese  territory  of  Goa,  and  in  Brit- 
ish territory  the  three  districts  of  North  Canara. 
Savantwadi,  and  Belgium,  besides  one  exempted 
church  in  Poona.  The  Archbishop  of  Groa  is  metropol- 
itan over  a  province  comprising  the  three  suffragan 
Sees  of  Cochm,  Mylapore,  and  Damfto  in  India;  Macao 
in  China,  ana  Mozambique  in  East  Africa.  The 
Portuguese  territories  dbnsist  of  the  Velhas  Conquis- 
tas  (Imas,  Bardez,  Salsette)  and  the  Novas  Conquis- 
tas.  North  Canara  is  under  a  vicar-general,  and 
Belgaum,  Poona,  and  the  native  State  of  Savantwadi, 
etc.,  are  under  another  called  the  Vicax^General  of  the 
Ghauts.  The  patriarchal  residence  is  at  Panjun,  or 
New  Goa.  There  is  an  episcopal  seminary  at  Kachol 
containing  at  present  about  534  students,  of  whom  82 
are  in  the  course  of  theology.  There  is  aJso  a  smaller 
seminsury  at  Mapuca.  The  total  number  of  priests 
belonging  to  the  archdiocese  is  about  724,  of  whom 
four  (at  Belgaum)  belong  to  the  Jesuit  Order,  the  rest. 


' 


GOD 


608 


GOD 


nenses",  loet  annals  of  the  twelfth  oentuiy  which  had 
been  looked  upon  as  an  authority  in  its  particular 
field.  Another  work  of  Gobelinus  was  his ' '  vita  Mein- 
ulphi",  a  biography  of  St.  Meinolf ,  a  canon  of  the  cathe- 
dnJ  chapter  of  Faderbom  in  the  first  half  of  the  ninth 
century,  and  the  founder  of  the  Boddeken  monastery. 
The  Cosmidromius  of  Gobelinus  was  first  published  by 
Meibom  (Frankfort,  1599)  in  the  "Scriptores  rerum 
Germanicanim";  Max  Jansen  prepared  a  new  edition 
(Manster,  1900).  The* 'Vita  Meinulphi"  may  be  found 
in  the  "Acta  SS."  of  the  BoUandists,  Oct.,  Ill,  216  sqq. 

RouBNRRANS,  Gobdinua  Peraona,  em  btographiacher  Venv^k 
in  ZeiUchr.  fUr  weatf&liache  Oeschichte  und  Altertumakunde,  VJ 
OUanster,  1843),  1-36:  Batbr,  Oobdinus  Pera&na,  Part  I: 
Ltben  und  Zeitalter  Oobelina  (Leipsig,  1874);  Haqbmann, 
Ueber  die  Qudlen  dw  Ochdinua  Penona,  Part  I  VSoden,  1874); 
GdBBL,  W^ihebn  von  Ravenaburg  und  Owdinua  Persona  (Biele- 
feld, 1877);  ScHCFTBR-BoiCHOiurr,  AnnaUa  PatKerbrunnenaes 
(iDnsbniek,  1870);  Jansbn,  Daa  Todeajahr  dea  Oobdinua  Per- 
aona in  Htatoriachea  Jahrbuch  (1902),  76-80;  LdrrLBR,  Oobd- 
inua Paraona  Vita  Meinulphi  (ibid.,  1904),  190-192. 

J.  P.  ElBSCH. 

Ood  (A.S.  God;  Germ.  GoU;  akin  to  Persian  khoda; 
Hindu  khooda),  ^1)  the  proper  name  of  the  one  Su- 
preme and  Innnite  Personal  Being,  the  Creator  and 
Ruler  of  the  universe,  to  whom  man  owes  obedience 
and  worship;  (2)  the  common  or  generic  name  of  the* 
several  supposed  beings  to  whom,  in  polvtheistic 
religions.  Divine  attributes  are  ascribed  and  Divine 
worship  rendered;  (3)  the  name  sometimes  applied  to 
an  idol  as  the  imaee  or  dwelling-place  of  a  goo.  The 
root-meaning  of  the  name  (from  Gothic  root  gheu; 
Skt.  hU  or  hUf  "to  invoke  or  to  sacrifice  to")  is  either 
**  the  one  invoked"  or  "the  one  sacrificed  to"  (see Mur- 
ray, "New  Diet,  of  the  Engl.[L£m^;uage",  s.  v.).  From 
different  Indo-Germanic  roots  (dtv,  "to  shine",  "give 
light":  thea  in  thessasthaif  "to  implore")  come  the 
Indo-Iranian  deva,  SkU  dyaua  (gen.  divas),  Lat.  deus, 
Gr.  Ot&t,  Irish  and  Gaelic,  dia,  all  of  which  are  generic 
names;  also  Gr.  Zedt  (gen.  A/of),  Lat.  Jupiter  (/<w- 
poler).  Old  Teut.  Tin  or  Tiw  (surviving  in  Tuesday), 
Lat.  Janus.  Diana,  and  other  proper  names  of  pagan 
deities.  Tne  common  name  most  widely  used  in 
Semitic  occurjs  as  'el  in  Hebr.,  't7u  in  Babylonian, 
*ilah  in  Arabic,  etc.;  and  though  scholars  are  not 
agreed  on  the  point,  the  root-meaning  most  probably 
is  "  the  strong  or  mightyone". 

Scope  and  Plan  of  Treatment. — For  ethnic  con- 
ceptions of  Deity  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article 
under  that  title.  The  present  article  is  concerned 
exclusively  with  the  God  (I)  of  monotheistic  philoso- 
phy and  (II)  of  Old-  and  New-Testament  theology, 
1.  e.  with  the  one  true  God  as  He  can  be  known  by  the 
light  of  unaided  reason  and  as  He  is  actually  known, 
mfich  more  perfectly  than  reason  could  know  Him. 
bv  His  free  revelation  of  Himself  in  the  Jewish  ana 
Cnristian  religions.  It  is  necessary  up  to  a  certain 
point  to  oblserve  the  distinction  here  implied  between 
philosophical  and  theological  Theism — between  the 
God  of  reason  and  of  Revelation.  For  it  is  clear  that, 
if  the  acceptance  of  Christianity  is  to  be  justified  as  a 
reasonable  act  of  faith,  the  human  mmd  must  be 
capable  of  knowing  naturally  that  a  God  exists  who 
is  tree  to  reveal  Himself  supematurally,  in  such  wise 
that  men  may  be  rationally  certain  that  He  has  done 
80  through  the  ministry  of  Jesus  Christ.  In  other 
words  philosophical  Theism  as  such  ought  to  furnish 
the  rational  data  which  are  implied  in  tne  possibility 
of  revelation  and  the  credibility  of  the  Christian  sys- 
tem; but  more  than  this  it  need  not  undertake  to  do. 
Now  all  these  data-in  so  far  as  they  relate  strictly  to 
Theism — are  contained  in  the  comprehensive  trutn  of 
the  self-existence  of  a  free  and  intelli^nt  First  Cause 
and  Moral  Ruler,  a  personal  God,  distinct  from  but 
immanent  in  the  universe,  which  is  subiect  to  His 
infinite  power  and  wisdom;  and  we  shall,  therefore, 
confine  our  strictly  philosophical  treatment  of  the  sub- 
ject to  the  discussion  of  this  fundamental  truth.  A 
good  deal  more  than  this  is  usually  included  in  the 


systematic  philosophy  of  Theism  as  developed  by 
Christian,  and  more  especially  by  Catholic,  writers, 
but  in  accordance  with  our  present  scope,  which  is 
theological  as  well  as  philosophical,  it  will  be  more  con- 
venient to  adopt  the  combined  viewpoint  of  philoso- 
pher and  theolodan  in  treating  many  questions  which 
might  be  treatea  separately  from  either  point  of  view. 
In  doine  so,  moreover,  we  are  but  following  the  line 
alone  which  theistic  dobtrine  has  been  developed.  It 
is  a  fact  that  no  adequate  system  of  rational  Theism 
and  of  natural  religion  has  ever  been  developed  and 
maintained  independently  of  Revelation,  and  it  would 
be  a  mistake  to  infer  from  the  admitted  capacity  of 
the  human  mind  to  airive  at  a  true  knowledge  of  God 
as  the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  the  universe  that  the  sys- 
tematic Theism  of  Christian  philosophers  is  de  fado  the 
product  of  unaided  reason.  It  is  legitimate  for  the 
philosopher,  while  retaining  the  strict^  rationid  view- 
point, to  improve  and  penect  his  philosophy  in  the 
reflected  light  of  Revelation,  and  Christian  philoso- 
phers have  used  this  advantage  freely. 

I.  The  God  op  Philobophy. — ^A.  Existence  of  God, 
—(1)  The  Problem  stated.— Had  the  Theist  merely  to 
face  a  blank  Atheistic  denial  of  God's  existence  hia 
task  would  be  comparatively  a  light  one.    Formal 
dogmatic  Atheism  is  self-refuting,  and  has  never  de 
facto  won  the  reasoned  assent  of  any  considerable 
number  of  men  (see  Atheism).    Nor  can  Polytheism 
(q.  V.},  however  easily  it  may  take  hold  of  the  popular 
imagination,  ever  satisfy  the  mind  of  a  philosopher. 
But  there  are  several  varieties  of  what  may  be  de- 
scribed as  virtual  Atheism  which  cannot  be  dismissed 
BO  summarily.    There  is  the  aenosticism,  for  instance, 
of  Herbert  Spencer,  which,  while  admitting  the  rational 
necessity  of  postulating  the  Absolute  or  Unconditioned 
behind  the  relative  and  conditioned  objects  cd  our 
knowledge,  declares  that  Absolute  to  be  altogether 
unknowable,  to  be  in  fact  the  Unknowable,  about 
which  without  being  guilty  of  contradiction  we  can 
predicate  nothing  at  all,  except  perhaps  that  It  exists; 
and  there  are  other  types  of  Agnosticism  (q.  v.) .   Then 
again  there  is  Pantheism  (q.  v.)  in  an  almost  endless 
variety  of  forms,  all  of  whichj  however,  may  be  logically 
reduced  to  the  three  followmg  types:   (a;  the  purely 
materialistic,  which,  making  matter  the  only  reality, 
would  explain  life  by  mechanics  and  chemistry,  reduce 
abstract  thought  to  the  level  of  an  organic  process, 
deny  any  higher  ultimate  moral  value  to  tne  Ten 
Commandments  than  to  Newton's  law  of  eravitation, 
and,  fihally,  identify  God  Himself  with  the  universe 
thus  interpreted  (see  Materialism;   Monism);    (b) 
the  purely  idealistic,  which,  choosine  the  contrary 
alternative,  would  make  mind  the  only  reality,  con- 
vert the  material  universe  into  an  idea,  and  identify 
God  with  this  all-embracing  mind  or  idea,  conceived  as 
eternally  evolving  itself  into  passing  phases  or  ex- 
pressions of  being  and  attaining  self-eonsciousness  in 
the  souls  of  men;  and  (c)  the  combined  materialistic- 
idealistic,  which  tries  to  steer  a  middle  course  and, 
without  sacrificing  mind  to  matter  or  matter  to  mind, 
would  conceive  the  existing  universe,  with  which  God 
is  identified,  as  some  sort  of  "douole-faced"  sinsle 
entity.    Thus  to  accomplish  even  the  beginning  of  his 
task  the  Theist  has  to  show,  against  Agnostics,  that 
the  knowledge  of  God  attainable  by  rational  inference, 
however  inadequate  and  imperfect  it  may  be^  is  as 
true  and  valid,  as  far  as  it  goes,  as  any  other  piece  of 
knowledge  we  possess;  and  against  Pantheists  that 
the  God  of  reason  is  a  supra-mundane  personal  God 
distinct  both  from  matter  and  from  the  finite  human 
mind — that  neither  we  ourselves  nor  the  earth  we 
tread  upon  enter  into  the  constitution  of  His  bein^. 

But  passing  from  views  that  are  formally  anti- 
Theistic,  it  is  found  that  among  Theists  themselves 
certain  aifTerences  exist  which  tend  to  complicate  the 
problem,  and  increase  the  difiSculty  of  stating  it 
briefly  and  clearly. 


QOD  609  GOD 

Some  of  these  differences  are  merely  formal  and  g^mids.  But  an  appeal  to  experience,  not  to  men- 
accidental  and  do  not  affect  the  substance  of  the  tion  oUier  objections,  is  sufficient  to  negative  the  first 
theistic  thesis,  but  others  are  of  substantial  im-  proposition;  and  the  second,  which,  as  history  has 
portance,  as,  for  instance,  whether  we  can  validly  already  made  clear,  is  an  ^logical  compromise  with 
establish  the  truth  of  God's  existence  by  the  same  Agnosticism,  is  best  refuted  by  a  simple  statement  of 
kind  of  rational  inference  (e.  g.  from  effect  to  cause)  the  theistic  proofs.  It  is  not  the  proofs  that  are 
as  we  employ  in  other  departments  of  knowledge,  found  to  be  fallacious  but  the  criticism  which  rejects 
or  whether,  m  order  to  justify  our  belief  in  this  them.  It  is  true  of  course — ^and  no  Theist  denies  it — 
truth,  we  must  not  rather  rSy  on  some  transcendental  that  for  the  proper  intellectual  appreciation  of  theistic 
principle  or  axiom,  superior  and  antecedent  to  dia-  proofs  moral  dispositions  are  reqmred,  and  that  moral 
lectical  reasoning;  or  on  immediate  intuition;  or  on  conscioiisness,  the  aesthetic  faculty,  and  whatever 
some  moral,  sentimental,  emotional,  or  aesthetic  in-  other  powers  or  capacities  belong  to  man's  spiritual 
stinct  or  perception,  which  is  voluntary  rather  than  nature,  constitute  or  supply  so  many  data  on  which  to 
intellectual.  Kant  denied  in  the  name  of  ''  pure  rear  base  inferential  proofs.  But  this  is  very  different  from 
son"  the  inferential  validity  of  the  classical  theistic  holding  that  we  possess  any  facult^r  or  power  which 
proofs,  while  in  the  name  of  "practical  reason"  he  assures  us  of  God^s  existence  and  which  is  independent 
postulated  God's  existence  as  an  implicate  of  the  of,  and  superior  to.  the  intellectual  laws  that  regulate 
moral  law;  and  Kant's  method  has  been  followed  or  our  assent  to  trutn  in  general;  that  in  ^e  religious 
imitated  by  many  Theists — by  some  who  fully  agree  sphere  we  can  transcend  those  laws  without  confessing 
with  him  m  reiecting  the  classical  arguments;  by  our  belief  in  God  to  be  irrational.  It  is  also  true  that 
others,  who,  without  going  so  far,  believe  in  the  apolo-  a  mere  barren  intellectual  assent  to  the  truth  of  God's 
getical  expediency  of  trying  to  persuade  rather  than  existence — and  such  an  assent  is  conceivable — falls 
convince  men  to  be  Theists.  A  moderate  reaction  very  far  short  of  what  religious  assent  ought  to  be; 
against  the  too  rigidly  mathematical  intellectualism  that  what  is  taught  in  revealed  religion  about  the 
ox  Descartes  was  to  be  welcomed,  but  the  Kantian  worthlessness  of  faith  uninformed  by  charity  has  its 
reaction  by  its  excesses  has  injured  the  cause  of  Theism  counterpart  in  natural  religion;  and  that  practi^ 
and  helped  forward  the  cause  of  anti-theistic  philos-  Theism,  if  it  pretends  to  be  adequate,  must  appeal  not 
ophy.  Herbert  Spencer,  as  is  well  known,  bor-  merely  to  the  intellect  but  to  the  heart  and  conscience 
rowed  most  of  his  arguments  for  Agnosticism  from  of  mankind  and  be  capable  of  winning  the  total  alle- 
Hamilton  and  Mansel,  who  had  popularized  Kantian  giance  of  rational  creatures.  But  here  again  we  meet 
criticism  in  England  ;  while  in  trymg  to  improve  on  with  exaggeration  and  confusion  on  the  part  of  those 
Kant's  reconstructive  transcendentauism  his  German  Theists  wnqo  would  substitute  for  intellectual  assent 
disciples  (Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel)  drifted  into  Pan-  something  that  does  not  exclude  but  presupposes  it, 
theism.  Kant  also  helped  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  and  is  only  required  to  complement  it.  The  truth  and 
total  disparagement  of  human  reason  in  relation  to  pertinency  of  these  observations  will  be  made  clear  by 
religious  truth,  which  constitutes  the  negative  pvle  of  the  following  summary  of  the  classical  arguments  for 
Traditionalism  (q .  v.),  while  the  appeal  of  that  system  God's  existence. 

on  the  positive  side  to  the  common  consent  and  tra-        (2)  Theistic  Proofs. — The  arguments  for  God's  ex- 

dition  of  mankind  as  the  chief  or  sole  criterion  of  istence  are  variously  classified  and  entitled  by  different 

truth  and  more  especially  of  relimous  truth — ^its  author-  writers,  but  all  agree  in  recognizing  the  distinction 

ity  as  a  criterion  being  traced  ultimately  to  a  positive  between  a  priori,  or  deductive,  and  a  posteriori,  or  in- 

Divine  revelation — is,  like  Kant's  refuge  in  practical  ductive.  reasoning  in  this  connexion.    And  whfle  all 

reason,  merely  an  illoacal  attempt  to  escape  from  admit  tne  validity  and  sufficiency  of  the  latter  method, 

Agnosticism.    Again,  though  Ontologism  (q.  v.),  e.  g.  opinion  is  divided  in  re^rd  to  the  former.    Some 

that  of  Malebranche  (d.  1715),  is  older  than  Kant,  its  maintain  that  a  valid  a  pnori  proof  (usuallv  called  the 

revival  in  the  nineteenth  century  (by  Gioberti,  Ros-  ontological)  is  available;   others  deny  tnis  in  toto; 

mini,  and  others)  has  been  inspired  to  some  extent  by  while  some  others  maintain  an  attitude  of  compromise 

Kantian  influences.    This  system  maintains  that  we  or  neutrality.    This  difference,  it  should  be  observed. 

applies  only  to  the  Question  of  proving  God's  actual 
existence,  for,  His  self-existence  being  admitted,  it  is 


have  naturally  some  immeaiate  consciousness,  how- 
ever dim  at  first,  or  some  intuitive  knowledge  of  God 
— not  indeed  that  we  see  Him  in  His  essence  face  to    necessary  to  employ  a  priori  or  deductive  inference  in 


face,  but  that  we  know  Him  in  His  relation  to  crea-  order  to  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  His  nature  and  attri- 

tures  by  the  same  act  of  cognition,  according  to  Ros-  butes;  and  as  it  is  impossible  to  develop  the  argu- 

mini,  as  we  become  conscious  of  being  in  jgeneral,  and  ments  for  His  existence  without  some  working  notion 

therefore  that  the  truth  of  His  existence  is  as  much  a  of  His  nature,  it  is  necessary  to  some  extent  to  antici- 

datum  of  philosophy  as  is  the  abstract  idea  of  being,  pate  the  deductive  sta^  and  combine  the  a  priori  with 

Finally,  the  philosophy  of  Modernism  (3.  v.),  about  the  a  posteriori  method.    But  no  strictly  a  priori  con- 

which  there  has  recently  been  such  a  stir,  is  a  some-  elusion  need  be  more  than  hypothetically  assumed  at 

what  complex  medley  of  these  various  systems  and  this  sta^. 

tendencies;  its  main  features  as  a  system  are,  nega-        (a)  A  Posteriori  Proofs. — St,  Thomas  (I,  Q.  ii,  a.  3; 

tively,  a  thoroughgoing  intellectual  Agnosticism,  and,  Cont.  Gent.,  I,  xiii)  and  after  him  many  scholastic 

positively,  the  assertion  of  an  immediate  sense  or  writers  advance  the  five  foUowinjg  arguments  to  prove 

experience  of  God  as  immanent  in  the  life  of  the  soul —  the  existence  of  God.    (i)  Motion,  i.  e.  the  passing 

an  experience  which  is  at  first  only  subconscious,  but  from  power  to  act,  as  it  takes  place  in  the  universe, 

which,  when  the  requisite  moral  dispositions  are  pres-  impUes  a  first  unmoved  Mover  (primum  movens  immo- 

ent,  becomes  an  object  of  conscious  certainty.  &iZe),  who  is  God ;  else  we  should  postulate  an  infinite 

Now  all  these  vai^ng  types  of  Theism,  in  so  far  as  series  of  movers,  which  is  inconceivable,    (ii)  For  the 

they  are  opposed  to  the  classical  and  traaitional  type,  same  reason  efficient  causes,  as  we  see  them  operating 

may  be  rcKUiced  to  one  or  other  of  the  two  following  in  this  world,  imply  the  existence  of  a  First  Cause  that 

propositions:  (a)  that  we  have  naturally  an  immedi-  is  uncaus^,  i.  e.  that  possesses  in  itself  the  sufficient 

ate  consciousness  or  intuition  of  God's  existence  and  reason  for  its  existence;  and  this  is  God.    (iii)  The 

may  therefore  dispense  with  any  attempt  to  prove  fact  that  contingent  beings  exist,  i.  e.  beings  whose 

this  truth  inferentially;  (b)  that,  though  we  do  not  non-existence  is  recogniz^  as  possible,  implies  ^e 

know  this  truth  intuitively  and  cannot  prove  it  infer-  existence  of  a  necessary  being,  who  is  God.     (iv)  The 

entially  in  such  a  way  as  to  satisfy  the  speculative  graduated  perfections  of  being  actually  existing  in  the 

reason,  we  can^  nevertheless,  and  must  conscien-  universe  can  be  understood  only  by  comparison  with 

tiously  believe  it  on  other  than  strictly  intellectual  an  absolute  standard  that  is  also  actual,  i.  e.  an  in- 
YIr-39 


OOD                                    610  OOD 

finitely  perfect  Being  such  as  God.    (v)  The  wonder-  "Unknown",  or  the  "Absolute'*,  or  the  "Uncon- 

ful  order  or  evidence  of  intelligent  design  which  the  scious",  or  "Matter"  itself,  or  the  "Ego",  or  the 

universe  exhibits  implies  the  existence  of  a  supra-  "Idea"  of  being,  or  the  "Will";  these  are  so  many 

mundane  Designer,  who  is  no  other  than  God  Him-  substitutes  for  the  uncaused  cause  or  self-existent 

self.    To  these  many  Theists  add  other  arguments,  being  of  Theism.    What  anti-Theists  refuse  to  admit 

drawn,  e.  g.  (vi)  from  the  common  consent  of  man-  is  not  the  existence  of  a  First  Cause  in  an  indetermi- 

kind  (usually  described  by  Catholic  writers  as  the  nate  sense,  but  the  existence  of  an  intelligent  and  free 

moral  argument),  (vii)  from  the  internal  witness  of  First  Cause,  a  personal  God,  distinct  from  the  material 

conscience  to  the  supremacy  of  the  moral  law,  and,  imiverse  and  the  human  mind.    But  the  very  same 

therefore,  to  the  existence  of  a  supreme  Lawgiver  (this  reason  that  compds  us  to  nostulate  a  First  Cause  at 

may  be  (»dled  tiie  ethiccd  argument,  or  (viii)  from  the  all  requires  that  this  cause  should  be  a  free  and  intelli- 

existence  and  perception  of  beauty  in  the  imiverse  gent  being.    The  spiritual  world  of  intellect  and  free 

(the  oestheHcal  argiunent).    One  might  00  on,  indeed,  will  must  oe  recognized  by  the  sane  philosopher  to  be 

almost  indefinitely  multiplying  and  distinguishing  asrealas  the  world  of  matter;  man  knows  that  he  has 

argiunents;  but  to  do  so  would  onlv  lead  to  confusion,  a  spiritual  nature  and  performs  spiritual  acts  as 

Tlie  various  arguments  mentioned — and  the  same  is  clearly  and  as  certainly  as  he  knows  that  he  has  eyes 

true  of  others  that  mi^t  be  added — are  not  in  reality  to  see  with  and  ears  to  near  with ;  and  the  phenomena 

distmct  and  independent  arguments,  but  only  so  of  man's  spiritual  nature  can  only  be  explained  in  one 

many  partial  statements  of  one  and  the  same  general  way — by  attributing  spirituality,  i.  e.  intelligence  and 

argument,  which  is  perhaps  best  described  as  the  free  will,  to  the  First  Cause,  in  other  words  oy  recog- 

cosmological.    This  argument  assumes  the  validity  of  nising  a  personal  God.    For  the  cause  in  ail  cases 

the  principle  of  causality  or  sufficient  reason  and,  must  be  proportionate  to  the  effect,  i.  e.  must  contain 

stated  in  its  most  comprehensive  form,  amounts  to  somehow  in  itself  every  perfection  of  being  that  is 

this:   that  it  is  impossible  according  to  the  laws  of  realized  in  the  effect. 

human  thought  to  give  any  ultimate  rational  explana-  The  cogency  of  this  argument  becomes  more  appar- 

tion  of  the  phenomena  of  external  experience  and  of  ent  if  account  be  taken  of  the  fact,  recognized  by 

internal  consciousness — in  other  words  to  S3mthesize  modem  scientists,  that  the  human  species  had  its  orimn 

the  data  which  the  actual  universe  as  a  whole  supplies  at  a  comparatively  late  period  in  the  history  of  tne 

(and  this  is  the  recognized  aim  of  philosophy) — unless  actual  universe.    There  was  a  time  when  neither 

by  admitting  Uie  existence'  of  a  self-sumcient  and  man  nor  anv  other  living  thing  inhabited  this  globe 

sdf-explanatory  cause  or  ground  of  being  and  activity,  of  ours ;  and  without  pressing  the  point  regarding  the 

to  which  all  these  phenomena  may  be  ultimately  re-  origin  of  life  itself  from  Inanimate  matter  or  the  evolu- 

ferred.    It  is,  therefore,  mainly  a  question  of  method  tion  qi  man's  body  from  lower ^oreanic  t3rpes,  it  may 

and  expediency  what  particular  pomts  one  may  select  be  maintained  with  absolute  (»nndence  that  no  ex- 

from  me  multitude  available  to  illustrate  and  enforce  planation  of  the  origin  of  man's  soul  can  be  made  out 

the  general  a  posteriori  argument.    For  our  purpose  on  evolutionary  lines,  and  that  recourse  must  be  had 

it  wm  suffice  to  state  as  briefly  as  possible  (i)  uie  gen-  to  the  creative  power  of  a  spiritual  or  personal  First 

eral  argument  proving  the  self-existence  of  a  First  Cause.    It  might  also  be  urged,  as  an  inference  from 

Cause,  (ii)  the  special  arguments  proving  the  existence  the  physical  theories  commonly  accepted  by  present- 

of  an  intelligent  Designer  and  (iii)  of  a  Supreme  Moral  day  scientists,  that  the  actual  organization  of  the 

Ruler,  and  (iv)  the  confirmatory  argument  from  the  material  imiverse  had  a  definite  beginning  in  time, 

general  consent  of  mankind .  If  it  be  tr^e  that  the  goal  towards  which  physical  evolu- 

(i)  We  must  start  by  assuming  the  objective  cer-  tion  is  tending  is  the  uniform  distribution  of  heat  and 

tainty  and  validity  of  the  principle  of  causality  or  other  forms  of  energy,  it  would  follow  clearly  that  the 

sufficient  reason — ^an  assumption  upon,  which  the  existing  process  has  not  been  going  on  from  eternity : 

value  of  the  physical  sciences  and  of  human  knowledge  eke  the  goal  would  have  been  reached  lon^  ago.    Ana 

generally  is  based.    To  question  its  objective  cer-  if  the  process  had  a  beginning  how  did  it  originate? 

tainty,  as  did  Kant,  and  represent  it  as  a  mere  mental  If  the  primal  mass  was  inert  and  uniform,  it  is  im- 

a  priori,  or  possessing  only  subjective  validity,  would  possible  to  conceive  how  motion  and  differentiation 

open  the  door  to  subjectivism  and  universal  scepticism,  were  introduced  except  from  without,  while  if  these 

It  is  impossible  to  prove  the  principle  of  causahty,  just  are  held  to  be  coeval  with  matter,  the  cosmic  process, 

as  it  is  impossible  to  prove  the  prmciple  of  contradic-  which  ex  hypothesi  is  temporal,  would  be  eternal, 

tion;  but  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  if  the  former  is  unless  it  be  granted  that  matter  itself  had  a  definite 

denied  the  latter  may  ^dso  be  denied  and  the  whole  be^nning  in  time. 

process  of  human  reasoning  declared  fallacious.  The  But  the  argument,  strictly  speaking,  is  conclusive 
principle  states  that  whatever  exists  or  happens  must  even  if  it  be  granted  that  the  world  may  have  existed 
nave  a  sufficient  reason  for  its  existence  or  occurrence  from  etemitv,  in  the  sense,  that  is,  that,  no  matter 
either  in  itself  or  in  something  else;  in  other  words  how  far  back  one  may  go,  no  point  of  time  can  be 
that  whatever  does  not  exist  of  absolute  necessity —  reached  at  which  created  being  was  not  already  in 
whatever  is  not  self-existent — cannot  exist  without  a  existence.  In  this  sense  Aristotle  held  matter  to  be 
proportionate  cause  external  to  itself;  and  if  this  eternal  and  St.  Thomas,  while  denying  the  fact,  ad- 
principle  is  valid  when  employed  by  the  scientist  to  mitted  the  possibility  of  its  being  so.  But  such 
explam  the  phenomena  of  physics  it  must  be  equally  relative  eternity  is  nothing  more  in  reality  than  in- 
valid when  employed  by  the  philosopher  for  the  ulti-  finite  or  indefimte  temporafduration  and  is  altogether 
mate  explanation  of  the  universe  as  a  whole.  In  the  different  from  the  eternity  we  attribute  to  God.  Hence 
imiverse  we  observe  that  certain  things  are  effects,  to  admit  that  the  world  might  possibly  be  eternal  in 
i.  e.  they  depend  for  their  existence  on  other  things,  this  sense  implies  no  denial  of  the  essentially  finite 
and  these  again  on  others ;  but,  however  far  back  we  and  contingent  character  of  its  existence.  On  the 
may  extend  this  series  of  effects  and  dependent  causes,  contrary  it  helps  to  emphasize  this  truth,  for  the  same 
we  must,  if  human  reason  is  to  be  satisfied,  come  ulti-  relation  of  dependence  upon  a  self-existing  cause  which 
mately  to  a  cause  that  is  not  itself  an  effect,  in  other  is  implied  in  the  contingency  of  any  single  being  is 
words  to  an  uncaused  cause  or  self-existent  being  implied  a  fortiori  in  the  existence  of  an  infinite  series 
which  is  the  ground  and  cause  of  all  being.  And  this  of  such  beingps,  supposing  such  a  series  to  be  possible, 
conclusion,  as  thus  stated,  is  virtually  admitted  by  Nor  can  it  be  maintained  with  Pantheists  that  the 
Agnostics  and  Pantheists,  all  of  whom  are  obliged  to  world,  whether  of  matter  or  of  mind  or  of  both,  con- 
speak  of  an  eternal  something  underlying  the  phe-  tains  within  itself  the  sufficient  reason  of  its  own 
nomenal  imiverse,  whetN^^  this  something  be  the  existence.    A  self-existing  world  would  exist  of  ab- 


GOD 


611 


OOD 


solute  necessity  and  would  be  infinite  in  every  kind  of 
perfection;  but  of  nothing  are  we  more  certain  than 
that  the  world  as  we  know  it,  in  its  totality  as  well  as 
in  its  parts,  realizes  only  finite  degrees  of  perfection. 
It  is  a  mere  contradiction  in  terms,  however  much  one 
may  tr3r  to  cover  up  and  conceal  the  contradiction  bv 
an  ambi^ous  and  confusing  use  of  language,  to  pred- 
icate infinity  of  matter  or  of  the  human  mind,  and 
one  or  the  other  or  both  must  be  held  by  the  Pantheist 
to  be  infinite.  In  other  words  the  distinction  between 
the  finite  and  the  infinite  must  be  abolished  and 
the  principle  of  contradiction  denied.  This  criticism 
appues  to  every  variety  of  Pantheism  strictly  so  called, 
whHe  crude,  materialistic  Pantheism  involves  so  many 
additional  and  more  obvious  absurdities  that  hardly 
any  philosopher  deserving  of  the  name  will  be  founa 
to  maintain  it  in  our  day.  On  the  other  hand,  as  re- 
gards idealistic  Pantheism,  which  enjoys  a  consider- 
able vogue  in  our  day,  it  is  to  be  observed  in  the  first 
place  that  in  many  cases  ^his  is  a  tendency  rather  than 
a  formal  doctrine,  that  it  Is  in  fact  nothing  more  than  a 
confused  and  perverted  form  of  Theism,  based  es- 

SMsially  upon  an  exaggerated  and  one-sided  view  of 
ivine  immanence  (see  below,  iii).    And  this  con- 
fusion works  to  the  advantage  of  Pantheism  by  en- 
abling it  to  make  a  specious  appeal  to  the  very  argu- 
ments  which  justify  Theism.     Indeed   the    whole 
strength  of  the  pantheistic  position  as  against  Atheism 
lies  in  what  it  holds  in  common  with  Theism ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  its  weakness  as  a  world  theory  be- 
comes evident  as  soon  as  it  diverges  from  or  contra- 
dicts Theism.    Whereas  Theism,  for  example,  safe- 
guards such  primary  truths  as  the  reality  of  human 
personaUty,  freedom,  and  moral  responsibility,  Pan- 
theism is  obliged  to  sacrifice  all  these,  to  deny  the 
existence  of  evil,  whether  physical  or  moral,  to  destroy 
the  rational  basis  of  reliaon,  and,  imder  pretence  of 
making  man  his  own  God,  to  rob  him  of  nearly  all  his 
plain,  common-sense  convictions  and  of  all  his  highest 
mcentives  to  good  conduct.    The  philosophy  which 
leads  to  such  results  cannot  but  be  radically  unsound, 
(ii)  The  special  argument  based  on  the  existence  of 
order  or  design  in  the  universe  (also  called  the  teleo- 
loffical  argument)  proves  immediately  the  existence  of 
a  supramundane  mind  of  vast  intelligence,  and  ulti- 
mately the  existence  of  Crod.    This  argument   is 
capable  of  being  developed  at  great  length,  but  it  must 
be  stated  here  very  briefly.    It  has  always  been  a 
favourite  argument  both  with  philosophers  and  with 
popular  apologists  of  Theism;  and  though,  during  the 
earlier  e;ccesses  of  enthusiasm  for  or  a^inst  Darwin- 
ianism,  it  was  often  asserted  or  admitted  that  the 
evolutionary  hypothesis  had  overthrown  the  teleo- 
logical  argument,  it  is  now  recognized  that  the  verv 
opposite  is  true,  and  that  the  evidences  of  design  which 
the  imiverse  exhibits  are  not  less  but  more  impressive 
when  viewed  from  the  evolutionary  standpoint.    To 
begin  with  particular  examples  of  adaptation  which 
may  be  appealed  to  in  countless  number — the  eye,  for 
instance,  as  an  oi^an  of  sight  is  a  conspicuous  em- 
bodiment of  intelugent  purpose — and  not  less  but 
more  so  when  viewed  as  tne  product  of  an  evolution- 
ary process  rather  than  the  immediate  handiwork  of 
the  Creator.    There  is  no  option  in  such  cases  be- 
tween the  hypothesis  of  a  directing  intelligence  and 
that  of  blina  chance,  and  the  absuraity  of  supposing 
that  the  eye  originated  suddenlv  by  a  single  blind 
chance  is  augmented  a  thousand-fold  by  suggesting 
that  it  may  Be  the  product  of  a  progressive  series  of 
such  chances.    "Natural  selection",  "survival  of  the 
fittest'',  and  similar  terms  merely  describe  certain 
phases  in  the  supposed  process  of  evolution  without 
nelping  in  the  least  to  explain  it;  and  as  opposed  to 
teleology  they  mean  nothmg  more  than  blind  chance. 
The  eye  is  only  one  of  the  countless  examples  of 
adaptation  to  particular  ends  discernible  in  every 
part  of  the  umverse,  inorganic  as  well  as  organic; 


for  the  atom  as  well  as  the  cell  contributes  to  the 
evidence  available.  Nor  is  the  argument  weakened 
by  our  inabihty  in  many  cases  to  explain  the  partic- 
ular purpose  of  certain  structures  or  organisms.  Our 
knowledge  of  nature  is  too  limited  to  be  made  the 
measure  of  nature's  entire  design,  while  as  against 
our  ienorance  of  some  particular  purposes  we  are  en- 
titleato  maintain  the  presumption  that  if  intelligence 
is  anywhere  apparent  it  is  dominant  everywhere.  More- 
over, in  our  search  for  particular  instances  of  design 
we  must  not  overlook  the  evidence  supplied  by  the 
harmonious  unity  of  nature  as  a  whole.  The  universe 
as  we  know  it  is  a  cosmos,  a  vastly  complex  system  of 
correlated  and  interdependent  parts,  each  subject  to 

{>articular  laws,  and  all  together  subject  to  a  common 
aw  or  a  combination  of  laws,  as  the  resiilt  of  which  the 
pursuit  of  particular  ends  is  made  to  contribute  in  a 
marvellous  way  to  the  attainment  of  a  common  pur- 
pose; and  it  is  simply  inconceivable  that  this  cosmic 
unity  should  be  the  product  of  chance  or  accident.  If 
It  be  objected  that  tnere  is  another  side  to  the  picturci 
that  the  universe  abounds  in  imperfections — mal-^ 
adjustments,  failures,  seemingly  purposeless  waste — ' 
the  reply  is  not  far  to  seek.  For  it  is  not  maintained 
that  tne  existing  world  is  the  best  possible,  and  it  is 
only  on  the  supposition  of  its  being  so  that  the  imper- 
fections referred  to  would  be  excluded.  Admitting 
without  exaggerating  their  reality — admitting,  that  is, 
the  existence  of  physical  evil — there  still  remains  a 
large  balance  on  the  side  of  order  and  harmony,  and  to 
account  for  this  there  is  required  not  only  an  intelli- 
gent mind  but  one  that  is  good  and  benevolent,  though 
so  far  as  this  special  aigument  goes  this  mind  mi^ 
conceivably  be  finite.  To  prove  the  infinity  of  the 
world's  Designer  it  is  necessary  to  fall  back  on  the 
general  argument  already  explained  and  on  the  de- 
ductive argument  to  be  explained  below  by  which 
infinity  is  inferred  from  sett-existence.  Filially,  by 
way  of  direct  reply  to  the  problem  suggested  by  the 
objection,  it  is  to  be  observed  that,  to  appreciate  fully 
the  evidence  for  design,  we  must,  in  addition  to  partic- 
ular instances  of  adaptation  and  to  the  cosmic  unity 
observable  in  the  world  of  to-day,  consider  the  histon- 
cal  continuity  of  nature  throughout  indefinite  ages  in 
the  past  and  indefinite  ages  to  come.  We  do  not  and 
cannot  comprehend  the  full  scope  of  nature's  design, 
for  it  is  not  a  static  universe  we  have  to  study  but  a 
universe  that  is  progressively  unfolding  itself  and 
moving  towards  the  fulfilment  of  an  ultimate  purpose 
under  the  guidance  of  a  master  mind.  And  towards 
that  purpose  the  imperfect  as  well  as  the  perfect — 
apparent  evil  and  discord  as  well  as  obvious  good 
order — may  contribute  in  ways  which  we  can  but 
dimly  discern.  The  well-balanced  philosopher,  who 
reaUzes  his  own  limitations  in  the  presence  of  nature's 
Designer,  so  far  from  claiming  that  every  detail  of  that 
Desi^er's  purpose  should  at  present  be  plain  to  his 
inferior  intelli^nce,  will  be  content  to  await  the  final 
solution  of  emgmas  which  the  hereafter  promises  to 
furnish. 

(iil)  To  Newman  and  others  the  argument  from 
'^conscience,  or  the  sense  of  moral  responsibility,  has 
seemed  the  most  intimately  persuasive  of  all  the  argu- 
ments for  God's  existence,  while  to  it  alone  Kant 
allowed  an  absolute  value*  But  this  is  not  an  inde- 
pendent argument,  althou^,  properly  understood, 
it  serves  to  emphasize  a  point  in  the  eeneral  a  posteri- 
ori proof  which  is  calculated  to  appeal  with  particular 
foree  to  many  minds.  It  is  not  that  conscience,  as 
such,  contains  a  direct  revelation  or  intuition  of  God 
as  the  author  of  the  moral  law,  but  that,  taking  man's 
sense  of  moral  responsibility  as  a  phenomenon  to  be 
explained,  no  ultimate  explanation  can  be  given  except 
by  supposing  the  existence  of  a  Superior  and  Law- 
giver whom  man  is  boimd  to  obey.  And  just  as  the 
argument  from  design  brings  out  prominently  the 
attribute  of  intelligence,  so  the  argument  from  con* 


OOD  612  OOD 

science  brings  out  the  attribute  of  holiness  in  the  ism''  ("Life  and  Letters  of  Ch.  Darwin",  by  F.  DaPi 

First  Cause  and  self-existent  Personal  Being  with  win,  11,  p.  203).    Substantially  the  same  arguments 

whom  we  must  ultimately  identify  the  Designer  and  as  are  usied  to-dav  were  employed  by  old-time  aoep- 

the  Lawgiver.  tical  Atheists  in  the  effort  to  overthrow  man's  belief 

(iv)  The  confirmatory  argument  based  on  the  con-  in  the  existence  of  the  Divine,  and  tiie  fact  that  this 

sent  of  mankind  may  oe  stated  briefly  as  follows:  belief  has  withsto6d  repeated  assaults  during  so  many 

mankmd,  as  a  whole,  has  at  all  times  and  everywhere  ages  in  the  past  is  the  best  guarantee  of  its  perma- 

believed,  and  continues  to  believe,  in  the  existence  of  nencv  in  the  future.    It  is  too  firmly  implanted  in  the 

some  superior  being  or  beings  on  whom  the  material  depths  of  man's  soul  for  little  surface  storms  to 

worid  and  man  himself  are  dependent,  and  this  fact  uproot  it. 

cannot  be  accounted  for  except  by  admitting  that  this        (b)  A  Priori  or  Ontological  Argument. — ^This  argu- 

belief  is  true,  or  at  least  contains  a  germ  of  truth.    It  ment  undertakes  to  deduce  the  existence  of  God  from 

is  admitted  of  course  that  Polytheism,  Dualism,  Pan-  the  idea  of  Him  as  the  Infinite  which  is  present  to  the 

theism,  and  other  forms  of  error  and  superstition  human  mind ;  but,  as  already  stated,  theistic  philoso- 

have  mingled  with  and  disfigured  this  universal  belief  phers  are  not  Skgceed  as  to  the  logical  validity  of  this 

of  mankind,  but  this  does  not  destroy  the  force  of  the  deduction.    As  stated  ^  St.  Anselm  tJ^e  argument 

argument  we  are  considering.    For  at  least  the  ger-  runs  thus:  The  idea  of  God  as  the  Infinite  means  the 

mmal  truth,  which  consists  in  the  recognition  of  some  greatest  Being  that  can  be  thouj^t  of :   but  unless 

kind  of  deity,  is  common  to  every  form  of  religion,  actual  existence  outside  the  mincTis  included  in  this 

and  can,  therefore,  claim  in  its  support  the  universal  idea  God  would  not  be  the  greatest  conceivable  Being, 

consent  of  mankind.    And  how  can  this  consent  be  since  a  Being  that  exists  both  in  the  mind  as  an  object 

explained  except  as  a  result  of  the  perception  by  the  of  thou^t  and  outside  the  mind  or  objectively  would 

minds  of  men  of  the  evidence  for  the  existence  of  be  greater  than  a  Being  that  exists  in  the  mindonlv; 

deity?    It  is  too  large  a  subject  to  be  entered  upon  therefore  God  exists  not  only  in  the  mind  but  outside 

here — ^the  discussion  of  the  various  theories  that  have  of  it.      Descartes  states  the  argument  in  a  slis^tly 

been  advanced  to  account  in  some  other  way  for  the  different  way  as  follows:  Whatever  is  contained  in  a 

origin  and  universality  of  religion ;  but  it  may  safely  clear  and  distinct  idea  of  a  thing  must  be  predicated 

be  said  that,  abstractmg  from  revelation,  which  n€«d  of  that  thing;   but  a  clear  and  distinct  idea  of  an 

not  be  discussed  at  this  stase,  no  other  theory  will  absolutely  perfect  Being  contains  the  notion  of  actual 

stand  the  test  of  criticism.    And,  assuming  that  this  existence;  therefore,  since  we  have  the  idea  of  an  ab- 

is  the  best  explanation  philosophy  has  to  offer,  it  may  solutely  perfect  Being,  such  a  Being  must  really  exist, 

further  be  maintained  that  this  consent  of  mankind  To  mention  a  third  form  of  statement,  Leibnis  would 

tells  ultimatelv  in  favour  of  Theism.    For  it  is  clear  put  the  argument  thus:  God  is  at  least  possible  since 

from'  history  that  religion  is  liable  to  degenerate,  and  the  concept  of  Him  as  the  Infinite  implies  no  contra- 

has  in  many  instances  degenerated  instead  of  pro-  diction;  but  if  He  is  possible  He  must  exist,  because 

mssing;  and.  even  if  it  be  impossible  to  prove  con-  the  concept  of  Him  mvolves  existence.    In  St.  An- 

dusively  that  Monotheism  was  the  primitive  historical  selm's  own  day  this  arfi;ument  was  objected  to  by 

relieion,  there  is,  nevertheless,  a  good  deal  of  positive  Gaumlo,  who  maintained,  as  a  redtictio  ad  abswrdumf 

evidence  adducible  in  support  of  this  contention,  that  were  it  valid  one  could  prove  by  means  of  it  the 

And,  if  this  be  the  true  r^ing  of  history,  it  is  per-  actual  existence  somewhere  of  an  ideal  island  far 

missible  to  interpret  the  universality  of  religion  as  surpassing  in  riches  and  delists  the  fabled  Isles  of  the 

witnessing  implicitly  to  the  original  truth,  which,  Blessed.    But  this  criticism,  however  smart  it  may 

however  much  obscured  it  may  have  become  in  many  seem,  is  clearly  unsound,  for  it  overiooks  the  fact  that 

cases,  could  never  be  entirely  obliterated.    But,  even  the  argument  is  not  intended  to  apply  to  finite  ideals, 

if  the  history  of  religion  is  to  read  as  a  record  of  pro-  but  only  to  the  strictly  infinite;  and  if  it  is  admitted 

gressive  development,  one  ou^t  in  all  fairness,  in  that  we  possess  a  true  idea  of  the  infinite,  and  that  this 

accordance  with  a  weU-recognized  principle,  to  seek  its  idea  is  not  self-contradictory,  it  does  not  seem  possible 

true  meaning  and  sienificance  not  at  the  lowest  but  at  to  find  any  flaw  in  the  argument.    Actual  existence  is 

the  hidiest  point  of  development;  and  it  cannot  be  certainly  included  in  any  true  concept  of  the  Infinite, 

denied  that  Theism,  in  the  strict  sense,  is  the  ultimate  and  the  person  who  admits  t^at  he  has  a  concept  of  an 

form  which  relieion  naturally  tends  to  assume.  Infinite  Bein^  cannot  deny  that  he  conceives  it  as 

If  there  havebeen,  and  are  to-dav,  atheistic  philoso-  actually  existmg.    But  the  difficulty  is  with  i^eard  to 

phers  who  6ppo6e  the  common  belief  of  mankind,  this  preliminary  admission,  which  if  challenged,  as  it 

uiese  are  comparatively  few  and  their  dissent  only  is  in  fact  challenged  by  Agnostics,  requires  to  be  justi- 

serves  to  empnasize  more  strongly  the  consent  of  fied  by  recurring  to  the  a  posteriori  argument,  i.  e.  to 

normal  humanity.    Their  existence  is  an  abnormality  the  inference  by  way  of  causality  from  contingency  to 

to  be  accounted  lor  as  such  thinj^  usually  are.    Gould  self-existence,  and  thence  by  way  of  deduction  to 

it  be  claimed  on  their  behalf,  individually  or  collec-  infinity.    Hence   the   great  majority  of  scholastic 

tively,  that  in  ability,  education,  character,  or  life  philosophers  have  rejected  the  ontological  argument 

they  excel  the  infinitely  larger  number  of  cultured  as  propounded  by  St.  Anselm  and  Descartes,  nor  as 

men  who  adhere  on  conviction  to  what  the  race  at  large  put  forward  by  Leibniz  does  it  escape  the  difficulty 

has  believed,  then  indeed  it  might  be  admitted  that  that  has  been  stated. 

their   opposition   would   be   somewhat   formidable.         B.  Nature   and  Fundamental   Atiributea  of   God. 

But  no  sudi  claim  can  be  made ;  on  the  contrary,  if  a  — Having   established    by  inductive   inference   the 

comparison  were  called  for,  it  would  be  easy  to  mak^  self-existence  of  a  personal  First  Cause,  distinct  from 

out  an  overwhelming  case  for  the  other  side.    Or  matter  and  from  the  human  mind,  we  now  proceed  by 

again,  if  it  were  true  that  the  progress  of  knowledge  deductive  analysis  to  examine  the  nature  and  attn- 

had  broueht  to  lieht  any  new  and  serious  difficulties  butes  of  this  Beine  to  the  extent  required  by  our 

against  rdigion,  there  would,  especially  in  view  of  the  limited  philosophical  scope.  We  will  treat  accordingly 

modem  vogue  of  Agnosticism,  be  some  reason  for  of  (I)  the  infinity.  (2)  unity  or  unicity,  and  (3)  sim- 

alarm  as  to  the  soundness  of  the  traditional  belief,  plicity  of  God,  adding  (4)  some  remarks  on  Divine 

But  so  far  is  this  from  being  the  case  that  in  the  words  personality. 

of  Professor  Huxley — an  unsuspected  witness — "not        (1)  Infinity  of  God. — (a)  When  we  say  that  God  is 

a  solitary  problem  presents  itself  to  the  philosophical  infinite  we  mean  that  He  is  unlimited  in  every  kind  of 

Theist  at  the  present  day  which  has  not  existed  from  perfection,  or  that  every  conceivable  perfection  be- 

the  time  tJiat  phUosophers  began  to  think  out  the  longs  to  Him  in  the  highest  conceivable  way.    In  a 

logical  grounds  and  the  logical  consequences  of  The-  different  sense  we  sometimes  speak,  for  instance,  of 


OOD                                  613  OOD 

infinite  time  or  space,  meanine  thereby  time  of  such  exduaionU),  These  two  principles  do  not  contradict, 
indefinite  duration  or  space  of  such  indefinite  exten-  but  .only  balance  and  correct  one  another, 
sion  that  we  cannot  assign  any  fixed  limit  to  one  or  the  (ii)  Yet  sometimes  men  are  led  by  a  natural  tend- 
other;  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  confound  ency  to  think  and  speak  of  God  as  if  He  were  a  magni- 
these  two  essentially  different  meanings  of  the  term,  fied  creature,  more  especially  a  magnified  man;  and 
Time  and  space  bein^  made  up  of  parts  in  duration  or  this  is  known  as  antnropomorphism.  Thus  God  is 
extension  are  essentially  finite  by  comparison  with  said  to  see  or  hear,  as  if  He  had  physical  organs,  or  to 
God's  infinity.    Now  we  assert  that  Goa  is  infinitely  be  angry  or  sorry^  as  if  subject  to  human  passions;  and 

Serfect  in  the  sense  explained,  and  that  His  infinity  is  this  penectly  le^timate  and  more  or  less  unavoidable 

educible  from  His  self-existence.    For  a  self-existent  use  of  metaphor  is  often  quite  unfairly  alleged  to  prove 

being,  if  limited  at  aU.  could  be  limited  only  bv  itself;  that  the  strictl>[  Infinite  is  unthinkable  and  unknow- 

to  be  Limited  by  anotner  would  imply  causal  aepend-  able,  and  that  it  is  really  a  finite,  anthropomorphic 

ence  on  that  other,  which  the  ver^r  notion  of  self-  God  that  men  worship.    But  whatever  truth  there 

existence  excludes.    But  the  self-existing  cannot  be  may  be  in  this  char^as  applied  to  Polytheistic  reli- 

conceived  as  limiting  itself,  in  the  sense  of  curtailing  gions,  or  even  to  the  Theistic  beliefs  of  rude  and  uncul- 

its  perfection  of  being,  without  ceasing  to  be  self-exist-  tured  minds,  it  is  untrue  and  unjust  when  directed 

ing.    Whatever  it  is,  it  is  necessarily;  its  own  essence  against  philosophical  Theism.   The  same  reasons  that 

is  the  sole  reason  or  explanation  of  its  existence,  so  justify  and  recommend  the  use  of  metaphorical  lan- 

that  its  manner  of  existence  must  be  as  unchangeable  guage  in  other  connexions  justify  and  recommend  it 

as  its  essence,  and  to  suggest  the  possibility  of  an  in-  here,  but  no  Theist  of  average  intelligence  ever  thinks 

crease  or  diminution  of  perfection  would  be  to  sue-  of  understanding  literally  the  metaphors  he  applies,  or 

gest  the  absurdity  of  a  cnangeable- essence.    It  only  hears  applied  by  others,  to  God,  any  more  than  he 

remains^  then,  to  say  that  whatever  perfection  is  means  to  speak  literally  when  he  calls  a  brave  man  a 

compatible  with  its  essence  is  actually  realized  in  a  lion,  or  a  cunning  one  a  fox. 

self-existing  being;  but  as  there  is  no  conceivable  (ill)  Finally  it  should  be  observed  that,  while  pred- 
perfection  as  such,  i.  e.  no  expression  of  positive  being  icating  pure  perfections  literally  both  of  God  and  of 
as  such,  that  is  not  compatible  with  the  essence  of  the  creatures^  it  is  alwa^rs  understood  that  these  predicates 
self-existent,  it  follows  that  the  self-existent  must  be  are  true  m  an  infinitely  higher  sense  of  God  than  of 
infinite  in  all  perfection.  For  self-existence  itself  is  creatures,  and  that  there  is  no  thought  of  co-ordinating 
absolute  positive  being,  and  positive  beixi^  cannot  or  classifying  God  with  creatures.  This  is  technically 
contradict,  and  cannot  therefore  limit,  positive  being,  expressed  by  saying  that  all  our  knowledge  of  God  is 
(b)  This  general,  and  admittedly  vei^  abstract,  con-  amdoguxd,  and  that  all  predicates  applied  to  God  and 
chusion,  as  well  as  the  reasoning  which  supports  it,  to  creatures  are  used  analogically,  not  univocally  (see 
wiU  be  rendered  more  intelligible  by  a  brief  specific  Analogy).  I  may  look  at  a  portrait  or  at  its  living 
illustration  of  what  it  involves.  original,  and  say  of  either  with  literal  truth:  that  is  a 
(i)  When  in  speaking  of  the  Infinite  we  attribute  beautiful  face.  And  this  is  an  example  of  analogical 
all  conceivable  perfections  to  Him  we  must  not  forget  predication.  Beauty  is  literally  and  truly  realized 
that  the  predicates  we  employ  to  describe  perfections  Doth  in  the  portrait  and  its  living  original,  and  retains 
derive  their  meaning  and  connotation  in  the  first  in-  its  proper  meaning  as  applied  to  either;  there  is  suffi- 
stance  from  their  application  to  finite  beings;  and  on  cient  likeness  or  analogy  to  justify  literal  predication, 
reflection  it  is  seen  that  we  must  distinguish  between  but  there  is  not  that  perfect  likeness  or  identity  be- 
different  kinds  of  perfections,  and  that  we  cannot  tween  painted  and  livmg  beauty  which  univocal  pred- 
without  palpable  contradiction  attribute  all  the  per-  ication  would  imply.  And  similarly  in  the  case  of 
fections  of  creatures  in  the  same  way  to  God.  Some  God  and  creatures.  What  we  contemplate  directly  is 
perfections  are  such  that,  even  in  the  abstract,  they  the  portrait  of  Him  painted,  so  to  speak^  b^  Himself 
necessarily  imply  or  connote  finiteness  of  beine  or  on  tne  canvas  of  the  universe  and  exhibitmg  in  a  finite 
imperfection;  wmle  some  others  do  not  of  themselves  degree  various  perfections,  which,  without  losing  their 
necessarily  connote  imperfection.  To  the  -first  class  proper  meaning  for  us,  are  seen  to  be  capable  of  being 
belone  all  material  perfections;— extension,  sensibiUty,  realized  in  an  infinite  degree;  and  our  reason  compels 
and  the  like — and  certain  spiritual  perfections  such  as  us  to  infer  that  they  must  be  and  are  so  realizea  in 
rationality  (as  distinct  from  simple  intelligence) ;  to  Him  who  is  their  ultimate  cause, 
the  second  class  belong  such  TOrfections  as  being.  Hence  we  admit,  in  conclusion,  that  our  knowledge 
truth,  goodness,  intelligence,  wisdom,  justice,  holiness,  of  the  Infinite  is  inade^uaUf  and  necessarily  so  since 
etc.  Now  while  it  cannot  be  said  that  God  is  infinitely  our  minds  are  only  finite.  But  this  is  very  different 
extended,  or  that  He  feels  or  reasons  in  an  infinite  from  the  Agnostic  contention  that  the  Infinite  is  alto- 
way,  it  can  be  said  that  He  is  infinitely  good,  intelli-  gether  unknowable,  and  that  the  statements  of  Theists 
eent,  wise,  just,  holy,  etc.;  in  other  words,  while  per-  regarding  the  nature  and  attributes  of  God  are  so 
fections  ol  the  second  class  are  attributed  to  God  many  plain  contradictions.  It  is  only  by  ignoring  the 
(ormaUy,  i.  e.  without  any  change  in  the  proper  mean-  well-recognized  rules  of  predication  that  have  just 
ing  of  the  predicates  which  express  them,  those  of  the  been  explained,  and  conseouently  by  misunderstand- 
first  class  can  only  be  attributed  to  Him  emtnen/Zt/ and  ing  and  misrepresenting  tne  Theistic  position,  that 
equivdlenUy,  i.  e.  whatever  positive  being  they  express  Agnostics  succeed  in  givmg  an  air  of  superficial  plausi- 
belongs  to  God  as  their  cause  in  a  much  higher  and  buity  to  their  own  philosophy  of  blank  negation, 
more  excellent  way  than  to  the  creatures  m  which  Anyone  who  understands  those  rules,  and  has  learned 
they  formally  exist.  By  means  of  this  important  dis-  to  think  clearly,  and  trusts  his  own  reason  and  com- 
tinction,  which  Agnostics  reject  or  neglect,  we  are  able  .  mon  sense,  will  find  it  easy  to  meet  and  refute  Asnos- 
to  think  and  to  speak  of  the  Infinite  without  being  tic  arguments,  most  of  which,  in  principle,  have  been 
guilty  of  contradiction,  and  the  fact  that  men  gener-  anticipated  in  what  precedes.  Only  one  general  ob- 
ally — even  Agnostics  themselves  when  off  their  guard  servation  need  be  made  here,  viz. :  that  the  princi- 
— ^recognize  and  utilize  the  distinction  is  the  best  pies  to  which  the  Agnostic  philosopher  must  appeal  in 
proof  that  it  is  pertinent  and  well  founded.  Ulti-  his  attempt  to  invalidate  religious  knowledge  would, 
mately  it  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that,  given  an  if  consistently  applied,  invalidate  all  human  knowl- 
infinite  cause  and  finite  effects,  whatever  pure  perfeo-  edge  and  lead  to  universal  scepticism;  and  it  is  safe  to 
tion  is  discovered  in  the  effects  must  first  exist  in  the  say  that,  unless  absolute  scepticism  becomes  the 
cause  (via  afprrnationis),  and  at  the  same  time  that  plulosophy  of  mankind.  Agnosticism  will  never  sup- 
whatever  imperfection  is  discovered  in  the  effects  plant  religion, 
must  be  excluded  from  the  cause  (ma  negcUionia  vel  (2)  Umty  orUnicityof  God. — Obviously  there  can 


OOD  614  GOD 

be  ovi!iy  one  infinite  being,  only  one  God.    Did  several  follows  indeed  that  we  cannot  know  God  adequately  in 

ezistj  none  of  them  would  really  be  infinite,  for,  to  the  way  in  which  He  knows  Himself,  but  not.  as  the 

have  plurality  of  natures  at  all,  each  should  have  some  Agnostic  contends,  that  our  inadequate  knowledge  is 

perfection  not  possessed  by  the  others.    This  will  be  not  true  as  far  as  it  goes.    In  speaking  of  a  being  who 

readily  granteci  by  every  one  who  admits  the  infinity  transcends  the  limitations  of  formal  logical  d^mtion 

of  God,  and  there  is  no  need  to  delay  in  developing  our  propositions  are  an  expression  of  real  truth,  pio^ 

what  is  perfectly;  clear.    It  should  be  noted,  however,  video  that  what  we  state  is  in  itself  intelligible  and^ot 

that  some  Theistic  philosphers  prefer  to  deduce  unicitv  self-contradictory  |  and  there  is  nothine  unintelli^ble 

from  self-existence  and  mfinity  from  both  combined,  or  contradictory  m  what  Theiste  predicate  of  God. 

and  in  a  matter  so  very  abstract  it  is  not  surprising  It  is  true  that  no  single  predicate  is  adequate  or  ez- 

that  slight  differences  of  opinion  should  arise.    But  haustive  as  a  description  of  His  infinite  penection,  and 

we  have  followed  what  seems  to  us  to  be  the  simpler  that  we  need  to  employ  a  multitude  of  predicates,  as  if 

and  clearer  line  of  argument.    The  metaphjrsical  argu-  at  first  sight  infinity  could  be  reached  by  multiplica- 

ment  bv  which  unicity,  as  distinct  from  infinity,  is  tion.    But  at  the  same  time  we  recosnize  that  tnis  ia 

deduced  from  self-existence  seems  to  be  very  obscure,  not  so — being  repuenant  to  the  Divme  simplicity — 

while  on  the  other  hand  infinity,  as  distinct  from  unic-  and  that  while  truth,  goodness,  wisdom,  holmess  and 

ity,  seems  to  be  clearly  imphed  in  self-existence  as  other  attributes,  as  we  conceive  and  define  them, 

9uch,    If  the  question,  for  example^  be  asked:  Why  express  perfections  that  are  formally  distinct,  yet  as 

may  there  not  be  several  self-existmg  beings?    The  applied  to  God  they  are  all  ultimately  identical  in 

only  satisfactory  answer,  as  it  seems  to  us,  is  this:  meaning  and  descriM  the  same  ultimate  reality — ^the 

Because  a  self-existent  being  as  such  is  necessarily  one  infinitely  perfect  and  simple  being, 
infinite,  and  there  cannot  be  several  infinities.    The        (4)  Divine  rersonality. — ^When  we  say  that  God  is  a 

unitv  of  God  as  the  First  Cause  mieht  also  be  indue-  personal  beine  we  mean  that  He  is  intelugent  and  free 

tivefy  inferred  from  the  unity  of  the  universe  as  we  and  distinct  trom  the  created  universe.    Personality 

know  it;  but  as  the  suggestion  might  be  made,  and  as  such  expresses  perfection,  and  if  human  personality 

could  not  be  disproved,  that  there  may  be  another  or  as  such  connotes  imperfection,  it  must  be  remembered 

even  several  umverses,  of  which  we  have  no  knowl-  that,  as  in  the  case  of  similar  predicates,  this  connota- 

edge,  this  argument  would  not  be  absolutely  conclu-  tion  is  excluded  when  we  attribute  personality  to  God. 

sive.  It  is  principally  by  way  of  opposition  to  Pantheism 

(3)  Simplicity  of  God. — pod  is  a  simple  being  or  sub-  that  Divine  personality  is  emphasized  by  the  Theistic 
stance  excluding  every  kind  of  composition,  physi-  philosopher.  Human  personality,  as  we  Know  it,  is  one 
cal  or  metaphysical.  Physical  or  real  composition  is  of  the  primal^  data  of  consciousness,  and  it  is  one  of 
either  substantial  or  accidental — ^substantial,  if  the  thoee  createa  perfections  which  must  be  realised 
being  in  question  consists  of  two  or  more  substantial  formally  (although  only  analogically)  in  the  First 
principles,  forming  parts  of  a  composite  whole,  as  man  Cause.  But  Pantheism  would  require  us  to  deny  the 
for  example,  consists  of  body  and  soul;  acciaental,  if  reality  of  any  such  perfection,  whether  in  creatures  or 
the  being  in  question,  although  simple  in  its  substance  in  the  Creator,  and  this  is  one  of  the  fundamental 
fas  is  the  human  soul),  is  capable  of  possessine  acci-  objections  to  any  form  of  Pantheistic  teaching.  Re- 
dental  perfections  (like  the  actual  thoughts  and  voli-  csirding  the  mvstery  of  the  lYinity  or  three  Divine 
tion  of  man's  soul)  not  necessarily  identical  with  its  Persons  in  God.  which  can  be  known  only  by  revc^ 
substance.  Now  it  is  clear  that  an  infinite  being  can-  tion,  it  is  enougn  to  say  here  that  properly  understood 
not  be  substantially  composite,  for  this  would  mean  the  mysterv  contains  no  contradiction,  but  on  the 
that  infinity  is  made  up  of  the  union  or  addition  of  contrarv  adds  much  that  is  helpful  to  our  inadequate 
finite  parts— a  plain  contradiction  in  terms.    Nor  can  knowleaee  of  the  infinite. 

accidental  composition  be  attributed  to  the  infinite.        C.  Relalum  of  God  to  the  Univene, — (1)  Essential 

since  even  this  would  imply  a  capacity  for  increasea  Dependence  of  the  Universe  on  God;  Creation  and 

perfection,  which  the  very  notion  of  the  infinite  ex-  Conservation. — In  developing  the  argument  of  the 

dudes.    There  is  not,  therefore,  and  cannot  be  any  First  Cause  we  have  seen  that  the  world  is  essentially 

physical  or  real  composition  in  God.  dependent  on  God,  and  this  dependence  implies  in  the 

Neither  can  there  be  that  kind  of  composition  which  first  place  that  God  is  the  Creator  of  the  world — ^the 
is  known  as  metaphysical,  and  which  results  from  producer  of  its  whole  being  or  substance — ^and  in 
"the  union  of  diverse  concepts  referring  to  the  same  the  next  place,  supposing  its  production,  that  its  con- 
r^  thing  in  such  a  way  that  none  of  tnem  by  itself  tinuance  m  being  at  every  moment  is  due  to  His  sue- 
si^oifies  either  explicitly  or  even  implicitly  the  whole  taining  power.  C)reation  (q.  v.)  means  the  total 
reality  signified  by  their  combination ''.  Thus  every  production  of  a  beinjg  out  of  nothing,  i.  e.  the  bringing 
actual  contingent  being  is  a  metaphysical  compound  of  a  being  into  existence  to  replace  absolute  non- 
of  essence  and  existence,  and  man  in  particular,  accord-  existence,  and  the  relation  of  Creator  is  the  only  con- 
ing to  the  definition,  is  a  compound  of  animal  and  ceivable  relation  in  which  the  Infinite  can  stand  to  the 
rational.  Essence  as  such  in  relation  to  a  continc^nt  finite.  Pantheistic  theories,  which  would  represent 
being  merely  implies  its  conceivableness  or  possibility,  the  varieties  of  being  in  tne  universe  as  so  many 
and  abstracts  from  actual  existence;  existence  as  such  determinations  or  emanations  or  phases  of  one  and 
must  be  added  before  we  can  speak  of  the  being  as  the  selfsame  eternal  reality — Substance  accordine  to 
actual.  But  this  distinction,  with  the  composition  it  Spinoza,  Pure  Ego  according  to  Fichte,  the  Absolute 
implies,  cannot  be  applied  to  the  self-existent  or  in-  according  to  Schelling,  the  Pure  Idea  or  Loeical  Con- 
finite  being  in  whom  essence  and  existence  are  com-  cept  according  to  Hegel — simply  bristle  witn  contra- 
pletely  identified.  We  say  of  a  contingent  being  that  dictions,  and  involve,  as  has  oeen  stated  already,  a 
it  has  a  certain  nature  or  essence,  but  m  the  self-exist-  denial  of  the  distinction  between  the  finite  and  the 
ent  we  say  that  it  is  its  own  nature  or  essence.  There  infinite.  And  the  relation  of  Creator  to  created  re- 
is  no  composition  therefore  of  essence  and  existence —  mains  the  same  even  though  the  possibility  of  eternal 
or  of  potentiality  and  actuality — ^in  God;  nor  can  the  creation,  in  the  sense  already  explained  [see  above  A, 
composition  of  genus  and  specific  difference,  implied  (l),(a)],  be  admitted;  the  Infinite  must  be  the  producer 
for  example  in  the  definition  of  man  as  a  rational  ani-  of  the  finite  even  though  it  be  impossible  to  fix  a  time 
mal,  be  attributed  to  Him.  God  cannot  be  classified  at  which  production  may  not  already  have  taken 
or  defined,  as  contingent  beings  are  classified  and  de-  place.  For  certain  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  created 
fined;  for  there  is  no  aspect  of  being  in  which  He  is  being,  and  time  itself,  had  a  definite  beginning  in  the 
perfectly  similar  to  the  finite,  and  consequently  no  past  we  can  afford  to  rely  on  revelation,  although,  as 
genus  m  which  He  can  be  included.    From  which  it  already  stated,  science  suggests  the  same  fact. 


GOD                                   615  GOD 

It  is  also  clear  that  if  the  universe  depends  on  God  this  is  the  knowledge  we  shall  freely  utilise  in  the  f ol 

for  its  production  it  must  also  dei)end  on  Him  for  its  lowine  section  of  this  article. 

conservation  or  continuance  in  being;  and  this  truth  II.  The  God  of  Revelation. — We  assume  here — 

will  perhaps  be  best  presented  by  explaining  the  much-  what  is  elsewhere  proved  by  Catholic  apologists — ^that 

talked-of  principle  of  Divine  immanence  as  corrected  a  supematiu^  revelation  of  Himself  has  de  facto  been 

and  counterbalanced  by  the  equally  important  prin-  given  by  God  in  the  Jewish  and.  Christian  religions, 

ciple  of  Divine  transcendence,  and  guaranteed  by  such  evidence  that  men  are  reason- 

^2)  Divine  Immanence  and  Transcendence. — ^To  ably  oound  to  accept  it;  and  we  assume,  further,  that 
Deists  (see  Deism)  is  attributed  the  view — or  at  least  our  authoritative  sources  for  obtaining  a  knowleage  of 
a  tendency  towards  the  view — ^that  God,  having  ere-  the  contents  of  this  revelation  are  the  inspired  Scrip- 
ated  the  universe,  leaves  it  to  pursue  its  own  course  tures  and  the  uninspired  but  infallible  teaching  of  the 
according  to  fixed  laws,  and  ceases,  so  to  speak,  to  Catholic  Church.  This  does  not  of  course  mean  that 
take  any  further  interest  in,  or  responsibuity  for,  reason  abdicates  its  office  when  authority  takes  con- 
what  may  happen;  and  Divine  immanence  is  ur^ed,  trol,  for^  besides  the  fact  that  submission  to  such  au- 
sometimes  too  strongly,  in  opposition  to  this  view,  thority  is  eminently  rational,  there  is  idways  an  appeal 
God  is  immanent,  or  mtimatefy  present,  in  the  uni-  back  to  reason  itself  against  anything  that  woma  be 
verse  because  His  power  is  required  at  every  moment  self-contradictory  or  absurd.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
to  sustain  creatures  in  being  and  to  concur  with  them  however,  although  there  is  mystery,  there  is  no  con- 
in  their  activities.  Conservation  and  concursuiq  are.  tradiction  in  what  God  has  revealed  about  Himself, 
so  to  speak,  continuations  of  creative  activity,  and  On  the  contrary  reason  is  helped  very  much,  instead 
imply  an  equally  intimate  relation  of  God  towards  of  beine  hindered,  in  its  effort  to  acauire  a  worthy 
creatures,  or  rather  an  equally  intimate  and  unceasing  knowleage  of  Him  Who  is  infinite  and  therefore  neces- 
dependenoe  of  creatures  on  God.  Whatever  crea-  sarily  mysterious  both  in  His  own  beine  and  in  His  re- 
tures  are,  they  are  by  virtue  of  God's  conserving  lations  to  creatures;  but  apart  from  the  mysteries  of 
power;  whatever  they  do,  they  do  by  virtue  of  God's  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation,  and  the  supernatural 
concursus.  It  is  not  of  course  denied  that  creatures  economy  of  salvation  of  whicn  the  Incarnation  is  the 
are  true  causes  and  produce  real  effects;  but  they  are  centre,  there  is  scarcely  an  important  truth  about  God 
only  secondary  causes;  their  efficiency  is  always  de-  and  His  relation  to  creatures  that  could  not,  abso- 
pendent  and  derived ;  God  as  the  First  Cause  is  an  lutely  speaking,  be  known  by  the  light  of  reason  alone, 
ever  active  co-operator  in  their  actions.  This  is  true  In  naming  the  Scriptures  and  Catholic  teaching  as 
even  of  the  free  acts  of  an  intelli^nt  creature  like  sources,  it  is  not  intenaed  to  treat  them  separately  and 
man;  onl^f  it  should  be  added  in  this  case  that  Divine  independently  but  in  combination.  Developed  Cath- 
responsibility  ceases  at  the  point  where  sin  or  moral  olic  teaching  has  collected  and  systematized  all  im- 
evil  enters  in.  Since  sin  as  such,  however,  is  an  im-  portant  truths  concerning  God  which  may  be  gathered 
perfection,  no  limitation  is  thus  imposed  on  God's  trom  the  Scriptures,  and  we  shall  accordin^y  make 
supremacy.                              ^  this  teaching  our  ^de,  referring  back  as  occasion 

But  lest  insistence  on  Divine  immanence  should  may  require  to  Bibhcal  sources.    For  the  discussion  of 

de^nerate  into  Pantheism — ^and  there  is  a  tendency  in  qu^ions  that  are  merely  exegetical  and  critical  the 

this  direction  on  the  part  of  many  modern  writers — it  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on  God  in  standard  dio- 

is  important  at  the  same  time  to  emphasise  the  truth  tionaries  or  encyclopedias  of  the  Bible, 

of  Gcxi's  transcendence,  to  recall,  in  other  words,  what  A.  Existence  and  Knowableness  of  Ood, — (1)  Neither 

has  been  stated  several  times  already,  that  God  is  one  in  the  Old  or  New  Testament  do  we  find  any  elaborate 

simple  and  infinitely  perfect  personal  Being  whose  ar^pnentation  devoted  to  proving  that  God  exists, 

nature  and  action  in  their  proper  character  as  Divine  This  truth  is  rather  taken  for  granted,  as  being  some- 

infinitely  transcend  all  possible  modes  of  the  finite,  thing,  for  example,  that  only  the  fool  will  deny  in  his 

and  cannot,  without  contradiction,  be  formally  identi-  heart  [Ps.  xiii  (xiv),  I ;  lii  (liii),  1};  and  argumentation, 

fied  with  these.  when  resorted  to,  is  directed  chiefly  against  polythe- 

(3)  Possibility  of  the  Supernatural. — ^From  a  study  ism  and  idolatry.  But  in  several  passages  we  have  a 
of  nature  we  have  inferred  the  existence  of  God  and  cursory  appeal  to  some  phase  of  the  general  cosmo- 
deduced  certain  fundamental  truths  regarding  His  logical  argument:  v.  g.  Ps.  xviii  (xix),  1;  xciii  (xciv), 
nature  and  attributes,  and  His  relation  to  the  created  5  sqq.:  Is.,  xli,  26  sqq.;  II  Mach.,  vii,  28,  etc.;  and  in 
universe.  And  from  these  it  b  easy  to  deduce  a  fur-  some  tew  others — ^Wis.,  xiii,  1-9;  Rom.,  i,  18-20 — the 
ther  important  truth,  with  a  brief  mention  of  which  argument  is  presented  in  a  philosophical  wav,  and 
we  mav  fittingly  conclude  this  section.  However  men  who  reason  rightlv  are  held  to  be  inexcusaole  for 
wonderful  we  may  consider  the  universe  to  be,  we  rec-  failing  to  recognize  ana  worship  the  one  true  God,  the 
ognise  that  neither  in  its  substance  nor  in  the  laws  by  Author  and  Ruler  of  the  universe, 
which  its  order  is  maintained,  in  so  far  as  unaided  These  two  latter  texts  merit  more  than  passing  at- 
reason  can  come  to  know  them,  does  it  exhaust  God's  tention.  Wis.,  xiii,  1-9  reads:  "  But  all  men  are  vain, 
infinite  power  or  perfectly  reveal  His  nature.  If  then  in  whom  there  is  not  the  knowledge  of  God:  and  who 
it  be  suggested  that,  to  supplement  what  philosophy  by  these  good  things  that  are  seen,  could  not  under- 
teaches  of  Himself  and  His  purposes,  God  may  be  stand  him  that  is,  neither  by  attending  to  the  works 
willing  to  favour  rational  creatures  with  an  immeaiate  have  acknowledged  who  was  the  workman:  but  have 
personal  revelation,  in  which  He  aids  the  natural  imagined  either  the  fire,  or  the  wind,  or  the  swift  air, 
powers  of  reason  by  confirming  what  they  already  or  the  circle  of  the  stars,  or  the  great  water,  or  the  sun 
Know,  and  by  imparting  to  them  much  that  they  and  moon,  to  be  the  cods  that  rule  the  world.  With 
could  not  otherwise  know,  it  will  be  seen  at  once  that  whose  beauty,  if  they,  being  delighted,  took  them  to  be 
this  suggestion  contains  no  impossibility.  All  that  is  gods:  let  them  know  how  mucn  the  Lord  of  them  is 
requir^to  realize  it  is  that  God  should  be  able  to  more  beautiful  than  thev:  for  the  first  author  of 
communicate  directly  with  the  created  mind,  and  that  beauty  made  all  those  things.  Or  if  they  admired 
men  shoiUd  be  able  to  recognize  with  sufficient  cer-  their  power  and  effects,  let  them  understand  by  them, 
taintv  that  the  commimication  is  really  Divine;  and  that  he  that  made  them,  is  mightier  than  they:  for  by 
that  Doth  of  these  conditions  are  capable  of  being  ful-  the  greatness  of  the  beauty,  and  of  the  creature,  the 
filled  no  Theist  can  logically  denv  (see  Revelation  ;  creator  of  them  may  be  seen,  so  as  to  be  known 
Miracles).  This  beine  so.  it  will  follow  further  that  thereby.  But  yet  as  to  these  they  are  less  to  be 
knowledge  so  obtained,  oein^  guaranteed  by  the  blamed.  For  they  perhaps  err,  seelang  God,  and  de- 
authority  of  Him  who  is  infinite  Truth,  is  the  most  sirous  to  find  him.  For  being  conversant  among  his 
certain  and  reliable  knowledge  we  can  possess;  and  works,  they  search:  and  they  are  persuaded  that  the 


OOD  616  OOD 

things  are  good  which  are  seen.  But  then  again  they  certain  knowledge  of  God,  or  any  strictly  rational 
are  not  to  l^  pardoned.  For  if  they  were  able  to  know  knowledge  at  all.  That  is  a  psychological  problem  on 
so  much  as  to  make  a  judgment  of  the  world:  how  did  which  the  council  has  nothing  to  say.  Neither  does 
they  not  more  easily  find  out  the  Lord  thereof?"  it  deny  that  even  in  case  of  the  Aomo  socioZis  a  certain 
Here  it  is  clearly  taught  (a)  that  the  phenomenal  or  decree  of  education  and  culture  may  be  required  in 
contingent  world — ^the  things  that  are  seen — ^requires  order  that  he  may,  bv  independent  reasonine,  arrive 
a  cause  distinct  from  and  greater  than  itself  or  any  of  at  a  knowledge  of  God;  but  it  merely  affirms  the  broad 
its  elements;  (b)  that  this  cause  who  is  God  is  not  un-  principle  that  by  the  proper  use  of  their  natural  rea- 
knowable,  but  is  known  with  certaintv  not  only  to  soning  power,  applied  to  the  phenomena  of  the  uni* 
exist  but  to  possess  in  Himself,  in  a  higher  degree,  verse,  men  are  aoie  to  know  God  with  certainty, 
whatever  beauty,  strength,  or  other  perfections  are  In  the  next  place,  as  against  Pantheism,  the  council 
raized  in  His  works;  (c)  that  this  conclusion  is  at-  (cap.  i,  De  Deo)  teaches  that  God,  "since  He  is  one 
tainable  by  the  right  exercise  of  human  reason,  with-  singular,  altogether  simple  and  incommutable  spirit- 
out  reference  to  supernatural  revelation,  and  that  ual  substance,  must  be  .proclaimed  to  be  reaUy  and 
philosophers,  therefore,  who  are  able  to  interpret  the  essentially  [re  et  easentid]  distinct  from  the  worid, 
world  ptiilosophicallv,  are  inexcusable  for  theu*  i^or-  most  happv  in  and  by  Himself,  and  ineffably  above 
ance  or  the  true  God,  their  failure,  it  is  implied,  Being  and  beyond  all  things,  actual  or  possil^le,  besides  Him- 
due  rather  to  lack  of  good  will  than  to  the  incapacity  self  **  (Denzinger,  1782 — old  no.  1631) ;  and  in  the  cor- 
of  the  human  mind.  responding  canons  (ii-iv,  De  Deo^  anathema  is  pro- 

Substantially  the  same  doctrine  is  laid  down  more  nounced  against  anyone  who  would  say  "  that  nothing 

briefly  by  St.  Paul  in  Rom.,  i,  18-20:  "  For  the  wrath  exists  but  matter" ;  or  "  that  the  substance  or  essence 

of  God  is  revealed  from  heaven  against  all  ungodliness  of  God  and  of  all  things  is  one  and  the  same  '* ;  or  **  that 

and  injustice  of  those  men  that  detain  the  truth  of  finite  things  both  corporeal  and  spiritual,  or  at  least 

God  in  injustice:  because  that  which  is  known  of  God  spiritual,  have  emanated  from  the  Divine  substance; 

is  manifest  in  them.     For  God  hath  manifested  it  unto  or  that  the  Divine  essence  by  a  manifestation  or  evo- 

them.    For  the  invisible  things  of  him,  from  the  crea-  lution  of  itself  becomes  all  things;  or  that  God  is  uni- 

tion  of  the  world,  are  clearly  seen,  beine  understood  versal  or  indefinite  being,  which  by  determining  itself 

by  the  things  that  are  made;  his  eternal  power  also,  constitutes  the  universe  of  thines  distinguished  into 

and  divinity:  so  that  they  are  inexcusable."    It  is  to  genera,  species  and  individuals"  (Denzinger,  1802-4 — 

be  observed  that  the  pagans  of  whom  St.  Paul  is  old  no.  1648).     These  definitions  are  framed  so  as  to 

speaking  are  not  blamed  for  their  ignorance  of  super-  cover  and  exclude  every  type  of  the    pantheistic 

natural  revelation  and  the  Mosaic  law,  but  for  failins  theory,  and  nobody  will  deny  that  they  are  in  har- 

to  preserve  or  for  corrupting  that  knowledge  of  Goa  mon^r  with  Scriptural  teaching;    The  doctrine   of 

ana  of  man's  duty  towards  Him  which  nature  itself  creation,  for  example  (see  Creation),  than  which 

ought  to  have  taught  them.    Indeed  it  is  not  pure  none  is  more  clearly  taught  or  more  frequently  empha- 

ignorance  as  such  they  are  blamed  for,  but  that  wilful  sized  in  Sacred  Scripture,  is  radically  opposed  to  Pan- 

snirking  of  truth  which  renders  ignorance  culpable,  theism — creation  as  the  sacred  writers  understand  it 

Even  under  the  corruptions  of  paganism  St.  Paul  being  the  voluntary  act  of  a  free  agent  bringing  crea- 

reco^zed  the  indestructible  permanency  of  germinal  tures  into  being  out  of  nothingness, 
religious  truth  (cf.  Rom.,  ii,  14,  15).  (3)  It  will  be  observed  that  neither  the  Scriptural 

It  is  clear  from  these  passages  that  A^oeticism  and  texts  we  have  quoted  nor  the  Vatican  decrees  say  that 

Pantheism  are  condemned  by  revelation,  while  the  God's  existence  can  be  moved  or  demonstrated;  they 

validity  of  the  general  proof  of  God's  existence  given  merely  affirm  that  it  can  oe  knoum  with  certainty.  Now 

above  (I,  Section  A)  is  confirmed.    It  is  also  clear  that  one  may,  if  one  wishes,  insist  on  the  distinction  be- 

the  extreme  form  of  Traditionalism  (q.  v.).  which  tween  what  is  knowable  and  what  is  demorutrable,  but 

would  hold  that  no  certain  knowledge  of  God's  exist-  in  the  present  connexion  this  distinction  has  little  real 

ence  or  nature  is  attainable  by  human  reason  without  import.    It  has  never  been  claimed  that  God's  exist- 

the  aid  of  supernatural  revelation,  is  condemned.  ence  can  be  proved  mathematicaUy,  as  a  proposition 

(2)  And  what  the  author  of  Wisdom  and  St.  Paul,  in  geometry  is  proved,  and  most  Theists  reiect  every 
and  after  them  the  Fathers  and  theologians  had  con-  form  of  the  ontological  or  deductive  proof.  But  if  the 
stantly  taught,  has  been  solemnly  defin^  by  the  Vati-  term  proof  or  demonstration  may  be.  as  it  often  is,  ap- 
ean  Council.  In  the  first  place,  as  against  Agnosticism  plied  to  a  posteriori  or  inductive  inference^  by  means 
and  Traditionalism,  the  council  t^hes  (cap.  ii,  De  of  which  knowledge  that  is  not  innate  or  mtuitive  is 
revelat.)  "That  God,  the  first  cause  {principtum)  and  acquired  by  the  exercise  of  reason,  then  it  cannot 
last  end  of  all  things,  can,  from  created  things,  be  fairly  be  denied  that  Catholic  teaching  virtually  as- 
known  with  certainty  by  the  natural  light  of  human  serts  that  God's  existence  can  be  proved.  Certain 
reason  "  (Denz.,  1785— old  no.  1634) ;  and  in  the  cor-  knowledge  of  God  is  declared  to  be  attainable  *'  by  the 
responding  canon  (can.  i,  De  revelat.)  it  anathema-  light  of  reason  ",  i.  e.  of  the  reasoning  faculty  as  such, 
tizes  anyone  who  would  say  "that  the  one  true  God,  from  or  through  *'the  thin^  that  are  made";  and  this 
our  Creator  and  Lord,  cannot,  through  the  things  that  clearly  implies  an  inferential  process  such  as  in  other 
are  made,  be  known  with  certainty  by  the  natural  connexions  men  do  not  hesitate  to  call  proof, 
light  of  human  reason"  (Denz.,  1806— old  no.  1653).  Hence  it  is  fair  to  conclude  that  the  Vatican  Coun- 
As  against  Agnosticism  this  definition  needs  no  expla-  cil,  following.  Sacred  Scripture,  has  virtually  con- 
nation.  As  a^inst  Traditionalism,  it  is  to  be  observed  demned  the  Scepticism  which  rejects  the  a  nosteriori 
that  the  definition  is  directed  only  against  the  extreme  proof  JTsee  above.  A,  (1 )].  But  it  did  not  deal  directly 
form  of  that  theory,  as  held  by  Lamennais  and  others,  with  Untologism,  although  certain  propositions  of  the 
according  to  which,  taking  human  nature  as  it  is,  Ontologists  had  already  been  condemned  as  unsafe 
there  would  not,  ana  could  not,  have  been  any  true  or  {tuto  tradi  non  posse)  by  a  decree  of  the  Holy  Office,  18 
certain  knowledge  of  God,  among  men,  had  there  not  Sept.,  1861  (Denzin^r,  1659  sqq.-^ld  no.  1516),  and 
been  at  least  a  primitive  supernatural  revelation — in  among  the  propositions  of  Rosmini  subsequently  con- 
other  words  natural  religion  as  such  is  an  impossibil-  demned  (14  Dec,  1887)  several  reassert  the  ontolo- 
ity.  There  is  no  reference  to  milder  forms  of  Tradi-  gist  principle  (Denzinger,  1891  sq. — old  no.  1736). 
tionalism  which  hold  social  tradition  and  education  to  This  condemnation  by  the  Holy  Cfffice  is  quite  suffi- 
be  necessary  for  the  development  of  man's  rational  cient  to  discredit  Ontologism,  regarding  which  it  is 
powers,  and  consequently  deny,  for  example,  that  an  enough  to  say  here  (a)  that,  as  already  observed  (I,A,) , 
mdividual  cut  off  from  human  society  from  his  in-  experience  contradicts  the  assumption  that  the  human 
fancy,  and  left  entirely  to  himself,  could  ever  attain  a  mind  has  naturally  or  necessarily  an  inunediate  con- 


OOD                                    617  OOD 

piousness  or  intuition  of  the  Divine,  (b)  that  such  a  ness  and  justice,  for  example,  are  distinct  from  eacn 

theory  obscures,  and  tends  to  do  away  with,  the  dif-  other  and  from  the  nature  or  substance  of  the  beings 

ference,  on  which  St.  Paul  insists  (I  Cor.,  xiii,  12),  be-  in  whom  they  are  found,  and  if  finite  limitations  com- 

tween  our  earthly  knowledge  of  God  C' through  a  pel  us  to  speak  of  such  perfections  in  God  as  if  they 

glass  in  a  dark  manner  **)  and  the  vision  of  Him  wnich  were  similarly  distinct,  we  know,  nevertheless,  and  are 

the  blessed  in  heaven  enjoy  ("face  to  face'')>  and  ready,  when  needful^  to  explain,  that  this  is  not  really 

seems  irreconcilable  with  the  Catholic  doctrine,  de-  so,  but  that  all  Divme  attributes  are  really  identical 

fined  by  the  CouncU  of  Vienne,  that,  to  be  capable  of  with  one  another  and  with  the  Divine  essence, 

the  face  to  face  or  intuitive  vision  of  God,  the  human  (2)  The  Divine  attributes  or  perfections  which  may 

intellect  needs  to  be  endowed  with  a  special  supemat-  thus  logically  be  distinguished  are  very  niunerous,  and 

ural  li^ht,  the  lumen  glorioB,  and  (c)  finally  that,  in  so  it  would  be  a  needless  task  to  attempt  to  enumerate 

far  as  it  is  clearly  intelligible,  the  theory  goes  danger-  them  fully.    But  among  them  some  are  recognized  as 

ously  near  to  Pantheism.  being  of  fundamental  importance,  and  to  these  in  par- 

In  the  decree ''  Lamentabili "  (3  July^  1907)  and  the  ticular  is  the  term  aUributea  applied  and  special  notice 
Encyclical'* Pascendi"  (7 Sept.,  1907),  issued  by  Pope  devoted  by  theologians — though  there  is  no  rigid 
PiusX,  the  Catholic  position  is  once  more  reaffirmed  agreement  as  to  the  number  or  classification  of  such 
and  theological  Agnosticism  condemned.  In  its  bear-  attributes.  As  good  a  classification  as  anv  other  is 
ing  on  our  subject  this  latest  act  of  Church  authority  that  based  on  the  analogy  of  eTiJbUative  and  operative 
is  merelv  a  restatement  of  the  teachinj;  of  St.  Paul  and  perfections  in  creatures — the  former  qualifying  nature 
of  the  Vatican  Council  and  a  reassertion  of  the  princi-  or  essence  as  such  and  abstracting  from  activity,  the 
pie  which  has  been  always  maintained,  that  God  must  latter  referring  especially  to  the  activity  of  the  nature 
oe  naturally  knowable  if  faith  in  Him  and  His  revela-  in  question.  Another  distinction  is  often  made  be- 
tion  is  to  be  reasonable;  and  if  a  concrete  example  be  tween  physical,  and  moral  or  ethical,  attributes — the 
needed  to  show  how,  of  logical  necessity,  the  substance  former  of  themselves  abstracting  from,  while  the  lat- 
of  Christianity  vanishes  into  thin  air  once  the  agnostic  ter  directly  express,  moral  perfection.  But  without  la- 
principle  is  adopted,  one  has  onl^r  to  point  the  finger  bourin^with  the  question  of  classification,  it  will  suffice 
at  Modernism.  Rational  thbism  is  a  necessary  logical  to  notice  separately  those  attributes  of  leading  im- 
basis  for  revealed  religion ;  and  that  the'naturai  knowl-  portance  that  have  not  been  already  explained.  Noth- 
edge  of  God  and  natural  religion,  which  Catholic  ing  need  be  added  to  what  has  been  said  above  con- 
teaching  holds  to  be  possible,  are  not  necessarily  the  ceming  edf-existence,  infinity ^  unity,  and  simplicity 
resultofgrace,  i.e.  of  a  supernatural  aid  given  direcUy  (which  belong  to  the  entitative  class);  but  eternity, 
by  God  Himself,  follows  from  the  condemnation  by  immensity,  and  immutability  (also  of  the  entitative 
Clement  XI  of  one  of  the  propositions  of  Quesnel  class),  tc^ether  with  the  active  attributes,  whether 
(prop.  41)  in  which  the  contrary  is  asserted  (Denzin-  physical  or  moral,  connected  with  the  Divine  inldleci 
ger,  1391 — old  no.  1256).  and  vku,  call  for  some  explanation  here. 

B.  TheLHvineNature  and  Attributes. — (1)  Aswehave  (a)  Eternity. — By  saying  that  God  is  eternal  we 

already  seen,  reason  teaches  that  God  is  one  iimple  mean  that  in  essence^  life,  and  action  He  is  altogether 

and  infinitely  perfect  spiritual  substance  or  nature,  beyond  temporal  linuts  and  relations.    He  has  neither 

and  Sacred  Scnpture  and  the  Church  teach  the  same,  beginning,  nor  end,  nor  duration  by  way  of  sequence 

The  creeds,  for  example,  usually  b^in  with  a  profes-  or  succession  of  moments.    There  is  no  past  or  future 

sion  of  faith  in  the  one  true  God,  Who  is  the  Creator  for  God — ^but  onlv  an  eternal  present.    If  we  say  that 

and  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  is  also,  in  the  He  was  or  that  He  acted,  or  that  He  wUl  be  or  wul  act. 

words  of  the  Vatican  Council,  "omnipotent,  eternal,  we  mean  in  strictness  that  He  is  or  that  He  acts;  and 

immense,  incomprehensible,  infinite  in  intellect  ana  this  truth  is  well  expressed  by  Christ  when  He  says 

will  and  in  every  perfection    (Sess.  Ill,  cap.  i,  De  Deo,  ( John^  viii,  58^A.V.) :  ' '  Before  Abraham  was,  I  am, " 

in  Denzinger,  "Enchiridion",  1782 — old  no.  1631).  Etermty,  therefore,  as  predicated  of  God,  does  not 

The  best  way  in  which  we  can  describe  the  Divine  na-  mean  inaefinite  duration  in  time — ^a  meaning  in  which 

ture  is  to  say  that  it  is  infinitely  perfect,  or  that  God  is  the  term  is  sometimes  used  in  other  connexions — but 

the  infinitely  perfect  Being;  but  we  must  always  re-  it  means  the  total  exclusion  of  the  finiteness  which  time 

member  that  even  being  itself,  the  most  abstract  and  implies.    We  are  obliged  to  use  negative  language  in 

universal  term  we  possess,  is  predicate  of  God  and  of  describing  it,  but  in  itself  eternity  is  a  positive  perfec- 

creatures  not  univocaily  or  identically,  but  only  ana-  tion,  and  as  such  may  be  best  defined  m  the  words  of 

logically.    But  other  predicates,  which,  as  applied  to  Boethius  as  being  "mterminabilis  vitse  tota  simul  et 

creatures,  express  certain  specific  determinations  of  perfecta  possessio  ",  i.  e.  possession  in  full  entirety  and 

being,  are  also  used  of  God — analogically,  if  in  them-  perfection  of  life  without  beginning,  end,  or  succes- 

selves  they  express  pure  or  unmixed  perfection,  but  sion. 

only  metaphorically  if  they  necessarily  connote  im-  The  eternity  of  God  is  a  corollary  from  His  self-ex« 

penection.    Now  of  such  predicates  as  applied  to  istence  and  infinity.    Time  being  a  measure  of  finite 

creatures  we  distinguish  between  those  that  are  used  existence,  the  infinite  must  transcend  it.    God,  it  is 

in  the  concrete  to  denote  being  otk  such,  more  or  less  de-  true,  coexists  with  time,  as  He  coexists  with  creatures, 

termined  (v.  g.,  substance,  spirit,  etc.),  and  those  that  but  He  does  not  exist  in  time,  so  as  to  be  subject  to 

are  used  in  the  abstract  or  adjectively  to  denote  deter-^  temporal  gelations:  His  self-existence  is  timeless.   Yet 

minationa,  or  qualities,  or  attnbtdes  of  being  (v.  g.,  good,  the  positive  perfection  expressed  by  duration  as  such, 

goodness;  intelligent,  intelligence ;  etc.) ;  and  we  find  it  i.  e.  persistency  and  permanency  of  being,  belongs  to 

useful  to  transfer  this  distinction  to  God,  and  to  speak  God  and  is  truly  predicated  of  Him,  as  when  He  is 

of  the  Divine  nature  or  essence  and  Divine  attributes,  spoken  of ,  for  example,  as  "Him  that  is,  and  that  was, 

being  careful  at  the  same  time,  by  insisting  on  Divine  and  that  is  to  come  *'  (Apoc.,  i,  4) ;  but  the  strictly 

simplicity  (see  above  I.),  to  avoid  error  or  contradic-  temporal  connotation  of  such  predicates  must  always 

tion  in  its  application.    For,  as  applied  to  God,  the  be  corrected  by  recalling  the  true  notion  of  eternity, 

distinction  between  nature  and  attributes,  and  be-  (b)  Immensity  and  Ubiquity,  or  Omnipresence. — ■ 

tween  the  attributes  themselves,  is  merely  logical  and  Space,  like  time,  is  one'  of  the  measures  of  the  finite, 

not  real.    The  finite  mind  is  not  capable  of  compre-  and  as  by  the  attribute  of  eternity  we  describe  God's 

bending  the  Infinite  so  as  adequately  to  describe  its  transcendence  of  all  temporal  limitations,  so  by  the 

essence  by  any  single  concept  or  term;  but  while  using  attribute  of  immensity  we  express  His  transcendent 

a  multitude  of  terms,  all  of  which  are  analo^cally  true,  relation  to  space.    There  is  this  difference,  however, 

we  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  there  b  any  kind  of  com-  to  be  noted  between  eternity  and  immensity,  that  the 

position  in  God.    Thus»  as  applied  to  creatures,  good-  positive  aspect  of  the  latter  is  more  easily  realised  by 


OOD  618  OOD 

UBy  and  is  sometimeB  spoken  of,  under  the  name  of  Will — ^the  principles  of  Divine  operation  ad  extra — ^to 
omnipresence,  or  ubiquity,  as  if  it  were  a  distinct  attri-  which  the^  are  all  ultimately  reducible, 
bute.  Divine  immensity  means  on  the  one  hand  that  (i)  Divine  Knowledge. — (a)  That  God  is  omniscient, 
God  is  necessarily  present  everywhere  in  space  as  the  or  possesses  the  most  perfect  knowledge  of  all  things, 
inmianent  cause  and  sustainer  of  creatures,  and  on  the  follows  from  His  infinite  perfection.  &.  the  first  place 
other  hand  that  He  transcends  the  limitations  of  actual  He  knows  and  comprehends  Himself  fully  and  ade- 
and  possible  space,  and  cannot  be  circumscribed  or  quately,  and  in  the  next  place  He  knows  all  created 
measured  or  divided  by  any  spatial  relations.  To  say  objects  and  comprehends  their  finite  and  contingent 
that  God  is  inunense  is  only  another  way  of  saying  mode  of  bein^.  Hence  He  knows  them  individually 
that  He  is  both  immanent  and  transcendent  in  the  or  singularly  m  their  finite  multiplicity;  knows  every- 
sense  already  explained.  As  some  one  has  metaphor-  thing  possible  as  well  as  actual;  knows  what  is  bad  as 
ically  and  paradoxically  expressed  it,  "God's  centre  is  well  as  what  is  good.  Everything,  in  a  word,  which 
everywhere.  His  circuznference  nowhere ''.  to  our  finite  minds  signifies  perfection  and  complete- 
That  God  is  not  subject  to  spatial  limitations  fol-  ness  of  knowledge  may  be  predicate  of  Divine  omnis- 
lows  from  His  infinite  sunplicity;  and  that  He  is  truly  cience,  and  it  is  further  to  be  observed  that  it  is  on 
present  in  every  place  or  thing — that  He  is  omnipres-  Himself  alone  that  God  depends  for  His  knowledge, 
ent  or  ubiquitous — ^follows  from  the  fact  that  He  is  the  To  make  Him  in  any  way  dependent  on  creatures  for 
cause  and  ground  of  all  reality.  According  to  our  knowledgeofcreatedobjectswould  destroy  His  infinite 
finite  maimer  of  thinking  we  conceive  this  presence  of  perfection  and  supremacy.  Hence  it  is  in  His  eternal, 
God  in  things  spatial  as  being  primarily  a  presence  of  unchangeable,  comprehensive  knowledge  of  Him- 
power  and  operation— immediate  Divine  efficiency  self  or  of  His  own  infinite  beinf  that  GocTknows  crea- 
Deing  requirea  to  sustain  created  beings  in  existence  tures  and  their  acts,  whether  there  is  question  of  what 
and  to  enable  them  to  act;  but,  as  everykind  of  Divine  is  actual  or  merely  possible.  Indeed  Divine  knowl- 
action  ad  extra  is  really  identical  with  the  Divine  na-  edge  itself  is  really  identical  with  Divine  essence,  as 
ture  or  essence,  it  follows  that  God  is  really  present  are  all  the  attributes  and  acts  of  God;  but  according 
everywhere  in  creation  not  merely  ver  virtutem  et  to  our  finite  modes  of  thought  we  feel  the  need  of  con- 
aperationemf  but  per  esserUiam.  In  otner  words  God  ceiving  t^hem  distinctly  and  of  representing  the  Divine 
Himself,  or  the  Divine  nature,  is  in  immediate  contact  essence  as  the  medium  or  mirror  in  which  the  Divine 
with,  or  immanent  in,  every  creature — conserving  it  in  intellect  sees  all  truth. .  Moreover,  although  the  act  of 
being  and  enabling  it  to  act.  But  while  insisting  on  Divine  knowledge  is  infiinitel;y  sunple  in  itself,  we  feel 
this  truth  we  must,  if  we  would  avoid  contradiction,  the  need  of  further  distinctions — ^not  as  regards  the 
reject  every  form  of  the  pantheistic  hypothesis,  knowledge  in  itself,  hut  as  regards  the  midtiplicity  of 
while  exnphasizing  Divine  immanence  we  must  not  finite  objects  whicn  it  embraces.  Hence  the  univer- 
overlook  Divine  transcendence.  saUy  recognized  distinction  between  the  knowledge  of 
There  is  no  lack  of  Scriptural  or  ecclesiastical  testi-  vision  (jscierUia  viaionia)  and  that  of  simple  intelligence 
monies  asserting  God's  immensity  and  ubiquity.  It  (nmplicU  irUelligentuB),  and  the  famous  controversy 
is  enough  to  refer  for  example  to  Heb..  i,  3 ;  iv,  12, 13 ;  regarding  the  acientia  media.  We  shall  briefly  explain 
Acts,  xvii,  24,  27,  28;  Eph.,  i,  23;  Col.,  i,  16,  17;  Ps.  tto  distmction  and  the  chief  difficulties  involved  in 
cxxxviii,  7-12-  Job,  xii.  10,  etc.  this  controversy. 

(c)  Immutability. — in  God  * '  there  is  no  change,  nor        (fi)  Distinctions  in  the  Divine  Knowledge. — In  dassi- 

shadow  of  alteration"     (James,  i,  17);  "They  [i.  e.  fying  the  objects  of  Divine  omniscience  the  most  obvi- 

"the  works  of  thy  hands"!  shall  perish,but  thou  shalt  ous  and  fundamental  distinction  is  between  things 

continue:  and  they  shall  all  grow  old  as  a  earment.  And  that  actually  exist  at  any  time,  and  those  that  are 

as  a  vesture  shalt  thou  change  them,  and  they  shall  be  merely  possible.    And  it  is  in  reference  to  these  two 

changed :  but  thou  art  the  selfsame,  and  thy  years  shall  classes  of  objects  that  the  distinction  is  made  between 

not  fail"  (Heb.,  i.  10-12;  Ps.  ci,  26-28.  Cf.  Mai.,  iii,  6;  knowledge  *'of  vision  "and  "of  simple  intelligence"— 

Heb..  xiii,  8).    These  are  some  of  the  Scriptural  texts  the  former  referring  to  things  actual,  and  the  latter  to 

which  clearly  teach  Divine  immutability  or  unchange-  the  merely  possible.    This  distinction  might  appear 

ableness,  and  this  attribute  is  likewise  emphasized  in  at  first  signt  to  be  absolutely  comprehensive  ana  ade- 

church  teaching,  as  bv  the  Council  of  Nicsea  aeainst  equate  to  the  purpose  for  which  we  introduce  dis- 

the  Arians,  who  attriouted  mutability  to  the  Logos  tmctions  at  all;  but  some  difficulty  is  felt  once  the 

(Densin^er,  54 — old  No.  18),  and  by  the  Vatican  question  is  raised  of  God's  knowledge  of  the  acts  of 

Coimcil  m  the  definition  quoted  above.  creatures  endowed  with  free  will.    That  God  knows  in- 

That  the  Divine  nature  is  essentially  immutable,  or  fallibly  and  from  eternity  what,  for  example,  a  certain 

incapable  of  any  internal  change,  is  an  obvious  corol-  man,  in  the  exercise  of  free  will,  will  do  or  actually  does 

lary  from  Divme  infinity.    Changeableness  implies  in  anv  given  circumstances,  and  what  he  might  or 


It  is  true  that  some  attributes  by  which  certain  as-  not  to  wait  on  the  contingent  and  temporal  event  of 

pects  of  Divine  perfection  are  described  are  hypothet-  the  man's  free  choice  to  know  what  the  Tatter's  action 

ical  or  relative,  m  the  sense  that  they  presuppose  the  will  be;  He  knows  it  from  etemit^r.    But  the  difficulty 

contingent  fact  of  creation:  omnipresence,  for  exam-  is:  how,  from  our  finite  point  of  view,  to  interpret  and 

pie,  pr^pposes  the  actual  existence  of  spatial  beines.  explain  the  mysterious  manner  of  God's  knowledge  of 

But  it  is  obvious  that  the  mutability  implied  in  this  such  events  without  at  the  same  time  sacrificing  the 

belongs  to  creatures,  and  not  to  the  Creator;  and  it  is  free  will  of  the  creature. 

a  strange  confusion  of  thought  that  has  led  some  mod-  The  Dominican  school  has  defended  the  view  that 
emTheists — even  professing  Christians — to  maintain  the  distinction  between  knowledge  of  "vision"  and 
that  such  attributes  can  be  laid  aside  by  God.  and  of  "simple  intelligence"  is  the  only  one  we  need  or 
that  the  Logos  in  becoming  incarnate  actually  aid  lay  ought  to  employ  in  our  effort  to  conceive  and  describe 
them  aside,  or  at  least  ceased  from  their  active  exer-  Divine  omniscience,  even  in  relation  to  the  free  acts 
dse.  But  as  creation  itself  did  not  affect  the  immu-  of  intelligent  creatures.  These  acts,  if  they  ever  take 
tability  of  God,  so  neither  did  the  incarnation  of  a  place,  are  known  or  foreknown  by  God  as  if  they  were 
Divine  Person;  whatever  change  was  involved  in  either  eternally  actual — and  this  is  admitted  by  all;  other- 
case  took  place  solely  in  the  created  nature.  wise  they  remain  in  the  category  of  the  merely  possi- 
(d)  The  so-called  active  Divine  attributes  are  best  ble — and  this  is  what  the  Jesuit  school  denies^pomting 
treated  in  connexion  with  the  Divine  Intellect  and  for  example  to  statements  such  as  that  of  Cnrist  re- 


GOD  619  OOD 

ffaiding  the  people  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  who  would  have  will  freelv  chooses;  it  is  not  because  God  foreknows 

done  penance  had  they  received  the  samb  graces  as  the  (having  foredecreed)  a  certain  free  act  that  that  act 

Jews  (Matt.,  xi,  21).    This  school  therefore  maintains  takes  place,  but  God  foreknows  it  in  the  first  instance 

that  to  the  actual  as  such  and  the  purely  possible  we  because  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  going  to  take  place; 

must  add  another  category  of  objects,  viz.,  hjrpothet-  He  knows  it  as  a  hypothetical  objective  fact  before  it 

ical  facts  that  may  never  become  actual,  but  would  becomes  an  object  of  the  scientia  visionM— or  rather 

become  actual  were  certain  conditions  realized.    The  this  is  how,  in  order  to  safeguard  human  liberty,  we 

hjrpotiietical  truth  of  such  facts,  it  is  rightly  con-  must  conceive  Him  as  knowmg  it.    It  was  thus,  for 

tended,  is  more  than  mere  jpossibility,  yet  less  than  example,  ^t  Christ  knew  what  would  have  been  the 

actuality*  and  since  God  knows  sucn  facts  in  their  results  of  His  ministry  among  the  people  of  Tyre  and 

hypothetical  character  there  is  good  reason  for  intro-  Sidon.    But  one  must  be  careful  to  avoid  implying 

ducin^  a  distinction  to  cover  them — and  this  is  the  that  God's  knowledge  is  in  any  way  dependent  on 

acienha  media.    And  it  is  clear  that  even  acts  that  creatures,  as  if  He  nad.  so  to  speak^  to  await  the 

take  place  and  as  such  fall  finally  imder  the  knowledge  actual  event  in  time  before  knowing  mf allibly  what 

of  vision  may  be  conceived  as  falling  first  under  the  a  free  creature  may  choose  to  do.    From  eternity  He 

knowledge  of  simple  intelligence  and  then  under  the  knows,   but  does  not  predetermine  the  creature's 

scientia  media;   the  progressive  formula  woidd  be:  choice.    And  if  it  be  asked  how  we  can  conceive  this 

first,  it  is  possible  Peter  would  do  so  and  so;  second,  knowledge  to  exist  antecedently  to  and  independently 

Peter  xooiUd  do  so  and  so,  given  certain  conditions;  of  some  act  of  the  Divine  will,  on  which  all  things 

third,  Peter  vnU  do  or  does  so  and  so.  ^  contingent  depend,  we  can  only  say  that  the  objective 

Now,  were  it  not  for  the  differences  that  lie  behind,  truth  expressed  by  the  hypotneti<^  facts  in  question 

there  would  probably  be  no  objection  raised  to  «cten-  is  somehow  reflected  in  the  Divine  Essence,  which  is 

tia  media;  but  the  distinction  itself  is  only  the  prelude  the  mirror  of  all  truth,  and  that  in  knowing  Himself 

to  the  real  problem.    Admitting  that  God  knows  God  knows  these  things  also.    Whichever  way  we 

from  eternity  the  future  free  acts  of  creatures,  the  turn  we  are  bound  ultimately  to  encounter  a  mystery, 

question  is  now  or  in  what  way  He  knows  them,  and,  when  there  is  a  question  of  choosing  between  a 

or  rather  how  we  are  to  conceive  and  explain  by  anal-  theory  whi6h  refers  the  mystery  to  God  Himself  and 

ogy  the  manner  of  the  divine  foreknowledge,  which  in  one  which  only  saves  the  truth  of  human  freedom  by 

itself  is  beyond  our  powers  of  comprehension?    It  is  making  free-will  itself  a  mystery,  most  theologians 

admitted  that  God  Imows  them  first  as  objects  of  the  not  unnaturally  prefer  the  former  alternative, 
knowledge  of  simple  intelligence;  but  does  he  know        (ii)  The  Divine  Will. — (a)  The  highest  perfections 

them  also  as  objects  of  the  scientia  media,  i.  e.  hypothet-  of  creatures  are  reducible  to  functions  of  intellect  and 

ically  and  independently  of  any  decree  of  His  will,  will,  and,  as  these  perfections  are  realized  analogically 

determining  their  actuality,  or  does  He  know  them  in  God,  we  naturally  pass  from  considering  Divine 

only  in  and  through  such  decrees?    The  Dominican  knowledge  or  intelligence  to  the  study  of  Divine 

contention  is  that  God's  knowledge  of  tuture  free  acts  volition.    The  object  of  intellect  as  such  is  the  true; 

depends  on  the  decrees  of  His  free  will  which  prede-  the  object  of  will  as  such,  the  good.    In  the  case  of 

termine  their  actuality  by  means  of  the  prasmotio  God  it  is  evident  that  His  own  infinite  goodness  is  the 

physica,    God  knows,  for  example,  that  Peter  will  do  primary  and  necessary  object  of  His  will,  created 

so  and  so,  because  He  has  decreed  from  eternity  so  to  goodness  being  but  a  secondary  and  contingent  object, 

move  Peter's  free  will  that  the  latter  will  infallibly.  This  is  whatthe  inspired  writer  means  when  he  says: 

although  freely,  co-operate  with,  or  consent  to,  the  "The  Lord  hath  made  all  things  for  himself"  (Pro v., . 

Divine  premotion.     In  the  case  of  good  acts  there  is  a  xvi,  4).    The  Divine  will  of  course,  like  the  Divine 

physical  and  intrinsic  connexion  between  the  motion  intellect,  is  really  identical  with  the  Divine  Essence, 

given  by  God  and  the  consent  of  Peter's  will,  while  as  but  according  to  our  finite  modes  of  thought  we  are 

regards  morally  bad  acts,  the  immorality  as  such,  obliged  to  speak  of  them  as  if  they  were  distinct; 

which  is  a  privation  and  not  a  positive  entity,  comes  and,  just  as  the  Divine  intellect  cannot  be  dependent 

entirely  from  the  created  will.  on  created  objects  for  its  knowledge  of  them,  neither 

The  principal  di£Sculties  against  this  view  are  that  can  the  Divine  will  be  so  dependent  for  its  volition, 

in  the  first  place  it  seems  to  do  away  with  human  free  Had  no  creature  ever  been  created  God  would  have 

will,  and  in  the  next  place  to  make  God  responsible  been  the  same  self-sufficient  being  that  He  is^  the 

for  sin.    Both  consequences  of  course  are  denied  by  Divine  will  as  an  appetitive  faculty  being  satisfied 

those  who  uphold  it,  btit,  making  all  due  allowance  with  the  infinite  goodness  of  the  Divine  Essence  itself, 

for  the  mystery  which  shrouds  the  subject,  it  is  diffi-  .This  is  what  the  Vatican  Council  means  by  speaking 

cult  to  see  how  the  denial  of  free  will  is  not  logically  of  God  as  "  most  happy  in  and  by  Himself '^not  that 

involved  in  the  theory  ot  th&  prcemoiio  physica,  how  He  does  not  truly  wish  and  love  the  goodness  of  crea- 

the  will  can  be  said  to  consent  freely  to  a  motion  which  tures,  which  is  a  participation  of  His  own,  but  that  He 

is  conceived  as  predetermining  consent;  such  explan-  has  no  need  of  creatures  and  is  in  no  way  dependent 

ations  as  are  offered  merely  amount  to  the  assertion  on  them  for  His  bliss. 

that  after  all  the  human  will  is  free.    The  other  diffi-        (fi)  Hence  it  follows  that  God  possesses  the  perfeo- 

culty  consists  in  the  twofold  fact  that  God  is  repre-  tion  of  free  will  in  an  infinitely  eminent  d^ree.    That 

sentod  as  giving  the  prcemotio  physica  in  the  natural  is  to  say,  without  any  change  in  HimseB  or  in  His 

order  for  the  act  of  will  by  which  the  sinner  embraces  eternal  act  of  volition,  He  freely  chooses  whether  or 

evil,  and  that  He  withholds  the  supernatural  prcemotio  not  creatures  shall  exist  and  what  manner  of  exist- 

or  efficacious  grace  which  is  essentially  required  for  ence  shall  be  theirs,  and  this  choice  or  determination 

the  performance  of  a  salutary  act.    The  Jesuit  school  is  an  exercise  of  that  dominion  which  free  will  (lib- 

on  the  other  hand — ^with  whom  probably  a  majority  ertyof  indifference)  essentially  expresses.  In  itself  free 

of  independent  theologians  agree — utilizing  the  scien-  will  is  an  absolute  and  positive  perfection,  and  as  such 

tia  media  maintains  that  we  ought  to  conceive  God's  is  most  fully  realized  in  God.    Yet  we  are  obliged  to 

knowledge  of  future  free  acts  not  as  being  dependent  describe  Divine  liberty  as  we  have  done  relatively  to 

and  consequent  upon  decrees  of  His  will  but  in  its  its  effects  in  creation,  and,  by  way  of  negation,  we 

character  as  hypothetical  knowledge  or  being  ante-  must  exclude  the  imperfections  associated  with  free 

cedent  to  them.     God  knows  in  the  scientia  media  will  in  creatures.    These  imperfections  may  be  re- 

what  Peter  would  do  if  in  given  circumstances  he  were  duced  to  two,  viz.,  potentiality  and  mutability  as 

to  receive  a  certain  aid^  and  this  before  any  absolute  opposed  to  immutable  pure  act.  and  the  power  of 

decree  to  ^ve  that  aid  is  supposed.    Thus  there  is  no  choosing  what  is  evil.    Only  tlie  second  need  be 

predetermination  by  the  Divine  of  what  the  human  noticednere. 


GOD 


620 


GOD 


(y)  When  a  free  creature  chooses  what  is  evil,  he 
does  not  choose  it  formally  as  such,  but  only  sttb 
specie  bonif  i.e.,  what  his  will  really  embraces  is  some 
aspect  of  goodness  which  he  truly  or  falsely  believes 
to  be  discoverable  in  the  evil  act.  Moral  evil  ulti- 
mately consists  in  choosing  some  such  fancied  good 
which  is  known  more  or  1^  clearly  to  be  oppos^  to 
the  Supreme  Good,  and  it  is  obvious  that  only  a  finite 
being  can  be  capable  of  such  a  choice.  God  neces- 
sarily loves  Himself,  who  is  the  Supreme  Good,  and 
cannot  wish  anything  that  would  be  opposed  to  Him- 
self. Yet  He  permits  the  sins  of  creatures,  and  it  has 
always  been  considered  one  of  the  gravest  problems 
of  theism  to  explain  why  this  is  so.  We  cannot  enter 
on  the  problem  here,  but  must  content  ourselves  with 
a  few  orief  observations.  First,  however  difficult, 
or  even  mysterious,  may  be  the  problem  of  moral  evil 
for  the  theist,  it  is  many  times  more  difficult  for  every 
kind  of  anti-theist.  S^ondl^,  so  far  as  we  can  judge, 
the  possibility  of  moral  defection  seems  to  be  a  natural 
limitation  of  created  free  will,  and  can  onlv  be  ex- 
cluded supematurally;  and,  even  viewing  tne  ques- 
tion from  a  purely  rational  standpoint,  we  are  con- 
scious on  the  whole  that,  whatever  the  final  solution 
may  be,  it  is  better  that  God  should  have  created  free 
beings  capable  of  sinning  than  that  He  should  not 
have  created  free  beings  at  all.  Few  jnen  would 
resign  the  faculty  of  free  will  just  to  escape  the  danger 
of  abusing  it.  Thirdly,  some  final  solution,  not  at 
present  apparent  to  our  limited  intelligence,  may  be 
expected  on  merely  rational  grounds  from  the  innnite 
wisdom  and  justice  of  God,  and  supernatural  revela- 
tion, which  gives  us  glimpses  of  the  Divine  plan,  goes 
a  long  way  towards  supplying  a  complete  answer  to 
the  Questions  that  most  mtimately  concern  us.  The 
clearly  perceived  truth  to  be  emphasized  here  is  that 
sin  b  hateful  to  God  and  essentially  opposed  to  His 
infinite  holiness,  and  that  the  wilful  discord  which  sin 
introduces  into  the  harmony  of  the  universe  will 
somehow  be  set  right  in  the  end. 

There  is  no  need  to  delay  in  discussing  mere  physi- 
cal as  distinct  from  moral  evil,  and  it  is  enough  to 
remark  that  such  evil  is  not  merely  permitted,  but 
willed  by  God,  not  indeed  in  its  character  as  evil,  but 
as  being,  in  such  a  imiverse  as  the  present,  a  means 
towards  good  and  in  itself  relatively  good. 

(d)  As  distinctions  are  made  in  the  Divine  knowl- 
edge, so  also  in  the  Divine  will,  and  one  of  these  latter 
is  of  sufficient  importance  to  aeserve  a  passing  notice 
here.  This  is  the  distinction  between  the  antecedent 
and  consequent  will,  and  its  principal  application  is  to 
the  question  of  man's  salvation.  Goa,  according  to 
St.  Paul  (I  Tim.,  ii,  4),  *'  will  have  all  men  to  be  saved", 
and  this  is  explained  to  be  an  antecedent  will;  that 
is  to  say,  abstracting  from  circumstances  and  con-* 
ditions  which  may  interfere  with  the  fulfilment  of 
God's  will  (e.g., sin  on  man's  part,  natural  order  in  the 
universe,  etcO,  He  has  a  sincere  wish  that  all  men 
should  attain  supernatural  salvation,  and  this  will  is 
so  far  efficacious  that  He  provides  and  intends  the 
necessary  means  of  salvation  for  all — sufficient  actual 
graces  for  those  who  are  capable  of  co-operating  with 
them  and  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism  for  infants.  On 
thex>ther  hand  the  consequent  will  takes  account  of 
those  circumstances  and  conditions  and  has  reference 
to  what  God  wills  and  executes  in  conseauence  of 
them.  It  is  thus  for  example  that  He  condemns  the 
wicked  to  punishment  after  death  and  excludes  un- 
baptized  infants  from  the  beatific  vision. 

(iii)  Providence.  Predestination.  Reprobation. — 
Several  attributes  and  several  aspects  of  Divine  activ- 
ity partake  both  of  an  intellectual  and  a  volitional 
character  and  must  be  treated  from  the  combined 
point  of  view.  Such  are  omnipotence,  holiness,  jus- 
tice, blessedness,  and  so  forthj  but  it  is  unnecessary  to 
delay  on  such  attributes  which  are  self-explanatory. 
Some  notice,  on  the  other  hand,  must  be  devoted  to 


providence  and  to  the  particular  aspects  of  prov» 
dence  which  we  call  predestination  and  reprobation; 
and  with  a  brief  treatment  of  these  which  are  else- 
where full^  treated  this  article  will  be  concluded. 

(a)  Providence  may  be  defined  as  the  scheme  in  the 
Divine  mind  by  which  all  things  treated  are  ordered 
and  guided  efficiently  to  a  common  end  or  purpose 
(ratio  perductionis  rerum  in  finem  in  mente  divinA 
existens).  It  includes  an  act  of  intellect  and  an  act  of 
will,  in  other  words  knowledge  and  power.  And 
that  there  is  such  a  thin^  as  Divine  Providence  by 
which  the  entire  universe  is  ruled  clearly  follows  from 
the  fact  that  God  is  the  author  of  all  things  and  that 
order  and  purpose  must  characterize  the  action  of  an 
intelligent  creator.  Nor  is  any  truth  more  insist- 
ently proclaimed  in  revelation.  What  the  author  of 
Wisdom  (xiv,  3)  says  of  a  particular  thine  is  applic- 
able to  the  universe  as  a  whole:  "But  tny  provid- 
ence, O  Father,  govemeth  it" :  and  no  more  beautiful 
illustration  of  the  same  truth  has  ever  been  given  than 
that  given  by  Christ  Himself  when  He  instances  God's 
care  for  the  birds  of  the  air  and  the  lilies  of  the  field 
(Matt.,  vij  25  sq.).  But  to  rational  creatures  God's 
providential  care  is  extended  in  a  very  special  way, 
yet  not  so  as  to  do  away  with  the  utility  and  efficacy 
of  prayer,  whether  for  temporal  or  spiritual  favours 
(Matt.,  vii,  8),  nor  to  disturb  or  override  the  efficiency 
of  secondary  causes.  It  is  in  and  through  secondary 
causes  that  providence  ordinarily  works,  and  no 
miracle  as  a  rule  is  to  be  expected  in  answer  to  prayer. 

(/3)  Predestination  and  reprobation  are  those  special 
parts  of  Divine  Providence  which  deal  specially  with 
man's  salvation  or  damnation  in  the  present  super- 
natural order.  Predestination  is  the  loreknowledge 
on  the  part  of  God  of  those  who  will  de  facto  be  saved 
and  the  preparation  and  bestowal  of  the  means  by 
which  salvation  is  obtained;  while  reprobation  is  the 
foreknowledge  of  those  who  will  de  facto  be  danmed 
and  the  permission  of  this  eventuahty  by  God.  In 
both  cases  an  act  of  the  intellect,  infallible  foreknowl- 
edge, and  an  act  of  the  will  are  supposed ;  but  whereas 
in  predestination  the  antecedent  and  consequent  will 
is  the  same,  in  reprobation  God  wills  consequently 
what  He  does  not  antecedently  will  at  all  but  only 
permits,  viz.,  the  eternal  punishment  of  the  sinner. 

Many  controversies  have  arisen  on  the  subject  of 
predestination  and  reprobation,  into  which  we  cannot 
enter  here.  But  we  shall  briefly  summarize  the  lead- 
ing points  on  which  Catholic  theologians  have  agreed 
and  the  points  on  which  they  differ. 

First,  that  predestination  exists,  i.  e.  that  God 
knows  from  eternity  with  infallible  certainty  who  will 
be  saved  and  that  He  wills  from  eternity  to  give  them 
the  graces  by  which  salvation  will  be  secuml,  is  ob- 
vious from  reason  and  is  tau^t  by  Christ  Himself 
(John,  X,  27),  and  by  St.  Paul  (Rom.,  viii,  29,  30). 

Second,  while  God  had  this  infallible  foreknowledge, 
we  on  our  part  cannot  have  an  absolutely  certain 
assurance  that  we  are  among  the  numb^  of  the 
predestined — unless  indeed  by  means  of  a  special 
Divine  revelation  such  as  we  Know  from  experience 
is  rarely,  if  ever,  given.  This  follows  from  the  Tri- 
dentine  condemnation  of  the  teaching  of  the  Refor- 
mers that  we  could  and  oii^ht  to  believe  with  the 
certainty  of  faith  in  our  own  justification  and  election 
(Sess.  VI,  cap.  ix,  can.  xiii-xv). 

Third)  the  principal  controverted  point  resp^ix^ 
predestination  between  Catholic  theologians  is  con- 
cerned with  its  gratuity,  and  in  order  to  understand 
the  controversy  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between 
predestination  in  intention^  i.  e.  as  it  is  a  mere  act  of 
knowledge  and  of  purpose  in  the  Divine  mind,  and  in 
execution f  i.  e.  as  it  means  the  actual  bestowal  of  grace 
and  of  glory;  and  also  between  predestination  in  the 
adequate  sense,  as  referring  both  to  erace  and  to 
glory,  and  in  the  inadequate  sense,  as  referring  partic- 
ularly to  one's  destination  to  glory,  and  abstracting 


OODAED  621  QODDEN 

from  the  grace  by  which  glory  is  obtained.   Now,  (1)  happiness  for  those  dying  with  only  original  sin  on 

speaking  of  precfestination  in  execution,  all  Catholic  their  souls.    But,  notwithstanding  this  difference, 

toeologians  Tnainfuin  in  opposition  to  Calvinists  that  the  doctrine  ought  to  be  rejected;   for  it  is  opposed 

it  is  not  entirely  gratuitous,  but  in  the  case  of  adults  very  plainly  to  tne  teaching  of  St.  Paul  regardu^  the 

depends  partly  on  the  free  mercy  of  God  and  partly  universality  of  God^  will  to  save  all  (I  Tim.,  ii,  4), 

on  human  co-operation;  the  actual  bestowal  of  glory  and  from  a  rational  point  of  view  it  is  difficult  to  recon- 

18  at  least  partly  a  reward  of  true  merit.     (2)  Speaking  cile  with  a  worthy  concept  of  Divine  justice. 
of  predestination  in  intention  and  in  the  adequate        a  pretty  full  bibhomphy  of  Theioa  (especially  of  modem 

-^^r^  n««k^i:<.  *\*,^\r^^0^Txa  ^trwHo^  +1*0+  i*  ia  <rM 4^111  i^Mia*  non-Cathoho  works)  will  be  found  m  Baldwin.  Dtct.  of  Ph}io»- 

8ense,Cathohc  theologums  agree  that  it  is  gratmtous,  ^^     m^  745-^11.     We  wiU  mention  here  only  a  few  select 

so  understood  it  includes  the  tirst  grace  wnicn  cannot  works:  (a)  as  good  samples  of  patristic  and  medieval  treatment: 

be  merited  by  man.     (3)  But  if  we  speak  of  predes-  St.  AuouamNE.  C.  AcademioM  and  De  CivU^  Dei;  St.  Ak- 

..      ..        •     •  "l   ..^* -^y  •-  XI..  : i-i..-x ^ •    .  fiBLM.  Monaloaxum    and    Proaolotnum:  Br.   TnoifAa.   Svmma 


tination  in  intention  and  in  the  inadequate  sense,  i.  e.  fi^U^tTT^^i  c'^SJ^IX^h^uk  vlSSKf ,5^*^ 

to  glory  in  abstraction  from  grace,  there  is  no  longer  patristic  teaching:  Pxtatius  and  TBoifABsiNua,  De  Dogmati- 

unanimity  of  opinion.     Most  Thomists  and  several  ous  TheologicU:    (c)  as  modem  systematic  treatises:   Fran- 

rAhi^r  ihtiAnmanti  mnintiiin  thnt  nrM^AstinAtinn  in  thi«  MLD*.  De  Deo  Uno  (3pd  ed.,  Rome*  1883) :  Billot,  De  Deo  Uno 

Otner  tneoK^ans  maintain  tnat  prwiestmaiion  m  WUS  ^  j^,.^  (1896).  and  other  standard  writers  in  Latin  on  dog- 

aense  is  gratmtOUS,  l.  e.  God  first  destmes  a  man  to  matic  theology;   Piat,  De  La  Crouance  en  Dieu  garis.  1907J; 

elory  antecedently  to  any  foreseen  merits,  and  conse-  Michelbt.  Dteu  H  VAgnoetidmne  coniemporaine  Q^aris,  1909); 

quently  ui«n  this  decrees  topvethe  efficacious  grace  j^^SS^^fstSL^^iSTlS^Wa. »  gSSSS 

by  which  it  is  Obtamed.     Predestination  to  grace  is  Ood  (2nd  ed.,  New  YoA);    and  among  non-Catholics:   Flint, 

the  result  of  an  entirely  gratuitous  predestination  to  Theiem  (Edinburgh,  1877):    Martineau,  Stvdy  of  Rdioion 

riory.  and  with  this  is  combined  for  those  not  included  ?^J1^^JI^^  •  IA'-K  t'^  ^«5?  «"*  A}^'^??LP'^^  ^^ 

^  W    J               iPi  *'"^""*"V*^**  *v*  viivrsne  **vv  ****/    vt^x*  ^^j^^  1909;  this  work  »  nch  m  bibliographical  references).    See 

m  tne  decree  of  election  wnat  is  imown  as  a  n^i-  also  Deism;  THxuM;l^uNiTT;X^DB«rxNATioN;pBovxDENCB; 

tive  reprobation.    Other  theolo^ns  maintain  on  tne  etc                                                       u     t    »r 

contrary  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  negative  repro-  *•  J«  Tontb. 

bation,  and  that  predestination  to  glory  is  not  gratui-  ^.-^^                ^               xa           ^*  %_        m 

tous  but  dependent  on  foreseen  merits.    The  order  of  „.??™.d  (Gothard,  GodbhaM))  .  Saint,  BishoD  of 

dependence,  according  to  these  theologians,  is  the  Hildesheim  m  Lower  Saxony;  b.  about  the  year  960. 

same  in  predestination  in  intention  as  it  is  in  predes-  "\  a.  village  of  Upper  Bavana,  near  the  Abbey  of 

tination  m  execution,  and  as  already  stated  the  be-  Altaich,  in  the  Diocese  of  Passau;  d.  on  4  May,  1038; 

stowal  of  glory  only  follows  upon  actual  merit  in  the  canonu^  by  Innocent  II  m  11^.    Aftw  a  Icn^y 

case  of  adults.    These  have  been  the  two  prevaUing  coiu^e  of  studies  he  received  the  Bcnedictme  habit  m 

opinions  followed  for  the  most  part  in  the  schools,  ?01.    Having  entered  the  Abbey  of  Altaich,  his  leam- 

but  a  third  opinion,  which  is  a  somewhat  subtle  via  MJg  and  sanctity  speedily  procured  his  elevation  to  the 


authority  as  Billot.    The  gist  ^. -. i    _i      j-  u-  xj-  •  i**        •    ^u- 

while  negative  reprobation  must  be  rejected,  gratui-  tbose  placed  under  his  care.  His  special  fitncM  m  thw 
tous  election  to  glory  arde  prcsmsa  menta  must  be  re-  department  led  to  his  being  chosen  to  effect  the  work 
tained,  and  an  effort  is  made  to  prove  that  these  two  oi  reform  m  the  Abbeys  of  Hersfeld,  m  Hesse ;  Tegem- 
may  be  logically  separated,  a  possibility  overlooked  ?ec,  ^  the  Diocese  of  Freismg:  and  KremraiOnster, 
by  the  advocates  of  the  first  two  opinions.  Without  ^  the  Diocese  of  Pa»au.  On  the  d^to  of  St. 
entering  into  details  here,  it  is  enough  to  observe  that  Bernard,  Bishop  of  Hildesheim  (1021),  Gojhird  was 
the  success  of  this  subtle  expedient  is  very  question-  chosen  to  succeed  hun;  but  his  modesty  yielded  onlv 
ii5le.  to  the  urgent  admomtions  of  Emperor  St.  Henry  II. 
Fourth,  as  regards  reprobation,  (1)  all  Catholic  His  zeal  and  prudence  kept  up  the  high  tradition  of 
theologians  are  agreed  that  God  foresees  from  eternity  Godard's  cloistered  activity.  The  monastic  obsCTV- 
and  permits  the  final  defection  of  some,  but  that  the  w^c©  was  established,  as  far  as  possible,  m  his  cathe- 
decree  of  His  will  destining  them  to  eternal  damnation  dral  chapter.  He  built  schools  for  the  education  of 
is  not  antecedent  to  but  consequent  upon  foreknowl-  youth  in  which  he  always  manifested  an  active  into 
edge  of  their  sin  and  their  death  in  the  state  of  sin.  est;  maintained  a  rigorous  personal  surveillance  over 
The  first  part  of  this  proposition  is  a  simple  corollary  his  seminary;  and  fostered  a  strict  observance  of  the 
from  Diione  omniscience  and  supremacy,  and  the  liturgy  whilst  attending  to  the  building  and  upkeep  of 
second  part  is  directed  against  Calvinistic  and  Jansen-  churohes.  He  also  exereised  a  paternal  care  for  the 
istic  teaching,  according  to  which  God  expressly  material  needs  of  his  people.  Many  churehes  in  Ger- 
created  some  for  the  purpose  of  punishing  them,  or  at  many  honour  Godard  as  patron  and  several  bear  his 
least  that  subsequently  to  the  fall  of  Adam,  He  leaves  name.  His  letters  which  have  come  down  to  us  ex- 
them  in  tiie  state  of  damnation  for  the  sake  of  exhibit-  bibit  a  lofty  spiritual  tone  throughout.  Godard  was 
log  His  wrath.  Catholic  teaching  on  this  point  re-  buried  in  his  cathedral.  In  1132^  the  year  following 
e£oes  n  Peter,  iii,  9,  according  to  which  God  does  his  canonisation  and  the  translation  of  his  relics,  the 
not  wish  that  any  should  perish  but  that  all  should  erection  of  a  Benedictine  monastery^  under  the  pat- 
return  to  penance,  and  it  is  the  teachmg  implied  in  ronage  of  St.  Godard,  was  begun,  and  two  altare  were 
Christ's  own  description  of  the  sentence  that  is  to  dedicated  to  him  in  the  cathedral  chureh. 
be  pronounced  on  the  damned,  condemnation  being  .  Mollbr  inKirchenUx..  s.  v.  Goukard;J^oLnmR^VitmGod€- 

^m^K^^^^  ««♦  r>«  ♦!*«.  ^^*.^,^^J*  ^^n  ^t  n.^    u„*  J^  hardttpnor  H  poatenorm  Mon,  Germ.  Hxat.:  ScnpUrree,  XI,  167 

flffOUnded  not  on  the  antecedent  will  of  God,  but  on  ^.  ifopreR,  'Sie  Lebenubeachreibung  der  BUchdfe  Bemipard  tt. 

the  actual  dements  of  men  themselves  (e.  g.  Matt.,  Godehard  (Berlin.   1858):    Sulzbeck,  Leben  dee  hi.  GoUhard 

Dv,  41).     (2)  So-called  negative  reprobation,  which  l^^at^tyj"' js^g);  ^^^'"i^zPT n'R^'^^i^jJS,  L^^^ 

Is  commonly  defended  by  t^se  who  Lintain  election  S?^ii°>l  TiiSSSii.et'.'^l  ^At^  MaISTlo^.  ^ 

to  glory  antecedently  to  foreseen  ments,  means  that  88.  Bened.  (1701),  VI,  i,  395-96. 
nmultaneously  with  the  predestination  of  the  elect  P.  J.  MacAulet. 

God  either  positively  excludes  the  damned  from  the 


qualification 

distinguishes  the  doctrine  of  negative  reprobation  private  school  in  Holbum,  conducted  by  a  Mr.  Gill, 

from  Caivinistio  and  Jansenistic  teaching,  leaving  and  in  his  fifteenth  year  entered  Queen's  College, 

room,  for  instance,  for  a  condition  of  perfect  natunu  Oxford.    The  next  year  found  him  at  St.  John's 


OODEAU 


622 


OODSAU 


College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1640  he  was  made  a 
Billingsley  scholar.  He  proceeded  B.A.  in  1641,  but 
the  influence  of  John  Seraeant,  with  whom  he  became 
acquainted  durine  his  college  course,  had  induced  kim 
to  enter  the  Catholic  Church,  and  in  1642  the  two 
set  out  for  the  English  College  at  Lisbon.  In  due 
course  Godden  was  ordained,  and  so  distinguished 
himself  by  his  scholarship  and  controversial  ability 
that  in  1650  we  find  him  lecturing  on  philosophy  in 
the  coUqge.  He  rapidly  ascended  the  ladder  of  aca- 
demic distinction,  and  after  beine  successively  pro- 
fessor of  theoloey,  prefect  of  studies^  and  vice-presi- 
dent! succeededDr.  Clayton  as  president  of  the  col- 
1^  m  1655.  Five  years  later  he  was  thoueht  worthy 
<K  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity,  and  had  estab- 
lished so  general  a  reputation  for  eloquence  and  piety 
that  the  Princess  Catherine  of  Braganza,  about  to  be- 
come the  bride  of  Charles  II,  brought  Godden  to 
England  With  her,  as  her  private  chaj)lain.  He  was 
weU  received  in  his  native  country  ana  enjoyed  every 
evidence  of  royal  favour. 

The  disturbances  caused  by  Oates'  plot,  however, 
affected  Godden  very  seriouslv.  The  perjured  Miles 
Prance,  upon  being  examined  on  the  murder  of  Sir 
Edmund  Berry  Godfrev,  swore  that  Godden  and  his 
servant  Lawrence  Hill  had  been  concerned  in  the 
crime,  and  that  Godfrey's  corpse  had  been  concealed 
for  a  time  in  Godden's  apartments.  Public  indigna^ 
tion  was  running  too  hieh  against  everything  Catholic 
to  hope  for  a  sober  and  impartial  investigation,  and 
Godden  managed  to  escape  to  the  Continent,  and  took 
refuge  in  Paris.  His  lodgings  in  Somerset  House  were 
searched  and  Hill,  despite  the  testimony  of  witnesses 
who  swore  that  he  was  elsewhere  at  the  time  of  the 
murder,  was  convicted  and  executed  at  Tyburn,  21 
Feb.,  1679.  Later  evidence,  tending  to  snow  that 
Godden  was  in  no  way  connected  with  Godfrey's 
death,  altered  popular  feeling,  and  in  the  reign  of 
James  II,  he  returned  to  his  former  post  as  almoner  to 
the  queen  dowager.  From  this  time  until  his  death 
he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  religious  controversies 
in  En^nd,  and  in  1686,  with  Dr.  Gmard, defended  the 
doctrme  of  the  Real  Presence,  before  the  king,  against 
Dr.  William  Jane  and  Dr.  Simon  Patrick.  He  was 
buried  under  the  royal  chapel  in  Somerset  House. 

Godden's  printed  works  are  for  the  most  part  con- 
troversial and  religious.  They  include  "Catholicks 
no  Idolaters;  or  a  full  Refutation  of  Dr.  Stilling 
fleet's  Unjust  Charge  of  Idolatnr  against  the  Church 
of  Rome"  (London,  1671);  ''A  Just  Discharge  to  Dr. 
Stillingfleet's  Unjust  Charge  of  Idolatry  a^nst  the 
Church  of  Rome.  With  a  Discovery  of  the  v  anity  of 
his  late  Defence  . . .  Bvwayof  Dialogue  between  Euno- 
mius.  a  Conformist  and  Catharinus,  a  non-Conformist" 
(Paris,  1677);  "A  Sermon  of  St.  Peter,  preached  be- 
fore the  Queen  Dowager  ...  on  29  June,  1686" 
(London,  1686);  "A  Sermon  on  the  Nativity  of  Our 
Lord,  preached  before  the  Queen  Dowager  ...  at 
Somerset  House"  (London,  1686).  He  also  left  a 
manuscript  treatise  on  the  Oath  of  Supremacy. 

QiiAJOW,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng,  Calh.,  II.  503;  III,  307;  Panxani, 
Memoira,  p.  338:  Wood,  Atkena  Oxon,,  IV,  93.  674;  Lutthell, 
HiBL  RdaHon  of  State  Affain,  1. 391 ;  Cath,  Mag,,  V.  621 ;  VI, 
69;  The  TabUt,  16  Feb.,  1889.  p.  257. 

Stanley  J.  Quinn. 

Oodeatl,  Antoine,  bishop,  poet,  and  exegete;  b.  at 
Dreux  in  the  Diocese  of  Chartres,  1605;  d.  at  Vence, 
21  April,  1672.  His  facility  in  verse-writing  early 
won  the  interest  of  a  relative  in  Paris,  M.  Conrart,  at 
whose  house  the  elect  of  the  literary  world  gathered  to 
hear  and  discuss  the  productions  of  the  young  poet. 
The  outcome  of  these  meetings  was  the  foundation  of 
the  French  Academy,  of  whicn  Godeau  was  one  of  the 
first  members  and  tne  third  to  whose  lot  it  fell  to  de- 
liver the  weekly  address  to  that  body.  He  was  in- 
duced to  settle  in  Paris,  where  he  soon  became  a 
favourite  at  the  H6tel  Rambouillet,  rivalling  in  the 


fecundity  and  in^nuity  of  his  verse  the  most  famous 
writers  of  his  period.  At  that  time  to  say  of  any  wodc 
c^est  de  Godeau  was  to  stamp  it  with  the  seal  of  ai>- 
proval.  Perhaps  best  known  among  the  works  of  his 
early  davs  is  his  ''Discours  sur  les  oeuvres  de  Mal- 
herbe"  (1629),  which  shows  some  critical  power  and 
is  valuable  for  the  history  of  the  French  prose  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Alter  some  time  Godeau  for- 
sook the  company  of  gallante  and  the  pursuit  of 
literature  for  ite  own  sake  to  devote  himself  to  the 
service  of  God,  and  in  16^  was  named  Bishop  of 
Grasse  by  Richelieu,  to  whom  he  had  dedicatee!  his 
first  religious  composition,  a  poetical  paraphrase  of 
the  Psami  ''Benedicite  omnia  opera  Domini".  He 
proved  a  model  prelate,  irreproachable  in  life,  sealous 
for  the  interests  of  his  flock,  and  unwearied  in  uphold- 
ing ecclesiastical  discipline  amon^  his  clergy,  whom  he 
assembled  in  synods  and  admonished  in  sermons  and 
pastoral  lettere.  By  a  Bull  of  Innocent  X  he  was  em- 
powered to  unite  tne  Dioceses  of  Grasse  and  Venoe 
under  his  administration,  but  seeing  the  dissatisfac- 
tion of  the  clergy  of  the  latter  diocese,  he  relinquished 
the  former  andestablished  himself  at  Vence. 

But  Godeau  by  no  means  gave  up  his  public  and  lit- 
erary interests,  in  1645  and  1655  he  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  General  Assembly  of  the  French  Clergy,  and 
under  the  regency  of  Anne  of  Austria  was  deputy  from 
the  Estates  of  Provence.  He  turned  his  talent  for  ver- 
sification to  religious  uses,  his  best  known  productions 
being  a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms,  poems  on  St. 
Paul,  the  Assunmtion,  St.  Eustace,  BCary  Magdalen, 
and  one  of  15,000  lines  on  the  annals  of  the  Cnurch. 
The  monotony  and  mechanical  arrangement  of  the 
poems  are  relieved  at  intervals  by  passages  remarkable 
tor  thouff ht  or  expression,  among  othera  those  Unes 
embodied  by  Comeille  in  his  "Polyeucte":' — 

Leur  gloire  tombe  pjar  terre, 

Et  comme  elle  a  I'^lat  du  verre, 

Elle  en  a  la  fragility. 
The  Jesuit  Father  Vavasseur  published,  in  1647,  a 
satire  on  Godeau,  "Antonius  Godellus,  episcopus 
Grassensis,  an  elogii  Aureliani  scriptor  idoneus  idem- 
que  utrum  poeta  ",  the  verdict  of  wnich  was  echoed  by 
Boileau  in  a  letter  to  Maucroix. 

The  fame  of  Godeau's  poetical  works,  however  has 
been  quite  overehadowea  by  that  of  his  historical  and 
exegetical  works.  His  "  Eloges  des  Evdques  qui  dans 
tous  les  sidles  de  TEglise  ont  fleuri  en  doctrine  et  en 

gi^t^"  (Paris,  1665)  was  republished  in  1802  by  M. 
auffret.  His  "  Histoire  de  r^lise  depuis  la  naissanoe 
de  J^sus  Christ,  jusau'  &  la  fin  du  IX®  si^le"  (Paris, 
1633)  was  translatea  into  Italian  by  Speroni  and  into 
German  by  Hyper  and  Groote  (Augsbui^,  1768-96), 
and  is  still  citea.  Of  this  work  Alrog  says  that  "al- 
though written  in  an  attractive  and  popular  style",  it 
is  "  lacking  in  solid  worth  and  original  reseatch  *  (Man- 
ual of  Universal  History,  I.  Dublin,  1900,  33).  It  is 
related  that  during  the  publication  of  this  work  the 
author  chanced  one  day  m  a  library  to  engage  in  con- 
versation with  the  Oratorian,  P^re  Le  (x>inte,  who, 
ignorant  of  Godeau's  identity,  indicated  some  grave 
defects  in  the  volumes  which  had  already  appoired, 
criticisms  of  which  the  author  availed  himself  in  cor- 
recting the  work  for  a  new  edition.  The  same  Pdre  Le 
Cointe,  later  a  stanch  friend  of  Godeau's,  while  con- 
ceding to  the  complete  work  many  excellencies,  calls 
attention  to  its  frequent  inaccuracies  and  lack  of 
critical  balance.  Minor  writings  of  Godeau's  include 
"Vie  de  M.  de  Cordes,  conseiller  au  Ch&telet"  (1645) 
and  "Eloges  historiques  des  empereure"  (1667). 

Among  Godeau's  works  of  a  religious  character  are: 
"Pri^res,  meditations"  (Paris,  1643);  "Avis  k  M.  de 
Paris  pour  le  culte  du  SaintrSacrement  dans  les 
aroisses  et  de  la  fagon  de  le  i>orter  aux  malades" 
1644);  "Instructions  et  ordonnanoes  synodales" 
1644);  "Vie  de  Saint  Paul  Apdtre"  (1647);  "La  vie 
e  saint  Augustin  "  (1652) ;  "  La  panteynque  de  saint 


GODEBEBTA                            623  OODELXNA 

lugustin"  (1653);   "La  vie  de  saint  Charles  Bor-  fire,  she  made  the  sign  of  the  cross  over  the  flames,  and 

fom^"(1657);  "  L'Eloge  de  saint  Francois  de  Sales  "  the  conflagration  was  forthwith  extinguished.    The 

(1663).    His  chief  title  to  fame,  however,  rests  on  his  exact  year  of  her  death  is  unknown,  but  it  is  said  to 

work  in  Holy  Scripture.    His  paraphrases  of  the  fol-  have  occurred  on  11  June,  on  which  day  her  feast  is 

lowing  books:    Romans  (Paris,  1635);   Corinthians,  marked  in  the  Propriimi  of  Beauvais.    In  Noyon, 

Galatians,  and  Ephesians  (1632) ;  Thesaalonians,  Tim-  however,  by  virtue  of  an  indult,  dated  2  April,  1857, 

othy,  Titus,  and  Philemon  (l&ll) ;  Hebrews  (1637) ;  it  is  kept  on  the  fifth  Sunday  after  Easter.    The  body 

the  Canonical  Epistles  (1640),  are  still  recommended  of  the  saint  was  interred  in  the  church  of  St.  George, 

as  useful,  the  sense  and  connexion  of  ideas  being  which  was  afterwards  called  by  her  name, 

brought  out  clearly  by  the  insertion  of  the  fewest  pos-  In  1168  Godeberta's  body  was  solemnly  translated 

sible  words  (Simon  in  "Hist,  critique  des  principaux  from  the  ruined  church  where  it  had  rested  for  over 

commentateurs  du  N.  T.",  c.  Iviu).    His  "Version  450  years  by  BiBhop  Baudoin  to  the  cathedral  of 

expliqu^  du  nouveau  Testament''  (1668)  is  some-  Noyon.     Providentially  her  relics  have  escaped  the 

thmg  between  a  literal  translation  and  a  paraphrase,  ravages  of  time  and  fire,  and  the  malice  of  tne  irre- 

The  greatest  of  all  his  works,  according  to  Nic^ron,  is  ligious.   At  the  period  of  the  Revolution  a  pious  towna- 

"  La  morale  chr^tienne  pour  instruction  des  Cures  et  man  secretly  buried  them  near  the  cathedral.    When 

des  PrStres  du  dioc^  de  Vence"  (Paris,  1709).  in-  the  storm  mid  passed  they  were  recovered  from  their 

tended  to  combat  the  Casuists,  a  model  of  force,  clear-  hiding-place  and  their  authenticity  being  canonicaUv 

ness,  and  revealing  a  precision  rarely  to  be  found  in  establisned  they  were  replaced  in  the  church.    A  bell 

the  other  writings  of  tne  same  author.    In  the  Latin  is  still  preserved  which  tradition  avers  to  have  been 

translation  which  appeared  at  Augsburg  in  1774  under  the  one  actually  used  by  Godeberta  in  her  convent, 

the  title  "Theologia  moralis  ex  purissimis  s.  Scri{>-  It  is  certainly  verv  ancient  and  there  seems  no  good 

turse,  patrum  ac  conciliorum  fontibus  derivata,  notis  reason,  in  particular  from  an  archaeological  point  of 

theologicis  illustrata  "  the  arrangement  of  the  matter  view,  for  doubtinjp  the  trustworthiness  of  the  legend, 

is  greatly  improved.  In  the  treasury  ofthe  cathedral  likewise  may  be  seen 

Although  opinions  vaiy  as  to  the  importance  of  a  ^Id  ring,  said  to  have  been  that  presented  by  St. 

Bishop  Godeau  among  his  contemporaries,  it  would  Eligius  to  the  saint.     Mention  is  made  in  a  record  of 

seem  that  too  much  stress  is  laid  on  his  achievements  the  year  1167  of  this  relic  having  been  then  in  the 

as  a  poet  which  are  not  at  all  commensurate  in  value  possession  of  the  church  of  Noyon. 

with  his  work  as  a  prelate  and  an  exegete.    He  was  Unfortunately  the  most  ancient  documents  we 

stricken  with  apoplexy  and  died  in  his  episcopal  city  have  giving  details  of  Godeberta's  life  do  not,  in  all 

at  the  age  of  sixtynseven.  probability,  date  back  beyond  the  eleventh  century. 

Vie  dsOodeau  m  QoDKAv^^Elogn  detEviquM  meu.is^^  as  the  oldest  "Vita",  which,  in  truth,  is  rather  a 

Speroni  dbgli  Alvarotti»  Vtta  dx  A.  Oodeau,  vetcovo  dt  Vence  r^tuxMnmo  for  >ipp  fpjiaf  fhnn  a  hin<rmnhv   «  h^li^kVAH 

(Venice,  1761);  Simon,  Hittoire  eriHgue  du  Nouveau  Testament  panegync  lOr  ner  least  tnan  a  DlOgrapny,  IS  DCUeved 

(1693);  Dvnft,Bibl.deaauteun  ecdSnaatiquee  duXVlU  nicU  to  have  been  composed  by  Kadbodus,  who  became 

(1719);  NicfeRON.  Jf  Anoire* pour  eervir  it  r««totre  (Paris.  1727-  Bishop  of  Noyon  in  1067.   In  those  days,  too,  the  aim 

n^tsi^^';  ''^i^^'.  l^VTl^l^'.  Ici^ilS  :  <rf  such  write«  was  the  edification  i*ti.er  than  the 

XIII;  Schr6dl  in  Kircherdex.t  s.  v.  instruction  of  the  faithful,  SO  we  find  m  this  hfe  the 

F.  M.  RuDOE.  usual  wonders  related  in  such  pious  works  of  that 

Eeriod  with  but  few  historic  facts.    It  is  certain, 
owever,  that  St.  Godeberta  was  looked  upon  as  a 

a  few  leagues  from  Amiens,  in  France;  d.  about  the  protector  in  the  time  of  plagues  and  catastrophes  and 

b^nnins  of  the  eighth  century,  at  Noyon  (Oise),  the  we  have  every  reason  to  hold  that  this  practice  was 

ancient  Koviomagus.    She  was  very  carefully  edu-  justified  by  the  results  that  followed  her  solemn  invo- 

cated,  her  parents  oeing  of  noble  rank  and  attached  to  cation.    In  1866  a  violent  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever 

the  court  of  Kin^  Clovis  II.    When  the  question  of  her  occurred  in  Noyon,  decimating  the  town.    On  23 

marriage  was  being  discussed  in  presence  of  the  king,  Mav  in  that  year,  one  of  the  leading  citizens,  whose 

the  saintly  Bishop  of  Noyon,  Eligius,  as  if  by  inspira-  child  had  just  been  stricken  down,  approacned  the 

tion,  presented  Godeberta  with  a  golden  rins  and  cur6  of  the  church  and  recalling  the  favours  that  had 

expressed  the  hope  that  she  might  devote  her  hfe  to  been  granted  in  ages  past  to  the  clients  of  the  saint, 

the  service  of  God.    Gobederta,  moved  by  the  Holy  earnestly  asked  tmit  the  shrine  containing  her  relics 

Spirit  and  feeling  her  heart  suddenly  filled  with  Divine  should  be  exposed  and  a  novena  of  intercession  begun, 

love,  turned  away  from  the  bright  prospects  before  her  This  was  done  the  following  day,  and  forthwith  the 

and  refused  the  advantageous  oners  that  had  b^eni  scourge  ceased;  it  was  officially  certified  that  not  an- 

made  by  her  noble  suitors.    She  declared  her  willing-  other  case  of  typhoid  ^(XMSurred.    In  thanksgiving. 

ness  to  be  the  snouse  of  Christ  and  asked  the  holy  a  solemn  procession  took  place  under  the  guidance  ot 

prelate  to  allow  her  to  assume  the  veil.    In  a  short  the  bish()p,  Mgr  Gignoux,  a  few  weeks  later,  the 

time  all  opposition  to  her  wishes  disappeared  and  she  relics  of  St.  Godeberta  being  carried  triumphantly 

entered  on  her  new  life  under  the  guidance  of  St.  through  the  town.    A  beautiful  statue  of  the  saint,  in 

Elifius.    The  King  of  the  Franks  was  so  impressed  the  cathedral  of  Noyon,  which  was  blessed  by  the 

by  ner  conduct  and  her  seal  that  he  made  her  a  pres-  bishop  on  25  February,  1867,  perpetuated  the  memory 

ent  of  the  small  palace  which  he*  had  at  Noyon,  to-  of  this  wonderful  event. 


in  her  new  home  a  convent,  ot  which  she  became  the  }ff^^^'  Gf  f^^^*  ]^m  ^^~^*  Cobblet,  Hagiographie 

superioress.    Here  she  passed  the  remainder  of  her  »-A»»»«"»ll  (1870),  660-69.  MacEhmiaw 

hfe  in  prayer  and  soUtuae,  save  when  the  call  of  char-  a     r^  '  ^'^^^^^^^^' 

ity  or  relmon  brought  her  forth  amonjg  the  people,        .Oodegrand,  Saint.    See  Chrodegang,  Saint. 
many  of  ^om  were  still  ^unk  in  the  vices  of  pagan-        Oodelina  (Godbltva),  Saint,  b.  at  Hondeforte-lez- 

ism.    She  was  remarkable  in  particular  for  the  con-  Boulogne,  c.  1049;  d.  at  Glustelles,  6  July,  1070.   The 

Btant  penances  and  fasts  to  which  she  subjected  her-  youn^sst  of  the  three  children  bom  to  Hemfrid,  sei^ 

self.    She  had  a  wonderful  faith  in  the  efficacy  of  that  eur  of  Wierre-E^ffroy,  and  his  wife  Ogina,  Godehna 

ancient  practice  of  the  early  Christians — the  sign  of  was  accustomed  as  a  child  to  exercises  of  piety  and 

the  cross,  and  it  is  recorded,  that  on  one  occasion,  in  was  soon  distinguished  for  a  solidity  of  virtue  extraor- 

676,  during  the  episcopacy  of  St.  MommelinuSj  when  dinary  for  one  of  her  years.   The  poor  flocked  from 

the  town  was  threatened  with  total  destruction  by  all  sides  to  the  young  girl,  whose  desires  to  satisfy 


GODET  624  GODFREY 

their  necessities  often  involved  her  in  difficulties  with         Fuqust  in  La  France  PontificaU  (Paris,  s.  d.),  s.  v.  Ckanra: 

her  father's  steward  and  even  with  her  pious  father  ^"T'p^w ?pS& ^JSyS*'';^^- (P»™i,^V  BAumm. 

himself.    By  her  eighteenth  year  the  6ime  of  her  ^"^^  ^^~^CPar«.  i866);8AiNrfiMON^Af|mg^^ 

beauty  and  admirable  quaUti^  ^d  roread  far  and        ctodfather.    See  Sponbor. 
wide  through  Artois  and  even  mto  Flanders,  and  many  «i^«ouiu 

suitors  presented  themselves;  but,  the  decision  being        Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Duke  of  Lower  Lorraine  and 
left  with  Godelina,  she  persisted  in  the  resolution  she  first  King  of  Jerusalem,  son  of  Eustache  II,  Count  of 
had  made  of  renouncing  the  world  for  the  cloister.  Boulogne,  and  of  Ida,  daughter  of  Godfrey  the  Beard- 
One  of  the  yoimg  noblemen,  Bertolf  of  Ghistelles,  ed,  Duke  of  Lower  Lorraine ;  b.  probably  at  Boulogne- 
determined  to  leave  nothing  undone,  invoked  the  in-  sur-Mer,  1060;  d.  at  Jerusalem,  18  July,  1100  (accord- 
fluence  of  her  father's  suzerain,  Eustache  II,  Count  of  ing  to  a  thirteenth-century  chronicler,  he  was  bom  at 
Boulogne,  whose  representations  proved  successful.  Baisy,  in  Brabant;  see  Haigner^,  M^moires  lus  k  la 
After  the  wedding  Bertolf  and  his  bride  set  out  for  Sorbonne,  Paris,  1868,  213).    The  history  of  his  early 
Ghistelles,  where,  however,  Godelina  found  a  bitter  years  has  been  distorted  by  legend,  according  to  whico 
and  unrelenting  enemy  in  BertolTs  mother,  who  he  slew  with  his  own  hand  the  anti-king  Rodolphe  at 
induced  her  son  to  forsake  his  wife  on  the  very  day  of  the  battle  of  Moelsen  (1080),  and  was  the  first  to  enter 
their  arrival,  and  immured  GodeUna  in  a  narrow  cell,  Rome  after  it  had  been  besieged  by  Henry  IV  (1084). 
with  barelv  enough  nourishment  to  support  life.  What  appears  certain  is  that  he  was  chosen  to  succeed 
Even  this,  however,  the  saint  contrived  to  snare  with  his  uncle  Godfrey  the  Hunchback,  Duke  of  Lower 
the  poor.    Under  the  influence  of  his  mother,  Bertelf  Lorraine,  who  was  assassinated  in  1076.    But  Henry 
spread  abroad  foul  calumnies  about  his  bride.    After  IV  took  Lorraine,  leaving  to  Godfrey  only  the  mar- 
some  time  GodeUna  managed  to  escape  to  the  home  quessate  of  Antwerp.     As  a  vassal  of  tne  German 
of  her  father,  who  roused  the  Bishop  of  Toumai  and  Empire  Godfrey  took  sides  with  the  army  of  Henry  IV 
Soissons  and  the  Count  of  Flanders  to  threaten  Bertolf  in  the  War  of  the  Investitures  and  followed  the  emperor 
with  the  terrors  of  Church  and  State.    Seemingly  re-  on  his  expedition  to  Italy  against  Gregory  VII  (108O- 
pentant,  he  promised  to  restore  his  wife  to  her  rightful  1084).    In  the  interval  ne  was  compeUea  te  return  in  . 
position,  but  her  return  to  Ghistelles  was  the  signal  for  order  to  defend  his  possessions  which  had  been  at- 
a  renewal  of  persecution  in  an  ag^vated  form.   After  tacked  by  the  Count  of  Namur,  and  about  1089  Henry 
about  a  year  Bertolf,  again  ^^ng  sorrow,  easily  IV  restored  to  him  the  legacy  of  Godfrey  the  Hunch- 
effected  a  reconciliation,  but  only  to  avoid  the  suspi-  back  by  creating  him  Dukp  of  Lower  Lorraine.    The 
cion  of  the  crime  he  was  mediteting.     During,  nis  new  duke's  authority  was  extremely  weak  when  op- 
absence  two  of  his  servants  at  his  direction  strangled  posed  to  the  feudal  power  which  haa  developed  in  the 
Godelina  causing  it  to  appear  that  she  had  died  a  nat-  vicinity.    At  this  time  the  whole  north  of  France  was 
ural  death.    Bertolf  soon  contracted  a  second  mar-  aroused  by  the  letter  of  Urban  II,  who  besoiight  the 
riage,  but  the  daughter  bom  to  him  was  blind  from  nobility  of  Flanders  to  go  on  the  Crusade.    Uodfrey 
birth.    Her  miraculous  recovexy  of  sight  through  the  was  among  the  first  to  take  the  cross,  together  with 
intercession  of  St.  Godelina  so  affected  her  father  that,  his  two  brothers,  Eustache  and  Baldwin  (1096).^   To 
now  truly  converted,  he  journeyed  to  Rome  to  obtain  procure  resources  he  sold  or  pledged  many  of  his  es- 
absolution  for  his  crime,  undertook  a  pilgrimage  to  the  tates.    Many  nobles  at  once  arrayed  themselves  under 
Holy  Land,  and  finally  entered  the  monastezy  of  St-  his  banner,  and  about  15  August,  1096,  he  departed  at 
Winoc  at  Bergues,  where  he  expiated  his  sins  oy  a  life  the  head  of  10,000  knighte  and  30,000  foot  soldiers, 
of  severe  penance.    At  his  desire  his  daughter  erected  His  army  was  composed  of  Walloons  and  Flemings, 
at  Ghistelles  a  Benedictine  monastery  dedicated  to  St.  ''  Bom  at  the  frontier  of  the  two  nations  and  himself 
Godelina,  which  she  entered  as  a  religious.    Devotion  speaking  both  langua^s",  he  served  as  the  link  be- 
to  St.  Godelina  dates  from  1084,  when  her  body  was  tween  t£em,  and  by  his  authority  appeased  the  quar- 
exhumed  by  the  Bishop  of  Toumai  and  Noyon,  and  rels  provoked  by  their  national  self-esteem  (Otto  oi 
her  relics,  recognized  at  various  times  by  ecclesiastical  Freising^n,  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.,  XX,  250), 
authority,  are  to  be  found  in  various  cities  of  Belgium.        The  crusaders  reached  the  valley  of  the  Danube  and 
DBaTOMBM.Fi«»d«OTiiu«dMdu>^^  iu  Scptembcr,  1096,  arrived  at  Tollenburch  (Tulin, 

^'l^JSS:^%'ff^:rtlS%f{  S^'^Z"  f:^7:^  *  ^  «>ot«^  west  of  Vienna)   on  the  frontier  of  Hungary  where 

they  learned  of  the  disaster  which  had  befallen  the 

F.  M.  RxTDOE.  followers  of  Peter  the  Hermit.    Before  entering  Hun- 

gary  Godfrey  negotiated  with  King  Coloman  for  a  free 
Oodet  des  Marais,  Paul^  Bishop  of  Chartres,  passage  through  his  dominions.  He  himself  met  the 
France;  b.  at  Talcy,  near  Blois,  1647;  d.  at  Chartres,  king,  who  welcomed  him  warmly,  but  took  Godfrey's 
1709.  He  studied  at  Saint-Sulpice,  took  the  doctorate  brother  Baldwin  as  a  hosta^,'together  with  his  wife, 
of  theology  at  the  Sorbonne,  was  ordained,  and  be-  During  the  march  through  Hungary  (October,  1096) 
came  (1677)  superior  of  the  "S^minaire  des  Trent©-  the  strictest  discipline  prevailed  among  the  crusaders, 
Trois".  Louis  XIV  nominated  him  (1690)  to  the  See  to  whom  the  inhabitants  furnished  provisions  in 
of  Chartres,  but  owing  to  difficulties  between  France  abundance.  After  crossing  the  Save,  the  armyentered 
and  the  Holy  See  the  papal  confirmation  came  only  the  territory  of  the  Byzantine  Empire.  At  Belgrade 
on  21  Jan.,  1692.  As  spiritual  du^ector  of  Mme  de  Godfrey  received  a  letter  from  the  Emperor  Alexius  I 
Maintenon,  for  whom  he  wrote  "Lettres  de  direc-  (Comnenus),  promising  him  assistance  if  the  cmsaders 
tion",  Godet  used  his  influence  to  have  Mm©  Guyon  would  refrain  from  violence.  At  Nish  and  at  Steraia 
removed  from  Saint-Cyr.  A  stanch  opponent  of  (Sofia),  they  found  abundant  provisions  and  presents 
Quietism,  he  signed  with  Noailles  and  Bossuet  the  from  the  emperor.  After  a  nalt  of  ei^t  days  at 
famous  "Declaratio"  condemning  F^nelon's  "Max-  Philippopolis  (26  Nov.-3  Dec.)  the  araiy  approached 
imes  des  saints"  (1697),  and  wrote  (1698)  several  Adrianople  (8  December)  and  marched  towards  the 
ordonnances,  or  pastoral  letters,  against  the  pseudo-  Hellespont.  Here  occurred  the  first  conflict  between 
mystical  theories  of  Molinos,  F^nelon,  and  Mme  Guyon.  the  crusaders  and  the  imperial  government.  Accord- 
He  also  did  much  to  destroy  Jansenism  in  France,  ing  to  Albert  of  Aix.  Godfrey,  learning  that  the 
refuted  the  caa  de  conscience  (1703),  commanded  emperor  held  in  captivity  Hugues,  a  prince  of  France, 
obedience  to  the  papal  constitution  of  Clement  XI  demanded  the  latter's  freedom,  and  on  the  emperor's 
(1705),  and  severely  censured  Ju^nin's  "  Institutions  refusal  pillaged  the  neighbourhood  of  Salabria  (Selym- 
th^logiques"  (1708).  His  zeal  and  charity,  as  well  bria).  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  French  prince  was 
as  his  orthodoxy,  were  set  forth  in  an  epitaph  written  not  a  prisoner,  but  Godfrey  and  his  army  arrived 
by  his  successor,  Monstiers  de  Mdrinville.  before  (Constantinople  (23  Dec.,  1096)  in  a  hostile 


GODFREY 


625 


G0DFBE7 


mood,  and  dosely  watched  bv  the  imperial  troops. 
Warned  a^nst  the  emperor,  Godfrey  kept  away  from 
the  imperial  palace. 

However,  during  the  Christmas  festivities,  he  con- 
sented to  cross  the  Golden  Horn,  and  went  into  camp 
at  Pera  (29  Dec).  The  chief  desire  of  Alexius  was 
to  prevent  the  junction  of  Godfrey's  army  with  that 
of  Bohemond,  leader  of  the  Normans  of  Italy;  Alexius 
had  hoped  to  induce  Godfrey  to  swear  fealty  to  him 
and  then  to  remove  his  army  to  Asia.  ^  Throughout 
the  winter  Godfrey  resisted  the  imperial  demands. 
At  last,  2  April,  1097  (the  date  given  by  Anna  Com- 
nena  is  preferable  to  13  January  given  by  Albert  of 
Aix;  see  Chalandon,  "Alexis  Conmftne",  179),  on  the 
approach  of  Bohemond,  the  emperor  decided  to  act. 
and  cut  off  the  supplies  of  the  crusaders.  Several 
combats  ensued,  and,  despite  the  contrary  assertion 
of  Albert  of  Aix,  Godfrey  must  have  been  defeated. 
Anna  Comnena  states  that  he  then  consented  to  do 
homage  to  the  emperor,  promising  to  restore  him  any 
former  imperii  possessions  which  he  might  wrest 
from  the  infidels.  Some  days  later  the  Lorraine  army 
was  conveyed  to  Pelekan  on  the  Gulf  of  Nicomedia, 
and  at  the  end  of  April  all  the  leaders  of  the  crusade 
were  reunited.  Godfrey  appears  to  have  acted  as 
peacemaker,  and  he  induced  Kavmond  IV,  of  St-Gilles, 
Count  of  Toulouse,  to  swear  tealty  to  the  emperor. 
Far  from  directing  the  crusade,  he  appears  to  have 
taken  an  obscure  part  in  the  council  of  leaders.  He 
took  part  in  the  siege  of  Ni^sea  and  the  battle  of 
Dorylffium  (1  July,  1097). 

Durine  the  crossinjg  of  Asia  Minor  he  was  seriously 
woimdea  while  huntmg.  At  the  siege  of  Antioch  he 
consented  to  obey  the  orders  of  Bohemond,  and  after  the 
capture  of  the  city  he  had  to  give  up  the  castle  which 
his  followers  had  taken  (July,  1098).  On  the  way  to 
Jerusalem,  while  others  cjuarrelled,  Godfrey  marched 
towards  Edessa,  where  his  brother,  Baldwin^  had  just 
established  himself.  He  returned  from  this  expedi- 
tion in  October,  1098,  and  before  entering  Antioch, 
with  only  twelve  knights,  put  to  flight  one  hundred 
and  fifty  Turks.  According  to  the  tradition  repeated 
by  Guibert  de  Nogent  (Gesta,  VII,  11),  hehaa,  with 
a  stroke  of  the  sword,  hewn  a  Turkish  horseman 
throu^  the  middle  so  tnat  his  body  fell  in  two  equal 
halves.  Havine;  returned  to  Antioch,  he  took  part, 
together  with  Robert  Courte-Heuse,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, in  the  council  of  arbitration  assembled  to 
reconcile  Bohemond  and  Raymond  of  St-Gilles.  After 
23  November,  1098,  a  number  of  the  crusaders  left 
Antioch  with  Raymond,  but  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  and 
Robert,  Count  of  Flanders,  began  to  march  on 
Jerusalem  only  at  the  end  of  February,  1099.  After  be- 
sieging Gibel  they  rejoined  the  main  army  before  Arka 
(12  March),  were  at  Tripoli  (13  May),  Beirut  (19  May), 
Ca'sarea  (30  May),  and  reached  Jerusalem  on  7  June. 

Godfrev  and  his  army  took  an  active  part  in  the 
siege  of  the  Holy  City.  His  camp  was  pitched  to  the 
westward.  On  15  July,  1099,  about  nine  in  the  mom- 
ng,  Godfrey  and  his  brother  Eustache  placed  a  mov- 
able tower  agkinst  the  walls  and  were  the  first  to  enter 
the  city.  During  the  ensuing  massacre  of  Mussul- 
mans, Godfrey,  thinking  only  of  his  vow,  stripped 
himself  of  his  arms,  and,  Dareu)oted  and  in  his  under- 
garments, made  the  round  of  the  ramparts,  and  then 
went  to  pray  at  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  crusaders 
were  soon  intent  on  providing  a  king  for  the  new 
conquest.  Several  bishops  offered  the  crown  to  Ray- 
mond of  St-Gilles,  who  refused,  declaring  ''that  the 
title  of  king  seemed  to  him  out  of  place  in  that  city" 
(Raimond  de  Aguilers,  Histor.  Occid.  des  Crois.,  Ill, 
301).  Robert  Courte-Heuse  being  urged  declined  in 
like  manner.  All  refused  to  accept  the  burden  which 
the  new  royalty  must  prove.  Finally,  Godfrey,  being 
unanimously  elected,  accepted  "  for  the  love  of 
Christ"  (22  July).  According  to  the  chronicles  of 
those  times,  he  refused  to  wear  the  crown  "  through 
VI.— 40 


respect  for  Him  who  had  been  crowned  in  that  place 
witn  the  Crown  of  Thorns".  Indeed,  he  seems  never 
to  have  borne  the  title  of  king  (which  only  appears 
under  his  successor),  and  to  have  been  content  with 
that  of  Duke  and  Advocate  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 

It  may  be  that  he  acted  in  this  manner  through 
respect  for  the  cler^,  who  regarded  the  new  conquest 
as  the  property  of  all  Christendom,  and  some  of 
whom  were  averse  to  the  election  of  a  king  (Raimond 
de  Aguilers,  Hist.  Occid.  Crois^  III,  295).  Godfrey 
seems  to  have  always  considered  himself  the  protector 
of  the  Church.  Not  only  did  he  make  so  many 
donations  that  William  of  Tyre  despairs  of  enu- 
merating them,  not  only  did  he  cede  a  fourth  of  Jaffa 
(Joppa),  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  tower  of  David 
to  the  patriarch  Daimbert,  but  he  consented,  as  did 
Bohemond,  to  receive  investiture  from  the  patriarch 
(William  of  Tyre,  Historia,  IX,  XV).  Godfrey  dis- 
played great  energy  in  meeting  the  many  difficulties 
which  threatened  the  new  State,  but  he  was  destined 
to  succumb  to  sickness.  On  12  August,  1099,  having 
rallied  the  crusading  forces,  he  gained  a  victory  at 
Ascalon,  thus  preserving  Palestine  from  the  Egyptian 
invasion. 

Assisted  by  the  Pisans.  he  rebuilt  the  city  of  Jaffa, 
which  became  a  port  of  arrival  for  crusaders.  He 
signed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Venetian  fleet, 
agreeing  to  besiege  Acre,  but  was  attacked  by  the 
plague  at  Csesarea,  10  June.  Aftet  a  short  stay  at 
the  hospital  which  he  had  founded  at  Jaffa,  he  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem,  where  he  died  on  18  July,  hav- 
ing named  his  brother  Baldwin  as  his  successor.  He 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

The  tomb  of  Godfrey  was  destroyed  in  1808,  but  at 
that  time  a  large  sword,  said  to  have  been  hb,  was 
still  shown.  Legend  soon  laid  claim  to  him;  in  the 
contemporary  accounts  of  the  First  Crusade  (Gesta 
Francorum,  Raimond  de  Aguilers,  Foucher  de  Char- 
tres,  Anna  Comnena,  etc.)>  he  is  portrayed  as  the 
perfect  type  of  a  Christian  knight.  Tall  of  stature, 
with  pleasmg  countenance,  and  with  so  courteous  a 
manner  ''that  he  seemed  more  a  monk  than  a 
knight''  (Robert  the  Monk,  Hist.  Occid.  Crois.,  Ill, 
731),  in  the  hour  of  dan^r  he  showed  admirable 
courage.  As  a  zealous  Christian,  he  was  among  the 
first  to  t&ke  the  cross,  accomplished  his  vow  witnout 
the  slightest  deviation,  and  at  great  personal  cost 
accept^  the  defence  of  the  new  conciuest.  Such  is 
Godfrey  as  he  appears  in  actual  history.  In  the 
chronicle  of  Albert  of  Aix  (d.  1120,  edit.  Hist.  Occid. 
Crois.,  IV),  the  author  already  exhibits  a  tendency  to 
put  the  figure  of  Godfrey  in  the  foreground  and  to  at- 
tribute to  him,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  direction  of  the 
crusade.  Albert  of  Aix  and  Guibert  de  Nogent  attri- 
bute to  (Godfrey  exploits  of  an  epic  character  (Guibert 
de  Nogent,  Gesta,  Vll,.ll).  When,  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  Jean  d'Ibelin  and  Philip  of  Novara  edited 
the  ''Aifiises''  of  Jerusalem,  they  referred  to  Gckifrey 
as  a  law-making  king,  and  attributed  to  him  a  code, 
the  "Letters  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre",  which  never 
existed.  Indeed,  at  that  time,  and  perhaps  as  early 
as  the  twelfth  century,  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  had 
become,  like  Roland  and  Arthur,  a  hero  of  the  chan- 
sons de  geete.  The  trouvbres  provided  him  with  a 
m3rthical  origin,  making  him  a  descendant  of  the 
legendary  '^Kni^t  of  the  Swan",  whose  feats  he  is 
made  to  repeat,  and.  after  relating  the  events  of  his 
childhood,  oontinuea  his  adventures  to  the  taking  of 
Jerusalem.  Under  Philip  Augustus,  Graindor  of  Douai 
reconstructed  the  works  of  a  certain  Richard  the 
Pilgrim,  and  composed  a  complete  history  of  this 
crusade:  (1)  "Elioxe",  ed.  Todd  (Baltimore,  1889); 
(2)  "Beatrix",  ed.  Hippeau  (Paris,  1868);  (3)"An- 
tioche",  ed.  P.  Paris  (Paris,  1848);  (4)  "Jerusalem", 
ed.  Hippeau  (Paris,  1868);  see  L.  Gautier,  "Biblio- 
graphic des  chansons  de  gestes"  (Paris,  1897).  In 
the  fourteenth  century,  all  these  poems  were  collected 


GODFBIT 


626 


GOETZ 


under  the  title  of  ''Roman  du  chevalier  au  Cjrgne'' 
(ed.  de  Reififenberg,  Brussels,  1846-59). 

BBaTBiG,  Gottfried  von  Bouillon  vor  dem  KreuMzQge  in  TTcsl- 
deutache  Zeitschrift  fUr  GeschichU  und  Kunst,  XVII;  Haqbn- 
mTBB,  Chronologie  de  la  premiire  croiaade  (PariB,  1902);  Idbm, 
BjnatuJUB  el  eharta  ad  hitiariam  primi  belli  aaeripertinentea  (Inns- 
bniok,  1901);  Pirbnnb,  Hiatoire  de  Bdgique  (Bnuaels,  1901),  I; 
ViTAUiA*.  God£froy  de  BouiUon  (Tours,  1874);  Bbtiii,  Vita 
Godtfridi  BidUonia  (Marbur|(,  1874);  Chaulndon,  Euai  eur  U 
rtgne  d^ Alexia  Comnkne  (F^utb,  1900);  Dodu,  Hiatorie  dea  inati- 
tutiona  monarehiquea  dana  le  royaume  latin  die  Jhuaalem  (Paris, 
1894);  GoNOBB,  The  Kingdom  of  Jeruaalem  (London,  1897); 
R5HBICHT,  Geachiehte  dea  KOnigreicha  Jeruaalem  flnnsbnick, 
1898);  PiQBONNBAU,  Le  eyde  de  la  croiaade  el  la  famule  de  Bouil- 
lon (Fkris,  1877).  Louis  Br£hier. 

Godfrey  of  Fontaines  (Qodefeudus  de  Fontibus. 
Doctor  Venerandus),  a  scholastic  philosopher  ana 
theologian;  bom  near  Li^  within  the  first  half  of  the 
thirt^nth  century,  he  became  a  canon  of  his  native 
diocese,  and  also  of  Paris  and  Colore,  and  was  elected, 
in  1300,  to  the  See  of  Toumai,  which  he  declined.  He 
tau^t  theology  at  the  University  of  Paris  during  the 
last  quarter  oFthe  century,  was  a  M agister ,  or  doctor, 
of  theology  and  a  member  of  the  Sorbonne,'  to  which 
he  left  a  valuable  collection  of  MSS.  He  is  the  author 
of  a  notable  collection  of  disputations,  ''XIV  Quod- 
Ubeta'',  which  show  him  to  have  been  not  merely  a 
distinguished  theologian  and  philosopher,  but  also  a 
canonist,  jurist,  moralist,  ana  controversialist,  who 
took  an  active  part  in  the  various  ecclesiastical,  doc- 
trinal, and  disciplinary  disputes  that  stirred  Paris  at 
that  period.  In  regard  to  the  privileges  of  the  men- 
dicant orders,  Godfrey  opposed  St.  Thomas,  but  for  the 
Angelic  Doctor's  teaching  he  professed  a  sincere  ad- 
miration. The  bold  "  innovations ' '  of  Thomism  were 
just  then  on  their  trial ;  they  were  condemned  by  Tem- 

Pier.  Archbishop  of  Paris  (1277).  and  opposed  bv 
eckham  and  man^  others.  Godfrey  was  a  staunch 
supporter  of  Thomism,  yet  sufficiently  original  to  dif- 
fer m  mamr  things  from  the  master's  views,  e.  g.,  the 
principle  of  individuation,  and  the  distinction  between 
essence  and  existence  in  material  things. 

The  "XIV  Quodlibeta"  of  Godfrey,  extensively 
studied  and  multiplied  in  MS.  form  in  the  medieval 
schools,  are  at  present  in  course  of  being  published 
for  the  first  time.  A  critical  edition  of  the  first  four 
of  them  has  already  appeared  in  the  series  "Les 
Philosophes  Beiges,  Textes  et  Etudes"  (JI,  "Les 
quatre  premiers  Quodlibets  de  Godefroid  de  Fon- 
taines", by  de  Wulf  and  Peker,  Louvain,  1904).  The 
remaining  Quodlibeta  (V-XIV)  will  form  vols.  Ill 
and  IV  of  the  same  series;  voL  V  is  to  contain  studies 
on  Godfrey  by  de  Wulf,  de  Munnynck,  and  Van  Roel. 

Db  Wult,  Etudea  aur  la  vie  lea  mivrea  et  Vinfluenee  de  Gode- 
troid  de  Fontainea  (Louv&id  and  Paris,  1904);  Idem,  Hiatoire  de 
la  vhHoaophie  midUvale  (Louvain,  2nd  ed..  1905);  Idbic,  Hie' 
toire  de  la  phUoaopkie  aeolaatique  dana  lea  Paya-Baa.  etc  (Lou- 
vain and  Fkris,  1896);  Turnbb,  Hialory  of  PhUoaophy  (Boiston, 
1903).  P.  COFPBT. 

Godfrey  of  Viterbo,  German  writer  of  the  twelfth 
century.  Nothine  is  known  as  to  the  place  or  date 
of  his  birth,  but  ne  received  his  education  at  Bam- 
beig,  whither  he  was  taken  by  Lothair  in  1133.  At 
an  early  age  he  displayed  great  activity  as  one  of 
tJie  clergy  at  the  court  of  Cozirad  III  and  later  of  Fred- 
erick I,  accompanying  the  latter  on  many  of  his  cam- 
paigns, and  frequentiv  fulfilling  for  him  diplomatic 
missions.  As  a  rewara  for  his  services  at  Court,  lands 
were  bestowed  on  him  in  fief  at  Viterbo,  probablv  in 
1169.  During  his  fort^  vears  as  notary  and  chaplain 
to  the  Emperor  FredencK,  he  displayed  a  multifarious 
activity  at  Court.  Among  the  personaees  there  he 
was  particularly  attracts  towards  the  youthful 
Heniy  VI.  He  lived  much  in  Italy,  spending  his  last 
days  at  Viterbo.  The  year  of  his  death  has  not  been 
ascertained.  In  the  politico-ecclesiastical  conflicts  of 
his  time  he  sided  with  the  emperor,  without,  however, 
declaring  himself  inimical  to  the  pope.  He  blames 
Pope  ^exander's   predecessor,    Hadrian,    for   the 


schism,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  had  allied  himself 
with  the  Greeks  and  Normans  against  the  emperor. 
His  works  were  for  the  most  part  composed  (Hirine 
journeys.  About  1183  he  compiled  for  the  use  of 
schools  his  "  Speculum  regum '',  a  history  of  the  world 
beginning  with  the  deluge,  intended  to  reconcile  the 
Romans  with  the  Germans.  His  metrical  account  of 
the  achievements  of  Frederick  (Gesta'Friderici),  ex- 
tending to  1181,  is  a  separate  work,  which,  thoi^h  not 
free  from  confusion,  contains  some  valuaole  intorma- 
tion.  His  "Memoria  Sfficul9rum"  is  a  histoiy  of  the 
world  written  partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  verse,  and 
was  completea  in  1185.  In  the  same  year  he  be^an 
work  on  ids  "  Pantheon '',  a  history  of  the  world  which 
enjoyed  an  unmerited  fame  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  author,  delisting  as  he  does  m  fables,  has  gath- 
ered much  material  for  the  history  of  folk-lore.  His 
works — some  of  them  only  in  extracts — ^are  to  be  found 
in  the  **  Monumenta  Germaniie  hlstorica :  Scriptores ' ', 
XVII. 

UufANN,  Gottfried  von  Viterbo,  diaaertation  (Gdttinaen.  1863); 
Wattbnbach,  DeutaehUmda  Geaehichtaauellen  im  M.  A.  (6th 
ed.,  Berlin,  1894),  II,  290  sqq.  FraNZ  KaMPERS. 

Qodinei.    See  Wading,  Michael. 
Godmother.    See  Sponsor. 

Oodric,  the  name  of  two  Abbots  of  Croyland,  Gon- 
Ric  I,  870-941.  He  was  the  successor  of  the  Abbot 
Theodore,  who  had  been  slain  by  the  Danes.  The 
heathen  had  sacked  ejkd  destroyed  the  abbev,  dese- 
crating the  shrines  and  driving  out  the  monks.  On 
their  return  they  imanimously  elected  Godric  abbot, 
in  spite  of  his  reluctance.  Soon  after  his  election,  at 
the  request  of  the  prior  of  Ancarig,  Godric  went  with 
his  monks  to  clear  away  the  ruins  of  Medehamsted 
Abbey  (Peterborough),  to  bury  the  coipses  of  its 
abbot  and  ei^ty  monks,  whom  the  Danes  had 
murdered,  and  to  erect  a  memorial  near  their  grave. 
Evil  times  fell  on  Croyland  during  his  abiMicy. 
Beorred,  Kin^  of  Mercia,  under  pretext  of  drivine  out 
the  Danes,  seized  the  lands  and  possessions  of  all  the 
monasteries  in  his  dominions,  among  which  was 
Croyland.  Beorred  died  in  874.  and  was  succeeded 
by  one  of  his  servants,  Ceolwuif ,  who  demanded  a 
thousand  i>ounds  from  the  Abbey  of  Croyland,  and 
reduced  it  to  such  poverty,  that  the  monks  were 
forced  to  sell  nearly  all  their  plate.  So  poor  did  the 
house  become  that  none  would  join  it,  and,  at  Godric's 
death  in  941,  only  five  of  its  monks  were  left. 

GoDBic  II,  1005-18,  was  no  less  unfortunate  than 
his  namesake.  King  Ethelred  the  Redeless  first  ex- 
acted from  it  large  sums  of  mone;^,  and  in  the  fourth 
year  of  Godric's  rule  the  Danish  jarl,  Turkil,  arrived 
with  a  fleet,  demanded  a  ransom,  and  ravaged  the 
manors  of  the  abbey.  In  1013  the  Danish  king, 
Sweyn,  devastated  the  neighbouring  country.  Crov- 
land,  which  was  luckily  isolated  by  floods,  became  the 
refuge  of  monks,  secular  priests,  and  layfolk,  whose 
8upi>ort  was  a  heavy  burden  on  the  resources  of  the 
abbey.  Swesm  extorted  two  large  ransoms  within 
three  months,  while  the  kind's  officers  threatened  to 
complete  its  ruin  because  it  supported  the  Danes. 
In  despair  Godric  and  his  monks  engaged  as  protects 
Leofwm,  brother  of  Leofric.  Eiarl  ofLeicester,  who,  in 
return  for  a  grant  of  lands,  protected  them  till  his 
death  in  1017.  The  same  year  the  accession  of  Cnut 
brou^t  peace  to  England,  and  some  relief  to  Crovland. 
Godnc  was  buried  in  the  chapter-house  of  his  abbey. 

Fngulfi  Croulandenaia  Hiatoria  in  Rerum  AtH/licarum  Vetentm 
Tom:  Led.  Fulman  (Oxford,  1684);  Wxlub,  Hietory  of  th* 
Mitred  Parliamentary  AMeuc.  1, 75^  (London,  1718);  Duodau. 
Monaaticon  Anglicanum,  ed.  Calbt  and  ESlxjb,  (London,  1840), 

11,91-2,95.  Lesub  a.  St.  L.  Tokk. 

Qoethals.    See  Henrt  of  Ghent. 

Ooeti,  Marie  Josephine,  second  superior-genen 
of  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  dau^ter  of  Joseph 
Goets  of  Strasburg  and  Marie  Anne  Wagner;  b.  7 
March,  1817;  d.  4  January,  1874;  her  parents  dying 


Qom                     627  ooFninB 

early,  her  education  was  left  to  the  care  of  an  aunt  who  correspondence  with   Vossius  and  other  scholars, 

sent  her  to  school  at  the  Convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Some  of  his  letters  were  printed  by  Colomesius  in  1690, 

Besanoon.    At  first  her  silent,  observant,  and  distaht  and  others,  still  in  manuscript,  are  in  the  British 

attituae  showed  that  she  felt  nerself  out  of  tune  with  Museum  (Addit.  MS.  6394). 

her  surroundings,  but  in  the  second  year  she  threw  Dodd,  Church  Hist^  rBniaaels,  1737-41),  III.  305:  Claken- 

herself  into  school  life  and  earned  alf  before  her  in  r,^VJo^  l^'^liiJ''^^J^viSr'i^  % 

lessons  and  plav.     At  the  age  of  seventeen  she  entered  Angliean  Orders  Diacwued  (London,  1873) ;  GiiiLOW,  Bibl.  Diet, 

the  novitiate  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Montet  and  took  Eng.  Cath.,  ».  v.;  Cooper  mZHrf.  Nat.  Biog.,B.  y.    He  is  also 

her  first  vow«  in  1837.    In  1842  she  wasentrusted  with  '^^^^^  ,^^^1!:^'^^^*^^'^)^'^^^. 

the  charge  of  the  school  at  Besanoon,  which  was  gomg  Ooffa  neaodatuma. 

through  a  difficult  phase.    Her  judicious  management  Edwin  Burton. 
show^  what  might  be  expected  of  her  in  the  luture, 

and  immediately  after  profession  in  1847  she  was  Ooffine,  (or  GofftnI:),  Leonard;  b.  at  Cologne, 

appointed  mistress  of  novices  at  Ck>nflans.    She  con-  or  according  to  some,  at  Broich,  6  December,  1648: 

tmued  in  this  charge,  to  which  was  afterwards  added  d.  11  August,  1719.    At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  entered 

the  government  of  the  house  as  superior,  until  1864,  the  Norbertine  Abbey  of  Steimeld,  in  the  Eifel  district 

when   she    was   named  vicar-general.    The  failing  of  Germanv,  and  commenced  his  two  years  novitiate 

strength  of  the  foimdress  made  it  necessarv  for  her  to  in  July,  1667.    Having  made  his  solemn  profession  on 

have  some  one  at  hand,  to  whom  she  coula  communi-  16  Juhr,  1669,  he  was  sent  for  his  course  of  philosophy 

cate  her  views  for  the  future.    She  foimd  a  full  under-  and  theology  to  the  Norbertine  college  at  Cologne, 

standing  of  them  in  Mother  Josephine  Goetz,  who  was  Ordained  pnest  on  Ember  Saturday  before  Christmas, 

elected  superior-general  in  1865  after  the  death  of  1676,  Gomne  was  sent  to  Dunwald  to  assist  the 

Blessed  Madeleine  Sophie  Barat.                             ^  priests  who  were  charged  with  the  direction  of  the 

Mother  Goetz  governed  as  superior-general  for  nine  parish  and  the  convent  of  Norbertine  canonesses. 

years.    Her  work  was  principally  one  of  consolidation  In  the  same  capacity  he  was  afterwards  sent  to  Ellen, 

and  development  of  what  had  been  established  or  pro-  where  there  was  also  a  convent  of  Norbertine  nuns, 

jected  by  the  foundress.    She  established  a  training  Goffine  remained  four  years  in  each  of  these  places, 

school  at  Conflans  to  prepare  the  young  religious  for  being  recalled  by  the  abbot,  26  February,  1680,  to  M 

their^duties  as  teachers,  and  entrusted  to  a  small  com-  the  office  of  novice  master  in  the  abbey.    He  was  next 

mittee  the  revision  and  adaptation  of  the  curriculum  given  charge  of  the  parish  of  Clarholz,  which  was  incor- 

of  studies  to  the  ^wing  needs  of  the  order.  ^  Durins  porated  with  the  Norbertine  Abbe^  of  the  same  name, 

the  Franco-Prussian  war  and  the  time  of  the  siege  ana  m  the  Diocese  of  OsnabrQck,  for  owing  to  the  dearth  of 

Commune  in  Paris,  Reverend  Mother  Goetz  was  (K)lieed  priests  due  to  the  Lutheran  heresy  and  the  Thirty 

to  withdraw  to  Laval,  that  communications  with  ner  Years  War,  abbots  and  bishops  were  obliged  to  have 

religious  might  not  be  cut  off.    She  employed  the  recourse  to  other  dioceses  and  religious  orders  to  fill 

enforced  leisure  of  those  months  in  collating  and  the  vacancies, 

revising  the  summaries  of  decrees  and  decisions  of  the  Goffine  remained  at  Clarholz  five  3rears  (1680-85), 

gineraf  congregations  of  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  and  was  sent  thence  to  Niederehe,  a  priory  which  the 

eart.    Reverend  Mother  Goetz  made  visitations  of  Abbey  of  Steinfeld  possessed  in  the  Arcndiocese  of  Trier, 

the  houses  then  existing  in  Europe,  as  far  as  time  and  He  remained  in  Niederehe  but  a  very  short  time,  being 

health  permitted — ^but  her  strength  rapidly  failed  and  sent  in  1885  to  assist  the  clergy  of  St.  Lambert's  at 

she  died  from  a  stroke  of  paralysis,  after  a  few  days'  Coesfield,  in  the  Diocese  of  MUnster.    He  left  Coesfeld 

illness.    The  markins  features  of  her  personality  were  in  1 69 1 ,  when,  at  the  urgent  request  of  the  Archbishop 

breadth  of  view  and  rapid  intuition  that  appeared  ofTrier,  he  undertook  the  char^  of  the  parishes,  first  of 

unerring  as  an  instinct,  directness  of  intention  and  Wehr  (1691-94),  then  of  Rhemb6llen  (1694-96),  and 

stren^n  of  purpose  which  lay  concealed  under  a  timid  afterwards  of  Oberstein  on  the  Nahe,  from  December, 

exterior,  but  astonished  by  their  force  when  circum-  1696,  imtil  his  death  in  1719.    While  parish  priest  of 

stances  called  for  prompt  decision  and  action — ^and  a  Oberstein  he  had  also  to  attend  the  Catholics  living  at 

characteristic  grace  of  humility  which  seemed  to  be  her  Weiersbach,  in  the  Diocese  of  Mayence.    The  inhabi- 

distinguishing  supernatural  gift.  tants  of  Oberstein  were  mostly  Protestants,  and  at 

J.  Stuart.  times  Goffine  had  much  annoyance  to  bear  from  them. 

Animated  with  apostolic  zeal,  Goffine  was  all  things 

Goffe  (or  Gough),  Stephen,  Oratorian;  b.  1605:  to  all  men,  and,  as  Dr.  Joseph  Prickartz,  president  of 

d.  at  Paris,  Chiistmas  Day,  1681.    He  was  the  son  qt  the  Norbertine  college  at  Cologne,  wrote,  in  a  sketeh 

Stephen  Gofife,  Protestant  rector  of  Stanmer  in  Sussex,  of  his  life,  "  Goffine  was  a  truly  apostolic  pastor,  filled 

and  was  educated  at  Merton  College,  Oxford,  becom-  with  an  imtiring  zeal  for  souls,  who  edified  everyone 

ing  M.  A.  in  1627.    He  took  orders  and  became  chap-  by  his  word  and  by  his  example.    The  purity  of  his 

lain  to  Colonel  Vere's  regiment  in  the  Low  Countries,  me,  the  integrity  of  his  morals,  the  fervour  of  his  ser- 

Subsequently  the  Earl  of  St.  Alban's  obtained  his  ap-  mons,  the  pteasmg  style  of  his  writings,  commanded 

pointment  as  one  of  the  chaplains  to  Charles  I,  m  the  respect  of  even  the  enemies  of  his  religion.    From, 

which  capacity  he  was  created  D.  D.  in  1636.    He  was  the  rudest  and  most  forward  of  these  he  had  often  to 

often  employed  in  secret  negotiations  in  France,  Flan-  endure  the  bitterest  insults,  but  at  these  he  showed 

ders,  and  Holland.    During  the  Civil  War  he  was  himself  the  more  cheerful,  since  by  them  he  became 

arrested  and  charged  with  attempting  to  rescue  the  the  more  conformable  to  those  who  had  the  happiness 

king,  then  a  prisoner  at  Hampton  Court.    After  the  to  suffer  insults  for  the  name  of  Jesus".    This  is  a 

execution  of  the  king  (whose  death-warrant  was  character  sketeh  of  the  saintly  priest,  not  only  during 

signed  by  Stephen's  brother  William),  he  went  to  the  twenty-three  years  he  worxed  at  Oberstein,  but 

France,  where  he  became  a  Catholic.    Dodd  and  other  even  from  the  day  of  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood. 

CathoHcs  have  disproved  the  story  that  the  Sorbonne  In  the  month  of  July,  1719,  he  returned  to  the  Ab- 

admitted  the  validity  of  his  Anglican  orders.    He  be-  bey  of  Steinfeld  in  order  to  be  present  at  the  feast  of 

came  an  Oratorian  on  14  Jan.,  1651,  at  Notre-Dame-  St.  Norbert  (July  11),  and  to  follow  the  spiritual 

des  Vertues  near  Paris,  where  he  became  superior  in  exercises  during  the  octave.    On  the  Sunday  during 

1655.    Here  helielped  English  exiles,  both  Protest-  the  octave  he  preached  the  panegyric  of  the  holy 

ants  and  Catholics,  usins  his  influence  with  Queen  founder,  and  on  16  July  he  celebrated  the  golden 

Henrietta  Maria  on  their  Behalf;  and  on  her  appoint-  jubilee  of  his  own  religious  profession, 

ment  he  acted  as  tutor  to  the  young  Duke  of  Mon-  After  the  octave  he  returned  to  Oberstein,  and  less 

mouth.    He  was  a  learned  man  and  maintained  a  than  a  month  later  he  rendered  his  well-tried  soul  to 


GOO 


628 


OOLDSH 


God.  Goffine  himself  states  that  he  had  taken  St. 
Norberti  the  founder  of  his  order,  as  his  model,  ''be- 
cause St.  Norbert  cared  and  worked  so  much  for  the 
salvation  of  souls."  Observing  that  so  man^  had 
gone  astray  through  ignorance  of  Catholic  doctrme,  he 
was  most  anxious  and  always  ready  to  instruct  the  peo- 
ple, both  old  and  young,  for  whose  benefit  he  wrote  and 
published  no  fewer  than  ten  books.  While  he  was  at 
Coesfeld  he  wrote  his  well-known  work, ''  H^andpostille 
Oder  Christkathohsche  Unterrichtimgen  aiif  alle  Sonn 
und  Feyer-tagen  des  ganxen  Jahrs"  (brief  commen- 
taries in  the  form  of  c|uestion  and  answer  on  the 
Proper  of  the  Mass,  prmcipally  on  the  Epistle  and 
Gospel  of  the  day).  This  Dook  was  ready  in  1687, 
and  in  1688  it  received  the  imprimatur  of  the  Vicar- 
General  of  Monster,  and  in  1690  the  approbation  of 
Rev.  William  Heimbach,  Norbertine  prior  of  Meer, 
and  of  Rev.  John  Dirking,  Rector  of  the  Jesuit  college 
of  Hildesheim.  The  first  edition,  printed  at  Mayence 
in  1690,  was  soon  exhausted,  and  a  second  edition  was 

Erinted  at  Cologne  in  1692.  Since  then  other  editions 
ave  appeared  at  short  intervals,  and  it  is  said  that 
hardly  any  book,  with  the  exception  of  the  "  Imitation 
of  Christ'^  by  Thomas  k  Kempis,  has  had  as  many 
editions  and  translations  as  Gomne's  "HandpostiUe  . 
As  far  as  can  be  ascertained  translations  have  been 
made  into  Moravian,  Bohemian,  Himgarian,  En^ish, 
French,  Italian,  and  Flemish. 

A  writer  in  "Le  Magasin  Catholique  Illustr6",  sa}rs 
of  the  worth  of  this  book:  "How  many  souls  has  this 
book  not  saved  and  preserved  from  error,  during  the 
last  two  centuries  that  it  has  been  known  in  Germany  7 
Here  is  an  instance:  Wherever  in  this  classical  land  of 
Protestantism  this  book  has  become  popular,  the  door 
was  shut  to  heresy.  Goffine's  instructions,  the  like  of 
which  we  have  nothing  in  France,  gives  the  dogmatic, 
moral,  and  liturgical  teaching  of  the  Church",  etc.  As 
Father  Hattler,  S  J.,  writes:  "The  child  reads  from  it, 
for  father  and  mother;  the  bride  is  presented  with  it  on 
the  day  of  her  wedding;  it  is  given  to  the  emigrant 
when  he  leaves  his  country  for  the  New  World." 
Goffine  also  published  the  following  books :  (1)  "  Ausle- 
gungder  Regel  des  heiligen  Augustinus"  (Cologne, 
1692);  (2)  "Troetbuch  in  Trttbsalen "  (Cologne) ;  (3) 
"Cibus  animffi  matutinalis,  etc."  (Cologne,  1705);  (4) 
''Sermons  for  the  whole  year",  2  vols.  (Nuremberg, 
1705);  (5)  "Erkl&rung  des  Katechismi  Petri  Canisii" 
(Cologne,  1712);  (6)  "Die  LehreChristi"  (Cologne^ 
1715);  (7)  "Kleiner  Kinder-katechismus"  (Cologne, 
1717);  (8)  "Der  Wftchter  des  gOttlichen  Worts" 
(Cologne,  1718);  (9)  "Praxes  Sacrse  seu  modus  expli- 
candi  cffiremonias  per  annum"  (Frankfort,  1719). 

LnBNBABiyT,  Spiritut  LUerariua  Norbert,  (Augsburg,  1771); 
Habtsbkxm,  BiUioUuc.  Colon.  (Colcwne,  1747),  222;  Rabk- 
KAMN,  Nttdirichten  von  dem  Leben  und  den  Schriften  Mlkn^erldnd- 
iteher  SdtrifUUUer  (Manster,  1886),  127-8;  Hundhauren  in 


6tb{.  deVOrdrede  PrimorUrS,  s.  v.  F.   M.   GeTJDENS. 


Ooff  and  Magog.-y-Names,  respectively,  of  a  king 
and  of  his  supposea  kingdom,  mentioned  several  times 
in  chapters  xxxviii  and  xxxix  of  the  Book  of  Ezechiel, 
and  once  in  the  Apocalyose  (xx,  7).  In  the  first 
passage  of  Ezechiel  we  read  the  command  of  Yahweh 
to  the  prophet:  **  Son  of  man,  set  thy  face  against  Gog 
the  land  of  Mago^  .  .  .  and  prophesy  of  him  .  .  .Bo- 
hold,  I  come  against  thee,  O  Goe,  the  chief  prince  of 
[temn,  Vulg.  caput,  Sept.  'Pi^t]  Mosoch  and  Thubal" 
(xxxviii,  2^  3).  A  similar  command  is  foimd  also  at 
the  beginnmg  of  chapter  xxxix.  These  two  chapters 
contain  repeated  reference  to  Gog  and  Magojg,  but 
they  furnish  only  vague  and  uncertain  indications  as 
to  the  identity  of  the  ruler  or  the  location  of  the  coun- 
try. In  chapter  xxxviii  Gog  is  represented  (verses  5 
and  6)  as  beine  accomi>anied  in  his  mvasion  of  the  land 
of  Israel  by  Sie  Persians,  Ethiopians,  and  Libyans, 
Gomer,  and  . . .  the  house  of  Thogorma;  and  in  verse 


15  we  read:  "And  thou  shalt  come  out  of  thy  place 
from  the  northern  parts".  From  the  numbier  and 
variety  of  the  peoples  mentioned  in  this  oonsection 
some  writers  have  mferred  that  the  name  Gogmay  be 
only  a  generic  appellation,  or  fi^^ure,  used  in  FIzechid 
to  a.esignate  the  host  of  the  enemies  of  Israel,  and  in  the 
Apocalypse  to  denote  the  multitude  of  the  foes  of  the 
(Church.  Others  conjecture  that  it  may  be  a  local 
title  expressing  the  royal  dignity,  such^  for  instance, 
as  the  name  Aiaraoh  m  Egypt.  But  it  seems  more 
probable  that  both  names  are  nistorical ;  and  by  some 
scholars  Goe  is  identified  with  the  Lydian  king  called 
by  the  Greeks  Gyges,  who  appears  as  Gu-gu  on  the 
Assyrian  inscriptions.  If  this  be  true,  Magog  should 
be  identified  with  Lydia.  On  the  other  hand,  as 
Mosodi  and  Thubal  were  nations  beloneins  to  Asia 
Minor,  it  would  seem  from  the  text  of  Ssediied  tiiat 
Magog  must  be  in  that  part  of  the  world.  Finally, 
others  with  Josephus  identify  Magog  with  S<^hia, 
but  in  antiquity  this  name  was  us^  to  designate 
vaguely  any  northern  populatbn. 

l^OENDBB  in  Via.,  Did,  deia  Bible,  8.  v.;  VioouBOUXiAfan- 
ud  Biblurue,  10th  ed.  (Pftris.  1896).  II.  748:  Satcb  in  Hast., 
Did,  of  Ihe  BibUt  a.  y.  JamES  F.  DbiSODLL. 

Qolden  Oalf . — ^An  object  of  worship  among  the 
Hebrews,  mention  of  which  occurs  principally  in  Ex., 
xxxii,  where  the  story  of  the  molten  calf  of  Aaion  is 
narrated,  and  in  III  Kings,  xii  (cf .  II  Par.,  xi),  in  con- 
nexion with  the  policy  of  Jeroboam  after  the  schism 
of  the  ten  tribes.  Various  reasons  make  it  probable 
that  the  rendering  "  calf"  is  not  to  be  taken  in  a  strict 
sense,  for  the  Hebrew  term  ^^y  has  a  wider  significar 
tion,  and  it  is  likely  that  in  the  present  case  it  stands 
for  a  youn^  bullock  just  arrived  at  maturity.  Waiv- 
ing all  critical  discussion  as  to  the  sources  embodied  in 
Ex.,  xxxii.  the  main  features  of  the  present  narrative 
are  as  follows:  Becoming  impatient  at  Moses'  long 
delay  on  the  mount,  the  people  ask  Aaion  to  make 
them  a  god  (D%n^K)  or  gods  to  go  before  them.  He 
yields  to  their  solicitations,  ana,  making  use  of  the 
golden  earrings  of  the  women  and  children,  he  causes 
a  "  molten  calf"  or  bull  to  be  fashioned.  Shortly  after 
its  construction  Moses  returns,  and,  moved  to  wrath 
and  indignation,  destroys  the  idol,  reducing  it  to  dust 
and  throwing  it  into  the  brook  from  which  the  Israel- 
ites are  macfe  to  drink.  After  the  schism  of  ihe  ten 
tribc»,  Jeroboam,  fearing  that  the  regular  pilgrimages 
of  the  people  of  the  northern  kingdom  to  Jerusalem 
would  endanger  their  political  allegiance  to^  himself, 
resorted  to  the  natural  expedient  m  furnishing  them 
with  a  substitute  for  the  sanctuary  of  the  Temple  (III 
Kings,  xii) ;  and  he  set  up  two  golden  calves,  one  in 
Bethel  and  the  other  in  Dan.  As  to  their  construction 
information  is  lacking,  but  it  is  likely  that  they  were 
life-sized  bull  figures  constructed  after  the  fashion  of 
the  one  mentioned  above.  It  seems  also  probable  that 
they  were  intended  as  symbols  of  Yahweh,  for,  thus 
considered,  they  would  be  more  effective  in  attract- 
ing the  pious  Ln-aelites  who  were  accustomed  to  go  to 
Jerusalem.    . 

Most  writers  have  accepted  the  view  of  Philo  and  the 
early  Fathers,  who  regarded  the  worship  of  the  Bolden 
calves  as  borrowed  from  the  Egyptians,  and  in  favour 
of  this  opinion  is  the  fact  thatboth  Aaron  and  Jero- 
boam had  sojourned  in  Egypt  shortly  before  con- 
structing their  respective  idols;  this  view,  however, 
has  its  difficulties,  amon^  which  is  the  improbability 
of  an  Egyptian  deity  heme  set  up  as  the  god  "  who 
brought  Israel  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt  .  Hence, 
some  recent  scholars  are  inclined  to  seek  the  oricin  of 
the  Hebrew  bull  worship  in  the  conditions  ana  sur- 
roundings of  the  Israelites  as  an  agricultural  people,  for 
whom  the  bull  was  naturally  an  appropriate  symbol  of 

strength  and  vital  energy. 

KsNNBDT  in  Han..  Did.  of  the  BiMe,  s.  y.  Caif;  GxooT,  Oiif- 
linet  of  JewiehHieiory,  72,  243,  _    _ 

James  F.  Driscoll. 


GOLDSN 


629 


GOLDEN 


Golden  Legend.    See  J  acopo  db  Voraqinb. 
Golden  Number.    See  Epact. 

Golden  Rose,  a  piecious  and  sacred  ornament 
made  of  pure  gold  by  skilled  artificers,  which  the  popes 
have  been  accustomed  for  centuries  to  bless  each  year, 
and  occasionally  confer  upon  illustrious  churches  ana 
sanctuaries  as  a  token  of  special  reverence  and  devo- 
tion, upon  Catholic  kings  or  queens,  princ^  or  prin- 
cesses,  renowned  generals  or  other  distinguished  per- 
sonages, upon  governments  or  cities  conspicuous  for 
their  Catholic  spirit  and  loyalty  to  the  Holy  See,  as  a 
mark  of  esteem  and  paternal  affection.  The  significa- 
tions of  the  rose  and  Lsetare  Sundav  (fourth  of  Lent), 
the  day  on  which  it  is  blessed,  so  blend  that  the  Sun- 
day is  oftentimes  caUed  Rose  Sunday,  and  rose-col- 
oured vestments,  altar  and  throne  and  chapel  dra- 
peries (signs  of  hope  and  jov)  are  substituted  for  the 
penitential  purple  during  the  solemn  function.  The 
Church  on  this  Sunday  bids  her  children  who  have 
been  so  far  engaged  in  prayer,  fasting  and  other  peni- 
tential works,  as  also  in  serious  meditation  upon  the 
malice  of  sin  and  the  terrible  punishment  exacted  on 
account  of  it,  to  look  up  and  beyond  Calvary  and  see 
in  the  first  rays  of  the  Easter  sun,  the  risen  Christ, 
Who  bringB  them  redemption,  and  "Rejoice".    The 

gulden  flower  and  its  shining  splendour  show  forth 
hrist  and  His  Kin^  Majesty,  Who  is  heralded  by 
the  prophet  as  "the  flower  of  the  field  and  the  lily  of 
the  valfejrs";  its  fragrance  shows  the  sweet  odour  of 
Christ  which  shoidd  be  widely  diffused  by  His  faithful 
followers  (Pope  Leo  XIII,  Acta,  vol.  Vl,  104);  and 
the  thorns  and  red  tint  tell  of  His  Passion  accord- 
ing to  Isaias  (bdii,  2):  "Why  then  is  thv apparel  red, 
and  thy  garments  like  theirs  that  tread  in  the  wine- 


Amone  the  m&ay  mystical  sigmfications,  as  set 
forth  in  tne  papal  diplomas  accompanying  the  gift,  as 
also  in  sermons  of  the  popes  in  conferring  it,  the  fol- 
lowing of  Innocent  III  is  worthy  of  note:  As  Lsetare 
Sunday,  the  day  set  apart  for  the  function,  represents 
love  after  hate,  joy  after  sorrow,  and  fullness  after 
hunger,  so  does  the  rose  designate  by  its  colour,  odour, 
and  taste,  love,  joy,  and  satiety  respectively.  Ad- 
verting to  the  spiritual  resemblance,  he  continues  that 
the  rose  is  the  flower  spoken  of  by  Isaias  (xi,  1), 
"  there  sludl  come  forth  a  rod  out  of  the  root  of  Jesse, 
and  A  flower  shall  rise  up  out  of  his  root ' '.  Prior  to  the 
pontificate  of  Sixtus  IV  (1471-84)  it  consisted  of  a 
simple  and  sinele  rose  made  of  pure  ^Id  and  slightlv 
tinted  with  red.  For  greater  embellishment,  yet  still 
retaining  the  mystical  meaning,  a  ruby  placed  in  the 
heart  of  the  rose,  and  afterwaids  many  precious  gems 
set  in  the  petals,  were  used  instead  of  the  red  colouring 
of  the  gold.  Pope  Sixtus  IV  substituted  in  place  of 
the  single  rose  a  thorny  branch  with  leaves  and  many 
roses  (a  half-score  and  sometimes  more),  the  largest  of 
which  sprang  from  the  top  of  the  branch  and  the 
smiJler  ones  clustered  naturally  around  it.  In  the 
centre  of  the  principal  rose  was  a  tiny  cup  with  a  per- 
forated cover,  into  which  the  pope,  when  he  blessed 
the  rose,  poured  the  musk  and  balsam.  The  whole 
ornament  was  of  pure  gold.  The  Sixtine  design  has 
been  maintained;  out  it  has  varied  as  to  decoration, 
sixe,  weight,  and  value.  Originally  it  was  little  over 
six  inches  in  height,  and  was  easily  carried  in  the  left 
hand  of  the  pope,  whilst  with  his  ri^ht  he  blessed  the 
multitude  through  which  he  passed  m  procession  from 
the  church  of  Santa  Crooe  in  Gerusalemme  (in  Rome) 
to  the  Lateran  Palace.  Afterwards,  and  especially 
when  a  vase  and  large  pedestal  became  part  of  the  or- 
nament, it  required  a  robust  cleric  to  carry  it,  who  pre- 
ceded the  papal  cross  in  the  procession.  The  rose 
sent  to  Amelia  of  Brunswick,  wife  of  Joseph  I,  after- 
wards emperor,  by  Innocent  XI,  weighed  twenty 
pounds  of  ^Id.  In  height  it  was  almost  eighteen 
mches,  and  m  form  a  bouquet ;  from  the  ntem  sprang 


three  different  branches  which  after  many  natural 
windings  came  toother  at  the  top,  and  supported  the 
liu-gest  and  principal  rose  in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful 
cluster  of  leaves.  The  vase  whence  rises  the  shapely 
and  elegant  flower,  as  also  the  pedestal  supporting  the 
vase,  varied  as  to  material,  weight,  and  form.  In  the 
beginning  they  were  made  of  gold;  but  afterward  of 
silver  heavily  gilt  with  sold.  The  pedestal  was  either 
triangular,  qwuirangular,  or  octangular,  and  was 
richly  ornamented  with  various  decorations  and  basaO' 
rUievos.  In  addition  to  the  customary  inscription, 
the  coat  of  arms  of  the  pope  who  had  the  ornament 
made,  and  that  of  him  who  blessed  and  conferred  it. 
were  engraved  on  the  pedestal  Their  value  varied 
according  to  the  munificence  of  the  pontiffs  or  the  eco- 
nomical circumstances  of  the  times.  Father  Baldas- 
sari,  S.J.  (De  RosaMediana,  p.  190)  says  that  the  rose 
conferred  about  the  year  1650  cost  five  hundred  dol- 
lars. The  two  roses  sent  by  Alexander  VII  were  val* 
ued  at  eight  and  twelve  hundred  dollars  respectively. 
Clement  IX  sent  the  Queen. of  France  one  costing 
twelve  hundred  dollars,  the  gold  alone  used  weighing 
eight  pounds.  The  workmanship  on  this  rose  was  ex- 
ceedingly fine,  for  which  the  artificer  received  three 
hundred  dollars.  Innocent  IX  caused  eight  and  one- 
half  pounds  of  gold  to  be  formed  into  a  rose,  which 
was  nurther  eml^llished  with  many  sapphires,  costing 
in  all  fourteen  hundred  dollars.  In  tne  nineteenth 
century  not  a  few  of  the  roses  cost  two  thousand  dol- 
lars and  more.  The  skill  and  workmanship  of  the 
papal  artificers  are  something  truly  wonderful. 

The  custom  of  giving  the  rose  supplanted  the  an- 
cient practice  of  sending  to  Catholic  rulers  the  Golden 
Keys  from  St.  Peter's  Confessional,  a  custom  intro- 
duced either  by  St.  Gregory  II  (716)  or  St.  Gr^oiy 
III  (740).  A  certain  analogy  exists  between  the  rose 
and  the  keys,  inasmuch  as  both  are  of  pure  gold 
blessed  and  bestowed  by  the  Vicar  of  Christ  upon  il- 
lustrious children  of  the  Church,  and  further,  both 
partake  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  a  reliquary— ^the 
rose  containing  musk  and  balsam,  the  keys  filings 
from  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter. 

The  exact  date  of  the  institution  of  the  rose  is  un- 
known. According  to  some  it  is  anterior  to  Charle- 
magne (742-814).  according  to  others  it  had  its 
origin  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  oentunr.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  it  antedates  the  year  1050,  since  Pope 
Leo  IX  (1051)  speaks  of  the  rose  as  of  an  ancient  m- 
stitution  at  his  time.  The  blessing  of  the  rose  was 
not  coeval  with  its  institution.  It  was  introduced  to 
render  the  ceremony  more  solemn  and  induce  greater 
reverence  for  it  on  tne  part  of  the  recipient.  Accord- 
ing to  Cardinal  Petra  (Comment,  in  Constit.  Apostol- 
icas.  III,  2,  col.  1),  Pope  Innocent  IV  (1245-64)  was 
the  firet  to  bless  it.  Innocent  III  (1198-1216)  and 
Alexander  III  (1159-81)  and  Leo  IX  (1049-55)  have 
each  strenuous  def endere  of  their  respcKstive  claims  to 
the  authorship  of  the  ceremony.  Of  the  last  it  is  said 
that  he  (a.  d.  1051)  imposed  upon  the  monastery 
(nuns)  of  Bamberg  in  Franoonia,  then  subject  to  the 
pope,  the  obligation  of  furnishing  each  year  the  Golden 
Rose  to  be  blessed  and  earned  by  the  pope  on 
Laetare  Sunday  (Theop.  Raynaud,  De  rosa  mediana  a 
pontifice  consecrata,  IV,  413).  Pope  Benedict  XIV 
attests  that  the  ceremony  of  blessing  had  its  origin  in 
the  bNSginning  of  the  fifteenth  or  at  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Catalanus,  papal  master  of  cer- 
emonies, is  of  opinion  that  the  use  of  musk  and 
balsam  was  coevsu  with  the  institution,  but  the  bless- 
ing with  prayers,  incense,  and  holv  water  had  its 
inception  later  on,  yet  earlier  than  the  pontificate  of 
Julius  II  (1503-13).  The  pope  blesses  the  rose  every 
year,  but  it  is  not  always  a  new  and  different  rose;  the 
old  one  is  used  until  it  has  been  given  away. 

Originally  the  rose  was  blessed  in  the  Hall  of  Vest- 
ments (sacristy)  in  the  palace  where  the  pope  was;  but 
the  solemn  Mass  and  the  donation  of  the  rose  took 


GOLDBir  630  GOLDBH 

place  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Croce  m  Genisalemme  (a  papal  palace  to  his  residence.  From  the  beginning  of 
ngure.  according  to  Pope  Innocent  III,  of  the  heav-  the  seventeenth  century  the  rose  was  sent  only  to 
enly  Jerusalem),  and  this  was  the  practice  until  the  queens,  princesses,  and  eminent  noblemen;  to  em- 
popes  removed  to  Avignon.  The  olessing  was  fol-  perors,  kinss,  and  princes  were  given  a  sword  as  a 
lowed  bv  a  solemn  Mass  sung  either  by  the  pope  him-  more  suitable  gift.  It  is  true,  however,  that  if  a 
self  or  the  first  cardinal-priest;  in  the  former  case  the  Catholic  emperor,  king,  or  some  great  prince  were 
rose  was  placed  on  a  veil  of  rose-coloured  silk  richly  present  in  Rome  on  Lectare  Simday,  he  would  be  pre- 
embroidered  with  gold ;  in  the  latter  the  pope  held  the  sented  with  the  rose  if  he  wero  deserving.  The  omoe 
rose  in  his  hand,  unless  when  he  knelt^  or  at  the  In-  of  carryii^  and  conferring  the  rose  upon  those  livins 
troit,  Confiteor,  Elevation,  and  the  singmg  of ''  Laude-  outside  of  Rome  was  given  by  the  pope  to  cardinal 
mus  in  Domino".  Returning  processionallv  to  the  leeates  a  latere^  nuncios,  inter^nuncios,  and  Apostolic 
I^ateran  Palace,  he  carried  the  rose  in  his  hand,  and  ar-  abl^ates.  In  1895  a  new  office,  called  "  Bearer  of  the 
riving  at  the  door  of  the  palace,  he  gave  to  the  Prefect  Golden  Rose  ",  was  instituted,  and  assigned  to  a  secret 
of  Rome  who  had  led  his  horse  by  the  bridle  and  had  chamberlain  of  sword  and  cloak  particimrUe, 
aided  him  to  dismount,  the  rose  as  a  recompense  for  Among  the  principal  churches  to  whicn  the  rose  has 
acts  of  respect  and  homage.  Prior  to  1305  the  rose  been  presented  are  St.  Peter's  (five  roses),  St.  Joh^ 
was  given  m  Rome  to  no  outsider,  except  the  emperor  Lateran  (four  roses — according  to  some  two  of  the 
and  to  him  onlv  on  the  day  of  his  coronation.  Whilst  four  were  given  to  the  basilica  proper  and  two  to  the 
residing  at  Avignon  (1305-1375)  the  popes,  unable  to  chapel  called  Sancta  Sanctorum),  St.  Mary  Major 
make  visits  to  uie  Roman  churohes  and  basilicas,  per-  (two  roses),  St.  Mary  sopra  Minerva  (one  rose),  and 
formed'  many  of  their  sacred  fimctions,  among  them  St.  Anthony  of  the  Portuguese  (one  rose).  It  was 
the  blessing  of  the  rose,  in  the  private  chapel  of  their  also  presented  to  the  Archconfratemity  of  Gonfalone. 
palace  (whence  the  origin  of  the  Cappella  Pontificia).  All  tnese  roses  have  been  lost.  Among  the  many  re- 
Qq  their  return  to  Rome  they  (Sixtus  V  excepted)  re-  cipients  of  the  gift,  the  following  are  noteworthy:  FaA- 
tained  the  custom  thus  b^;un.  cone.  Count  of  Anoers,  who  received  it  from  Uroan  II 
The  blessing  of  the  rose  now  takes  place  in  ^he  Hall  (1096),  Alfonso  Yll,  King  of  Castile  (Eugene  III; 
of  Vestments  {camera  dei  parimerUi)  and  the  solemn  1148);  Louis  VII  of  France  (Alexander  lit;  1163); 
Mass  in  l^e  papal  chapel.  The  rose  is  placed  on  a  Louis  I  of  Hungaiv  (Clement  VI;  1348);  Joanna  I, 
table  with  lighted  candles,  and  the  pope,  vested  in  alb  Qu^n  of  Naples  (1368) ;  Emperor  Sigismund  (Eu- 
and  rose-coloured  stole  and  cope  with  precious  mitre  gene  IV;  1435);  Henry  VI  of  JBndand  (Eugene  IV; 
on  his  head,  begins  the  ceremon^r  with  the  usual  ver-  1444) ;  Casimir  IV,  Kine  of  Poland  (Nicholas  V ;  1448) ; 
sides  and  the  following  beautiful  and  expressive  Emperor  Frederick  III  and  his  wife  Empress  Eleo- 
prayer :  "  O  God  I  by  Whose  word  and  power  all  things  nora,  who  were  crowned  on  Lstare  Sunday  (1452)  and 
have  been  created,  by  Whose  will  all  things  are  m-  received  the  Golden  Rose  next  day  from  Nicholas  V ; 
rected,  we  humbly  beseech  Thy  MajestyjJVho  art  the  Charles  VII  of  France  (Callistus  III ;  1457) :  James  III 
joy  and  gladness  of  all  the  faithful,  that  Thou  wouldst  of  Scotland  (Innocent  VIII ;  1486) ;  Isabella  I,  Queen 
deign  in  Thy  fatherly  love  to  bless  and  sanctify  this  of  Spain  (Alexander  VI;  1493) ;  Alexander  I  of  Poland 
rose,  most  delightful  in  odour  and  appearance,  which  (Juhus  II;  1505);  Emanuel  I  of  Portuj^  (Julius  II; 
we  tnis  day  carry  in  sign  of  spiritual  joy,  in  order  that  1506)  'Henry  VIII  of  EnffUmd,  who  received  one  from 
the  people  consecrated  by  Thee  ana  delivered  from  Pope  Julius  II,  one  from  Leo  X,  and  one  from  Clement 
the  yoke  of  Babylonian  slavery  through  the  favour  of  VII  in  year  1524;  Frederick.  Duke  of  Mantua  (Paul 
Thine  only-begotten  Son,  Who  is  the  glory  and  exulta-  III;  1537),  because  of  his  kmdness  towards  the  Fa- 
tionof  the  people  of  Israel  and  of  that  Jerusalem  which  thers  of  the  Council  of  Trent;  Mary,  Queen  of  Eng- 
is  our  Heavenly  mother,  may  with  sincere  hearts  show  land,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII  (Paul  IV ;  1555) ;  Henry 
forth  their  joy.  Wherefore,  O  Lord,  on  this  day,  of  Anjou,  King  of  Poland  (Clement  VIII;  1692); 
when  the  Church  exults  in  Thy  name  and  manifests  Margaret  of  Austria,  Queen  of  Spain,  on  the  day  she 
her  joy  by  this  sign  [the  rose],  confer  upon  us  through  was  married  to  PhUip  III  by  proxy  in  presence  of 
her  true  and  perfect  joy  and  accepting  her  devotion  of  Pope  Clement  VIII  (1598) ;  Henrietta  Mana,  Queen  of 
to-day;  do  Thou  remit  sin,  strengthen  faith,  increase  England,  at  Amiens  (Urban  VIII;  1625);  Maria  of 
piety,  protect  her  in  Thy  meroy,  drive  away  all  things  Austria,  Queen  of  Hunmry  (Urban  VIII;  1630); 
adverse  to  her  and  make  her  ways  safe  and  prosperous,  Maria  Theresa,  Queen  of  France  (1668),  for  her  infant 
so  that  Thy  CJhurch,  as  the  fnut  of  good  works,  may  son,  the  Dauphin,  for  whom  Pope  Alexander  VII  was 
unite  in  giving  forth  the  perfume  of  the  ointment  of  god-father;  Eleonora,  Queen  of  Polajid  (Clement  X; 
that  flower  sprung  from  the  root  of  Jesse  and  which  is  1671) ;  Mary  Casimir,  wife  of  John  III,  King  of  Poland, 
the  mystical  flower  of  the  field  and  lily  of  the  valleys.  Saviour  of  Vienna  (Innocent  XI;  1684);  Amelia  of 
and  remain  happy  without  end  in  eternal  clonr  to-  Brunswick,  empress  (Innocent  XII;  1699);  Maria 
gether  with  all  the  saints."  The  prayer  finished,  the  Louisa  Gabriele  of  Savoy,  Queen  of  Spain  (Clement 
pope  puts  incense  (handed  by  the  cardinal-deacon)  XI;  1701);  Francesco  Loredano,  Doge  or  Venice 
mto  the  censer  and  incenses  the  balsam  and  then  the  (Qement  XIII ;  1759) ;  Maria  Christina,  Arehduchess 
musk,  and  afterwards  pours  the  balsam  and  powdered  ©f  Austria  (Pius  VI;  1776) ;  Maria  Theresa,  widowed 
musk  into  the  tiny  cup  in  the  heart  of  the  principal  Queen  of  Sardinia  (Leo  XII;  1825);  Maria  Anna, 
rose.    He  then  incenses  the  rose  and  sprinkles  it  with  Queen  of  Hungary,   afterwards  empress   (Gregory 


holy  water.    It  is  then  given  to  the  youngest  cleric  of  XVI;  1832) ;  Maria  II,  Queen  of  Portugal  (Gregory 

the  Camera,  who  carries  it  m  front  of  the  pope  to  XVI:  1842);  Maria  Pia  of  Portugal,  on  the  day  of  her 

the  chapel,  where  it  is  placed  on  the  altar  at  the  foot  of  baptism  (Pius  IX,  her  godfather,  1849) ;  Isabella  II  of 

the  cross  upon  a  richly  embroidered  silk  veil,  where  it  Spain  (Pius  IX :  1868) ;  Maria  Christuia,  Queen  Regent 

remains  during  the  Mass  sung  by  the  first  cardinal-  of  Spain  (Leo  XIII;  1886);  Isabella,  Princess  Imperial 

priest.    After  the  Mass,  the  rose  is  carried  in  proces-  of  Brazil,  then  Regent  of  the  Empire  (Leo  AlII ; 

sion  before  the  pope  to  the  sacristy,  where  it  is  care-  1880);  Marie  Am^Ue,  Queen  of  Portugal  (Leo  XIII; 

fully  put  away  in  a  place  set  apart  for  it,  until  bestowed  i892) ;  and,  lastly,  Marie  Henriette,  Queen  of  the  Bel- 

upon  some  worthy  personage.                            ^  gians  (Leo  XIII;  1893). 

The  custom  initiated  at  Avignon  of  conferring  the  Giobbio,  Lenoni  di  DipUmuuia  BedenaaUea  (Rome.  1899), 

rcee  upon  the  ^\^^?SPn^^Pr^tBiti^  ^ii;^d'£^Sr^'c'^iL^l^^%r'B^t^"S:!^ 

papal  court  was  oontmued  in  Rome  when  the  popes  jnerUaU  (Cincinnati,  1858).  108  sqq. 

returned  from  Avisnon.    The  recipient  of  the  rose  p.  M.  J.  Rock. 

from  the  hands  of  the  pope,  after  the  solemn  function, 

was  accompanied  by  the  Oollege  of  Cardinals  from  the  Ck>lden  Spur,  Order  of.    See  Milftart  OsDERa. 


OOLDONI 


631 


OOLDWELL 


Ooldonl,  Cablo,  dramatist;  b.  at  Venice,  25  Feb., 
1707;  d.  at  Paris,  6  Jan.,  1793.  Goldoni  is  especiaUy 
notable  for  the  reform  which  he  wrought  in  the  Italian 
theatre  bj  substituting  for  the  drama  of  improvisation 
{commedta  ddl'  arte)  a  fullv  elaborated  character 
play  inspired  bv  the  works  of  Molidre,  and  ;^t  replete 
with  a  realism  aue  to  his  own  keen  observation  of  con- 
temporary life  in  Italy.  The  story  of  his  life  has  been 
told  with  much  detau  in  the  autobiogpphical  "M6- 
moires",  which  he  wrote  in  French  in  1787.  This 
work  is  miportant  also  for  the  account  which  it  gives 
of  the  vicissitudes  attending  his  attempts  to  improve 
the  dramatic  repertory  of  his  day,  and  of  his  eventual 
success  despite  the  opposition  of  Chiari  and  Goui. 

Bom  in  Venice,  he  accompanied  his  father  in  his 
peregrinations  to  various  Italian  cities,  among  them 
Perugia  and  Rimini,  where  he  practised  as  a  physician. 
The  Boy  was  intended  at  first  for  his  father's  profes- 
sion, but  he  early  indicated  his  real  tastes  by  running 
awi^  from  Rimini  with  a  theatrical  troupe.  Later 
we  find  him  at  Venice  studying  law,  and  ere  long  he  is 
seen  occupying  at  Chioggia  the  post  of  assistant  to  the 
registrar  or  clerk  of  the  criminal  court.  By  this  time 
he  had  begun  the  composition  of  plays.  He  finally 
took  his  degree  in  law  and  settled  in  Venice,  practising 
as  an  advocate  and  continuing  his  literary  work.  But 
he  did  not  remain  at  rest  long.  Associated  with  the 
diplomatic  service  for  brief  periods,  he  sojourned  in 
Milan  and  in  Genoa,  and  then  for  one  reason  or  an- 
other shifted  his  domicile  hither  and  thither  in  North- 
em  Italy,  making  his  longest  stay  in  Pisa,  where  for 
five  years  he  devoted  himself  to  legal  pursuits.  In 
1746  he  received  the  api>ointment  of  dramatic  poet  to 
the  theatre  S.  Angelo  at  Venice,  and  in  the  following 
year  betook  himself  to  his  native  city.  In  his  new 
position  he  wrote  many  comedies  which  were  per- 
formed successfully,  and  in  1752  he  accepted  a  similar, 
appointment  to  the  Venetian  theatre  of  San  Luca,  for 
which  he  provided  additional  pieces.  All  the  while 
warfare  was  being  waged  against  him  by  the  partisans 
of  the  inartistic  CommecUa  dell'  arte  *\  ana  finally, 
although  he  had  gained  the  day,  he  determined  from 
sheer  weariness  to  accept  the  offer  made  him  in  1761 
of  the  place  of  poet  to  the  Th^&tre  Italien  at  Paris. 
Honourable  though  his  post  was,  he  never  felt  really 
happy  in  it,  and  when  the  time  of  his  contract  was  fin« 
ished,  he  meditated  an  instant  return  to  his  native 
land.  This  purpose  he  did  not  carry  out,  for  an  ap- 
pointment as  Italian  tutor  to  the  daughters  of  Louis 
XV  induced  him  to  remain  in  France.  A  pension  was 
assigned  to  him,  and  it  was  paid  to  him  regularly  up  to 
the  year  1792.  He  died  the  next  year  on  the  day  be- 
fore that  on  which,  at  the  recommendation  of  Joseph 
Ch^nier,  the  Convention  restored  his  pension. 

During  his  residence  in  the  French  capital,  Goldoni 
produced  two  important  comedies  in  French,  the 
''Bourm  bienfaisant''  (which  he  himself  translated 
into  Italian),  and  the  "  Avare  fastueux".  Goldoni's 
dramatic  pieces  are  about  150  in  number.  They  fall 
readily  into  three  groups:  those  written  entirely  in 
the  Venetian  dialect,  of  which  there  are  about  eleven; 
those  written  partly  in  dialect,  which  form  the  largest 
part;  and  those  written  wholly  in  pure  Italian,  of 
which  some  are  in  prose  and  some  in  Martellian  verse. 
The  earlier  among  them,  the  tragedies,  tragi-comedies 
and  melodramas  are  almost  negligible;  his  fame  rests 
on  the  comedies  picturing  the  customs  of  his  time. 
Notable  among  these  ar^  "La  locandiera",  " Un  curi- 
oso  accidente",  "H  Bugiardo",  "Pamela'^.  "La  bot- 
tega  di  caffe",  "I  Rusteghi",  and  "II  Burbero  bene- 
fice" (the  Italian  form  of  the  play  performed  at  Paris 
in  1771).  These  and  a  few  others  still  live  on  the 
Italian  stage.  His  "  Lettere  ",  published  in  a  collec- 
tion at  Bologna  in  1880,  contain  interesting  matter 
which  adds  to  the  information  conveyed  in  the  "  M6- 
moires  ".  The  plays  are  given  in  the  two  Venice  editions 
^1788-95  in  44  vols.,  and  1817-22  in  46  vols. 


Lbb,  The  Biohteenth  Century  m  Itafu;  Howbllb,  Preface  to  J» 
Black*a  tranBltman  of  the  If  AnotrM  ;  L^hnbr,  Carlo  Gmdoni  e  U 
aue  Memorie  In  Archivio  VenelOt  XXII-XXIV:  Rabant,  De 
Goldonio  italioa  acente  ccrredare  (Paria,  1893);  Martini,  Carlo 
Goldoni  in  La  Vita  italiana  nel  Settecento  (Milan,  1896). 

J.  D.  M.  FOBD. 

Qoldwell,  Thomas,  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  the  last 
survivor  of  the  ancient  hierarchv  of  En^nd;  b.  prob- 
ably at  the  family  manor  of  Goldwell,  in  the  pariG^  of 
Great  Chart,  near  Ashford.  Kent,  between  1501  and 
1515;  d.  in  Rome,  3  April,  1585.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  a  Kentish  family  of  ancient  lineage,  long  seated 
at  Goldwell;  and  was  educated  at  All  Souls  CoUegey 
Oxford,  where  he  graduated  M.A.  in  1531,  and  B.D.  in 
1534.  While  at  Oxford  he  attained  more  eminence  in 
mathematics,  astronomy,  and  kindred  sciences,  than 
in  divinity  or  the  humanities,  a  point  worth  remem- 
bering in  view  of  his  future  career.  He  stood  out 
firmly  against  the  innovations  in  religion  brought 
about  by  Hen^  VIII.  At  an  early  date  he  became 
intimate  with  Reginald,  afterwards  Cardinal,  Pole^  a 
friendship  which  proved  to  be  a  lasting  one,  and  which 
had  considerable  influence  on  Gold  well's  subsequent 
career.  Soon  after  1535,  when  the  kin^  had  begun 
his  drastic  measures  of  ecclesiastical  spoliation,  Gold- 
well  became  Pole's  chaplain  and  joined  him  in  exile, 
being  included  in  the  same  Act  of  Attainder  "  for  cast- 
injg  off  his  duty  to  the  King,  and  submitting  to  the 
Bishop  of  Rome''.  He  readied  Rome  in  1^8,  and 
shortly  afterwards  he  was  appointed  camerarius  of  the 
English  Hospital  of  the  Holsr  Trinity.  In  1547  he  be- 
came a  novice  in  the  Theatine  House  of  St.  Paul,  at 
Naples.  On  the  death  of  Paul  III,  Pole,  now  a  cardi- 
nal, adced  and  obtained  permission.for  Goldwell  to  ac- 
company him  to  Rome,  and  thus  he  was  present  at  the 
long  conclave  of  1549-50  in  the  capacity  of  Pole's  per- 
sonal attendant.  After  the  election  of  Julius  III, 
Goldwell  returned  to  Naples,  and  made  his  profession 
as  a  Theatine.  In  1553,  wnile  Edward  Vl  was  still 
reigning,  an  Act  of  General  Pardon  was  passed,  from 
which  Goldwell  had  the  signal  honour  of  being  spe- 
cially excepted  by  name,  along  with  Pole  and  some 
others.  On  the  accession  of  Mary  I  there  came  an  all 
too  brief  spell  of  pr«q)erity  for  English  Catholics. 
Pole,  now  papal  legate,  returned  to  England  with 
Golawell  in  nis  train,  and  the  latter  was  soon  nomi- 
nated to  the  See  of  St.  Asaph  in  North  Wales  (1555). 
While  still  only  bishop-designate,  he  was  sent  to  Rome 
(2  July,  1555)  to  make  a  report  on  the  state  of  religion 
in  England  to  Paul  IV. 

While  at  Rome,  on  this  occasion,  he  was  probably 
consecrated  bishop;  and  he  retiuned  to  England  at  the 
end  of  the  year.  In  1556  he  assisted  at  the  consecra- 
tion of  Pole  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Canterbury.  He 
was  then  for  some  time  actively  engaged  in  the  affairs 
of  his  Diocese  of  St.  Asaph.  He  issued  numerous  in- 
lunctions  to  his  clergv,  prohibiting  married  priests 
irom  saying  Mass,  and  forbade  the  use  of  churches 
as  poorHschools.  He  revived  the  pilgrimages  to  the 
miraculous  well  of  St.  Winefride,  at  Holywell,  and  ob- 
tained from  the  pope  a  renewal  of  the  indulgences  for 
Silgrims  to  that  shnne.  He  also  examined  the  heretic 
ohn  Phili>ot,  which  fact  is  chronicled  in  no  friendlv 
way  by  Foxe  ("Acts  and  Monuments",  ed.  Townsend, 
VII,  620).  It  was  about  this  time  proposed,  though 
without  his  knowledge  or  consent,  to  make  him  am- 
bassador to  the  court  of  Rome,  and  to  translate  him  to 
the  See  of  Oxford ;  letters  of  credence  to  Paul  IV  had 
been  actually  made  out;  and  on  5  Nov.,  1558,  he  re- 
ceived the  custody  of  the  temporalities  of  the  See  of 
Oxford,  Thomas  Wood  having  received  that  of  St. 
Asaph  four  days  previously.  But  the  death  of  Queen 
Maiy  on  17  November  terminated  all  these  arrange- 
ments. Just  at  this  juncture  Goldwell  was  at  the 
deathbed  of  Cardinal  role,  to  whom  he  gave  the  last 
sacraments. 

The  accession  of  Elizabeth  was,  of  course,  the  signal 


OOLOOTSA 


632 


GOMES 


for  the  final  attack  of  Protestantism  upon  the  ancient 
Faith.  Goldwell  strenuously  resisted  as  far  as  in  him 
lay.  It  is  interesting  to  note  by  what  dishonourable 
and  underhand  methods  the  queen's  party  put  it  out 
of  his  power  to  make  his  protest  in  a  constitutional 
manner.  It  was  alleged  that,  by  his  nomination  to 
Oxford,  he  was  no  longer  Bi^op  of  St.  Asaph;  but 
that,  as  he  had  not  done  homage  to  the  queen  for  Ox- 
ford, he  waa  not  yet  bishop  of  that  see.  Accordingly, 
he  did  not  receive  the  summons  to  Parliament  wmch 
was  undoubtedly  his  legal  due.  In  May,  1559,  how- 
ever, he  was  summoned  before  the  queen  with  the 
other  bishoi)S,  and  all  of  them  were  expelled  from  their 
sees  for  their  refusal  to  take  the  oatn  of  supremacy. 
He  then  resolved  to  leave  the  country,  for,  as  he  after- 
wards stated,  he  was  not  allowed  to  perform  a  bi^op's 
office,  say  Mass,  or  administer  the  sacraments,  as  long 
as  he  remained  in  England. 

Although  the  ports  were  being  watched  for  him,  he 
succeeded  in  making  his  escape.  It  was  obviously  im- 
possible for  him  to  have  carried  off  the  register  and 
records  of  his  see  under  such  circumstances.  This 
charge,  however,  has  been  maliciously  made  against 
him.  He  then  became  an  active  Catholic  exile.  He 
started  at  once  for  Rome,  but  was  detained  at  Louvain 
by  sickness.  He  refused  the  offer  of  an  Italian  bish- 
ojpric,  preferring  to  devote  himself  tq  his  order  (the 
Tneatines)  and  to  the  conversion  of  England.  In  1561 
he  was  made  superior  of  his  old  convent  at  Naples,  and 
also  warden  of  the  En^ish  Hospital  at  Rome.  He 
was  the  only  English  bishop  at  tne  Council  of  Trent, 
where  he  was  treated  with  marked  respect.  He  was 
there  engaged  in  the  revision  of  the  Breviary  and  the 
Missal;  and  also  urged  the  coimcil  to  excommunicate 
Queen  Elizabeth.  His  mere  presence  at  Trent  was  a 
cause  of  such  excessive  annoyance  to  Elizabeth  that 
she  wrote  the  following  extraordinary  farra^  of  false- 
hood to  her  German  envoy  Mimdt:  "We  thmk  it  may 
be  that  one  Goldwell,  a  very  simple  and  fond  man, 
having  in  our  late  sister's  time  been  named  to  a  small 
bishopric  in  Wales  called  St.  Asaph,  though  never 
thereto  odmiiledy  flying  out  of  the  realm  upon  our  sis- 
ter's death,  is  gone  to  Rome  as  a  renegade,  and  there 
using  the  name  of  a  bishop,  without  order  or  title,  is  per- 
haps gone  in  the  train  of  some  Cardinal  to  Trent,  and  so 
it  IS  iBcely  the  speech  nath  arisen  of  a  bishop  of  Eng- 
land being  there."  In  1563  Goldwell  was  vicar^n- 
eral  to  the  Archbishop  of  Milan,  St.  Charles  Borromeo. 
In  1567  he  was  made  vicar  of  the  cardinal  archpriest 
in  the  Lateran,  and  in  1574  the  Cardinal  Vicar  SaveUi 
made  him  his  vice^rent;  he  thus  became,  so  to  speak, 
the  "working"  bishop  of  Rome.  Hall,  an  Endiish 
traveller  in  1568,  said  that  Goldwell  was  the  only  Eng- 
lish Catholic  in  Rome  who  was  courteous  to  him.  In 
15S0,  in  spite  of  his  advanced  age,  he  set  out  for  Eng- 
land at  the  head  of  the  mission  which  included  Cam- 
pion and  Persons,  but  he  was  taken  ill  at  Reims  and 
obliged  to  return  to  Rome.  One  of  the  last  acts  of  his 
long  and  strenuous  career  was  to  serve  on  the  Congre- 

fation  for  the  Revision  of  the  Roman  Martyrolc^,  in 
582.  On  the  death  of  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  in  1584, 
Goldwell  became  the  sole  survivor  of  the  ancient  Eng- 
lish hierarchy.  He  died  the  next  year,  and  was  buri^ 
at  St.  Sylvester's.  A  portrait  of  him  exists  at  the 
English  College,  Rome. 

iOfox,  The  laai  survivor  of  the  ancient  Bnoliah  Hierarchy^ 
Thonuu  Ooldwdl,  Bishop  nf  St.  Asaph  (London,  1876);  Tout  in 
Diet.  Not.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Gillow,  Bibl.  Did.  Eng.  Calh.,  «.  v.; 
TnoUA»,  History  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Asaj^  (1874).  84.  201; 
Bubs.  Wood's  Athen.  Oxon.,  II;  Bbadt.  Episcopal  Succession, 
1, 11,  III;  BoccATBLLi,  Life  of  Pole. 

C.  F.  Wemyss  Brown. 

Golgotha.    See  Calvary,  Mounx 

Qoliath.    See  David. 

06iiiara  (or  G6mora),  Francisco  Lopez  db,  b.  at 
Seville,  Spain,  in  1510;  studied  at  the  University  of 
Alcali,  was  oidained  priest,  made  a  journey  to  Rome, 


and  upon  his  return  in  1540,  entered  the  service  oi 
Hem^do  Cort^  as  private  and  domestic  chaplain. 
He  accompanied  Cort^  on  the  Algerian  expecution, 
and,  after  the  death  of  his  patron,  it  is  known  that  he 
was  at  Valladolld  in  1556  or  1557,  after  which  he  is 
supposed  to  have  retired  to  his  native  city  of  Seville, 
where  he  probably  died.    With  the  information  given 
him  bv  the  conqueror  and  other  persons  who  had  re- 
turned from  the  New  World  (he  himself  cites  Gonxaio 
de  Tapia  and  Gonzalo  de  Umbria)  he  wrote  his  "  Hi»- 
pania  Victrix;  First  and  Second  Parts  of  the  General 
History  of  the  Indies,  with  the  whole  discovery  and 
notable  thin^  that  have  happened  since  they  were 
acquired  imtil  the  year  1551,  with  the  conquest  of 
Mexico  and  New  Spain",  a  work  published  at  Sara- 
eossa  in  the  year  1 552.    It  was  translated  into  French 
by  Martin  rum^  and  published  at  Paris  in  1578; 
Augustin  Gravaliz  translated  it  into  Italian  and  pub- 
lished it  at  Venice  in  1560;  lastly,  Juan  Bautista  de 
San  Anton  Chimalpain  QuanhaJehuatzin  translated  it 
into  Mexican.    The  author  relates  in  the  first  part, 
which  is  dedicated  "To  Don  Carlos,  Emperor  of  Ra- 
mans, King  of  Spain,  Lord  of  the  Indies  and  New 
World",  the  whole  discovery  and  conquest  of  the  An- 
tilles, Peru  (up  to  the  pacification  effected  by  Gasca), 
Chile  and  Central  America,  also  the  voyage  of  Magel- 
lan and  the  discovery  of  the  Moluccas.     In  the  second 
part  he  tells  of  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  and  it  is  dedi- 
cated "To  the  Very  Illustrious  Lord  Don  Martin 
Cortds,  Marques  del  Valle" — the  son  and  heir  of  the 
conqueror. 

Wnether  through  the  desire  to  aggrandize  his  pa- 
tron, or  through  rel3ring  on  the  first-hand  information 
which  the  latter  ^ve  him  Xit  is  to  be  noted  that  G6- 
mara  was  never  m  America),  or  from  malice,  or  for 
some  other  reason,  G6mara  fell  into  serious  errors  and 
in  many  instances  sinned  gravely  against  historical 
truth.  It  was  perhat>B  for  this  reason  tiiat  Prince 
Philip  (afterwaras  Philip  II),  in  a  decree  issued  at 
ValladoUd,  17  November,  1553,  ordered  all  the  copies 
of  his  work  that  could  be  foimd  to  be  gathered  in  and 
imposed  a  penalty  of  200,000  maravedie  on  anyone 
who  should  reprint  it.  This  prohibition  was  removed 
in  1727  through  the  efforts  of  Don  Andreas  Gonzalez 
Barcia,  who  included  G6mara^s  work  in  his  collection 
of  early  historians  of  the  New  World  (Colecci6n  de 
historiadores  primitivos  de  las  Indias  Occidentales). 
The  "Verdadera  historia  de  la  Conquista  de  Nueva 
Espafia"  (True  History  of  the  Conquest  of  New 
Spain)  of  Bemal  Diaz  del  Castillo,  a  companion  of 
Hemdndo  Cort^,  was  written  to  refute  G6mara.  The 
latter's  style  is  concise  and  agreeable  the  narrative 
running  on  rapidly  and  gracefully,  all  of  which  has  had 
the  effect  of  attracting  readers  to  the  work.  Among 
other  works  of  his  which  have  remained  unpublished 
are  "Batatas  de  mar  de  nuestros  tiempos"  (Contem- 

g>rary  Naval  Battles)  and  '^  Historia  de  Harruc  y 
arradin  Barbarroja". 

Biblioteca  de  autores  espafloles,  XXII,  Historiadorts  de  Indias. 
I  (Madrid.  1852);  Biblioteca  historica  de  la  Iberia,  II.  Cr&nica  de 
Gomara,  I  (Mexico,  1870);  Diccionario  enciclopMieo  Hispano 
Americano,  XII;  Lb6n,  Historia  general  de  Mixieo  (Mexico, 
1902). 

Camillus  Crivelu. 

Oomes  De  Amorim,  Francisco,  Portuguese  poet, 
dramatist,  and  novelist;  b.  at  Avelomar,  near  Oporto, 
13  August,  1827;  d-  4  November,  1891.  His  parents 
were  respectable  but  so  poor  that  Francisco  had  to 
leave  school  at  tiie  age  of  ten,  when  he  went  to  Brazil 
and  obtained  a  situation  in  a  business  house  at  Pard. 
After  some  time  he  found  an  opportunity  to  studv  the 
manners  and  dialects  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  Ama- 
zon forests.  He  returned  to  Portueal  in  his  twentieth 
year,  and  two  years  later,  under  tne  influence  of  the 
revolutionary  ideas  of  1848,  he  composed  the  poems, 
"A  liberdade",  "A  queda  da  Hun^a"  and  "Gari- 
baldi".   Sympathizing  as  he  did  with  the  principles 


OOMORRHA 


633 


GONDULPHUS 


of  romanticism,  he.  like  so  many  other  youns  writers, 
fell  under  the  spell  of  Almeida  Garrett,  and,  to  help 
him  to  carry  out  his  plan  of  establishing  a  national 
drama,  he  l)egan  to  write  plays.  The  first,  "Ghigi" 
(1852),  was  performed  at  Liisbon  with  signal  success. 
It  wafi  followed  by  a  long  series  of  dramas,  among 
which  the  best  known  are,  ''Odio  de  ra^a'',  '' Aleijoes 
sociaes",  "Figados  de  tigre",  "A  prohibi9ao",  "A 
viuva",  "A  abnega^fio'',  and  **0s  herdeiros  do  mil- 
lionario ' '.  For  several  years  prior  to  1851 ,  in  order  to 
make  a  living,  he  worked  in  a  hatter's  establishment, 
but  in  that  year  he  was  appointed  to  a  government 
post,  and  found  leisure  to  compose  his  dramas,  poems, 
and  romances.  In  1859  he  was  made  librarian  to  the 
Minister  of  Marine. 

His  Ivric  fame  was  firmly  fixed  bv  the  appearance  in 
1858  of  two  collections  of  poems,  the  "  Cantos  matuti- 
nos  * '  and  the  "  Ephemeros  *\  As  a  novelist,  he  made 
himself  favourably  known  by  "Os  selvi^ns"  (1875) 
and  its  sequel^  "O  remorso  vivo"  (1876).  by  the 
"  Amor  da  patna"  (1879),  which  is  partly  an  historical 
novel  and  partly  a  romance  of  the  sea,  by  the  "  Muita 
parra  e  pouca  uva"  (1879)  and  bv  many  others.  In 
some  of  the  novels,  as  in  several  of  the  plays,  he  draws 
upon  his  knowledge  of  Brazilian  life.  His  aamiration 
for  his  friend,  Almeida  Garrett,  who  had  constantly 
encouraged  him  in  his  literary  endeavours,  led  him  to 
compose  his  ^at  work,  '*  Garrett,  Memorias  bio- 
graphicas"  (Lisbon,  1881),  which  not  only  deals  with 
we  public  and  private  life  of  the  greatest  modem  poet 
and  orator  of  the  country,  but  is  suso  a  history  of  Por- 
tueal  from  1799  till  1854. 

See  hifl  complete  wcn'ks  (Lisbon,  1860  and  aqq.);  and  of. 
RuNHABOTar&TTNBB,  AufadUe  urid  Abhandlungen  (Berlin, 
1887). 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 
Qomorrha.    See  Sodom  and  Gomorrha. 

Qondnlphna  (Gundulfus),  the  name  of  thi^ee 
saints,  of  whom  one  was  Bishop  of  Tongres  (Maes- 
tricht),  the  second  Bishop  of  Metz,  while  the  third  is 
known  as  Gondulphiis  ot  Berrv.  We  possess  little 
information  concerning  any  of  the  three,  and  the* 
slight  idea  of  each  afforaed  us  by  the  documents  of  the 
Middle  Ages  is  reduced  to  the  following. 

I.  GoNDULPHUS  OF  Metz  is  the  one  concerning  whom 
our  information  is  most  reliable.  His  feast  is  cele- 
brated on  6  September.  As  bishop,  Gondulphus  suc- 
ceeded Angilram,  him  who  caused  raul  the  Deacon  to 
write  the  ''Liber  de  episcopis  Mettensibus",  and  who 
died  probably  in  791.  At  the  death  of  Analram 
there  was  a  vacancv  in  the  episcopal  See  of  Afetz, 
which  was  terminatea  by  the  accession  of  Gondulphus. 
The '' Annales  S.  Vinoentii  Mettenses"  give  the  date  as 
819.  But,  as  it  is  known,  on  the  other  hand,  that  since 
the  time  of  Bishop  Chrodegang  episcopal  ordination 
took  place  on  Sunday,  the  date  of  the  consecration  of 
Bishop  Gondulphus  must  be  set  down  as  28  (?)  Decem- 
ber, 816.  The  old  episcopal  catalogue  of  the  church 
of  Metz  informs  us  that  Gondulphus  occupied  the  see  of 
this  church  for  six  years,  eight  months,  and  seven 
days,  and  that  he  died  on  the  7th  of  the  Ides  of  Sep- 
tember, which  would  be  the  sixth  of  that  month,  in  the 
year  823.  He  was  buried  in  the  monastery  of  Gorze, 
where  his  relics  are  still  honoured  on  6  September.  It 
is  impossible  to  quote  in  this  respect  any  special  pa- 
tronage, and  with  regard  to  his  episcopal  career,  apart 
from  the  details  furnished  here,  there  exists  no  in- 
formation. 

II.  Gondulphus  of  Tongres,  or,  as  he  is  commonlv 
called,  Gondulphus  of  Maastricht,  because  his  pred- 
ecessor. Bishop  Monulphus,  transferred  the  seat  of  the 
bishopric  from  Tongres  to  Maastricht,  which  thence- 
forth was  the  actual  residence  of  the  bishops  of  Ton- 

fnes.  However,  the  official  title  of  the  Bishop  of 
ongres,  episcopus  Tungrorum^  was  retained  until  the 
eleventh  oenturv,  even  when  the  episcopal  see  had 
been  transferred  from  Maastricht  to  Li^.    Bishop 


Gondulphus  is  a  somewhat  enigmatic  figure;  indeed, 
one  is  inclined  to  question  whether  he  be  not  identical 
with  Monulphus.  But  the  two  saints  must  neverthe- 
less be  distinguished.  Monulphus  must  have  occupied 
the  See  of  Tongres  until  the  end  of  the  sixth  or  the 
be^nninp  of  the  seventh  century,  while  at  the  Ck)uncil 
of  Paris  m  614  the  presence  is  discovered  of  a  Bishop 
of  Maastricht  named  Betulphus.  Gondulphus,  then, 
probably  comes  between  Monulphus  and  Betulphus,  at 
least  if  this  Betulphus  must  not  oe  identified  with  Gon- 
dulphus on  the  grounds  that  the  case  is  analogous  to 
that  of  the  episcopal  list  of  Mainz,  where  Bertulfus 
and  (>otoldus  must  be  reckoned  identical.  Further- 
more, the  episcopal  lists  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries,  whose  value  is,  however,  not  very  great, 
ignore  Betulphus,  and  make  Gondulphus  the  immediate 
successor  of  Monulphus.  The  biographies  of  Gon- 
dulphus, which  are  handed  down  to  us  from  the  Middle 
Ages,  are  merely  an  extract  from  the  **  Vita  Servatii^' 
ofthe  priest  Jocundus.  They  are  quite  without  value 
and  are  fuU  of  legends.  If  they  are  to  be  believed, 
Gondulphus  endeavoured  to  rebuild  the  town  of  Ton- 
gres, wnich  had  been  destroyed  hy  the  barbarian 
mvasions.  But  heaven  opposed  his  scheme,  and 
miraculously  manifested  its  desire  to  the  saint.  Furi- 
ous wolves  fell  upon  the  pagan  colonists  of  this  le^on, 
and  devoured  them  before  the  eyes  of  the  homfied 
bishop.  Thus-has  legend  quite  obscured  the  authentic 
history  of  St.  Gondulphus,  the  fact  of  his  episcopacy  at 
Maastricht  being  the  only  one  that  is  autnentic.  Ac- 
cording to  local  tradition  ne  occupied  the  episcopal  see 
for  seven  years  and  died  about  607.  This  last  state- 
ment does  not  tally  with  his  presence  at  Paris  in  614,  if 
he  is  to  be  considered  identical  with  the  Betulphus  who 
assisted  at  that  ooimcil.  In  any  case  he  was  Duried  in 
the  nave  of  the  church  of  Saint-Servais  at  Maastricht, 
which  had  been  magnificently  restored  by  his  prede- 
cessor, St.  Monulphus. 

The  bodies  of  Monulphus  and  Gondulphus  were  sol- 
enmly  exhumed  in  1039  by  the  Bishops  Nithard  of. 
Li^  and  Gerard  of  Cambrai.  An  epitaph  commem- 
orating this  event  was  afterwards  misinterpreted,  and 
•gave  nse  to  a  legend  according  to  which  the  two  saints 
arose  from  their  tomb  in  1039  in  order  to  assist  at  the 
dedication  of  the  church  of  Aachen  (Aix-la^Chapelle), 
and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  ceremony  returned  to 
their  tomb  to  resume  their  eternal  sleep.  Together  with 
St.  Monulphus,  St.  Gondulphus  is  secondary  patron 
of  the  city  and  church  of  Maastricht.  His  feast'  is 
kept  on  16  July.  The  commemoration  of  the  exhu- 
mation of  1039  is  celebrated  on  10  August. 

III.  Saint  Gondulphus  (or  Gondon)  of  Berry,  who  is 
honoured  with  the  title  of  bishop,  is  a  person  of  whom 
history  gives  a  still  more  legendary  account  than  of 
his  namesake  of  Maastricht.  According  to  the  biog^ 
raphy  in  which  he  is  comparatively  lately  treated  by 
a  monk  of  Berry,  he  was  Archbishop  of  Milan  in  the 
seventh  century.  Not  succeeding  in  appeasing  the 
troubles  which  had  arisen  in  his  church,  he  resolved  to 
submit  to  the  inevitable,  and  retired  to  Berry  with  a 
number  of  his  disciples.  It  is  not  known,  however, 
that  any  Archbishop  of  Milan  had  to  deal  with  these 
conditions.  It  is  true  that  it  has  been  thought  that 
Gondulphus  lived  at  the  time  of  the  Milanese  schism 
regarding  the  affair  of  the  Three  Chapters,  that  he  was 
consecrated  in  555,  but  that  he  was  never  received  as 
bishop  in  his  diocese.  These  are  merely  hypotheses, 
and  in  fact  it  must  be  said  that  the  history  of  the  St. 
Gondulphus  who  is  honoured  in  Berry  is  unknown. 

The  attestation  of  his  cult  in  Berry  appears  late 
among  the  additions  to  the  martyrology  of  Usuard ;  it 
is  cited  in  the  Breviary  of  Bourges  in  1625.  He  is  the 
patron  of  St-Gondon,  near  Gien.  His  feast  is  kept  on 
17  June. 

St.  Gondulphus  of  Mbtx. — Nomina  pontifieum  MeOensia 
aedia  et  ordo  in  Mon.  Oerm.  Hist.,  Script.,  IT,  260;  AnnaleaS.  ViH' 
eentii  Afettenaea.  ibid..  III.  156;  Oeata  epiacoporum  Mettenaiumt 
ibid,,  X,  641;  Acta  iS^S.,  September,  II,  782-84;  BosimLL,DiB 


Anf(tno€  dm  hBrnAmgiBtken  Hauam  (Beriin 
DoBRiNO,  BeUrOae  zur  OiUUen  GeaehiehU 
(InnBbruck,  1887).    St.  Gondulphbs  of  Tonorbs, 


OONXT  634  GOHHELIEU 

°1/  ^^\  185-101;  rected  towards  the  ministry  of  the  pulpit,  and  toany, 

SSrm—I^ gSJ!  attracted  by  the  piety  and  learning  of  his  discourse, 

dulphi  in  Ada  SS.,  July,  IV.  163  aqq. ;  Man.  Germ.  Hiat.,  Scnpi,,  looked  to  him  as  spiritual  consoler  and  adviser.     He 

XIII.  290;  XXV.  28;  GHBSQuxiiRB.  Ada  SS.Beioii,  II.  ^50  attained  to  considerable  repute  as  a  sacred  orator,  the 

SS&S^gCS^^SSr^JErJo^te.UkiffS'ir^;.^  qualifi««tionB  which  he  po^essed  in  th«  way  being 

oeaeh.  Deutaehianda,  II.  320;  Monchamp,  Le  dtaiutue  deVigliae  altogether  exceptional  and  peculiar;  he  had,  particu- 

Saint-Servaia  h   Maeairichi:    Exctiua  hae  and   Monulphua  larlv,  in  a  marked  degree,  the  faculty  of  conveying 

riX«ii'  <S3^'^^^T?'Ji^S««(i^tJ^  spiritual  thoughts  of  the  loftiest  and  noblest  import  in 

J,  1900,  771-96;  Molanus,  Nakdea  aanetorum  Bdgii,  160;  »  form  that  was  readily  assimilable  by  the  people. 


^AN  Di^  Ebun,  Etude  critique  et  littiruire  aur  lea  Vita  dee  His  duties,  of  whatever  order,  were  discharged  with 

rt^'t^^lliS.to'?^"r'.^'SS£Si;;5^^liS  '^S:  thorourfmessand  a  laudable  spirit  of  «eW-«c.&pe:  the 
toire  msraire  de  la  Fnmee,  VI.  520-1.  Consult  alao  Mionb.  zeal  and  eamestness  which  he  always  displayed  in  the 
Dia.  hagiooraphique  (Pvia,  1850),  s.  w.  Gcndotf,  Qondolphs,  cause  of  religion  entitle  Gonnelieu  to  a  very  nigh  place 
^"^^^  T  Y^«  -jjjj.  EasEN  among  the  evangelical  workers  of  that  time  who  la- 
boured most  to  promote  the  spiritual  advancement  of 
Oonety  Jean  BAFnsTE,  theologian:  b.  about  1616  men.  Towards  tne  latter  end  of  his  life  he  gave  himself 
at  Briers,  in  the  province  of  Languedoc;  d.  there  24  up  i^ost  exclusively  to  literary  activity;  and  the  re- 
Jan.,  1681.  From  his  eariy  boyhood  he  was  devout  nown  which  he  acouired  in  this  department  was  no 
and  fond  of  study.  He  received  his  primary  education  less  deserved  than  tne  celebrity  with  which  his  preach- 
in  his  native  place,  and  there  at  the  age  of  seventeen  ing  was  attended.  The  following  is  a  list  of  his  works: 
entered  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic.    After  his  religious  "  Exercise  de  la  vie  spirituelle  "  (Paris,  1701) ;  "  De  la 


profession  he  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Bordeaux,    Presence  de  Dieu  qui  renferme  tous  les  principes  de  la 
where  with  unusual  ability  he  devoted  himself  to  the    vie  int^rieure"  (Paris,  1703,  1709;  Marseilles,  1827); 


the  chair  of  scholastic  theology  in  the  university,  in  printed  with  preceding  work  in  Paris  edition  of  1713); 

which  capacity  he  proved  himself  a  brilliant  theologian  "Sermon  de  Notre  Seigneur  k  see  ap6tres  apr6s  la 

and  an  exceptbnally  gifted  teacher.    In  1671  he  was  Cdne,  avec  des  reflexions"  (Paris,  1712);  "NouveUe 

elected  provincial  of  his  province;  on  the  expiration  retraitedehuit  jours  111 'usage  des  pecsonnesdumonde 

of  his^term  of  office,  he  resumed  the  professorship  of  et  du  clottre"  (Paris,  1736). 

theology,  holdine  it  till  1678,  when  ill-health  obliged        To  the  above  almost  all  the  bibliographies  add  an- 

him  to  return  to  his  native  place.    As  a  theologian  and  other  work,  of  which  the  full  title  is  "  L'Imitation  de 

academic  disputant  Gonet  ranks  among  the  most  Jesus-Christ,  Traduction  nouvelle:  Avec  une  Pratique, 

prominent  figures  of  his  time.    An  ardent  defender  et  une  Pridre  &  la  fin  de  chaque  Chapitre"  (Par  le  R. 

and  exponent  of  the  teaching  of  St.  Thomas  and  an  P.  de  Gonnelieu,  de  la  Compagnie  de  J6sus,  Paris  and 

illustrious  representative  of  Neo-Thomism,  he  set  forth  Nancy,  1712) ;  but  the  sreat  majority  of  the  bibliogra- 

the  traditional  teaching  of  his  school  with  astonish-  phies,  too.  if  apparently  somewhat  arbitrarily,  deny 

ing  deamess  and  skill,  u  with  some  bitterness  aeainst  that  the  Troductum  (translation),  as  distinct  from  the 

the  representatives  of  different  views.    He  Uvea  at  a  secourB  (helps)  at  the  end  of  each  chapter,  is  by  de 

time  when  theological  discussion  was  rife,  when  men,  Gonnelieu.    The  opinion  of  the  negative  critics  seems 

weary  of  treading  beaten  paths,  had  set  themselves  'to  be  based  mainly  on  the  statement  of  Galmet  (<^. 

to  constructing  systems  of  their  own.    His  seal,  howt  cit.  below)  that  "the  translation  is  by  Jean-Baptiste 

ever,  for  the  integrity  of  Thomistic  teaching,  and  Cusson  [winter  at  Nancy],  and  the  rest  by  P.  Gonne- 

his  bitter  aversion  irom  doctrinal  novelty  sometimes  lieu  ".    The  most  approvea  form  of  this  theory  is  that 

carried  him  beyond  the  teaching  of  his  master,  and  which  attributes  the  rendering,  as  made  originally,  to 

led  him  to  adopt  opinions  on  certain  questions  of  Jean  Gusson,  printer  at  Paris  and  clerk  to  tne  parlia* 

theology,  especially  tnose  dealing  with  predestination  ment,  who,  in  hk  version  published  in  1673,  had 

and  reprobation,  which  were  rejected  by  many  learned  availed  himself  largely  of  the  celebrated  translation 

theologians  of  his  own  school.    In  1669  he  published  by  Sacy.   Jean-Baptiste  Cusson,  a  man  of  culture  and 

a  work  on  the  morality  of  human  acts,  the  purpose  of  fine  literary  sense,  after  thoroughly  revising  and  im- 

which  was  to  defend  the  Thomistic  doctrine  at  once  proving  his  father's  work,  had  issued  the  amended 

against  what  he  calls  the  laxities  of  the  modem  casu-  version  at  Nancy  in  1712.    Gence,  author  of  a  notioeon 

ists,  and  the  rigorism  of  the  Jansenists.    In  this  the  principal  French  translations  of  the  "Imitation" 

treatise  he  defends  Uie  probabiliorism  of  his  school,  (Journal  des  cur^,  Sept.,  1810),  substantially  main- 

and  in  the  heat  of  the  controversy  is  unsparing  in  his  tained  this  view;  so,  also,  Barbier  and  Brunet  (op.  cit. 

denunciations  of  tile  doctrine  of  probabilism.    His  below).    The  "Journal  des  S^vans"  (Au^.,  1713),  on 

principal  work  is  tiie  "Clypeus  theologis  thomisticss  the  other  hand,  in  a  review  written  withm  one  year 

contra  novos  ejus  impugnatores"  (16  vols^  Bordeaux,  after  the  publication  of  the  work,  whilst  praising  the 

1659^9).    From  1669  to  1681  no  less  than  nine  edi-  seal  and  piety  of  the  translator,  says  expresslv  that 

tions  of  this  work  appeared ;  the  latest  is  that  of  Paris,  the  version  is  by  P.  Gonnelieu;  and  adds  that    Sieur 

1875.    Shortly  before  his  death  he  published  his  Cusson  (one  time  printer  to  the  Journal)  has  enriched 

"Manuale  thonustarum",  which  is  an  abridgment  of  this  first  edition  by  many  copper-plates".    The  testi- 

his  larger  work.  mony  of  the  "M^moires  de  Irovoux"  (see  below)  for 

Qu<rnF  AND  EcHABD,  8er%p(orea  O.  iV.,  11.  603;  Huwtbr,  August,  1713,  is  almost  identical  with  the  preceding; 

u^!!:^!^'\SSvi^^{MT7'^  "^  ^^^  ana  in  the  same  notice  it  is  stated  that  "  the  name  of 

jQgsPH  ScHROBDBR.  ^*  ^®  Gonnclieu  was  a '  pr6iug6  infaillible  m  favour  of 

*  the  excellence  of  the  work  .  Finally,  if  it  be  argued, 
Oonff .  See  Altar,  sub-title  Altar-Bell.  ^th  those  who  deny  the  Gonnelieu  authorship  of  ths 
Qoimalieti,  J£r6mb  de,  theologian,  asoetical  rendering,  that  the  title  of  the  "Traduction'' is  mis- 
writer,  and  preacher,  b.  at  Soissons,  8  Sept.,  1640;  d.  leading,  is  it  not  more  natural  to  assume  that  the 
at  Paris,  28  Feb.,  1715.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  Abbot  of  Senones,  in  his  "  Histoire  des  hommes  illu»- 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  (4  Oct.,  1657).  Till  the  tres",  written  almost  fifty  vears  after  the  appearance 
year  1674,  when  he  pronounced  his  final  vows,  his  ser-  of  the  version,  was  deceivea  by  the  ambiguity,  than  to 
vices  were  requisitioned  in  various  capacities,  his  work  assert  such  error  on  the  part  of  those  who  were  on 
as  a  teacher  beine  particulariy  efficient  and  valuable,  tennsof  intimate  relationship  with  Cusson,  the  printeri 
From  this  date  his  abilities  were  long  and  actively  di-  and  Gonnelieu,  the  presumptive  author? 


OONSALO 


635 


OONZAUBS 


Jowwd  dm  Scavofu  (Aaatetdam,  1718).  TJV.  181-82; 
M^moina  pour  I'HiaUnre  dea  Samou  et  dea  beaux  Aria  (Tr^voux, 
1713),  Art.  cxvi,  LI,  1403-04;  Calhkt.  BibliotMQua  Lorraine 
(Nftncy,  1751),  318:  Barbiisr,  Dietionnaire  dea  Anonymea,  2Dd 
ed.  (Paria,  1823),  II,  160,  163  sqq.;  Bbunbt.  Manuel  du  L*- 
raire  (Parii,  1862).  Ill,  426;  Patouixxbt,  Didumnatre  dea 
liorea  janaSniatea  (1752).  preface.  ^     ,    ,,       . 

P.  J.  MacAulby. 

QonBalo  Oarcia»  Saint.  See  GARctA,  Gonsalo, 
Saint. 

Qonsaga,  Ercole  (Hercules),  cardinal;  b.  at 
Mantua,  23  November,  1505;  d.  2  March,  1563.  He 
was  the  son  of  the  Marquess  Francesco,  and  nephew 
of  Cardinal  Sigismondo  Gonsaga  (1409-1525).  He 
studied  philosophy  at  Bologna  under  Pomponacsi, 
and  later  took  up  theoloey.  In  1520,  or  as  some  say, 
1525,  his  uncle  Sigismondo  renounced  in  his  favour  the 
See  of  Mantua;  in  1527  his  mother  Isabella  brought 
him  back  from  Rome  the  insignia  of  the  cardinalate. 
Notwithstanding  his  ^outh,  he  showed  great  zeal  for 
church  reform,  especially  in  his  own  diocese;  and  in 
this  he  received  nelp  and  encouragement  from  his 
friend  Cardinal  Giberti,  Bishop  of  Verona.  His  mode 
of  life  was  stainless  and  a  manuscript  work  of  his, 
^'Vitffi  Christians  institutio",  bears  witness  to  his 
piety.  He  published  a  Latin  catechism  for  the  use  of 
the  priests  of  his  diocese  and  built  the  diocesan  semi- 
nary, thus  carrjrine  out  reforms  ur^ed  by  the  Council 
of  Trent,  as  his  niends  Contarim,  Giberti,  Carafita, 
and  other  bishops  had  done  or  were  doing,  even  before 
the  council  had  assembled.  His  charity  was  un- 
bounded, and  many  young  men  of  talent  and  genius 
had  their  university  expenses  paid  by  him.  The  popes 
employed  him  on  many  embassies,  e.  g.  to  Charles  v  in 
15&.  Because  of  his  prudence  and  nis  business-like 
methods,  he  was  a  favourite  with  the  popes,  with 
Charles  V,  and  Ferdinand  I,  and  with  tne  Kings  of 
France,  Francis  I  and  Henry  II.  From  1540  to  1556 
he  was  guardian  to  the  younp  sons  of  his  brother 
Federicoll  who  had  died,  and  m  their  name  he  gov- 
erned the  Duchy  of  Mantua.  The  elder  of  the  bovs, 
Francesco,  died  in  1550  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Guglielmo.  In  the  conclave  of  1559  it  was 
thought  he  would  certainly  be  made  pope;  but  the 
cardinals  would  not  choose  as  pope  a  scion  of  a  ruling 
house.  In  1561  Pius  IV  named  him  legate  to  the 
Council  of  Trent,  for  which  he  had  from  the  beginning 
laboured  by  every  means  at  his  command,  moral  ana 
material.  In  its  earlv  stages,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
not  a  few  considered  ne  was  in  favour  of  Communion 
under  both  kinds,  he  met  with  many  difficulties,  and 
interested  motives  were  attributed  to  him.  Nothing 
but  the  express  wish  of  the  pope  could  have  persuaded 
him  to  remain  at  his  post,  and  the  energy  he  displayed 
was  unwearied.  He  contracted  fever  at  Trent,  where 
he  died,  attended  by  Father  Lainei.  His  benefac- 
tions to  the  Jesuit  coflege  at  Mantua  and  to  the  Monte 
di  Pietik  were  very  great,  and  his  letters  are  invaluable 
to  the  historian  of  that  period. 

CiACONxns,  Vila  Poniificum  (Rome,  1677);  Catalani,  Vita 
del  Card.  Oonaaga  (Mantua,  1564) ;  PASfroB,  Geaeh,  der  PUpate,  V. 

U.  Benioni. 

Qonsaga,  Sgipione,  cardinal;  b.  at  Mantua,  11 
November,  1542*  d.  at  San  Martino,  11  January,  1593. 
He  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Dukes  of  Sabbioneta, 
passed  his  youth  under  the  care  of  Cardinal  Ercole 
(Hercules)  Gonzaga,  and  made  rapid  progress  in  Greek 
and  Latin  studies.  At  Bologna,  ana  later  at  Padua, 
he  studied  mathematics  and  philosophy,  and,  in  the 
latter  city,  founded  the  Accademia  degli  Eterei,  or 
Academy  of  the  Ethereals.  Throughout  his  life  he 
patronized  literature  and  men  of  letters,  among  the 
latter  being  Tasso,  who  soudit  his  advice  concerning 
his  "Gerusalemme  Liberata  ,  and  Guarino,  who  dcKii- 
cated  to  him  his  "  Pastor  Fido ''.  Having  finished  his 
theological  studies  he  went  to  Rome,  became  came- 
riere  segreto  to  Pius  IV,  and  was  ordained  priest. 
In  the  early  years  of  the  reign  of  Gregory  XIII  Gon- 


zaga  bad  a  serious  lawsuit  with  the  Duke  of  Mantua 
over  some  property,  but  they  were  soon  reconciled. 
Through  the  Guise  party,  whose  cause  he  had  aided, 
he  became  Bishop  of  Mende  in  France,  but  Charles, 
Duke  of  Guise,  pleaded  unsuccessfully  with  Gregory 
XIII  to  have  lum  made  cardinal.  Sixtus  V,  imme- 
diately on  his  elevation,  appointed  him  Patriarch  of 
Jerusalem,  and  in  1587,  at  the  request  of  the  Duke  of 
Mantua,  raised  him  to  the  cardinalate.  Sixtus  also 
made  constant  use  of  his  services  in  the  execution  of 
his  policies,  domestic  and  foreign.  Cardinal  Gonzaga 
was  a  friend  of  Saint  Charles  Borromeo  and  Saint 
Philip  Neri,  and  his  cousin  Saint  Alopnsius  Gonza^ 
owed  him  the  eventual  consent  of  his  father  to  his 
entering  the  Society  o^  Jesus.  For  a  time  Cardinal 
Gonzaga  was  governor  of  the  Marquessate  of  Monfer- 
rato  in  the  name  of  the  Marquess  Vincenzo.  The 
three  books  of  his  '^Commentarii",  ^nitten  in  pol- 
ished Latin,  are  an  imi>ortant  source  of  information 
for  the  history  of  his  cardinalate.  He  was  buried  in 
the  church  ol  St.  Sebastian  at  Rome.  His  "Com- 
mentarii"  were  edited  at  Rome  in  1791  by  Marotti. 
Cabdblia,  Memorieatoriehed^  CardinaH  (Rome,  1792),  273. 

U.  Benioni. 

Oons&lei  de  Santalla,  Thtrsub,  theologian  and 
thirteenth  general  of  the  Society  of  Jesus;  b.  at 
Arganda,  Spain,  18  Januarv,  1624;  d.  at  Rome,  27 
October,  1705.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  3 
March,  1643,  and  taught  philosophy  ana  theology  at 
Salamanca  from  1655  to  1665  and  from  1676  to  1687, 
the  intervening  years  having  been  devoted  to  preach- 
ing. When  about  to  set  out  for  Africa  to  convert  the 
Mussulmans  in  1687,  he  was  sent  as  elector  to  the  thir- 
teenth general  congregation,  by  which  he  was  chosen 
general,  6  July,  1687.  As  an  ardent  adversary  of 
probabilism  Cionztiez  had  frequently  asked  his  su- 

giriors  to  have  some  Jesuit  write  against  the  doctrine, 
e  himself  had  compo^Bd  a  work  in  which  he  defended 
probabiliorism,  assigzung,  however,  an  exaggerated 
importance  to  the  subjective  estimation  of  the  de^;ree 
of  probability.  The  general  revisors  of  the  Society 
unanimously  rendered  an  unfavourable  opinion  on  the 
work,  and  accordingly,  in  1674,  Father-(}eneral  Oliva 
refused  permission  for  its  publication.  Gonz^ez 
received  encouragement  from  Innocent  XI,  who  had 
become  pope  in  1676,  and  by  his  order  the  Holy  Office 
issued  a  decree,  in  1680,  ordering  the  superiors  of  the 
Society  to  allow  their  subjects  to  defend  probabilior- 
ism, a  permission  that  had  never  been  denied.  As 
general  of  the  Society,  Gohzdlez  thought  himself 
obliged  to  fig^t  probabilism  among  his  subjects.  In 
1691,  he  had  printed  at  Dillingena  modified  edition  of 
his  former  work,  but,  owing  to  the  efforts  of  his  assis- 
tants, this  book  was  never  published.  Innocent  XII 
ordered  a  new  examination  of  it  to  be  made,  and  with 
many  corrections  it  finally  appeared,  in  1694.  under 
the  title  "Fundamentum  theolo^se  morali»—ae  recto 
usu  opinionum  probabilium"  at  Rome  (three  editions), 
Antwerp,  Dillingen,  Paris,  Cologne,  etc.,  and  again  at 
Antweip,  in  1695.  Migne  has  reproduced  it  in  his 
"Cursus  Theologiffi".  XL  Bossuet  said  that  nothing 
more  formidable  haa  ever  been  written  against  prob- 
abilism, and  St.  Alphonsus  Li^ori  foimd  in  it  an 
exaggeration  of  rigorist  tendencies. 

We  also  have  from  the  pen  of  Gk>nz^ez  some  apolo- 
getical  works:  ''Selectarum  disputationum  tomi  quat- 
tuor"  (Salamanca^  1680),  in  which  are  found  chapters 
against  the  Thomists,  Jansenius,  and  some  doctors  of 
I^uvain;  treatises  on  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
and  on  papal  infallibility.  This  last,  directed  against 
the  Assembly  of  the  Clergy  of  France  in  1682,  and 
printed  by  order  of  Innocent  XI,  was  afterwards 
suppressed  by  Alexander  VIII,  who  feared  new  diffi- 
culties with  the  French  court.  This  work  appeared, 
in  r^um^  only,  at  Barcelona,  in  1691. 

Db  Baokbr  and  Somicbkvoobl.  BUbl,  dea  ierivaina  de  la 


QONSEALO 


636 


OOOD 


Mfiip.  de  JUu»;  CoNCiNA.  Apparatua  ad  theologiam  chrietianam 
(Rome,  1761),  II;  Vinaieia  aocieUUia  Jeau  ejusqua  doctrinm 
purgalto  (Venioe,  1769);  DdzjJNGBR  and  Redbcii,  Geach.  dar 
Mordlaireitiokeiten  m  der  roam,  kaih.  Kircha  (NOrdlinsen,  1889), 
I.  120-273;  II,  49-219;  Hdrtbr,  NomencUdor;  Mationon. 
Studaardiaieuaaa  (PariB,  1866);  PATGtzif  Ldlarateoloffico-moralh 
VI  (Trent,  1756);  ReOsch,  Index  der  varbotenen  Busier  (Bonn, 
1885),  pp.  506-10;  Preuaaiacka  JahrbUchar  (Berlin,  1888),  Etna 
Kriaia  tm  Jeauitenorden;  Strkbbr  in  KirchenUx;  Bihlmbter  in 
Kirdkl.  HandUx.  For  controversies  about  the  decree  of  Inno- 
oent  XI  on  probabilismsee  chiefly  Bruckkb,  (Etudea  rdigieuaea, 
1901-02),  who  quotes  the  official  communication  of  the  only 
authentic  text  given  by  the  Holy  Office  in  1902.  Tbr  Haar, 
hinoeerUii  XldaProbdbUiamo  dacrelihiatoria  at  vindicieB  (Touma;)r 
and  Paris,  1904);  Lbhuxdhl,  Ptobabiliamua  vindicatua  (Frei- 
bunc.  1906);  see  also,  Arndt  in  Analecla  Eccl.,  1902;  Cathrbin 
in  fhaol.  prakt.  QuarUdachriH ,  1905;  Frank  ia  ZeUaehr  f.  kaih, 
ThaoL,  1905;  Makdonnst  in  Rama  ThomiaU^  1901-2. 

J.  Salsmans. 

Gonsalo  de  BerceOi  Spanish  poet,  active  between 
1220  and  1242.  Bom  in  the  closing  years  of  the 
twelfth  century,  he  appears  to  be  the  earliest  Castilian 
author  known  to  us  by  name.  He  became  a  priest 
and  passed  the  whole  of  his  life  in  or  near  the  monas- 
tery of  San  Millin  de  la  Cogolla.  His  compositions 
extend  to  more  than  13.(X)0  verses  (Alexandrines), 
arranged  in  monoihymed  quatrains  (cuadema  via), 
and,  at  least  in  so  far  as  the  truly  authentic  are  con- 
cerned, are  religious  and  hi^ographical  in  their  na- 
ture. Thev  are  made  up  of  lives  of  Spanish  saints: 
"La  vida  de  Santo  Dommgo  de  Silos",  ''La  vida  de 
San  Millin '  \"  La  vida  de  Santa  Oria  " ;  of  poems  cele- 
brating the  Blessed  Virgin:  "  Los  Milagros  de  Nuestra 
Sefiora",  "Los  Loores  de  Nuestra  Sefiora",  "El  duelo 
de  la  Vii^n";  and  of  other  pious  and  didactic  works: 
"  El  sacnficio  de  la  Misa '  *. "  Los  signos  del  juicio ' ',  and 
perhaps  some  hymns.  In  all  these  compositions  he 
manifests  but  little  originality,  abiding,  wnerever  pos- 
sible, by  Latin  sources  that  were  doubtless  in  the  mo- 
nastic library.  His  manner  and  style,  however,  are 
decidedly  interesting,  because  thev  evince  his  desire  to 
appeal  to  all  the  lay  reading  public  of  Castile  in  his 
time.  He  writes,  as  he  tells  us,  in  the  vernacular,  so 
that  he  may  be  read  by  the  common  man;  and  he  in- 
tentionally adopts  the  methods  of  the  popular  minstrel 
in  order  to  reacn  more  auickly  the  popular  heart.  In 
spite  of  his  diffuseness,  ne  can  interest  us  to-day,  and 
his  quaint  humour,  heavy  though  it  may  be  at  times, 
has  no  little  charm.  If  we  are  to  believe  the  ascription 
contained  in  one  of  the  two  manuscripts  of  the  old 
Spanish  poem  on  Alexander  the  Great  ("Libro  de 
Alexandre")  we  must  credit  him  with  that  secular 
work  also ;  but  scholars  are  not  too  prone  to  regard  the 
ascription  as  correct. 

Editions  of  his  verse  in  SAnchbz,  Coieccidn  depoeaUu  caala- 
ttanaa  anteriarea  al  si^^oXV  (Madrid,  1779-90),  II;  in  theBib- 
lioteoa  da  autaraa  aapaiialea,  LVlI;  and,  for  the  Santo  Domingo 
in  the  BMiothiqua  de  VEeola  dea  Hautea  Etudea,  faso.  149.  ed. 
FitzQbrald.  See  also  Lanchbtab,  Gratndtiea  y  vocabutario 
de  O.  da  Bereeo  (Madrid,  1903);  Fftzmauricb-Kbllt,  Hiatory 
of  Spaniah  LUeraiura, 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Ck>od  is  one  of  those  primary  ideas  which  cannot 
be  strictly  defined.  In  order  to  fix  its  philosophical 
significance  we  may  begin  by  obeervine  tnat  the  word 
is  employed  fintly  as  an  adjective,  and  secondly  as  a 
substantive.  This  distinction  which  is  cleaiiy  marked 
in  French  by  the  two  different  terms,  bon  and  le  bieiif 
may  be  preserved  in  English  by  prefixing  an  article  to 
the  term  when  it  is  employed  subst^tively.  We 
call  a  tool  or  instrument  good,  if  it  serves  the  puipose 
for  which  it  is  intended.  That  is  to  say,  it  is  gooa  be- 
cause it  is  an  efficient  means  to  obtain  a  desired  result. 
The  result,  in  turn,  may  be  desired  for  itself,  or  it  ma^ 
be  sought  as  a  means  to  some  ulterior  end.  If  it  is 
Boufijit  for  itself,  it  is  or  it  is  estimated  by  us  to  be  a 
and  therefore  desirable  on  its  own  accoimt. 
len  we  isko  some  step  to  obtain  it,  it  is  the  end  of 
our  acnon.  The  series  of  means  and  ends  either 
stretehes  out  indefinitely,  or  it  must  terminate  in 
some  desired  object  or  objects  which  are  ends  in 


themselves.  Again  we  sometimes  call  a  thins  good 
because  it  possesses  completely,  or  in  a  hi^  degree, 
the  perfections  proper  to  its  nature,  as  a  good  paint- 
ing, good  respiration.  Sometimes  too,  thing?  are 
termS  good  because  they  are  of  a  nature  to  produce 
something  desirable;  that  is,  they  are  good  causally. 
Finally,  we  speak  of  good  conduct,  a  go(^  man,  a  good 
intention,  and  here  the  adjective  has  for  us  a  sense  dif- 
ferent from  any  of  the  foregoing,  unless,  indeed,  we 
are  utilitarian  philosophers,  to  wnom  morally  good  is 
but  another  term  for  useful. 

Now  in  sdl  these  locutions  the  word  conveys  directly 
or  indirectly  the  idea  of  desirability.  The  merdy  use- 
ful is  desired  for  the  end  towards  which  it  is  eixiployed; 
the  end  is  desired  on  its  own  account.  The  latter  is 
conceived  as  possessing  some  character,  quality, 
power,  which  renders  it  an  object  of  desire.  Two 
questions  now  arise:  (1)  What  is  it  which,  in  the  nature 
or  being  of  any  object,  constitutes  it  desirable?  Or, 
in  more  technical  phrase,  what,  metaphysically  speak- 
ing, constitutes  the  good  or  goodness  in  a  thin^,  abso- 
lutely considered?  (2)  What  is  the  relationship 
existing  between  the  ^;ood  thus  absolutely  constituted 
and  the  subject  to  which  it  is  desirable?  Or,  what  is  im- 
plied by  good,  relativelv  considered?  These  two  ques- 
tions may  be  combinea  in  one :  '*  What  is  the  good  in 
the  ontological  order?"  In  exposing  the  reply  to  this 
question  we  shall  come  across  tne  moral  good,  and  the 
ethical  aspect  of  the  problem,  which  shall  be  treated 
in  the  second  place. 

I.  Ontological. — In  Greek  philosophy  no  topic 
receives  more  attention  than  the  nature  of  the  ^ood. 
The  speculations  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  especially, 
have  nad  a  notable  influence  on  Christian  thought; 
they  were  adopted,  in  eclectic  fashion,  bjr  the  early 
Fauiera.  who  combined  many  of  the  ancient  philo- 
sophic ideas  with  revealed  truth ,  by  correctingsome  and 
amplifying  others.  The  synthesis  was  carried  on  by 
the  earlier  Scholastics,  ana  took  definitive  form  from 
the  hand  of  St.  Thomas.  Some  of  his  predecessors,  as 
well  as  some  of  his  foUowera,  disagree  with  him  on  a 
few  minor  points,  most  of  which,  however,  are  of  a 
character  too  subtle  to  call  for  attention  in  this  article. 
We  daallf  therefore,  present  the  doctrine  of  St. 
Thomas  in  outline  as  the  approved  teaching  of  our 
schools. 

Plato. — ^According  to  Plato,  in  the  objective  order 
corresponding  to  our  thought,  there  are  two  different 
worlds:  the  world  of  things,  and  the  incomparably 
higher,  nobler  worid  of  ideas,  which  transcends  the 
world  of  things.  The  objects  corresponding  directly 
to  our  universal  concepts  are  not  thines,  but  ideas. 
The  objective  idea  is  not  indwelling  in  the  essences  of 
those  things  which  fall  within  the  scope  of  our  corres- 
ponding universal  concept,  but  the  tning  borrows  or 
derives  something  from  the  idea.  While  the  beine  or 
existence  proper  to  the  world  of  things  is  imperfect, 
unstable,  essentially  transitory,  ana  therefore  not 
truly  deservine  of  the  name  of  being,  which  implies 
permanence,  ideas  on  the  contrary  are  incorruptible, 
imchangeable,  and  truly  existence.  Now,  among 
ideas  the  noblest  and  highest  is  the  idea  good:  it  is  the 
supreme  and  sovereign  idea.  Whatever  things  pos- 
sess goodness  have  it  only  because  theyparticipate  ip, 
or  draw  from,  the  Sovereign  Good.  Their  Koodness, 
then,  is  something  distinct  from,  and  addecTto,  their 
proper  essences  or  bein^.  What,  in  Plato's  mind,  is 
the  nature  of  this  participation  we  need  not  explain 
further  than  that  he  makes  it  consist  in  this,  that  the 
thin^  is  a  copy  or  imitation  of  the  idea.  Tnis  sover- 
eign idea,  the  Good,  is  identical  with  God.  It  is  not  a 
synthesis  of  all  other  ideas  but  is  unkiue,  transcend- 
ent, and  individual.  Whether  Plato  neld  that  other 
ideas  exist  in  God  as  in  their  proper  dwelline-place  is 
not  quite  clear.  Aristotle  so  interpreted  Plato;  and 
it  is  very  likely  that  Aristotle  was  oetter  qualified  to 
understand  Plato's  meaning  than  were  subsequent 


GOOD 


637 


GOOD 


philosophers  who  have  disputed  his  interpretation. 
Ihe  Supreme  Good  imparts  to  the  intellect  the  power 
to  perceive,  and  elves  mtelligibilitv  to  the  intelligible. 
It  18,  therefore,  me  source  ol  truth.  God,  the  essen- 
tial and  supreme  Good,  can  impart  nothing  that  is  not 
good.  This  view  leads  to  the  inference  that  the  origin 
of  evil  lies  beyond  the  control  of  God.  The  theory 
leans,  therefore,  to  dualism,  and  its  influence  may  be 
traced  throu^  the  earl  v  Gnostic  and  Manichsean  here- 
sies, and,  in  a  minor  degree,  in  the  doctrines  of  the 
Priscillianists  and  Albigenses. 
AristoUe. — Starting  from  the  Platonic  definition, 

food  is  that  which  ul  desire,  Aristotle,  rejecting  the 
^latonic  doctrine  of  a  transcendent  world  of  ideas, 
holds  that  the  good  and  bein^  are  identical;  good  is 
not  something  added  to  being,  it  is  bein^.  Everything 
Ihat  is,  is  good  because  it  is;  the  quantity,  if  one  may 
use  the  word  loosely,  of  being  or  existence  which  a 
thing  possesses,  is  at  the  same  time  its  stock  of  good- 
ness. A  diminution  or  an  increase  of  its  being  is  a 
diminution  or  increase  of  its  goodness.  Being  and  the 
good  are,  then,  objectively  tne  same;  everv  being  is 
good,  every  good  is  being:  Our  concepts,  being  and 
good,  differ  K>rmally:  the  first  simply  denotes  exist- 
ence; tiie  second,  existence  as  a  perfection,  or  the 
power  of  contributing  to  the  perfection  of  a  bein^.  It 
follows  from  this  that  evil  is  not  being  at  all;  it  is,  on 
the  contrary,  the  privation  of  being.  Again,  while  be- 
ing, viewed  as  the  object  of  tendency,  appetite,  or  will, 
gives  rise  to  the  concept  good^  so,  when  considered  as 
the  proper  object  of  the  intellect,  it  is  represented 
under  the  concept  true  or  truth,  and  it  is  the  beauti- 
ful, inasmuch  as  the  knowled^  of  it  is  attended  bv 
that  particular  pleasurable  emotion  which  we  call 
ssthetic.  As  Goa  is  the  fullness  of  being,  so,  therefore, 
the  supreme,  infinite  Being  is  also  the  Supreme  Good 
from  which  all  creatures  derive  their  being  and  good- 
ness. 

Neo-PUxUmism. — ^The  neo-Platonists  perpetuated 
the  Platonic  theory,  mixed  with  Aristotelean,  Judaic, 
and  other  Oriental  ideas.  Plotinus  introduced  the 
doctrine  of  a  triple  hypostasis,  i.  e.  the  one,  the  intelli- 
gence, and  the  universal  soul,  above  the  world  of 
chan^g  beine.  The  good  is  identical  with  the  one, 
and  is  above  being,  which  is  multiple.  The  intelli- 
^nce  is  ordained  to  good;  but,  incapable  of  grasping 
it  in  its  entirety,  it  breaks  it  up  into  parts,  which  con- 
stitute the  essences.  These  essences  by  becoming 
united  with  a  material  principle  constitute  things. 
The  Pseudo-Dionysius  propa^ted  the  Platonic  influ- 
ence in  his  work  "De  Nominibus  Divinis",  the  doc- 
trine of  which  is  based  on  the  Scriptures.  God  is 
supereminently  being — "I  am  who  am" — but  in  Him 
the  good  is  anterior  to  being,  and  the  ineffable  name  of 
God  is  above  all  His  other  names.  The  good  is  more 
univerKd  than  being,  for  it  embraces  the  material  prin- 
ciple which  does  not  possess  any  being  of  its  own.  The 
bond  which  unites  beings  among  themselves  and  to 
the  Supreme  Being  is  love,  which  nas  for  its  object  the 

?;ood.    The  trend  of  the  Pseudo-Dionysius  is  away 
rom  the  dualism  which  admits  a  principle  of  evO,  but 
on  the  other  hand,  it  inclines  towards  pantheism. 

The  Fathers. — ^The  Fathers,  in  ^neral,  treated  the 
question  of  good  from  the  standpomt  of  benneneutics 
rather  than  from  the  philosophic.  Their  chief  concern 
is  to  afiirm  that  God  is  the  Supreme  Good,  that  He  is 
the  creator  of  all  that  exists,  that  creatures  derive 
their  goodness  from  Him,  while  the^r  are  distinct  from 
Him;  and  that  there  is  no  supreme  independent  prin- 
ciple of  evil.  St.  Augustine,  however  (De  Natura 
Boni,  P.  L.,  XLIII),  examines  the  topic  fully  and  in 
great  detail.  Some  of  his  expressions  seem  tinged  with 
the  Platonic  notion  that  good  is  antecedent  to  being; 
but  elsewhere  he  makes  the  good  and  being  in  God 
fundamentally  identical.  Boethiiis  distinguishes  a 
double  goodness  in  things  created:  first,  that  which  in 
ihem  is  one  with  their  being;  second,  an  accidental 


goodness  added  to  their  nature  by  God.  In  God  these 
two  elements  of  good,  the  essential  and  the  accidental, 
are  but  one,  since  there  are  no  accidents  in  God. 

Scholastic  Doctrine, — St.  Thomas  starts  from  the 
Aristotelean  principle  that  being  and  the  good  are 
objectively  one.  Being  conceived  as  desirable  is  the 
good.  The  good  differs  from  the  true  in  this,  that, 
while  both  are  objectively  nothing  else  than  being,  the 
^ood  is  being  considered  as  the  object  of  appetite^  de- 
sire, and  wm,  the  true  is  being  as  the  object  ot  the 
intidlect.  God,  the  Supreme  Being  and  the  source  of 
all  other  being,  is  consequently  the  Supreme  Good, 
and  the  goodness  of  creatures  results  from  the  diffu- 
sion of  His  goodness.  In  a  creature,  considered  as  a 
subject  having  existence^  we  distinguish  several  ele- 
ments of  the  goodness  which  it  possesses:  (a)  Its  exist- 
ence or  being,  which  is  the  ground  of  all  the  other 
elements,  (b)  Its  powers,  activities,  and  capacities. 
These  are  the  complement  of  the  first,  and  they  serve 
it  to  pursue  and  appropriate  whatever  is  requisite  for 
and  contributory  to  sustaining  its  existence,  and  devel- 
oping that  existence  into  the  fullness  of  perfection 
proper  to  it.  (c)  Each  perfection  that  is  acquired  is  a 
further  measure  of  existence  for  it,,  hence  a  good, 
(d)  The  totality  of  these  various  elements,  forming  its 
total  good  subjectively,  that  is,  its  entire  being  m^  a 
state  of  normal  perfection  accoiding  to  its  kind,  is  its 
good  complete.  This  is  the  sense  of  the  axiom:  omne 
ens  est  bonum  sibi  (every  beiz^  is  a  good  unto  itself). 
The  privation  of  anv  of  its  powers  or  due  perfections 
is  an  evil  for  it,  as,  tor  instance,  blindness,  the  loss  c^ 
the  power  of  sight,  is  an  evil  for  an  animal.  Hence  evil 
is  not  something  positive  and  does  not  exist  in  itself : 
as  the  axiom  expresses  it,  malum  in  bono  fundatur  (evil 
has  its  base  in  good). 

L6t  us  pass  now  to  good  in  the  relative  sense. 
Every  being  has  a  naturaltendency  to  continue  and  to 
develop  itself.  This  tendency  brin^  its  activities  into 
play;  each  power  has  its  proper  object,  and  a  conaius 
pushing  it  to  action.  The  end  to  which  action  is  di- 
rected IS  something  that  is  of  a  nature  to  contribute, 
when  obtained,  to  the  well-being  or  perfection  of  the 
subject.  For  tnis  reason  it  is  needed,  pursued,  desired, 
and,  because  of  its  desirability,  is  designated  good. 
For  example,  the  plant  for  its  existence  and  develop- 
ment rec|uires  lig^t,  air,  heat,  moisture,  nutriment.  It 
has  various  organs  adapted  to  appropriate  these 
things,  which  are  good  for  it,  and,  when  oy  the  exer- 
cise of  these  functions  it  acquires  and  appropriates 
them,  it  reaches  its  perfection  and  runs  its  course  in 
nature.  Now  if  we  look  into  the  cosmos,  we  perceive 
that  the  innumerable  varieties  of  being  in  it  are  bound 
together  in  an  indescribably  complex  system  of  mu- 
tual action  and  interaction,  as  they  obey  the  laws  oi 
their  nature.  One  class  contributes  to  the  other  in 
that  orderly  relationship  which  constitutes  the  har- 
mony of  the  universe.  True — ^to  change  the  meta- 
phor— ^with  our  limited  powers  of  observation  we  are 
unable  to  follow  the  innumerable  threads  of  this 
mighty  network,  but  we  trace  them  in  sufficiently 
large  and  varied  sweeps  to  warrant  the  induction  that 
everything  is  good  for  some  other  thing,  that  every- 
thing has  its  proper  end  in  the  great  whole.  Omne  ens 
est  bimum  aUert.  Since  this  orderly  correlation  of 
thin^  is  necessary  to  them  in  order  that  they  ma^ 
obtain  from  one  another  the  help  which  they  need,  it 
too  is  good  for  them.  This  order  is  ako  a  good  in 
itself,  because  it  is  a  created  reflection  of  the  unity  and 
harmony  of  the  Divine  being  and  goodness.  When  we 
consider  the  Supreme  Being  as  the  efficient  cause,  con- 
server,  and  director  of  this  majestic  order,  we  reach 
the  conception  of  Divine  Providence.  And  then  arises 
the  question,  what  is  the  end  towards  which  this  Prov- 
idence directs  the  universe?  The  end  again  is  the  good, 
i.  e.  God  Himself.  Not  indeed  that,  as  in  the  case  oi 
creatures.  He  mav  derive  any  advantage  or  perfection 
from  the  world,  but  that  it,  by  participating  ia  Sis 


GOOD 


638 


GOOD 


goodness,  may  manifest  it.  This  manifestation  is 
what  we  understand  by  the  expression,  "giving  elory 
to  God".  God  is  the  Alpha  and  the  Omega  of  the 
^ood;  the  source  from  which  it  flows,  the  end  to  which 
it  returns.  "  I  am  the  Beginning  and  I  am  the  £2nd. " 
It  must  be  remembered  that,  throughout  the  treat- 
ment of  this  subject,  the  term  oocNi,  like  all  other  terms 
which  we  predicate  of  God  and  of  creatures,  is  used  not 
univocally  but  analogically  when  referred  to  God. 
(See  Analogy.) 

^  The  defined  doctrine  on  the  good,  ontologically  con- 
sidered, is  formulated  by  the  Council  of  the  Vatican 
(Sess.  Ill,  Const,  de  Fide  Catholica,  Cap.  i):  "This 
one,  only,  true  God^  of  His  own  soodness  and  almighty 
power,  not  for  the  mcrease  of  His  own  happiness,  not 
lo  acquire  but  to  manifest  His  perfection  by  the  bless- 
ings which  He  bestows  on  creatures,  with  absolute 
freedom  of  counsel  created  from  the  beginning  of  time 
both  the  spiritual  and  the  corporeal  creature,  to  wit, 
the  angelic  and  the  mundane;  and  afterwards  the 
human  creature.''  In  Canon  iv  we  read:  "If  an;y^one 
shall  say  that  finite  things,  both  corporeal  and  spirit- 
ual, or  at  least  spiritual,  have  emanated  from  the 
Divine  substance;  or  that  the  Divine  essence,  by  the 
manifestation  and  evolution  of  itself,  becomes  all 
things;  or  lastly,  that  God  is  universal  or  indefinite 
being,  which  by  determining  itself  constitutes  the  uni- 
veisSLity  of  things  distinct  according  to  genera,  species, 
and  indfividuals,  let  him  be  anathema. 

^  II.  Ethical. — ^The  moral  good  is  not  a  kind  dis- 
tinct from  the  good  viewed  ontologically;  it  is  one  form 
of  perfection  proper  to  h\iman  life,  but,  because  of  its 
excellence  and  supreme  practical  importance^  it  de- 
mands special  tr»Eitment  with  reference  to  its  own 
distinctive  character  which  difiFerentiates  it  from  all 
othei^  goods  and  perfections  of  man.  It  is  again,  in 
Greek  philosophy,  that  we  find  the  principles  which 
have  supplied  the  school  with  a  basis  tor  rational  spec- 
ulations, controlled  and  supplemented  by  revelation. 
PUUo, — ^The  supreme  good  of  man  is.  as  we  have 
seen,  the  idea  ^ood,  identical  with  Goa.  By  union 
with  God  man  attains  his  hi^est  subjective  good, 
which  is  happiness.  This  assimilation  is  effected  by 
knowledge  and  love;  the  means  to  achieve  it  is  to 
preserve  in  the  soul  a  due  harmon^r  throughout  its 
various  parts  in  subordination  to  the  intellect  which  is 
the  hi^est  faculty.  The  establishment  of  this  har- 
mony orings  man  to  a  participation  in  the  Divine 
unity;  and  through  this  union  man  attains  to  happi- 
ness, which  remains  even  thou^  he  suffers  pain  and 
the  privation  of  perishable  goods.  To  regulate  our 
actions  harmoniously  we  stand  in  need  of  true 
knowledge,  i.  e.  wisdom.  The  hi^est  duty  of  man, 
therefore,  is  to  obtain  wisdom,  which  leads  to  God. 

Arislode. — ^The  end  of  man,  his  highest  subjective 
good,  is  happiness  or  well-bein^.  Happiness  is  not 
pleasure;  for  pleasure  is  a  feelmg  consequent  upon 
action,  while  happiness  is  a  state  of  activity.  Happi- 
ness consists  in  perfect  action,  i.  e.  the  actual  exercise 
bv  man  of  his  faculties — especially  of  his  highest  fac- 
ulty, the  speculative  intellect — ^in  perfect  correspond- 
ence with  the  norm  which  his  nature  itself  prescribes. 
Action  may  deviate  from  this  norm  either  by  excess  or 
defect.  Tne  ^Iden  mean  is  to  be  preserved,  and  in 
this  consists  virtue.  The  various  faculties,  higher  and 
lower,  are  regulated  by  their  respective  virtues  to 
carry  on  their  activities  in  due  order.  Pleasure  fol- 
lows action  duly  performed,  even  the  highest  form  of 
activity,  i.  e.  speculative  contemplation  of  truth ;  but, 
as  has  been  noted,  happiness  consists  in  the  very 
operation  itself.  A  life  of  contemplation,  however, 
cannot  be  enjoyed  unless  a  man  possesses  enough 
goods  of  the  lower  orders  to  relieve  him  from  the  toils 
and  the  cares  of  life.  Hence  happiness  is  beyond  the 
reach  of  many.  It  is  to  be  observed  therefore  that, 
while  both  Plato  and  Aristotle,  as  well  as  the  Scholas- 
tics, hold  that  happiness  ip  the  end  of  man,  their  con- 


ception of  ^  happiness  is  quite  different  from  tlie 
h^onistic  idea  of  happiness  as  presented  in  F^giwK 
utilitarianism.  For  the  utilitarian  happiness  is  the 
sum  total  of  pleasurable  feelings,  from  whatever 
source  they  may  be  derived.  On  tne  other  hand,  in 
our  sense,  happiness — Mtu/iowta,  heatUudo—\B  a 
distinct  state  or  condition  of  consciousness  accom- 
panying and  dependent  on  the  realisation  in  conduct 
of  one  definite  good  or  perfection,  the  nature  df  whidi 
is  objectively  foed  and  not  dependent  on  our  individ- 
ual preferences.     (See  Utzlttablanism.) 

Hedonists, — ^The  supreme  good  of  man  according  to 
Aristippus  is  pleasure  or  the  enjoyment  of  the  mo- 
ment, and  pleasure  is  essentially  gentle  motion. 
Pleasure  can  never  be  bad,  and  the  primary  form  of  it  is 
bodily  pleasure.  But,  in  order  to  secure  the  maxi- 
mum of  pleasure,  prudent  self-control  is  neoessarv; 
and  this  is  virtue.  £picurus  held  that  pleasure  is  the 
chief  good;  but  pleasure  is  rest,  not  motion;  and  the 
highest  form  of  pleasure  is  freedom  from  pain  and  the 
absence  of  all  desires  or  needs  that  we  cannot  satisfy. 
Hence  an  important  means  towards  happiness  is  the 
control  of  our  desires,  and  the  extinction  of  those  that 
we  cannot  gratify,  which  is  brought  about  by  virtue. 
(See  Cyrekaic  School  of  Philosophy;  HsDONiaif ; 
Happiness.) 

The  Stoics, — ^Evers^^hing  in  the  universe  is  regu- 
lated by  law.  Man's  highest  good,  or  happiness,  is  to 
conform  his  conduct  to  universal  law,  which  is  Divine 
in  its  origin.  To  puisue  this  end  is  virtue.  Virtue  is 
to  be  cultivated  m  scorn  of  consequences,  whether 
pleasurable  or  painful.  The  Stoic  principle,  ^duty 
for  duty's  sake  alone",  reappears  in  Kant,  with  tlie 
modification  that  the  norm  of  ri^t  action  is  not  to  be 
regarded  as  imposed  by  a  Divme  will;  its  original 
source  ,is  the  human  mind,  or  the  free  spirit  its^. 

St.  Thomas, — ^The  radical  difference  which  distin- 
guishes the  nobler  forms  of  ancient  ethics  from  Chiis- 
tian  ethics  is  that,  whereas  the  former  identifies 
virtuous  life  with  happiness^  that  is,  with  the  posses- 
sion and  enjo3rment  of  the  highest  good,  the  Christian 
conception  is  that  a  virtuous  life,  while  it  is,  indeed, 
the  proximate  end  and  good  of  man,  is  not,  in  itself, 
•  his  ultimate  end  and  supreme  good.  A  Ufe  of  virtue, 
the  moral  good,  leads  him  to  the  acquisition  of  an 
ulterior  and  ultimate  end.  Furthermore  the  happi- 
ness, which  in  an  imperfect  measure  attends  the  virtu- 
ous Ufe,  may  be  accompanied  with  pain,  sorrow,  and 
the  privation  of  terrestrial  goods;  complete  happiness 
(JbeaiUvdo)  is  not  to  be  found  in  earthly  existence,  but 
in  the  life  to  come,  and  will  consist  in  iinion  with  God, 
the  Supreme  Good. 

(A)  The  Proximate  End  and  Good  {Bonum  Morale), 
— ^liike  all  creatures  involved  in  the  cosmic  system,  man 
reouires  and  seeks  for  the  conservation  and  perfection 
of  nis  being  a  variety  of  thinas  and  conditions,  all  of 
which  are,  therefore,  good  for  him.  A  composite 
being,  partly  corporeal  and  partly  spiritual,  he  pos- 
sesses two  sets  of  tendencies  and  appetites.  Kational, 
he  employs  contrivance  in  order  to  obtain  goods  not 
immeoiatety  within  his  reach.  That  he  may  attain 
the  perfection  of  this  hi^ly  complex  nature,  ne  must 
observe  an  order  in  the  pursuit  of  different  kinds  of 
goods,  lest  the  enjoyment  of  a  eood  of  lower  value 
may  cause  him  to  lose  or  forfeit  a  higher  one,  in  which 
case  the  former  would  be  no  true  benefit  to  him  at  all. 
Besides,  with  a  hierarchy  of  activities,  capacities,  and 
needs,  he  is  a  unity,  an  individual,  a  person;  hence 
there  exists  for  him  a  good  in  which  all  his  other  goods 
focus  in  harmonious  correlation;  and  they  are  to  be 
viewed  and  valued  through  the  medium  of  this  para- 
mount good,  not  merely  m  isolated  relation  to  their 
respective  corresponding  appetites. 

There  are,  then,  se vexal  divisions  of  good :  (a)  corpo- 
real good  is  whatever  contributes  to  the  perfection  of  the 
purely  animal  nature ;  (b)  spiritual  good  is  that  which 
perfects  the  spiritual  faculty — ^knowledge,  truth;  (c) 


OOOD 


639 


OOOD 


useful  good  is  that  which  is  desiied  merely  as  a  means 
to  something  else :  the  delectable  or  pleasurable  good 
is  any  good  re^rded  merely  in  the  light  of  the  pleasure 
it  produces.  The  moral  good  (bonum  fumestum)  con- 
sists in  the  due  ordering  of  free  action  or  conduct 
according  to  the  norm  of  reason,  the  highest  faculty, 
to  which  it  is  to  conform.  This  is  the  good  which 
determines  the  true  valuation  of  all  other  goods  sought 
by  the  activities  which  make  up  conduct.  Any  lower 
good  acauired  to  the  detriment  of  this  one  is  really  but 
a  loss  (oonum  apparens).  While  all  other  kinds  of 
good  may,  in  turn,  be  viewed  as  means,  the  moral 
good  is  good  as  an  end  and  is  not  a  mere  means  to 
other  goods.  The  pleasurable,  though  not  in  the 
order  of  things  an  independent  end  in  itself,  may  be 
d^liberatelv  cnosen  as  an  end  of  action,  or  object  dl 
pursuit.  Now  let  us  apply  these  distinctions.  Good 
being  the  obiect  of  any  tendency,  man  has  as  manv 
lands  of  goods  as  he  has  appetites,  needs,  and  facul- 
ties. The  normal  exeroise  of  his  powers  and  the 
acquisition  therebv  of  any  good  is  followed  by  satis- 
faction, which,  when  it  reaches  a  certain  degree  of 
intensity,  is  the  feeling  of  pleasure.  He  may  and 
sometimes  does  pursue  things  not  on  account  of  their 
intrinsic  worth,  out  simply  that  he  mav  obtain  pleas- 
ure from  them.  On  the  other  hand,  ne  mav  seek  a 
good  on  account  of  its  intrinsic  power  to  satisfy  a  need 
or  to  contribute  to  the  perfection  of  his  nature  in  some 
respect.  This  may  be  -illustrated  in  the  case  of  food; 
for  as  the  old  adage  has  it,  "the  wise  man  eats  to  live, 
the  epicure  lives  to  eat". 

The  faculty  which  is  distinctively  human  is  reason; 
man  lives  as  a  man  properly  speaking^  when  all  his 
activities  are  directecf  by  reason  according  to  the  law 
which  reason  reads  in  his  very  nature.  This  ^nf  orm- 
ity  of  conduct  to  reason's  dictates  is  the  highest  nat- 
ural {perfection  that  his  activities  can  possess;  it  is 
what  is  meant  by  rectitude  of  conduct,  righteousness, 
or  the  moral  good.  "Those  actions  ,  says  St. 
Thomas,  "are  good  which  are  conformable  to  reason. 
Those  are  bad  which  are  contrary  to  reason"  (I-II,  Q. 
xviii,  a.  5).  "The  proximate  rule  of  free  action  is 
reason,  the  remote  is  the  eternal  law,  that  is,  the 
Divine  Nature"  (Ibid.,  Q.  xxi,  a.  1 ;  Q.  xix.  a.  4).  The 
motive  impelling  us  to  seek  the  moral  gooa  is  not  self- 
interest,  but  the  intrinsic  worth  of  ri^teousness. 
Why  does  a  just  man  pay  his  debts?  Ask  him  and  he 
will  reply, perhaps,  in  the  first  instance.  "Because  it  is 
my  duty".  But  ask  him  further:  "  Wny  do  you  fulfil 
this  duty?"  He  will  answer:  "Because  if  is  rioA/ to 
do  so".  When  other  goods  are  pursued  in  violation 
of  the  rational  order,  action  is  deprived  of  its  due 
moral  perfection,  and,  therefore,  becomes  wrong  or 
bad,  though  it  may  retain  all  its  other  ontolosical 
goodness.  The  ^ood  which  is  the  object  of  such  an 
action,  althougji  it  retains  its  particular  relative  good- 
ness with  regi^  to  the  want  which  it  serves,  is  not  a 
eood  for  the  whole  personality:.  For  example,  if,  on  a 
day  when  flesh  meat  is  forbidden,  a  man  dines  on 
roast-beef,  the  food  is  just  as  good  ph3rBically  as  it 
would  be  on  any  other  day,  but  this  soodness  is  out- 
wei^ed,  because  his  action  is  a  viouttion  of  reason 
which  dictates  that  he  ought  to  obey  the  command  of 
lawful  authority. 

While  the  moral  good  is  fixed  by  the  Author  of  na- 
ture, yet,  because  man  is  endowed  with  free  will  or  tiie 
power  of  electing  which  good  he  eball  make  the  goal  of 
action,  he  can,  if  he  pleases,  ignore  the  dictates  of 
right  reason  and  seek  nis  other  goods  in  a  disorderly 
manner.  He  mav  pursue  pleasure,  riches,  fame,  or 
any  other  desirable  end,  though  his  conscience — ^that 
is,  nis  reason — ^teUs  him  that  the  means  which  he  takes 
to  satisfy  his  desire  is  wron^.  He  therebv  frustrates 
his  rational  nature  and  deprives  himself  of  his  highest 
perfection.  He  cannot  change  the  law  of  thinp,  and 
this  privation  of  his  higjiest  «>od  is  the  immediate  es- 
sential punishment  incurred  by  his  violation  of  the 


moral  law.  Another  punishment  is  that  the  loss  is  ai>* 
tended,  Renerally  speaking,  by  that  peculiar  painful 
feeling  called  remorse;  but  this  effect  may  cease  to  be 
perceived  when  the  moral  impulses  of  reason  have 
been  habitually  disregarded. 

In  order  that  an  action  may  possess  in  an  essential 
d^iree — ^no  action  is  absolutely  perfect — its  moral 
penection,  it  must  be  in  conformity  with  the  law  in 
three  respects:  (a)  The  action,  considered  under  the 
character  by  which  it  ranks  as  an  element  of  conduct, 
must  be  good.  The  physical  act  of  givins  another 
person  money  may  be  either  an  act  ofjustice.  when 
one  pays  a  debt,  or  it  may  be  an  act  of  mercy  or  benev- 
olence, as  it  is  if  one  gives  the  money  to  relieve  dis- 
tress. Both  of  these  actions  possess  uie  fundamental 
element  of  goodness  (f>onvm  ex  objedo),  (b)  The  mo- 
tive, if  there  is  a  motive  beyond  the  immediate  object 
of  the  act,  must  also  be  ^ooa.  If  one  pays  a  man  some 
money  that  one  owes  him  with  the  purpose,  indeed,  of 
paying  one's  debt,  but  also  with  the  ulterior  purpose  of 
enablmg  him  to  carry  out  a  plot  to  murder  one's 
enemy,  the  end  is  bad,  and  the  action  is  thereby  viti- 
ated. The  end  which  is  the  motive  must  also  be  good 
{bonum  ex  fine).  Thus,  an  action,  otherwise  good,  is 
spoiled  if  directed  to  an  immoral  end;  conversely, 
however,  an  action  which  in  its  fundamental  character 
is  bad  is  not  rendered  ^ood  by  directing  it  to  a  goo(f 
end.  The  end  does  not  justify  the  means,  (c)  The  cir« 
cumstances  under  which  tne  action  is  performed 
should  be  in  entire  conformity  with  reason,  o^erwise 
it  lacks  something  of  moral  completeness,  though  it 
may  not  be  thereby  rendered  totally  immoral.  We 
frequently  say  that  something  which  a  person  has  done 
was  right  enough  in  itsdf,  but  he^did  not  do  it  in  the 
proper  place  or  season.  This  triple  goodness  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  axiom:  bonum  ex  xrUe^ cauea,  malum 
ex  qtwcumque  defedu  ("  An  action  is  good  when  good  in 
every  respect;  it  is  wrong  when  wrong  in  any  re- 
spect")- 

(B)  The  Ultimate  Good— God— Beatitude.— The 

esrfection  of  life,  then,  is  to  realize  the  moral  good, 
ut  now  arises  me  question:  "Is  life  its  own  end?" 
Or^  in  other  words:  "What  is  the  ultimate  end  ap- 
pomted  for  man?"  To  answer  this  question  we  must 
consider  the  good  first  imder  the  aspect  of  end .  "  We 
not  alone  act",  sa^  St.  Thomas,  "for  an  immediate 
end,  but  all  our  actions  conveijge  towards  an  ultimate 
end  or  good,  otherwise  the  entire  series  would  be  aim- 
less".  The  test  by  which  we  may  determine  whether 
any  object  of  pursuit  is  the  ultimate  end  is:  "Does  it 
satisfy  all  desire  ?  "  If  it  does  not,  it  is  not  adequate  to 
complete  man^  perfection  and  establish  him  in  the 
possession  of  lus  nighest  sood  and  consequent  happi- 
ness. Here  St.  Thomas,  following  St.  Augustine,  ex- 
amines the  various  objects  of  human  desire-— pleasure, 
riches,  power,  fame.  etc. — and  rejects  them  all  as  in- 
adequate. What  tnen  is  the  highest  good,  the  ulti- 
mate end?  St.  Thomas  appeals  to  Revelation  which 
teaches  that  in  the  life  to  come  the  righteous  shaU  pos- 
sess and  enjoy  God  Himself  in  endless  fruition.  Tlie 
argument  is  summed  up  in  the  well-known  words  of 
St.  Augustine :  "  Tliou  hast  made  us,  O  Lord,  for  Tliy- 
self,  and  our  hearts  are  restless  till  they  rest  Iq  Thee." 
The  moral  condition  necessary  to  this  future  consum- 
mation is  that  our  wills  be  here  conformed  to  the  Di- 
vine will  as  expressed  in  the  moral  law  and  in  His  re- 
vealed positive  law.  Thus  the  attainment  of  the 
proximate  good  in  this  life  leads  to  the  possession  of 
the  Supreme  Good  in  the  next.  Another  conditio!^ 
indispensable  is  that  our  actions  be  vivified  by  Divine 
grace  (see  Grace).  What  precisely  will  be  the  act 
by  which  the  soul  wfll  apprenend  the  Sovereign  Good 
is  a  disputed  question  among  theologians.  The 
Thomist  meory  is  that  it  will  be  an  act  of  £e  intellect, 
while  the  Scotist  opinion  is  that  it  will  be  an  act  of  the 
will.  However  this  may  be,  one  thing  is  dogmatic- 
ally certain:  the  soul  in  wis  assimilation  shall  not  lose 


OOOD 


640 


GOOD 


its  selfhood,  nor  be  absorbed  according  to  the  pantheb- 
tic  sense  in  the  Divine  Substance. 

A  word  or  two  may  be  added  upon  a  pNoint  which 
owing  to  the  prevalence  of  Kantian  ideas  is  of  actual 
importance.  As  we  have  seen,  the  moral  good  and 
the  supreme  good  are  ends  in  themselves;  they  are  not 
means,  nor  are  they  to  be  pursued  merely  as  means  to 
pleasure  or  agreeable  feeling.  But  may  we  make  the 
agreeable  any  part  of  our  motive?  Kant  answers  in 
the  ne^tive;  for  to  allow  this  to  enter  into  our  motive 
is  to  vitiate  the  only  moral  motive, ''  right  for  right's 
sake ' '  by  self-interest.  This  theory  does  not  pay  due 
regara  to  the  order  of  things.  The  pleasurable  feeling 
attendant  upon  action,  in  the  order  of  nature,  estab- 
lished by  God,  served  as  a  motive  to  action,  and  its 
function  is  to  guarantee  that  actions  necessary  to  wel* 
fare  shall  not  be  neglected.  Why^  then,  should  it  be 
unlawful  to  aim  at  an  end  which  Uod  has  attached  to 
the  good?  Similarlv  as  the  attainment  of  our  su- 
preme good  will  be  the  cause  of  everlasting  happiness, 
we  may  reasonably  make  this  accompanymg  end  the 
motive  of  our  action,  provided  that  we  do  not  make  it 
the  sole  or  predominant  motive. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  now  state  in  a  word  the  cen- 
tral idea  of  our  doctrine.  Qod  as  Infinite  Being  is  In- 
finite Good;  creatures  are  good  because  the^  derive 
their  measure  of  being  from  Him.  This  participation 
manifests  His  goodness,  or  glorifies  Godj  which  is  the 
end  forwhich  He  created  man.  The  rational  creature 
is  destined  to  be  united  to  God  as  the  Supreme  End 
and  Good  in  a  special  manner.  In  order  tnat  he  may 
attain  to  this  consummation,  it  is  necessary  that  in 
this  life,  by  conforming  his  conduct  to  conscience,  the 
interpreter  of  the  moral  law,  he  realizes  in  himselt  the 
ri^ghteousness  which  is  the  true  perfection  of  his  na- 
ture. Thus  God  is  the  Supreme  Good,  as  principle 
and  as  end.    "  I  am  the  begmnine  and  I  am  the  end." 

St.  Thomas,  8.  Theol.,  I-I,  QQ.  v.  vi,  xliv,  xlvii,  Ixv;  I-U.  v, 
xviii^xx,  xciv;  loiiii,  Summa  Contra  Gentilea,  tr,  Rickabt,  uod 
and  His  Creatures  (London,  1905),  II,  xxiii;  III,  i-xl,  Ixxxi.  cxvi; 
St.  AuananNB,  De  Natura  Boni;  Idbm.  De  Doctrina  Christiana; 
Idbm,  De  Civitate  Dei;  Plato,  Republic,  IV-X;  Inaii,  Pfuedo, 


textbooks  of  Scholaatio  phUoaophy — good  is  treated  in  ontol- 


Janbt  and  SiiAiLLBS,  HxatoTu  of  the  Problema  of  PhUoaoph}/',  ed. 
JoNSS  (London  and  New  York,  1002),  II,  i,  ii;  Faboks,  Zxi 
lAberti  et  le  Pevoir,  pt.  II,  |  iii;  McDonald,  The  Prvnciplea  of 
Moral  Science,  bk.  I,  ohs.  i-vi,  xl;  Harpbr,  The  Metaphyeie  of 
(he  School  (London,  1884),  voL  I,  bk.  II.  oh.  iv. 

James  J.  Fox. 

Ck>od,  Thb  Highest. — We  always  act  with  a  view 
to  some  good.  ''The  good  is  the  object  which  all 
pursue,  and  for  the  sake  of  which  they  always  act'', 
says  Plato  (Republic,  I,  vi).  His  disciple  Aristotle 
repeats  the  same  idea  in  other  words  when  he  declares 
(Ethics,  I,  i)  that  the  good  is  ''that  which  all  aim  at". 
This  definition  is,  as  St.  Thomas  observes,  a  posteriori. 
Yet,  if  appetibiUty  does  not  constitute  goodness,  still 
it  is  our  only  means  of  identifying  it;  in  practice,  the 
^Dod  is  the  desirable.  But  experience  soon  teaches 
that  all  desires  cannot  be  satisfied,  that  they  are  con- 
flicting, and  that  some  goods  must  be  foregone  in  order 
to  secure  others.  Hence  the  nec^ity  of  weighing  the 
relative  value  of  goods,  of  classifying  them,  and  of 
ascertaining  which  of  them  must  l>e  procured  even  at 
the  loss  of  others.  The  result  is  the  division  of  goods 
into  two  great  classes,  the  physical  and  the  moral, 
happiness  and  virtue.  Within  either  class  it  is  com- 
paratively easy  to  determine  the  relation  of  particular 
good  things  to  one  another,  but  it  has  provea  far  more 
difficult  to  fix  the  relative^xcellence  of  the  two  classes 
of  virtue  and  happiness.  Still  the  question  is  of 
supreme  importance,  since  in  it  the  reason  and  final 
destiny  of  our  life  is  involved.  As  Cicero  says  (De 
^inibtis,  v,  6),  "Summum  autem  bonum  si  ignoratur, 


Vivendi  rationem  ignorari  necesse  est. "  If  happiness 
and  virtue  are  mutuallv  exclusive,  we  have  to  choose 
between  the  two,  and  this  choice  is  a  momentous  one. 
But  Uieir  incompatibility  may  be  only  on  the  surface. 
Indeed  the  hope  is  ever  recurring  that  the  sovereign 
good  includes  both,  and  that  there  is  some  way  oi 
reconciling  them. 

It  has  been  the  task  of  moralists  to  sift  the  condi- 
tions on  which  this  ma^  be  done.  (1)  Some  would 
reduce  virtue  to  happiness;  (2)  others  teach  that 
happiness  is  to  be  found  in  virtue;  ^3)  but,  as  both 
these  solutions  are  ever  found  to  be  m  contradiction 
with  the  facts  of  life,  the  consequent  vacillations  of 
opinion  can  be  traced  throughout  the  history  of  phil- 
osophy. In  the  main,  they  can  be  classified  under 
three  heads,  according  as  one  or  the  other  predomi- 
nates, or  both  are  made  to  blend :  vi2. :  (1 )  Eudiemonism 
or  Utilitarianism,  when  the  highest  good  is  identified 
with  happiness:  (2)  Rational  Deontologism,  when 
the  highest  good  is  identified  with  virtue  or  duty;  (3) 
Rational  Eudsemonism,  or  tempered  Deontologism, 
when  both  virtue  and  happiness  are  combined  in  the 
highest  good. 

I.  EuDjBMONiSM.  (a)  Socrates  (46{>-399  b.  c),  the 
father  of  systematic  Ethics,  taught  that  happiness  is 
the  end  of  man;  that  it  consists,  not  in  external  goods 
— signs  of  the  uncertain  favours  of  fortune^  or  of  the 
gods  (edrvxia) — but  in  a  rational  ioy,  which  implies 
the  renunciation  of  common  delists  (€6wpa^ta).  He 
did  not,  however,  carry  this  doctrine  of  moderation  to 
the  degree  of  asceticism,  but  rather  insisted  on  the 
cultivation  of  the  mind  as  beinp  of  greater  importance. 
Knowledge  is  the  only  virtue,  ignorance  the  only  \ice. 
Yet,  from  the  Dialogues  of  Xenophon,  it  is  seen  that 
he  descends  to  the  common  morabty  of  Utilitarianism. 

(b)  This  latter  phase  of  Socratic  teaching  was 
adopted  by  Aristippus  of  Cyrene  (435-356  b.  c),  who 
as  representative  of  the  Hedonistic  School  among  the 
ancients,  and  holding,  on  the  one  hand,  with  Socrates 
that  knowledge  is  virtue,  and,  on  the  other,  with  Pro- 
tagoras, that  we  can  know  only  our  sensations,  and 
not  that  which  causes  them,  concluded  that  that 
which  produces  in  us  the  most  pleasant  feelings  is  the 
highest  good.  Culture  and  virtue  are  desin£le  only 
as  a  means  to  this  end.  As  pleasure  is  conditioned  by 
or^nic  states,  it  can  be  produced  only  by  motion, 
which,  to  be  pleasant,  must  needs  be  genUe;  hence 
according  to  ttie  Cyrenaics,  it  is  not  the  mere  absence 
of  pain,  out  a  transient  emotion  which  makes  man 
happy  and  constitutes  his  highest  good. 

(c)  Aristotle  (384-322  b.  c.)  admits  with  Socrates  and 
the  ancient  philosophers  generally,  that  the  highest 
p^ood  is  to  be  identified  with  the  hignest  happiness ;  and, 
m  determining  in  what  this  highest  happiness  consists, 
he  agrees  with  the  Cyrenaics  that  it  is  not  mere  pass- 
ii^  enjoyment,  but  action  (iw  tQ  ^r  xal  ip€pyeiw,  Eth. 
Nic,  rxT,  ix,  5).  Still  it  is  not  any  and  every  kind  of 
activity  that  man  may  find  agreeable  which  consti- 
tutes this  supreme  happiness,  but  that  which  is  proper 
to  him  (oUcetoy  Hpyov — oUela  dper^,  Ibid.,  I,  VU,  15). 
This  cannot  be  merely  the  life  which  he  shares  with 
the  plants  and  animals,  or  the  sensibility,  which  he 
enjoys  in  common  with  the  brutes,  but  thought,  which 
is  the  distinctive  characteristic  of  man.  Moreover,  as 
it  is  in  the  sphere  of  activity  proper  to  each  living 
being  that  its  peculiar  excellence  is  to  be  sought,  it 
follows  that  man's  rational  activity  (^vx^t  ip^pyeta 
/ierii  Xbyov,  Ibid.,  I,  vii,  15)  is  at  the  same  time  honour- 
able  and  virtuous  (^vx^»  iv4py€ta  Kar  dperijp,  loc.  cit.). 
Since,  however,  there  are  several  such  activiti^  it 
must  be  the  noblest  and  most  perfect  of  these.  This 
is  none  other  than  speculative  thought,  or  that  which 
has  to  do  with  the  contemplation  ox  "honourable  and 
divine  subjects"  (koXwf  xal  Betiav,  Ibid.,  X,  vii,  10), 
because  this  belongs  to  the  noblest  faculty  and  tends 
to  the  noblest  object;  because  it  is  the  most  continuous 
the  most  pleasant,  the  most  self-sufficing  (Ibid.,  I,  x,  8). 


GOOD  641  GOOD 

• 

In  thus  defixung  human  happiness,  Arietotle  does  ^o  oppose  their  enemies  as  a  body,  and  therefore 
not  aim  at  determining  which  ^ood  is  absolutely  who  hve  in  societies  (flocks,  herds,  human  assOclA^ 
supreme,  but  only  that  which  relatively  is  the  highest  tions);  and  therefore,  again,  the  social  instinets  art 
for  man  in  his  present  condition — ^the  oighest  attain-  destined  to  survive  and  grow  strongs,  wh&e  the  in- 
able  in  this  life  (rb  rdwrww  dicpdrarow  tQw  wpaxrOw  dyoBQw,  dividualistic  ones  cannot  but  disappear.  The  highest 
Ibid.,  I,  iv,  16).  Though  Aristotle  thus  makes  happi-  good  here  is  not  thQ  happiness  ot  the  individiud^  not 
ness  and  the  highest  good  to  consist  in  virtuous  action,  even  the  happiness  of  the  present  generation,  but  the 
yet  he  does  not  exclude  pleasure,  but  holds  that  sum  total  of  the  conditions  which  make  possible  the 

Pleasure  in  its  keenest  form  springs  from  virtue,  survival  and  the  constant  progress  of  mankind  at 

leasure  completes  an  action,  is  added  to  it,  as  "to  laifie«    Hence  in  a  system  of  elaborate  synthetic 

youth  its  bloom"  (o&r  roii  djcftalms  4  ^p^f  Ibid.,  X,  phuosophv  Spencer  discusses  at  great  length  the  laws 

IV,  8).    Since,  therefore,  Aristotle  places  man's  hieh-  of  life  and  those  conditions  of  psychologic  and  social 

est  ^xxi  in  his  perfection,  which  is  identical  with  nis  existence  from  which,  as  from  a  prearranged  premise, 

happiness  and  carries  with  it  pleasure,  he  is  rightly  he  gathers  "The  Data  of  Ethics^',  or  Ethics  emanci- 

accounted  a  Eudsemonist,  though  of  a  nobler  sort.  pated  from  the  notion  of  divine  legation. 

(d)  Epicurus  (circa  340-270  B.G.))  whilst  accepting        II.   Dbontologisic. — Under  this   head   may   be 

in  suDstanoe  the  Hedonism  of.  the  C^^naics,  does  not  classed  systems  which  place  ^e  highest  human  good 

admit  with  them  that  the  highest  good  lies  in  the  in  the  conformity  of  conduct  wi^  reason.    It  assumes 

pleasure  of  motion  {Ifior^  H  mr^cO,  but  rather  in  the  an  exaggerated  or  tempered  form,  according  as  it 

pleasure  of  rest  {jfiovk  KartunnjfMTiKilj) ;  not  in  the  excludes  or  admits  regard  for  human  perfection  and 

wduptaa  in  motu  but  in  the  stahUiUu  volupUUis,  says  happiness  as  one  of  the  elements  of  morality. 
Cicero  (De  Finibus,  II,  v,  3>->that  state  of  deep  peace        (a)  Rato,  in  common  with  Socrates  and  the  minor 

and  perfect  contentment  in  which  we  feel  secure  Socratic  schools,  holds  that  happiness  is  the  supreme 

a^nst  all  the  storms  of  life  (drupa^la).    To  attain  and  ultimate  object  of  human  enoeavour,  and  that  this 

this  is  the  paramount  problem  of  Epicurus's  philoso-  happiness  is  identical  with  the  highest  good.    But 

phy,  to  which  his  empirical  logic  (canonics)  and  his  when  he  comes  to  determine  in  what  this  good  or  hap- 

theory  of  nature  (the  materialism  of  Democritus)  are  piness  consists,  he  does  so  in  accordance  witii  tne 

merely  preliminaries.    Thus  the  whole  of  his  philoso-  presuppositions  of  his  philosophical  system.    The 

ph]^  is  constructed  with  a  view  to  his  Etmcs,  for  soul  in  its  true  essence  is  declared  to  be  an  incorporeal 

which  it  prepares  the  way  and  which  completes  it.  spirit  destined  for  the  intuition  of  the  Idea;  hence  its 

In  holaine  that  the  pleasures  of  tlie  mind  are  prefer^  ultimate  end  and  supreme  good  is  to  be  attained  by 

able  to  voluptuousness,  inasmuch  as  they  endure,  withdrawing  from  the  life  of  sense  and^  retiring  into 

while  those  of  the  senses  pass  with  the  moment  that  pure  contemplation  of  the  Idea,  which  is  identicu  with 

gives  them  birth,  he  is  not  consistent,  seeing  that  his  tSod.    Man  must,  therefore,  nse  to  God  and  find  his 

materialism  reduces  all  the  operations  of  the  mind  to  chief  good  in  Him.    This  may  be  considered  the  hi^- 

mere  sensations.    Finallv,  as  virtue  is  according  to  est  good  in  the  objective  order,  and  is  found  inculcated 

him  the  tact  which  impels  ti^e  wise  man  to  do  wnat-  in  uiose  passa^  of  this  philosopher's  writings  in 

ever  contributes  to  his  welfare,  and  makes  him  avoid  which  liie  solution  of  the  supreme  problem  of  me  is 

the  contrary,  it  cannot  be  the  hi^est^ood,  but  only  a  sought  in  flight  from  sensuality  (cf.  The»t.,  176,  A: 

means  of  realizing  it.    By  his  materialism  Epicurus  Fh»do,  64,  £;    Republic,  VII,  519,  C  sq^.,  apud 

paved  the  way  for  modem  Utilitarianism,  which  has  Zeller,  pp.  435-444).    But  inasmuch  as  this  is  practi- 

asBumed  two  forms,  viz.:  cally  unattainable  in  this  life,  man  is  told  that  the 

'^  (e)  Individual  Utilitarianism,  which  places  man's  highest  good  here  is  to  be  foimd  in  making  himself 

highest  good  in  his  g;reatest  personal  welfare  and  like  God,  and  that  this  is  to  be  brought  about  by  the 

pleasure.   This  is  identical  with  the  Greek  Hedonism,  knowledge  and  the  enthusiastic  love  of  God,  as  the 

and  was  revived  in  the  ei^teenth  century  by  the  Supreme  Good.    In  the  knowledge,  therefore,  and 

Encyclopedists,  De  la  Mettne  (1709-1751),  Helvetius  love  of  God  as  the  Supreme  Good  consists  man's  high- 

(1715-1771),  Diderot  (1713-1784),  and  De  Volney  est  eood  in  the  subjective  order.    This  is  brought  out 

(1757-1820).    It  was  also  advocated  by  the  Sensists.  in  those  passages  m  which  even  sensuous  beauty  is 

Hartley    (1704-1757),    Priestle^r    (1733-1804)    and  described  as  worthy  of  love,  and  external  activity, 

Hume  (1711-1776);  and  in  the  nineteenth  oentur^  by  sensible  pleasure,  is  includea  amone  the  cornponent 

the  German  Materialists,  Vogt  (1817-1895),  Mole-  elemente  of  the  nicest  good  (cf.  ^public.  A,  603, 

schott  (1822-1893),  and  BQchner  (1824-1899) •  E  sqq^  Phfl.,  28,  A  sqq. ;  Tim.,  59,  C). 

(f)  Social  Utilitarianism,  which  is  maSnly  of  EuRlish  (b)  The  Stoic  school  was  founded  bv  Zeno  of  CTittium 
origin.  In  ite  earliest  sts^,  with  Kichard  Gui^er-  (350-258  b.  c).  According  to  its  followers,  the  high- 
land (1632-1718),  and  Anthony  (3ooper,  Earl  of  est  purpose  (good)  of  human  life  is  not  to  be  found  in 
Shaftesbury  (1671-1718).  it  still  retained  a  somewhat  contemplation  (^ewpta),  as  Plato  would  have  it,  but  in 
subjective^  character^  ana  placed  the  higliest  good  in  action.  To  live  according  to  nature  (6fulkoywfUww  r^ 
the  practice  of  social  benevolence.  With  Jeremy  ^Aaet  ^r)  was  their  supreme  rule  of  conduct.  By 
Bentnam  (1748-1832)  and  John  Stuart  Mill  (1806-  this  they  did  not  mean  tnat  individual  nature  of  man. 
1873)y  it  oeoomes  wholly  objective.  The  highest  but  the  eternal  and  divine  law  which  manifesto  itself 
good,  so  they  say,  caimot  be  the  happiness  of  the  in-  in  nature  as  the  measure  to  which  all  things  in  the 
diviaual,  but  the  nappiness  of  the  many,  "the  greatest  universe  should  conform  their  action.  For  man  to 
happiness  of  the  g;reate8t  number".  Steted  m  these  live  according  to  nature,  therefore,  means  to  conform 
terms,  the  proposition  is  merely  a  truism.  That  in  his  wfll  to  the  divine  will,  and  in  this  consiste  virtue. 
MMral,  the  happiness  of  a  community  is  superior  to  Virtue  alone  is  good  in  the  hi^est  sense  of  the  word, 
tne  happiness  of  one  of  ite  members,  is  obvious:  but,  and  virtue  alone  is  sufficient  for  happiness.  As  this 
when  it  comes  to  be  a  personal  lUffair,  the  indiviaual  is  law  imposes  itself  through  reason,  the  system  is 
no  longer  a  part  of  the  whole,  but  one  part^  pitted  rightly  called  ratioxial  Deontolo^m. 
against  others,  and  it  is  by  no  means  evident,  nom  the  (c)  Kant  agrees  with  the  Stoics  m  placing  the  essence 
positivistic  point  of  view,  that  his  personal  nappiness  of  the  hi^est  good  in  virtue,  and  not  in  happiness. 
IS  not  for  him  the  highest  eood.  Yet  he  thmks  our  conception  of  it  is  incomd|ete  unless 

M  This  passage  from  self  to  non-self,  from  the  indi-  it  is  made  to  include  happiness  as  well.    The  highest 

vidual  to  the  commimity,  Herbert  Spencer  (1820-  good  may  mean  either  the  Supreme  (iupremum'l  or 

1903)  attempted  to  denve  from  the  evolutionary  Sie  Gomplete  (cansumrnattan).     The  Supreme  is  a 

Srinciple  of  ^tiie  survival  of  the  fittest".    Those  in-  oondition  which  is  itself  unconditioned,  or  is  not 

ividuals  have  evidently  a  better  chance  to  survive  subordinate  to   anything  else   ioriginarium).    The 

VI.— 41  


GOOD 


642 


GOOD 


Complete,  again,  is  a  whole  which  is  not  itself  a  part 
of  a  larger  whole  of  the^  same  kind  (perfectissimum). 
Virtue,  or  that  disposition  to  act  in  conformity  with 
the  moral  law,  is  not  dependent  on  happiness,  but  it- 
self makes  man  worthy  of  happiness.  It  is,  therefore, 
the  highest  good,  the  supreme  condition  of  whatever 
can  be  regaraed  as  desirable.  But  it  is  not  the  whole, 
nor  the  supreme  good,  which  finite  rational  beings 
crave;  the  complete  good  includes  happiness.  Hence 
the  highest  conceivable  good  must  consist  in  the  union 
of  virtue  and  happiness  proportioned  to  morality. 

This  is  what  Kant  means  o^r  the  whole  or  complete 
good.  Of  its  two  elements,  virtue,  havine  no  higher 
condition  and  being  itself  the  condition  of  happiness, 
is  the  supreme  good.  Happiness,  however,  wnde  it  is 
agreeable  to  the  person  who  possesses  it,  is  not  good  in 
itself  and  in  all  respects ;  it  is  good  only  under  the  con- 
dition that  a  man  s  conduct  is  in  conformity  with  the 
moral  law.  This  is  whv  Kant  was  wont  to  say  that 
''nothine  can  be  callea  good  without  Qualification, 
but  good  will ' ' ;  and  since  the  best  it  can  ao  in  this  life 
is  to  strive  after  holiness,  the  struggle  between  the 
desire  to  obey  and  the  impulse  to  transgress  must  con- 
tinue for  ever,  making  the  highest  good  in  this  life  im- 
attainable. 

III.  Rational  Eudamonism  or  Tempered  Deon- 
TOLOQISM.— Christian  Philosophers,  in  dealins  with 
the  problem  of  the  highest  eood,  have  necessarily  kept 
in  view  the  teachings  of  Faith ;  still  the^r  base  their 
solution  of  it  on  motives  of  reason.  Their  system  is 
neither  strictly  deontologico-rational,  nor  yet  al to- 
other eudemonisUc,  but  a  consistent  blending  of  both. 
The  ultimate  end  of  man  is  to  be  placed  in  perfect 
rational  activity,  in  ultimate  perfection,  and  inhappi- 
ness,  not  as  in  three  difTerent  things,  but  as  in  one  and 
the  self-same,  since  the  three  conceptions  are  resolva- 
ble into  one  another,  and  each  of  them  denotes  a  goal 
of  human  tendency,  a  limit  beyond  which  no  desire 
remains  to  be  satisfied.  Thoi^  they  differ  some- 
what in  their  several  ways  of  formulating  it,  at  bottom 
they  all  agree:  (1)  that  in  the  blissful  possession  of 
God  is  to  be  found  the  rightful  object  of  reason  (man's 
deontologico-rational  end),  and  of  free  will  (his  eu- 
dsemonistic  end) ;  (2)  that  this  eudsemonistic  end — the 
perfect  satisfaction  of  the  will  in  the  possession  of  God 
— is  not  merely  an  accidental  result  of  the  former,  but 
is  the  positive  determination  of  God,  the  author  of  our 
nature;  (3)  that  this  eudsemonistic  end  may  not  be 
intended  by  the  will  for  its  own  sake,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  deontologico-rational  end,  which,  by  its  nature, 
it  presupposes,  and  to  which  it  is  subordinated. 

It  is  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  who  best  harmonized  this 
system  with  revelation.  His  teaching  may  be  sum- 
marized thus:  (a)  man's  highest  happiness  does  not 
consist  in  pleasure,  but  in  action,  since,  in  the  nature 
of  things,  action  is  not  for  pleasure,  but  pleasure  for 
action.  This  activity,  on  which  man's  happiness 
rests,  must,  on  the  one  hand,  be  the  noblest  ana  high- 
est of  which  his  nature  is  capable,  and,  on  the  other, 
it  must  be  directed  toward  the  noblest  and  the  highest 
object. 

(b)  This  noblest  and  highest  object  of  human 
activity  is  not  that  of  the  will,  which  merely  follows 
upon  and  is  conditioned  by  knowledge;  it  must  rather 
be  knowledge  itself.  Consequently,  vtxe  highest  happi- 
ness of  man  consists  in  the  Knowledge  of  the  highest 
truth,  which  is  God,  With  the  knowledge  of  God 
must,  of  course,  be  joined  the  love  of  God;  but  this 
love  is  not  the  essential  element  of  perfect  happiness; 
it  is  merely  a  necessary  complement  of  it  (Summa 
Theol.,  I-Il,  Q.  iii,  a.  2,  c;  Con.  Gen.,  Ill,  zxv,  xxvi). 

(c)  Since  the  knowledge  of  God  can  be  acquired  in 
three  ways — ^by  demonstration,  by  faith,  and  by  in- 
tuition— ^the  further  question  arises:  which  of  mese 
three  kinds  of  knowledge  is  the  foundation  of  man's 
highest  happiness?  Not  knowledge  by  demonstra- 
tion, for  happiness  must  be  something  universal  and 


attainable  by  all  men,  whereas  only  a  few  can  arrive 
at  this  knowledge  by  demonstration;  neither  can 
knowledge  by  faith  be  a  basis  for  perfect  happiness, 
seeing  that  this  consists  chiefly  in  the  activity  of  the 
intellect,  whilst  in  faith  the  will  claims  for  itself  the 
principal  part,  inasmuch  as  the  will  must  here  deter- 
mine the  intellect  to  give  its  assent.  Consequently 
happiness  can  consist  only  in  the  intuitive  knowledge 
of  God ;  and  since  this  is  attainable  only  in  the  next 
life,  it  follows  that  the  ultimate  destiny  of  man — and 
hence  his  highest  good — ^reaches  beyond  time  into 
eternity.  It  must  be  everlasting,  otherwise  it  would 
not  be  perfect  (Con.  Gent.,  Ill,  xxxviii,  sqq.). 

(d)  This  end  is  not  merely  a  subjective  one  which 
the  reason  imposes  upon  Itself.  Just  because  it  is  an 
activity,  it  involves  relation  to  some  external  object. 
The  intellect  essentially  represents  a  truth  distinct 
from  itself,  as  the  act  of  the  will  is  an  inclination  to- 
wards some  good  not  identical  with  itself.  The  truth 
to  be  represented,  therefore,  and  the  good  to  be  at- 
tained or  possessed,  are  objects  to  which  happineas 
refers  as  to  further  ends,  just  as  the  imajze  has  refer- 
ence to  a  model  and  motion  to  a  goal.  Truth,  there- 
fore, and  good  are  objective  ends  to  which  formal 
happiness  corresponds  as  a  subjective  end.  The 
absolutely  ultimate  end,  therefore,  is  in  the  objective 
order,  beyond  which  nothing  remains  to  be  known  and 
desired,  and  which,  when  it  is  known  and  possessed, 
gives  rest  to  the  rational  faculties.  This  can  be 
nothing  else  than  the  infinite  truth  and  the  infinite 
good,  which  is  God.  Hence  the  system  is  not  a  purely 
deontologico-rational  one,  constituting  the  reason  a 
law  to  itself,  the  observance  of  which  law  would  be  the 
highest  good. 

(e)  Still  less  is  it  purely  eudsemonistic,  since  the  ulti- 
mate end  and  highest  good  does  not  coincide  with 
subjective  happiness  as  Hedonism  teaches,  but  with 
the  object  of  the  highest  acts  of  contemplation  and 
love.  This  object  is  God,  not  merely  as  beatifying  us, 
but  as  the  Absolute  Truth  and  Goodness,  infimtely 

perfect  in  itself. 

Ubbbrwbo,  Hiatcry  of  PkUoaophy  (New  York,  1872);  Tubn- 
BR,  Hiatoru  of  PhUoaophy  (Boaton,  1003);  Stomckl-Fihxat. 
History  of  PhUoaophy  (Dublin,  1903);  Kant.  Criivpt^  of  Pradi- 
eal  Reaaoitt  ed.  Abbott  (London,  1898);  Zbixbii,  AriHoUe  and 
the  EaHier  Peripatetica,  II  (London.  1897);  Idvm.  Ptato  and  tka 
Older  Academy  (London,  1888):  Janet  and  StAihUtsJIiaioryrf 
the  Problema  of  PhUoaophy,  II  (London,  1902);  Btwatkb, 
Arialolelia  Ethioa  Nicomachea  (Oxford,  1894);  Ming,  Data  of 
Modem  Ethica  Examined  (New  York,  1894);  Mbtkr.  hutiiw 
iumea  Juria  NcUuralia,  I  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1885);  S,  Thomm 
AquinaHa  Summa  Theotogica;  Summa  contra  Oentilea;  Suabsx, 
De  Ultimo  Fine  Hominia, 

M.  F.  DiNNSEN. 

Good  Faith,  a  phrase  employed  to  designate  the 
mental  and  moral  state  of  honest,  even  if  objectively 
unfounded,  conviction  as  to  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  a 
proposition  or  bod^  of  opinion,  or  as  to  the  rectitude 
or  depravity  of  a  line  of  conduct.  One  who  is  in  this 
condition,  so  far  as  the  violation  of  positive  law,  oi 
even,  in  certain  junctures,  of  the  natural  law,  is  con- 
cerned, is  said  to  labour  under  an  invincible  error,  and 
hence  to  be  guiltless.  This  consideration  is  often  in- 
voked in  behalf  of  those  who  are  outside  of  the  visible 
aflSiliation  of  the  Catholic  GUurch..  It  is  not  unfre- 
quentl^r  applied  to  determine  the  degree  of  li^^t  or 
obligation  prevailing  in  the  various  ^rms  of  human 
engagements,  such  as  contracts,  etc.  In  the  matter  of 
prescription  it  is  held  to  be  an  indispensable  re<^uire- 
ment  whether  there  be  question  of  acquiring  dominion 
or  freeing  oneself  from  a  burden.  Likewise,  in  decid- 
ing the  duty  incumbent  upon  one  who  finds  himself  in 
possession  of  another's  property,  cognisance  is  taken 
of  the  good  faith  with  which  perchance  the  holding  has 
been  begun  and  accompanied.  Finally,  if  a  person, 
although  actually  in  the  state  of  mortal  sin,  were  in 
good  faith  to  come  to  Holy  Communion,  such  a  one. 
according  to  the  judgment  of  many  theologians,  woula 
xeceive  sanctifymg  grace.    The  reason  alleged  by 


GOOD                                 643  GOOD 

them,  although  not  regarded  by  other  moralists  as  nudum  pulpitum*^.    When  th^  is  finished,  the  cele- 

cuavincing,  is  that  good  faith  saves  the  communicant  brant  sings  a  long  series  of  prayers  for  different  inten- 

from  the  conscious  interposition  of  any  obstacle  to  the  tions,  viz.  for  the  Church,  pope,  bishop  of  the  diocese, 

productive  activity  of  the  Sacrament.  for  the  different  orders  in  the  Church,  for  the  Roman 

p^i^'S?*  a^**?*"^ ^k '^'^J'a'^uJ?^^  ^^^^  ^92^*  Emperor  (now  omitted  outside  the  dominions  of  Aus- 

?;iSSJ£*4^SSLfp^  triar  for 'catechumens  ...  .    The  above  oixler  of 

Joseph  F.  Delant.  lessons,  chants,  and  prayers  for  Good  Friday  is  found 

in  our  earliest  Roman  Ordines,  dating  from  about  a.  d. 
Oood  Friday,  called  Feria  VI  in  Paraaceve  in  the  800.  It  represents,  according  to  Duchesne  (234),  "the 
Roman  Missal,  ^  iiyla  irdt  /uydXfj  vapacKtv^i  (the  Holy  exact  order  of  the  ancient  Synaxes  without  a  liturgy", 
and  Great  Friday)  in  the  Greek  Liturgy,  Holy  Friday  in  i.  e.  the  order  of  the  earliest  Christian  prayer  meetmgs, 
the  Romance  Lailguages,  Charfreitag  (Sorrowful  Fri-  at  which,  however,  the  liturgy  proper,  i.  e.  the  Mass, 
day)  in  German,  is  the  English  designation  of  Friday  in  was  not  celebrated.  This  kind  of  meeting  for  worship 
Holy  Week,  that  is,  the  Friday  on  which  the  Chimsh  was  derived  from  the  Jewish  Synagogue  service,  and 
keeps  the  anniversary  ot  the  Crucifixion  of  Jesus  consisted  of  lessons,  chants,  and  prayers.  In  the 
Chnst.  •  Parasceve,  the  Latin  equivalent  of  ropcurjccinj,  course  of  time,  as  early  perhaps  as  a.  d.  150  (see 
preparation  (i.  e.  the  preparation  that  was  made  on  Cabrol's  "Origines  Liturgiques,"  137),  the  celebration 
the  sixth  day  for  the  Sabbath;  see  Mark,  xv,  42)  came  of  the  Euchanst  was  combined  wilii  this  purely  eu- 
by  metonymv  to  signify  the  day  on  which  the  preparar  cholo^cal  service  to  form  one  solemn  act  of  Christian 
tion  was  made;  butwhile  the  Greeks  retainea  this  use  worship,  which  came  to  be  called  the  Mass.  It  is  to  be 
of  the  word  as  applied  to  every  Friday,  the  Latins  con-  not^  that  the  Mass  is  still  in  two  distinct  parts,  the 
fined  its  application  to  the  one  Friday.  Irenaeusand  first  consisting  of  lessons,  prayers,  and  chants;  and 
TertuUian  speak  of  Good  Fridav  as  the  day  of  the  the  second  heme  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  (in- 
Pasch;  but  later  writers  distinguish  between  the  ndj-xa  eluding  the  Cmertory,  Canon,  and  Communion). 
ffTavpiinntMv  (the  passage  to  death),  and  the  Ildo^x*  While  the  Judica,  Introit,  and  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis 
ApoffTdffiftop  (the  passage  to  life,  i.  e.  the  Resurrection),  have  been  added  to  this  first  part  of  the  Mass  and  the 
At  present  the  word  Pasdi  is  used  exclusively  in  the  long  series  of  prayers  omitted  from  it,  the  oldest  order 
latter  sense  (see  Nilles,  II,  253;  also  Kirchenlex..  s.  v.  of  the  Synaxis,  or  meeting  without  Mass.  has  been 
"  Charfreitag  ") .  The  two  Paschs  are  the  oldest  leasts  retained  m  the  Good  Friday  service.  The  Torm  of  the 
in  the  calendar  (B&umer,  vol.  I).  From  the  earliest  prayers  deserves  to  be  noticed.  Each  prayer  is  in 
times  the  Christians  kept  every  Friday  as  a  fast  day  three  parts,  (a)  The  celebrant  invites  the  congrega- 
(Duchesne,  228)  and  every  Sunday  as  a  feast  day  tion  to  pray  for  a  specified  intention,  (b)  The  deacon 
(Duchesne,  47);  and  the  obvious  reasons  for  those  then  says  Let  us  kneel "  (Flectamus genua);  then  the 
usages  explain  why  Easter  is  the  Sunday  par  exceU  people  were  supposed  to  pray  for  a  time  kneeling  in 
lerux,  and  why  the  Friday  which  marks  the  anniver-  silence,  but  at  present  immediately  after  the  invita- 
sary  of  Chrisrs  Death  came  to  be  called  the  Great  or  tion  to  kneel  the  subdeacon  invites  them  to  stand  up 
the  Holy  or  the  Good  Friday.  The  origin  of  the  term  (Levate).  (c)  The  celebrant  collects,  as  it  were,  all 
Good  is  not  clear.  Some  say  it  is  from '^  God's  Friday"  their  prayers,  and  voices  them  aloud.  The  modem 
(Gottes  Freitag),  so  Hampson  (op.  cit.  below) ;  others  collect  is  the  representative  of  this  old  solemn  form  of 
maintain  that  it  is  from  the  German  GtUe  Frettag,  and  prayer.  The  first  part  is  reduced  to  the  Oremus,  the 
not  specially  English.  Sometimes,  too,  the  day  was  second  part  has  disappeared,  and  the  third  part  re- 
called Long  Friday  by  the  Anglo-Saxons;  so  to-day  in  mains  in  its  entirety  and  has  come  to  be  called  the 
Denmark.  collect.  It  is  curious  to  note  in  these  very  old  Good 
There  is,  perhaps,  no  office  in  the  whole  liturgy  so  Friday  prayers  that  the  second  part  is  omitted  in  the 
peculiar,  so  mterestin^,  so  composite,  so  dramatic  as  prayers  for  the  Jews,  owing,  it  is  said,  to  their  having 
the  oflSce  and  ceremonial  of  Good  Friday.  About  the  msulted  Christ  by  bending  the  knee  in  mockery  before 
vigil  office,  which  in  early  times  .commenced  at  mid-  Him.  These  prayers  were  not  peculiar  to  Good  Fri- 
night  in  the  Roman,  and  at  3  a.m.  in  the  Gallican  day  in  the  early  ages  (they  were  said  on  Spy  Wednes- 
Church,  it  will  suffice  to  remark  that,  for  400  years  day  as  late  as  the  eighth  century);  their  retention 
past^  it  has  been  anticipated  by  five  or  six  hours,  but  here,  it  is  thought,  was  inspired  by  the  idea  that  the 
retains  those  peculiar  features  of  mourning  which  Church  should  pray  for  all  classes  of  men  on  the  day 
mark  the  evenmg  offices  of  the  preceding  and  follow-  that  Christ  diedfor  all.  Duchesne  (172)  is  of  opinion 
ing  day,  all  three  being  known  as  the  TenebrsB  (q.  v.).  that  the  Oremus  now  said  in  every  Mass  before  the 
The  morning  office  is  in  three  distinct  parts.  The  Offertory,  which  is  not  a  prayer,  remains  to  show 
first  part  consists  of  three  lessons  from  Sacred  Scrip-  where  tnis  old  series  of  prayers  was  once  said  in  all 
ture  (two  chants  and  a  prayer  being  interposed)  which  Masses. 

are  followed  by  a  long  series  of  prayers  for  various  The  dramatic  imveiling  and  adoration  of  the  Cross, 
intentions;  the  second  part  includes  the  ceremony  of  which  was  introduced  into  the  Latin  Liturgy  in  the 
unveiling  and  adoring  tne  Cross,  accompanied  by  the  seventh  or  eigjith  century,  had  its  origin  in  the  Church 
chanting  of  the  Improperia;  the  third  part  is  known  as  of  Jerusalem.  The  "  Peregrinatio  Sjrlviffi  "  (the  real 
the  Mass  of  the  Presanctified,  which  is  preceded  by  a  name  is  Etheria)  contains  a  description  of  the  cere- 
procession  and  followed  by  vespers.  Each  of  these  mony  as  it  took  place  in  Jerusalem  towards  the  close 
Earts  will  be  briefly  noticed  here.  The  Hour  of  None  of  the  fourth  century.  "  Then*a  chair  is  placed  for  the 
eing  finished,  the  celebrant  and  ministers,  clothed  in  Bishop  in  Golgotha  behind  the  Cross  ...  a  table 
black  vestments,  come  to  the  altar  and  prostrate  covered  with  a  linen  cloth  is  placed  before  him;  the 
themselves  for  a  short  time  in  prayer.  In  the  mean-  Deacons  stand  around  the  table,  and  a  silvei^gilt 
time,  the  acolytes  spread  a  single  cloth  on  the  denuded  casket  is  brought  in  which  is  the  wood  of  the  holy 
altar.  No  lights  are  used.  When  the  celebrant  and  (>oss.  The  casket  is  opened  and  (the  wood)  is  taken 
ministers  ascend  the  altar,  a  lector  takes  his  place  on  out,  and  both  the  wood  of  the  Cross  and  the  Title  are 
the  epistle  side,  and  reads  a  lesson  from  Osee,  vi.  This  placed  upon  the  table.  Now,  when  it  has  been  put 
is  followed  by  a  tract  sung  by  the  choir.  Next  comes  upon  the  table,  the  Bishop,  as  he  sits,  holds  the  ex- 
a  prayer  simg  by  the  celebrant,  which  is  followed  by  tremities  of  the  sacred  wood  firmly  in  his  hands,  while 
another  lesson  from  Exodus,  xii,  chanted  by  the  sub-  the  Deacons  who  stand  around  guard  it.  It  is  guarded 
deacon.  This  is  followed  by  another  tract  (Ps.  thus  because  the  custom  is  that  the  people,  both  faith- 
cxxxix),  at  the  close  of  which  the  third  lesson,  viz.  the  ful  and  catechumens,  come  one  by  one  and,  bowing 
Passion  according  to  St.  John,  is  sung  by  the  deacons  down  at  the  table,  kiss  the  sacred  wood  and  pass  on  " 
or  recited  from  a  bare  pulpit — "dicitur  passio  super  (Duchesne,  tr.  McClure,  564).    Our  present  ceremony 


GOOD  644  GOOD 

is  an  obvioiis  development  of  this,  the  manner  of  wor-  cross,  after  the  ceremony  of  kissing  it  had  been  done, 
shipping  the  true  Cross  on  Good  Fridav  observed  at    was  carried  by  its  two  deacons,  who  had,  however, 
Jerusalem.    A  veiled  image  of  the  Crucinx  is  gradually  first  wrapped  it  up  in  a  linen  cloth  or  winding-sheet, 
exposed  to  view,  while  the  celebrant,  accompanied  by  As  they  bore  their  burden  along,  they  sang  certain 
his  assistants,  sings  three  times  the  "Ecce  lignum  anthems  till  they  reached  this  spot,  and  there  they 
Crucis",  etc.  (Behold  the  wood  of  the  Cross  on  which  left  the  cross;  and  it  lay  thus  entombed  till  Easter 
hung  the  salvation  of  the  world),  to  which  the  choir  mom,  watched  all  that  while  by  two,  three,  or  more 
answers,  each  time, '' Venite  adoremus"  (Come  let  us  monks,  who  chanted  psalms  through  day  and  night« 
adore).    During  the  singing  of  this  response  the  whole  When  the  Burial  was  completed  the  deacon  and  sub- 
assemblv  (except  the  celebrant)  kneel  in  adoration,  deacon  came  from  the  sacnsty  with  the  reserved  hosL 
When  the  Cross  is  completely  im veiled  the  celebrant  Then  followed  TheMassoftheFre-sanctifi^."  A  some- 
carries  it  to  the  foot  of  the  altar,  and  places  it  in  a  what  similar  ceremony  (called  the 'Airo<ra^X«M-cf)  is  still 
cushion  prepared  for  it.    He  then  takes  off  his  shoes  observed  in  the  Greek  Church.    An  image  <A  Christ, 
and  approaches  the  Cross  (genuflecting  three  times  on  laid  on  a  bier,  is  carried  through  the  streets  with  a  kind 
the  way)  and  kisses  it.    Tne  deacon  and  subdeacon  of  funeral  pomp,  and  is  offers  to  those  present  to  be 
also  divest  themselves  of  their  shoes  (the  deacon  and  worshipped  and  kissed  (see  Nilles,  II,  242).    To  re- 
subdeacon  may  take  off  their  shoes,  if  that  be  the  cus-  turn  to  the  Roman  Rite,  when  the  ceremony  of  ador- 
tom  of  the  place,  S.C.R.,  n.  2769,  ad  X,  q.  5),  and  act  ing  and  kissing  the  Cross  is  concluded,  the  Cross  is 
in  like  manner.    For  an  account  of  the  peculiarly  im-  placed  aloft  on  the  altar  between  lighted  candles,  a 
pressive  ceremony  known  as  the  "Creeping  to  the  procession  is  formed  which  proceeds  to  the  chapel  of 
Cross",  which  was  once  observed  in  England,  see  arti-  repose,  where  the  second  sacred  host  consecrated  in 
de  Cross  (vol.  iV,p.  537).    The  clergy  two  and  two  yesterday's  Mass  has  since  lain  entombed  in  a  gor- 
f  oUow,  while  one  or  two  priests  vestedin  surplice  and  eeously  decorated  urn  and  surroimded  by  lights  and 
black  stole  take  other  crosses  and  present  them  to  the  .  flowers.    This  urn  represents  the  sepulchre  of  Christ 
faithful  present  to  be  kissed.    Durine  this  ceremony  (decree  of  S.C.R.,  n.  3933,  ad  I).    The  Most  Holy 
the  choir  sings  what  are  called  the  Improperia,  the  Sacrament  is  now  carried  back  to  the  altar  in  solemn 
Trisagion  (in  Greek  as  well  as  Latin),  if  time  permits  procession,  during  which  is  sung  the  hymn  "  Vexilla 
the  hvmn  Crux  fidelis  .  .  .  (Oh,  Cross,  our  hope  ...  ).  Regis  prodeunf  (The  standaras  of  the  King  ad- 
The  Improperia  are  a  series  of  reproaches  supposed  to  vance).    Arrived  in  the  sanctuarv  the  dergv  go  to 
be  addressed  bv  Christ  to  the  Jews.    They  are  not  their  places  retaining  lighted  canciles,  while  the  cele- 
found  in  the  old  Roman  Ordines.    Duchesne  (249)  brant  and  his  ministers  ascend  the  altar  and  <»lebrate 
detects,  he  thinks,  a  Gallican  ring  in  them;  while  Mai^  what  is  called  the  Mass  of  the  Presanctified.    This  is 
t^ne  (III,  136)  has  found  some  of  them  alternating  not  a  Mass  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  as  there  is  no 
with  the  Trisagion  in  ninth  centurv  Gallican  docu-  consecration  of  the  sacred  species.    The  host  which 
ments.    They  appear  in  a  Roman  Ordo,  for  the  first  was  consecrated  in  yesterday's  Mass  (hence  the  word 
time,  in  the  fourteenth  centurv,  but  the  retention  of  presanctified)  is  placed  on  the  altar,  incensed,  elevated 
the  Trisagion  in  Greek  goes  to  show  that  it  had  found  a  ("  that  it  may  be  seen  by  the  people  ") ,  and  consumed 
place  in  the  Roman  Good  Friday  service  before  the  by  the  celebrant.    It  is  substantially  the  Communion 
Photian   schism    (ninth   century).    A   non-Catholic  part  of  the  Mass,  beginning  with  the ''Pater  noster" 
may  say  that  this  is  all  very  dramatic  and  interesting,  which  marks  the  end  of  the  Canon.    From  the  very 
but  allege  a  grave  deordination  in  the  act  of  adoration  earliest  times  it  was  the  custom  not  to  celebrate  the 
of  the  Cross  on  bended  knees.    Is  not  adoration  due  to  Mass  proper  on  Good  Friday  (see  Nilles,  II,  252,  note 
God  alone?    The  answer  may  be  found  in  our  smallest  iii).    Speaking  about  this  ceremony  Duchesne  (249) 
catechism.    The  act  in  question  is  not  intended  as  an  says,  ''It  is  merely  the  Communion  separated  from 
expression  of    absolute  siipreme  worship   (Xarpela)  the  liturgcal  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  properly  so 
which,  of  course,  is  due  to  God  alone.    The  essential  called.    The  details  of  the  ceremony  are  not  found 
note  of  the  ceremony  is  reverence  {rpoffK6rff<ris)  which  earlier  than  in  books  of  the  eighth  or  ninth  century, 
has  a  relative  character,  and  which  may  be  best  ex-  but  the  service  must  belong  to  a  much  earlier  period, 
plained  in  the  words  of  the  Pseudo-Alcum:  "Proster-  At  the  time  when  synaxes  without  liturgy  were  fre- 
nimur  corpore  ante  crucem,  mente  ante  Dominum.  quent,  the '  Mass  of  the  Presanctified '  must  have  been 
Veneramur  crucem,  per  (luam  redemti  sumus,  et  ilium  frequent  also.    In  the  Greek  Church  it  was  celebrated 
deprecamur,  qui  reaemit"  (While  we  bend  down  in  every  day  in  Lent  except  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays, 
body  before  the  cross  we  bend  down  in  spirit  before  but  m  the  Latin  Churcn  it  was  confined  to  Good  Fri- 
God.    While  we  reverence  the  cross  as  the  mstrument  day."    At  present  the  celebrant  alone  communicates, 
of  our  redemption,  we  pray  to  Him  who  redeemed  us),  but  it  appears  from  the  old  Roman  Ordines  that  for- 
It  may  be  uiged:  why  sin^  "Behold  the  wood -of  the  merly  all  present  communicated  (Mart^ne,  III,  367). 
Cross  ,  in  unveiling  the  image  of  the  Cross?    The  The  omission  of  the  Mass  proper  marks  in  the  mind  of 
reason  is  obvious.    The  ceremony  originally  had  im-  the  Church  the  deep  sorrow  with  which  she  keeps  the 
mediate  connexion  with  the  True  Cross,  which  was  anniversary  of  the  Sacrifice  of  Calvary.    Good  Friday 
found  by  St.  Helena  in  Jerusalem  about  the  year  a.  d.  is  a  feast  of  grief.    A  black  fast,  black  vestments,  a 
326  (see  Gilmartin's  "History  of  the  Church  ,  1, 157).  denuded  altar,  the  slow  and  solemn  chanting  of  the 
Churches  which  procured  a  relic  of  the  True  Cross  sufferings  of  Ctirist,  prayers  for  all  those  for  whom  He 
might  imitate  this  ceremony  to  the  letter,  but  other  died,  the  unveiling  ana  reverencing  of  the  Crucifix, 
churches  had  to  be  content  with  an  image,  which  in  these  take  the  place  of  the  usual  festal  liturgy;  while 
this  particular  ceremony  represents  the  wood  of  the  the  lights  in  the  chapel  of  repose  and  the  Bfass  of  the 
True  Cross.  Presanctified  remind  her  children  that  Christ  is  with 
As  might  be  expected,  the  ceremony  of  the  unveil-  them  behind  this  veil  of  mourning.    The  Mass  of  the 
ing  and  adoration  of  the  Cross  gave  rise  to  peculiar  Presanctified  is  followed  by  the  recital  of  vespers,  and 
usages  in  particular  Churches.    After  describing  the  the  removal  of  the  linen  cloth  from  the  altar  (  Vespers 
adoration  and  kissing  of  the  Cross  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  are  recited  without  chant  and  the  altar  is  denuded  "), 
Church,  Rock  (The  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  IV,  103)        The  rubrics  of  the  Roman  Missal  prescribe  no  further 
goes  on  to  say:  "  Though  not  insisted  on  for  general  ceremonial  for  this  day,  but  there  are  laudable  customs 
observance,  there  was  a  rubric  that  allowed  a  rite,  at  in  different  churches  which  are  allowed.    For  exam- 
this  part  ot  the  office,  to  be  followed,  which  may  be  pie,  the  custom  (where  it  exists)  of  carrying  in  proces- 
called  The  Burial  of  the  Rood.    At  the  hind  part  of  the  sion  a  statue  of  Our  Lady  of  Sorrows  is  expressly 
altar  .  .  .  there  was  made  a  kind  of  sepulchre,  hung  permitted  by  decrees  of  the  S.  Cong,  of  Rites  (n.  2375. 
all  about  witii  a  curtain.    Inside  this  recess  .  .  .  the  and  n.  2682);  also  the  custom  (where  it  exists)  of 


K  B  relic  of  the  Holy  Cross  on  the  high  altar 
.  .7),  and  the  custom  of  carrying  such  a  relic  in 
procesdonwithinthewallsof  the  church,  not,  however, 
aurins  the  usual  ceremooies  (n.  3166),  are  expremly 
permitted.  Rock  (op.  cit.,  IV,  279,  280)  notes,  with 
interesting  detail,  a  cuatom  followod  at  one  tiine  in 
EIngland  3  submittii^  voluntarily  to  the  rod  of  pen- 
ance on  Good  Friday. 

RomoK  MiaaliDtcrtla  AvOtntm  of  6.  C  ol  Rita*  (Rome, 
1901)1  NlLLU,  kaltndarium  UmuaU  (Iiuubniok,  18S7I    " 

2S3sqq. -.-■..   .     „    ..    ^.    ,.-        .      .,_„ 

(LODcbE 


— [1<  (Iiini .„ 

,  ,.., CulU  CftrtfKB,  tr.  HcCluu 

1904);^limBB^utarv  of  the  Jlsinan  Br    ' 


(Puii,  180S);  Gu£ban „  _  _ 

PtrNKBS^  in  Kmhatia.,  ■,  t.  CharfnUm; 

'    '  ]  C*BKOL,  Ot 


.  .     •  (pBris,   _. 


man  Brtnary,  ed- 
rnCoD.-  lUicE,  Tin 


Aifi^ 


AfaJu  £n  KaiendariiaH  (1 


Good  Hopa,  Eastern  Vicabiatb  or  the  Capi  or, 

was  established  in  1847,  when  the  Vicariate  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  divided  into  Eastern  and 
Weatera.  Later  the  Eastern  Vicariate  was  subdi- 
vided three  times.  As 
now  constituted,  it  is 
bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Orange  River, 
on  the  west  by  the 
civil  districts  (in- 
cluded in  the  vicar- 
iate) of  Hopetown, 
Richmond,  Humys- 
berg,  Britstown,  Jan- 
senville.  Humans- 
dorp,  Aberdeen,  and 
Uiten'hage;  on  the 
south  by  the  Indian 
Ocean;  on  the  east  by 
the  western  boundary 
ot  Tembuland,  Gn- 
qualand  Eaat,  and  the 
Bouthwestem  bound- 
ary of  Basutoland. 

On  27   December, 
1847,    Dr.   Devereux 

waa  consecrated,    in  Pabluubnt  and  Tabi^ 

Cape  Town,  Bishop  of 

Paneas  and  first  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Eastern 
Vicariate,  by  Dr.  Griffith,  under  whom  he  had 
worked  tor  nine  years.  Throi^  the  Dhanis  fam- 
ily of  Belgium  the  new  vicar  Apostolic  received 
the  first  considerable  funds  to  start  wnk.  But 
his  life  was  spent  in  the  turmoil  of  Kafir  wars, 
and  was  a  struggle  with  poverty  and  the  dearth  of 
priests.  His  successor.  Dr.  Moraa,  had  bees  curate 
of  Iriahtown,  Dublin,  and  arrived  in  the  colony  in 
November,  1856.    He  was  a  man  of  great  enei^,  and 


appointed  him  6nt  Bi^op  of  Dunedin,  New  Zealand, 
in  1870.  Next  year,  the  Rev.  J.  D.  Ricards  was  con- 
secrated bishop  at  Grahamstown,  with  the  title  tn 
partSnis  of  Retimo,  by  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Natal, 
Dr.  AUard.  Dr.  Ricuds  had  already  spent  twenty- 
two  years  in  the  countrv  and,  whether  as  a  writer,  or 
lecturer,  or  pastor,  had  left  his  mark  in  the  land.  He 
founded  the  "Cape  Colonist",  a  paper  which  did  a 
unique  work  in  its  day  by  it^  fearless  advocacy  of 

Eunty  in  public  life  and  sane  views  on  the  native  prob- 
■ms.  Several  ot  the  bishop's  larger  controversial 
works  are  still  read  and  hi^ly  appreciated.  In  1S80 
he  brought  to  South  Africa  the  first  contingent  of 
Trappists,  who  were  to  teach  the  natives  not  only  the 
Chnstian  faith,  but  the  much  needed  lesson  of  work. 
The  ex^nsion  of  this  order  (since  transferoed  t«  the 
Natal  Vicariate)  has  been  remarkable.  About  two 
years  before  Dr.  Ricarda'a  death  a  coadjutor  was  ap- 
pointed in  the  person  of  Dr.  Strobiao,  who,  however. 


tS  GOOD 

became  a  hopeless  invalid  soon  after  the  death  of  Dr. 
Ricards.  Dr.  Strobino  was  succeeded  in  1S96  by  his 
coadjutor,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Hugh  MacSherry,  formerly 
admmistrator  of  Dundalk  in  Ireland,  who  had  been 
consecrated  a  few  months  before. 

There  are  74  churches,  chapels,  and  stations  in  the 
Eastern  Vicariate,  served  by  62  priests,  of  whom  18 
belong  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  two  are  Trappists. 
There  are  44  schools,  mission  and  private,  two  orphan* 
ages,  and  one  nursing  home.  The  number  ot  men  not 
in  Holy  orders  belonging  to  religious  institutes  is  37 — 
Harista,  de  la  Salle  Brothers,  and  Jesuits.  There  are 
331  religious  women^ — Dominicans,  Sisters  of  Nazar- 
eth, of  the  Holy  Cross,  of  the  Little  Company  ot  Mary, 
of  tJie  Assumption.  The  Cathohc  population  is  more 
than  13,000,  of  whom  only  a  few  hundred  are  natives. 

Thcai.  Sautk  Atrial  (4th  ed.,  LoDdoa,  ISBSI:  Caupbiu, 
BHliah  SoiM  Africa  (LondoD.  ISe7):  Statamm'i  Year  Book 
(London,  1909);  CaA.  ZKreclory  of  B.S.A.  (Cape  Town,  1909). 

SidnktR.  Welch, 
Oood  Hops,  Western  Vicariate  op  the  Capk  op. 
— The  Western  vicariate  and  the  Central  prefecture, 
although  different  in 
name,  are  virtually 
one.  From  1874  ta 
I8S2  the  Central  pre- 
fecture was  under  the 
charge  of  the. Mission- 
ary Fathers  of  Lyons ; 
on  their  withdrawal, 
part  of  it  was  com- 
mitted to  the  Oblates 
of  St .  Francis  de  Sales, 
and  became  the 
Orange  River  prefec- 
ture ;  the  rest  wAs  ii 


orpo: 


L   the 


Western  v 
This  now  has  an  area 
of  82,767  square 
miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the 
Olifants  River,  on  the 
east  by  the  Rogge- 
UoDKTAiH,  Cafb  Town  vcldt  Mountains  and 

the  Gouritz  River,  on 
the  south  and  west  by  the  sea.  The  islands  of 
St.  Helena  and  Ascension  are  included  in  this 
vicariate.  Bartolomeu  Dias  first  planted  the  cross 
on  South  African  soil  at  Croix  Island,  Alcoa  Bay, 
inl486;  and  the  Cape  soon  became  a  place  of  frequent 
call  for  Portuguese  ships.  From  the  well-known  hab- 
its ot  this  people  we  mav  conjecture  that  Mass  was 
thenceforth  celebrated  frequently  on  these  shores. 
The  great  missionary  work  ot  the  Portuguese  on  the 
Zambesi  did  not  extend  to  the  Cape.  The  first  Dutch 
governor,  van  Riebeek,  arrived  at  the  Cape  in  1652; 
but  under  his  regime  and  that  of  his  successors,  the 
public  profession  of  the  Catholic  faith  was  forbidden. 
A  new  spirit  animated  the  Dutch  high  commissioner, 
de  Mist,  who,  in  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Amiens,  took 
possession  ot  the  Cape,  after  a  brief  British  occupation. 
Under  very  sli^t  restrictions  he  issued  an  edict  of 
regions  toleration. 

llie  first  English  governor  reversed  these  measures, 
and  later  Lord  Charles  Somerset  showed  bitter  hostil- 
ity to  Catholics.  But  through  the  good  oflices  of 
Bishop  Poynter  of  the  English  Midland  District,  the 
government  agreed  to  salary  a  Catholic  pastor  for  the 
Cape.  On  New  Year's  Day,  1820,^  Bishoj)  Slater, 
Vicar  Apostolic  ot  Mauritius  (which  vicariate  included 
the  Cape),  installed  Father  Scully  in  Cape  Town.  For 
the  next  ei^teen  years  the  ecclesiastical  history  of 
the  colonv  is  one  of  pitiful  squabbles  between  pastors 


OOODHAN  646  OOODMAM 

separate  from  Hauritiua.    In  August  following,  Pat-  and  when  only  seventeen  won  a  scholarship  in  Trinitj 

riclc  Raymond  Griffith,  O.P.,  was  coiisecra(«d  Bishop  College,  Cambridge.    He  graduated  there  m  1604  ajid 

of  Paleopolia,  in  the  church  ot  St.  Andrew,  Dublin;  was  ordained  at  Bangor,  Wales,  shortly  after.      His 

and  on  ^  April,  1838,  he  set  foot  in  Cape  Town  with  first  appointment  was  to  the  rectory  of  Stapleford  Ab- 

Fathers  Burke  and  Corcoran.    After  his  first  visita-  bots,  Essex,  in  1606.    From  this  time  ecclesiastical 

tion,  which  was  made  chiefly  in  the  labouring  ot-  dignities  and  lucrative  emoluments  fell  rapidly  to  his 

waKon,  and  eitended  as  far  aa  Port  Elizabeth  and  share.     He  was  made  successively  prebend  ol  West- 

OrahacQstown,  he  estimated  the  Catholic  population  miosterlOO?,  rector  of  West  Ilsley,  Berks,  1616,  rector 

of  the  country  at  500.    Worse  than  the  paucity  of  of  Kennerton,  Gloucester,  canon  of  Windsor,  1617, 

numbers,  were  the  lax  morality  and  poor  Catholic  DeanofRochester,1620-l,andfinally Bishop^  Glou- 

spirit  of  so  many.     A  fiist  painful  duty  of  the  bishop  cester,  1624-5.     In  addition  he  held  two  livings  in 

was  to  depose  a  body  of  churchwardens,  who  claimed  Wales,  at  Llandyssil  and  Llanarmon.     Even  when  he 

to  act  as  a  board  of  ilirectora  of  the  vicariate.     Some  was  a  bishop,  be  was  allowed  to  retain  most  of  these 

seceded,  but  this  prompt  action  restored  peace  and  appointments.    He  became  one  of  the  Court  prea^ 

Catholic  order.     In  1851  he  completed  the  fine  church  ers  and  was  clu4)lain  to  Queen  Anne,  wife  of  James  I. 

which  is  still  the  cathedral  of  Cape  Town.     At  his  His  leaning  towards  Catholicity  made  enemies  for  him 

death   in  1862  his  floclc  was  united  and   no  longer  at  Windsor  and  he  was  reprimanded  by  the  king  o 


muituucd  of  their  faith,  several  schools  and  churches  two  occasions  for  the  views  he  put  forward  iu  ua 

havii^  been  established  throuchout  the  vicariate.  Court  sermons.     A  few  years  later  he  was  severely 

Dr.  Grimier  was  appointecT  coadjutor  to  the  first  blamed  for  having  erected  a  crucifix  at  Windsor  and 

vicar  Apostolic  in  1861,  and  succeeded  him  in  1862,  used  altar-cloths  worked  with  a  cross  in  his  own  ca- 

He  brought  out  the  thedral  at  Gloucester, 

Dominican    Sisters  and  further  for  hav- 

and  Marist  firotheis;  ing  suspended  a  min- 

Imd  died  m  1871,  just  ister  who  insisted  on 

after  his  return  from  preaching    "that    all 

the  Vatican  CouncO.  who   die    papists    eo 

The  name  which  is  inevitably   to    hell  . 

connected  with  the  It  is  likelv  that  at  this 

greatest    progress   of  time  doubts  were  aris- 

le  V/eetem  vicariate  ing  in  his  mind  about 

is  that  of  the  Ri^t  ttu  legitimacy  of  the 

Kev.  J<^n  Leonard,  separation     from 

D.D.,  who  was  curate  Rome,  and  he  sought 

at     Blanchardstown,  th&  society  <^  the 

Dublin,   when   ap-  Catholic  priests  who 

Kinted  to  succeed  were  in  hiding  throush- 

'.  Grimley.    Nearly  out  the  country.    He 

all  the  works  recorded  was  frequently  at  vai^ 

in  the  next  paragraph  iance  with  Archbishop 

were  accomplished  Laud,  and  in  1640  re- 

during  his  episcopate  fused  on  conscientious 

of    thuly'five    vears.  grounds   to   sign  the 

death,  by  the  Right  Rev.  John  Rooney,  who  had  was  thereupon  arrested,  but  after  five  weeiis  in  prison 

been  his  coadjutor  for  twenty-one  years.  he  overcame  his  scruples.    This,  however,  availed  him 

liiere  are    33    priests  in  the  Western  vicariate,  little,  as  he  was  soon  impeached  by  Parliament  along 

of  whom  three  are  regulars  (Salesians).     Out  of  153  with  Laud  and  the  ten  other  signatories  of  the  Articles 

religious,  28  aie  Mariat  Brothers  and  Salesians ;   the  and  was  sent  to  prison  for  four  months.     In  1643  tils 

rest  are  nuns — Dominicans,  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  and  episcopal  palace  was  pillaged  by  the  parliamentarian 

Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross.     There  are  19  churches,  10  soldiers  and  in  a  year  or  two  he  was  stripped  of  all  his 

convents,  an  orphanage,  an  industrial  school  and  29  emoluments.     He  withdrew  nowfrom  public  lifeto  his 

elementoiy   schools,     liie    only   or^n    of   Catholic  small  Welsh  estate  in  Carnarvon.     It  was  at  this  time 

opinion  in  South  Africa  is  the  Catholic  Ha^azine  for  too,  most  likely,  that  he  was  converted.     About  1650 

South  Africa,  founded  in  1891  by  Rev.  Dr.  Kolbe,  now  he  came  to  London,  and  gave  himself  up  to  study  and 

edited  by  the  present  writer.     The  Catholic  populo-  research;  he  was  befriend^  by  some  Catholic  royalists 

tion  of  the  vicariate  is  over  8000 — mostly  of  European  and  lived  in  close  connexion  with  them  tillhiadeathin 

descent.  1655.    Father  Davenport,  O.S.F.,  former  chaplain  to 

Thial,  Hitiary  at  South  Afriea  (LondoD,  tM3):  WiuioTi  Queen  Henrietta,  was  his  confessor  and  attended  him 

MiBtpr.Ricara,(C»,peTo'jm^J908r.S^AfTvm  [n  his  last  illness.     By  his  will,  in  which  he  made  a 

^ToU:^»-sU^To^rL?art3^CI«=;lilS  profession  of  his  ^atholic  Faith,  he  left  most  of.his 

Ka/ir.  property  to  Ruthin  his  native  town;  his  manuscripts 

SiDNET  R,  Welch.  and  books,  however,  were  given  to  Trinity  College, 

Cambridge.    His  contemporaries  deswibe    him   as 

Goodmin,  Godpret;  b.  at  Ruthin,  Denbighshire,  beio^  a  nospitable,  quiet   man,  and  lavish  in  his 

28  February,  1582-3;  d.  at  Westminster,  19  January,  chanty  to  the  poor. 

1656.     He  was  Anglican  Bishop  of  Gloucester,  and  His  princijjal  works  are:  (1)  "The  Fall  of  Man,  or 

passed  all  his  public  life  in  the  Protestant  Church,  the  Corruption  of  Nature  proved  by  the  light  of  his 

His  religious  sympathies,  however,  inclined  him  to  the  Natural  Reason"  (1016);  (2)  An  account  <?  his  suf- 

old  Faith,  and  when  misfortune  and  ruin  overtook  terin^,  1650;  (3)  "  The  two  mysteries  of  the  Christian 

him   late  m  life,  he  entered  its  fold.     He  was  the  son  Religion,  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  explicated  " 

of  Godfrey  Goodman  and   his   wife,   Jane  Croxton,  (1653);  (4)  "Arguments  and  animadversions  on  Dr- 

ianded  gentry  living  in  Wales.     In  1593  he  was  sent  to  Georae  Hake wil's  Apology' ";  (5) "  Tlie  Creatures prays- 

Westmmster  School,  where  he  remained  seven  years  ing  God"  (1622);  (6)  "The  Court  of  Kii^  James  tlie 

under  the  protection  of  his  uncle,  Gabriel  Goodman,  First  by  Sir  A.  W.  reviewed  ". 

Dean  of  Westminster.    He  was  an  earnest  student  Oillow,  Diet.  CaiK.  Bing-.  '■  v.:  Fdllsr,  The  HiHorv  d/  i)u 


GOODICAH 


647 


GOOD 


Worthim  of  Bntfiand;  Mayor  in  Cammunieaticna  of  the  Cam^ 
bridge  Antiquarian  Society ^  ii,  113;  Oentleman'e  Magaxine, 
LXXVIII:  LiNOARD.  Hiatory  of  England,  VII  (DubUn,  1878), 
257;  tee  alBO  Lbb,  in  Did,  Nat.  Biog.,  b.  v. 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Ooodznan,  John,  Venerable,  priest  and  martyr  ; 
b.  in  the  Diocese  of  Bangor,  Wales,  1590 ;  d.  1642.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxforcf,  and  was  ordained  a  Protes- 
tant minister,  but  abandoning  heresy,  he  crossed  over 
to  Paris,  where  he  was  received  into  the  Church  by 
Mr.  Richard  Ireland.  Admitted  to  Douai  College,  12 
February,  1621,  he  continued  his  studies  there  until 
1624,  when  he  proceeded  to  St-Omer,  in  order  to  enter 
the  Society  ot  Jesus.  Finding,  however,  that  this 
was  not  his  vocation,  he  was  ordained  a  secular  priest 
and  sent  on  the  English  mission.  He  worked  with 
unremitting  seal  for  some  years,  was  twice  appre- 
hended and  twice  released.  Once  more  a  prisoner  in 
1641,  he  was  brought  to  trial  and  condemned  to  death, 
but  at  the  queen's  intercession  was  reprieved.  When 
this  act  of  clemency  on  the  part  of  Charles  I  excited 
the  anger  of  Parlia]ment,  Goodman,  with  great  mag- 
nanimity, protested  his  unwillingness  to  be  a  cause  of 
dissension  between  Charles  and  his  subjects,  and 
begged  that  he  might  be  sacrificed  to  appease  the  popu- 
lardispleasure.  This  heroic  act  of  generosity  made 
a  considerable  sensation,  and  probably  sug^ted  to 
Wentworth,  Lord  Strafford,  tne  idea  of  ooing  the 
same.  Goodman,  however,  was  left  to  limguish  in 
Newgate,  but  the  hardships  soon  put  an  end  to  his 
life  on  Good  Friday,  1642,  not  1645,  as  is  sometimes 
said. 

Challonkr,  Me/noire  of  Missionary  Priests  (London,  1878), 
II.  79;  The  Prisoners  of  Newgate's  Condemnation  (London, 
1642);  Gii^how,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.Cath.,B.  v.;  State  Papers,  Dom. 
Chas.  /.,  1635,  occviii,  nn.  66,  66,  t 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Good  Samaritan,  Sisters  of  the,  a  congregation 
of  Tertiaries  Regular  of  St.  Benedict,  establisned  2 
February,  1857,  at  Sydney,  Australia.  In  1859  a  sec^ 
ond  community  was  established  at  Windsor,  and 
thereafter  frequent  foundations  were  made,  so  that 
now  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Sydney  alone  there  are  21 
houses,  with  202  members,  and  in  all  Australia  29 
communities  and  268  members.  In  the  Archdiocese 
of  Sydney  the  sisters  conduct  14  superior  schools,  with 
an  attendance  of  about  700.  In  the  Archdiocese  of 
Adelaide  they  founded  a  convent  at  Gawler  in  1902, 
and  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Melbourne  a  house  at  North- 
cote  (1904)  and  a  high  school  at  South  Yarra.  In  the 
Diocese  of  Port  Augusta,  where  they  established  a 
house  in  1890,  they  have  charge  of  a  boarding  school 
and  a  day  school;  in  the  Diocese  of  Rockhampton  also 
they  have  a  boarding  school,  founded  in  1890;  and  in 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Cooktown  a  day  school,  es- 
tablished in  1903.  At  Tempe,  AmcUffe,  m  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Sydney,  the  Sisters  of  the  Gpod  Samaritan 
have  established  St.  Magdalen's  Retreat,  a  home  for 
penitent  women  of  all  creeds.  It  is  supported  en- 
tirely by  voluntary  contributions  and  the  laoour  pf  the 
inmates,  who  number  (1909)  about  130,  and  are  en- 
couraged to  remain  at  least  two  years  in  the  institu- 
tion. 

Australasian  Catholic  Directory  (1900);  HBiMBtrCHBR,  Orrf«n 
und  Kongregationen  (Paderbom,  1907). 

F.  M.   RUDGE. 

Good  Shepherd,  Our  Ladt  of  Charttt  of  the. 
— The  aim  of  this  institute  is  to  provide  a  shelter  for 
girls  and  women  of  dissolute  habits,  who  wish  to  do 
penance  for  their  iniquities  and  to  lead  a  truly  christian 
life.  Not  onl]^  voluntary  penitents^  but  also  those 
consigned  by  civil  or  parental  authority  are  admitted. 
Many  of  these  penitents  desire  to  remain  for  life ;  they 
are  admitted  to  take  vows,  and  form  the  class  of 
"  maffdalens",  under  the  direction  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Shepherd.  They  are  an  austere  contemplative 
immunity,  and  follow  the  Rule  of  the  Third  Order  of 


Mount  Carmel.  Prayer,  penance  and  manuaJ  labour 
are  their  principal  occupations.  Many  of  these  "  mag- 
dalens"  freouently  rise  to  an  eminent  degree  of  sanc^ 
tity.  Besiaes  eirls  and  women  of  this  class,  the  order 
also  admits  chiklren  who  have  been  secured  from  dan- 
ger, before  they  have  fallen  or  been  stained  by  serious 
crime.  Tliey  are  instructed  in  habits  of  industry  and 
self-respect  and  in  all  the  duties  they  owe  to  them- 
selves and  to  society.  The  "  penitents", "  magdalens" 
and  '' preservates"  form  perfectly  distinct  classes, 
completely  seeregated  from  one  another. 

The  Good  Shepherd  is  a  cloistered  order  and  follows 
the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.  T&e  constitutions  are 
borrowed  in  ereat  part  from  those  eiven  by  St.  Francis 
of  Sales  to  the  Visitation  Sisters,  but  are  modified  to 
suit  the  nature  of  this  work.  Besides  the  three  ordi- 
nary vows  of  poverty,  chastity  and  obedience,  the 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  take  a  fourth  vow, 
namely,  to  work  for  the  conversion  and  instruction  of 
"penitents", — a  vow  which  makes  this  order  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  creations  of  Christian  charity. 
Tlie  vows  are  renewed  every  year,  for  five  years,  before 
becoming  perpetual.  The  order  is  composed  of  choir 
sisters,  and  lay  or  "converse"  sisters.  The  choir  sis- 
ters recite  every  day  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed 
Vir^.  The  habit  is  white,  with  white  scapulars, 
remmding  them  of  the  innocence  of  the  life  they  should 
lead.  The  choir  sisters  wear  a  black  veil;  the  "con- 
verse" sisters  a  white  veil.  Around  their  necks,  they 
wear  a  silver  heart,  on  one  side  of  which  is  engraved  an 
image  of  "  The  Good  Shepherd",  and  on  the  other,  the 
Ble^ed  Virgin,  holding  tne  Divine  Infant,  between  a 
branch  of  roses  and  a  branch  of  lilies.  The  heart 
represents  that  of  the  sister,  consecrated  to  Mary  and 
to  her  Divine  Son,  and  the  roses  and  lilies  are  symbol- 
ical of  the  virtues  of  charity  and  purity.  *  The  order 
is  dedicated  in  an  especial  manner  to  the  Holy  Heart 
of  Mary  and  to  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  which  are  its 
two  patrons.  Besides  the  choir  sistors  and  the  "  con- 
verse" sisters,  the  order  also  admits  "Touri^re"  Sis- 
ters^ who  attend  to  the  door  and  perfonn  necessary 
duties  outside  the  cloister.  Their  habit  is  black,  and 
they  take  only  the  three  ordinary  vows. 

Tlie  Institute  of  the  Good  Shepherd  is  a  branch  of 
"Our  Lady  of  Charity  of  the  Refuge",  founded  by 
Blessed  Jonn  Eudes,  at  Caen,  France,  in  1641,  and 
approved  by  Alexander  VII,  2  January,  1666,  its 
constitutbns  being  approved  by  Benedict  XIV,  in 
1741.  The  order  as  pnmitively  oi]^anized  by  Blessed 
John  Eudes  still  exists  in  a  flourishmg  state,  under  the 
first  title  of  "  Our  Lady  of  Charity  of  the  Refuge",  and 
counts  about  thirty-nine  houses  and  about  1893 
sisters.  The  distinction  between  the  primitive  order 
and  its  branch,  the  Institute  of  "Our  Lady  of  Charity 
of  the  Good  Shepherd",  consiste  mainly  in  the  admin- 
istration. According  to  the  custom  of  his  time,  the 
Blessed  John  Eudes  ordained  that  "Our  Lady  of  the 
Refuge"  should  have  no  mother-house,  but  that  every 
house  foimded  by  this  order  should  be  a  distinct  com- 
munity, having  ite  own  administration,  and  beine 
united  to  the  other  houses  only  by  bonds  of  fraternal 
diarity. 

Among  the  noble  women  who  entered  the  ranks  of 
the  Sisters  of  the  Refuse  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
was  one  whose  name  will  be  long  remembered,  Mother 
Mary  Euphrasia  Pelletier.  She  was  bom  in  the  island 
of  Noirmoutier,  of  pious  parents,  on  3t  July,  1796,  and 
received  in  baptism  the  name  of  Rose  Virginia.  She 
entered  the  community  of  "The  Refuge"  of  Tours,  in 
1814,  and  made  her  professbn  in  1816,  taking  the 
name  of  Mary  St.  Euphrasia.  She  became  first  mis- 
tress of  the  *'  penitents",  a  short  time  after  her  pro- 
fession, and  about  eight  years  later  was  made  superior- 
ess of  the  house  of  l^urs.  Desirous  of  extenduig  the 
benefits  of  her  order  to  the  very  extremities  of  the 
earth,  she  clearly  saw  that  a  central  government,  a 
mother-house,  should  be  established.    The  house  of 


OOOD 


648 


QOBDIAH 


kfi^H,  wtiicii  she  had  founded,  seemed  destined  by 
God  for  erand  designs.  He  would  decide,  by  the 
voice  of  His  pontiff.  Like  many  of  God's  elect,  she 
was  treated  by  her  adversaries  as  an  innovator,  an 
ambitious  person,  impatient  of  authority.  Only  after 
incessant  labours  and  formidable  opposition  did  her 
cause  triumph.  The  Brief  in  approval  of  th<» mother^ 
house  at  Angers  was  signed  3  Aprfl,  1835,  and  pub- 
lished by  Gregory  XVI.  The  official  title  of  the  in- 
stitute was  henceforth  ''Our  Lad^r  of  Charity  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  of  Angers".  It  is  directl^r  subject 
to  the  Holy  See,  and  Cardinal  Odescalchi  was  its 
first  cardinal-protector.  Angers  is  authorized  to  send 
its  sisters  to  the  extremities  of  the  earth.  Mother 
Euphrasia  heartilv  devoted  herself  to  the  work  en- 
trusted to  her.  She  had  been  accused  of  ambition,  of 
innovation,  and  of  disobedience.  Her  sole  ambition 
was  to  extend  God's  kincdom,  and  to  offer  the  benefits 
of  her  institute  to  the  whole  world.  Her  innovations, 
in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  with  the 
fourth  vow  of  her  order,  were  approved  by  the  Church, 
and  gave  in  thirty-three  years  one  hundred  and  ten 
soul-saving  institutions  to  the  Church  and  to  society. 
Her  institutions  were  all  founded  in  obedience  to  the 
requests  of  ecclesiastical  authorities  in  every  part  of 
the  worid .  Tliirty-three  years  she  was  mother-general 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  ana  at  her  death,  29  Aprfl,  1868, 
she  left  2067  professed  sisters,  384  novices,  309  Tou> 
idle  sisters,  962  "maj^alens",  6372  "penitents",  and 
8483  children  of  various  classes.  Angers  had  seen 
great  changes  since  1829,  when  Mother  Euphrasia  had 
come  with  five  sisters  to  found  the  house.  Within 
thirty-three  years  one  hundred  and  ten  convents  had 
been  founded,  sixteen  provinces  established,  in  France, 
Beleium,  Holland.  Rome,  Italy,  Germany,  Austria. 
En^and,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Asia,  Africa,  the  United 
States  and  Chili.  Under  her  successor,  Mother  Mary 
St.  Peter  Coudenhove,  in  twenty-four  years,  eighty- 
five  houses  were  founded,  and  thirteen  new  provinces 
established,  making^  eleven  in  Europe,  two  m  Africa, 
nine  in  North  America,  five  in  South  America  and  one 
in  Oceania. 

The  cause  of  beatification  of  Mother  Euphrasia  was 
inscribed  by  the  postulator  of  the  cause,  17  Nov.,  1886. 
The  preliminary  examination'  terminated  in  1890. 
Leo  XIII  received  supplications  from  numerous  car- 
dinals, archbishops,  bishops,  several  cathedral  chap- 
ters, rectors  of  colleges  and  universities,  hundreds  of 
priests,  and  many  noble  famflies,  beting  him  to  dis- 
pense ftom  the  ordinary  ten  years'  mterval  required 
before  the  continuation  of  the  cause.  On  11  Dec., 
1897,  Leo  XIII  declared  her  "  Venerable",  to  the.great 
joy  of  the  whole  world,  and  to  the  honour  and  glory 
of  all  the  convents  of  the  Good  Shepherd. 

The  order  is  still  increasing  every  year.  In  1901,  it 
counted  232  houses,  24  provinces,  7044  sisters,  with 
43  J.59  subjects  under  their  care. 

This  order  glories  also  in  the  name  of  Mother  Mary 
of  the  Divine  Heart,  who  has  been  compared  to  the 
Blessed  Margaret  Mary  Alacoaue.  The  consecration 
of  the  universe  to  the  Sacred  Heart,  9  June,  1899, 
which  Leo  XIII  referred  to  as  the  greatest  act  of  his 
pontificate,  was  brousht  about  by  her  suggestion. 
She  died  on  the  eve  of  tne  consecration  (8  June,  1899), 
at  Porto,  Portu^,  and  already  preparations  are  being 
made  for  her  beatification. 

BouLAT.  Vie  du  Ph-e  Budea  (Paris,  1905);  Obt,  Lea  origtnei 
de  Notre  Dame  de  ChariU  (Abbeville,  1891);  Paquikr,  La  vStt" 
arable  Mhre  Marie  de  St.  Buvhnuie  PeUelier  (Ansen.  1893); 
PoRTAXS,  ViedelaR.  Mtre  Mane  de  St.  Euphraeie  PeUetier  (Paris, 
1894):  Crablb,  Senw  Marie  du  Divvn  Cenw  (Paris,  1905;  tr.. 
New  York). 

Charlbb  Lbbrun. 
Gk>od  Works.    See  Merit. 

Ck>088eiui»  Pierrb-Lambert,  Cardinal,  Archbishop 
of  Mechlin  (Belgium),  b.  at  Perok,  near  Vilvorde,  18 
July.  1827;  d.  at  Mechlin  26  January,  1906. 

After  teaching  at  Bruel  College  at  Mechlin,  he  be- 


eame,  in  1856,  curate  at  the  cathedral  and  seeretaiy 
of  the  arehbishop,  and,  in  April,  1878,  vicar^eneru 
of  Cardinal  Dechamps.  Meanwhile  he  had  been  kch 
pointed  (1860)  an  honorary  canon  of  the  metropcui^ 
tan    chapter.     In   1880   he  was   made  a  Rom&c 

g relate,  and  24  June,  1883,  was  consecrated  at  M.teh- 
n  coadjutoi^bishop  to  Mgr.  Graves,  whom  h^  suc- 
ceeded as  Bishop  of  Namur  16  July  followioff.  Ei^t 
months  later  (24  Maroh,  1884)  he  became  Arcnbishop 
of  Mechlin,  and  on  24  May,  1889,  he  was  created  Car- 
dinal-Priest of  the  Title  of  Santa-Crooe  in  Gerusa- 
lemme.  Succeeding  to  the  See  of  Mechlin  jujst  when 
the  Belgian  Cathohcs  were  about  to  depose  the  Ma- 
sonic government  which  had  oppreesea  them  since 
1879j  he  did  much  to  perpetuate  the  strong  hold  on 
political  power  which  the  Catholic  party  has  since  pos- 
sessed. In  order  to  promote  thorough  Christian  sen- 
timents among  the  workmen  of  the  great  industrial 
centres  of  his  diocese,  also  in  distant  coun^  places, 
he  provided  for  them  greater  church  facilities,  caused 
many  new  churehes  to  be  built,  and  created  eic^ty-six 
parishes.  In  twenty-two  years  he  founded  in  his 
diocese  840  primary  schools,  with  an  attendance  of 
120,000  children.  He  «]ao  multiplied  high  schools  for 
girls  and  for  bosrs,  opened  normal  and  professional 
schools^  and  founded  ten  colleges  for  the  teaching  of 
humamties.  Tireless  in  promoting  the  economical 
interests  of  the  working  classes,  he  organised  and 
presided  over  two  general  congresses  and  five  dis- 
trict congresses  in  which  the  social  Question  was 
the  chief  topic  of  discussion.  On  public  occasions 
his.  manner  was  noble  and  stately,  yet  in  his  deal- 
ings with  priests  and  people  he  was  idwa3r8  amiable 
and  unaffected,  and  had  the  secret  of  enlisting  sacri- 
fice and  devotion.  To  kindness  he  joined  prudence 
and  discretion  and  was  thus  able  to  avdd  conmcts  with 
the  State  authorities.  A  talented  writer  Jiis  stvle  bore 
the  impression  of  the  masterpieces  of  Frencn  pulpit 
eloquence,  of  which  he  was  an  assiduous  reader. 

In  his  "Charges  and  Pastoral  Lettere'/  (five  vol- 
umes) and  his  "Occasional  Addresses"  accuracy  oi 
ideas,  delicacy  of  feeling,  literary  tact,  and  purity 
of  diction  are  always  predominant  characteristics. 
Thou^  not  himself  a  savant,  he  was  alive  to 
scientific  needs,  and  greatly  encouraged  scientific 
progress  in  the  University  of  Louvain,  of  which  he 
was  the  chief  patron.  He  reorganised  Uie  archives 
of  his  arohdiocese,  and  encouraged  historical  research 
amone  his  clergy  by  reauirin^  each  parish  priest  to 
f umian  him  with  an  nistoncal  monograph  on  his 
parish. 

His  published  works  are:  "Collectio  Epistolarum 
pastoratium,  decretorum,  aliorumque  documentorum" 
(5  vols.^  Mechlin,  1889-1906);  "Discours  sur  la  ques- 
tion sociale"  (Mechlin,  1894) ;  "Choix  de  conferences, 
discours  et  allocutions"  (Mechlin,  1906). 

MBsaER,  Oraieon  funibre  de  Son  Eminenoe^  P.'L.  Choeeena 
(Louvain,  1906);  Labnrn,  Lee  arehevtmiee  de  Mtdinn  mi 
furmi  renitue  de  la  pourpre  romaine  in  La  Vie  diootaaine  (1007), 
I,  193-202;  Relaiunue  Statue  Archidiae.  Meehlineneie  onnie 
Chr.  1893,  1898,  et  1908  in  Goossbnb.  Coileetio  Epiatolarum; 
MuTLDBRMANS,  Levetue^ete  van  Z.  B,  Kardinaal  Cfooeaene  (in 
prepaiation). 

P.  Ladeues. 

Ck>rdian  (Lat.  Gordiantts). — ^There  were  three 
Roman  emperors  of  this  name,  who  reined  between 
A.  D.  237-44,  and  all  of  whom  met  with  violent  deaths. 
Tlie  first,  Marous  Antonius  Africanus  Gordianus,  de- 
scended on  the  father's  side  from  the  Gracchi  and  on  the 
mother's  from  Trajan,  was  chosen  emperor  in  Africa 
in  opposition  to  the  usurper  Maximin,  and  the  choice 
was  confirmed  by  tlie  Senate.  On  accoimt  of  his  ad- 
vanced age,  his  son  was  associated  with  him  in  the 
purple,  llieir  reign  lasted  only  thirty-six  days,  the 
son  being  slain  in  battle  by  Maximm's  lieutenant, 
Capellianus,  and  the  father  putting  an  end  to  his  own  < 
life  (July,  237).  M.  Antonius  Gordianus  Pius,  the 
grandson  of  the  elder  and  nephew  of  the  younger  Gor- 


OOBDZAHUB  849  QOBDON 


r« 


Prstorian  guards,  and  the  youthful  Ck)rdian  became  elementa"  (1751-^2).    For  the  sulphur  ball  of  von 

sole  emperor.    Alter  being  for  a  time  under  the  oon-  Guericke  (1671)  and  the  glass  ^be  of  Newton  (some 

trol  of  nis  mother's  eunuchs,  he  married  the  daugh-  say  Hauksbee),    Gordon  substituted  a  glass  cylinder 

ter  of  MisitheuSy  his  teacher  of  rhetoric.    Misitheus  which  made  an  efficient  frictional  miu^ine.     Two 

proved  to  be  a  capable  politician  and  general,  and  other  inventions  of  the  Benedictine  physicist  are 

stirred  up  his  youne  charge  to  march  in  person  against  noteworthy:   the  first  is  the  light  metallic  star  sup- 

the  Persians.    At  first  the  expedition  met  with  suo-  ported  on  a  sharp  pivot  with  the  pointed  ends  bent  at 

cess,  but  the  death  of  Misitheus  put  an  end  to  Gor-  right  angles  to  the  rays  and  commonly  called  the 

dian's  prosperity.    His  soldiers  mutinied^  at  the  in-  electrical  whirl;  the  second  is  the  beautiful  device 

stigation  of  Philip,  the  successor  of  Misitheus,  and  known  as  the  electric  chimes.    Thoueh  tiiese  inven- 

slew  him  (244).    Under  the  Qordians  the  Church  en-  tions  are  described  in  all  textbooks  of  electricity,  the 

joyed  peace.    Their  rival,  Maximin,  had  been  a  fierce  name  of  Gordon  is  never  mentioned,  though  botn  in- 

persecutor  of  the  Christians;  hence  they  naturally  ventions  are  fully  described  bjr  him  in  his  "Versudi 

cultivated  the  goodwill  of  those  who  had  every  reason  einer  Erkl&rung  der  Electricit&t"   (Erfiu-t,   1745). 

to  oppose  his  rme.  Franklin,  who  is  usually  credited  with  the  latter  in- 

GiBBON,  Decline  and  Fail  of  the  Roman  Empire  (London,  vention,  simply  adopted  the  "German  chimes"  (de- 

rpiS;  ^^  J^^h^^*  ^  ehrieUaninM  et  V  Bmipire  Romain  scribed  by  Watson  in  his  famous  "Sequel",  1746)  to 

(I'axia,  iwd;,  Ob.  ui.  qr.AMWTT  serve  as  an  electrical  annunciator  in  connexion  with 

1.  u.  DCANNBM,.  ^^    eroerimental    (lijghtning)    rod    of    1752.    The 

Gordianus  and  Eplmachns,  Saintb,  Martyrs,  suf-  Tj!^^!- '  wf^^.^Pe^^.i^teirest  because  it  was  an  elec- 

t^ZA\!^!!i!!!t^  IiJl  aIvXo+^I  QAo  «k«.^«^iw!i«*lii  trostatic  reaction  motor,  the  earhest  of  its  kmd ;  while 

fered  under  Juhan  the  Apostate,  362.  commemorated  ^^  -^^„ ^  rferivM  it»  thfiorPti«il  imnnrt^nn*.  f r^m  if^ 


uarjus,  that  he  embraced  Christianity  with  many  of       pmmtubt,  Hietary  of  EUctricUy  (1776);  Electrical  World 

his  household.    Bemg  accused  before  his  successor,  or  (New  York,  2  Jan..  im);  Cooper  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  8.  V. 
as  some  say  before  the  prefect  of  the  city.  Apronianus,  Brother  Potamian. 

he  was  cruelly  tortured  and  finally  beneaded.    His        ^    ^       m  n      ▼  -r^ 

body  was  carried  off  by  the  Christians,  and  laid  in  a       Gordon,  William.    See  Leeds,  Diocese  of. 

Si?S*whn  wi^^  Gordon  Eiot8.-This  agitation,  so  called  from  the 

chus,  who  had  been  recently  mterred  there.    The  two  ^^     ^     ^^^  ^  ^^  mov^ent,  lird  George  Gordon. 

^S!^n  inf^^^i^^ir In'^J^^^^  convulsed^e metropolis  of  Engfand  from  ^u^etiS  i 

f^^^^rtT^-^S^^^^^^  June,  1780.    Tlie  fiit  EnglishiCatholic  Relief  Act  of 

llrC^^^^^TJ^  S^'^Tir^T  "^^^  ""    ''''*"'  ^^  dedamtion  of  American  independent  nffi^^i 

"""tAL^'^^v^^^  in  an  Iririi  rebellion     Tlie  majo^y  had  ^ow  to 

and,  o^to  l^e  meagreness  if  the^rmktion  pos^  Jf ^' ^^  there  was  lOso  a  r^isy  mmonty,  which  filled 

sess^^d  coSeming  the^ess  careful  writers  have  ^  M''^  wh^J!?^'  l3^L*  Uw  "i  """  *^«ir 

founded  them  greatly,  while  the  greater  hagiologists  ?**®^'  ^^J  ^K^?  ^*  ^^  ^°^®  law,  strove  earnestly 

8^  unable  to  ^  m  tolSieir  n^ber  orldenUtJ^  ^  ^g'?^®"^*  f  hke  meMurefrom  bemg  brou^t  for- 

The  BoUandistsWntion  five  saints  of  this  name:  (1)  H^,'^^''}^''^^^  ^?f  Scotland.    To  effect  this  a 
A  martyr  TOmmemoia^  by^  Gree^on6  July       Protestant  Association"  was  formed  which  organized 

rArtuRs   XXTX  2«0^-  r2M<iDimAi;hiiflAnd  AsiriAniM  demonstrations  of  the  mob  against  the  Catholics  at 

^S^ve^reted^  the  cSS^TAhY^^^A  ^^^  «^^  Edmbmgh.  where  on  2  February,  1779,  the 

Sn^nf^J^  jij^k^P%\vJ^I^^^^^  chapel-houses  in  Chaimer's  Close,  near  Leith  W^md. 

L^  i^  E^'^StS  fc  ^e  ESi^SloiX  ^'^^  Blackfriars  Wynd  were  bm^ed.  Nor  was  S 

r ActoSS  W  704)^^D^  Alexander'  '^^^  ^*^ ^«  ^'^  ^™^<>«* "^^""^Y promisedthat 

^^' at  AleMmd^^^^  ^°  C^*^^^^^  ^^^^  *>^  ^°^  Scotland  sho*uld  be  intro- 

commemorated  in  the  Latin  Cfiiich  on  12  Dec.;  (5)  ^!!5!^-„'^r?"^„!S"^^J^  *^®  ^^?P 

Epimachus,  whose  body,  with  that  of  St.  Gordiinus,  ^°^®  ^^  afterwards  ordered  by  the  Government,  the 

is  honoured  at  Rome  on  10  May.    Most  of  the  great  Association  had  gained  such  a  victory  that  it  wm 

writers  have  denied  the  existence  of  an  Epim^hus  ®^^"r«??  ^  ^^^^  ?T''^i  w^'^fi**1'^'  "5  ^^^^  *S 

martyred  at  Rome,  and  account  for  the  reUcs  honoured  Ti?''^  ^°''  *?®  repeal  of  the  Relief  Bdl  already  oassed 

there  by  asserting  that  the  body  of  the  Alexandrian  J^®^' ^ ^  ^^F^f  "^J®^  ?^  ^e  Canada  or  Quebec 

Epimachus  was  transported  thither  shortly  before  the  ^lU^which  .ff^ted  freedom  to  Canad^  Catholics.^ 
martyrdom  of  St.  Gordianus.    Remi  de  Buck,  the        The  president  of  both  Swttish  and  English  A^^ 

learned  Bollandist,  however,  maintains  that  the  evi-  ^^^  ^^  pf^"^  ^^Jp  ^^^^Sl^^  ^ V^  ^**®  }^!^ 

denoe  for  the  Roman  Epimachus  is  too  strong  to  be  ?^®  of  Gordon,  the  first  Protestant  head  of  the 

doubted,  while  he  rejects  the  pretended  translation  of  ^^i?®.-  ,  V°?*  GfOT&i  was  eccentric,  and  unrestrained 

the  reUcs  of  Epimachus  of  Alexandria.  2?  *  ^?  ^^  fanaticism  and  m  his  passions ;  so  much  so 

Acta  S3.,  xv;  M9;  Ds  Buc«.  De  VaHia  SS.  Bpimackia  in  ^lat the  mo<  or jgmallv  formed  for  Su-  Fleetwood  Shejj- 

Aeta  S3,,  LXI,  706.  herd,  was  adapted  to  him  by  Wilkes,  "  Nulla  displicmt 

John  F.  X.  Murpht.  meretrix  praetor  Babylonicam"  (R.  Bisset,  "George 

III ",  III,  167).    This  hero  of  the  Protestant  AssocS- 

Gordon,  Andrew,  Benedictine  monk,  physicist;  b.  tion  resolved  on  a  great  demonstration.    He  procured 

15  June,  1712,  at  Cofforach  in  Forfarshire,  Scotland;  a  petition  for  the  repeal  of  the  Relief  Bfll,  signed  by 

d.  22  August,  1751,  at  Erfurt,  in  Saxony.    Having  30,000  to  40,000  names,   carried  it  to  the  House  of 

travelled  extensively  on  the  Continent,  Gordon  be-  Commons,  2  June,  1780^  in  a  huge  procession,  said  in 

came  a  Benedictine  and  in  1737  was  appointed  pro-  the  excitement  of  the  time  to  have  numbered  20,000 

fessor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  University  of  or  even  40,000  men,  ail  wearing  blue  cockades,  and 

Erfurt.    He  soon  acquired  considerable  reputation  by  carrying  blue  flags  with  the  legend:  No  Popert.    In 


OOBDOir                                  650  aORDOX 

the  House  Lord  George  denumded  an  imniediatfl  vote,  undisputed  master  of  the  situation.  All  shops  wen 
while  his  followers  were  pressing  into  the  lobbies  and  closed,  money  was  exacted  from  passers  by,  and  every 
maltreating  all  memben  whom  they  regarded  as  hos-  one  put  on  the  blue  cockade,  and  chalked  No  PoFESI 
tQe  to  the  repeal.  The  motion  was  pcwtponed,  how-  on  his  door.  Ilie  Catholics  suffered  much,  but  un- 
ever,  and  when  evening  fell  attacks  were  made  on  the  popular  Protestants  suSered  no  less.  Ilie  house  of 
best  known  embs^y  chapels,  the  Sardinian  chapel,  Lord  Chief  Justice  Mansfield  was  sacked  and  bunted, 
near  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  and  the  Bavarian  chapel  in  so  were  thoseof  the  justices,  and  even  of  the  witnesses 
Warwick  Street.  The  method  of  attack  was  more  or  who  had  dven  evidence  against  the  rioters.  The 
less  the  same  on  all  occasions.  First  the  windows  prisons  of  Neweato  and  Clerkenwell  were  fired,  and  all 
were  broken,  then  the  doors  forced,  the  house  sacked  the  prisoners  released.  Next  day  the  same  fate  befell 
and  the  furmture  thrown  out  and  bunted  in  the  street,  the  prisons  of  the  King's  Bench,  the  Fleet,  and  the 
thereby  setting  fire  to  the  whole  building.  Warwick  Harshalsea.  In  other  prisons,  as  the  Poultry,  all 
Street  chapel  wsa  eventually  saved  by  soldiers,  who  prisoners  were  discharged  to  prevent  further  disturb- 
also  arrested  some  bystanders.  Two  or  three  of  these  ance.  The  large  distillery  in  Holbom  of  Mr.  Langdale, 
upon  examination  ''appeared  to  be  Catholics,  but  of  a  Catholic,  was  burned,  and  all  the  stores  of  spirits 
excellent  characters",  against  whom  "as  no  material  wasted  or  drunk.  The  bridges  across  the  Thames 
circumstances  appeared,  it  was  thought  they  would  were  seised;  the  Bank  of  En^and  was  twice  attacked, 
^  off"  ("Public  Advertiser".  6  June,  1780).     The  and  only  saved  by  soldiers.     On  Wednesday  night 


prisoners,  presumably  mere  spectators,  were  remand-  thirty-six  different  conflagratbns  mi^t  be  eounted 

ed  for  trial  to  Newgate,  whence  thev  "^t  off  "on  the  from  London  Bridge.    Fortunately  the  air  was  still, 

following  Tuesday  without  any  furtner  mvestigations.  and  the  flames  did  not  spread,  or  the  consequences 

Some  disingenuous  Prot«stanta,  however,  have  pre-  would  have  been  terrible,  for  the  mob  bad  injured  the 

tendedthatthebumingof thechapelswasreallydueto  fire-pumps  and  thrown  the  hoses  into  tbe  burning 

Catholics  (cf.  "Bamaby  Rudge",  Ixxvii,  end).  buildings. 

By  Saturday  morning  there  was  a  lull.  On  Sunday  The  delay  in  dealing  with  the  mob  violence  i»s  due 
afternoon,  however,  there  was  a  recrudescence  of  vio-  to  many  causes.  There  had  never  been  a  tumultof 
lence,  the  temporarv  repairs  at  the  embassy  chapels  this  nature  t>efore,  and  there  was  no  special  force  to 
were  torn  down  and  burned,  Moorfields  chapel  house  cope  with  it.  The  police  of  the  city  in  tnose  days  con- 
was  sacked,  and  several  neighbouring  houses  gutted,  sisted  but  of  a  few  dozen  watchmen  and  constables. 
and  their  furniture  burned.  Worse  would  have  fol-  Of  the  magistrates  some  were  infatuated  for  the  I^t- 
lowed  but  for  the  timely  arrival  of  the  soldiers.  Next  estaot  Association,  some  were  cowards,  nearly  all  were 
day,Monday,thePrivyCounci!  met  at  St.  James's;  but  of  opinion  that  the  Riot  Act  must  be  read  an  hour  l>e- 
BolittlewastheGovemment  moved  by  themany  mis-  fore  the  military  could  be  called  upon  to  interfere, 
fortunes  of  the  Catholics,  so  little  did  it  foresee  the  At  last  King  George  himself  (it  had  been  thou^t  pru- 
future,  that  no  adequate  measures  were  adopted  to  dent  for  him  to  retire  from  the  royal  apartment  to 
suppress  disorder,  though  in  the  city  the  blue  cockades  more  protected  buildings  in  the  rear  of  St.  James's) 
were  asserting  their  power  with  ever  growing  boldness,  summoned  a  council  on  Wednesday  evening  and 
OnTuesday,  6  June,  ParliamentaKainmet;  and  again  active  measures  were  ordered,  and  carried  out  that 
the  mob  pressed  in,  preventing  the  progress  of  busi-  very  night.  Infantry  and  cavalry  attacked  the  crowd 
ness,  and  handling  roughly  all  who  displeased  them,  wherever  it  mode  head,  firing  into  their  ranks,  and 
Lord  North  himself,  the  prime  minister,  only  es-  charging  them  with  sword  and  bayonet.  Thou^the 
caped  that  evening  by  putting  his  coach-horses  to  darkness  and  intricacies  of  the  streets  enabled  the 
the  gallop,  having  lost  his  hat  in  the  fray,  which  rioters  to  maintain  themselves  for  a  while,  no  serious 
was  thereupon  torn  up,  and  the  pieces  distnbuted  as  resistance  was,  or  could  be,  offered.  By  Thursday 
trophies  among  the  crowd.    The  mob  was  henceforth  evening   all   oi^mized  disturbance  was   over,  but 


Q0BD08 


651 


Q0BXX7M 


210  had  been  killed  in  the  streets.  75  died  in  hospitaly 
and  173  were  severely  woundea.  Of  the  prisoners 
taken,  52  were  convicted,  and  of  these  between  20  and 
30  executed.  Lord  Gorge's  trial,  fortunately  for 
him,  had  to  be  adjourned  for  some  months.  Bv  then 
men's  minds  were  cooler;  he  was  admirably  defended 
by  the  great  advocate  Thomas,  afterwards  Lord,  Er^ 
skine,  and  acquitted.  There  was,  no  doubt,  a  mis- 
carria^  of  justice  here,  but  the  formal  indictment  of 
"levymg  war  on  the  kin^'',  could  not  be  substan- 
tiated. Indeed  it  is  certain  that  he  did  not  at  all  fore- 
see the  results  of  his  actions,  and  that  he  exerted 
himself,  when  it  was  too  late,  to  stem  the  torrent  of  mis- 
chief which  he  had  let  loose.  John  Wesley  is  some- 
times said  to  have  assisted  in  arousing  the  religious 
fanaticism  of  the  associates ;  but  this  is  neither  true 
nor  possible,  for  he  was  at  the  time,  and  had  been 
for  months  before,  engaged  in  a  missionary  circuit 
through  the  Northern  counties.  In  the  previous  Janu- 
arv,  however,  he  had  written  a  ''Defence"  of  the 
''Appeal"  issued  by  the  Association,  and  obstinately 
mamtained  his  narrow  views  in  the  "Freeman's  Jour- 
nal", though  they  were  answered  by  Father  Arthur 
O'Leary.  The  losses  of  the  Catholics  were  grave,  and 
cannot  be  precisely  scheduled.  Claim  for  compensa- 
tion was  afterwards  made  for  57  houses  destroyed 
(three  of  these  chapels  or  mass-houses),  besides  two 
embassy  chapels.  Numbers,  moreover,  were  con- 
strainea  to  Hy  in  confusion  and  by  nisht,  with  their 
wives  and  children  and  little  store  of  vuuables.  Their 
Protestant  friends  too  often  not  daring  to  give  them 
shelter,  they  fell  in  many  instances  into  extreme  di£h 
tress.  Others  were  shot  by  the  soldiers  in  tryine  to 
escape  from  the  mob;  four  are  reported  to  have  died 
from  fear;  Mr.  Dillon  of  Moorfields,  an  old  man.  who 
had  previously  endured  prosecution  for  his  priestnood, 
was  wantonly  thrown  out  of  his  sick-bed  and  died  six 
weeks  later.  The  sum  eventually  paid  to  the  Catholics 
is  said  to  have  been  £28,219  from  the  city,  and  £5200 
from  the  Government.  Mr.  Lan^ale  put  nis  losses  at 
£100,000,  but  refused  compensation,  receiving  instead 
leave  to  distil  spirits  for  a  year  free  of  impost,  and 
thereby  (so  runs  the  story)  made  up  handsomely  the 
damage  he  had  suffered. 

The  eyents  of  the  riots  were  chronicled  day  by  day  in  the 
Dapera,  e.  g.  The  Moming  Adveiiiaer,  the  London  Chronid*,  the 
lAmdan  Gazette;  and  were  summarised  in  the  monthly  and  an- 
nual periodicals,  e.  g.  the  Political  Magazine,  and  TAe  Annual 
Reffister.  See  also  the  Lords'  and  the  Commons'  JoumtUa; 
Lord  Mahon,  Hiatory  of  England  (1858).  Ill,  Ixi,  Ixiii;  Hol- 
CRorr,  A  Plain  Narrative  cf  the  late  Riots  in  London  (1780): 
CoBBBTT.  state  Trials,  xxi.  485-687.  Dickens  has  described 
the  riots  in  "Bamaby  Rudge."  The  riots  are  also  mentioned 
by  all  historians  and  memoir  writers  of  the  period. 

For  the  misfortunes  of  the  Catholics  in  particular,  see  Bur- 
ton, Life  and  Timea^of  Bishop  Challoner  (London,  1909);  The 
Catholic  Magazine  for  1833.  bein^  papers  and  documents  col- 
lected by  *'L.  C";  Dolnum*a  Review,  vols.  V  and  VI,  ten  con- 
tributions by  Edward  Prxcb;  Aubxius  J.  F.  Mills,  The  Riots 
in  London  tn  1780  (London,  1883).  The  last  two  should  be 
read  with  caution. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

QordOB,  a  titular  see  in  the  province  of  Lydia,  suf- 
fragan of  Sardis.  The  city  is  mentioned  by  Strabo, 
Hierocles,  and  Georgius  Gyprius.  Ptolemy  locates  it 
between  the  River  Hermus,  the  modem  Guediz  Tchai, 
and  Mt.  Sipylus.  Lequien  (Or.  chris.,  I,  881)  names 
five  of  its  bishops:  John.  Imown  to  Socrates  (Hist. 
Eccl.,  VII.  xxxvi),  and  wtio  assisted  at  the  Gouncil  of 
Ephesus  m  431;  Theodotus,  458;  Theodore,  536; 
George,  787;  and  Leo,  878.  Between  the  years  901 
and  907,  under  Leo  the  Wise  (Ecthesis  pseudo-Epi- 
phanii,  ed.  Gelzer,  p.  553),  Gordos  is  always  mentioned 
as  a  suffragan  of  Sardis.  It  is  not  known  when  it  was 
suppressed,  but  it  no  longer  existed  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  Gordos,  now  Guerdiz,  is  the  chief  town  of 
a  caza  of  the  sanjak  of  Saroukhan  in  the  vilayet  of 
Aidin.  The  city  numbers  four  thousand  inhabitants, 
six  hundred  of  whom  are  Greek  schismatics,  the 


remainder  being  Mussulmans.    It  is  the  chief  centre 
of  the  manufacture  of  Smyrna  carpets. 
CuxNBT,  La  Tiarquie  d^Asie,  III,  556-559. 

S.  VAILHii. 

CtorgonioB,  Saint,  Martyr,  suffered  in  304  at  Nico- 
media  during  the  persecution  of  Diocletian.  Gorgo- 
nius  held  a  high  position  in  the  household  of  the 
emperor,  and  had  often  been  entrusted  with  matters 
of  the  greatest  importance.  At  the  breaking  out  of 
the  persecution  he  was  consequently  among  the  first 
to  be  charged,  and,  remaining  constant  in  the  profes- 
sion of  the  Faith,  was  with  his  companions,  Dorotheus, 
Peter,  and  several  others,  subjected  to  the  most 
frightful  torments  and  finally  strangled.  Diocletian, 
determined  that  their  bodies  should  not  receive  the 
extraordinary  honours  which  the  early  Christians 
were  wont  to  pay  the  relics  of  the  martyrs  (honours 
so  great  as  to  occasion  the  charge  of  idolatry),  ordered 
them  to  be  thrown  into  the  sea.  The  Christians 
nevertheless  obtained  possession  of  them,  and  later  the 
body  of  Gorgonius  was  carried  to  Rome,  whence  in  the 
eighth  century  it  was  translated  by  St.  Chrodegang, 
Bishop  of  Metz,  and  enshrined  in  the  monastery  of 
Gorze.  Many  French  churches  obtained  portions  of 
the  saint's  body  from  Gorze,  but  in  the  general  pillage 
of  the  French  Revolution,  most  of  these  relics  were 
lost.  Our  chief  sources  of  information  regarding  these 
martyrs  are  Lactantius  and  Eusebius.  Their  least  is 
kept  on  9  Sept. 

There  are  nve  other  martyrs  of  this  name  venerated 
in  the  Church.  The  first  is  venerated  at  Nice  on  10 
March;  the  second,  martyred  at  Antioeh,  is  com- 
memorated on  11  March;  the  third,  mart3rred  at 
Rome,  is  honoured  at  Tours  on  11  Match;  the  fourth, 
martyred  at  Nicomedia,  is  reverenced  in  the  East  on 
12  March;  while  the  fifth  is  one  of  the  Forty  Martyrs 
of  Sebaste,  whose  feast  is  kept  10  March. 

Acta  88,t  XLIII,  328;  Analecta  BoUandiana,  XVIII,  5. 

John  F.  X.  Murpht. 

Ctorkum,  The  Martyrs  of. — In  the  year  1572, 
Luther  and  Calvin  had  already  wrested  from  the 
Church  a  great  part  of  Europe.  The  iconoclastic 
storm  had  swept  through  the  Netherlands,  and  was 
followed  by  a  struggle  between  Luthe^nism  and  Cal- 
vinism in  which  the  latter  was  victorious.  In  1571 
the  Calvinists  held  their  first  synod,  at  Embden.  On 
I  April  of  the  next  year  the  Waiergeuzen  (Sea-beegars) 
conquered  Briel  and  later  Vlissingen  and  other  places. 
In  June,  Dortrecht  and  Gorkum  Tell  into  their  nands, 
and  at  Gorkum  they  captured  nine  Franciscans. 
These  were:  Nicholas  Pieck,  guardian  of  Gorkum, 
Hieronymus  of  Weert,  vicar,  Theodorus  van  der 
Eem.  of  Amersfoort,  Nicasius  Janssen,  of  Heeze,  Wil- 
lehaa  of  Denmark,  Godefried  of  Mervel,  Antonius 
of  Weert,  Antonius  of  Hoomaer,  and  Franciscus 
de  Roye,  of  Brussels.  To  these  were  added  two  lay 
brothers  from  the  same  monastery,  Petrus  of  Assche 
and  Cornelius  of  Wyk  near  Duurst^e.  Almost  at  the 
same  time  tne  Calvinists  laid  their  hands  on  the  learned 
parish  priest  of  Gorkum,  Leonardus  Vechel  of  Boi»-le- 
Duc,  who  had  made  distinguished  studies  in  Louvain. 
and  also  his  assistant  Nicolaas  Janssen,  sumamea 
Poppel,  of  Welde  in  Belgium.  With  the  above,  were 
also  imprisoned  Godefri^  van  Duynsen,  of  Gorkum, 
who  was  active  as  a  priest  in  his  native  city,  and  Joannes 
Lenartz  of  Oisterwijk,  an  Augustinian  and  director  of 
the  convent  of  Augustinian  nuns  in  Gorkum .  To  these 
fifteen,  who  from  tne  very  first  underwent  all  the  suffer- 
ings and  torments  of  the  persecution,  were  later  added 
four  more  companions:  Joannes  van  Hoomaer,  a'Do- 
minican  of  the  Cologne  province  and  parish  priest  not 
far  from  Gorkum,  who,  when  apprised  of  ike  incar- 
ceration of  the  cler^  of  Gorkiun,  nastened  to  the  city 
in  order  to  administer  the  sacraments  to  them  and 
was  seized  and  imprisoned  with  the  rest .  Jacobus  La- 
cops  of  Oudenaar,  a  Norbertine,  who  alter  leading  a 


G0BBI8  652  G0BBI8 

frivolous  life,  bein^  disobedient  to  his  order,  and  1844),  ''Die  arme  Pilgerin  zum  hi.  Rock"  ([Coblenx, 

ne^ectful  of  nis  religious  duties,  reformed,  became  a  1845).  the  "Gedichte     (Munich,  1844).  evince  true 

curate  in  Monster,  Holland,  and  was  imprisoned  in  art,  aeep  perception,  and  delicate  tenderness^  com- 

1572;  Adrianus  Janssenof  Hilvarenbeek,atonetimea  bined  with  power  of  conception  and  vi^ur  ci  form. 

Premonstratensian  and  parish  priest  in  Monster,  who  His  work  "  Der  hQmene  Siegfried  und  sem  Kampf  mit 

was  sent  to  Brielle  with  Jacobus  Lacops;  and  lastly  An-  dem  Drachen"  (Schafifhausen,  1843)  belongs  to  the 

dreas  Wouters  of  Heynoord,  whose  conduct  was  not  domain. of  literary  history.    In  1846  he  began  with 

edifying  up  to  the  time  of  his  arrest,  but  who  made  Count  Focci,  as  he  had  formerly  done  in  the  case  of  the 

ample  amends  by  his  martyrdom.  Feast  Csdendar,   the  publication  of  an  illustrated 

After  enduring  much  suffering  and  abuse  in  the  magazine  called  the  "  Deutsches  Hausbuch",  which 

prison  at  Gorkum  (26  June-6  July)  the  first  fifteen  however  appeared  for  two  years  only.    On  the  death 

martyrs  were  transferred  to  Brielle.    On  their  way  to  of  Klemens  Brentano  GOrres  edited  his  "M&rchen" 

Dortrecht  they  were  exhibited  for  money  to  the  curi-  (2  vols.,   Stuttgart,   1846).    He  also  produced  an 

ous  and  arrived  at  Brielle  6  July.    On  the  following  excellent  (je'rman  translation  of  the  "Imitation  of 

day,  Lumey,  the  commander  of  iheWalergeuzen,  caused  Christ"  (St.  FOlten,  1839,  with  illustrations  by  Steinle). 

the  martyrs  to  be  interrogated  and  ordered  a  sort  of  In  1844  GOrres  married  Maria  Vespermann,  who  ^ave 

disputation.    In  the  meantime  the  four  other  martvrs  him  three  daughters.     But  his  conjugal  happmesa 

also  arrived.    It  was  exacted  of  each  that  he  abandon  was  not  to  last  more  than  eight  years,  for  he  died  at 

his  belief  in  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  in  papal  supre-  Mimich  at  the  age  of  fqrtynseven  years, 

macy.    All  remained  firm  in  their  faith.    Meanwhile  ^  HutoHMcK-polMsehe  BUMfr,  XXX.  133  aqa^.  Mbtsbs.  Ovido 

theiicame  a  letter  from  Wmi^^  gX^^^^J^S'S^i'Sf^WiS^S^ 

lomed  all  those  m  authonty  to  leave  pnests  and  re-  (iws),  70&-2d. 

ligious  unmolested.    Nevertheless  Lumey  caused  the  «  J.  P.  EnuscH. 

martyrs  to  be  hanged  in  the  night  of  9  July,  in  a  turf- 
shed   amid   cruel   mutilations.    Their   beatification        OdrreB,  Johann  Joseph,  b.  at  Coblens,  in  the 

took  place  on  14  Nov.,  1675,  and  their  canonization  on  heart  of  the  Rhine  country,  25  January,  1776;  d.  at 

29  June,  1865.    For  many  years  the  place  of  their  Munich,  29  January,  1848.    He  was  the  strongest  and 

martyrdom  in  Brielle  has  been  the  scene  of  numerous  most  gifted  diampion  of  Catholic  Germany.  m>m  the 

pilgrimages  and  processions.  religious  and  the  political  point  of  view,  auring  the 

EsTiuB,   Navantm   m    HoOandia   ecmtantiaHmorum   mar'  first  half  of   the   nineteenth   century.     His  father, 

fyrum  poMionis  Aistoria  (Colore,  1572);  lumu,  Historia  mar-  Morits  Gdrres,  had  been  a  timber  merchant.    His 

a^iHS^t^  ±SrVAi2SJi«^«S!) '  tai^^  ^^^  was  d««emled  from  an  Itelkn  f^y  Mmed 

LeamaHyndeOorcum  (Paris,  1908).  Mazza,  which  had  settled  m  Goblena.     He  made  his 

P.  Albebb.  secondarystudies  at  the  gymnasium  of  Coblens.  where, 

after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  pedantic  and  super- 

OdrreSi  Guido,  historian,  publicist,  and    poet;  ficial  rationaUstio  methods  prevailed.    In  his  youth 

b.  at  Coblenz,  on  28  May,  180o ;  d.  at  Munich  on  14  GOrres  was  a  republican  and  rationalist,  and  he  looked 

July,  1852.    He  was  the  son  of  the  ^;reat  Johann  upon  the  French  Revolution  as  a  movement  to  free 

Joseph  GOrres,  and  made  his  earlv  classical  studies  in  the  nations.    His  earliest  writings,  ''  Der  allgemeine 

his  native  town.    During  his  father's  banishment  he  Friede,  ein  Ideal"  (1798),  likewise  the  monthly  publi- 

went  to  Aarau  and  Strasburg  to  pursue  his  education,  cation  "  Das  rote  Blatt ' ',  which  was  continued  m  "  Der 

Reaching  the  University  of  Bonn  in  1824,  he  devoted  RQberzahl  in  blauen  Grunde"  (1798-1799),  reflect 

himself  diiefly  to  the  study  of  philology  and  history,  this  state  of  mind.    He  was  one  of  several  delegates 

In  Munich  he  continued  his  linguistic  studies,  and  m  sent  by  the  Rhine  and  Moselle  provinces  to  Pans  in 

1830  received  a  prize  from  the  French  Academy.    In  the  fall  of  the  year  1799,  to  protest  against  the  conduct 

the  meantime  (1827)  his  father  had  received  a  call  as  of  the  French  general  Leval  in  ^e  Rhine  country, 

professor  of  history  to  Munich,  and  Guido,  influenced  and  to  remove  the  uncertainty  hanfi;ing  over  his  native 

py  his  father's  lectures,  now  took  up  history  as  his  country.    His  stay  in  Paris  cured  nim  of  his  enthusi- 

chief  study.    The  fruit  of  these  studies  were  ^'Niko-  asm  for  the  French  Revolution,  and  the  city  appeared 

laus  von  der  FlQe"  (Ratisbon,  1831)  and  " Die  Jun^-  to   him    as   a    ''flower-bedecked   ouagmire  .    The 

frau  von  Orleans"  (Ratisbon,  1834;  3rd  ed.,  1895).  pamphlet  "Die ResidtatemeinerSendungnach  Paris" 

Jointly  with  Count  Franz  Pocci,  he  published  from  (1800)  gives  an  account  of  his  impressions.    In  it  he 

1834-39  an  illustrated  serial  on  the  festivals  of  the  closes  the  first  period  of  his  life,  which  was  filled  with 

Church,  the  "Festkalender  in  Bildem  und  Liedem",  plans   and  aspirations   for  the  betterment  of  the 

the  first  illustrated  marine  for  the  young  in  German,  human  race  and  with  bitter  disappointments. 
Still  carrying  on  his  historical  work,  he  made  a  fi;reat        Returning  from  Paris,  GOrres  became  professor  of 

tour  of  mvestigation  through  France  in  search  of  physics  at  tne  Sekundarschtile  (college)  at  Coblenz, 

further  material  relating  to  the  Maid  of  Origans.    But  where  he  remained  until  1806.    On  14  September, 

before  long  his  work  took  a  different  direction.    He  1801,  he  married  Catherine  von  Lasaulx.    As  the 

edited  from  1838  the  "  Historisch-politische  Blfttter",  fruits  of  his  scientific  studies  at  Coblenz  he  published  a 

«  «„ui:^«4.:^«  «.u.»-<.4^;««.  ♦«  *i,;g  day,  established  to  translation  r'  ^-"-~-'-  c!,^^^*:-«i  nu^^.^i  t-ui^ 

•i^ts  of  the  Catholic  (1801),  besi 

interests  of  German  Organonom 

charge  of  the  editorial  gie^' (1805). 

management  with  Phillips,  and  continued  at  this  Schelling  he  became  interested  in  natural  philosophy, 

post  until  his  death.    The  writines  published  by  him  art,  and  poetry,  as  appears  in  his  essays  "  Aphorismen 

m  this  review  were  numerous  and  on  various  topics.  Qber  die  Kunsf  (1802)  j  "Glauben  una  Wissen" 

At  the  same  time  his  talents  as  a  poet  found  expression  ( 1 805) ;  and  in  his  articles  m  Aretin  's  **  Aurora '  \    He 

in  many  beautiful  compositions.    He  became  one  of  identified  himself  with  the  Romantic  movement,  and 

the  foremost  lyricists  among  the  modem  Catholic  in  1806  became  Docent  at  the  University  of  Heidd- 

poefis  of   Germany.'    The    tale    ''SchOn    ROslein"  berg,  where   German   romanticism    flourished,  and 

(Munich.  1838),  the  charming  collection  of  "Marien-  where  he  found  himself  thrown  into  close  association 

Imder"  (Munich,  1843),  some  of  which  are  still  sung  by  with  Achim  von  Amim,  Klemens  Brentano,  and  Eich- 

the people, besides" Das Weihnachtskripplein"(Schafir-  endorff.    The  last-named  assisted  him  in  the  produe- 

hausen,  1843),  "Das  Leben  der  hi.  Cscilia  in  drei  tion  of  his  "Teutschen  VolksbQcher"  (1807).    Later 

Ges&ngen"  (Munich,  1843),  and  the  widely-known  and  on  came  the  "Alteutschen  Volksund  Meisterlieder" 

popidarpo^ns^DieGottesfahrtnach  Trier"  (Coblens,  (1817).    He  also  contributed  to  the  "Zeitung  fOr 


Q0BBK8  653  Q0BBI8 

Einsiedler"  and  the  "Heildelberger  Jahrbtkcher'',  the  visited  bv  political  and  religious  leaders  of  Catholi- 

official  organ  of  the  Romanticists.    But  the  hostility  cism,  both  in  Germany  and  in  other  countries,  amone 

of  the  Protestants  at  Heidelbeig,  manv  of  whom  them  Brentano,  Bdhmer,  Lacordaire,  Lamennais,  ana 

turned  aeainst  the  Romanticists  when  the  latter  recog-  Montalembert.    In  Munich  also  he  continued  his  fer- 

nized  ana  proclaimed  the  greatness  and  nobility  of  the  tile  and  versatile  literary  activity.    He  pleaded  for  a 

Catholic  church,  led  GOrres  to  quit  Heidelberg  (1808),  Christian  interpretation  of  history  in  his  ''  Grundlage, 

and  to  return  to  his  former  position  at  Coblenz.    He  Gliederung    und    Zeitenfol^   der    Weltgeschichte" 
now  devoted  hunself  to  Germanic  and  mythological     (1830,  new  ed.,  1884),  and  m  the  publication  issued 

studies,  which  enabled  him  to  produce  his  work,  under  his  direction  since  1831,   "Gott  in  der  Ge- 

''Mythengeschichte  der  Asiatischen  Wdt"  (2  vols.,  schichte^  Bilder  aus  alien  Jahrhunderten  der  Chris1>- 

1810).    "nie  important  political  events  of  the  foUow-  lichen  2^itrechnung".    Other  historical  productions 

ine  years  compelled  him  once  more  to  enter  the  politi-  of  his  pen  at  this  period  were:  "  Die  Japhetiden  und 

cal  arena.    In  1814  he  founded  the  weekly  "Der  ihre  Gemeinsame  Heimat  Armenien"   (1844),  and 

Rheinische  Merkur'',  in  which  he  violentlv  attacked  "Die  drei  Grundwurzeln  des  Keltischen  Stammes  in 

Napoleon,  laboured  for  the  advancement  of  Germany,  Gallien  und  ihre  Einwanderune"  (1845).    He  treated 

and  pleaded  for  Uie  restoration  of  the  old  German  Em-  political  questions  in  the  "  Eos  ',  a  review  founded  by 

Sire.  Napoleon  is  said  to  have  called  this  periodical  the  Herbst  in  1828.    His  work  "Der  Dom  zu  K6ln  imd 

fth  of  the  great  powers  t^t  were  allied  against  him.  das  MOnster  zu  Strassburg"  (1842)  properly  belongs 

Gdrres  at  this  period  became  superintenoent  of  pub-  to  the  history  of  art. 
lie  instruction  in  the  Rhine  provinces.  But  his  de-  But  what  engrossed  GOrres's  attention  above  all 
mand  for  the  restoration  of  tne  old  German  Empire  since  his  stay  in  Strasburg  was  the  study  of  mjrsticism. 
under  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  his  courageous  He  carefully  studied  the  mystical  writers  of  the  Mid- 
struggle  on  behalf  of  civil  and  political  liberty,  brought  die  Ages,  ooserved  partly  m  person  the  phenon^ena 
down  upon  him  the  hostility  of  the  German  princes,  connected  with  the  cases  of  the  ecstatic  young  women 
e^eciallv  after  the  publication  of  his  brochure:  of  that  time  (Maria  of  MOrl  and  others),  and  strove  to 
"  Deutschlands  KOnftige  Verfassune"  (1816).  Hie  comprehend  more  thorou^y  the  nature  of  Christian 
"Rheinische  Merkur''  was  suppressed  by  the  Prussian  mysticism,  which  stands  m  the  strongest  contrast  to 
Government  in  1816,  and  G6rres  was  dismissed  from  rationalism  and  naturalism.  These  studies  led  to  his 
his  post  as  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  He  writing  his  great  work:  "Die  christliche  Mystik"  (4 
went  back  to  Heiddberg,  but  m  1817  returned  to  Cob-  vols.,  1836-42 ;  2nd  ed.,  5  vols.,  1879),  which  notwith- 
lenz  and  foimded  a  relief-society  for  the  alleviation  of  standing  its  lack  of  historical  criticism,  and  in  spite  of 
distress  in  the  Rhenish  province.  At  the  same  time  manv  incorrect  views  in  matters  of  philosophy  and 
he  continued  his  fearless  work  as  a  pamphleteer,  as  theology,  is  a  magnificent  work.  It  proved  a  strong 
shown  chiefly  in  his  "  Adresse  der  Stadt  und  land-  stimulant  to  Christian  faith  and  dealt  a  decisive  blow 
schaft  Koblenz  und  ihre  Uebersabe  beim  Fttrsten  Har-  to  superficial  rationalism  in  religious  matters, 
denberg"  (1818),  and  his  brochure  "Teutschland  und  The  religious  difficulties  in  Prussia,  in  the  thirties, 
die  Revolution"  (1819).  The  Prussian  Government  which  culminated  in  the  arrest  of  the  Archbishop  oi 
thereupon  confiscated  his  papers  and  ordered  his  ar-  Cologne,  CHement  August  (1837),  recalled  Gdrres  mto 
rest.  Me  escaped,  however,  to  Frankfort,  whence  he  the  usts  to  champion  once  more  the  rights  of  the 
made  his  way  to  Strasburg.  Here  he  remained,  save  Chiuvh  a^dnst  the  State.  His"Athanaflius''  (1834), 
for  a  visit  to  Switzerland  m  1821  until  the  year  1827.  of  which  uiere  appeared  four  editions  that  same  year. 
His  written  defence  "  In  Sachen  der  Rheinprovinz  und  written  in  defence  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  who 
in  eigener  Angelegenheif  (1821)  was  a  brilliant  vin-  was  persecuted  for  doing  his  duty,  produced  a  pro- 
dication  of  himseu  against  the  attitude  of  the  Prussian  found  impression  and  a  vigorous  movement  on  benalf 
Government.  At  the  same  time  he  addressed  a  warn-  of  the  Archbi^op.  This  was  soon  followed  by  his 
ing  to  the  princes  and  nations  of  Europe,  which  was  "Die  Triarier"  (1838),  in  which  he  opposed  H.  Leo. 
piiblishedtnesame year,  "Europa  und  die  Revolution'\  P.  Marheinecke,  and  K.  Bruno,  as  the  advocates  ox 
In  the  following  year  he  published"  Die  HeiligeAllienz  liberalism  in  science.  After  the  settlement  of  the 
und  die  V5lker  auf  dem  Kongress  von  Verona  '  (1822).  Cologne  troubles  he  reviewed  the  coi^flict  in  his  trea- 

G6rres  meanwhile  turned  again  to  his  scientific  tise:  "Kirche  und  Staat  nach  Ablauf  der  Kolner  Ir- 
studies,  which  now  led  him  to  give  more  attention  to  rung"  (1842).  This  attack  on  the  religious  liberty 
religious  matters.  He  published  during  his  stay  in  and  the  religious  interests  of  German  Catholics  led  a 
Strasburg  "Firdusis  Heldenbuch  von  Iran",  and  was  nmnber  of  GOrres's  friends  in  Munich,  with  his  assist- 
a  contributor  to  the  magazine"  Der  Katholik",  which  ance,  to  found  the  "  Historisch-politische  Blfttter", 
had  been  founded  in  Mayence  by  Rafiss  and  Weiss,  a  periodical,  intended  to  defend  the  ridits  of  Catholics 
and  in  1824  transferred  to  Strasburg.  He  contributed  and  to  maintain  Catholic  interests,  it  began  to  sxh 
numerous  articles  to  this  review,  among  others  the  pear  in  1838,  under  the  editorial  management  of  Phil- 
paper  "  Der  hi.  Franziskus  von  Assisi,  ein  Trouba-  tips  and  of  Guido  G6rres,  son  of  the  great  GOrres.  He 
dour"  (1826;  2nd  ed.,  Ratisbon,  1879),  the  preface  to  himself  was  a  zealous  contributor  to  this  publication 
Diepenbrock's  edition  of  the  works  of  Heinrich  Suso,  for  the  first  ten  years  of  its  existence  and  until  the 
besides  a  study  on  Swedenborg.  In  this  way  Gdrres  close  of  his  life.  We  find  in  the  very  first  volume  an 
became  more  and  more  active  as  a  champion  and  de-  interesting  article  by  him,  "Die  Weltlage",  while 
fender  of  religious  interests.  there  is  not  one  of  the  first  twenty  volumes  which  does 

GOrres's  nomination  by  King  Ludwig  I  of  Bavaria  not  contain  something  from  his  ^ted  pen. 
to  a  professorship  at  the  University  of  Munich  (1827)        An  important  occasion  once  more  led  Gdrres  to 

marked  the  openmg  of  the  last  penod  of  his  life.    His  come  forward  as  the  diampion  of  Catholic  life.    In  his 

lectures  attracted  a  number  of  distinguished  students  "Die  Wahlfahrt  von  Trier"  (1845)  he  combated  the 

amongwhom  we  may  mention  Brunner.  Haneberg,  schism  of  the  so-called  German  Catholics,  set  on  foot 

Sepp,  Windischmann.    But  he  became  aoove  all  the  by  Johannes  Ronge  on  the  occasion  of  the  exhibition 

head  and  front  of  a  society  of  distinguished  Catholic  of  the  Holy  Coat  of  Trier,  in  1844.    Theevening  of  his 

gentlemen  who  came  to  Munich  under  the  patronage  life  was  painfully  saddened  bv  the  Lola  Montez  epi- 

of  King  Ludwig  I  and  who  worked  for  the  renovation  sode,  in  consequence  of  which  several  of  the  ablest 

of  spiritual  life,  for  the  libertv  of  the  Church,  and  for  Munich  professors  and  GOrres's  friends  were  dismissed 

all  things  of  interest  to  the  Catholic  Faith.    Among  from  their  chairs  by  King  Ludwig  I  (1847).    G6rres 

the  most  eminent  members  of  this  circle  we  find  the  himself  was  not  interfered  wi^  on  this  occasion.    His 

names  of  Amdts,  Cornelius,  DOllinger,  M6hler,  Phillips,  writing  were  published  in  a  collected  form :  "  Gesam- 

Ringseis,  and  Streber.    At  intervals  G6rres  was  also  melte  Werke,  hg.  von  Marie  Gdrres  ",  6  vols.  (Munich, 


QOBTYVA                              654  OttBZ 

1854-1860);  also  ^Geeammelte  Briefe  hg.  von  Marie  Odxs  (It.  Gorizia;  Slovene  Gorica).  capital  of 

Gerres  u.  Fr.  Binder"  (3  vols.,  Munich,  1858-74).  the  Austrian  crown-land  Gdn  and  Graoiska,  has  a 

Joseph  vcn  O&rm,  eine  Skizte  aeinea  Ltbena  (Ratisbon,  1848);  population  (1900)  of  25,432,  almost  exclusively  Catho- 

3^L'?:iJ^26?27l^g[nS^r'^^fil?V'«7^  ^'  of  ^•^i^f«P*' '*"\^  Italians.  20  per cent  SJo^ 

680;  1860.  LXV.  160-176.  249-261;  BrOhl,  Joseph  van  QGrrea,  venes,  and  ll.o  per  Cent  Oermans.    Since  1761  GOrs 

«m  DaUanal  oum  seinen  Schriften  atrferhatU  (Aachen,  1854);  hasbeentheseatof  an  archbishop,  metropolitan  of  the 

1877);  S«pp.  Odrrea  tmd  «eme  ZntgenoMen  (N6rdlingen.  1877);  Htstory.-^Tbe  territory  surroundmg  G6n  belonged 

Idxii,  Odrrea  (Berlin,  1896);  Wibbxia*.  Gihrrea  ah  Gterarhiato-  originally  to  the  old  Roman  Prefecture  of  Illjrricum, 

r?TTiPi;!?*!&o\^^^'  ScHuiOT,  G^trreB  vnd  {^^ff^^^;;^  on  the  division  of  which  into  East  and  West  Illyricum 

^  (B«rim.  1902).                                   J .  ^.  AiRSCH.  jj^  37g  j^  remained  a  part  of  the  latter,  and  shared  iit 

Oortyna.  a  titular  see,  and  in  the  Greek  Church  fortunes  un^  Emperor  Otto  III  divided  it  in  1001  be- 
metrcmoUtan  see,  of  the  island  of  Crete.  The  city,  tween  the  Patnarch  of  Aqmteia  and  «»  Ooimt  erf 
3Huated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ida,  not  far  from  the  Fnjih.  TTie  latter  immediately  assumed  the  tiUe  of 
River  Lethe,  was  first  called  Larissa,  afterwards  Crem-  P^^e  of  Gdrs  after  the  castle  of  that  Mme,  for  the 
nia,  then  Gortys,  and  finaUy  Gortyna.  Homer  men-  $o^  of  Gdia  was  not  recomized  bs  such  until  1307. 
tions  it  as  a  fortified  city,  which  gives  an  idea  of  its  ?n  1031  GOri  passed  toj^  Eppenstem  family  of  Car- 
great  antiquity.  Previous  to  the  Roman  occupation  it  P**i2»  ^^  thence  m  1090  to  the  Counts  of  Lum,  who 
was  continually  at  war  with  the  two  neighbouring  and  ^  1202,  bvanrangement  with  the  i»triim5h,PllOTm  II, 
rival  cities  of  Cnossus  and  Cydonia,  contending  with  secured  the  territory  belonging  to  the  Patnaichatc  of 
them  for  supremacy.    The  result  was  desolation  in  an  Aquileia.    By  marnaggCoimt Memhjmi  III  «^ 

'    '•     '  '     ' • »-- -'x 1----1  mto  possession  of  the  Tyrol.    After  his  death  (1258) 


discontented  with  their  government.     Under  Roman  represented  by  Count  Memhaxd  IV.    The  latter  bne 
rule  Gortyna  became  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  me-  became  ejctmct  in  1335  with  Henry  of  CwTnthia,  who 
tropolis  of  the  island,  which  then  prospered  in  a  degree  ^  ^^  ^or  a  tune  Km^  of  Bohemia  (1307-10) ;  the 
hitherto  unknown.    Its  first  bishop  was  St.  Titus,  the  GOn  hne^reached  the  aemth  of  its  jwwer  under  Heniy 
disciple  to  whom  St.  Paul  addressed  one  of  his  Epis-  JI  (d.  1323),  among  whose  possessions  were  mcluded 
ties.    A  basilica  dedicated  to  St.  Titus,  discovered  at  Liwatia,  Pusterthal,  and  Istna,  and  who  held  the 
Gortyna  partly  in  ruins,  dates  from  the  fifth,  perhaps  opoe  of  vicegerent  of  the  empire  m  the  March  of  Tre- 
from  the  fourth,  centunr.    Among  the  earUest  occu-  vwo.    Unsuccessful  wais,  divisions  of  mhentance, 
pants  of  the  see  were  St.  PhiUp,  a  contemporary  of  etc.  led  to  the  dechne  of  the  house,  and  at  the  death 
t^us  AureUus,  whose  feast  is  kept  11  April;   St.  of  the  last  count,  Leonhard.m  1500  wiUiout  issue,  his 
Myron,  commemorated  8  August;  St.  Cyril,  9  July;  temtorjr  fell  to  Emperor  M^imihan  I,  and,  wcoept 
St.  Eumenius,  18  September;  St.  Peter  the  Younger,  [or  a  bnef  mterval  of  French  occupation  (1809-15), 
14  July.    In  170  St.  Dionysius,  Bishop  of  Corinth,  ^  smee  remamed  a  possession  of  the  reignmg  house 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  community  of  Gortyna  ^'j^^*"!**^,    „     ^, .   ^     .^  -        ^.     i_    . 
(Euseb.,  H.  E.,  IV,  xxiii),  then  probably  the  metro-      .  EcclesiasticaUy,  this  temtory  wm  from  the  begm- 
poUtan  see  of  Crete.    Among  its  archbishops  mention  nipg  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Patriarch  of  Aqm- 
riiould  also  be  made  of  St.  Andrew  of  Crete  (d.  740),  a  leia.    The  fact  that  the  patriarchs  for  the  most  part 
famous  Byzantine  poet  and  orator,  and  opponent  of  resided  at  Udine  on  Venetian  land,  while  the  patn- 
the  Iconoclasts.    In  825  the  island  was  taken  by  the  "chal  cathedral  was  situated  at  Aqi^eia  on  GOn  ter^ 
Arebs,  Archbishop  Cyril  was  slain  for  refusing  to  ritory,caiMed  constant  friction  with  Venice.    Accord- 
apostatise,  and  Gortyna  so  completely  destroyed  that  xnglXi  m  1560  Emperor  Ferdinand  I  agiteted  at  Rome 
it  never  rose  from  its  ruins.    Thenceforth,  moreover,  the  question  of  estabhshii^  an  mdependent  bishopnc 
the  metropolitan  ceased  to  bear  the  title  of  Gortyna,  at  GOrz,  an  attempt  which  was  repeated  many  times 
took  that  of  Crete,  and  resided  elsewhere,  probably  at  dunng  the  following  centuries,  but  fruitlessly  until  at 
Candia.  a  city  bui(t  by  the  Arabs  and  made  capital  of  last  Benedict  XIV,  yielding  to  Austnwi  ur^ncy  and 
the  island.    In  the  tenth  century  Nicephorus  Phocas  ovemdmg  the  claim  oi  the  Repubhc  <rf  Venice  to  the 
reconquered  Crete  for  the  Byzantine  Empire,  which  Austrian  part  of  the  Patnarohate  of  Aquilei^  estab- 
held  it  until  1204,  when  it  feU  into  the  hands  of  the  i!f^«^,a?®PT"**®.l?i^f^*?v^?f*T*^^^  with  residence  at 
Venetians,  who  retained  the  island  until  1669,  when  Gfirz  (29  Nov.,  1749^.    On  6  June,  1751,  the  patn- 
the  Turks  took  possession  of  it.    The  Venetians  did  arohatewasdefimtivelysuppreaa^^ 
not  allow  the  Greek  bishops  to  reside  in  Crete,  while  archbishopncs  (18  Apnl,  1752),  those  of  Udine  and 
the  Latin  archbishop  bore  the  title  of  Candia,  not  of  5^"'  ***®  latter  havmg  as  suflfragans  Trent,  Tros^ 
Gortyna.    Even  yet  the  Latin  diocese  retams  the  Co"?*^» .  ^   Pedena.      The  vicar  Aportohc,   KmI 
name  of  Candia  (q.  v.),   Gortyna  being  a  titular  Jfachael,  Count  von  Attenw,  was  apppmtod  &nrt  ^ 
wchiepiscopal  title?   On  the  other  hand  the  Greek  bishop  of  G to,  and  in  1766  was  raised  to  the  digmty  of 
Archbishop  of  Gortyna  calls  himself  MetropoUtan  of  a  pnnoe.    After  his  death  (1774)  came  Rudog,  Count 
Crete.    The  extensive  ruins  of  Gortyna  are  located  of  Edhne,  who  was,  however,  deposed  bv  Emperor 
near  the  village  of  Hagioi  Deka.     Among  them  are  Joseph  II  m  1784  for  his  opposition  to  the  impenid 
a  temple  of  Apollo,  several  statues,  the  basiUca  of  St.  patent  of  tolerance  of  13  October  of  that  year,  and 
Titus,  and  numerous  inscriptions,  amonjg  which  is  the  <ueo  »  1803  at  Lodi.    On  8  March,  1787,  the  em- 
text  of  the  so-called  Laws  of  Gortyna,  found  in  1884,  peror  raised  the  Diocese  of  Laibach  to  the  rank  of  an 
which  aflFord  us  a  good  insight  into  Greek  law  of  the  archdiocese,  and  on  20  August^  17fi«,  m  place  of  Gdrz 

-    ulapms  was  much  honoured  at  established  a  new  diocese  in  the  adjacent  provmce  of 


only  an  ancient  quarry  out  of  which  Gortyna  ....^    _       ,^^^  ,        -      ,     ^  -    •       •  ^.         .       -, 
built;  the  labyrinSi  was  situated  near  Cnossus.  ben  1797,  however,  he  tranrfened  the  episooMl  see 

Lbquibn,  OriinB  ehrUtianut  (Paria.  1740).  II.  256-e5;  Cob-    and  chapter  back  to  G6rz,  and  ordamed  that  in  future 


NXLXUB, 
EUBBI 

LaC\ 


VartnnpenhBU  tmd  Otgrnwu*  (Leipiic.  1899).   g.  VailbIi.        with  GAn  and  Triest  under  the  immediate  junsdictioii 


t  •;;(»)  ^ 


655  GOBFK. 


of  the  Holy  See.  Finally,  on  27  August,  1830,  Pius  VIII  «o  pace  200) :  Sbdbj  (proBent  Prinoe-Biahop  cf  Q^n)jO(in  in 

raised  GCn  once  more  to  the  aich^piscopal  rank,  and  ^''i^\!^rS^T^T^^                          ^ ^'Slf^ 

assigned  to  it  the  Sees  of  Laibach,T&8t^d'litria,  lto?J?*S^ 

Puen20-Pola,  and  Veglia-Arbe  ajs  suffragans,  Joseph  anno  1909  (Gdn,  1909). 

WaUand   becoming   archbishop.    Since  Archbishop  Grboor  Reinhold.   . 

Walland's  death  the   archiepiscopal  see  has  been  /i^--^m« /^.n..-^— •^^  *^^-j«     x   *i.        n.      • 

occupied  by:  Franz  Xaver  LuSchin^835-54),  distin.  .u?!!^^  feS^,*t?^' ^^^'^ 

guisEed  for  his  apostoUc  zeal  and  unbounded  iharity :  ^.^l^f^L^'  .®^.  ^.^PJ^^'  a  Benedictme  Bio 

Andreas 

prince  was 

97),  previously 

A^i^oidSr(r9^^)T^diw  P'l^^if^^^K  g^^^K^?^^'  °^  ,*K^''^^?rIy  ?^  Yw 

b.  at  Kirchheim,  10  October,  1854;  oidainecfpriest  26  ^^^^  Malm^ugr,  but  Goscelm  hunself  stat^  that 

-       -     '-       -'  -        -     «'-  be  accompamed  Hermann  to  Rome  m  1049,  shortly 

and  as 


l^azch 

StatUlies.— The  archdiocese  embraces  the  northern  ^^iSj^^ltSS*  T^  "^^  life,  visiting  many 

part  of  the  Austrian  coast,  that  is  the  Comity  of  Gfira  Sf  "^"^  ?°*J  cathedrals,  and  collecting,  wherever 

Snd  Gradiska,  and  numbers  (1909)  17  deaneries,  86  fe^tS  .'«S?fi^"^jii°L^MT*T'  biographies  of 

parishes,  42  curacies,  65  vicarages,  13  benefices,  113  f"^s!??K*^-v.T2f?''*^***^**'*"^PJ*^'*?  "T 

position^  for  assistant  priestTl^churches  and  chap-  f^lu'Lj^lM!^,^™^,  Sfu'^SlS*  ^'^  f*^"* 

els,  304  secular  and  41  Jegular  priests,  257,704  CathS-  J2S'!L^TnS5  TT^h^^         Etheldreda    Between 

Ucs.    The   following  leOgious   oonoegations   have  S^i*JTi*TT^**T^S^?'*°*'?TR''*^*l*'** 

foundations  in  the^hdi<Sese:  the  Franciscans,  who  ^?  "^  ^^  I^o,  orlyes.  In  1098Le  w«it  to  tanterbunr, 

have  the  monastery  of  Castagnavisia,  situated  ibovo  ^r**  HT^**  ^-  «»<"?»*»'  *•»«  translation  of  the 

ity  of  G«r»,  ^th  an  URSeTgymilasium  for  those  '^^  *^,^*-  A"SJ?J'"*,5?*^  his  companions,  which  had 


the  city  of  GOra,  with  an  upper 
desiring  to  enter  the  order;  iJsi 
Mountain  {HeUiger  Berg)  near  Gdrs,  and 


desiring  to  enter  the  OKJer ;  'alsoTiouses  on  the  Holy    taken  place  in  1091.    Thw  he  dedicated  to  St.  Ansekn, 
e>.    _  >     _  "ontheisland    a^" '*  ^**  P^^^^y  •"*  ^a**  ^'''H-    The  Canterbury 


cent  de  Paul,  who  haw  ehaiwe  of  the  po6r-house  and  c<»"»ect^  with  Canterbury,  where  he  roent  his  Uist 

the  hospital  for  women  at^r.,  and  «t  the  orphan  J^:.J^°i^^^/^ySt^JJ^^u^y  ^^^  ^* 

asylum  at  Contavalle,  and  have  the  domestic  manage-  h?^'  ^Ta^w^^i?^^  ^^i^^^-  ,?*'^T  ^'*  j"^ 

m^nt  of  the  preparitory  seminaries  of  theTSSI  tamed  m  MSS.m  the  Bntif^.Museum  (London  and  at 

bishopric  at  G6r.rthe  School  Sisters  of  Not.e-t)ame,  ?Tho"^!!hVi,t^i!?Jjf'«?  ♦h'l'^ww'^^rf^ 

who  wnduct  a  hi^  school  for  girls  and  St.  Joseph's  SJil?/8''*^J°i^tS*^„  .^5?!T«I**if  "^•*** 

Asylum  for  girls  at  Gfirs;  Sist^  of  ProvidencI  of  ^/JP**  '.  His  chief  work  was  a  hfe  of  St.  AugusUne 

St.  Cajetan,  Irith  mother-house  at  Cormons  and  6  of  CmterW  professing  to  be  ba^  on  older.recordB 

branches ;  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  the  Holy  Cross,  who  ate  ffl^lr'**^  f  ca  "T?  H^VT*"^  ^^^  "^J"^    ^f, 

house-ke^pem  in  the  central  seminaiy  of  tli  prince-  JS'^'l^^f  ** ?!;..?|j?:?  ^^*"*lS'  "?'^°™ ™«'°'" 
bishopric  at  G6n.    Tlie  cathedral 
lished  in  1751,  and  called  tbe  Capitu 

after  Empress  Maria  Theresa,  has  3  —r.—,^Tr--n7-T  vk*»-        i       i.  ^.i.  a  j         tt-        ^i.-  j  ^   <_ 

vest,  deai,  and  scholasticus),  4  capitul^and  3  £>n-  J^"*  **  *S^  P^P*  ***y-    g'^  ™«?i»<^  *1^L***-  ^""^ 

orary  canons,  and  at  the  piwent  tune  (1909)  one  hon-  J***"  "^^^  *?.*»]?*  ^°1«  °^^'  writer  as  his  baas  and 

orary  canon  extra  ttatunC:    The  patron  of  the  diocese  ***.*lfP!P?.l'?*  ^,^°''^>  "»  »  somewhat  inflated  style 

is  St.  Hermagoras.    The  theolo^  seminary  Caro-  ^th  additions  of  his  own,  but  cntiw  are  agreed  that 

linum,  founded  in  1757  by  Archbishop  von  Attems  as  "TJ^J.  87*l??^°«»,^»,  ^  ^^^°^  these  latter, 

a  <fomM  preAyteriaiU,  his  been  sinci  1818  the  chief  AooorAngtoWdLamof  Malmesl)ury,Goecehnwasal80 

seminary  for  the  whole  ecclesiastical  province  of  GCra,  *  ^^  mumcian.  „-.„„,  ^  „ 

with  the  exception  of  the  Diowse  of  Laibach,  which  nl'%^  tlo'^^S:^^^'wJS^^:7^i^s^'^SSS^ 

has  a  seminary  of  its  own.    Besides  the  cathedral  at  1691),  I;  Cavx.  Senot,  Ecdes.  (Genera.  1705);  Fabriciub, 

GOrz,  completed  about  1400,  which  exhibits,  various  fS^V'^^'^l^f^ry^^^^^.^^^^i.  Cmvalmb,  Bio-BibL 

styles  of  architecture,  mention  should  be  made  of  the  |ES3on!S'l;  tSSS  lote^!  /i^r^  ^^"^ 
cathedral  at  Aqmleia(basihcap  style),  consecrated  m  G.  Ctpbian  Albton. 

1031  by  the  Patnarch  Popo;  likewise  the  former  pa- 
triarchal, now  the  parish,  church  in  the  city  of  Grado        Ctospel  and  CtoapelB. — ^The  wotd  Govpd  usually 

on  the  lagoons,  ancient  itself  and  rich  in  art  treasures  desifl;nates  a  written  record  of  Christ's  words  and 

of  the  early  Middle  Ages,  including  sculptures,  mosa-  dee(&.    It  is  very  likely  derived  from  the  An^lo-Saxon 

ics,  etc.,  of  the  sixth  century.  god  (^Kxi)  and  spell  (to  tell),  and  is  generally  treated 

D«  "Rxnm,  Mcnummuatcdeaia  A^a^i^  (ArgMitiiia—  as  the  exact  equivalent  of  the  Greek  c^rx^Xior  (e» 

Vienni  1873-74);  Jack^n.  Dalmatia,  the  Quamero  ofid  Jatrii  ^fh  *^?1T' J  *^®*^  *  ?.®^§?^'  ^  )P®  ^*^  ^^^ 

with  CetHnje  and  the  Island  cf  Qrado  (3  yoia.,  Oxford,  1887);  ffelium,  which  has  passed  mto  French,  German,  Italian, 

Caphin.  Loffune  di  Orado  (Jtod  ?d..  Tnest,  1890):  ^  Owter-  and  Other  modem  languages.    The  Greek  tlayy^^^p 

retchtach-Unoartache  Monarchxetn  WortundBild,yo\.X:  Dob  ^-;«:««nw    a;#»n;fia/1    *K^    "m^^e^mA    ^t    ^^^^^A    *iAi^^^>t 

KnsUnlandiYiertTM,  1891);  Ti!um:NBACH,  Kuner  Abrisa  der  ongmaUy  signifaed  the     reward  of  good  tidings 

OeachidUe  der  g^Hrateten  Orafachaft  Odrt  und  Oradiaca  hia  gu  given    to    the    messenger,    and    subsequently    '  gOod 

^*^  y^^i^otiymUdtmHatueHia>aburgvn  Jdkreisoo  (lni».  tidings".    Its  other  important  meanings  will  be  set 

bnick,  1900);  tr.  It.,  Cabbara  (Intubruck,  1900);  Ritte&-  r n?*:,  *i.^  u^a e  *uJi .i. Ti^^-xj^i xi.- 

ZXhont.  Napoleon  I:  Die  BeaeUung  von  QOn  durch  die  Frant^  i?"°  P  "^®  ^^°^y  °^  ^®  present  general  article  on  the 

oaen  tm  Frahj'ahr  1767  (Leipsig.  1905};  Ouidebooka  to  Ofirz  by  Gospels. 

WoBBL  (Leipiig,  1905)  and  Nofc  (2nd  ed.,  G6r«.  1907);  Doci^  (1)  Titles  of  the  (7o«prf«.— The  fiist  foUT  historical 

tnerUa  htatonam  arehtdtaeeaeoe  GorUienata  Hiuatranha  edtta  o6  u-jLir-  nf  tliA  Von-  T>AafamA*i4-  a«a  «i««*«K.»^  ^.rUU  ♦;♦!«- 

Ordinariatu  archiepiawpoli  Ooritienai  (since  1907  published  as  a  °S^^  ?J  "*®  ^?^,i®^T?®'*^.?'®  supplied  With  titles 

Mipplement  to  the  diocesan  paper,  and  in  June.  1900.  printed  up  (RvaYfiXtop  Kara  MarBatop,  EdaryAior  rard  VLdfitcop, 


GOSPEL 


656 


GOSPEL 


etc.)>  which,  however  ancient,  do  not  go  back  to  the 
respective  authors. of  those  sacred  writings.  The 
Canon  of  Muratori,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  St. 
Irensus  beEir  distinct  witness  to  the  existence  of  those 
headings  in  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century  of  our 
era.  Cideed,  the  manner  in  which  Clement  (Strom., 
I.  xxi)j  and  St.  Irenseus  (Adv.  Hser.,  Ill,  xi,  7)  employ 
them  miplies  that,  at  that  early  date,  our  present 
titles  to  me  Gospels  had  been  in  current  iise  for  some 
considerable  tune.  Hence,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
thev  were  prefixed  to  the  evangelical  narratives  as 
earfy  as  tiie  first  part  of  that  same  century.  That, 
however,  they  do  not  co  back  to  the  first  centui^  of 
the  Christian  era,  or  at  least  that  they  are  not  origmal, 
is  a  position  generally  held  at  the  present  day.  It  is 
felt  that  since  they  are  similar  for  the  four  Gospels, 
althou^  the  same  Gospels  were  composed  at  some 
intervSf rom  each  other,  those  titles  were  not  framed, 
and  consequently  not  prefixed  to  each  individual  nar- 
rative, before  the  collection  of  the  four  Gospels  was 
actuaJly  made.  Besides,  as  well  pointed  out  oy  Prof. 
Bacon,  "the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament 
differ  from  its  apocalyptic  and  epistolary  literatiupe,  bb 
those  of  the  Ola  Testament  differ  from  its  prophecy,  in 
beins  invariably  anonymous,  and  for  the  same  reason. 
Prophecies,  whether  in  the  eaiiier  or  in  the  later  sense, 
and  letters,  to  have  authority,  must  be  referable  to 
some  individual;  the  greater  his  name,  the  better. 
But  history  was  regarded  as  a  common  possession. 
Its  facts  spoke  for  themselves.  Only  as  the  springs 
of  common  recollection  began  to  dwindle,  and  marked 
differences  to  appear  between  the  well-informed  and 
accurate  Gospels  and  the  untrustworthy  .  .  .  did  it 
become  worth  while  for  the  Christian  teacher  or  apoK 
ogist  to  specify  whether  the  given  representation  of 
the  current  tradition  was  'according  to'  this  or  that 
special  compiler,  and  to  state  lus  qualifications".  It 
tnus  appears  that  thepresent  titles  of  the  Gospels  are 
not  traceable  to  the  Evangelists  themselves. 

The  first  word  conunon  to  the  headings  of  our  four 
Gospels  is  EdaTYAiov,  some  meanines  of  which  remain 
still  to  be  set  forth .  The  word,  in  l£e  New  Testament, 
hsA  the  specific  meaning  of  "the  good  news  of  the 
kingdom''  (cf.  Matt.,  iv,  23;  Mark,  i^  15).  In  that 
sense,  which  may  be  considered  as  pnmary  from  the 
Christian  standpoint,  "R^yyiXtow  denotes  the  good  tid- 
ing of  salvation  announced  to  the  world  in  connexion 
with  Jesus  Christ,  and,  in  a  more  general  wav,  the 
whole  revelation  of  Redemption  bv  Christ  (cf .  Matt., 
ix,  36;  xxiv,  14;  etc.:  Mark,  i.  14;  xiii,  10;  xvi^5; 
Acts,  XX,  24;  Rom.,  i,  1,  9,  16;  x,  16;  etc.).  This 
was,  of  course,  the  sole  meaning  connected  with  the 
word,  so  lon^  as  no  authentic  record  of  the  glad  tidings 
of  salvatbnby  Christ  had  been  drawn  up.  In  point 
of  fact,  it  remained  the  only  one  in  use  even  after  such 
written  records  had  been  for  some  time  received  in  the 
Christian  Church:  as  there  could  be  but  one  Gospel, 
that  is,  but  one  revelation  of  salvation  by  Jesus  Christ, 
so  the  several  records  of  it  were  not  regarded  as  several 
Gospels,  but  only  as  distinct  accounts  of  one  and  the 
same  Gospel.  Gradually,  however,  a  derived  mean- 
ing was  coupled  with  the  word  EOayyiXiop.  Thus,  in 
his  first  Apology  (c.  Ixvi),  St.  Justin  speaks  of  the 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles  which  are  called  EdayyiXia** 
clearing  referring,  m  this  way,  not  to  the  substance  of 
the  Evan^ical  nistory,  but  to  the  books  themselves 
in  whidi  it  is  recorded.  It  is  true  that  in  this  passage 
of  St.  Justin  we  have  the  first  undoubted  use  of  the 
term  in  that  derived  sense.  But  sa  the  holy  Doctor 
gives  us  to  understand  that  in  his  day  the  word  BAa7- 
yiXtop  had  currentlv  that  meaning,  it  is  only  natural  to 
think  that  it  had  been  thus  employed  for  some  time 
before.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  Zahn  is  rieht  in 
claiming  that  the  use  of  the  term  EiayyiXtop.  as  denot- 
ing a  written  record  of  Christ's  words  and  aeeds,  goes 
as  far  back  as  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  of 
the  Christian  era. 


The  second  word' common  to  the  titles  of  the 
nonical  Gocpels  is  the  preposition  icard,  **  according  to  ". 
the  exact  import  of  which  has  long  been  a  matter  of 
discussion  among  Biblical  scholars.    Apart  from  vari- 
ous secondary  ^meanings  connected  with  that  Greek 
particle,    two    principal    significations    have    been 
ascribea  to  it.    Many  authors  have  taken  it  to  mean 
not  "written  by'],  but  ''drawn  up  according  to  the 
conception  of",  Matthew,  Mark,  etc.    In  their  eyes, 
the  titles  of  our  Gospels  were  not  intended  to  indicate 
authondiip,  but  to  state  the  authority  guaranteeing 
what  is  related,  in  about  the  same  way  as  "  the  GoepeL 
according  to  the  Hebrews",  or  "the  Gospel  aooordizig 
to  the  Egyptians",  does  not  mean  the  Gospel  written 
by  the  Hebrews  or  the  Egyptians,  but  that  peculiar 
form  of  Gospel  which  either  the  Hebrews  or  the  E^yp- 
tians  had  accepted.    Most  scholars,  however,  nave 
preferred  to  regard  the  preposition  mrd  as  denotiag 
author^p,  pretty  much  in  the  same  way  as,  in  Diodonia 
Siculus,  tne  Histoiy  of  Herodotus  is  called  'H  koS' 
*UpMoTop  IffTopta,     At  the  present  day  it  is  generallv 
admitted  that,  had  the  titles  to  the  canonicsuGosp^ 
been  intended  to  set  forth  the  intimate  authority  or 
guarantor,  and  not  to  indicate  the  writer,  the  Second 
Gospel  would,  in  accordance  with  the  belief  of  primi- 
tive times,  have  been  called  "the  Gospel  accortung  to 
Peter",  and  the  third,   "the  Gospel  accordins  to 
Paul".    At  the  same  time  it  is  rightly  felt  that  uiese 
titles  denote  authorship,  with  a  peculiar  shade  of 
meaning  which  is  not  conveyed  by  the  tilies  prefixed 
to  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul^  the  Apocalypse  of  St.  John, 
etc.    The  use  of  the  genitive  case  in  the  latter  titles 
na^Xov  'EirurroXdt,  'AiroirdXi/^ct  'IwdwpoVj  etc.)  has  no 
other  object  than  that  of  ascribing  the  oont^ts  of  sudi 
works  to  the  writer  whose  name  they  actually  bear. 
The  use  of  the  preposition  icard  (according  to),  on  the 
contraiy,  while  r^erring  the  composition  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  First  GospS  to  St.  Matthew,  of  those  of 
the  second  to  St.  Mark,  etc.,  implies  that  practieallv 
the  same  contents,  the  same  glad  tidings  or  Gospd, 
have  been  set  forth  by  more  than  one  narrator.  Thus, 
"the  Gospel  according  to  Matthew"  is  equivalent  to 
the  Goepel  history  in  the  form  in  which  St.  Biatthew 
put  it  m  writing;    "the  Gospel  according  to  Ifark" 
desi^pmtes  the  same  Gospd  history  in  another  form, 
vis.  m  that  in  which  St.  Mark  presented  it  in  writinjE, 
etc.  (cf.Maldonatus.  ''InquatuorEvangelistas",cap.i). 

(2)  Number  of  the  Gospels, — ^The  name  gospel,  as 
designating  a  written  account  of  Christ's  words  and 
dee&,  has  been,  and  is  stilly  ap^ied  to  a  large  number 
of  narratives  connected  with  Christ's  life,  which  cir- 
culated both  before  and  after  the  oompodtion  of  our 
Tliird  Gospel  (cf.  Luke,  i,  1-4).  The  titles  of  some 
fifty  such  works  have  come  down  to  us,  a  fact  which 
shows  the  intense  interest  which  centred,  at  an  cariy 
date,  in  the  Person  and  work  of  Christ.  It  is  only, 
however,  in  connexion  with  twenty  of  these  "gospels' 
that  some  information  has  been  preserved.  Their 
names,  as  given  by  Hamack  (Chronoiogie,  1, 589  sqq.), 
are  as  follows: — 


1^.  The  Oanonical  Goopela. 


6. 

6. 
7. 

8; 

0. 
10. 
11. 

12. 


The  Goepel  aooording  to 

the  HebrewB. 
The  Gospel  of  Peter. 
The  Gospel  aooording  to 

the  Egjnptiaiifl. 
The  Gospel  of  Matthias. 
The  Gospel  of  Philip. 
The  Goq>el  of  Thomas. 
The  Froto-Bvangditan  of 

James. 
The  Gospel  of  Nioodemus 

(Acta  POofo'). 


13.  The  Gospel  cf  the  Twehrv 

AixMties. 

14.  The  Gospel  of  Basilides. 

15.  The  Goipel  of  Valentinas. 

16.  The  Gospel  of  ICaraon. 

17.  The  Gospel  of  Ere. 

18.  The  Gospel  of  Judas. 

19.  The  writing  r^n«  Map£sc. 

20.  The  Gospel  TtAtfiMNNf. 


Despite  the  eariy  date  which  is  sometimes  claimed  for 
some  of  these  works,  it  is  not  likely  that  any  one  of 
them,  outside  our  canonical  Gospds,  ^ould  be  reck- 
oned among  the  attempts  at  narrating  the  life  of 
Christ,  of  which  St.  Luke  speaks  in  the  prologue  to  his 
Gospel.    Most  of  them,  as  far  as  can  be  made  out,  are 


GOSPEL  657  GOSPEL 

late  productions,  the  apocryphal  duiracter  of  which  is  and  Irenseus  had  known  Polycarp  in  Asia  Minor* 

generally  admitted  by  contemporary  scholars  (see  Here  are  links  of  connexion  with  the  past  which  go 

Apocrypha).  back  bevond  the  b^inning  of  the  second  century" 

It  is  indeed  impossible^  at  the  present  day,  to  de-  (Adeney). 
scribe  the  precise  manner  m  which  out  of  the  numerous  In  the  writings  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  one  doe^ 
works  ascribed  to  some  Apostle,  or  simply  bearing  the  not,  indeed,  meet  with  unquestionable  evidence  in 
name  of  gospel,  only  four,  two  of  which  are  not  favour  of  only  four  canonical  Gospels.  But  this  is 
ascribed  to  Apostles,  came  to  be  considered  as  sacred  only  what  one  might  expect  from  the  works  of  men 
and  canonical.  It  remains  true^  however,  that  all  the  who  lived  in  the  very  century  in  which  these  in^ired 
early  testimony  which  has  a  distinct  bearing  on  the  records  were  composed,  and  m  which  the  word  Ooapd 
number  of  itte  canonical  Gospels  recognises  four  such  was  yet  applied  to  the  glad  tidings  of  salvation,  and 
Gospels  and  none  besides.  Thus,  Eusebius  (d.  340),  not  to  the  written  accounts  thereof, 
when  sortine  out  the  universally  received  books  of  ^e  (3)  Chief  Differences  between  Canonical  and  Apoe- 
Canon,  in  custiqction  from  those  which  some  have  ruphal  Gottpels. — From  the  outset,  the  four  Gospels, 
questioned,  writes:  "  And  here^  among  the  first,  must  the  sacred  character  of  which  was  thus  recognized  very 
be  placed  tne  holy  qu€vUmion  of  the  Gcrapels",  wnile  he  eariy,  differed  in  several  respects  from  the  numerous 
ramcs  the  ''Gospel  according  to  the  Heorews"  among  imcanonical  Gospels  which  circulated  during  the 
the  second,  that  is,  among  the  disputed  writings  (Hist,  first  centuries  of  the  Church.  First  of  all,  they  com- 
Eccl.,  Ill,  xxv).  Clement  of  Alexandria  (d.  about  mended  themselves  by  their  tone  of  simplicity  and 
220)  and  Tertullian  (d.  220)  were  familiar  with  our*  truthfulness,  which  stood  in  striking  contrast  with  the 
four  Gospels,  frequently^  quoting  and  commenting  on  trivial,  absurd,  or  manifest/  legendary  character  of 
them.  The  last-named  writer  speaks  also  of  the  Old  many  of  those  tmcanonical  productions.  In  the  next 
Latin  version  Imown  to  himself  and  to  his  readers,  and  place,  they  had  an  earlier  origin  than  most  of  their 
b^r  so  doing;  carries  us  back  beyond  his  time.  The  apocrjrphal  rivals,  and  indeed  many  of  ihe  latter  pro- 
saintly  Bishop  of  Lyons,  Irenaeus  (d.  202),  who  had  ductions  were  directly  based  on  the  canonical  Gospels, 
known  Polycarp  in  Asia  Minor,  not  only  admits  and  A  third  feature  in  favour  of  our  canonical  recoras  of 
cjuotes  our  four  Gospels,  but  argues  that  th^  must  be  Christ's  life  was  the  purity  of  their  teachings,  dog- 
just  four,  no  more  and  no  less.  He  says:  '"It  is  not  matic  and  moral,  over  against  the  Jewish,  Gnostic,  or 
possible  that  the  Gospels  be  either  more  or  fewer  than  other  heretical  views  with  which  not  a  few  of  the 
they  are.  For  since  there  are  four  zones  of  the  world  apocryphal  gospels  were  tainted,  and  on  acooimt  of 
in  which  we  live,  and  four  principal  winds,  while  the  which  these  unsound  writings  found  favour  among 
Cliurdi  is  scattered  throughout  the  worid,  and  the  pfl-  heretical  bodies  and,  on  the  contrary,  discredit  in  the 
lar  and  eround  of  the  Church  is  the  Gospel  and  the  eyes  of  Catholics.  Lastly,  and  more  particulariy,  the 
Spirit  of  life;  it  is  fitting  that  we  should  have  four  pil-  canonical  Gospels  were  r^arded  as  of  Apostolic  au- 
lars,  breathing  out  immortality  on  every  side  and  thority,  two  oi  them  being  ascribed  to  the  Apostles  St. 
vivifying  our  flesh.  .  .  The  living  creatures  are  Matthew  and  St.  John,  respectively,  and  wo  to  St. 
Quadriform.  and  the  Gospel  is  ouadnform,  as  is  also  Mark  and  St.  Luke,  the  respective  companions  of  St. 
tnecoursefollowedby  the  Lord'' (Adv.  Hser.,  Ill,  xi,  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  Many  other  gospels  indeed 
8).    About  t^e  time  when  St.  Irensus  save  this  ex-  claimed  Apostolic  authority,  but  to  none  of  them  was 

8 licit  testimony  to  our  four  Gospels,  me  Canon  of  this  claim  universally  allowed  in  the  early  Church, 
[uratori  bore  likewise  witness  to  tnem,  as  did  also  the  The  onlv  apocryphal  work  which  was  at  all  generally 
Peshito  and  other  early  Syriac  translations,  and  the  receivea,  and  raied  upon,  in  addition  to  our  four  ca- 
various  Coptic  versions  of  the  New  Testament.  The  nonical  Gospels,  is  the  "  Gospel  according  to  the  He- 
same  thine  must  be  said  with  regard  to  the  Syriac  har-  brews".  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  St.  Jerome, 
mony  of  tne  canonical  Gospels,  which  was  framed  by  speaking  of  this  Gospel  under  the  name  of  '"Hie  Gos* 
St.  Justin's  disciple,  Tatian,  and  which  is  usuallv  re-  pel  according  to  the  Nazarenes",  r^rds  it  as  the 
ferred  to  under  its  Greek  name  of  DiaUsaaron  (Hb  did  Hebrew  oriemal  of  our  Greek  canonicalGospel  accord- 
Teaffdpwp  Bto'nrAioi').  The  recent  discoveiy  of  this  ing  to  St.  Matthew.  But,  as  far  as  can  be  judged  from 
work  has  allowed  Hamack  to  infer,  from  some  of  its  its  fragments  which  have  come  down  to  us,  it  has  no 
particulars,  that  it  was  based  on  a  stUl  earlier  har-  right  to  originality  as  compared  with  our' first  canon- 
mony,  that  made  by  St.  Hippolytus  of  Antioch,  of  our  ical  Gospel.  At  a  very  early  date,  too,  it  was  treated 
four  Gospels.  It  has  also  set  at  rest  the  vexed  ques-  as  devoid  of  Apostolic  authority,  and  St.  Jerome  him- 
tion  as  to  St.  Justin's  use  of  the  canonical  Go^)^*  sdf,  who  states  that  he  had  its  Aramaic  text  at  his 
"For  since  Tatian  was  a  disciple  of  Justin,  it  is  inoon^  disposal,  does  not  assign  it  a  place  side  by  side  with 
ceivable  that  he  should  have  worked  on  quite  different  our  canonical  Gospels:  all  the  authority  which  he 
Gospels  from  those  of  his  teacher,  while  each  held  the  ascribes  to  it  is  derived  from  his  persuasion  that  it  was 
Gospels  he  used  to  be  the  books  of  primary  impor-  the  original  text  of  our  First  Gospel,  and  not  a  distinct 
tance"  (Adeney).  Indeed,  even  before  the  discovery  Gospel  over  and  above  the  four  imiversally  received 
of  Tatian's  "Diatessaron".  an  unbiased  study  of  Jus-  from  time  immemorial  in  the  Catholic  Church, 
tin's  authentic  writings  haa  made  it  clear  that  the  holy  (4)  Order  of  the  Gospels, — ^While  the  ancient  lists, 
doctor  used  exclusively  our  canonical  Gospels  under  versions,  and  ecclesiastical  writers  agree  in  admitting 
t^e  name  of  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles,  the  canonical  character  of  only  four  Uospels,  they  are 
Of  these  testimonies  of  the  second  centuiy  two  are  far  from  being  at  one  with  regard  to  the  orfler  of  these 
particularly  worthy  of  notice,  viz.  those  of  St.  Justin  sacred  records  of  Christ's  words  and  deeds.  In  early 
and  St.  Irenseus.  As  the  former  writer  belongs  to  the  Christian  literature,  the  canonical  Gospels  are  given  in 
first  part  of  that  century,  and  speaks  of  the  canonical  no  less  than  eicht  orders,  besides  the  one  (St.  A&tthew, 
Gospels  as  a  well-known  and  fully  authentic  collection,  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke,  St.  John)  with  which  we  are  famil- 
it  IB  only  natural  to  think  that  at  his  time  of  writine  iar.  The  variations  bear  chiefly  on  the  place  given  to 
(about  A.  D.  145)  the  same  Gospels,  and  they  only,  had  St.  John,  then,  secondarily,  on  the  respective  posi- 
been  recoenized  as  sacred  records  of  Christ's  life,  and  tions  of  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke.  St.  John  passes  from 
that  they  nad  been  regarded  as  such  at  least  as  eariy  the  fourth  place  to  the  third,  to  the  seconcf,  or  even  to  ' 
as  the  beginning  of  the  second  centuiy  of  our  era.  The  the  first.  As  regards  St.  Luke  and  St.  Mark,  St. 
testimony  of  the  latter  apologist  is  stfll  more  impor-  Luke's  Gospel  is  often  placed  first,  doubtless  as  being 
tant.  "  The  very  absurdity^  of  his  reasoning  testifies  the  longer  of  the  two,  but  at  times  also  second,  perhaps 
to  the  well-established  position  attained  in  his  day  by  to  bring  it  in  immediate  connexion  with  theP  Acts, 
the  four  Gospels,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  Ire-  which  are  traditionally  ascribed  to  the  author  of  our 
metis'  bishop  was  Potinus  who  lived  to  the  age  of  90,  Third  Gospel. 
VI.— 42 


GOSPEL  658  GOSPEL 

Of  these  various  orders^  the  one  which  St.  Jerome  be  framed  bv  means  of  the  first  three  Gospds.    'Whilei 
embodied  in  the  Latin  Vulgate,  whence  it  passed  into  therefore,  the  Synoptic  narratives  are  naturally  put 
our  modem  translations,  and  even  into  the  Greek  edi-  together  into  one  group,  St.  John's  record  is  ngbtly 
tions  of  the  New  Testament,  is  unquestionably  the  considered  as  standinjg  apart  and  as,  so  to  speak, 
most  ancient.    It  is  found  in  tne  Canon  of  Muratori,  in  making  up  a  class  by  itself  (see  Synoptics). 
St.Irenseus,inSt.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  in  St.  Atham^        (6)  The  Oospels  and  the  Oral  Gospel, — ^All  recent 
sius,  in  the  lists  of  the  sacred  books  drawn  up  by  the  critics  admit  that  the  contents  of  our  four  Gospels  are 
(councils  of  Laodicea  and  of  Cartha^,  and  also  in  the  intimately  connected  with  more  primitive  accounts  of 
oldest  Greek  uncial  MSS.:  the  Vatican,  the  Sinaitic,  Christ's  life,  which  may  be  described,  in  a  general  way, 
and  the  Alexandrine.    Its  origin  is  best  accounted  for  as  an  Oral  Gospel.    They  are  well  aware  that  Jesus 
by  the  supix>8ition  that  whoever  fonned  the  Gospel  Himself  did  not  consign  to  writing  His  own  teachings, 
collection  wished  to  arrange  the  Gospels  in  accordance  and  directed  His  Apostles  not  to  write,  but  to  preaSi, 
wiUi  the  respective  date  which  tradition  assigped  to  the  Gospel  to  their  fellow-men.    Th^  resara  as  an 
their  composition.    Thus,  the  first  place  was  given  to  undoubted  fact  that  these  first  disciples  of  Sie  Master, 
St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  because  a  ver^  early  tradition  faithful  tcr  the  mission  which  He  had  entrusted  to 
described  the  work  as  originally  written  in  Hebrew,  them,  began,  from  the  dav  of  Pentecost  on.  boldly  to 
that  is,  in  the  Aramaic  language  of  Palestine.    This,  it  declare  by  word  of  mouth  what  they  haa  seen  and 
was  thought,  proved  that  it  had  been  composed  for  the  heard  (cf .  Acts,  iv,  2),  considering  as  a  special  duty  of 
Jewish  bdlevers  in  the  Holy  Land,  at  a  date  when  the  theirs  **  the  ministry  of  the  word  ^  (Acts,  vi,  4).    It  is 
Apostles  had  not  yet  started  to  preach  the  ^ad  tidinjg?  plain,  too,  that  those  whom  the  Apostles  immediately 
of  salvation  outside  of  Palestine,  so  that  it  must  be  selected  to  help  them  in  the  dischai^  of  this  most 
prior  to  the  other  Gospels  written  in  Greek  and  for  important  mission  had  to  be,  like  the  AposUes  them- 
converts  in  Greek-speaJdng  countries.    In  like  man-  selves,  able  to  bear  witness  to  the  life  and  teaching3  of 
ner,  it  is  clear  that  St.  John's  Gospel  was  assigned  the  Christ  (cf.  Acts,  i^  21  sq.).    The  substance  of  the 
last  place,  because  tradition  at  a  very  early  date  Evangelical  narratives  would  thus  be  repeated  viva 
looked  upon  it  as  the  last  in  the  order  of  time.    As  to  voce  by  the  early  teachers  of  Christianity,  before  any 
St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke,  tradition  ever  spoke  of  them  one  of  them  bethou^t  himself  to  set  it  down  in  writ- 
as  posterior  to  St.  Matthew  and  anterior  to  St.  John,  ing.    It  can  be  readily  seen  that  such  Apostolic  teach- 
so  that  their  Gospels  were  naturally  placed  between  ing  was  then  inculcated  in  words  which  tended  to 
those  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  John.    In  this  way,  as  it  assume  a  stereotyped  form  of  expression,  sitnilar  to 
seems,  was  obtained  the  present  general  order  of  the  •  that  which  we  find  in  the  Synoptic  Gospels.    In  like 
Gospels  in  which  we  find,  at  the  beginning,  an  Apostle  manner,  also,  one  can  easily  realize  how  the  Apostles 
as  author;  at  tiie  end,  the  other  Apostle;  oetween  the  would  not  be  concerned  with  the  exact  order  of  events 
two,  those  who  have  to  derive  their  authority  from  narrated,  and  would  not  aim  at  completeness  in  tdl- 
Aposties.  ing  what  they  "had  seen  and  hesuti".    Thus,  aooord- 

The  numerous  orders  which  are  different  from  the  ing  to  this  opinion,  was  gradually  formed  what  may 
one  most  ancient  and  most  generally  received  can  be  called  the  ''Oral  Gospel",  that  is,  a  relation  of 
easily  be  explained  by  the  fact  that,  sater  the  forma-  Christ's  words  and  deeds,  parallel,  in  re^)ect  to  matt^ 
tion  of  the  collection  in  which  the  tour  Gospels  were  and  form,  to  our  canonical  Crospels.  In  view  of  this, 
for  the  first  time  united,  these  writings  continued  to  be  critics  have  endeavoured  to  find  out  the  general  con- 
diffused,  all  four  separately,  in  the  various  Churches,  tents  of  this  Oral  Gospel  by  means  of  the  second  part  of 
and  might  thus  be  found  aifferently  placed  in  the  col-  the  Book  of  the  Acts,  by  a  study  of  the  doctrinal  con- 
lections  designed  for  public  reading.  It  is  likewise  tents  of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  and  more  particularly 
easy  in  most  cases  to  make  out  the  special  reason  for  by  a  close  comparison  of  the  Synoptic  narratives;  and 
which  a  particular  grouping  of  the  four  Gospels  was  it  may  be  freely  said  that  their  efforts  in  that  direction 
adopted.  The  very  ancient  order,  for  instance,  which  have  met  with  considerable  success.  As  regards, 
places  the  two  Apostles  (St.  Matthew,  St.  John)  before  however,  the  precise  relation  which  should  be  admitted 
the  two  disciples  of  Apostles  (St.  Mark,  St.  Luke)  may  between  our  canonical  Gospels  and  the  Oral  Goepel, 
be  easily  accounted  for  by  the  dedre  of  paying  a  spe-  there  is  still,  among  contemporary  scholars,  a  vanety 
cial  honour  to  the  Apostolic  dignity.  A^m,  such  an  of  views  which  will  be  set  forth  and  examined  in  the 
ancient  order  as  Matthew,  Mark,  John,  huke,  bespeaks  special  articles  on  the  individual  Gospels.  Suffice  it 
the  intention  of  coupling  each  Apostle  with  an  Apos-  to  s^,  here,  that  the  theoi]y  which  re^rds  the  canon- 
tolic  assistant,  and  perhaps  also  that  of  bringing  St.  icalCxospels  as  embodying,  in  substance,  the  oral  teach- 
Luke  nearer  to  the  Acts,  ete.  ing  of  the  Apostles  concerning  the  words  and  deeds  of 

(5)  Classification  of  the  Gospels, — ^The  present  order  Christ  is  in  distinct  harmony  with  the  Catholic  posi- 
of  the  Gospels  has  the  twofold  advantage  of  not  tion,  which  affirms  both  the  historical  value  of  Uiese 
separating  from  one  another  those  Evangeli^  records  sacred  records  and  the  authoritative  character  of  Uie 
(St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke)  whose  mutual  re-  Apostolic  traditions,  whether  these  are  actually  con- 
semblances  are  obvious  and  striking,  and  of  placing  at  signed  to  writing  or  simply  enforced  by  the  ever  living 
the  end  of  the  list  of  the  Gospels  the  narrative  (that  of  voice  of  the  Church. 

St.  John)  whose  relations  with  the  other  three  is  that  (7)  Divergences  of  the  Gosj)ds. — The  existence  of 
of  dissimilarity  rather  than  of  likeness.  It  thus  lends  numerous  and,  at  times,  considerable  differences  be- 
itself  well  to  we  classification  of  the  Gospels  which  is  tween  the  four  canonical  Gospels  is  a  fact  which  has 
now  generally  admitted  by  Biblical  scholars.  St.  long  been  noticed  and  which  all  scholars  readily  admit. 
Matthew,  St.  Mark,  and  St.  Luke  are  usually  grouped  Unbelievers  of  all  ages  have  greatly  exaggerated  the 
together,  and  designated  under  the  common  name  of  importance  of  this  fact,  and  have  represented  many  of 
the  Synoptic  Gospels.  They  derive  this  name  from  the  actual  variations  between  the  Evangelical  narra- 
the  fact  tnat  their  narratives  may  be  arranged  and  hai^  tives  as  positive  contradictions,  in  order  to  disprove 
monized,  section  by  section,  so  as  to  allow  the  eve  to  the  historical  value  and  the  inspired  character  of  the 
realize  at  a  elance  the  numerous  passages  which  are  sacred  records  of  Christ's  life.  Over  against  this  con- 
common  to  mem,  and  also  the  portions  which  are  pe-  tention,  sometimes  maintained  with  a  great  display  of 
culiar  either  to  only  two,  or  even  to  only  one,  of  them,  erudition,  the  Chureh  jof  God,  which  is  **  the  pilhu*  and 
The  case  stands  very  differently  with  r^ard  to  our  ground  ot  the  truth"  (I  Tim.,  iii,  15),  has  always  pro- 
Fourth  Gospel.  As  it  narrates  but  a  few  mcidents  in  .  claimed  her  belief  in  the  historical  accuracy  and  con- 
comn!on  witib  the  Synoptists,  and  differs  from  them  iiv  sequent  real  harmony  of  the  canonical  Gospels;  and 
respect  to  style,  language,  ^neral  plan,  ete.,  its  chief  her  doctors  (notably  Eusebius  of  Caeaarea,  St.  Jerome, 
parts  refuse  to  oe  included  m  a  harmony  sudi  as  may  and  St.  Augustine)  and  commentators  have  invariably 


GOSPEL 


659 


GOSPEL 


|>rofeflsed  that  belief.  As  can  readily  be  seen,  variar 
tions  are  naturally  to  be  expected  in  four  distinct,  and 
in  many  ways  independent,  accounts  of  Christ's 
words  and  deeds,  so  that  their  presence,  instead  of 
going  gainst,  rather  makes  for  the  substantial  value 
of  the  Evangelical  narratives.  From  amons  the  vari- 
ous  answers  which  have  been  given  to  the  alleged  con- 
tradictions of  the  Evangelists  we  simply  mention  the 
following.  Many  a  time  the  variations  are  due  to  the 
fact  that  not  one  but  two  really  distinct  events  are 
described,  or  two  distinct  sayings  recorded,  in  the 
parallel  passages  of  the  Gospels.  At  other  times,  as  is 
mdeed  very  often  the  case,  the  supposed  contradic- 
tions, when  closely  examined,  turn  out  to  be  simply 
differences  naturally  entailed,  and  therefore  distinctly 
accounted  for,  by  me  literary  methods  of  the  sacred 
writers,  and,  more  particularly^  by  the  respective  pur- 
pose of  the  Evaneelists  in  settmg  forth  Christ's  words 
and  deeds.  Lastly,  and  in  a  more  general  way,  the 
Gospels  should  manifestly  be  treated  with  the  same 
fairness  and  equity  as  are  invariably  used  with  r^ard 
to  other  historical  records.  "To  borrow  an  illustrar 
tion  from  classical  literature,  the  'Memoirs'  of  the 
Apostles  are  treated  [by  unbelievers]  by  a  method 
which  no  critic  would  apply  to  the  'Memoirs'  of 
Xenophon.  The  [Ratioiuuistic]  scholar  admits  the 
truthfulness  of  the  different  pictures  of  Socrates  which 
were  drawn  by  the  philosopher,  the  moralist,  and  the 
man  of  the  world,  and  comoines  them  into  one  figure 
instinct  with  a  noole  life,  half  hidden  and  half  reveled, 
as  men  viewed  it  from  different  points;  but  he  seems 
often  to  foreet  his  art  when  he  studies  the  records  of 
the  Saviour^s  work.  Hence  it  is  that  superficial  dif- 
ferences are  detached  from  the  context  which  ex- 
plains them.  It  is  urged  as  an  objection  that  parallel 
narratives  are  not  identical.  Variety  of  details  is 
tcJcen  for  discrepancy.  The  evidence  may  be  wanting 
which  might  harmonize  narratives  apparently  dis- 
cordant; but  experience  shows  that  it  is  as  rash  to 
deny  the  probability  of  reconciliation  as  it  is  to  fix  the 
exact  method  by  which  it  may  be  made  out.  If,  as  a 
general  rule,  we  can  follow  the  law  which  r^ulates  the 
characteristic  peculiarities  of  each  Evangelist,  and  see 
in  what  way  they  answer  to  different  aspects  of  one 
truth,  and  combine  as  complementaiy  elements  in  the 
full  representation  of  it,  we  may  be  well  contented  to 
acquiesce  in  the  existence  of  some  difficulties  which  at 

E resent  admit  of  no  exact  solution,  though  they  may 
e  a  necessary  consequence  of  that  independence  of 
the  Gospels  which,  in  other  cases,  is  the  source  of  their 
united  power"  (Westcott). 

Cathoue  authors:  Msionan,  Lea  EvangUea  et  la  Critique 
(Paris,  1870);  Filuon,  Introd.  gin.  aux  EvangUea  (Paris,  1888); 
TROCHON  BT  LBstrrRB,  Jntrod,  ii  I'EcrUure  aaitUe^  III  (Paris, 
1890);  BATirFOL,  Six  lepana  aur  lea  EvangUea  (Parisi  1897); 
CoBNELT,  Jntrod.  ap.  (Paris,  1897);  Jacquisr,  HiaLdea  Liv.  du 
N.  r..  II  (Paris,  1905);  Vbrdunot,  UEvangOe  (Paris,  1907); 
Brabsac,  ManueL  biblique.  III  (Paris,  1908).— Non-GathoUc: 
WxBTCOTT,  Introd.  to  the  Study  oftheGoapda  (New  York,  1887); 
Wilkinson,  Four  Lecturea  an  Uie  Early  Hiatory  of  the  Ooapela 
(London,  1898);  Godbt,  Introd.  to  the  New  Teat.  (tr.  New  York, 
1899);  Adbnbt,  Biblical  Introduction  ^ew  York.  1904). 

Francis  fi.  Gigot. 

Qospel  in  the  Liturgy. — I.  History. — From  the 
very  earliest  times  the  public  reading  of  parts  of  the 
Bible  was  an  important  element  in  the  Liturgy  inher- 
ited from  the  service  of  the  Synagogue.  The  first  part 
of  that  service,  before  the  bread  and  wine  were 
brought  up  to  be  offered  and  consecrated,  was  the 
Liturgy  of  the  catechumens.  This  consisted  of 
prayers,  litanies,  hymns,  and  especially  readings  from 
Holy  Scripture.  The  object  of  the  readings  was  obvi- 
ously to  instruct  the  people.  Books  were  rare  and 
few  could  read.  What  the  Christian  of  the  first  cen- 
turies knew  of  the  Bible,  of  Old  Testament  history,  St. 
Paul's  theology,  and  Our  Lord's  life  he  had  learned 
from  hearing  the  lessons  in  church,  and  from  the  homi- 
lies that  followed  to  explain  them.  In  the  first  period 
the  portions  read  were — like  the  rite — not  yet  stereo- 


typed. St.  Justin  Martyr  (d.  c.  167)  in  describing  the 
nte  he  knew  (apparentlv  at  Rome)  begins  bv  saying 
that:  "On  the  day  of  the  sim,  as  it  is  called.,  idl  the 
inhabitants  of  town  and  country  come  together  in  the 
same  place,  and  the  commentaries  of  the  Apostles 
[dvtifunifUipeiffjutTa  tQp  droffT6\up — gospels],  or  writings 
of  the  Prophets  are  read  as  long  as  time  will  allow. 
Then,  when  the  reader  has  stopped,  he  who  presides 
admonishes  and  exhorts  all  to  imitate  such  glorious 
examples"  (I  ApoL,  67).  At  this  time,  then,  tne  text 
was  read  continuously  from  a  Bible,  tiU  the  president 
(the  bishop  who  was  celebrating)  told  the  reader  to 
stop.  These  readings  varied  in  number.  A  common 
practice  was  to  read  first  from  the  Old  Testament 
(Prophetia),  then  from  an  Epistle  (Apostolus)  and 
lastly  from  a  Gospel  (Evangelium).  In  any  case  the 
Gospel  was  read  last,  as  the  fulfilment  of  all  the  rest. 
Origen  calls  it  the  crown  of  all  the  holy  writings  (In 
Johannem,  i,  4,  prtef.,  P.  G.,  XIV,  26).  '*  We  hear  the 
Gospel  as  if  God  were  present'',  says  St.  Augustine 
("In Johannem", tract. XXX,  1, P.L. XXXV,  1632).  It 
seems  that  in  some  places  (in  the  West  especially)  for 
a  time  catechumens  were  not  allowed  to  stay  for  the 
Gospel,  which  was  considered  part  of  the  disciplina 
arcanu  At  the  Synod  of  Orange,  in  441,  and  at 
Valencia,  in  524,  they  wanted  to  chan^  this  rule  On 
the  other  hand,  in  ail  Eastern  Liturgies  (e.  g.  that  of 
the  Apostolic  Constitutions;  Brightman,  ''Eastern 
Liturgies",  Oxford,  1896,  p.  5)  the  catechumens  are 
dismissed  after  the  Gospel.       ^  , 

The  public  reading  of  certain  Gospels  in  churches 
was  the  most  important  factor  in  deciding  which  were 
to  be  considered  canonical.  Tlie  four  that  were  re- 
ceived and  read  in  the  Litui^  everywhere  were  for 
that  very  reason  admitted  to  tne  Canon  of  Scripture. 
We  have  evidences  of  this  liturgical  reading  of  the 
Gospel  from  every  part  of  Christendom  in  the  ^ist 
centuries.  For  S^ria,  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  tell 
us  that  when  a  bishop  was  ordained  he  blessed  the 
people  "  after  the  reading  of  the  law  and  prophets  and 
our  Epistles  and  Acts  and  Gospels"  (VIII,  5),  and  the 
manner  of  reading  the  Gospel  is  described  in  II,  57 
(Cabrol  and  Leclercq,  ''Monumentaeccl.  liturgica", 
Paris,  1900,  I,  p.  225);  the  "feregrinatio  Silvia" 
(Etherise)  describes  the  reading  of  the  Gospel  at  Jeru- 
salem (Duchesne :  "  Origines ' ',  493) .  The  homilies  of 
St.  Basil  and  St.  John  Chrysostom  explain  the  Gospel 
as  read  at  Csesarea,  Antioch,  Constantinople.  In 
Egypt,  St.  C3rril  of  Alexandria  writes  to  the  Emperor 
Tneodosius  II  about  the  liturgical  use  of  the  Gospels 
(P.  G.,  LXXVI,  471).  In  Afnca,  Tertullian  mentions 
the  same  thing  (adv.  Marc.,  IV,  1)  and  tells  us  that 
the  Roman  Church  "reads  the  Law  and  the  Prophets 
together  with  the  Gospels  and  Apostolic  letters"  (de 
prsescr.,  VI,  36).  St.  Cvprian  ordained  a  certain  con- 
fessor named  Aurelian  that  he  might  **  read  the  Gospel 
that  forms  martyrs"  (Ep.  xxxiii,  P.  L.,  IV,  328).  In 
every  rite  ^en,  from  the  beginning,  as  now,  the  read- 
ing of  the  Gospel  formed  the  chief  feature,  the  cardinal 
point  of  the  liturpy  of  the  catechumens.  It  was  not 
only  read  in  the  Liturgy.  The  "  Peregrinatio  Silviae  " 
(loc.  cit.)  alludes  to  the  Gospel  read  at  cock-crow.  So 
in  the  Byzantine  Rite  it  still  forms  part  of  the  Office  of 
Orthroe  (Lauds).  At  Rome  the  Gospjel  of  the  Liturgy 
was  read  first,  with  a  homily,  at  Matins,  of  which  use 
we  have  now  only  a  fragment.  But  the  monastic 
Office  still  contains  the  whole  Gospel  read  after  the  Te 
Deum. 

Gradually  the  portions  to  be  read  in  the  Liturgy 
became  fixed.  Tne  steps  in  the  development  of  the 
texts  used  are:  first  in  the  book  of  the  Gospels  (or 
complete  Bible)  marginal  signs  are  added  to  show  how 
mucn  is  to  be  read  each  time.  Then  indexes  are 
drawn  up  to  ^ow  which  passages  are  appointed  for 
each  day.  These  indexes  (generally  written  at  the  be- 
mnning  or  end  of  the  Bible)  are  called  Synaxaria  in 
Greek,  CapUuUaia  in  Latin;  they  give  the  first  and 


GOSPEL  660  GOSPEL 

last  words  of  each  lesson  {pericope).    The  complete  these,  the  account  that  seemed  most  complete  wbp 
Capitularium  giving  references  for  all  the  Lessons  to  be  chosen,  without  regard  to  the  particular  Evangelist, 
re^ui  each  day  is  a  Comes,  Liber  comitM,  or  comicus.  The  intervals  were  then  filled  up  so  as  to  complete  the 
Later  they  are  composed  with  the  whole  text,  so  as  to  picture  of  Our  Lord's  life,  but  without  chronologica] 
dispense  with  searching  for  it;  they  have  thus  become  order.    First,  Easter  was  considered  with  Holy  Week. 
Evangdiaria,    The  next  step  is  to  arrange  together  The  lessons  for  this  time  are  obvioiis.    Working  back- 
all  the  Lessons  for  each  day,  Prophecy,  Epistle,  Uospel,  wards,  in  Lent  the  Gospel  of  Our  Lord's  fast  in  the 
and  even  readings  from  non-canonical  books.    Such  a  desert  was  put  at  the  beginning,  the  entry  to  Jerusa- 
compilation  is  a  LectUmaHum.    Then,  finally,  when  lem  and  the  anointing bvMarv  (John,  xii,  1,  ''six  days 
complete  Missals  are  drawn  up  (about  the  tenth  to  the  before  the  Pasch  ")  at  the  end,.    This  led  to  the  resur- 
thirteenth  centuries)  the  Lessons  are  included  in  them,  rection  of  Lazarus  (in  the  East,  too,  always  at  this 
II.  Selection  of  GosPEiis. — What  portions  were  place).    Some  chief  incidents  from  the  end  of  Christ's 
read?    In  the  first  place  there  was  a  difference  as  to.  life  filled  up  the  rest.    The  Epiphany  suf^ested  three 
the  text  used.    Till  about  the  fifth  century  it  seems  Gospels  about  the  Wise  Men,  the  Baptism,  and  the 
that  in  Syria,  at  any  rate,  compilations  of  the  four  first  miracle,  which  events  it  commemorates    (cf. 
Gospels  made  into  one  narrative  were  used.    The  Antiph.  ad  Magn.,  in  2  vesp.)  and  then  events  of 
famous  "Diatessaron"  of  Tatian  is  supposed  to  have  Ghrist's  childhood.    Clliristmas  and  its  feasts  had 
been  composed  for  this  purpose  (Martin  in  Revue  obvious  Gospels;  Advent,  those  of  the  Day  of  Judg- 
des  Quest.  Hist.,  1883,  and  Savi  in  Revue  bibl.,  ment  and  the  preparation  for  Our  Lord's  coming  by 
1893).    The  Mosarabic  and  GalUcan  Rites  may  have  St.  John  Baptist.    Forward  from  Easter,  Ascension 
imitated  this  custom  for  a  time  (Cabrol,  "Etude  sur  Day  and  Pentecost  demanded  certain  passages  clearly, 
la  Peregrinatio  Silvis",  Paris,   1895,   168-9).    St.  The  time  between  was  filled  with  Our  Lord%  last  mes- 
Augustine  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  introduce  sages  before  He  left  us  (taken  from  EUs  words  on 
it  in  Africa  by  inserting  into  one  (Gospel  passages  taken  Maundy  Thursday  in  St.  John).    There  remains  the 
from  the  others  (  Sermo  232,  P.  L.,  aaXVIII,  1108).  most  difiELcult  set  of  Gospels  of  aU— those  for  the  Sun- 
But  the  commoner  use  was  to  read  the  text  of  one  of  days  after  Pentecost.    They  seem  to  be  meant  to 
the  (^spels  as  it  stands  (see  Baudot,  "Les  Evang61i-  complete  what  has  not  3ret  been  told  about  His  life, 
aires",  <|uoted  below,  18-21).    On  great  feasts  the  Nevertheless;  their  order  is  very  hard  to  understand, 
appropriate  passage  was  taken.    Thus,  at  Jerusalem,  It  has  been  suggested  that  they  are  meant  to  corre- 
on  Good  Friday, '' Legitur  iam  ille  locus  de  evangelio  spond  to  the  lessons  of  Matins.    In  some  cases,  at  any 
cata  Johannem,  ubi  reddidit  Spiritum"  (Per.  Silvis,  rate,  such  a  comparison  is  tempting.    Tlius,  on  the 
Duchesne,  1.  c,  492),  on  Easter  Eve  'Menuo  lentur  third  Sunday,  in  tne  first  Nocturne,  we  read  about  Saul 
ille  locus  evangelii  resurrectionis"  (ibid.,  493),  onLow  seeking  his  father's  asses  (I  Kings,  ix),  in  the  Giospel 
Sunday  they  read  the  Gospel  about  St.  Thomas  '^Non  (and  tnerefore  in  the  third  Nocturne)  about  the  man 
credo  nisi  videro "  (494),  and  so  on.    The  "  Peregrina-  who  loses  one  sheep,  and  the  lost  drachma  (Luke,  xv) ; 
tio  "gives  us  the  Grospels  thus  read  for  a  number  of  days  on  the  fourth  Sunday,  David  fights  Goliath  ''  in  nom- 
throughout  tiie  year  (Baudot,  op.  cit.,  20).    For  tne  ine  Domini  exercituum"  (I  Kings,  xvii),    in  the 
rest  of  the  year  it  seems  that  originally  the  text  was  Grospel,  St.  Peter  throws  out  his  net  ''in  verbo  tuo" 
read  strai^t  through  (probably  with  the  omission  of  (Luke,  v);  on  the  fifth,  David  mourns  his  enemy  Saul 
such  special  passages).    At  each  Ssmaxis  they  began  (II  Kings,  i),  in  the  Gospel  we  are  told  to  be  reconciled 
a^n  where  they  had  left  off  last  time.    Thus  (Jas-  to  our  enemies  (Matt.,  v).    The  eig^^  Sunday  bc^gjns 
sian  says  that  in  his  time  the  monks  read  the  New  the  Book  of  Wisdom  (first  Sunday  in  August),  and  in 
Testament  through  (GoU.  patr.,  X,  14).    The  homilies  the  Gospel  the  wise  steward  is  commended  (Luke, 
of  certain  Fathers  (St.  John  C^irysostom.  St.  Au^us-  xvi).    Perhaps  the  nearness  of  certain  feasts  had  an 
tine,  etc.)  show  that  the  lessons  followea  each  other  influence,  too.    In  some  lists  Luke,  v,  where  our  Lord 
in  order  (B&umer,  "(jesch.  des  Breviers",  Freiburg,  says,  ''From  henceforth  thou  shalt  catch  men",  to  St. 
1895^  271).    In  the  Eastern  Churches  the  principle  Peter,  came  on  the  Sunday  before  his  feast  (29  June), 
obtamed  that  the  Four  Gospels  should  be  reiEui  ri^ht  and  the  story  of  St.  Andrew  and  the  multiplied  bread 
through  in  the  course  oteach  year  (Scrivener  in  Smith,  (John,  vi)  before  30  November.    Durandus  notices 
'*  Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiquities  ",  s.  v. "  Lectionary'O.  The  this  ("  lUtionale",  VI,  142,  "  De  dom.  25*  post  Pent."; 
Bysantine  dSiurch  began  reading  St.  Matthew  imme-  see  also  Beissel,  op.  dt.,  195-6).    Beissel  is  disposed  to 
diately  after  Pentecost.    St.  Luke  followed  from  Sep-  think  that  much  of  the  arrangement  is  accidental,  and 
tember  (when  their  new  year  b^ins),  St.  Mark  be^an  that  no  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  order  of  Gos- 
before  Lent,  and  St.  John  was  read  during  Eastertide,  pels  after  Pentecost  has  been  found.    In  any  case  the 
There  were  some  exceptions,  e.  g.  for  certam  feasts  and  order  throughout  the  year  is  very  old.    A  tradition 
anniversaries.    A  similar  arrangement  is  still  ob-  says  that  St.  Jerome  arrangedit  by  command  of  St 
served  by  them,  as  any  copy  of  their  Gospel-book  will  Damasus  (Bemo,  "De  officio  nussse",  i,  P.*  L.,  CXLII, 
show  (Etory^u»'»  Venice,  1893).     The  Syrians  have  1057;   ''Micrologus",  xxxi,  P.  L.,  CLI,  999,  1003). 
the  same  arrangement,  the  Copts  a  different  order,  but  Certainly  the  Lessons  now  sung  in  our  churches  are 
based  on  the  same  principle  of  continuous  readines  those  that  St.  Gregory  the  Great's  deacon  chanted  at 
(Scrivener,  "Introduction  to  the  criticism  of  the  N.  Rome  thirteen  hundred  years  ago  (Beissel,  op.  dU, 
Test.",  London,  1894, 1 ;  Baudot,  op.  dt.,  24-^).  For  196). 

the  present  arran^ment  of  the  Byzantine  dSiurch  see        III.  Ceremony  of  Singing  rax  Gospel. — ^The 

Nilles,  **  Kalendanum  manuale",  Innsbruck,  2nd  ed..  Gospel  has  been  for  many  centuries  in  East  and  West 

1897,  j>P*  444-52.    It  is  well  known  that  they  name  the  privilege  of  the  deacon.    This  was  not  always  the 

their  Sundays  after  the  Sunday  (jOsnel,e.^.,  the  fourth  ease.    At  first  a  reader  {(Sanrfvibar^t^  lector)  read  all 

after  Pentecost  is  "  Sunday  of  the  (3entunon"  because  the  lessons.    We  have  seen  a  case  of  this  in  the  stoiy 

Matt.,  viii,  5  sqq.,  is  read  then.    This  brings  us  to  a  of  St.  Cyprian  and  Aurelian  (see  above).    St.  Jerome 

much-disputed  question:  what  principle  underlies  the  (d.  420)  speaks  of  the  deacon  as  reader  of  the  Gospel 

order  of  the  Gospels  in  the  Homan  missal?    It  is  ^£p.  cxlvii.  n.  6),  but  the  practice  was  not  yet  uniform 

clearly  not  that  of  continuous  readings.    Father  in  all  churches.    At  Constantinople,  on  Easter  day,  the 

Beissel,  S.J.,  has  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  this  bishop  did  so  (Sosom.,  H.  £.,  vii,  19) ;  in  Alexandria,  it 

question  ("EntstehungderPerikopen",  see  below),  in  was  an  archdeacon  (ibid.,  he  says  that:   "in  other 

which  he  compares  all  manner  of  (fomiiee,  Eastern  and  places  deacons  read  the  Gospel ;  in  manj  churches  only 

Western.    Shortl]^,  his  conclusions  are  these:    The  priests").    The   Apostolic   Constitutions   refer  the 

root  of  the  order  is  the  selection  of  appropriate  Cios-  Gospel  to  the  deacon;  and  in  527  a  council,  at  Vaison, 

pels  for  the  chief  feasts  and  seasons  oi  the  year;  for  says  deacons  "are  worthy  to  read  the  words  that 


661  008PIL 

OuM  epoke  in  the  Gospel"  (Baudot!  op.  cit,  61).  for  ito  coDt«iito;  St.  Jerome  speakB  of  thia  (Ep.  xxij, 

This  euatom  became  gradually  univeTsal.  as  U  aiiova  32).    In  a  collection  of  manuBcripts  tbe  Evangelia- 

by  the  formulae  that  accompany  the  traoition  of  the  ria  nearly  always  stand  out  from  the  test  by  their 

Gospel-book  at  the  deacon's  ordination  {the  eleventh  special  sumptuousnesa.     They  are  not  uncommonly 

century  Viaigothic  ''Liber  ordiaum"  has  the  form:  written  in  gold  and  silver  letters  on  vellum  stained 


—the  extreme  limit  of  medieval  splendour. 
lue  uindings,  too,  are  oearly  always  sdoi^ed  with 
special  care.    It  is  on  Goepel  books  that  one  geuerallv 
\   ivory  carving,   metal-work,  jewellery,  enamel, 
"'"  ''■       '"      '-      ■  ■■-         e  Baudot,  op. 


"Ecce  evangelium  Christi,  accipe,  ex  quo  annunties 
bonam  gratiam  fidei  populo  ",  Baudot,  p.  52).  An  ex- 
ception that  lasted  tnrough  the  Middle  Ages  was  that 
at  Christmas  the  emperor,  dteesed  in  a  rochet  and  stole, 
sang  the  midnight  Goepel:  "Exiit  edictuid  a  Cssare    sometimes  relics.     (For  deseript.-^ 

Augusto"  etc.    (MabiUon,  "Musteum  italicum",  I,    cit.,  68-69.)    The  same  tradition  _  ..__ 

256  sq.).  Another  mark  of  respect  was  that  every-  East.  Allowing  for  doubtful  modem  taste  in  Greece, 
one  stood  to  hear  the  Gospel,  bareheaded,  in  the  atti-  Russia,  Syria,  etc.,  the  Biayy^ior  is  still  the  handsom- 
tude  of  a  servant  receiving  his  master's  orders  (Apost.  est  book,  often  the  handsomest  object  in  a  church. 
Const.,  11, 57,  and  Pope  Anastasius  I,  399-401,  in  the  When  it  is  not  in  use  it  generally  displays  theenamels 
"Lib.  Pontif.").  Sozomenoa  (H,  E.,  VII,  IS)  is  in-  of  itscoveron  adesk  outside  tbe  Iconostasis.  Tokisa 
dignant  that  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  sate  ("anew  thebook  was  always  from  early  times  a  sign  of  respect, 
and  insolent  practice").  The  Grand  Masters  of  the  This  was  done  at  one  time  not  only  by  tne  celebrant 
Knights  of  St.  John  drew  their  swords  while  the  Gos-     and  deacon,  but  by  all  the  people  present  ("Ordo 

Eel  was  read.  This  custom  seems  stilt  to  be  observed  Rom.  11  ",  8).  Honorius  111  (1216-27)  forbade  this; 
y  some  ^^t  noblemen  in  Poland.  If  any  one  has  a  but  the  book  is  still  kissed  by  any  high  prelates  who 
stick   in  his   liMid  may  be   presi 

he  is  to  lay  it  down    '  '  '     '  ^ 

(Baudot,  116), 
but  the  bishc^ 
holds  his  crosier 
(see  below).  The 
Goepel  was  sung 
from  the  ambo 
(Sfiff^r),  a  pulpit 
generally  half- 
way down  the 
church,  from 
which  it  could  be 
beat  heard  bv 
every  one  (Cabrol. 
Diet.  d'archM. 
chr^t,  et  de  htur- 
gie,  Paris,  1907, 
s.v.  "Ambon",  I, 
133tH*7).       Often 

ambos :     one     for 

the  other  lessons, 
a  the  left  (looking  from  the  altar) ;  tbe  other,  for  tbe    of  tbe 


(C»rim.  episc.,  I, 
30:  Gihr,  op.  cit., 
«5).  For  this 
and  similar  cere- 
monies see  Bau- 
dot (op.  cit.,  110- 
19).  When  the 
ambo  disappeared 
in  the  West  the 
sub-deacon  held 
the  book  while 
the  Gospel  was 
sung  by  the  dea- 
con. He  also  car- 
ried it  first  to  lay 
it  on  tbe  altar 
(Amalariua  of 
Metz:  "De.  Eccl. 
offic",  P.  L.,  CV, 
1112;  Durandus, 
loc.  cit.).Thodea^ 
con  made  the  sign 

.._     , ,  . ,  _...._      ._ first  on  the  book  and  then  on  him- 

the  right.     From  here  the  deacon  faced     self — takingablessinirfrom thebook("OrdoRom.I", 

,      , —   I.   n —   lit. AM-u:ii—    u..       11,  "utsigilletur";  Durandus,  loc.  cit.,  etc.;  Beleth, 

XXXIX).  The  meaning  of  all  these  marks  of  rever- 
ence is  that  the  Gospel-book,  which  contains  Christ's 
words,  was  taken  as  a  symbol  of  Christ  himself.  It 
was  sometimes  carried  in  the  place  of  honour  in  vari> 
ous  processions  (Beissel,  op.  cit.,  4);  something  of  the 
uuc  of  the  ways  in  which  that  service  has  reacted  on  to  same  idea  underlay  the  practice  of  putting  it  on  a 
hi^  Mass.  The  Byiantine  Church  still  commands  throne  or  altar  in  the  middle  of  the  synods  (Baudot, 
the  deacon  to  sing  the  Goepel  from  the  ambo  (e.  g,  109-110.  During  provincial  and  general  s^ods  the 
Brigiitman,  op.  cit.,  372),  though  with  them,  too,  it  has     Gospelistobesungateachseasion.— JCfer.Episc.  I,i — ■ 


if  page  17B,  iht 


]  17v,  ■howioff  the  besiiuiiTic  of  Iha  Qoapi 
Orl^ual  in  tbe  ScbkUkunmei  it  Vienni 


Qoipd  of  8t,  John 


Gospel, 

south,  as  the  "Ordo  Rom.  II"  says  (Habillon,  Hu- 
sceum  italic,  II,  46),  noting  that  the  men  generally 
either  there.  Later,  when  the  ambo  had  disappeared, 
the  deacon  turned  to  the  north.  Micrologus  (De 
missa.  ix)  notices  this  and  explains  it  as  an  imitation 
of  the  celebrant's  position  at  the  altar  at  low 


bishop  (or  celebrant)  then 
book,  in  procession,  accompanied  by  lights  and 
cense.  Germanus  of  Paris  (d.  576)  mentions  this  (Ep. 
1,  P.  L.,  LXXII,  91;  cf.  Durandus,  "Ration.",  IV, 
24).  See  the  ceremonies  in  the  "Ordo  Rom.  I",  U, 
and  "Ordo  Rom.  II",  which  are  almost  exactly  ours. 
Meanwhile  the  Gradual  was  sung  (see  Graduai.).  The 
"Dominus  vobtscum"  at  the  beginning,  the  announce- 
ment of  iho  Gospel  ("Sequentia  sancti  Evangelii" 
etc.),  and  the  answer,  "Gloria  tibi  Domine",  are  also 
mentioned  by  the  sixth-century  Germanus  (loc.  cit.). 
At  tlie  end  of  the  Goepel  the  people  answered, "  Amen  ", 
or  "DeoGratias",  or  "Benedictusqui  venit  in  nomine 
Domini"  (Durandus,  "Rationale'',  IV,  24;  Beleth, 
"Rationale",  XXXIX;  St.  Benedict's  Rule,  XI). 
Our  present  answer,  "Laus  tibi  Christ«",  seems  to  be 


llie  Byiantine  Church  has  developed  the  ceremony  of 
carrying  the  Evangelion  to  the  ambo  into  the  elabor- 
ate rite  of  the  "Little  Entrance"  (Fortescue,  "Divine 
Liturgy  of  St.  John  Chrysostom",  London,  1908,  68- 
74),  and  all  tbe  other  Eastern  CJiurehes  nave  simi- 
lar stately  ceremonies  at  this  point  of  the  Litur^ 
(Bri^tman,  op.  cit.,  for  each  nte).     Another  special 

E'actice  that  may  be  noticed  here  is  that  at  a  papal 
gh  Mass  the  Gospel  (and  the  Epistle  too)  is  read  in 
lAtin  and  Greek.  This  is  already  noticed  by  the  first 
Roman  Ordo  (40).  At  Constantinople  the  Patriarch, 
on  Easter  Day,  reads  the  Gospel  in  Greek,  and  it  is 
then  read  by  other  persons  (oi  47«i  ifix"P**t)  in  vari- 
ous languages  ("Typikon"  for  that  day,  ed.  Athens, 
1908,  pp.  368,  372,  Nilles,  "Kal.  man.'',  11,  314-16). 
The 


a  later  one  (Gihr,  "  Messopfer",  444).    The  elaborate    The  same  thing  is  done  again  at  tbe  Hesperinos 
care  taken  to  decorate  the  book  of  the  Gospels    little  Synopsis  (Zfivftt  lv<t)  of  Constantmople  (1883) 
thiotighout  the  Middle  Ages  was  also  a  sign  of  respect    gives  tnis  Goepel  of  the  Hesperinos  (John,  zx,  19-26) 


GOSPIL                             662  0OBPEL 

in  Greek  (with  two  poetic  versions,  hexameter  and  be  properly  onentated);  the  book  is  in  the  same  di- 

iambic),  Slavonic,  Bulgarian,  Albanian,  Latin,  Ital-  rection  as  the  Missal  for  the  Gospel  at  low  Mass.    The 

ian,  French.  English,  Arabic,  Turkish,  and  Armenian  acolytes  stand  on  either  side  of  the  subdeacon,  the 

(all  in  Greek  characters,  pp.  634-73).    The  same  cus^  thunfer  at  the  deacon's  right.    The  deacon,  junctia 

torn  ]&  observed  in  Russia  (Prince  Max  of  Saxony,  manSbua,  sings  '^Dominus  vobiscum"  (answered  by 

**  Prselectiones  de  liturgiis  orientalibus",  Freiburg  im  the  choir  as  usual),  then,  making  the  sign  of  the  cross 

Br.,  1908,' I,  116-17),  where  the  Gospel  of  the  Liturgy  with  the  rig^t  thumb  on  the  book  (the  cross  marked 

(John,  i)  is  read  in  Slavonic,  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  at  these  words  in  the  Missal  is  put  there  to  show  the 

Latin.  place)  and  signing  himself  on  forehead,  lips,  and 

IV.  Present  Ceremont  of  the  Gospel. — Except  breast,  he  dings  "Sequentia  [or  Initium]  sancti  Evan* 
for  the  disappearance  of  the  ambo,  the  rules  of  the  gelii  secundum  N  .  •  •  "    it  appears  that  seoueniia  is 
Rubrics  in  tne  Missal  (Ruhr.  gen.,X,  6;  Ritus  eel.,  VI,  a  neuter  plural  (Gihr,  op.  dt.,  438,  n.  3).^    While  the 
5)  are  still  almost  exactly  those  we  have  seen  ob-  choir  answers,  ''Gloria  tibi  Domine",  he  incenses  the 
served  in  the  Roman  Rite  since  the  seventh  or  eighth  book  three  times,  in  the  middle^  to  its  right,^and  left, 
centuries.    After  the  Epistle  the  deacon  puts  the  Gospel  bowing  before  and  after.    He  gives  the  thurible  back 
book  in  the  middle  of  the  altar  (while  the  celebrant  and  sings  the  text  of  the  Gospel  straight  throup;h.    He 
reads  his  Gospel  from  the  Missal).    Liturgical  editors  bows  at  the  Holy  Name,  if  it  occur,  and  sometmies  (on 
publish  books  containing  the  Epistles  and  Gospels,  the  Epiphany,  at  the  third  Christmas  Mass,  etc.)  genu- 
otherwise  a  second  Missal  is  used  (the  subdeacon  has  fleets  (towards  the  book).    The  tones  for  the  Gospel 
already  chanted  the  Epistle  from  the  same  book),  are  given  at  the  end  of  the  new  (Vatican)  MissaL   The 
Tlie  celebrant  then  puts  incense  into  the  thurible  and  normal  one  is  a  recitative  on  do  falling  to  la  four  sylla- 
blesses  it  as  usual.    The  subdeacon  goes  down  and  bles  before  the  end  of  each  phrase,  Kith  the  cadence 
waits  below,  before  the  middle  of  the  altar.  ^  The  st,  2a,  »',  sirdo  for  questions,  and  a  scandicus  2a,  n 
deacon  kneeling  by  the  celebrant  just  behind  him  at  (quilismd),  do  before  the  end.  -  Two  others,  more  or- 
his  right  says  the  "Munda  cor  meum'\    Then,  rising  namented,  are  now  added  ad  libitum.    The  celebrant, 
and  toking  the  book,  he  kneels  with  it  before  the  cele-  standing  at  the  Epistle  side,  looking  towards  the 
brant  (turning  towards  the  north)  and  Bays  "  Jube  deacon,  nears  the  Gospel  and  bows  or  genuflects  with 
domne  benedicere ''.    Jube  with  an  infinitive  is  a  com-  him,  but  towards  the  altar.    When  the  Gospel  is  over 
mon  late  Latin  way  of  expressing  a  polite  imperative  the  subdeacon  brings  him  the  book  to  kiss,  he  says: 
(Ducanse-Maigne  d'Amis,  ''Lexicon  manuale",  ed.  "Per  evaneelica  dicta",  and  he  is  incensed  by  the 
Migne,  Paris,  1890,  s.  v.,  col.  1235).    Domnus  is  a  deacon,    l^e  Mass  then  continues.    We  have  noted 
medieval  form  instead  of  dominus,  which  got  to  be  that  the  only  other  persons  now  eJlowed  to  kiss  the 
looked  upon  as  a  Divine  title  (so  in  Greek,  K6p  and  jr^/nt  book  are  the  ordinary,  if  he  be  present,  and  other  prel- 
for  K^ptot).    The  celebrant  blesses  him  with  the  form  ates  above  him  in  rank  (Caer.  Episcop.,  I,  xxx,  1,  3). 
in  the  Missal  (Dominus  sit  in  corde  tuo  .  .  .  )  and  A  bishop  celebrating  in  his  own  diocese  reads  his 
the  sign  of  the  croscf;  he  kisses  the  celebrant's  hand  Gospel  sitting  on  his  throne,  and  hears  it  standing 
laid  on  the  Missal.    The  celebrant  goes  to  the  Epistle  there,  holding  his  crosier  with  both  hands  (Caer.  Epis- 
side,  where  he  waits;   he  turns  round  towards  the  cop.^  II,  viii,  41,  46).    In  this  case  no  one  else  is  ever 
deacon  when  the  Gospel  begins.    The  deacon,  holding  to  kiss  the  book  (ibid.,  I,  xxix,  9). 
the  book  lifted  up  witn  both  hands,  comes  down  to  the  In  low  Mass  the  ceremonies  for  the  Gospel  are,  as 
subdeacon's  side;  they  make  the  usual  reverence  to  usual,  merely  an  abridgment  and  simplifying  of  those 
the  altar,  and  the  procession  starts.    The  thurifer  for  high  Mass.    When  the  celebrant  has  nnisned  read- 
goes  first  with  incense,  then  two  acol3rtes,  then  the  ing  the  Gradual  he  says  the  ''Munda  cor  meum'',  etc., 
deacon  and  subdeacon  side  by  side,  the  deacon  on  the  in  the  middle  of  the  altar  (he  sa}rs,  "Jube  Domine 
right.    We  have  seen  the  antiquity  of  lights  and  in-  benedicere",  because  he  is  addressing  God).    Mean- 
cense  at  the  Gospel.    All  this  time,  of  course,  the  while  the  server  brin^  the  Missal  to  the  north  side 
Gradual  is  being  sung.    The  procession  arrives  at  the  (this  is  onl^  an  imitation  of  the  deacon's  place  at  hidi 
place  that  represent  the  old  ambo.    It  is  still  to  Mass).    With  the  book  turned  sli^tly  towards  t£e 
the  right  of  the  altar  (north  side),  but  now  inside  the  people,  the  priest  reads  the  Gospel  with  the  same  cere- 
sanctuary,  so  that,  except  in  very  large  churehes,  there  monies  (except,  of  course,  for  the  incense)  and  kisses 
is  hardly  any  way  to  go;  often  the  old  procession  to  it  at  the  end. 

the  ambo  (the  Latin  ''little  entrance")  is  represented  V.  The  Last  Gospel. — The  Gospel  read  at  the  end 

only  by  an  awkward  turning  round.    Arrived  at  the  ofMass  is  a  late  development.  Originally  (till  about  the 

place,  the  deacon  and  subdeacon  face  each  other,  the  twelfth  century)  the  service  ended  with  the  words  that 

subdeacon  receives  the  book  and  holds  it  up  open  be-  still  imply  that, "  Ite  missa  est".  The  prayer  "  Plaoeat 

fore  him.    Oriranally  the  subdeacon  (two  are  required  tibi",  the  blessing,  and  the  last  Gospel  are  all  private 

by  the  ''Ordo  Rom.  I",  11,  one  as  thurifer)  accom-  devotions  that  have  been  gradually  absorbed  oy  the 

panicd  the  deacon  up  into  the  ambo,  helped  him  find  liturgical  service.    The  beginning  of  St.  John's  Crospel 

nis  place  in  the  book,  and  then  stood  back  behind  him  (1, 1-14)  was  much  used  as  an  object  of  special  devotion 

by  the  steps.    At  Milan,  where  the  ambo  is  still  used,  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.    It  was  sometimes  read 

this  is  still  done.  at  children's  baptism  or  at  extreme  unction  (Benedict 

In  the  Roman  Rite  the  subdeacon  himself  takes  the  XIV,  "  De  SS.  Missse  sacrif . ",  II,  xxiv,  8).  There  are 
place  of  the  desk  of  the  ambo.  But  the  "Cserimoniale  curious  cases  of  its  use  for  various  superatitious  prac- 
Episcoporum"  still  allows  the  use  of  "legilia  vel  am-  tices,  written  on  amulets  and  charms.  It  then  began 
bones "  if  there  be  any  in  the  churoh.  In  that  case  the  to  be  recited  by  priests  as  part  of  their  prayers  after 
subdeacon  is  to  stand  behind  the  desk  or  at  the  dea-  Mass.  A  trace  of  this  is  still  left  in  tl^e  ''Csrimoniale 
con's  right  and  to  turn  oyer  the  pa«es  if  necessary  (II,  Episcoporum",  which  directs  that  a  bishop  at  the  end 
viii,  45).  There  is  a  difficulty  about  the  way  they  of  his  Mass  shall  begin  the  last  Gospel  at  tne  altar  and 
stand.  The  *'  Ritus  celebrandi"  says  that  the  deacon  continue  it  (by  heart)  as  he  goes  away  to  take  off  the 
is  to  stand  "contra  altare  versus  populum"  (VI,  5).  vestments.  It  will  also  be  noted  that  it  is  still  not 
This  must  mean  looking  down  the  chureh.  On  the  printed  in  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass,  though  of  course 
other  hand  the  '^Caerim.  Episcoporum"  (II,  viii,  44)  the  rubric  about  it  is  there,  and  it  will  be  K>und  in  the 
says  that  the  subdeacon  stands  **  vertens  renes  non  third  Christmas  Mass.  By  the  thirteenth  century  it 
quidem  altari,  sed  versus  ipsam  partem  dexteram  quie  was  sometimes  said  at  the  altar.  But  Durandus  still 
pro  aquilone  figuratur".  This  means  the  way  in  which  supposes  the  Mass  to  be  finished  by  the '  *  Ite  missa  est " 
they  always  stand  now;  namely,  the  deacon  looks  (Rationale,  IV,  57);  he  adds  the ''Placeat"  and  bless- 
north  or  slightly  north-east  (supposing  the  chureh  to  ing  as  a  sort  of  supplement,  and  then  goes  on  at  once  to 


O068  663  OOBBAXBT 

describe  the  psalma  esid  after  Hasa  ("deinde  statim  lie  derived — the  old  recusanU  of  Lancashire— the 

dicuDtur  hymni  illi:  Benedicit«et  Laudate",  IV,  60).  mainatavof  the  old  Faith  in  England;  which  character 

Nevertheless,  the  practice  of  saying  it  at  the  altar  obtainea  for  him  the  respect  of  his  adversaries,  tlie 

Ktew;  eventually  Fius  V  made  this  practice  univeraal  objection  of  his  frienda,  and  the  admiration  ol  the 

for  the  Roman  Rite  in  his  edition  of  the  Missal  (1670).  people  at  large,  as  beii^  a  typical  Englishman,  blunt, 

The  fact  that  all  these  three  additions  after  the  "  Ite  manly,  and  honest.     He  seldom  used  any  words  that 

missa  est"  are  to  be  said,  even  at  high  Mass,  without  were  not  of   Anglo-Saxon  origin,  and  be  never  .in- 

any  special  ceremony,  preserves  the  memory  of  their  dulged  in  any  ambiguities  of  speech.     In  pobtics,  he 

mote  or  less  accidental  connexion  with   the  liturgy,  followed   the  Conservative   party.      Under  his  firm 

The  normal  last  Gospel  is  John,  i,  1-14.     It  is  read  oy  administration.   Catholicity    made    great   advances, 

the  celebrant  at  the  north  side  of  the  altar  after  the  many    churches    and    schools    were   built,   and  the 

blessing.     He   reads   from   the   altar-card   with   the  bishop  proved  an  unflinching  champion  of  Catholic 

usual  introduction  (Dominus  vobiscum  .  .  .  Initium  education.    His  fearless  denunciation  of  social  evils, 

S.EvanKelii,etc.),takingthesignof  thecrossfromthe  and  his  outspoken  expression   of   opinion  attraclea 

altar.^He  genuflects  at  the  words,  "Et  verbum  caro  the   notice   of  the   Press,  and   even   "The    Times" 

factumest   ,and  theserver,attheend,answerB"Deo  devoted  special   attention  to  his  speeches.     He  was 

gratiaa".    At  hirfi  Mass  the  deacon  and  subdeacon  an  accomplished  scholar,  not  only  in  theology,  but 

8tandoneitherside,genufiect  too, and  answer.     They  also  in  archsolo^,  and  he  was  an  active  member 

do  not  read  the  Gospel;  it  is  in  no  way  to  be  sung  by  of  the  Chetham,  Holbein,  and  Manx  sodeties.     For 

the  deacon,  like  the  essential  Gospel  of  the  Liturgy,  the  firet  he  edited   "Abbott's   Journal"  and   "The 

Whenever  an  office  is  commemorated,  whose  GospeTis  Tryalls  at  Manchester  in    1694"    (1864);    for   the 

begun  in  the  ninth  lesson  of  Matins,  that  Gospel  ia  Manx  society,   "Chronica   Repun  Manniie  et  Inau- 

substituted  for  John,  i,  at  the  end  of  Mass.     In  this  larum",  to  which  he  made  valuable   additions.     An 

case  the  Missal  must  be  brou^t  to  the  north  side  (at  account  of  Harkirke  burial-ground  for  recusants,  and 

high  Mass  bv  the  subdeacon).    This  applies  to  all  aninttoduction  written  by  him  were  published  by  the 

Sundays,  fenie,  and  vigils  that  are  commemorated,  Chetham  Society  in  Crosby  Records  {M.  S.,  12,  1887). 

At  the  third  Mass  on  Christmas  day  (since  John,  i,  1-  He  also  collected  materials  for  ahistoiy  of  Catholicity 

14,fomistheGoflpeloftheMa8s)thatoftheEpiphany  in  the  north    and  edited  Drioux's  "Sacred  History, 

is  read  at  the  end ;  at  low  Mass  on  Palm  Sunday  the  comprising  the  leading  facts  of  the  Old  and  New  Tb»- 

Gospei  of  the  blessing  of  palms  is  read.     Of  Eastern  tament".     For  many  years  he  suffered  so  much  that 

Rites  the  Armenians  Sone  have  copied  this  practice  of  his  friend,  Rev.  T.  E   Gibson,  wrote  of  him  (Lydiato 

the  last  Gospel  from  the  Latins.  Hall  and  its  Associations,  Introd.):  "A  prey  to  disease 

All  tb«  mejievAi  during  the  greater  part  of  his  episcopate,  nis  life  was 

mruie  wIpUiuJtiSt  **"*  strugrie  of  a  feariess  soul  wiUi  bodily  ailments  and 

SitiinuiU%v.  o^  with  thenarassing  mental  anxieties  incidental  to  hb 

EniHthungitr  Ptri  position."    He  was  seized  with  his  last  illness  sud- 

iSoS'  ^^oBOT^Lti  denly,  and  he  passed  away  the  same  evening.     There 

BsNEincTXtV,' fis  are  two  paintings  of  the  bishop  at  St.  Edvwd's  Col- 

(Mnini,  1879),  II,  lege,  Liverpool. 

l^^V.f'^^IC. ''  GiBWiH,  Ludiatt  Haa  and  ite  Auadationt  (1876);   QiLLOir, 

433-4«,  723^73*  gM,  Diet.  EW.  CuA.  (London,  ISSfl),  ■.  v.;  CooPBB  io  DicL 

Uturgta  yraxtt  (ed.  }fat.  Biog.  (LondoQ,  1890),  XXII,  256. 

Edwin  Burton. 

OoBB,  Alexander,  second  Bishop  of  Liverpool;  b.  Oossaeit,  Jan,  called  Mabusb  from  Maubeuge  in 
at  Ormskirk,  Lancashire,  6  July,  1814;  d.  at  St.  Ed-  Hainaut ;  Flemish  painter;  b.  aboutl472;d.at  Middel- 
ward's  College,  Liverpool,  3  Oct.,  1872;  connected  on  burg  about  1533.  Nothing  is  known  of  him  till  after 
Ijothsideswithold  Lancashire  families  who  had  always  the  age  of  thirty.  In  1608  be  went  to  Rome  with  the 
been  Catholics;  his  father  was  descended  from  the  embassy  of  Philip  of  Biu^imdy,  Admiral  of  Holland 
Gooses  or  Gosses,  his  mother  from  the  Rutters.  His  and  Abbot  of  Middelbuig,  sent  to  Julius  II  by  the 
maternal  uncle,  the  well-known  priest.  Rev.  Henry  Archduchess  Marguerite.  The  visit  occupied  a  year. 
Rutter.  sent  him  to  Ushaw  College,  20  June,  1827,  On  his  return,  Habuse  remained  in  the  service  of 
where  he  distinguished  himself  as  a  student.  When  Philip,  who  had  become  Bishop  of  Utrecht.  Perhaps 
he  had  completed  his  philosophy  course,  he  was  ap-  he  also  accompanied  him  to  Copenhagen  (1516).  This 
pointed  as  a  "minor  professor"  to  teach  one  of  the  prince  wag  a  collector,  a  lover  of  the  beautiful,  espe- 
classes  in  the  humanity  schools.  On  the  death  of  his  cially  of  elegant  villas,  fountains,  and  ornamental 
uncle,  he  spent  the  legacy  he  received,  in  going  to  waterspouts.  After  his  death  in  1524  Mabuse  entered 
Rome,  where  he  studied  theolcwy  at  the  Endish  Col-  the  service  of  Adolphus  of  Burgundy,  Marciuess  of 
lege,and  was  ordained  priest, 4  July,  J84I.  On  his  re-  Veere.  He  lived  at  his  court,  sharing  his  friendship 
turn  to  England,  early  m  March,  1842,  he  was  sent  to  and  that  of  Christian  of  Denmark,  a  prisoner  of  the 
St.  Wilfrid^  Church,  Manchester,  but  in  the  following  Archduchess,  always  enjoying  the  liberality  and  good- 
October  he  was  appointed  vice-piesident  of  the  newly  will  of  the  great,  and  leadmg  the  free  life  of  the  artists 
founded  college  of  St.  Edward,  Everton,  near  Liver-  of  the  country  from  Van  Eyck  to  Van  Dyck.  The 
pool.  Fr.  Gobs  held  this  oSix  until  he  was  chosen  tales  of  Van  Mander  dealing  with  his  manners  and 
coadjutor-bishop  to  Dr.  Brown,  ten  years  later.  He  pranks  must  be  regarded  as  trivial  gossip.  He  had 
was  consecrated  by  Cardinal  Wiseman,  at  Liverpool,  married  Marguerite  de  Molenaer,  by  whom  he  had  two 
25  Sept.^  1853,  and  as  tbeie  was  no  pressing  need  of  children,  Pierre,  who  was  a  painter  like  his  father,  and 
his  services,  he  took  the  opportunity  to  pay  a  long  (jertrude,  who  married  the  painter,  Henri  van  der 
visit  to  Rome.     On  25  January,    1856,  he  became  Heyden, 

Bishop  of  Liverpool  by  the  deatn  of  Dr.  Brown,  and         The  career  of  Mabuse  is  divided  int«  two  distinct 

from  that  time  his  commanding  personality  made  hira  periods  by  his  visit  to  Ftorne.    During  the  first  period 

a  most  prominent  figure  in  that  city.     His  lofty  stat-  he  is  merely  a  noteworthy  painter  of  the  school  ol 

urc,  dignified  bearing,  and  vigorous  speech  were  the  Memling  and  Gheeraert  David.    Good  examples  of  this 

fit  accompaniments  of  a  strong  and  straightforward  style  are  the  panels  of  Antwerp,  the  "Holy  Women 

character.     He  showed  a  vast  amount  ta  apostolic  returning  from  the  Sepulchre",  and  the  picture,  incor- 

2eal  in  the  duties  of  his  sacred  office,  and  was  an  rectly  called  "The  Honest  Judges",  which  represents 

:rful   controverealist.  the  centurion  and  his  escort  descending  from  Calvary. 


008SXLIH                             664  Q0B8XLIH 

fijdon''.  The  execution  is  bold,  the  painting  compact  Flemish  type,  the  fleshy  oyal,  the  transparenoy  of  the 
and  smooth,  but  the  faces  are  wooden  and  sU^tly  skin,  whicn  subaequently  constitute  the  imiform  graoa 
^;rimacing,  the  emotional  portrayal  being  weak.  What  of  the  Madonnas  of  Rubens.  The  spiritual  beautjr  of 
is  most  striking  is  the  power  of  touch,  the  carving  of  Memling  is  absent;  the  charm  is  that  of  a  beautiful 
the  faces  sa  with  a  chisel,  the  almost  sculptural  effect,  woman.  The  nimbus  has  lost  its  significance ;  the  ideal 
They  recall  those  clumsy  Gothic  groups  of  painted  nature  is  expressed  only  bv  a  sweeter  model  and  a 
wood,  so  popular  in  the  countries  ofthe  North  during  more  resplendent  light.  Mabuse's  historical  impor- 
the  fifteenth  century.  At  Rome,  on  the  contrary,  he  tance  is  very  great.  Although  he  trained  no  pupils,  his 
formed  an  entirely  different  conception  of  beauty,  or  influence  was  felt  by  all.  At  Flanders  he  pointed  out 
rather  he  obtained  an  insight  into  absolute  beauty,  the  way  of  the  future,  the  path  of  the  Renaissance. 
The  revelation  did  not  come  to  him  through  modern  He  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  the  first-comer,  and  to 
artists.  In  1509  not  one  of  the  great  works  of  Michael  be  preserved  from  the  excesses  of  unintelligent  and 
Angelo  or  Raphael  was  yet  completed.  But  all  Italy  ridiculous  imitation  into  which  his  successors  fell,  e.  g. 
was  filled  with  enthusiasm  for  the  monuments  of  the  Heemskirks,  the  Floris,  and  Martin  de  Vos.  What 
antiquity.  Mabuse  devoted  his  whole  sojourn  to  he  most  lacked  was  feeling,  true  inspiration.  He  falls 
stud3ring  and  copying  for  Phili})  of  Burgundy  the  ruins  far  below  the  exouisite  poetry  of  Massys,  but  he  real- 
ofRome.  The  ni9t  result  of  tms  journey  was  a  chan^  ized  much  more  clearly  tne  trend  of  art.  If  his  master- 
in  his  decorative  scheme,  to  which  we  owe  the  arem-  piece,  the  picture  at  Howard  Castle,  were  not  almost 
tectural  backgrounds,  the  colonnades,  the  palaces,  the  inaccessible  to  the  general  public,  it  would  be  seen  that 
visions  of  a  world  of  marble  with  ma^ficent  pedi-  Rubens,  throughout  the  sixteenth  century,  had  no 
ments,  which  raise  their  noble  outlines  m  his  pictures,  greater  precursor  in  his  country. 

It  is  plain  that  all  this  archeology  is  quite  destitute  of  Kaml  tan  Mandbb,  L9  Hvre  dea  pemjtrM  (1604).  Fr.tr.  with 

onion  tifin  valiiP       Tf  in  nAVArthplAoa  nfATfrnmA  imnnr.  °ote8  and  commentaries  by  Htmans  (Paris,  1884):   Vah  dbn 

scientinc  value,    it  is  ne venneiess  oi  e«reine  impor-  brandun.  Ge8diiedm%»  der  AfUwerhehe  tthudmdiooi  (Antweri*, 

tance,  since  it  was  by  no  mere  chance  that  the  great  1878>83);  Waagan.  Memud  d«  VHistoire  de  la  in^ntwre,  on  Ger- 

beginners  of  the  Renaissance  movement— Brunei-  g*n.  Fleiniah,  and  Dutch  achopla  (3  toU.,  BruMeb.  1863); 

l«co.  Alberti,aBd  Bramante-^.architecte    It  was  J^'^^iSTSX^JSlS^^I-^JiJ^'^^^ 

through  them  that  the  world  of  VltruviUS  dethroned  niirea  reckerdiM  et  doeumenU  m6dit3  (LUle,  1003):  WuBmAGB. 

the  Gothic  world.    With  architecture  the  whole  sys-  NiederUl$%di9eheB  K^tntOeHexikon,  U  (Leipai.  1906). 

tem  of  the  arts  altered  its  principles,  and  was  reorgan-  Louis  Gillbt. 
ixed  on  a  rational  basis  and  a  monumental  scale. 

This  revolution  is  readily  apparent  in  the  works  of  CtoBBoliiif  jEAN-EoMii-AnQUBTE,  ecclesiastical  au- 

Mabuse.    Statures  ^w  taller,  forms  expand  to  pre-  thor;  b.  at  Rouen.  France,  28  Sept.,  1787;  d.  at  PariSy 

serve  their  proportion  with  the  heroic  scale  of  the  27  Nov.,  1858.    He  studied  philosophy  and  theology 

decorative  scheme;  the  nude  banishes  the  flowing  at  St^ulpice,  Paris,  1806-11;  became  professor  of 

draperies;  colour  becomes  thin;  edges  begin  to  merge  dogma,  wnile  yet  a  subdeacon,  after  the  expulsion  of 

into  less  rigid  lines ;  the  palette  fades  and  assumes  the  the  Sulpicians  from  the  seminary  by  Napoleon.  1811; 

cold  tones  of  fresco.   Mabuse's  chief  work,  the  triptych  was  oraained  priest,  1812.    On  the  return  of  the  Sul- 

of  the  **  Descent  from  the  Cross"  in  the  church  of  the  picians  (1814)  ne  entered  their  society;  was  vioe-pred- 

Premonstratensians  at  Middelburg,  which  Dttrer  ad-  dent  of  the  seminarv  at  Issy,  1814-30;  professor  of 

mired  in  December,  1520,  was  unfortunatelv  burned  in  theology  to  the  candidates  for  the  society,  1814-18; 

1568.   But  the  triptych  of  Prague,  ''St.  Luke  painting  superior  of  the  seminarv  from  1831  to  1844,  when  the 

the  Blessed  Vir^"  (1515),  and  above  all  the  ^  Adora-  feeble  state  of  his  health,  which  hpd  alwa^rs  been  deli* 

tion  of  the  Magi'' of  Howard  Castle  (Earl  of  Carlisle),  cate,  obliged  him  to  resign.    His  increaainj;  infirmi- 

with  its  twenty  figures  of  life  size,  its  animation,  ties  from  Siat  time  till  his  death  permitted  him  to  ren- 

its  breadth  of  conception,  its  vibrating  life,  enor  der  little  service  except  bv  his  pen  and  the  example  of 

ble  us  to  understand  the  emotion  produced  in  the  his  pietv  industry,  and  fortitude.    A  charming  por- 

Flemish  school  by  such  original  conceptions.    It  was  trait  of  M.  Gosselm  has  been  Ic^t  by  Ernest  Renan;  in 

in  fact  the  grand  historical  style  of  painting  that  his  "LettresduSdminaire"  we  see  the  impression  pro- 

Mabuse  broi^t  to  his  countrymen.    As  a  decorator  duced  on  the  young  man  by  his  kindness,  gentleness, 

and  as  author  of  cartoons  for  tapestry  ("  Legend  of  sober  piety,  and  prudence,  nis  vast  and  varied  enidi- 

Herkenbald'',  Brussels)  he  retains,  nevertheless,  min-  tion.    And  in  the  work  of  his  old  age.  "Souvenirs 

gled  with  the  taste  of  the  Renaissance  something  of  d'enfance  et  de  jeimesse",  Renan  says:  "He  was  the 

the  flamboyant  imagination  displayed  in  the  caUie-  most  polished  and  amiable  man  whom  I  have  ever 

dralofBrou.   Heseemslesshappy  in  his  easel  pictures,  known.'' 

above  all  in  the  treatment  of  mythological  subjects,  Besides  many  minor  writing?  of  service  in  their  day, 

which  he  was  the  first  to  treat' and  to  spread  through-  Gosselin  left  three  works  which  are  still  of  great  value. 

out  the  North.    His  "  Amphitrite"  at  Berlin  (1516),  The  fij*8t  is  the  standard  edition  of  F^nelon  in  twenty- 

his  "Danad"  at  Munich  (1527),  his  "Lucretia"  at  the  two  volumes  (1820-24),  to  which  he  added  his  corre- 

Colonna  Galleiy  are  paintings  at  once  awkward  and  spondence  in  eleven  volumes  (1827-29),  besides  a  cor- 

affected,  unnatural,  almost  ridiculous.    AU  the  splen-  rected  and  enlarged  edition  of  Bausset's  "  Histoire  de 

did  sentiment  of  paganism  escapes  him.    Yet  it  was  F^nelon"  and  oUier  smaller  works  devoted  to  the 

this  portion  of  his  work  which  most  impressed  his  con-  Archbishop  of  Cambrai.    Gosselin's  edition  is  valu- 

temporaries,  and  Guichard,  as  well  as  Van  Mander,  able  for  its  notes  and  discussions,  but  its  accuracy  has 

lauds  him  as  the  first  to  emancipate  Flemish  art  from  been  somewhat  marred  by  his  partiality  for  F^nelon. 

theology  and  transport  it  to  the  wholly  natural  sphere  Out  of  it  grew  his  best-known  work, "  Pouvoir  du  Pape 

of  humanism.  au  moyen  &ge"  (1839:  2nd  edition.  1845;  tr.  as  "The 

Finally,  Mabuse  was  a  portraitist  of  considerable  Power  of  the  Popes  during  the  Middle  Ages",  Balti- 

importance.  The '^Children  of  Christian  of  Denmark"  more,  1853).    Triis  remains  the  classic  study  of  its 

at  Hampton  Court,  the  "Carondelet"  at  the  Louvre  subject,  though  in   part   superseded  by  Mgr  Du* 

(1517),  and  the  "Monk"  at  the  same  museum,  are  chesne's  researches,    it  proved  beyond  question  that 

pieces  of  a  vigour  that  has  never  been  surpassed.   The  the  popes  exercised  temporal  power  over  sovereigns 

outline  of  the  model  here  attains  a  relief  comparable  to  during  the  Middle  Ages.    Grestes  Brownson^  in  sev- 

high  relief.    The  painting  is  in  a  silver  tone,  thin,  al-  end  articles  devoted  to  it,  while  admitting  its  great 

most  without  shadows.   The  design  is  less  incisive  but  erudition,  attacked  its  position  (adopted  from  Fene- 

quite  as  accurate  as  that  of  Holbein.    The  "Virgins"  Ion),  that  this  power  was  derived  not  from  Divine 

of  Mabuse  are  also  portraits;  the  best,  those  of  the  authority,  but  from  the  public  law  of  that  period. 

Louvre  and  of  Douai,  already  portray  the  beautiful  Gosselin  lived  to  complete  his  valuable  "Vie  de  M. 


Goswnr                      665  ooTmo 

Emery  "  which  was  revised  and  published  (1861)  after  answered  all  the  perfections  required  in  a  faultless  and 

his  death.  accomplished  building'' — but  the  Goths  and  Vandals 

Bbbtband,  HittoMlHUraire  de  la  eompaonis  de  SomtStUjnf  destroyed  these  and    introduced  in  their  stead  a  cer- 

£rS5jr(feJSrVMJ5fB*II^51;»^^  tain  faataatieal  and  Ucentio^  n^mier  of  bmlding: 

John  F.  Fbnlon.  congestions  of  heavy,  dark,  melancholy,  monkish  piles, 

OoBwin.    See  Maronburo.          '     '               '  without  any  just  proportion,  use  or  beauty."    For  the 

first  time,  an  attempt  was  made  to  destroy  an  instino- 

Qother  (or  Goteb),  John,  pnest  and  controver-  tive  and,  so  far  as  Europe  was  concemect.  an  almost 

sialist;  b.  at  Southampton,  date  unknown;  d.  at  sea  cm  universal  form  of  art,  and  to  substitute  in  its  place 

a  voyage  to  Lisbon,  2  October,  1704  (0.  S.) .  Educated  another  built  up  by  artificial  rules  and  premeditated 

a  stnct  Presbyterian,  he  became  a  convert  and  entered  theories;  it  was  necessary,  therefore,  that  the  ground 

the  English  College  at  Lisbon  in  1668.    He  was  or-  should  be  cleared  of  a  once  luxiuiant  growth  that  still 

dained  priest  in  1682,  and  then  returned  to  England  showed  signs  of  vitality,  and  to  effect  this  the  schools 

to  work  on  the  mission  in  London.    He  was  of  a  very  of  Vignola,  Palladio,  and  Wren  were  compelled  to 

retiring  disposition,  and  soon  begem  to  devote  the  throw  scorn  on  the  art  they  were  determined  to  dis- 

most  of  his  time  to  controversial  writings,  which  he  credit.  As  ignorant  of  the  true  habitat  of  the  style  as 

b^an  in  1685.    His  famous  work,  ''A  Papist  Mis-  they  were  otits  nature,  the  Italians  of  the  Renaissance 

represented  and  Represented",  contains  a  long  list  called  it  the  ''maniera  Tedesca",  and  since  to  them 

of  the  vulgar  errors  regarding  Catholic  doctrine  and  the  word  Ooth  implied  the  perfection  of  barbarism,  it 

practice  toother  with  his  masterly  refutations  of  is  but  natural  that  they  should  have  applied  it  to  a 

them,  and  is  as  appropriate  for  use  in  controversy  style  they  desired  to  destroy.    The  style  ceased,  for 

to-day^  as  when  it  was  written,  with  the  solitary  the  particular  type  of  civiUsation  it  expressed  had 

exception  of  his  remarks  about  Papal  infallibiUty,  come  to  an  end;  but  the  name  remained,  and  when, 

which  need  to  be  brought  up  to  date.    This  work  early  in  the  nineteen^  century,  the  beginnings  of  anew 

brou^t  no  less  an  antagonist  than  Stillingfleet  into  epoch  brought  new  apologists,  the  ol^  title  was  taken 

the  lists,  toother  with  a  host  of  the  lesser  lights  of  over  as  the  only  one  available,  and  since  then  constant 

Anglican  Divinity,  and  then  there  ^ose  a  prolonged  efforts  have  been  made  to  define  it  more  exactly,  to 

seno,  without  end,  of  Answers,  Objections,  Re-  give  it  a  new  significance,  or  to  substitute  in  its  place  a 

jomders,  and  Refutations,  throughout  which  Gother  term  more  expressive  of  the  idea  to  be  conveyed, 

single-handed  more  than  maintained  his  position.  The  word  itsefr,  in  its  present  appUcation.  is  lepug- 

His  literary  style  was  exceedingly  pure,  and  was  often  nant  to  any  sense  of  exact  thoiight;  ethnically,  the  art 

a  great  factor  in  winning  converts  to  the  Church.  His  so  described  is  immediately  Fnmco-Norman  in  its 

trenchant  simplicitv  has  often  been  compared  to  origins,  and  between  the  Arian  Goths,  on  the  one 

Swift  at  his  best.    Dryden  once  facetiously  remarked  hand,  and  the  Catholic  Franks  and  Normans,  on  the 

that  Gother  was  the  only  person,  except  hunself ,  who  other,  lies  a  racial,  religious,  and  chronological  gulf, 

knew  how  to  wnte  English.  With  the  conquest  of  Italy  and  Sicily  by  Justinian 

He  was  afterwards  chaplain  to  George  Holman  of  (535-553)  "  the  race  and  name  of  Ostr(^ths  perished 

Warkworth    Castle,    Northamptonshire,   where  he  for  ever"  (Bryce,  "The  Holy  Roman  Empire",  III, 

received  into  the  Church  and  instructed  Richard  29)  five  centuries  before  the  beginnings  of  the  art  that 

Challoner,  then  a  youth,  the  future  celebrated  Bishop  beans  their  name.    Modem  scEolarship  seeks  deeper 

and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  London  District.    Shortly  even  than  racial  tendencies  for  the  root  impulses  of  art 

before  his  death,  Gother  was  proposed  as  a  possible  in  any  of  its  forms,  and  apart  from  the  desirable  cor- 

successor  to  Bishop  Ellis  of  the  Western  District.    He  lection  of  an  historical  anachronism  it  is  felt  that 

died  at  sea  on  a  voyage  to  Lisbon,  havingreceived  the  medieval  art  (of  which  Gothic  architecture  is  but  one 

last  ntes  from  a  pnest  who  chanced  to  be  on  board,  category),  since  it  owes  its  existence  to  influences  and 

The  master  of  the  vessel  was  so  impressed  with  Go-  tendencies  stronger  than  those  of  blood,  demands  a 

ther's  sanctity,  that  he  preserved  the  body  and  de-  name  that  shaU  be  exact  and  significant,  and  indica- 

livered  it  to  the  English  College  at  Lisbon,  where  it  tive  of  the  more  just  estimation  in  which  it  now  is 

was  interred.    His  principal  works  are  "A  Papist  hdd. 

Misrepresented  and  Represented,  or  a  two-fold  Charao-  But  little  success  has  followed  any  of  the  attempts 
ter  of  Popery"  (original  ed.,  London,  1665;  has  passed  at  definition.  The  effort  has  produced  such  varymg 
through  numerous  editions  down  to  the  present  day ;  results  as  the  epithets  of  Vasari  and  Evelyn,  the  nebu- 
a  good  summary  is  that  of  Bishop  Challoner  which  is  lous  or  sentimental  paraphrases  of  the  early  nineteenth- 
also  published  as  a  tract  by  the  Catholic  Truth  Society) ;  century  romanticists,  the  narrow  archseological  defini- 
"Nubes  Testium,  or  a  Collection  of  the  Primitive  tions  of  De  Caumont,  and  the  rigid  formaBties  of  the 
Fathers"  (London,  1686);  "The  Sincere  Christian's  more  learned  logicians  and  structural  specialists,  such 
Guide  in  the  choice  of  a  ReUgion"  (London,  1804);  as  MM.  VioUet  te  Due,  Anthyme  St-Paul,  and  Enlart, 
"Instructions  on  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  of  the  and  Professor  Moore.  The  only  scientific  attempt  is 
Whole  Year"  (London.  1780);  "The  Sinner's  Com-  that  of  which  the  firet  was  the  originator,  the  last  the 
plaint  to  God"  (London,  1839);  "Principles  and  most  scholarly  and  exact  exponent.  Concisely  stated, 
Rules  of  the  Gospel"  (London,  1718) ;  "  A  Practical  the  contention  of  this  school  is  that "  the  whole  scheme 
Catechism" ; "  Instructions  and  Devotions  for  Hearing  of  the  building  is  determined  by,  and  its  whole  strength 
Mass"  (Londcm,  1767) ;  "  Instructions  for  Confession,  is  made  to  rende  in  a  finely  organized  and  frankly  con- 
Communion  and  Confirmation"  (Dublin,  1825);  and  fessed  framework  rather  than  in  walls.  This  mme- 
many  other  similar  works.  work,  made  up  of  piers,  arches  and  buttresses,  is  freed 

BuTLTO,  HiaUryal  Mmwin cfEnplujkCaaiolict  (1882),  rv.  from  every  imneoessarv  incumbrance  of  wall  and  is 

425;  LiNGABD,  History  of  England,  A,  226;  Gillow,  BM.  Did.  «.^  j^..^  ^„  i;«u*  :„  •ii  u-^  ^^^t,  «<>  ;<.  <^t»*v«4^;ki<>  «,;*k 

Eng.  Cath.,  s.  v.:  CooraBin  SieL  Nat,  Bioa\  a.  v.;  Dodd,  Church  rendered  as  light  m  all  its  parts  as  IS  compatible  with 

Hittory,  III,  482;  Pbtbb,  Notiem  of  Bngiuh  CoiUffea,  stren^ — ^the  stabihty  of  the  buildmg  dependmg  not 

C.  F.  Wbmtss  Brown.  ^P°^  mert  massiveness,  except  in  the  outermost  abut- 

vy.  X .     c«xoo  M^a^nwa.  mcuts,  but  upou  logical  adjustment  of  active  parts 

Qothic  Architecture. — ^The  term  was  first  used  dur-  whose  opposing  forces  neutndize  eadi  other  and  pro- 

ing  the  later  Renaissance,  and  as  a  term  of  contempt,  duce  a  perfect  equilibrium.    It  is  thus  a  system  of  bal- 

Says  Vasari.  "Then  arose  new  arehitects  who  after  the  anced  thrusts  in  contradistinction  to  the  ancient  sys* 

manner  of  tneir  barbarous  nations  erected  buildings  in  tem  of  inert  stability.    Gothic  architecture  is  such  a 

that  style  which  we  call  Gothic",  while  Evelyn  but  ^tem  carried  out  in  a  finely  artistic  spirit"  (Charles 

expresses  the  mental  attitude  of  his  own  time  idien  he  H.  Moore,  "Development  and  Character  of  Gothic 

wntes,  "The  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  architecture  Architecture",  1, 8).    This  is  an  admirable  statement 


GOTHIO 


666 


OOTBIO 


of  the  fundamental  structural  element  in  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, but,  carried  away  bv  enthusiasm  for  the 
crowning  achievement  of  the  human  intellect  in  the 
domain  of  construction,  those  who  have  most  clearly 
demonstrated  its  pre-eminence  have  usually  fallen 
into  the  error  of  declaring  this  one  C|ualit^  to  be  the 
touchstone  of  Gothic  architecture,  minimizing  the  im- 
portance of  all  aesthetic  considerations,  and  so  deny- 
me  the  name  of  Gothic  to  everything  where  the  system, 
of  oalanced  thrusts,  ribbed  vaulting,  and  concentrated 
loads  did  not  consistently  appear.  Even  Professor 
Moore  himself  says,  ''Wherever  a  framework  main- 
tained on  the  principle  of  thrust  and  counter-thrust  is 
wantine,  there  we  have  not  Gothic"  (Moore,  op.  cit., 
I,  8).  The  result  is  that  all  the  medieval  architec- 
ture of  Western  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  that 
produced  durine  the  space  of  a  century  and  a  half,  and 
chiefly  witiiin  &e  limits  of  the  old  Royal  Domain  of 
France,  is  denied  the  title  of  Gothic.  Of  the  whole 
body  of  English  architecture  produced  between  1066 
and  1528  it  is  said,  "  The  ExieliBh  claim  to  any  share  in 
the  orkpinal  development  of  Gothic,  or  to  the  considera- 
tion ofthe  pointed  architecture  of  the  Island  as  prop- 
eriy  Gothic  at  all,  must  be  abandoned ' '  (Moore,  op.  cit., 
Preface  to  first  ed.,  8),  and  the  same  is  said  of  the  con- 
temporary architecture  of  Germany,  Italv,  and  Spain. 
Logically  applied,  this  rule  would  exclude  also  all  the 
timber-roofed  churches  and  the  civil  and  militanr 
structures  erected  in  France  contemporaneously  wii;h 
the  cathedrals,  and  (thou^  this  point  is  not  pressed) 
even  the  west  fronts  of  sucm  admittedly  Ck>thic  edifices 
as  the  cathedrals  of  Paris,  Amiens,  and  Reims.  As 
one  of  the  most  recent  commentators  on  Gothic  archi- 
tecture has  said,  "A  definition  so  restricted  carries 
with  it  its  own  condemnation"  (Francis  Bond, 
"Gothic  Architecture  in  England",  I.  10). 

A  still  greater  ar^;ument  a^inst  tne  acceptance  of 
this  structural  definition  lies  m  the  fact  that  while,  as 
Professor  Moore  declares,  "the  Gothic  monument, 
though  wonderful  as  a  structural  oiganism,  is  even 
more  wonderful  as  a  work  of  art"  (op.  cit..  V,  190), 
this  great  artistic  element,  which  for  more  tnan  three 
centuries  was  predominant  through  the  ereater  part 
of  Western  Europe,  existed  quite  independently  ot  the 
supreme  structural  system,  and  varies  onlv  in  minor 
details  of  racial  bias  and  of  presentation,  whether  it  is 
found  in  France  or  Normandy,  Spain  or  Italy,  Ger- 
many, Flanders,  or  Great  Britain — ^this,  which  is  in 
itself  the  manifestation  of  the  underlyinjg  impulses 
and  the  actual  accomplishments  of  the  era  it  connotes, 
is  treated  as  an  accessory  to  a  structural  evolution,  ana 
is  left  without  a  name  except  the  perfunctory  title  of 
"Pointed",  which  is  even  less  descriptive  than  the 
word  Gothic  itself. 

'  The  structural  definition  has  failed  of  general  ac- 
ceptance, for  the  temper  of  the  time  is  increasingly 
impatient  of  materialistic  definitions,  and  there  is  a 
demand  for  broader  interpretations  that  shall  take 
cosnizance  of  underlyingimpulses  rather  than  of  ma- 
terial manifestations.  The  fact  is  recognized  that 
around  and  beyond  the  structural  aspects  of  Gk>thic 
architecture  lie  other  qualities  of  equal  importance 
and  greater  comprehensiveness,  and.  it , the  word  is  still 
to  be  used  in  the  p;eneral  sense  in  wnich  it  always  has 
been  employed,  viz.,  as  denoting  the  definite  architec- 
tural expression  of  certain  peoples  acting  under  defi- 
nite impulses  and  within  dennite  limitations  of  time,  a 
completely  evolved  structural  principle  cannot  be 
used  as  the  sole  test  of  orthodox}r,  if  it  excludes  the 
great  body  of  work  executed  within  that  period,  and 
which  in  all  other  respects  has  complete  uniformity 
and  a  consistent  significance. 

It  may  be  said  of  Gothic  architecture  that  it  is  an 
impulse  and  a  tendency  rather  than  a  perfectly 
rounded  accomplishment;  sesthetically,  it  never 
achieved  perfection  in  any  pven  monument,  or  group 
of  monuments,  nor  were  its  possibilities  ever  fully 


worked  out  except  in  the  categorvof  structural  acienoe. 
Here  alone,  as  Aofessor  Moore  has  admirably  idiown, 
finality  was  achieved  by  the  cathedral-builders  of  the 
He-de-France,  but  this  fact  cannot  give  to  their  work 
exclusive  claim  to  the  name  of  Gk>thic.  The  art  of 
any  given  time  is  the  expression  of  certain  racial  quali- 
ties modified  by  inheritance,  tradition,  and  environ- 
ment, and  working  themselves  out  under  the  control 
of  religious  and  secular  impulses.  When  these  ele- 
ments are  sound  and  vital,  combined  in  the  right  pro- 
portions, and  operating  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time, 
the  result  is  a  definite  style  in  some  one  or  more  of  the 
arts.  Such  a  style  is  Ck>thic  architecture,  and  it  is  to 
this  style,  regarded  ia  its  most  inclusive  aspect,  that 
the  term  Oomtc  is  applied  by  general  consent,  and  in 
this  sense  the  word  is  nere  used. 

Ck>thic  architecture  and  Gothic  art  are  the  aesthetic 
expression  of  that  epoch  of  European  history  when 
paganism  had  been  extinguished,  the  traditions  of 
classical  civilization  destroyed,  the  nordes  of  barbarian 
invaders  beaten*  back,  or  Christianized  and  assimi- 
lated; &Dd  when  the  Cfatiiolic  Church  had  established 
itself  not  only  as  the  sole  spiritual  power,  supreme  and 
almost  unauestioned  in  authority,  out  also  as  the  arbi- 
ter of  the  destinies  of  sovereigns  and  of  peoples.  Dur- 
ing the  first  five  centuries  of  the  Christian  Era  the 
Church  had  been  fighting  for  life,  first  against  a  dying 
imperialism,  then  against  barbarian  invasions.^  The 
removal  of  the  temporal  authoritv  to  Constantinople 
had  continued  the  traditions  of  civilization  where 
Greek,  Roman,  and  Asiatic  elements  were  fused  in  a 
curious  alembic,  one  result  of  which  was  an  ardiitect- 
ural  style  that  later,  and  modified  by  many  peoples, 
was  to  serve  as  the  foundation-stone  of  the  Catholic 
architecture  of  the  West.  Here,  in  the  meantime,  the 
condition  had  become  one  of  complete  chaos,  but  the 
end  of  the  Dark  Ages  was  at  hand,  and  during  the 
entire  period  of  the  sixth  century  events  were  occur- 
ring which  could  only  have  issue  in  the  redemption 
of  uie  West.  The  part  played  in  the  development  of 
this  new  civilization  by  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict  and 
by  Pope  St.  Gregonr  the  Great  cannot  be  overesti- 
mated: through  the  lormer  the  Catholic  Faith  became 
a  more  living  and  personal  attribute  of  the  people, 
and  began  as  well  to  force  its  way  across  the  frontiers 
of  barbarism,  while  by  its  means  the  long-lost  ideals 
of  law  and  order  were  in  a  measure  re-established. 
As  for  St.  Gregorv  the  Great,  he  may  almost  be  con- 
sidered the  foundation-stone  of  the  new  epoch.  The 
redemption  of  Europe  was  completed  dunnc  the  four 
centuries  following  his  death,  and  largely  at  the  hands 
of  the  monks  ot  Cluny  and  Pope  St.  Gregory  VII 
(1073-1085),  who  freed  the  Church  from  secular 
dominion.  With  the  twelfth  century  were  to  come 
the  equally  potent  Cistercian  reformation,  the  revivi- 
fying and  purification  of  the  episcopate  and  the  secular 
clei^  by  the  canons  re^lar,  the  development  of  Uie 
great  schools  foimded  m  the  preceding  century,  the 
communes,  the  military  orders,  and  tne  Crusades; 
while  the  thirteenth  century,  with  the  aid  of  Pope 
Innocent  III,  Philip  Augustus,  St.  Louis,  and  tne 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans,  was  to  raise  to  the 
highest  point  of  achievement  the  spiritual  and  ma- 
terial potentialities  developed  in  the  immediate  past. 
This  is  the  epoch  of  Gothic  architecture.  As  we 
analyse  the  agencies  that  together  were  to  make  pos- 
sible a  civilization  that  couul  blossom  only  in  some 
S re-eminent  art^  we  find  that  they  fall  into  certain 
efinite  categones.  Ethnically  the  northern  blood 
of  the  Lombards.  Franks,  and  Norsemen  was  to  fur- 
nish the  physical  vitality  of  the  new  epoch.  Politi- 
cally the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  theCapetian  sovereigns 
of  the  Franks,  and  the  Dukes  of  Normandv  were  to 
restore  that  sense  of  nationality  without  which  creative 
civilization  is  impossible,  while  the  papacy,  working 
through  the  irresistible  influence  of  the  monastic  orders 
gave  the  underlying  impulse.    Normandy  in  the  elev- 


I 

I 


ture  were  brought  into  being.  The  twelfth  eenturT 
was  that  of  the  Ctatercians,  Carthusians,  and  Au^ua- 
tiniansj  the  farmer  infusing  into  all  Europe  a  religious 
enthusiAsm  that  clamoured  for  artistic  expression, 
while  by  their  antagonism  to  the  over-rich  ait  of  the 
elder  Benedictines,  they  turned  attention  from  decor- 
ation to  plan  and  form,  and  construction.  The  Ctun- 
iac  and  the  Cistercian  reforms  through  their  own 
members  and  the  other  orders  which  they  brought  into 
being  were  the  mobile  and  efficient  arm  of  a  reforming 
papacy,  and  from  the  day  on  which  St.  Beoedict  pro- 
mulgated his  rule,  they  became  a  visible  manifestation 
of  law  and  order.  With  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
episcopate  and  the  secular  clergy  joined  in  the  labour 
~  of  adequately  expresB- 

ing  a  united  and  un* 
questioned      religious 
faith,  and  we  may  say, 
therefore,     that     the 
civilization  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  was  what  the 
Catholic  Faith  oisan- 
ized  and  invincible  had 
k  made    it.     We  may. 
r  therefore,    with    good 
I  reason,  substitute  for 
» the  undescriotive  title 
'  "Gothic"    tne    name 
"The  Catholic  Style" 
as    being    exact    and 
reasooably  incluuve. 

The  beginnings  of 
the  art  that  Hignaliied 
the  triumph  of  Catho- 
lic Christianity  are  to 
be  found  in  Normandy. 
Certain  elements  may 
be  traced  back  to  the 
Carolingian  builders, 
the  Lombards  in  Italy. 
and  the  Copts  and 
Syrians  of  the  fourth 
century,  and  so  to  the 
Greeks  of  Bycantium. 
They  are  but  elements 
however,  germs  that 
did  not  develop  until 
infused  with  uie  red 
blood  of  the  Norsemen 
and  quickened  by  the 
Bpirit  of  the  Cluniac  reform.  The  style  developed  in 
Normandy  during  the  eleventh  century  contained  the 
major  parti  of  these  elemental  norms,  which  were  to  be 
atill  further  fused  and  co-ordinated  by  the  Franlis, 
raised  to  final  perfection,  and  transfigured  by  a  spirit 
which  was  that  of  the  entire  medieval  world.  Marvel- 
lous as  was  this  achievement^  that  of  the  Normans  was 
even  more  remarkable,  for  in  the  style  they  handed 
on  to  the  Franks  was  inherent  every  essential  poten- 
tiality. At  this  moment  Normandy  was  the  focus  of 
northern  vitalitv  and  almost,  for  the  moment,  the  re- 
ligious centre  or  Europe.  The  founding  of  monaster- 
iee  was  vet?  like  a  mania  and  the  result  a  remarkable 
revival  of  teaming;  the  Abbeys  of  Bee,  Fecamp,  and 
Jumi6ges  became  famous  throughout  all  Europe, 
drawing  to  themselves  students  from  every  portion  of 
the  continent;  even  Cluny  hereelf  had  in  this  to  take 
second  place.  It  was  a  very  vigorous  and  a  very  wide- 
spread civiliiation,  and  architectural  expression  be- 
came imperative.  Convinced  that  "she  was  playing 
a  part  and  a  leading  part  in  the  civiliiation  of  Europe 
.  .  .  Normandy  perceived  and  imitated  the  architect- 
ural progress  of  nations  even  far  removed  from  her 
own  borders.  At  this  time  there  was  no  other  country 
(n  Europe  that  for  atchitectuml  attainment  could 


,  that  ths  Normans  turned  for  inspiration  for 
their  own  buildingB.    They  adopted  what  was  vital 
in  the  Lombard  style,  comDined  this  with  what  they 
had  alreadv  learned  from  their  French  neighbours, 
and   addea  besides    a 
lai^   element  itf  their 
ovn   national    charac- 
ter" (Arthur  IQngsley 
Porter,     "Medttcval 
Architecture",  VI,  243, 
244).  I 

What  are  these  ele- 1 
ments  which  were  bor-  J 
rowed  from  the  Lom-  J 
barda  and  the  Franks,  ^ 
and  which  were  to  form 


the  founda' 


of 


Pun 


Gothic  aichit«cture? — 
They  are,  from  the 
former,  the  compound 
pier  and  aichivolt,  the 
alternate  system, the 
ribbed  and  domed 
vault;  from  the  latter 
(i.  e.  from  the  Carolin- 
gian remains),  the  mod- 
ified bamlican  plan  with 
its  triple  aisles  crossed 
by  a  projecting  tran- 
sept, and   its  three 

apsMi.— This,  the  basis        _  o,j~,„,„_,  „ 

of  the  typical  Norman        ^"bJcSTv™"  "" 
and  Gothic  plan,  was 

derived  directly  from  the  Church  of. the  Nativity  at 
Bethlehem,  the  date  of  which  is  unknown.     It  may 
have  been  built  by  Constantine,  or  by  Justinian,  or  at 
any  date  between,  Professor  Lethaby  leaning  to  the 
latter  conclusion.     In  any  case  it  is  not  earher  than 
A.  D.  300,  nor  later  than  550.— From  the  Franks  were 
also  borrowed  the  doubled  western  towers,  the  lantern 
ot  central  tower  over  the  crossing,  and  the  thteef old 
interior  system  of  arcade,  triforium,  and  clerestory. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  main  dispositions  of  the  Gothic 
plan  arederived  from  Carolingian  developments  of  By 
lantine  modifications  of  the  early  Christian  basilica, 
itself  but  an  adaptation 
of  that  of  pagan  Rome; 
from  the  Lombards, 
however,  had  been  ac- 
quired three  elements 
which  were  to  lie  at  the 
base  of   Gothic   con- 
struction.   Many  of  the 


'acte: 


Stic 


features  of  Byiantini . 
Carolingian,  and  Lom- 
bard architecture  had 
been  permanently  re- 
jected, showing  that 
the  process  followed 
was  not  one  of  slavish 
imitation  but  rather  of 
conscious  selection;  the 
vast  possibilities  inher- 
ent m  others  had  not 
been  appreciated,  as 
for  instance  the  polyg- 
onal, domed  motive  of  ] 
San  Vitale  and  Aachen, 
surrounded  by  its  vaulted  ambulatory,  from  which 
the  Franks  were  to  evolve  the  Gothic  ckevet,  while  the 
pointed  arch  the  Normans  never  used,  though  they 
must  have  known  of,  or  imagined,  its  existence. 

The  actual  steps  in  the  development  of  what  may 
be  called  the  Gothic  order,  from  the  primitive  basilica 
to  thefult  perfection  of  Chartres,  fortunately  cociat,  and 


AHTRU  CatHEDRAI. 


____. ^..,...       ,  „.._„....  ,.     .     .._..     ..ft  very  convenient  dielf  o_ 

tenth  century,  the  available  supply  of  ancient  columns    which  some  of  the  vault  atones  might  rest,  and,  by  so 
having  become  exhausted,  square  piers  built  up  of    much,  a  portion  of  the  temporary  centering  mi^t  be 


small  stones  hod  everywhere  t&ken  the  place  of  cmv-  diapensed  with.  Intellieence  could  not  fail  to : 
lar  monolithic  ehafta,  but  tbe  old  basilican  ^^tem  that  an  expedient  useful  in  the  case  of  the  '~~ 
remained  intact  (except  in  the  polygonal,  Carolmgiaa  arch  mi^t  be  equally  useful  in  that  <^  the  ••—j^—— 
churches),  arcades  supporting  roof'bearing  walls  which  were  far  more  difficult  of  oonstructioiL  as  wdf 
pierced  by  narrow  windows,  ana  an  encloein^  wall  in-  as  the  most  liable  to  give  way  in  the  case  at  ribless, 
dependent  In  its  construction  and  forming  aisles  cov-  groined  vaults.  When  did  this  era-making  inventioo 
ered  by  lean-to  roofs  of  wood.  In  Bant'  Eustorgjo  at  take  place,  and  at  the  hands  of  what  people?  Wb««, 
Milan  (c.  900)  we  find  evidences  that  transverse  arches  we  snail  probablv  never  know,  nor  vet  tiie  exact  date; 
were  thrown  from  each  pier  of  the  arcade  to  the  aisle  but  it  could  not  have  been  earlier  than  1026,  oor  later 
wall,  so  necessitating  the  addition  of  a  flat  pilaster  to  than  1076.  San  Flaviano  at  MonteGascone,  autixmti- 
each  nier  to  take  the  spring  o(  tbe  arch.  Theee  arches  eaily_  dated  1032,  has  aisles  with  rib  vaults  which  an 
may  nave  been  evolved  for  the  purpose  ot  strengthen-  possibly  original  and,  if  so,  are  the  earliest  on  reccvd, 
ing  the  fabric,  or  for  ornamental  reasinis,  or  in  unita-  whilethenavevaultofSant  AmbrogjoatMilaa(c.l060) 
tion  of  similar  arches  in  the  Carolin^D  domical  is  of  Cully  developed  rib  construction.  '"Hie  most  re- 
churches;  but  whatever  their  source  the  fact  remains  cent  authorities  (such  as  Venturi,  Storia  dell'  Arta 
that  they  form  the  first  structural  step  towards  the  Italiana,  1903,  who  cites  Stiehl,  1898)  accept  the  view 
evolutionoftheGothicsystemof  construction.  Next,  that  tbe  vaults  are  of  foreign  fashion  derived  from 
transverse  arches  were  thrown  across  the  nave,  the  Butgundy,  and  were  about  contemporaneous  with  th« 
first  recorded  example  being  the  church  of  SS.  Felice  oampanile[I129].  .  ,  .  It  seems  that  on  the  evidence 
e  Fortunate  at  Vioenia,  dated  985.  Neither  for  struct-  we  are  compelled  to  suppoee  that  Sant'  Ambnwio  de- 
rml  nor  lesthetic  reasons  was  it  neoeesary  that  these  rived  its  scheme  of  construction  from  Normandy.  It 
may  be  that  the  origin  of  the  vault  is  to  be  sou^t  for 
in  Normandy,  or  even  in  England ;  but  there  are  many 
reasons  for  thinking  that  the  seed  idea,  like  so  many 
others,  came  from  the  East."  (W.  R.  Lethaby, "  Me- 
diaeval Art",  IV,  109-lU,) 

In  all  probability  tbe  Lombards  are  the  originators 
of  this  device  so  pregnant  of  future  possibilities.  The 
new  vault,  ^«ined,  ribbed,  and  domed,  was  in  a  class 
by  itself,  apart  from  anything  that  had  gone  before. 
Particularly  did  it  diSer  from  the  Roman  vault  in 
that,  while  the  latter  had  a  level  crown,  obtained  by 
using  semicircular  lateral  and  truisveise  arches  and 
elliiitical  Eroin  arches  (naturally  formed  by  tjie  inter- 
section of  two  eemicircular  barrel  vaults  of  equal  ra- 
dius), the  "Lombard"  vault  was  constructed  with 
semicircular  diagonals,  the  result  being  that  domical 
form  which  was  always  retained  by  tbe  Gothic  build- 
ers of  Fiance  because  of  its  intrinsic  beauty.  Finally, 
the  new  diagonals  suggested  new  vertical  sunports  m 
the  angles  ofthe  pier,  and  so  we  obtain  the  fully  devel- 
Abbatb  AVI  DtHBs,  CuH  E!P^  Compound  pier,  which  later,  at  the  hanos  of  the 

English,  was  to  be  carried  to  such  extremes  of  beauty, 
nave  arehes  should  spring  from  every  pier,  so  every  and  to  fonn  a  potent  factor  in  the  development  of  tbe 
alternate  pier  was  chosen,  the  intermediate  transverse  pure  logic  of  the  Gothic  structural  system. 
aisle  arch  being  suppressed  and  tbe  pier,  Uiat  no  The  bst  step  in  the  workine-out  of  the  Gothic  vault- 
longer  had  a  lateral  arch  to  support,  reduced  in  else,  ing  plan  remained  to  be  taken — the  substitution  of 
To  support  the  great  nav«  arcbea,  pilastere  were  of  oblong  for  square  vaulting  areas.  This  was  finally 
course  attached  to  the  nave  face  of  the  pier,  and  these,  accomplished  in  the  Ile-de-France  after  various  Nor- 
as well  as  the  aisle  pilasters,  were  made  semicircular  in  man  experiments,  the  evidences  of  which  remain  in  the 
plan.  If  we  assume,  as  we  may,  that  in  other  exam-  vaults  of  St-Gcorgra  de  Bocherville  aad  the  two  great 
pies  all  the  transverse  arches  of  the  aisle  were  retained,  abbeys  of  Caen.  The  sexpartite  vaulting  of  the  latter, 
while  only  each  alternate  pier  bore  a  nave  arch,  we  together  with  that  of  tbe  five  other  similarly  vaulted 
shall  have  a  plan  made  up  of  compound  piers  supports  Norman  churches  and  of  the  choir  of  St-Denis  at 
ing  lon^tudinal  and  transverse  wall-bearing  arches  Paris,  has  always  been  an  architectural  pustle,  since  it 
that  divide  the  entire  area  into  st^uares,  targe  and.  is  manifestly  a  stage  in  tbe  development  of  the  oblong 
nnall,  the  great  square  of  the  nave  bemg  four  timeetiie  quadripartite  vault,  and  yet  is  found  in  these  cases 
area  of  eacn  aisle  square.  some  years  after  the  latter  system  is  known  to  hav« 

The  next  slep  for  a  people  on  the  highway  of  prog-  been  fully  understood  in  France,  and  nearly  three- 
ress  would  be  the  vaultmg,  in  masonry,  of  these  quarters  of  a  century  later  than  the  vault  of  Sant'  Am- 
squarea,  for  the  wooden  roofs  were  inflammable ;  more-  bro^.  There  is  reason  to  suppose  that  it  is  a  revival 
over theCsroiingian  builders  hadconstantlysovaulted  of  some  of  the  earlier  eiperimen la  in  the  development 
their  smaller  square  roof  areas.  The  process  began  at  of  the  large,  oblong,  high  vault  from  t^e  small,  square, 
once,  and  of  course  with  the  aisle  squares,  where  the  aisle  vault.  It  is  conceivable  that  sexportite  vaults 
structural  problem  was  simplest.  The  date  is  not  ro-  may  once  have  existed  in  Lorabardy  and  before  the 
corded ;  no  early  examples  remain  in  Lombardy,  but  in  quadripartite  vault  was  evolved ;  this  would  explain  the 
Normandy  we  find,  about  1060,  churches  which  poe-  persistence  in  Sant'  Ambrogio  of  the  vaulting  shafts 
sess  aisles  covered  by  square,  groined  vaults,  with  the  on  the  intermediate  piers,  for  which  no  aj^aient  res- 
transverse  arches  showing.  The  next  step  was  of  son  exiate.  The  vault  of  the  Abbaye  aux  Dames  may 
course  the  vaulting  of  the  great  squares  of  the  nave,  be  considered  either  as  a  ribbed  quadripartite  vault  of 
but  before  this  was  attempted  the  rib  vault  was  de-  square  plan,  bisected  and  strengthened  by  a  trans- 
vised,  and  tbe  task  rendered  structurally  more  simple,  verse  arch  with  solid  spandrels,  or  as  a  series  of  trans- 
The  old  transverse  aisle  arehes  bad  given  the  hint;    verse  arches,  one  on  each  pair  of  nave  piers,  with  the 


roof  spacefl  filled  in  by  curved  surfaces  of  stone  sup- 
ported on  diagm&l  ritn  meeting  on  the  crown  of  each 
alternate  transverse  areb.    In  Ibe  first  caae  would  be 


indicated  a  fear  to  trust  the  stability  of  so  lai^  i 
quadripartite  vault,  until  experiment  proved  its  effi- 


9  oormo 

stead  of  a  decorative  adiunct,  while  the  successive 
steps  in  the  evolution  of  tne  flying  buttress  remain  on 
record  and  are  peculiarly  interesting.  In  the  Abbaye 
aux  Hommea,  "the  expedient  was  adopted  of  con- 
structing half'barrel  vaults  epringinK  from  the  aisle 
walls  and  abutting  against  the  vaults  of  the  nave 
beneath   the   lean-to   roof.      These   were   in   reality 


t  ion  met  the  concentrated  action  of  the  vautte  that  they 
were  deswned  to  stay,  the  greater  part  of  it  operating 
against  the  walls  between  the  piers  where  no  abut- 
ments were  required "  (Moore,  op.  cit.,  I,  12,  13).  In 
the  Abbaye  aux  Dames  these  defects  were  remedied, 
for  all  the  barrel  vault  was  cut  away  except  that  nar- 
row part  which  abutted  againet  the  apring  of  the  vault. 
The  flying  buttress  had  l>een  invented.  Aa  yet  it  was 
hidden  under  the  triforium  roof  and  did  not  declare 
itself  to  the  eye,  but  functionally  it  was  complete. 

The  fruit  of  the  Cluniac  reform  workmg  on  Norman 
blood  had  been  the  evolution  of  the  main  lines  of  the 
Gothic  plan  (barring  the  easterly  termination,  or 
ehtvet)  tt^tber  with  the  development  of  the  Gothic 
system  of  vaulting  and  the  Gothic  principle  of  concen* 
trated  thrusts  met  by  pier  buttresses  and  flying  but- 
tresses. The  true  "Gothic  system"  is  therefore  the 
product  of  Normandy.  In  the  meantime  what  had 
been  done  towards  the  working-out  of  the  other  half 
of  the  Gothic  idea — the  discovering  anew  of  the  under- 
lying principles  of  pure  beauty,  their  analysis  into  the 
dements  of  form  and  composition,  proportion,  rela- 
tion and  rhythm,  line  and  colour,  and  chiaroecuro-:- 
and  finally  what  had  been  accomplished  in  the  direc- 
tion of  evolving  that  new  quaUty  of  form-expreBsion 
which,  differing  as  it  does  from  any  school  of  the  past, 


F*cu>B.  Notbb-Dau,  Fjuub 
ciency:  in  the  second,  a  stage  in  the  evolution  of  the 
great  Sant'  Ambro^o  vault,  all  local  evidence  of  which 
Has  been  lost.  The  vault  of  the  Abbaye  aux  Hommes 
is  one  more  stage  in  the  development ;  here  the  vault 
surfaces  are  cuived  both  from  the  transverse  arch  and 
frotn  the  intermediate  arch,  which  so  becomes,  not  an 
arch — as  in  the  Abbaye  aux  Dames — but  a  true  vault- 
;i,      T\ II  ;„  „  ygrv  BtronK  vaulting  sv , 


to  time,  or  that  Abbot  Suger  liimself  should  have  boi^ 
rowed  it  for  his  fine  new  abbey,  choosing  it  for  its 
strength  or  its  beauty  in  place  of  the  simpler  and  more 
open  quadnpartite  vault. 

In  the  meantime  the  second  great  structural  prob- 
lem, that  of  the  abutment  of  the  vault  thruste.  had 
been  solved  by  the  Normans.  In  Roman  construction 
the  thrust  of  barrel  vaulu  had  been  neutraliied  by 
walls  of  great  thickness,  that  of  groin  vaults  either  by 
the  same  clumsy  expedient  or  by  transverse  walls; 
when  the  Lombards  firat  threw  their  transverse  arches 
across  narrow  aisles,  they  added  shallow  exterior  pi- 
laster-stripe at  the  point  of  contact,  rather  it  would 
aeem  for  decorative  than  for  structuial  reasons,  as  the 
walls  already  were  strong  enough  to  take  the  slight 
thrust  of  the  small  arches.  With  the  vaulting  of  thenave 
the  problem  became  serious;  in  Sant'  Ambrogio  they 
dared  not  raise  the  spring  of  the  high  vault  above  the 
triforium  floor,  and  the  thrust  of  the  vault  was  taken 
by  two  massive  arches  spanning  the  aisles,  one  below 
this  floor,  the  other  above,  the  latter  being  hidden 
under  the  wide,  sloping  roof  of  the  nave  which  was 
continued  unbroken  to  the  aisle  walls.  This  was,  of 
course,  but  the  transverse  wall  of  the  Romans^  pierced 
by  arched  openings;  the  result,  was  unbeautiful,  and 
the  task  fell  to  the  Normans  of  devising  a  better  and 
more  scientific  method.  At  their  hands  the  Lombard 
pilaster-strip  became  at  once  a  functional  buttress  in- 


certain  large  architectonic  qualities  first  revealed  in 
Jumi^ges,  and,  following  thiSj  in  the  Abbeys  of  Caen 
and  St-Georges  de  BocherviUe.  The  Abbaye  aux 
Hommes  is  the  norm  of  all  French  cathedrals;  the  Ab- 
baye aux  Dames,  of  the  English  order;  while  Jumi^ges, 
the  first  in  date,  remains  one  of  the  most  astonishing 
buildings  in  history.  If  it  had  antecedents,  if  it  came 
as  the  culmination  of  a  long  and  progressive  series  of 
experiments  in  the  development  of  architectonic 
form,  the  evidence  is  forever  lost,  tor.  as  it  now  stands, 
it  is  isolated,   almost  preternatural.     So  far  as  we 


know,  it  had  no  precursors^  and  yet  here  are  the  ma- 
jestical  ruins  of  a  monastic  church  larger  than  any 
since  the  time  of  Constantine  and  far  in  advance,  so 
far  as  design  and  development  are  concerned,  of  any 
contemporary  structure.  Montier  en  Der,  an  abbey 
of  Haute-Mame,  built  by  Abbots  Adso  and  Berenger 
(960,  99S),  is  the  only  recorded  structure  which  bears 


OOTHIO  670  OOTBIO 

the  least  kinahip  to  Jumi^Ees,  and  the  difference  be-  mento  were  always  on  a  small  scale.    During  the  aeo- 

tweea  the  two— separated  By  only  fifty  yeare— is  that  ond  phase  {1140-80)  the  problem  of  vaultmg  gre&t 

between  barbarism  and  civilization.     AU  that  was  naves  was  attacked;  the  evolution  centres  in  the  pecu- 

good  in  Lombard  architecture  has  been  aesiniilAt^d,  liardevdopment  which  the geniusof  the  French build- 

and  ia  addition  we  find  fixed  for  the  whole  Gothic  pe-  ers  gave  to  the  concealed  flying  buttress  and  to  th« 

riod   those  lofty  and  monumental  proportions,  that  sexpartite  vault,  both  borrowed  from   Nonnandy" 

masterly  settjag  out  of  plan,  the  powerful  grouping  of  (Porter,  op.  cit.,  II,  M).     "Rie  semicimulBr  ambula^ 

lofty  towers,  the  final  organism  of  arcade,  triforium,  tory  of  Morienval  (c.  1122),  with  i\a 


Etienne  at  Beauvais  (c.  1130),  of  which  Profeaaor 
Moore  says  that  with  the  exception  of  St-Louis  of 
Poissy  it  ia  "  the  only  Romanesque  structure  extant  on 
the  soil  of  France  that  was  unmistakably  designed  for 
ribbed,  groined  vaulting  over  both  nave  and  aisles", 
are  valuable  landmarks  in  the  development.  Ilie 
second  task  of  the  French  buildeia  was  simplified  by 
the  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch.  As  in  the  case 
of  the  ribbed  vault,  there  is  no  means  of  knowing  the 
exact  source  from  whence  this  was  derived.  It  had 
been  in  um  in  the  East  for  neariy  a  thousand  years  be- 
fore  it  appeared  in  the  West;  it  was  established  in  the 
South  of  France  as  an  effective  and  economical  con- 
tour for  barrel  vaulta  by  the  year  1050,  whence  it  mi- 
grated to  Burgundy  and  ao  to  Berry  (where  it  appears 
m  1110),  but  always  in  connexion  with  vaulte  rather 
than  arches.  The  earliest  structural  pointed  arch 
recorded  in  France  is  in  the  ambulatory  of  Morienval, 
referred  to  above,  and  is  dated  1122. 

Ch>V.T.   CATH.DR*!.  OF  B..OV*U  .„I?M,:^°™'„"A'!?^™^".^-u"'?L!f  l^-^! 

and  clerestory  that  together  were  to  set  the  type  of 
Gothic  arehitectitre  for  its  entire  term  and  endure  un- 
changed, thou^  infinitely  perfected,  so  long  as  the  „  „  . 
Christian  civilization  of  the  Middle  Ages  remained  hard  to  believe  that  the  races  that  had  produced  Sant' 
operative.  After  JumiSges  the  abbeys  of  Caen  were  Ambrogio  and  Jumiiges  should  not  have  worked  out 
easy,  and,  given  a  continuation  of  cultural  conditions,  independently  the  idea  of  the  pointed  arch.  Its  two 
Amiens  and  Lincoln  inevitable.                                            great  virtues  are  its  slight  thrust  as  compared  with  the 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century  these     round  an^  and  its  in&iite  possibilities  of  vatiatioD  in 
cultural  conditions  ceased  in^Normandv.    After  the     height.    The  elliptical  diagonals  of  the  Romans  did 
death  of  William  the  Conqueror  the  ducny  tell  on  evil     not  commend  thenwelves  to  the  builders  of  the  North, 
times,  and  the  working  out  to  its  logical  and  supreme     and  the  doming  that  resulted  from  the  uniform  use  of 
conclusion  of  the  great  style  it  had  initiated  fell  into     semicircular  arches,  while  not  offensive  in  the  caae  of 
other  hands  viz.,  those  of  the  French  of  the  old  Ro^     square  areas,  became  impossible  where  oblong  spaces 
Domain  and  of  the  transplanted  Normans  in  England,     were  to  be  covered,  the  expedient  of  stilting  the  lon^ 
In  France  the  eleventh  centuij  had  been  marked  by     tudinal  arches  not  yet  having  suggested  itself.     With 
royid  inefficiency,  unchecked  feudal  tyranny,  episco- 
pal insubordination  to  papal  control,  indifference  to 
the  Cluniac  reform,  and  general  anarchy.     By  the 
middle  of  the  century  Cluny  had  done  its  immediate 
work  and  had  begun  to  lapse  from  its  lofty  ideals,  but 
others  were  to  take  its  place  and  do  its  work,  and  in 
1075  St.  Robert  of  Molesme  founded  in  Bui^ndy  the 
first  bouse  of  that  Cistercian  Order  which  was  to  play 
in  the  twelfth  century  the  part  that  Cluny  had  played 
in  the  eleventh.     The  preliminary  fieht  that  was  to 
clear  the  ground  in  France  began  with  the  Council  irf 
Reims  called  by  Pope  Leo  IX  (1049-1054),  when  the 
sovereign  pontiff  and  the  monastic  orders  made  com- 
mon cause  against  the  simony,  secularism,  and  inde- 
pendence of  the  French  episcopate.    The  contest  wad 
carried  on  simultaneously  with  the  even  greater  fight 
against  the  empire,  and,  as  there,  the  victory  re- 
mained with  the  papacy.     With  the  close  of  the  elev- 
enth century  conditions  in  France  had  become  such 
that  the  torch  that  fell  from  the  hands  of  the  decadent 

Norman  could  be  caught  by  the  crescent  Frank  and  thb  Cithbdbai.  or  Raiua 

carried  on  without  a  pause. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century  the  out-  the  pointed  arch  in  use,  all  difficulties  disappeared, 
burst  of  architectural  vigour  in  the  Ile-de-France  is  Once  introduced  it  became  in  a  few  years  the  univer- 
very  remarkable.  Soissons,  Amiens,  and  Beauvaia  sal  form,  and  its  beauty  was  such  that  it  immediately 
became  simultaneously  centres  of  activity,  and  the  won  its  way  ^^inst  the  round  arch  tor  the  spanning 
rib  vault  makes  its  appearance  at  the  same  time  in  of  all  voids.  Almost  coincidently  with  the  acceptance 
many  places.  "Uurihg  the  firet  phase  of  the  transi-  of  the  pointed  arch  came  the  device  of  stilting,  the 
tion,  1100-40,  the  builders  stru^ed  to  master  the  rib  transverse  arches  of  Bury  (c.  1125)  being  so  treated. 
vault  in  its  simpler  problems:  they  learned  to  con-  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  to  the  Gothic  build- 
struct  it  on  square  and  on  oblong  plans  and  even  over  ers  the  value  of  the  pointed  arch  lay  rather  in  its  com- 
tiie  awkward  curves  of  ambulatones,  but  their  experi-    paratively  small  thrust  and  in  its  intrinsic  bsauty  than 


aoram  6< 

in  the  facility  with  which  it  might  be  used  for  obtain- 
ing level  crowns  in  oblong  vaulting  areas.  This  stilt- 
ing of  the  longitudinal  arches  was  from  the  beginning 
almost  invariable  in  France;  structuraJly,  it  concen- 
trated the  vault  thrust  on  a  comparatively  narrow 
vertical  line,  where  it  could  be  easily  handled  by  the 


lines  and  the  delicately  waved  or  twisted  surfaces  i 
so  beautiful  in  themselves  that,  once  discovered,  they 
could  not  be  abandoned  by  the  It^cal  and  b^uty- 
loving  Pianks. 

The  structural  and  (esthetic  advance  was  now  head- 
long in  ila  impetuosity.  A  few  years  after  Bury,  St^ 
Germer  de  Fly  was  built,  the  date  assigned  by  Profee- 
Bor  Moore  being  about  1130.  Here  we  find  a  building 
almost  asBurpnaingas  JumiSges;  for  if  the  date  quoted 
above  is  correct,  the  church  has  no  prototype,  no  pre- 
ceding stages  of  experiment.  The  vaultmg,  both  of 
the  ambulatory  and  of  the  apse,  is  stilted  and  has  its 
full  complement  of  ribs,  the  shafting  throughout  b 
finely  articulated,  the  dimensions  are  stately,  the  pro- 
portions just  and  effective,  while  the  easterly  temiina' 
tion  is  a  perfectly  developed  apse  with  rudimentary 
chapels — a  dievet  in  ■po»m.  The  flying  buttresses  are 
still  concealed  under  the  triforium  roof,  and  out- 
wardly the  building  has  no  Gothic  character  whatever; 
but  the  Gothic  organism  is  practically  complete. 

With  Abbot  Suger's  St-Denis,  the  easterly  termina- 
tion of  which  is  oforiginal  construction  and  is  dated 
1140,  we  come  to  what  is  almost  the  fully  developed 
Gothic  plan,  order  and  system,  tcffiether  with  the  true 
ehevet  of  double  apeidal  aisles  aniTchapels.  This  last 
feature,  peiiiaps  the  most  brilliant  in  conception  and 
splendid  in  effect  of  the  several  parts  of  a  Godiic 
cnurch,  may  have  been  derived  either  from  the.triap- 
sidal  termination  of  the  Carlovingian  basUican  churcn, 
or  from  the  polygonal  domed  structures  of  the  same 
epoch.  Transitional  forms  are  found  throughout  the 
eleventh  centutTj  and  the  development  from  such  a 
plan  as  that  of  St-Generou,  on  the  one  hand,  or  Aa- 
chen, on  the  other,  to  St-Denis  presupposes  only  Uiat 
decree  of  inventive  force  and  overflowing  vitality 
which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  existed  during  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries. 

With  the  chevtt  as  fuNy  developed  aa  it  now  appears 
in  St-Denis,  there  remains  only  the  gradual  perfection 
and  refinement  of  the  structural  system  and  the  giving 
it  that  quality  of  distinctive  beauty  in  every  aspect 
^at  was  to  be  the  very  fiowering  of  the  Catholic  civi- 
lization of  the  Middle  Ages.  From  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century  both  processes  went  on  apace  and 
simultaneously.  Noyon  followed  immediately,  and 
here,  it  is  mamtained  the  flying  buttress  tor  the  first 
time  emerged  through  the  roof  displaying  in  logical 
fashion  the  system  of  cojistruction,  and  at  the  same 
time  bringing  the  abutment  above  the  spring  of  tlie 
vault,  where  the  greatest  thrust  actually  occurred, 
while  permitting  the  lowering  of  the  triforium  roof  so 
that  tne  clerestory  windows  might  be  given  greater 
height  and  broi^ht  into  better  proportion  with  tie 
arcade  and  triforium.  Senlis,  ol  the  same  date,  eX' 
hibits  a  great  advance  in  mechanical  skill  and  logical 
exactitude,  with  an  innovation  that  commands  less 
admiration — the  substitution  of  cylindrical  columns 
for  the  intermediate  piers  on  the  caps  of  whidi  rest 
the  shafts  of  the  intermediate  ribs  of  the  sexpartite 
vault.  Continued  in  Notre-Dame,  Paris,  this  clever, 
but  unconvincing,  device  proved  to  be  but  an  experi- 
mental form,  and  was  abandoned  as  unsatisfactory  in 
the  greatest  monuments  of  French  Gothic,  such  as 
Chartres,  Reims,  Bourses,  and  Amiens,  where  recourse 
wasiiad  to  the  specifically  Gothicoompound  pier,  with 
the  shafts  of  the  transverse  ribs,  at  least,  of  uie  vault, 
brought  frankly  and  firmly  down  to  the  pavement. 

The  cathedral  of  Paris  was  bqgun  in  1163  with  the 
choir,  find  completed  in  1235  with  the  ndaing  of  the 


western  towers.  From  East  to  West  there  is  a  steady 
growth  in  certainty  of  touch,  in  stnicturoi  efficiency, 
and  in  the  expression  through  beauty  of  form  and  Ime 
of  the  culminating  civilization  of  medievalism.  The 
interior  order  exhibits  the  defects  of  the  imperfectly 
organized  Norman  system,  particularly  in  iLe  lofty, 
vaulted  triforium  or  gallery,  so  great  in  size  that  there 
is  no  tiythm  in  the  relationship  of  arcade,  triforium, 
and  clerestory,  tc«etber  with  the  columnar  scheme  of 
Sens  and  Noyon  {the  imposing  of  the  vault  shafts  on . 
the  caps  of  plain  cylindrical  crfumns),  which  must  be 
regarded  as  a  falling  back  from  the  peifect  articula- 
tion of  the  true  Gothic  system.  The  plan,  however,  is 
nobly  developed,  the  general  relations  of  height  and 
breadth  fine  to  a  degree,  while  in  the  west  front  (1210- 
35)  Gothic  desisn  reaches,  perhaps,  the  highest  point 
it  ever  achieved  so  far  as  classical  simplicity,  power, 
and  proportion  are  concerned.  The  seed  of  Jumiiges 
has  developed  into  full  fruition.  The  fagade  of  Notre- 
Dame  must  r&ok  as  one  of  the  few  entirely  perfect 


Iht^uos  Vmw  of  Sbhh  Cathbdbai. 

architectural  accomplishments  of  man.  With  the  ca- 
thedral of  Paris,  also,  the  new  art  shone  itself  in  all  its 
wonderful  inclusiveness ;  design,  as  apart  from  con- 
structive science,  appears  full  flood  in  the  entire  treat- 
ment of  the  exterior;  the  Lombard  rose  window  has 
been  evolved  to  its  final  point;  decorative  detail,  both 
in  design  and  in  placing,  has  become  sure  and  per- 
fectly competent;  while  sculpture,  stained  glass,  and, 
we  know  from  records,  painting  nave  all  rorged  for- 
ward to  a  point  at  least  even  with  the  sister  art  of 
architecture.  In  sculpture  especially  the  advance 
has  been  amazing.  For  many  generations  it  was  held 
that  the  restoration  of  sculpture  as  a  fine  art  was  due 
to  Italy,  and  specifically  to  Niccolo  Pisano,  but  as  a 
matter  of  fact  the  task  was  accomplished  in  France  a 
century  liefore  his  time.  The  revival  began  in  the 
South,  where  Byzantine  remains  v  ' 


reBvi 
the  tradition  stui  lingered.    At  Clermont-Ferrand,  by 


ducing  works  which  show  "  a  grace  and  masteiv  oi  de- 
sign, a  truth  and  tenderness  of  sentiment,  and  a  fine- 


GOTHIO                                672  GOTHXO 

BOSS  and  precision  of  chiselling  that  are  unparalleled  little  later,  in  BeauvaiB,  to  be  the  NemesLs  of  Qothie  art. 
in  any  other  schools  save  those  of  ancient  Greece  and  Finally,  the  system  of  concentrated  loads,  which  made 
of  Italy  in  the  fifteenth  century"  (Moore,  op.  dt.,  possible  a  structure  of  masonry  that  was  but  a  skele- 
XIII,  366).  The  sculptures  of  St-Denis,  of  Quirtres,  ton  of  shafts,  arches,  and  buttresses,  supporting  vaults 
of  SenliB,  and  of  Paris  are  perfect  examples  of  an  art  of  of  stone  and  filled  in  b^  walls  of  glass^  was  so  tempi- 
sculpture  beyond  criticism  in  itself  and  exquisitely  ing  to  the  sense  of  danng  and  to  the  mevitable  l<^c 
adapted  to  its  architectonic  function;  the  statue  of  of  the  French  genius  that  it  led  to  a  recklessness  in  the 
Our  Lady  in  the  portal  of  the  north  transept  of  Paris  reduction  of  solids  to  a  minimum  that,  however  much 
may  be  placed  for  comparison  side  by  side  with  the  it  may  have  justified  itself  structurally,  however  mar- 
masterpieces  of  Hellenic  sculpture  and  lose  nothing  by  vellous  may  have  been  the  results  it  made  possible  in 
the  test.  Of  stained  ^ass  enough  remains  here  and  the  line  of  glowing  and  translucent  walls  of  Apocalyp- 
elsewhere  to  show  how  marvellous  was  the  wholly  new  tic  colour,  must  be  considered  as  falling  away  from  the 
art  brought  into  being  by  the  genius  of  medievalism;  justice  and  the  grandeur  of  a classicaOy  architectonic 
and  that  the  .painting  and  gilding  of  all  the  interior  scheme  such  as  that  of  Chartres.  ''It  was  the  Logic 
surfaces  was  on  a  s^e  of  equal  perfection,  we  are  of  the  Parisian  that  brought  to  his  Gothic  both  its  ex- 
compelled  to  believe.  As  the  cathedrals  and  churches  treme  excellenoe  and  its  decay:  the  science  of  vault 
now  remain  to  us — much  of  the  glass  destroved  by  construction  fell  in  with  his  bent.  The  idea  onoe  hav- 
savage  iconoclasm  and  brutality,  every  trace  of  colour  ing  attracted  him,  his  logical  faculty  compelled  him  to 
vanished  from  the  walls,  while  the  original  altars  foUow  it  to  the  end.  His  vaults  rose  higher  and 
themselves  have  been  swept  away  together  with  their  hi^er;  his  poise  and  counterpoise,  his  linkage  of 
gnrgeous  hangings  and  decorations  (monstrosities  like  thrust  and  strain  grew  more  complicated  and  diuing. 
that  of  Chartres,  for  instance,  taldng  their  places) ;  until  material  mass  disappeared  from  his  design  ana 
shrines,  screens,  and  tombs,  all  wonderf ull v  wrought  his  cathedrals  were  chain-works  of  articulated  stone 
and  glorious  in  colour  and  gold,  shattered  and  cast  pejsged  to  the  ground  by  pinnacles"  (Edward  S. 
into  the  rubbish  heap — ^they  can  give  but  an  inade-  Prior,  ''A  History  of  Gk>thie  Art  in  Elngland",  I,  9). 
quate  idea  at  best  of  the  nature  of  that  Christian  art  The  fact  must  not  be  ignored,  that  even  in  the  culmi- 
which  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  came  as  nating  monuments  of  the  thirteenth  century  in  France 
the  result  of  a  fusion  of  all  the  arts,  each  one  of  which  the  mania  for  skeleton  construction  led  to  unfortunate 
had  been  raised^  to  the  highest  point  of  efficien^.  Of  subterfuges.  The  reduction  of  masonry  was  carried 
the  lost  colour  of  Gothic  art  llr.  Prior  says,  "  We  can  beyond  a  possible  minimum,  and  its  insufficiencv  was 
readily  be  assured  that  nothing  of  crudity  foimd  place  supplemented  by  hidden  bars,  ties,  and  chains  of  iron, 
in  the  colour  scheme  of  the  Middle  Ages — ^for  have  we  '"Ilie  windows  were  sub-divided  by  strong  srates  of 
not  their  illuminated  manuscripts  in  evidence?  For  wrought-iron,  some  of  the  horizontal  bars  ofmidi  ran 
its  pure  and  delicate  harmony,  a  page  of  a  thirteenth  on  throu^  the  piers  continuously.  At  the  S^te 
or  fourteenth  century  manuscript  may  compete  with  Chapelle  a  chain  was  imbedded  m  the  walls  right 
the  work  of  the  greatest  masters  of  colour  that  the  round  the  building,  and  the  stone  vaulting  ribs  were 
world  has  known,  and  we  cannol^^doubt  that  the  same  reinforced  by  ciurved  bands  of  iron  placed  on  each  aide 
mastery  of  brilliant  and  harmomous  tints  was  shown  and  bolted  to  them''  (W.  R.  Lethaby,  "Mediaeval 
in  the  colour  scheme  of  cathedral  paintine"  (op.  cit.,  Art",  VII,  161).  In  epite  of  these  errors  of  a  too- 
Introd.,  19).  Some-hint  of  what  has  been  lost  may  be  perfect  mastery  of  the  art  of  building,  the  great  group 
obtained  from  the  faded  frescoes  of  (!)imabue  and  the  of  cathedrals  that  followed  diuring  tne  thirteenth  cen- 
painters  of  Siena,  as  they  may  be  seen  to-day  at  Assisi  tury  in  France  must  always  remam  the  crowning  ^ory 
and  Florence  and  Siena  itself.  ^  of  Catholic  architecture.  Boiuges,  Ileims^  and 
The  defects  of  Paris  are  almost  wholly  absent  in  Amiens,  with  the  numberless  other  examples  ot  a  per- 
Chartres,  which  is  the  most  nearly  perfect  of  all  fected  art,  from  the  Channel  to  the  I^^nees.  the  Alps 
Gothic  cathedrals  both  in  conception  and  in  the  details  to  the  sea,  form  the  ereatest  cycle  of  buUaingp  in  a 
of  its  woridng  out.  It  is  unquestionably  the  noblest  definite  and  highly  develoi)ed  style  ^t  has  ever 
interior  in  Christendom,  even  though  the  lower  por-  been  produced  by  man,  and  is  the  most  salient  expo- 
tions  of  its  choir  have  been  ruined  by  the  most  aggres-  sition  in  history  of  human  capacity  for  evolvine  a  ma- 
sive  vandalism  known  to  the  eighteenth  century,  terial  perfection  and  iiradiating  it  with  abeolute 
Its  relations  of  dimension  are  of  the  same  final  and  beauty  and  spiritual  significance,  all  under  the  control 
classical  type  as  are  those  of  the  west  front  of  Paris,  and  by  the  impulse  of  a  dominant  and  undivided  re- 
while  it  stands  at  that  middle  point  of  achievement  ligious  faith. 

when  the  defects  of  the  Norman  ssrstem  had  been  There  are  three  abstruse  subjects  connected  with 

eliminated,  and  those  of  the  too  exuberant  vitality  the  nature  and  growth  of  Gothic  architecture  on  which 

of  the  thirteenth  century  had  not  yet  appeared.    As  much  has  been  written,  yet  nothing  thus  far  that  may 

has  beai  said  above,  Gothic  architecture  is  an  impulse  be  considered  finally  conclusive:  (1)  the  Commacini, 

and  a  tendency  rather  than  a  perfectly  rounded  ao-  or  seventh-oentuiy  guild  of  masons;  (2)  Uie  ''struct- 

complishment;  the  element  of  personality  entered  ural  refinements'' to  which  Professor  Goodyear  has 

into  it  as  into  no  other  of  the  great  styles,  and  it  was  devoted  so  much  study;  (3)  the  application  of  certain 

therefore  subject  not  only  to  dazzling  flights  of  spon-  mystical  numbers,  and  their  relations  to  the  solution 

taneous  genius,  but  also  to  the  misguided  imaginings  of  the  problem  of  proportion.    Of  the  Commacini, 

of  daring  iimovators.    The  noble  calm  of  the  Pans  whose  name  first  appears  in  a  mid-fifth-centuiy  docu- 

fagade  was  followed  by  the  nervous  complexity  and  ment,  Mr.  Lethaby  says,  "It  is  generally  held  by 

lack  of  relation  of  Laon.    Only  five  years  after  this  scholars  that  the  word  does  not  refer  to  a  centre  at 

same  masterpiece  of  Notre-Dame  was  achieved,  the  Como,  but  should  be  imderstood  as  signifying  an  asso- 

flying  buttresses  of  the  chevel  ^  were  reconstructed,  ciation  or  guild  of  masons,  and  that  the  Magistri  Com- 

and  m  place  of  the  original  fine  simplicity  and  logic  of  macini  heard  of  in  the  seventh  century  were  of  no 

the  sysrt^m  of  doubled  arcs,  announcing  perfectly  the  special  importance.    It  does  seem  probable,  however, 


«w^  v»-^  » ^ ^    w. ; „^„... _.  may 

the  spring  of  the  high  vault.    Similarly,  when  Amiens  fact  that  in  Italy  the  guilds  had  privile^  which  made 

was  Duilt.  the  just  proportions  of  Chartres  were  sacri-  members  free  to  travel  at  a  time  when  Western  masons 

ficed  to  tne  pndeof  structural  ability,  and  a  faultless  were  attached  to  manors  or  monasteries"  (W.  R. 

harmony  of  parts  and  proportions  yielded  to  wire-  Lethaby,    "Mediaeval   Art",    IV,    114).    Profeasor 

drawn  elegance  and  awe-mspiring  altitudes,  destined  a  Goodyear  may  be  assumed  to  have  proved  that  the 


OOTHIO  67 

ine^ul&ritiea  in  plan,  the  varifttiona  in  spacing,  the 
inolmAtifflt  of  walla,  and  all  the  other  manilold  peculi- 
arities of  medieval  buildine  are  in  many  cases  premedi- 
tated, and  not  the  result  ofnegligence  or  accident.  The 
testhetic  excuse  be  makes  less  obvious,  however,  nor 
has  he  yet  established  any  general  law  which  holds  as 
consistently  as  do  those  governing  architectural  re- 
finements m  Greek  architecture.  The  mystical  de- 
ductions as  to  the  persistence  of  certain  numerical 
laws,  the  occult  properties  of  numbers,  and  the  angle 
called  the  "pi  pitch  from  the  time  of  the  builders  of 
the  pyramids,  all  of  which  are  supposed  to  express 
certain  fundamental  laws  governing  the  universe,  and 
to  have  been  transmitted  from  father  to  son  for  thou- 
sands of  yeara,  until  they  appear  as  the  controlling 
principles  of  Gothic  proportion,  and  the  setting  out  of 
Gothic  plans,  may  be  found  in  "Ideal  Metronomy", 
by  the  Rev.  H.  G.  Wood  (Boston,  1909), 

When  the  chevet  of  Le  Mans  was  finished,  in  1251, 
the  be^nnings  recorded  in  Jumidges  two  centuries  be- 
fore had  worked  themselves  out  to  a  point  beyond 
which  further  wholesome  development  was  impossible. 
The  Franks  had  perfected  what  the  Normans  had 
initiated;  the  structural  scheme  inherent  in  JumiSges 
had  progressed  step  by  step  to  its  conclusion :  the  great 
architectural  harmomes  of  form  and  proportion  and 
dimension,  the  mysterious  and  evocative  powers  of 
■ubtile  and  rhyttimical  relationship,  hao  already 
achieved  their  highest  fniition  in  Chartres  and  Reims, 
while  an  entirely  new  category  of  art,  no  sign  of  which 
had  been  accorded  to  the  Normans,  had  by  the  Franks 
been  brought  again  into  being,  vii.,  that  of  absolute 
beauty  in  ornament  and  decoration,  whether  in  stone 
or  glass  or  pigment,  whether  in  itself  as  isolated  detail 
or  m  regard  to  its  placing  and  disposition.  Moreover, 
this  latter  manifestation  of  art  was  in  terms  radically 
different  to  anything  that  had  gone  before,  although 
the  principles  were  identical  with  those  of  all  great 
art;  "In  breadth  of  design,  co-ordination  of  parts  and 
measured  recurrence  of  structural  and  ornamental  ele- 
ments, the  Gothic  artist  obeyed,  though  in  a  different 
form,  the  same  primary  laws  that  had  governed  the 
ancient  Greek"  (Moore,  op.'cit.,  I.  22).  The  same 
was  true  of  his  sense  of  abstract  and  concrete  beauty; 
in  the  contours  of  his  mouldings,  the  carving  of  bis 
caps  and  crockets,  bosses  and  spandrels,  the  develop- 
ment of  his  decorative  compositions  of  mass  and  line, 
Iknd  light  and  shade,  he  fell  in  no  respect  behind  his 
brothers  of  Greece,  while  he  excelled  those  of  Bysan- 
tium.  The  forms  were  different,  wholly  his  own  and 
origiiial,  but  the  essential  spirit  was  the  same. 

Hi  the  meantime  Gothic  architecture  had  been  fol- 
lowing a  parallel  couVse  of  development  in  Enghmd, 
fcKirrowing  directly  from  Nonnanay  and  France,  a»- 
Bimilating  what  it  so  acquired,  and  giving  to  all  a  dis- 
tinctly national  character  that  tended  from  year  to 
year  further  to  separate  English  Gothic  from  any 
Other,  both  structurally  and  artistically.  No  sooner 
was  the  Conquest  effected  in  1066,  than  the  building  of 
Norman  abbeys,  cathedrals,  and  churehes  was  put  in 
hand.  Actually  the  introduction  of  Norman  Roman- 
esque occurred  sixteen  years  earUer,  vis.,  in  1050, 
when  St.  Edward  the  Confessor  be^n  the  building  of 
Canterbury.  The  earliest  work  differs  in  no  essential 
particular  from  that  of  Normandy,  except  as  regards 
siie,  which  in  many  cases  was  astonishing;  not  only 
were  the  abbeys  often  far  larger  than  anythmg  in  Nor- 
mandy, they  were  the  greatest  buildings  in  Europe. 
Winchester  and  St.  Paul's  were  more  than  double  the 

Kund  area  of  the  Abbaye  aux  Hommes,  while  the 
idon  cathedral  and  Bury  St.  Edmunds  were  each  a 
fourth  larger  even  than  the  gigantic  Cluny  itself. 
From  the  first  the  English  peculiarity  of  great  length 
combined  with  comparatively  narrow  nave  (30-35 
feet  in  clear  span)  is  conspicuous.  As  the  Norman 
buildings  were  destroyed,  and  rebuilt  under  Gothic  in- 
fluence, the  original-setting  out  was  generally  adbered 


to,  and  Gothic  naves  are  seldom  found  of  a  width 
greater  than  that  of  the  Norman.  Very  early,  also, 
occurs  the  typical  deep  English  choir,  Canterbury  in 
1096,  having  one  nine  Days  m  depth.  This  excessive 
length  of  the  eastern  arm  was  due  quite  as  much  to 

Practical  considerations  as  to  those  of  beauty.  Re- 
^on  was  popular  in  England  for  some  centunes  after 
tbe  Conquest,  and  great  quantities  of  worshippers 
had  to  be  provided  for.  In  Spain  the  choir  of  morlts  or 
3ecular  clergy  thrust  itself  through  the  nave  half  way 
to  the  west  doors;  in  Prance  it  usually  took  in  at  least 
the  crossing;  the  cathedrals  of  the  Ile-de-France  were 
secular  and  the  very  wide  choirs  easily  accommodated 
the  few  canons.  In  England,  however,  the  numbers 
of  the  monks  and  canons  was  so  great,  and  so  many  of 
tliat 


tbe  cathedrals  w 


e  monastic 


Bomai 


leir  foundation,  t 


enormously  long  choirs  were  necessary  for  the  seating, 
in  their  narrow  iridtb,  of  those  permanently  attached 
to  each  church. 


The  great  abbeys  and  cathedrals  were  seldom 
vaulted,  being  covered  by  timber  roofs  of  low  pitch, 
except  as  regards  their  easily  vaulted  aisles.  Barrel 
vaults  were  occasionally  used,  ^in  vaults  in  innu- 
merable cases;  the  groin  vault  with  ribs  first  occurs  in 
Durham  in  1093,  an  astonishing  date^  since  tbe  earliest 
ribbed  vault  claimed  for  France  is  m  the  diminutive  , 
church  of  Rhuis,  a  structure  tbe  date  of  which  is  un- 
known, but  is  placed  at  about  1100.  The  earliest 
known  rib  vault  is  claimed  by  Rivoira  to  be  that  of 
SanFlaviano.in  tJmbria,  but  uiereissomedoubt  as  to 
whether  this  is  the  original  vault  of  a  church  known  to 
have  been  built  in  1032.  San  Natiaro  Maggiore,  at 
Milan,  has  an  authentic  rib  vault  of  1075,  and  it  ap- 
pears therefore  that  tbe  choir  vault  of  Durham  is  ear- 
lier than  any  oertam  example  in  France,  however 
small,  and  that  it  was  built  within  twenty  years  of  the 
Stat  dated  rib  vault  in  Lombardy.  The  vaults  of 
Durham  nave  are  pointed  and  ribbed,  and  are  not 
later  than  1128,  six  years  after  the  pointed  arch  ap- 
pears in  the  little  French  church  of  Morienval. 

No  further  development  towards  Gothic  occurred  in 
England  until  tbe  middle  of  the  twelfth  centu^. 
Great  abbeys  in  the  fully  developed  Nonnftn  style, 


GOTmo 


674 


GOTmo 


such  as  Kirkstall  and  Fountains,  Malmesbury,  Peter- 
borough, Norwich,  and  Ely,  were  reared  all  over 
Engiana,  but  the  prevailing  monastic  influence  was 
Benedictine,  and  this  was  always  architecturally  con- 
servative, and  at  the  same  time  magnificent.  Apses 
with  encircling  ambulatories  were  almost  invariable, 

and  there  was  frequent- 
ly the  western  transept, 
as  at  Bury  and  Ely. 
Towards  the  end  of  the- 
Norman  period  the 
Cluniac  influence  great- 
ly intensified  the  native 
nchness  in  decoration 
of  Benedictine  art,  and 
to  this  we  .owe  in  great 
measure  the  rich  and 
intricate  carving  of  the 
late  Norman  work  that 
persisted  down  even  to 
the  chapel  of  Our  Ladv 
at  Glastonbury,  built 
in  1184.  Before  this  date 
had  occurred  two  events 
which  were  to  initiate 
and,  in  varying  degrees, 
control  the  growth  of 
Gothic  in  England:  the 
coming  of  the  Cister- 
cians and  the  rebuilding 
of  Canterbury  choir  by 
William  of  Sens.  The 
Cistercians  always  fa- 
voured Gothic,  over  the 
jat  1^  jjj  massive  and  grandiose 

_  «  ir^  Romanesque  of  the 

Plan  OF  SALI8BURT  Cathedra  Benedictines  and  Clu- 

niacs,  because  of  its  early  austerity  and  the  econ- 
omies it  made  possible  in  building.  Kegular  Canons, 
also,  and  for  similar  reasons,  adopted  the  economical 
new  form,  and  this  double  influence  was  constantly 
exerted  towards  structiu^l  and  artistic  simplicity — 
a  fortunate  thing  for  the  new  style,  since  it  prevented 
a  too  early  flowering  in  the  richness  and  luxuriance  of 
beautiful  detail. 

That  William  of  Sens  introduced  to  England  and  set 
before  English  eyes  so  much  as  he  could  of  so  much  as 
then  existed  of  French  Gothic  is  quite  true,  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  his  was  the  first  Gothic  done  in  Eng- 
land, or  that  it  had  a  wide  or  lasting  influence.  ]£. 
Bond  divides  the  local  adaptation  of  Gothic  into  three 
schools — of  the  West^  the  North,  and  the  Soutii— jriv- 
ing  to  the  former  priority  in  time.  He  says:  "The 
first  complete  Gothic  of  Enjp;land  commences  not  with 
the  choir  of  Lincoln,  but  of  Wells,  as  begun  by  Regi- 
nald FitzBohun  who  was  bishop  from  1174  to  1191. 
...  It  was  in  the  West  of  England  that  the  art  of 
Gothic  vaulting  was  first  mastered;  first,  so  far  as  we 
know,  at  Worcester;  and  it  was  in  the  West,  first  ap- 
parently at  Wells,  that  every  arch  was  pointed  and  the 
semicircular  arch  exterminated"  (op.  cit.,  VII,  105). 
This  development  was  under  wav  at  Worcester,  Dore, 
Wells.  Shrewsbury,  and  Glastonbury,  to  name  only  a 
few  of  the  examples  quoted,  by  the  time  the  work  at 
Canterbui^  passed  from  the  hands  of  William  of  Sens 
to  those  of  William  the  Englishman,  and  there  is  little 
evidence  that  it  had  any  particular  effect  on  the 
progress  already  begun.  In  the  North,  Lincoln  choir 
followed  close  after  Canterbury  and  was  manifestly 
influenced  by  it  in  many  ways,  but  as  Mr.  Bond  says, 
**  it  is  equally  plain  that  the  obligation  is  almost  wholly 
to  the  English  and  not  to  the  French  part  of  that  de- 
sign" (op.  cit.,  VII,  111-12),  for  not  all  of  Canterbury 
choir  is  French,  even  in  the  case  of  the  work  of  William 
of  Sens  himself;  the  slender  shafts  of  Purbeck  marble, 
the  springing  of  the  vault  ribs  from  the  level  of  the 
trifonum  caps  rather  than  from  the  string  course 


above,  the  penetrations  of  the  clerestory,  the  dabo- 
rately  compound  angle  piers,  with  their  ring  (tf  de- 
tached colimms,  are  all  English,  and  it  is  precisely 
these  features  St.  Hugh  copied  at  Lincoln.  Neither 
does  there  appear  in  the  retro-choir  of  Chichester,  be- 
gun about  the  time  William  of  Sens  went  back  to 
France,  any  evidence  that  his  work  had  established  a 
dominating  precedent;  here  the  work  is  of  a  distinc- 
tively native  cast,  the  columns  of  the  arcade  in 
particular  being  original  to  a  degree  and  of  the  most 
distinguished  beauty. 

The  exotic  element  in  Canterbury  proved  to  be  but 
an  episode  and  En^h  Gothic  went  on  developing 
itself  after  its  own  mdependent  fashion.    The  cnoir 
of  Lincoln  exerted  far  greater  influence  and  became 
the  general  model  for  all  parts  of  England.    In  some 
cases  an  attempt,  s^d  a  successful  one,  was  made  to 
dispense  with  the  vault  entirely,  as  at  Hexham,  Tyne- 
mouth,  and  Whitby,  where  in  each  instance  the  timber 
roof  of  the  Anglo-Norman  abbey  was  retained,  and  the 
chief  attention  was  devoted  to  refinine  and  improving 
the  detail  and  composition  of  the  wsdl  design,  where 
extremely  beautiful  results  were   obtain^,   as  at 
Whitby,  by  the  strictly  English  elaboration  of  the 
arch  moulaings  and  the 'profiling  of  the  pier  sections. 
The  flying  buttress  also  was  slow  of  acceptance  and 
never,  indeed,  became  the  striking  feature  it  was  in  all 
the   buildings   of   thirteenth-century   France.    The 
English  cared  little  for  logic  and  less  for  structlffal 
brilliancy,  or  even  consistency;  the  ^oals  they  aimed 
at  were  beauty  in  all  its  forms,  individual  expression, 
novelty,     originality — qualities    they    not    seldom 
achieved  at  the  expense  of  structural  integrity.    The 
Gothic  of  France  was  singularly  consistent;  it  rapidly 
developed  into  a  classical  system  from  which  no  radi- 
cal departures  were  made  and  into  which  the  element 
of  individual  initiative  hardly  entered,  once  the  body 
of  laws  and  precedents  had  been  established.    The 
(Gothic  of  England  never  possessed  any  such  canon 
either  of  loeic  or  of  taste.    Every  bishop,  abbot,  or 
master-builder  strove  to  outdo  his  fellows,  to  strike 
out  some  new  and  dassling  masterpiece,  and  if ,  as  a 
result,     the     medieval 
building  of  England 
failed   of  the  finality, 
the  certainty,  and  the 
uniformity  ot  that  of 
France,  it  achieved  a 
variety  and  personality 
far  in  advance  of  any- 
thing to  be  found  across 
the  channel.  The  sec- 
ond importation  of 
French   ideas,    in   the 
shape  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  was  apparently 
as  helpless  to  change 
the  English   character 
as    Canterbury    choir 
had  been;  here  also  the 
French  setting  out,  the 
chevet,    the    structural 
system,  were  overlaid 
with  English  qualities. 
"  We  may  readily  make 
the    fullest    allowance 
for  French  influence  at 
Westminster,  for  so  en- 
tirely is  it  translated  into  the  terms  of  English  detail  that 
the  result  is  triumphantly  English.    It  is  a  remarkable 
thing  indeed,  that  this  church,  which  was  so  much  in- 
fluenced by  French  facts,  should,  in  spirit,  be  one  €i 
the  most  English  of  English  buildings"  (Lethal^, 
"  Westminster  Abbey  and  the  King's  (Jraftsmen  ",  V, 
125).    French  "  facts  "  were  apparently  as  helpless  to 
control  the  general  building  of  a  people  as  tl^y  had 
been  to  restrain  English  workmen  in  their  detail,  and 


Plan  or  WsnifiNvnut  Abbbt 


GOTHIO                                675  GOXmO 

after  the  great  abbey  was  finished  in  all  its  beauty  completion  in  the  roof  the  fine  drawing  of  multiple 
EiUgland  went  on  as  l)ef  ore.  By  this  time  the  stylistic  piers  and  moulded  arches,  is  swerving  towards  the  un« 
qu^ty  of  English  Gothic  had  been  pretty  well  fixed  in  justifiable  type  that  came  just  before  the  fan  vault, 
such  works  as  Beverlev  choir  ana  transepts;  Christ  i.  e.  the  criss-crossing  of  a  networic  of  purely  decora- 
Church  and  St.  Patrick's,  Dublin;  Ely  presbytery,  tive  ribs  over  the  vaultHSurfaces  in  violation  of  struc- 
Southwell  choir,  Netley  and  Rievaulx  Abbeys,  to-  tural  principle. 

gether  with  the  ''Nine  Altars"  of  Durham  and  Foun*  Decadence  and  perfect  achievement  go  hand  in 

tains,  all  completed  between  the  years  1225  and  1250,  hand — Exeter  nave,  the  finest  IJnflish  interior  remain- 

the  |>eculiar  qualities  of  English  work  had  taken  on  a  ins  intact,  on  the  one  hand,  Wel&  presbytery,  on  the 

definite  and  very  beautiful  form.    This  is  the  period  other.    But  whatever  the  weaknesses  that  were  show* 

usually  denominated  "  Early  English",  and/  wnile  it  ing  themselves,  they  entered  little  into  the  make-up  of 

shows  no  particular  advance  in  structural  develop-  the  great  parisn  churches,  which  represent,  more  tnan 

ment,  it  records  a  notable  change  in  point  of  design*  the  episcopal  and  monastic  structures,  the  genius  of 

nearlv  all  the  attention  of  the  builders  seems  devoted  the  period.    This  was  one  of  the  three  ereat  epochs  of 

to  solving  the  problems  of  beauty  in  form  and  line,  in  such  parish  architecture  in  England,  and  it  is  not  to  be 

detail  and  composition — ^this  chiefly  in  the  interior  forgotten  that  the  true  qualities  of  English  Gothic  art 

treatment.    The  relations  of  the  arcade,  trif orium,  reveal  themselves  quite  as  fully  in  the  minor  as  in  the 

and  clerestory,  the  varying  designs  of  the  latter  with  inajor  buildings  of  this  countiy.    For  a  full  centiuy, 

their  subtile  arrangements  of  slender  shafts  and  deli-  j.  e.  from  1350  until  1450,  the  history  of  Enelish  Gothic 

cate  lancets;  the  beautiful  pier  sections  and  mouldmg  is  largely  a  history  of  parish  church-buildine.    The 

profiles,  together  with  the  sculpture  of  capitals,  bosses.  Black  Death,  which  in  1349  smote  the  land  wim  a  pes- 

crockets,   and  terminals— varying  as   oetween  the  tilen^  that  cut  its  population  almost  in  halves,  was 

many  sub-schools  of  the  four  main  architectural  prov-  followed  by  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  and  the  peace  and 

inces,  yet  always  marked  by  a  ouality  of  pure  b^uty  prosperity  of  Edward  III  did  not  wholly  return  until 

seldom  attainea  even  in  the  Ile-ae-Franoe — all  are  sig-  th%  accession  of  Henry  VII.    During  this  long  period, 

nificant  of  a  distinctively  national  artistic  develop-  however,  the  trend  of  stylistic  development  was  wholly 

ment.  even  though  it  follows  lines  other  than  those  changed  by  the  remarkable  innovations  initiated  by 

that  neld  across  the  Channel.  Abbot  Thokey  at  Gloucester  in  1330,  and  carried  on 

Coincidently  with   the   buOdine  of  Westminster  by  William  of  Wykeham  at  Winchester  from  1380. 

went  on  such  works  as  the  retro-choir  of  fhseter,  the  "The  supreme  importance  of  Gloucester  in  the  history 

presbytery  of  Lincoln,  the  nave  of  Lichfield,  and  Tin-  of  the  later  Gothic  has  never  been  adequately  recog- 

tem  Abbey^  wherein  are  the  first  si^s  of  change  from  nised.    She  turned  the  current  of  English  arcmtecture 

Eirly  English  to  Geometrical.    This  process  was  con-  in  a  wholly  new  direction.    But  for  Gloucester,  Eng- 

tinued  up  to  the  end  of  the  century,  and  in  the  works  lish  Decorated  work  might  well  have  developed  into  a 

of  its  last  quarter  are  to  be  foimd  Uie  highest  attain-  Flamboyant  as  rich  and  fanciful  as  that  of  France, 

mentsof  Enelishart.  Carlisle  choir  and  east  front,Guis-  But  to  uie  remotest  comers  of  the  land,  to  cathedral, 

borough  and  Pershore  choirs,  and  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  abbey  church,  collegiate  and  parish  church,  there  was 

York,  are  all  expressed  in  a  type  of  art  that  rises  to  the  brou^t  the  influence  of  Gloucester  by  the  countless 

level  of  the  highest  attainments  of  man.    The  exqui-  pilgrims  to  the  shrine  of  Edward  the  Second  in  her 

site  line-composition  of  Pershore  and  of  York  Abbeys,  choir"  (Bond,  op.  cit.,  VII,  134).    The  manifest  ten- 

the  refinement  combined  with  masculine  strength,  the  dencies  of  Decorated — ^not,  it  must  be  confessed,  of  the 

swift,  steel-like  curves  of  the  moulding  promes,  the  most  promising  kind — were  terminated,  and  instead  a 

perfected  beauty  of  the  carved  foliage,  together  with  new  progress  was  instituted  towards  the  development 

the  masterly  arrangement  of  the  lines  and  spaces  of  of  what  we  now  know  as  Perpendicular  "  the  first  style 

light,  the  hollows  and  depths  of  shade — all  work  of  architecture  that  can  properly  be  called  English  '* 

t^ether  to  build  up  a  masterly  art.    Much  of  the  pro-  (Moore,  op.  cit.,  VI.  212).    Hitherto  English  Gothic 

duct  of  this  time  has  perished,  and  even  of  York  Ab-  has  been  rather  a  lovely  overlaying  of  Continental 

bey,  which  seems  to  have  represented  the  high-water  principles  by  a  distinctively  racial  decoration  and  a 

mark  of  pure  English  design,  nothing  remains  except  certain  fine  fastidiousness  of  design,  with  minor  modi- 

a  shattered  aisle  wall,  a  crossing  pier,  and  a  few  piles  of  fications  of  plan  and  system  that  left  the  foundations 

marble  fragments.    Though  at  the  beginning  of  the  intact,  so  far  as  they  had  been  apprehended  and  as- 

nineteenth  century  the  greater  portion  of  the  fabric  similated.    Now  was  to  come  a  perfectly  independent 

was  intact,  about  1820  it  was  sold  to  speculators  to  manifestation  in  which  system,  design^  and  decoration 

be  burned  into  lime.  were  all  new  and  all  exclusiveiy  English.    The  adop- 

During  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  archi-  tion  of  the  French  scheme  of  a  structural  framework, 
tectural  progress  was  cumulative,  reaching  its  apo^  the  walls  being  no  longer  of  masonry,  but  of  glass  set 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  The  fine  simplicity  in  a  thin  scaffolding  of  stone  muluons,  was  at  last 
and  almoet  Hellenic  feeling  for  line  visible  in  the  work  adopted,  but  its  wondng-out  bore  almost  no  relation 
of  the  preceding  half  century,  and  that  gives  it  a  place  whatever  to  the  French  method.  Before  the  archi- 
in  this  respect  in  advance  of  any  other  Gothic  work  of  tectural  revolution  there  were  signs  that  sense  of  pro- 
any  time  or  people,  has  yielded  to  decorative  richness,  portion  and  composition  was  decaying,  as  for  example 
the  multiplication  of  ornament  and  detail,  and  an  in-  m  the  Lady  Chapel  of  Ely  (1321),  which  has  almost  no 
tricate  composition  of  h'ght  and  shade.  The  incom-  architectonic  Qualities  to  commend  it,  but.  whether 
g^rable  carving  of  Lincoln  and  Wells,  York  Abbey.  William  of  Wykeham  or  profounder  psychological  in- 
West  Walton,  and  Llandaff,  architectural  yet  with  all  fluences  are  responsible,  tne  fact  remains  that  tne  dan- 
the  qualities  of  form  that  are  found  in  the  noblest  ger  was  averted,  and  England  recalled  to  sounder 
sculpture,  yields  first  to  the  lovely,  but  dangerously  principles,  which  resulted  in  a  new  life  in  Gothic  that 
naturalistic,  type  of  Southwell  chapter  house,  and  persisted  until  Henry  VIII  and  the  regents  under  Ed- 
then  to  the  globular  forms,  the  bulbous  modelling,  ward  VI  brought  the  whole  epoch  of  medieval  civiliza* 
and  the  effete  curves  of  Patrington,  Heckington,  ana  tion  to  an  end  and  surrendered  an  unwilline  people  to 
the  fourteenth-century  tombs  of  Beverley  and  Ely.  the  Reformation.  Winchester  nave  and  York  choir; 
Curvilinear  window  tracery,  in  all  its  suave  grace,  has  Westminster  Hall,  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge, 
taken  the  place  of  the  fine  and  vigorous  geometrical  and  St.  Georee's.  Windsor;  Sherborne  and  Malvern, 
forms  as  of  Netley,  advanced  a  staee  beyond  the  pro-  the  choir  vault  oi  Oxford  cathedral  and  the  chapel  of 
totypes  of  France.  Finally,  the  brflliantly  articulated  Henry  VII  at  Westminster,  toother  with  the  major 
heme  vaulting,  with  its  intermediate  ribs  emphasizing  part  of  the  (hcf  ord  and  Cambndge  colleges,  the  great 
the  verticality  of  the  composition  and  carrying  out  to  central  towers  of  many  of  the  cathedrals  and  abbeys, 


ooTHia                      676  QOTmo 

and,  finally,  parish  churches  of  all  sizes  and  almost  lation  of  piers  and  archivolts,  until  both  beeame 
without  number,  are  indicative  of  the  surprising  new  compositions  of  fine  lines  of  light  and  shade,  wascBiried 
life  in  art  and  therefore  of  the  strength  ot  the  sound  further  in  England  than  elsewhere,  and  the  introduo- 
Catholic  civilization  of  England.  The  beauty  of  the  tion  of  tiercerons,  or  accessory  vault  ribs,  with  tlw 
new  style,  its  structural  inte^ty,  and  its  fecund  variety  ridge  ribs  to  receive  them,  was  in  keeping  with  an  in- 
are  worthy  of  high  admiration.  What  it  lacked  of  the  stinct  that  felt  the  subtle  beauty  of  these  multiplied 
majesty  of  form  and  the  serene  reserve  of  an  earlier  lines.  The  logical  sense,  that  demanded  the  ground- 
time  is  almost  made  up  for  by  a  fineness  of  line,  a  rich-  ing  of  every  downward  thrust  of  vault  rib  either  at  the 
ness  of  design  without  opulence,  and  a  sploidour  of  pavement  or  on  the  abacus  of  the  pier  or  column  caps, 
colour  that  find  few  antecedents  in  history,  while  the  was  not  operative,  and  in  most  cases  the  vaulting 
fan  vault  takes  its  place  as  one  of  the  very  great  inven-  shafts  were  stopped  on  corbels  above  the  level  of  the 
tions  of  architecture.  "  In  these  splendid  vault^gs  of  arcade  capitab.  From  the  Cistercian  aversion  to  or- 
the  fifteenth  century  we  have  indeed  the  last  work  of  nament,  and  perhaps  also  in  part  from  the  use  of 
English  monastic  art''  (Prior,  op.  cit.,  VII.  95).  turned  shafts  of  dark  marble  applied  to  the  piers  and 
Step  by  step,  diverging  steadily  from  her  point  of  bonded  in  by  stone  rings  or  bronse  dowels,  came  the 
departure  from  the  Gothic  of  France,  England  had  turned  and  moulded  cap  with  the  circular  abacus.  In 
worked  out  to  the  full  her  own  form  of  Gothic  artistic  its  polygonal  chapter  houses  England  developed  a  bril- 
expression.  French  precedents  sat  lightly  upon  her,  liant  conception  idl  its  own,  and  almost  the  same 
and  she  was  not  favourably  disposed  to  coercion.    In  might  be  said  of  the  parish  church,  whUe  in  the  design- 

Elan  the  Norman  and  Burgunoian  type  had  been  ad-  ing  of  tombs,  chantries,  reredoses,  choir-screens,  and 
ered  to,  and  instead  of  that  concentration  which  had  chancel-fittines  of  wood,  the  delicate  fancy  of  the 
produced  in  France  a  parallelogram  with  one  end  English  had  lull  plav  in  the  creation  of  a  mass  of  ex- 
semicircular,  there  had  been  an  expansion  which  re-  quisite  sculpture  and  joinery  that  has  no  counterpart 
suited  in  the  episcopal  or  archiepiscopal  cross  plans  of  elsewhere.  If  l<^c  and  consistency  are  the  note  of 
Lincoln,  Beverley,  and  Salisbury — long^  narrow  naves,  French  Gothic,  personality  and  daring  are  those  of  the 
equally  long  choirs,  widely-spreading,  aisled  transepts,  Gothic  of  En^and.  The  west  fronts  of  Peterborou^, 
and  frequently  choir  transepts  as  well,  with  a  deep  Bury  St.  Eklmunds,  Wells,  Ely,  and  Lincoln;  the 
Lady  Chapel  prolonging  the  main  axis  still  further  to  chapter  houses  of  York,  Salisbury,  Lincoln,  and  West- 
the  east.  The  plan  of  a  French  cathedral  such  as  minster;theoctagonof£ny,thefanvaultingofGlouce8- 
Paris  or  Amiens  announces  its  ordonance  but  indiffer-  ter,  Sherborne.  Oxford,  and  Westminster — all  are 
ently;  that  of  an  English  cathedral,  exactly.  Out-  examplesof  a  vitaUty  of  impulse,  a  fertility  in  concep- 
wardly,  the  former  is  hardly  more  than  a  mountainous  tion,  a  soaring  imagination,  and  a  cheerful  disregard  of 
mass  without  composition;  vast  and  awe-inspiring,  scholastic  precedent  that  give  English  Gothic  a  qualily 
but  without  emphasis  or  variety,  except  in  re^uxi  to  of  its  own  as  important  in  the  make-up  of  the  art- 
its  western  front  when  taken  bv  itself.  The  latter —  expression  of  Catholic  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages 
with  its  long,  lateral  facade,  its  building;*up  by  succes-  as  is  the  masterly  and  final  structural  achievement  of 
sive  planes,  both  horizontal  and  vertical,  its  Lady  the  Ile-de-France. 

Chapel,  choir,  central  tower,  and  west  towers,  its  bold  Outside  France  and  England  the  racial  adaptations 
transepts,  porches,  and  chapels — becomes  an  elabo-  of  the  Gothic  impulse  are  much  less  vital  and  distinc- 
rate  yet  monumental  composition  of  brilliant  masses  tive.  Wales  earlv  evolved  a  school  which  had  great 
and  infinitely  varied  light  and  shade.  With  the  ex-  influence  in  the  development  of  style  in  the  West  of 
ception  of  Hales,  Lincoln,  and  Beaulieu  (now  des-  England,  but  it  soon  became  merged  therein  and  did 
troyed),  Tewkesbury,  ana  Westminster,  the  chevet  not  long  preserve  its  identity:  Ireland  shows  in  its 
gained  no  hold  in  England,  nor  did  the  apsidal  termi-  minor  monastic  work  peculiar  and  very  individual 
nation  widely  commend  itself;  instead,  the  square  east  qualities  hitherto  unnoticed,  but  to  which  attention  is 
end  became  the  established  type,  and  when  to  this  was  being  called  at  last  by  Mr.  (Ilhampneys  (cf.  "The 
added  a  retro-choir  with  a  still  lower  Lady  Chapel  still  Architectural  Review  ,  London,  1906;  also  "The 
further  to  the  east,  the  result  was  an  independent  Magazine  of  Christian  Art",  1908).  In  Scotland 
architectural  scheme  equally  admirable  to  that  com-  French  influence  was  more  pronounced  than  in  the 
plex  glory  of  the  Frencn  chevet. — Mr.  Prior  advances  South,  and  the  Norman  of  Jedbuigh  and  Kelso,  the 
the  interesting  theory  that  the  square  east  end  was  a  Gothic  of  Dryburg^,  Melrose,  and  Edinburgh  deserve 
fixed  feature  of  both  Saxon  and  Celtic  church-build-  more  careful  study  than  has  yet  been  given  them.  In 
ing,  that  it  was  taken  to  Burgundv  by  St.  Stephen  all  essential  particulars,  however,  they  are  of  the  Eng- 
Harding,  the  Englishman,  who  had  been  a  monk  of  lish  school,  and  show  no  radical  departures  from  the 
Sherborne  in  Dorset,  where  the  old  national  tradition  ^me  established  in  the  South  by  the  Benedictines, 
had  survived  the  Norman  invasion,  and  that  it  came  Quniacs,  (Cistercians,  Augustinians,  and  Friars.  In 
back  with  the  Cistercians,  who,  by  their  sheer  dynamic  Germany  the  Gothic  expression  was  slow  in  establish- 
f orce,  were  able  to  impose  it  at  last  on  Benedictine  ab-  ing  itself,  few  evidences  appearing  before  the  (jothic 
bev  and  secular  cathedral  aUke,  so  bringing  an  origi-  style  had  reached  perfection  in  France  and  England, 
nally  local  device  to  its  own  again.  He  says  further:  "A  reason  for  this,  may  perhaps  be  found  in  the  fact 
"In  this  matter  the  Canterbury  choir  of  William  of  that  Germany  in  the  twelfth  centuiy  possessed  a 
Sens  was  a  survival  rather  than  a  pattern  for  English  Romanesque  architecture  which,  especially  in  the  im- 
use.  By  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  the  small  Kel-  portant  churches  along  the  Rhine,  was  of  a  very  ad- 
tic  sanctuary  had  imposed  itself  on  the  choirs  of  our  mirable  character  and  was  weU  suited  to  the  needs  and 
Kreat  Norman  churcnes  still  more  decisively  than  it  tastes  of  the  German  people''  (Moore,  op.  cit.^  VII, 
has  in  the  basilican  introduction  of  St.  Augustine''  (A  237).  Another  reason  may  also  be  discovered  m  the 
History  of  Gothic  Art  in  England,  II,  79). — In  height,  further  fact  that  the  pressure  of  Cistercian  influence 
as  related  to  breadth,  the  earlier  and  more  reserved  during  its  great  formative  period  was  towards  France 
French  relations  were  never  exceeded,  while  they  were  and  England  rather  than  in  the  direction  of  Germany, 
often  discounted ;  until  Tudor  times  the  elimination  of  while  the  impulse  of  creative  civilization  in  the  twelfth 
the  wall  in  favour  of  skeleton  construction  combined  century  was  from  Norman  and  Franldsh  rather  than 
with  glass  screens,  found  little  following,  and  a  grave  Teutonic  blood.  When,  about  the  middle  of  the 
and  conservative  relationship  was  preserved  between  thirteenth  century,  French  architects  beean  the  con- 
solids  and  voids.  The  central  tower,  the  culmination  struction  of  the  cathedral  of  Cologne  alter  the  ex- 
and  concentration  of  the  composition,  was  almost  aggerated  manner  of  Beauvais,  they  mi^t  almost 
invariable,  while  the  west  front  was  usually  subordi-  have  claimed  that  theirs  was  the  first  Uothic  structure 
nated  to  the  design  as  a  whole.    The  elaborate  articu-  in  Germany.    Pointed  arches  and  ribbed  vaults  had 


ENGLISH  GOTHIC  INTERIORS 

HENBT  Vll'S  CHAPEL,  VESTHINSTER  ABBEY  RBREI>OS,  WINCHEBTES  CATBXDRUi 

MATE  or  EXSTEB  CATHEDRAI.  PEBBBOOX  ABBET 


°i 


S  ^ 


if: 


OOTHIO  677  GOTHIO 

appeared  Bporadically  in  some  of  the  larger  ohurchea    Gothic  certainlj  contributes  valuable  elements  to  tbe 
at  the  end  of  the  twelftii  centui7,  such  aa  Worms,    total  of  medieval  art.     During  the  eleventh  centuty 
Maim,  and  Bamberg,  but  tiie  lateral  arches  aie  not    one  school  after  another  had  come  into  existence  in 
stilted,  and  so  far  as  proportion,  design,  exterior    almost  every  part  of  Italy,  aJI  based  more  or  less  nn 
treatment  and  detail  are  concerned,  these  churches    some  local   modification  of   the   primitive   basilican 
are  strictly  of  the  Rhenish  Romanesque  type,  as  are    idea,  yet  varying  in  different  directions  as  the  peculiar 
indeed,  outwardly,  the  internally  more  Gothic  Magde-    influences  of  each  section  might  direct.     In  Torceilo, 
burg  and  LimburK.     St.  Gereon,  Cologne,  and   the    Hurano,  and  Venice  these  were  naturally  Byzantine, 
■  Liebfrauenldrche,  Trier,  the  first  competed  in  1227,    more  or  less  modified  by  the  variations  at  Haveima. 
the  second  be^un  in  the  same  year,  are  churches  oi    In   Sicily,  Byiantine    mflueuce  was   mingled   with 
novel  plan,  each  apparently  having  resulted  from  an    strains  from  Mohammedan  sources  and  with  a  strong 
effort  to  turn  a  French  chevet  into  a  church  by  repeat-    influence  brought  in  by  King  Roger  and  his  Norman 
ing  its  design,  so  producing  a  plan  approximating  a    followers.     Pisa  and  florence  worked  on  their  own 
circle,  and  harking  back  in  an  indet«rminate  sort  of    lines  with  some  slight  Lombardic  admixture,  while 
■   way  to  the  polygonal,  domed  churches  of  Charie-    those  portions  of  the  peninsula  under  Lombard  oon- 
magne;  in  both  cases  French  schemes  and  fonns  have    trol  developed  their  vital  and  inspiring  style  from  the 
been  used  rather  superficially  and  with  little  apprecia- 
tion.   Cologne  remains,  in  spite  of  these  examples,  the 
first  church  in  Germany  that  is  strictly  Gothic  in  its 
idea  and  its  setting  out,  but  even'  here  its  detail  and 
ornament  are  German  rather  than  French.    It  had  a 
considerable  influence  on  the  superficial  development 
of  style,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  centui^  such 
works  as  St.  Elizabeth,  Marburg,  and  the  cathedrals 
of  Strasbu:^  and  Freiburg  show  the  spreading  of  a 
style  that  had  come  too  late  to  reach  any  very  com- 
plete fruition.     Until  tie  end  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
when  curious  fantasies  in  design  and  decoration  gave 
to  German  Gothic  a  certain  unquestioned  individual- 
the  contributions  to  tlie  development  of  this  phase 
rt  were  not  notable;   the  most  conspicuous  is  the 
Hallenbau  scheme  which  consists  in  raising  one  or 
more  aisles  on  either  side  of  the  nave  to  an  eaual 
height  therewith,  or  rather  in  building  a  great  nail 
roofed   with    level    vaulting   supported   on    rows  of 
slender  shafts  dividing  it  into  aisles.     LUbeck  has  five 
of  these  aisles,  others  no  less  than  seven.     The  Hall- 
tnbau  church,  whatever  its  width,  was  usually  covered 
by  one  enormous  roof,  and  the  result,  both  mtemally 
and  externally,  is  as  far  as  possible  from  the  Gothic  idea 
of  a  iogical  assemblage  of  parts,  each  bearing  a  just 
and  beautiful  proportion  to  the  others,  all  interrelated 
and  forming  a  highly  articulated  organism,  the  exte- 
rior of  which  announced  explicitly  every  structural 
form   of   plan    and    ordonance.     The    "open-work" 
spire,  sucD  as  that  of  Freibuiv,  is  a  German  develop- 
ment of  a  Flamboyant  idea,  which  hod  much  ffisthelio- 
ally  to  commend  it,  its  laodike  surfaces  being  often 
treated  with  great  effectiveness. 

Flemish  Gothic  is  distinctly  a  sub-school  of  that  of  is  very  pronounced,  St.  Mark's 
France  rather  than  of  Germany.  The  nave  of  Tour-  at  Florence,  Cefalu,  Monreale.  and  the  Capella  Pala- 
nai,built  in  1060  is  still  Rhenish  Romanesque,  thou^  tina  in  Sicily;  Troia,  Toacanella,  San  Michele  at 
pointed  arches  and  certain  Burgundian  qualities  are  Pavia,  San  &no  at  Verona— all  possess  elements  of 
creeping  in;  its  proportions,  however,  partake  of  the  great  artj  but  no  one  of  the  styles  mdicated  by  any  of 
finer  feeling  of  the  Franks,  even  fltough  its  general  these  buildings  was  destined  to  a  final  working^ut 
conception  u  Rhenish.  During  the  first  half  of  the  under  cultural  conditions  that  made  such  a  result 
thirteenth  century  such  thorou^ly  strong  and  re-  inevitable.  Development  during  the  twelfth  century 
fined  examples  of  true  Gothic  as  St.  Martin,  Ypiee,  was  almost  wholly  local  in  its  extent  and  decorative  in 
St.  Bavon  and  St.  Michael,  Ghent,  appear,  widely  itsscope,  and  it  was  not  until  the  coming  of  the  Cister- 
divided  in  their  quality  from  the  halting  efforts  of  ciHns,-with  their  Gothic  of  Bui«undy  at  the  opening 
Germany  proper.  The  civic  work  of  Flanders  is  per-  of  the  thirteenth  century,  that  the  incipient  or 
haps  its  most  distinctively  national  creation,  and  the  reminiscent  local  modes  were  extinguished,  and  an 
Cloth  Hall,  Ypres,  with  the  great  group  of  fourteenth-  attempt  made  at  a  general  unification  of  style. 
and  fifteenth-century  town  halls — Bruges,  Brussels,  Apparently  the  tJothic  influence  had  come  too  late. 
Louvain,  Oudenarde,  Aiost,  and  Ghent — while  exces-  The  era  when  architecture  was  to  be  the  favourite 
rive  in  their  flamboyant  detail,  yet  retain  the  essential  mode  for  the  artistic  voicing  of  a  civilization  was,  at 
elements  of  fine  composition  and  vigorous  design.  least  in  the  South,  nearly  at  an  end:   painting  and 

In  Italy  the  introduction  of  Gothic  forms  was  as  sculpture  were  to  take  its  place,  and  therefore  the 
long  delayed  as  in  Germany,  while,  so  far  as  native  Gothic  architecture  of  Italy  was  to  remain  both  raei- 
woni  is  concerned,  the  fundamental  principles  of  ally  alien  and  in  its  nature  episodical.  In  the  former 
Gothic  construction  were  never  accepted  at  all.  It  class  are  those  churches  the  designs  of  which  were 
was  essentially  a  northern  art,  and  in  Italy  neither  the  apparently  imported  almost  bodily  from  Burgundy  by 
mental  disposition  of  the  people  nor  the  spiritual  and  the  Cistercian  monks,  such  as  Fossanova,  Casmari,  and 
temporal  conditions  put  a  premium  on  ideas  in  them-  San  Galgano,  all  works  of  great  beauty  of  form  and 
selves  racially  foreign.  Nevertheless,  once  introduced,  proportion,  all  vaulted  in  stone,  the  two  former  having 
they  produced  in  many  coses  very  beautiful  results,  fully  developed  rib  vaults  with  stilted  lateral  arches  in 
particularly  in  decoration  and  design,  and  Italian    good  Gothic  form,  though  in  norte  is  the  buttress  sys- 


tern  wdl  developed.  A  little  later  come  S&nt'  Andrea,  eate  rel&tioim  and  exquisite  detail.  The  beat  Gotiiie 
Vercelli  (1219-24),  aaid  to  be  the  work  of  an  English  work  in  Italf  is  not  ecclesioaticalf  but  secuW.  and  ia 
architect,  but  nmmfeatJy  Freach,  with  a  full  Bj^tem  of  to  be  found  in  the  palaoes  of  Venice,  Siena,  Florenee, 
flying  buttrcBsee,  San  Francesco  at  Assisi  (1228-53),  and  Bologna.  The  Doge'e  Palace  aad  the  innumer- 
attribut«d  by  Vasari  to  a  German  architect,  but  also  able  private  Btnictures  of  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
immistakably  French  in  ita  first  inspiratLon,  thou^  teenth  centuries  in  the  first-named  city  have  aU  the 
coDsideTBbljr  modified  by  what  may  well  be  lo^  qualitieeof  pure  beauty  of  design  and  detail,  aa  well  as 
Frsnciscui  influence,  and  San  Francesco  at  Bologna,  the  unerring  sense  of  proportion  and  relationship,  that 
of  which  much  the  same  may  be  said.  are   characteristic   oi   Gothic   art.   while   the   forma 

The  first  really  local  development  of  Gothic  seems  through  which  these  are  expressed  are  wht^y  medie- 
to  have  been  at  the  hands  of  the  friars,  Sta.  Croce  and  val,  yet  with  a  complete  racial  note  that  raises  tbem 
8ta.  Maria  Novella  at  Florence,  dating  from  the  end  almcMt  to  the  dignity  o(  a  national  school  of  Gothic 
of  the  century,  varying  so  widely  from  any  contem-     design. 

porary  form  of  Gothic  that  their  peculiarities  must  be         Spain,  as  a  Christian  State,  was  non-exiBtent  except 
assigned  either  to  the  friars  themselves  or  to  the  influx    as  a  small  area  of  still  unconquered  territoij  near  the 
of  Italian  personality.     One  of  the  fundamental  char-     Pyrenees,  until  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
acteristicB  of  Gothic  is  a  sense  of  just  proportion  and  a    when  Ferdinand  III,  aft«rwards  canonised,  united  the 
fine  relationship  of  parts,  combined  with  a  passion  for    crowns  of  Castile  and  Leon,  won  back  Seville  and  Coi> 
beauty  of  line,  form,  light  and  shade,  colour,  and  their     dova,  and  eetablished  the  final  victory  of  the  Croa 
relationships,   not   mvariably  achieved,   but  always     over  the  Crescent  in  tbe  Iberian  Peninsula.     VaiH 
sought  for  with  a  consuming  eagerness.    These  quali-    this  time  the  Gothic  spirit  had  hardly  more  than 
ties  are  almost  wholly  lackmg  m  the  churches  aoove     croaeed  the  mountains  and  always  as  a  direct  impwta- 
named,aswel]asinthecathedral  itself,  which  partakes    tionfrom  Burgundy  and  Aqui tame;  Salamanca  cathe- 
dral, St.  Vincent  of  Avila,  the  cathedrals  of  Lerida, 
Tudela,  and  Tarragona,  the  Abbey  <rf  Verula,  and  the 
church  of  Las  Busies  at  Burgos,  all  built  between 
1 120  and  1 180,  show  a  very  undeveloped  type  of  early 
Gothic  construction,  combined  with  a  rich  and  imagi- 
native treatment  of  Southern  Romanesque  design  m 
the  exterior.    Salamanca  and  St.  Isidoro  at  Leon  both 
poaseaa  domes  or  lanterns  over  the  croesing,  remark- 
able in  point  of  structural  ingenuity  and  beauty  of  de- 
sign itoth  internally  and  extemaUy.     If  the  scheme 
was  borrowed  from  the  other  side  of  the  Pyrenees, 
it  has  been  wholly  transformed  and  glorified,  and  tbie 
brilliant  innovation,  containing  such  possibilities  of  de- 
velopment that  were  never  carried  further,  may  justly 
be  attributed  to  native  Spanish  genius.     No  pro^'es- 
sive  growth  occurred,  however,  during  the  next  fifty 
years,  and  it  was  not  until  the  definitive  victories  of 
St.  Ferdinand  made  Spanish  nationality  possible,  and 
the  coming  of  the  Cistercians  gave  the  necessary  spirit- 
ual impulse,  that  Gothic  architecture  in  any  true  sense 
Doc^L  Falacb,  Vsnto  appeared  in  Spain,  and  then  as  another  dir«etimporta- 

„    ,   ,    .  ....  ,„    ,  t'on  from  France  rather  than  as  a  development  of  the 

of  nearly  all  of  their  pecuhanUes.  We  know  that  in  latent  racial  qualities  inherent  in  Salamanca.  Bur- 
England,  when  the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  built  gas,  Barcelona,  Toledo,  and  Leon  are  closely  French 
.  their  own  great,  popular  churches,  while  they  worked  m  their  settin^ut  and  ordonance,  but  in  detail  they 
for  the  same  large  open  spaces  and  economy  of  ma-  vary  widely  from  all  French  precedents.  There  is 
terial,  they  nevertheless  regarded  these  considerations  a  southern  richness  and  romance  both  in  the  exterior 
of  proportion  and  pure  beauty,  therefore  the  conclu-  and  interior  design  and  detail  of  Bui^oa,  for  example, 
aion  seema  inevitable  that  it  is  not  to  the  nature  of  the  as  well  as  in  the  other  Spanish  work  from  the  middle 
Mendicant  Orders,  but  to  some  incapacity  in  the  race  .  of  the  thirteenth  century  onward,  that  pves  it  a  cer- 
as  it  then  was,  that  we  owe  the  radical  shortcomings  of  tain  peraonality  quite  distinct  from  that  of  any  other 
the  work  of  Amolfo  and  his  fellows  in  Italy.  The  fact  school  erf  Gothic.  This  sumptuousness  of  detail  and 
remains,  however,  that  the  great  churches  of  the  colour,  and  composition  of  light  and  shade  enters  into 
friars  are  the  chief  offenders.  San  Giovanni  e  Paolo  every  detail;  altars  and  reredoses,  thb  latter  ott«in 
and  the  Frari  at  Venice,  the  cathedral  of  Areiio,  San  vast  in  aiie  and  of  the  richest  materias;  grilles  of  in- 
Petronio,  Bologna,  and  the  cathedral  of  Florence  are,  tricately  wrought  and  chiselled  metal;  sculptured 
with  the  friars'  churches  in  the  city  last  named,  briU-  tombs;  stalls  of  the  most  elaborate  carving;  great  pio- 
iant  examples  of  the  lamentable  results  that  may  be  tur«s,  tapestries,  and  statute^  innumerable,  togeUier 
obtained  when  the  structural  and  Esthetic  laws  of  a  with  a  Flemish  type  of  stained  gla^  in  the  moot  brill- 
■reat  style  are  ignored  or  misunderstood.  Siena  and  iant  colouring,  were  lavished  on  every  church;  ukI 
Orvieto  cathedrals  avoid  the  bftld  ugliness  of  this  class  since  Spain  has  escaped  the  pillage  and  destruction  of 
of  work,  but  in  their  structure  they  have  no  kinship  religious  revolutions,  much  of  medieval  complet«ne« 
with  Gothic,  while  in  respect  to  their  facades  the  only  remains,  though  considerably  overlaid  with  a  thick 
quality  they  possess  which  is  Gothic  in  any  degree  is  a  coating  of  Renaissance,  and  therefore  it  is  only  in 
certain  sense  of  beauty  in  ornament,  itself  derived  Spanish  churches  that  one  may  obtain  soms  idea  of 
from  a  recurrence  to  the  forms  of  nature  for  inepira-  the  general  effect  of  a  medieval  church  as  it  once  was 
tion,  combined  with  an  intense  refinement  of  line  and  before  it  became  subjected  to  the  miahandhng  of  rovo- 
modelling  and  a  blending  of  the  arts  of  sculpture  and  lulioniBta,  iconoclasts,  and  restorers. 
colour  in  a  poetic  and  lovely  composition.  Perhaps  The  end  of  Gothic  architecture  and  of  all  CathoEie 
the  nearest  approach  to  true  Gothic  feeling  and  ac-  art  came  with  varying  degrees  of  rapidity  and  at  dif- 
complishment  is  to  be  found  in  the  unfinished  front  of  ferent  times  as  between  the  several  schools  of  Europe. 
Genoa  cathedral;  being  of  the  twelfth  century,  it  is  Generally  speaking,  its  death-knell  was  sounded  when 
sufficiently  early  to  have  received  something  of  the  the  work  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  St  Gregory  VO, 
fint  great  Gothic  impulse,  and  is  a  masterpiece  of  deli-    and  St.  Innooent  III  wu  tempomrily  UDdone.  aod  tbc 


GOTBIO  679  CMTHIO 

Pimeh  Crown  eatablisbed  a  temporal  oontrol  over  the    portions  and  a  eertain  unusual  restraint  in  the  plaung 

Eipacy.    The  exile  at  Avigaon,  begun  in  1305,  fol-    of  decoration  justif)'  a  dignity  hardly  argued  bv  the 
wed  as  it  was  by  the  Great  Schism,  broke  the  links    unparalleled  lioenae  of  the  general  output  ctf  the  Flam- 
that  bound  kings  and  peoples  to  the  hitherto  domi-     boyant  period.     To  a  certam  extent  it  is^an  architect- 
nant  Church,  opened  the  doora  of  Italy  to  the  influx  of    ural  mystery,  for  it  is  an  excessive  refinement  of  art 
the  neb-pagamam  that  came  from  the  East  with  the    appeanng  after  the  cloee  of  a  period  of  sound  and  vig- 
fall  (rf  Constantinople  in  1453,  permitted  the  uprising     orous  oiviliaation   in  the  midst  of  war  and  anarchy, 
of  benqr  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  made  possible  the     contempoianeouBly  with  religious  degradatton,  grow- 
ing side  by  side  with  tendencies  that  in  a  few  yeara 
were  to  bnng  the  civiliiation  it  connotes  forever  to  an 
end.     In  this  it  was  not  alone,  however.     Similar  con- 
ditions in  Italy  surrounded  the  culmination  of  the 
neat  arte  of  painting  and  sculpture,  while  in  England 
Ute    delicate    and    exquisite    Perpendicular    Gothic 
reached  ita  highest  development  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.     Says  Mr.  Porter,  in  conaiderine  this  phenome- 
non: "Thus  in  the  hour  of  political  and  economic  mis- 
'  fortune,  in  the  midst  of  the  financial  ruin  and  degrada- 
tion of  the  Church,  waa  bom  flamboyant  architecture 
^the  last  frail  blossom  of  medieval  genius.     Did  this 
art  come  into  being  as  a  prophetic  manifestation  of  the 
great  national  aw^eoine  that  was  to  produce  Jeanne 
a'Arc  and  shake   off  the   English  yoke?     I   should 
hardly  dare  affirm  it.  for  the  history  of  architecture 
ever  reflects,  rather  than  presages,  economic  develop- 
-  ments"  (op.  cit.,  II,  X,368).     One  may  go  further  even 
than  this,  and  say  that  the  flowering  of  art  is  always  » 
PiLua  ■>■  JomcB   RooiH  ^eration  or  more  later  than  the  cauaea  of  ita  bei^ 

Dante  and  Giotto  are  the  last  of  the  medieval  epoch, 
eupremacyinltalyof thetyrantsof thefourteenthoen-  rather  than  the  forcrunnerB  of  the  Renaissance, 
tury — Visconti,  Sforaa,  MedicL  The  Black  Death,  Shakespeare  is  Eliiabethan  by  accident  of  birth,  but 
which  scourged  all  Europe,  and  the  Hundred  Years  essentially  he  is  the  fruit  of  pre-Reformation  England. 
War  in  France  brought  down  from  its  high  estate  the  The  early  Renaiaaauce  in  Italy  is  the  flowenng  of 
civilisation  that  haaflowered  at  Chartres,  and  Reims,  medievalism,  rather  than  the  germinating  seed  oFthe 
and  Amiens,  and  when  architecture  began  to  recover  Renaissance,  and  similarly  the  poetic,  if  inoi^anic, 
itself  in  France  after  the  return  of  peace,  its  advance  Flambovantart  of  France  takes  its  colour  not  from  the 
was  on  lines  suggested  by  the  fourt«enth  centurv  downfall  of  Catholic  civiliEation  in  fifteenth-century 
Gothic  of  Enela^,  which  had  continued  to  grow  rico  France,  but  from  the  better  days  that  preceded  the 
and  fertile,  the  most  vital  school  of  Gothic  art  Of  the  great  dSt&cU.  The  magic  of  fifteenth-century  art  is 
time  in  Europe.  The  seeds  were  sown  during  the  neither  the  unwholesome  iridescence  of  decay  nor  the 
war  itaelF,  the  chapel  of  St.  John  Baptist  of  the  cathe-  first  brightening  towards  the  dawn  of  a  Renaissance, 
dral  of  Amiens,  built  in  1375,  being  of  a  fully  devel-  but  the  afterglow  of  a  great  day,  in  the  brightness  of 
(med  Flamboyant  style.  From  now  on  the  substitu-  which  stood  the  creative  personalities  of  Sts.  Odo  of 
tion  was  complete  1  whatever  building  there  was,  was  Cluny  and  Robert  of  Molesme,  Bernard  and  Norbert, 
explicitly  Flamboyant;  the  old  Ic^cal  system,  the  old  Gr^ory  VII  and  Innocent  III,  King  Philip  Augustus 
breadth  and  nobility  of  design,  detail  always  duly  sub-     and  King  Louis  IX. 

ordinated  to  lust  composition,  were  gone  almost  in  a  Generally  speaking  fifteenth-century  architecture 
night.  Savs  Enlart:  ''Ce  style,  qui  est  I'exag^ration .  throu^iout  Europe  is  secular  as  opposed  to  the  Clu- 
et  la  decadence  de  I'art  gotnique,  n'apporte  presque 
aucun  perfectionnement  a  I'art  de  bfttir  ou  de  desst- 
ner,  mats  seulement  un  syst^me  d^oratif  tr^  partiou- 
lier  et  plus  ou  moins  arbitraire,  qui,  appliguS  sans  ex- 
ception dans  les  moindrea  details,  produit  beaucoup 
d'effet  et  beaucoup  d'harmonie  d  ensemble"  (This 
style,  which  is  the  exa^eration  and  decadence  of 
Gothic  art,  adds  hardly  any  perfecting  to  the  art  of 
building  or  of  designing,  but  only  a  very  peculiar  and 
more  or  less  arbitrary  system  of  decoration,  which, 
when  applied  with  thorough  consistency  to  the  mi- 
nutest details,  is  very  effective  and  produces  a  very 
harmonious  general  effect. — "Manuel  d'arch^ologie 
frangaia",  I,  686). 

The  delicate  and  fantastic  beauty  of  Flamboyant  de- 
tail is  unquestionable,  and,  as  decoration,  the  lacelike 
webe  of  thin  lines,  graceful  curving  forma,  and  craftily 
spotted  lights  and  shades,  as  they  appear  in  Rouen, 

Troves,  and  Abbeville  weat  fronts  and  the  transepts     njac  Romaneaqut , „ 

of  Beauvais,  in  Louviera,  Caudebec,  Notre-Dame  de     Gothic  of  the  three  preceding  centuries.     .  „., 
I'Epine,  Sti  Maclou,  Rouen,  St-Michel,  and  StM^er-     lar  Gothic  in  England  and  ita  derivative,  1 
main,  Amiens,  are  amongst  the  most  charming  crea-     '        <     -i  -         i     .    f       1 1       .■        ,  -.     . 
tiona  of  artistic  fancy.     It  must  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  it  ia  all  strictly  a  form  of  decoration,  not  an 

architectonic  atyle,  nor  even  a  sub-school  thereof,  un- „ 

less  m  such  peculiariy  admirable  examples  as  the  Flamboyant  style  is  peculiarly  the  product  of  the  ii 
Troyesfacade, thecftcpdof  Mt.St-Michel,andthovery  dividuaUatic  architect  and  the  purveyor  of  artistic 
wonderful  St^JGermain  at  Amiena,  the  still  persisting  luxuries,  and  durine  the  entire  period  the  best  anid 
quality  of  stmctuial  integrity  combined  with  just  pro-    most  significant  work  is  to  be  sought  amongst  guild- 


FuffT  CouBT,  Sn.  Job 


ooTmo 


680 


GOTTFRIED 


hallB,  palaces,  castles,  manora,  and  coU^^es,  and  in  the 
towers,  chapels,  tombs  and  other  memorials  paid  for 
by  the  new  orders  of  rich  merchants  and  affluent 
oourtierB. 

The  end  now  came  rapidly.  In  Italy  Gothic  feeling 
as  well  as  Gothic  forms  nad  disappeared  altogether  by 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  last  flicker  of  the 
instinctive  art  of  medievalism,  as  distinguished  from 
the  pVemeditated  artifice  of  the  Renaissance,  appeal^ 
ing  m  the  work  of  the  Lombardi  in  Venice,  and  in  such 
structures  as  the  church  of  Sta  Maria  del  Miracoli  and 
the  Scuola  di  San  Marco  (1480-95).  In  France  some- 
thing of  Gothic  romance  and  intrinsic  beauty  contin- 
ued down  to  1550  in  the  manoirs  and  chdteauXj  while 
in  Germany  it  dragged  along  a  few  decades  longer  in 
isolated  instances,  in  Spain  the  superb  central  tower 
of  Bui^eos  was  built  as  Late  as  1567,  thoi^  already 
full-fled^  Renaissance  work  was  in  process  in  other 
parts  of  the  Peninsula.  In  Eneland  the  sumptuous 
Perpendicular  of  the  Chapel  of  Henry  VII  at  West- 
minster hardened  rapidly  into  the  formalities  of  lat^ 
Tudor,  and  ceased  wnolly  as  a  definite  style  when  the 
suppression  of  the  monasteries,  the  separation  of  the 
English  Church  from  the  Roman  obeaience,  and  the 
imposition  of  the  principles  of  the  dogmatic  Refor- 
mation of  Germany  on  the  English  people  brou^t 
church-biiilding  to  an  end.  With  the  nnaf  submission 
of  the  English  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  to  a  dog- 
matic revolution  they  had  not  invited,  but  were 
poweriess  to  resist,  came  an  influx  of  German  influence 
that  rapidly  wiped  out  the  very  tradition  of  Gothic, 
except  m  the  case  of  the  imiversities  and  in  that  of  the 
minor  domestic  building,  substituting  in  its  place  the 
most  unintelligent  use  of  supposedly  classical  forms 
anywhere  to  to  foimd  in  the  nistory  of  the  Renais- 
sance. At  Oxford  and  Cambridge  the  cultural  tradi- 
tion was  strong  enough  to  withstand  for  a  century  the 
complete  acceptance  of  the  new  fashion,  and  down  to 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  centurv  the  elder  tradi- 
tion persisted  in  such  work  as  St.  John's,  Cambridge, 
and  Wadham,  Oxford,  while  its  compulsion  was  so 
strong  as  to  coerce  even  Inigo  Jones  into  buildine  the 
fine  garden  front  of  St.  John's,  Oxford,  in  a  st}ae  at 
least  reminiscent  of  what  had  bee^  universal  two  cen- 
turies before.  The  same  instinctive  impi^e  contin- 
ued in  the  case  of  manors  and  farmsteads  even  to  a 
later  date,  and  to  this  day  in  certain  portions  of  Eng- 
land the  stone-mason,  carpenter,  ana  tile  layer  pre- 
serve the  old  rules  and  traditions  of  the  craft  Hiat  have 
been  handed  down  from  father  to  son  for  centuries. 

From  the  year  1000  to  the  ^ear  1500,  Catholic  Eu- 
rope had  slowly  worked  out  its  own  form  of  artistic 
expression,  largely  through  "t^e  most  consummate 


wroueht  in  the  North.  Primarily  it  was  an  art  of 
church-building  and  adornment,  for  the  Church  was 
the  one  concrete  and  unmistakable  fact  in  life. 
''While  all  else  was  unstable  and  changeful,  she,  with 
her  unbroken  tradition  and  her  uninterrupted  services 
vindicated  the  principle  of  order  and  the  moral  con- 
tinuity of  the  race The  services  of  monastic 

and  secular  clei^  alike,  their  oflSces  of  faith,  charity 
and  labour  in  the  field  and  the  hovel,  in  the  scnool  and 
the  hospital  as  well  as  in  the  church  were  for  centuries 
the  chief  witness  of  the  spirit  of  human  brotherhood 
(Norton,  "Historical  Studies  of  Church  Building  in 
the  Middle  Ages'',  I,  16).  Therefore,  on  the  heete  of 
the  tenth-century  triumph  of  the  Cnurch  came  the 
eleventh-century  passion  for  church-building;  as  says 
Rudolphus,  the  monk  of  Cluny,  writing  in  the  midst  of 
it  all,  ^*  Erat  enim  instar  ac  si  mundus  ipse  excutiendo 
semet,  rejectA  vetustate,  passim  candidam  ecclesi- 
arum  vestem  indueret"  (It  was  as  if  the  world,  shak- 
ing itself  and  putting;  off  the  old  things,  were  putting 
on  the  white  robe  ofchurches).    The  old  vesture  was 


indeed  cast  away  and  the  new  "white  robe  of 
churches"  was  of  other  make.  The  underiyiiu;  laws 
of  the  new  style  were  identical  with  those  of  all  other 
great  styles,  the  vision  of  beauty  was  no  different  in 
any  respect,  the  forms  alone  were  absolutely  new. 
For  five  centuries  the  artistic  mode  of  Western  Europe 
went  on  its  way  without  a  pause,  one  in  spirit  wherever 
it  was  found.  "The  motives  which  inspired  these 
great  buildings  of  this  period,  the  principles  which 
underlay  their  forms,  the  jgeneral  character  of  the  f onus 
themselves  were  in  their  essential  nature  the  same 
throughout  Western  Europe  from  Italy  to  En^and. 
The  differences  in  the  works  of  different  lands  are  but 
local  and  external  varieties"  (Norton,  op.  cit.,  I,  10). 
This  universal  mode  was  imiversally  destroyed,  and  in 
the  space  of  a  few  years.  With  the  opening  of  the 
fifteenth  century  the  victory  of  the  Renaissance  was 
definitely  assured,  while  it  was  brought  to  its  coxnple- 
tion  just  a  centur^r  later.  Of  the  product  of  these 
five  centuries  of  activity  comparatively  little  remains 
intact.  As  Mr.  Prior  says,  ''Western  Europe  up  to 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  might  be  called 
a  treasure  house  filled  with  gems  of  Gothic  genius. 
The  desecrations  and  revolutions  of  two  centuries 
wrecked  one  half,  swept  Gothic  churches  clear  of  their 
ornaments  and  tnen  levelled  to  the  ground  many  of 
the  fabrics  which  they  furnished.  Of  much  that  was 
not  actually  destroyed,  carelessness  and  ne^ect  and 
the  necessities  of  rebuilding  have  since  made  ecjual 

havoc At  its  worst  this  rebuilding,  re-pamt- 

ing,  re-carving  has  been  wanton  and  causeless  substi- 
tution  For  the  next  generation  to  us  any 

direct  acquaintance  with  the  great  comprehensive 
Gothic  genius,  except  by  means  of  parodies,  will  be 
difficult^'  (A  History  of  Crothic  Art  m  England,  I,  3, 
4).  Enough  remains,  however,  to  enable  us  to  recon- 
struct, at  least  in  ima^ation,  an  unique  artistic 
product  of  Christian  civilization,  of  which  it  is  possible 
for  Professor  Norton  to  say  that  "it  advanced  with 
constant  increase  of  power  of  expression,  of  pliabOity 
and  variety  of  adaptation,  of  oeauty  in  design  and 
skill  in  construction  until  at  last,  in  the  consummate 
splendour  of  such  a  cathedral  as  that  of  Our  Lady  of 
(jhartres  or  of  Amiens,  it  reached  a  hei^t  of  achieve- 
ment that  has  never  been  surpassed"  (op.  cit.,  1, 13). 

Bond,  Oothic  Architecture  in  England  (London,  1905);  Bran- 
don, Analifeit  of  Oothic  Ardntedure  (Lond(»,  1847);  dbGau- 
MONT,  Hi»L  de  Varchitecture  reLigieuae  dm  Mouen  Age  (Siaia. 
1841);  Cram,  The  Oothic  Quest  (New  York.  1905);  Idem,  Ruined 
Abbnfa  of  Gt.  Britain  (New  York  ,1905);  CuiUfiNas,  Hittory  of 
Arehiteeiure  m  Italjif  (Boston,  1901);  Enlast.  iianud  d'ardti- 
ologiefranpaie  (Pana,  1902);  Idbm,  Origineawm^iedut^eFUui^' 
bcyanl  (London,  19()6};  Idem,  Ory/inea  francaia  de  forcftttociiirt 
Oothiaue  en  /ta2te  (Pans,  1894);  Fkboubon,  HiaL  of  Architecture 
(London,  1893);  rOBSTBE,  DenkmiUer  deutacher  Baukunat  CLekp' 
Big,  1855);  JjaNOiB,  Architecture  monaatitue  (PBris,  1852-50); 
Lethabt,  Mediaval  Art  (London  and  New  York,  1904);  Idem 
Wealminater  Abbey  and  Craftsmen  (liOndon,  1906);  ICIlb,  VAri 
rdigieuxdu  XIII*8iide  en  France  (Paris,  1902);  Moobb,  GoUue 
Architecture  (New  York,  1904);  Moeris,  OoUiic  Ardtiledure 
(London,  1893);  Nobton,  Church  Building  m  the  Middle  Ages 
(New  York,  1902);  Parker,  Oloaaary  of  Oothic  Architeeiurt 
(Oxford,  1850);  Porter,  Mediaval  Architecture  (New  York. 
1909);  Prior^  Oothic  AH  in  England  (London,  1900);  Idem.  The 
Cathedral  Builders  (London,  1905);  Puoin,  Specimens  of  Oothic 
Architecture  (London,  1821);  Rxvoira,  Le  Origtni  deUa  Ar^ 
ehitectura  Lombarda  (Rome,  1901-07);  Ruprxcht-Robbkt, 
L' Architecture  nomumde  (Paris,  1885-87);  Ruskin,  Seven 
Lamps  of  Architecture  (Orpington,  1891):  St.  FAVwHiatoire 
monumentale  de  la  France  (Paris.  1888);  Idem,  Lea  Originea  du 
Gothifue  FlamboyarU  de  France  CCaen,  1907) \  Scott,  Mediaval 
Arehttecture  (London,  1879);  Stbbbt,  Oothic  Architecture  m 
Spain  (London,  1865);  Sharps,  Architectural  ParaUda  (Lon- 
don, 1848);  Sugbb,  i)e  Conaecratione  Eecl.  Sdi.  Dionyaii  (Parw, 
1867);  Idem,  De  tietms  in  Adfninistratione  sua  Oestia  (.Puia, 
1867);  Violubt  lb  Due  I>ictionnaire  raiaonni  de  Varehitettsare 
Francaia  (Pari^  1854);  Idem,  Entretiena  aur  L* Architecture 
(Paris,  1863-72). 

Ralph  Adams  Cbam. 
Qothie  Liturgies.    See  Mozarabic  Rite. 
Qothfl.    See  Ostroooths;  Visigoths. 

Oottttied  von  Strasburg,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Middle  High  German  epic  poets.    Of  his  life  we  know 


OOTTSCHALK 


681 


OOTTSCHALK 


absolutely  nothing;  even  from  his  poem  we  derive  no 
information  on  this  subject.  The  dates  of  his  birth 
and  death  cannot  be  accurately  fibced,  but  a  passage  in 
the  eighth  book  of  his  "Tristan  und  Isolf  furnishes  a 
clue  to  the  approximate  date  of  its  composition. 
There  Hartmann  and  Wolfram  are  mentioned  as  still 
living,  while  Reinmar  of  Hagenau  and  Heinrich  von 
Veldeke  are  spoken  of  as  deceased.  From  this  it  may 
be  inferred  that  the  poem  was  written  about  1210. 
The  fact  that  Gottfried  is  referred  to  bv  contempora- 
ries as  Meister,  not  Her,  has  been  cited  as  proof  that 
he  was  of  the  burgher  class.  But  this  is  not  certain. 
The  title  was  sometimes  given  to  denote  learning,  and 
might  then  be  applied  even  to  one  of  noble  birth,  and 
Gottfried  certainlv  was  learned  for  his  time,  since  he 
knew  Latin  and  French.  Moreover  he  shows  himself 
l^orou^ly  familiar  with  the  life  of  courtly  society. 
It  would  seem  that  he  was  in  easy  circiunstances,  since 
he  indulges  in  no  complaints,  so  frequent  with  medie- 
val poets,  about  poverty  and  lack  of  patronage.  The 
supposition  that  he  was  a  town  clerk  at  Strasburg  has 
been  given  up  as  unsupported  by  convincing  evidence. 

His  great  poem  ''Tristan  und  Isolt"  is  one  of  the 
most  finished  products  of  Middle  High  German  litera- 
ture. The  stor^  is  briefly  as  follows.  Tristan  is  sent 
by  his  uncle  Kmg  Marke  of  Kumewal  (Cornwall)  to 
woo  for  him  the  princess  Isolde.  On  the  home  voyage 
the  two  voung  people  by  mistake  drink  a  love-potion 
intended  by  Isolde's  mother  for  King  Marke  and  his 
bride.  As  a  result  they  fall  madly  in  love  with  each 
other,  and  their  illicit  relations  continue  after  Isolde's 
marriage  to  Marke.  Time  and  again  they  know  how 
to  allay  suspicion,  but  at  last  Tristan  has  to  flee.  He 
meets  and  loves  another  Isolde,  her  of  the  white  hands, 
but  finds  he  cannot  forget  his  former  love.  Here  Gott- 
fried's  poem  breaks  off.  A  continuation  was  written 
bv  Ulnch  von  Tdrheim  (c.  1246)  and  Heinrich  von 
freiburg  (c.  1300).  According  to  this  Tristan  mar- 
ries the  second  Isolde,  but  returns  to  Cornwall  to  enter 
on  new  love-adventures  that  culminate  in  the  tragic 
death  of  the  guilty  pair. 

Whether  the  Tristan  legend  is  of  Celtic  origin,  as  is 
generally  believed,  or  whether  it  arose  in  France,  has 
not  been  definitely  settled.  Its  literary  development 
ceri^nly  took  place  in  Northern  France,  where  it  was 
also  loosely  connected  with  the  Arthurian  cycle  of 
romances.  It  was  introduced  into  Germany  about 
1170  by  Eilhart  von  Oberge,  who  based  his  poem  on  a 
French  jongleur  version.  Gottfried  cities  as  nis  source 
the  poem  of  the  trouvbre  Thomas  of  Brittany,  of 
whicn  only  a  few  fragments  are  extant.  'They  begin 
imfortunately  where  Gottfried  breaks  off,  ana  hence 
do  not  affora  us  a  clear  idea  of  his  ori^nal.  But 
Thomas's  version  is  preserved  in  a  Norwegian  translar 
tion  made  by  a  monk  Robert  in  1226  and  in  the  Middle 
English  poem  of  "Sir  Tristrem".  Gottfried  followed 
this  version  rather  closely,  and  hence  the  merit  of  his 
work  lies  not  in  its  composition,  but  in  its  st]^le.  This 
style  is  that  of  the  courtly  epic  in  its  perfection.  The 
rhyme  is  well  ni^  perfect,  and  the  diction  is  clear  and 
hiehl^  polished.  Mannerisms  are  not  wanting;  an- 
tiuoesis,  word-play,  unnecessary  repetitions,  and  an  in- 
ordinate fondness  for  allegory  foreshadow  the  decline 
of  the  epic  that  was  to  set  in  after  Gottfried's  death. 

Gottfried's  poem  is  the  most  passionate  love  ro- 
mance of  the  Middle  Ages.  Its  wonderful  psycho- 
logic art  cannot  be  questioned,  but  its  morality  is  open 
to  severe  criticism.  Its  theme  is  the  sensuous  love 
that  defies  moral  law  and  tramples  under  foot  the 
most  sacred  human  obligations.  That  the  pair  act 
under  the  irresistible  spell  of  a  magic  potion,  to  be 
sure,  serves  in  a  manner  to  attenuate  their  guilt.  If 
Gottfried  had  lived  to  finish  the  poem,  it  may  weU  be 
that  he  would  have  brought  out  more  emphatically 
the  tragic  element  of  the  story.  In  that  case  the  poem 
would  not  have  appeared  to  be  a  mere  glorification  of 
sensuous  love. 


Besides  the  Tristan  nothine  is  preserved  of  Gott- 
fried's poetry  except  a  couple  of  lyrics.  A  lengthy 
song  of  praise  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  was 
formerly  attributed  to  him,  but  has  been  proved  to  be 
of  different  authorship. 

Editions  of  "Tristan  und  Isolt"  have  been  given  by 
R.  Bechstein  (3rd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1890)  in  ''Deutsche 
Klassikerdee  Mittelalter8",Vll,  VIII,  and  W.Golther 
in  KUrschner's  "Deutsche  National  Litteratur*',  IV 
(Berlin  and  Stutt^urt,  1889).  A  critical  edition  has 
been  published  by  K.  Marold  (Leipzig,  1906).  Trans- 
lations into  modem  German  with  additions  to  -com- 
plete the  story  were  made  by  H.  Kurz  (3rd  ed.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1877)  and  by  W.  Hertz  (4th  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1904). 
The  legend  also  furnished  to  Richard  Wagner  the 
theme  for  his  famous  music-drama  "Tristan  und 
Isolde"  (1869). 

GoDuBult  the  introduction  and  notes  to  the  editions  men- 
tioned. Also  Bbchstbin,  Tristan  und  Isolde  in  den  Dichtungen 
der  Neuaeit  (Leipzig,  1876):  Kuftsbath,  Tristan  et  IseuU 
(BruBsels,  1894);  Golteobr,  Die  Sage  von  Tristan  und  Isolde 
(Munich,  1887);  Bobsbrt,  Tristan  et  IseuU,  Pohne  de  Ootfrid  de 
StraahcuTOi  compare  b,  d^auires  pohnes  sur  le  mhne  suj'et  (Farifl, 
1865);  PiQUST,  L*oriffinaliU  de  Gottfried  de  Strasbouro  (Lille, 
1905);  GoLTHEB,  Tristan  und  Isolde  tn  den  Dichtungen  des  Mit- 
tdalten  und  derneuenZeit  (Leipsig,  1907),  especially  pp.  165-80. 

Abthur  F.  J.  Remy. 

Qottflclialk  (GoDESCALCus),  Saint,  Mart3rr,  Prince 
of  the  Wends;  d.  at  Lenzen  on  the  Elbe,  7  June, 
1066.  His  feast  is  noted  for  7  June  in  the  additions  of 
the  Carthiisians  at  Brussels  to  the  martyrology  of 
Usuardus.  He  was  the  son  of  Udo,  Prince  of  the 
Abrodites,  who  remained  a  Christian,  though  a  poor 
one  (''male  christianus",  says  Adam  of  Bremen,  Mon. 
Germ.  SS..  VII,  329),  after  his  faUier  Mistiwoi  had  re- 
nounced tne  faith.  He  was  sent  to  the  monastery  of 
St.  Michael  at  Lenzen  for  his  education.  Udo,  for 
some  act  of  cruelty,  was  slain  by  a  Saxon.  At  the 
news  Gottschalk  cast  aside  all  Christian  principles; 
thinking  only  of  revenge,  he  escaped  from  the  monas- 
tery, crossed  the  Elbe,  and  ^thered  an  army  from  his 
own  and  the  other  Slavic  tnbes  who  then  lived  on  the 
northern  and  eastern  boundaries  of  Germany.  It  is 
said  that  thousands  of  Saxons  were  slaughtered  before 
they  were  aware  of  the  approach  of  an  army.  But  his 
forces  were  not  able  to  withstand  those  of  Duke  Ber- 
nard II.  Gottschalk  was  taken  prisoner  and  his  lands 
were  given  to  Ratibor.  After  some  years  he  was  re- 
leased, and  went  to  Denmark  with  man^  of  his  people. 
Canute  of  Denmark  employed  them  m  his  wars  in 
Norway,  and  afterwards  sent  them  to  England  with 
his  nephew  Sweyn.  In  these  expeditions  Gottschalk 
was  very  successful.  He  had  now  returned  to  the 
practice  of  his  faith,  and  married  Sigrith,  a  daughter, 
some  6a3^  of  Canute,  others  of  King  Magnus  of  Nor- 
way. After  the  death  of  Ratibor  and  his  sons  he 
returned  to  his  home,  and  by  his  courage  and  pru- 
dence regained  his  princely  position.  Adam  of  Bre- 
men calls  him  a  pious  and  ^od-fearing  man.  But  he 
wius  more;  he  was  an  organizer  and  an  apostle.  His 
object  in  life  seems  to  have  been  to  collect  the  scat- 
tered tribes  of  the  Slavs  into  one  kingdom,  and  to 
make  that  Christian.  In  the  former  ne  succeeded 
well.  To  effect  the  latter  purpose  he  obtained  priests 
from  Germany.  He  would  accompany  the  mission- 
aries from  place  to  place  and  would  mculcate  their 
words  by  his  own  explanations  and  instructions.  He 
established  monasteries  at  Oldenburg,  Mecklenburg. 
Ratzeburg,  Lobeck,  and  Lenzen;  tl\e first  three  he  hsS 
erected  into  dioceses.  He  also  contributed  most  gen- 
erously to  the  building  of  churches  and  the  support  of 
the  clergy.  In  all  this  he  was  ably  seconded  by  Adal- 
bert, Archbishop  of  Hamburg,  and  numerous  conver- 
sions were  the  result  of  their  efforts.  But  a  reaction 
set  in.  Some  of  the  tribes  refused  to  adopt  Christian- 
ity, and  rose  in  rebellion;  Gottschalk  and  many  of 
the  clergy  and  laity  fell  victims  to  their  hatred  of 
Christiamty. 


OOTTSOHALK 


682 


GOTTWEIO 


BvTUDB,  Liv»  of  the  Sainta;  SchbAdl  in  Kvrehenlex.,  8.  ▼.; 
Haucx,  KirthMigtaeh.  Deutaehkauk,  III,  654;  Ada  88„  June, 
U,d9. 

Francis  Mebshman. 

€k>tt8G]ia]k  of  Orbais,  medieval  theologian:  b. 
about  805;  d.  after  866,  probably  30  October,  868  (or 
869),  in  the  monastery  of  Hautvilliers  near  Reims; 
son  of  a  noble  Saxon  count  named  Bemo,  who  pre- 
sented him,  when  still  a  child,  as  an  oblate  in  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  Fulda.  When  Gottschalk  came 
of  age,  he  felt  no  vocation  for  the  religious  state,  and 
ask^  to  leave  the  monastery^  But  his  abbot,  Ra- 
banus  Maurus,  following  the  prevailing  opinion  of  the 
age,  held  that  a  child,  who  had  been  presented  as  an 
oblate  by  his  parents,  was  bound  to  become  a  reli- 
gious, and  in  consequence,  Gottschalk  was  made  a 
monk  against  his  will.  Before  receiving  major  orders 
he  fled  from  Fulda  and  obtained  dispensation  from 
his  vows  at  the  Council  of  Mainz,  in  June,  829.  Ra- 
banus  Maurus,  however,  appealed  to  the  emperor  and 
defended  his  position  in  a  special  treatise:  ^De  obla- 
tione  puerorum"  (P.  L.,  Cvll,  419-440),  whereupon 
Gottscnalk  was  compelled  to  live  the  life  of  a  monk, 
but  was  granted  the  privilege  of  exchangingthe  mon- 
astery of  Fulda  for  that  of  Orbais,  in  the  Diocese  of 
Soissons.  In  order  to  make  his  enforced  life  in  the 
monastery  more  bearable,  Gottschalk,  who  had  bril- 
liant talents,  gave  himself  to  the  study  of  theology. 
He  found  great  pleasiue  in  the  works  of  St.  Augustine, 
whose  doctrine  on  grace  and  predestination  attracted 
him  in  an  especial  maimer. 

If  we  may  oelieve  his  opponents,  Gottschalk  misin- 
terpreted some  difficult  passM^es  in  the  writings  of  St. 
Augustine  and  developed  a  false  doctrine  of  double 
complete  predestination  for  eternal  salvation  and  for 
eternal  reprobation.  He  left  his  monastery  without 
permission,  and  under  the  pretence  of  a  pilgrimage  to 
Home,  travelled  through  Italy,  spreading  his  doctrine 
wherever  he  went.  In  840  Noting,  the  future  Bishop 
of  Brescia,  informed  Rabanus  Maurus  of  the  rapid 
spread  of  Gottschalk's  doctrine  in  Upper  Italy,  and 
asked  him  to  write  a  treatise  against  it.  The  treatise 
is  found  in  P.  L.,  CXII,  153(>-53.  After  his  return 
from  Italy,  Gottschalk  liad  himself  ordained  priest, 
not  by  the  Bishop  of  Soissons,  to  whose  diocese  ne  be- 
longecl,  but  by  the  chorepiscopus  Richbold  of  Reims, 
and  again  retuilied  to  Italy.  In  846  Rabanus  Maurus 
wam^  Count  Eberhard  of  Friuli  against  Gottschalk, 
who  was  enjo3dng  the  count's  hospitality.  Gott- 
schalk now  returned  to  Germany  by  way  of  Dalmatia, 
Pannonia,  and  Noricum.  On  1  October,  848,  he  ap- 
peEU«d  at  the  Council  of  Mains,  where  his  doctrine  on 

Sredestination  was  condemned  as  heretical  and  he  was 
elivered  for  punishment  to  his  metropolitan,  Hino- 
mar  of  Reims.  At  a  synod  held  in  Quierzy  in  the 
spring  of  849,  he  was  obliged  to  bum  his  writinfls,  was 
deposed  from  his  priestly  office  because  he  haa  been 
oroained  by  a  chorepiscopus  without  the  consent  or 
knowledge  of  his  own  bishop,  and  was  whipped  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  which  pre- 
scribes such  punishment  for  refractory  monks.  He 
was  then  imprisoned  for  life  in  the  monastery  of  Haut- 
villiers where  he  died  obstinate  and  mentally  de- 
ranged, after  an  imprisonment  of  about  twenty  years. 

Most  of  Gottscnalk's  writing  have  been  lost. 
There  still  remain  two  short  treatises  in  defence  of  his 
doctrine  on  predestination,  in  the  form  of  two  confes- 
sions of  faith  (P.  L.,  CXXI,  347-366);  some  frag- 
ments of  a  work  against  Rabanus  Maurus  (P.  L.,  loc. 
cit.  365-368) ;  and  some  well- written  poems  (Traube, 
loc.  cit.  below). 

It  is  doubtful  whether  Gottschalk's  doctrine  on  pre- 
destination was  heretical.  There  is  nothing  in  his 
extant  writings  that  cannot  be  interpreted  in  a  Catho- 
lic sense.  He,  indeed,  taught  that  God  does  not  wish 
all  men  to  be  saved,  and  that  Christ  died  only  for 
tbos^  who  wer9  predestined  to  be  9aved;  but  these 


doctrines  are  not  necessarily  heretieaL  He  ma3rhave 
meant  (and  certain  passages  in  his  extant  writings 
warrant  the  assumption)  that,  in  conseijuenoe  of 
God's  foreknowing  tnat  some  men  will  die  m  sin,  He 
does  not  wish  these  to  be  saved;  and  that  Christ's 
death  was  of  no  avail  to  those  who  will  be  damned  for 
their  sins.  Gottschalk's  doctrine  concerning  the 
Trinity  scarcely  admits  a  Catholic  interpretation.  He 
appears  to  hold  that  the  one  and  common  nature  of 
the  three  Persons  in  God  is  merely  an  abstract  uni- 
versal, which  becomes  individualized  and  receives 
concrete  existence  in  the  three  Persons  and  that, 
hence,  each  Person  has  its  own  separate  deity  (see 
Hinckmar's  ''De  una  et  non  trina  aeitate"  in  P.  L., 
CXXV,  473-618). 

BoBSASCR,  Der  MOnch  Oottaehalk  von  Orhaii  (Thorn,  1868); 
ScHHdRS,  Hinkmar  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1884).  90-106;  Idem 
in  KirdtenUx..  a  v.  OoUachalk  von  Orbaia;  FnxTSTBDr  in  Zeil- 
•ehr.  far  KirehengMchicfUe  (Gotha,  1897),  XXVIII,  1-22,  161- 
182,  629-644;  Gaudabd.  QoUeachalc  moint  d^Orhaia,  Thhaa  (Bt. 

?:uentin,  1889);  Traubb  in  Mon,  Qtrm.  HiaL:  AtUiquitaUa: 
oeL  LaL  CaroL  <m  II,  707  aqq.;  CsLLOTt  Hiatoria  GotUKkalei 
(Puis,  1655);  Hubtbr,  Nomendator;  HarBLS,  CondZten- 
geadkiehU,  IV,  130,  186,  205. 

Michael  Ott. 

Qdttweig  (GOrrwBiB,  Gottvicum,  Gottvicensb), 
Abbey  of,  a  Benedictine  abbey  situated  on  a  hill  of 
the  same  name,  not  quite  four  miles  south  of  Krems, 
in  Lower  Austria.  It  was  founded  as  a  monastery  for 
Canons  Regular  by  Blessed  Altmann,  Bishop  of  Paa- 
sau.  In  1072  the  high  altar  of  the  church  was  dedi- 
cated, but  the  solemn  dedication  of  the  monastery  did 
not  take  place  until  1083.  The  charter  of  foundation, 
issued  9  September,  1083,  is  still  preserved  in  the 
archives  of  the  monastery.  In  1094  the  discipline  ef 
the  Canons  Re^ar  at  GOttwei^  had  become  so  lax 
that  Bishop  Ulnch  of  Passau,  with  the  pemussion  of 
Pope  Urban  II,  introduced  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict. 
Prior  Hartmann  of  St.  Blasien  in  the  Schwartswald 
was  elected  abbot.  He  took  with  him  from  St.  Bla- 
sien a  number  of  chosen  monks,  among  whom  were 
Bl.  Wimto  and  Bl.  Berthold,  who  later  became 
Abbots  of  Formbach  and  Garsten  respectively.  Under 
Hartmann  (1094-1114)  GOttweig  became  a  famous 
abode  of  learning  and  strict  monastic  observance.  He 
founded  a  monastic  school,  organized  a  library,  and 
built  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  a  nunnery  where  Ava,  the 
earliest  German  poetess  (d.  1127),  hved  as  a  recluse. 
The  nunnerjr,  which  was  afterwards  transferred  to  the 
top  of  the  hill,  continued  to  exist  until  1557. 

The  histoiT  of  GOttweig,  as  might  be  expected, 
had  iter  periods  of  decline  as  well  as  prosperity.  Dur- 
ing the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  it  declined  so 
rapidly  that  from  1556  to  1564  it  had  no  abbot,  and  in 
1564  not  a  single  monk  was  left  at  the  monastery.  At  . 
this  crisis  an  imperial  deputation  arrived  at  GOttweig, 
and  elected  Michael  Herrlich,  a  conventual  of  Melk, 
as  abbot.  The  new  abbot  (1564-1604)  restored  the 
monastery  spiritually  and  financially,  and  rebuilt  it 
after  it  had  been  almost  entirely  destroyed  bv  fiire  in 
1580.  Other  famous  abbots  were :  George  Falo  (1612- 
1631)  and  David  Comer  (1631-1648),  who  successfully 
opposed  the  spread  of  Protestantism  in  the  district; 
Gottfried  Bessel  (q.  v.,  1714-1749),  who  rebuilt  the 
monastery  on  a  grander  scale  after  it  had  burnt  down 
in  1718,  and  inaugurated  an  era  of  great  intellectual 
activity ;  and  Magnus  Klein  (1768-1783),  during  whose 
rule  GOttweig  became  a  centre  of  learning.  The  chief 
employment  of  the  Benedictines  of  GOttweig  has  al- 
ways consisted  in  parish  work.  Its  present  Abbot, 
Adalbert  Dungel  (b.  1842 ;  abbot  since  29  Sept..  1886), 
is  also  president  of  the  Austrian  Benedictine  Congre- 
eation  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  To  GOttweig 
belong  (Dec.,  1908)  65  priests,  5  clerics,  1  novice,  4  lay 
brothers,  31  parishes  administered  by  Benedictines, 
3  administered  by  secular  priests,  and  7  succursal 
churches.  It  has  a  Ubrarv  of  100,000  books  and  1100 
manuscripts,  and  valuable  collections  of  coins, 
graving,  antiquities,  and  natural  history. 


Domnii-FncBa.  Vrhaulen  und  Rtaitien  iw  OenMMc  OM-     asDatent  from  his  earliest  chSdhood.  v 


Oatmc  in  /■oiwa  Ra.  Atuh-.  (vianns   iSMJ,  VIII:    Tofo-  miiBical  impreBsion  St  the  i^  of  thirteen,  when  hl» 

grapAKnmMarftTMiarTTidk,  publ.bytheKcranyaridiHMtunitc  mother  took  him  to  hear  Roasmi's  open  "Otello",  the 

voa  KitAeritUrtadt  fVimiia,  1803),  III,  4SS-SM;  ]>onQaL  in  „,J„„;™ii  -Aioa  nf  ntiloh  nran -i-j  u,,  «„i:i,__ 

B««licfiHr-Bw&  (Waribuig.  isssi,  125-150.  E"29'P*'  ™™  f '  '''j  SJ^'I*  R™*"*"*  by  Malibran, 

Michael  Ott.  Rubini,  Lamscbe,  and  Tamburini,  four  of  the  greatest 

aingers  the  world  has  ever  heard.    That  same  year  he 

Qonlbnni  (GnLsnitNENSiB),  Diocese  or,  one  of  the  witneesedaperformanceofHoEart's"  Don  Juan  "and 

six  suffragan  sees  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  was  raised  by  it  to  a  high  pitch  of  enthuaiaam.  In 
Sydney,  New  South  Walee,  AuBtralia.  Goulbiim,  the  fact  Mozart  remained  Gounod's  ideal  throughout  his 
episcopal  city  (population  in  1901,  10,612),  bestrides  career.  Otherworkswhichheheardatthiaperiodand 
theSydney-Melboumerailroadat  an  elevation  of  2071  which  left  lasting  efFects  upon  his  mind  were  Beet- 
feet  above  the  aea.  The  diooeae  has  an  eiceilentcli-  hoven'a  Paatoral  aad  Ninth  Symphonies.  Having 
mate,  and  a  fertile  soil,  that  is  devoted  to  agricultural  taken  his  degree  as  SocAcEier-^Iellre*  at  the  Lyc6e,  he 
and  pastoral  puisuits,  and  to  the  cultivation  of  the  wasaentbynismothertothe  Conservatoire,  whore  be 
vine,  for  which  it  is  eminently  suited.  It  ia  watered  entered  the  theory  classes  of  Reicha  and  Leaueur- 
by  thethree  principal  rivers  of  Australia,  the  Mumim-  Subsequently  he  studied  counterpoint  and  composi' 
bidgee,  flowing  through  the  middle  of  the  diocese,  and  tion  under  Hal^vy  and  Faer,  profeaaors  in  the  same 
the  Hurray  and  the  Lachlan  on  the  southern  and  the  institution. 

northern  boundaries  respectively.  The  Barren  Jack  In  1839  his  cantata  "Femand"  won  for  him  the 
Reservoir  (situated  in  the  heart  of  the  diocese)  will,  GraTtd  Prix  de  Rome,  carrying  wiUi  it  the  privilege  of 
when  complet«d,  be  among  the  largest  bodies  of  con-  a  three  years'  so- 
served  water  in  the  world,  with  a  capacity  etjual  to  jouminRomeand 
that  of  Sydney  Harbour,  wiU  be  capable  of  Irrigating  a  year's  travel  in 
several  million  acres  of  fertile  land,  and  b^  promoting  Germany  at  the 
closer  settlement  and  intensive  cultivation,  .will  in  expense  of  tb^ 
time  make  the  Goulbum  diocese  the  garden  region  of  Government.  The 
the  great  island-continent.  The  political  and  com-  stay  in  Rome  was, 
mercial  importance  of  the  region  is  also  enhanced  by  for  a  youne  man 
the  selection  of  the  Yass-Canberra  district,  which  la  like  Gounod,  with 
entirely  within  the  diocesan  borders,  as  the  site  of  the  a  mind  receptive 
futurefederalcapitalof  theAustraliancommoDwealth.  of  general  culture 
TTie  two  first  resident  priests  of  Goulbum  were  and  a  delicate  ar-- 
Fathers  Fitzpatrick  and  Brennan,  whose  pastorate  ex-  tiatic  tempera- 
tended  from  the  coast  to  the  Murray  River.  Goulbum  ment,  fruitful  of 
forroedpart  of  the  See  of  Sydney  (q.v.)  till  1864,  when  results  which  re- 
it  was  formed  into  a  separate  diocese.  Dr.  Bonaven-  mained  with  him 
ture  Geochegan  was  tranalatcd  thereto  from  Adelaide,  for  life.  It  was 
but  diecT  in  Ireland  in  1864,  without  having  taken  not  alone  the  art 
possession  of  the  newly-created  see.  His  auccessor  works  of  the 
was  Dr.  William  Lanigan  (consecrated  at  Goulbum,  Christian  Era 
Pnttecost  Sunday,  1867).  He  was  the  flnit  Australian  which  absorbed 
bishop  consecrated  in  his  own  cathedral,  and  was  an  his  attention,  but 
ardent  promoter  of  Catholic  education.     He  died  13  the  monuments  of 


June,  1900.    His  successor  (consecrated  coadjutor  to  pagan     antiquity 

Dr.  Lanigan,  7  July,  1896),  is  Dr.  John  Gallagner,  the  seemed    to  draw 

first  priest  ordained  for  the  diocese  (2  Nov.,  1869).  him  even  more  jmwerfully.     He  great  works  of  classic 

On  his  arrival,  in  1870,  there  were  in  the  diocese  five  polyphony  which  he  heard,  Sunday  after  Sunday^  in 

prieste.     In  November,  1908,  there  were  69  priests  (51  the  Sistine  Chapel  undoubtedly  left  an  indelible  un- 

oeculars,  8  regulars),  24  parochial  districts,  8  Christian  presaion  upon  Gounod's  imagmation  and  memory; 

BrothsTB,  279  aiaters  (187  Sistera  of  Mercy,  49  Presen-  atill  he  does  not  seem  to  have  penetrated  to  the  life 

tation  Sistera,  43  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph),  2  orphanages  from  which  they  sprang  and  the  spirit  which  animated 

for  gilds  and  1  for  boya,  I  college  for  boya,  5  boarding-  them,  that  is  the  spirit  of  the  Church  and  her  liturgy, 

schools  for  girla,  64  primary  Catholic  schools  (sup-  This  ia  easily  accounted  for  when  one  considera  that 

ported  bv  vcMuntaiy  contributions)  with  4250  children  his  favourite  reading  during  this,  the  formative,  period 

m  atteooance,  and  a  grand  total  of  6000  chQdien  re-  of  hb  life  was  Goethe's  '"Faust"  and  the  poems  of 

oeiving  the  benefits  of  religious  education.     There  is  a  Lamartine,  and  that  the  atmosphere  in  which  he  lived 

parochial   school   in   every   district   throughout  the  was   not  pronouncedly  Christian.     Threu^out  the 

diocese  where  over  thirty  children  can  be  brought  greater  part  of  the  composer's  career  he  seems  to  have 

toother.     Catholics  constitute  one-third  of  the  popu-  been  unable  to  rise  above  this  dualism  of  principles 

lation  of  the  diocese,  which  is  one  of  the  best  equipped  and  ideals.     After  leaving  Italy,  Gounod  visited  Vi- 

in  Australia.  enna,  where  he  wrote  a  requiem  for  chorus  and  orches- 

UoBAH.  Hitbmi  of  Ou  Caiholie  CKunh  in  Aattrana  {Sydnay.  tra  and  a  mass  a  oipeUa.     Both  works  were  performed 

t^=r';i;;wSf?rwiS^^"'-"*^™"'*'^"'^  under  his  direction  in  the  church  of  St.  Chartes.     In 

(a«m£nn«J<.p«i«  (London.  18B!)^^^^^  ^    CLEARr.  18*2  he  returned  to  Paris  and  was  soon  appointed 

choirmaster  at  the  church  of  the  Missions  Etrang^res, 

Ootmod,  Charles-Fhancoib,  oneof  the  most  distin-  apoaition  whichheheld  for  four  years  and  a  half.  It 
guished  French  muaiciana  and  composers  of  the  nine-  was  during  this  period  that  Gounod  thought  he  had  a 
teenthcentuiy,  b.  in  Paris,  on  17  Jtjne,  1818;  d.  there,  vocation  for  the  priesthood,  and  for  two  semesters 
17  October,  1893.  His  father,  a  painter  and  arehitect  attended  the  lectures  on  theology  at  the  Seminary  of 
of  some  distinction  and  a  man  of  high  character  and  Sain t-Sul pice.  In  1848  he  resigned  hia  position  as 
sensitive  nature,  died  when  CSiarles  was  still  in  hia  choirmaster.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  turning- 
childhood,  and  hia  education  devolved  upon  his  point  in  the  young  musician's  career.  In  his  auto- 
mother,  a  gifted  pianist,  who  used  her  talents  to  pn>  biography  he  takes  us  into  his  confidence:  "For  a 
vide  for  her  two  sons,  Charies  and  TJrbain.  Gounod  composer,  there  ia  but  one  road  to  follow  in  order  to 
was  sent  early  to  the  Lycfe  Saint'Louis,  where  he  was  make  a  name,  and  that  is  the  theatre  [the  operatic 
one  of  the  best  scholars.    His  musical  ^ts,  strikingly  stage].    The  theatre  is  the  place  where  one  finds  the 


Goupn. 


684 


00U8SET 


opportunity  and  the  way  to  speak  ever^  day  to  the 
puolic;  it  IS  a  daily  and  peimanent  exposition  opened 
to  the  musician.  Religious  music  and  the  symphonv 
are  certainly  of  a  hi^er  order,  abstractly  consia- 
ered,  than  dramatic  music,  but  the  opportunities  and 
the  means  of  making  one's  self  known  along  those 
lines  are  rare  and  appeal  only  to  an  intermittent  pub- 
lic rather  than  to  a  regular  public  like  that  of  the 
theatre.  And  then  what  an  infinite  variety  for  a 
dramatic  author  in  the  choice  of  subjects.  What  a 
field  opened  to  fancy,  to  imagination,  and  to  romance. 
The  theatre  tempted  me"  (pp.  166-67).  Gounod's 
main  activity  was,  from  now  on,  directed  towards  the 
operatic  stage. 

The  subjects  he  chose  for  his  compositions,  and 
which  he  successfully  interpreted,  were  not  calculated 
to  preserve  in  his  heart  and  mind  the  conditions  requi- 
site for  an  adequate  interpretation  of  liturgical  texts. 
His  music,  allied  to  the  poetrv  of  Emile  Augier,  Jules 
Barbier,  and  Michel  Carr6,  who  acted  as  his  librettists 
at  various  times,  became  the  most  powerful  and  the 
most  widely  diffused  expression  of  French  Romanti- 
cism in  its  more  Ivrical,  sentimental  form.    It  was,  in- 
deed, rather  the  lyric,  sentimental  side  of  such  works 
as  Goethe's  "Faust",  Shakespeare's  "Romeo  and 
Juliet",  Comeille's  "Polyeucte'^  which  he  seized  upon 
than  their  heroic  or  metaphysical  aspects.    Among 
the  operatic  works  which  have  made  Gounod's  name 
famous  throughout  the  musical  world  are  to  be  men- 
tioned:   "Sapho"    (1851),   "La  nonne  sanglante" 
(1854),  "  Le  m^decin  malgr^  lui"  (1858),  "  La  reine  de 
Saba"   (1862),   "Mireille"   (1864),   "La  Colombe" 
(1866),  "Rom^  et  Juliette"  (1867),  "Cinq  Mars" 
(1877),  "Polyeucte"  (1878)^  "Letribut  de  Zamora" 
(1881).    The  Franco-Prussian  War  caused  Ciounod 
to  abandon  Paris  and  reside  in  London  for  several 
years.    After  his  return  in  1875,  he  devoted  him- 
self more  and  more  to  religious  music.    In  1882  he 
brought  out  his  oratorio  "The  Redemption",  for 
which  he  himself  wrote  the  text  and  whioi  he  styled 
opus  vitcB  mece.    Three  years  later,  in  1885,  appeared 
"  Mors  et  Vita",  his  last  ^at  work,  the  text  for  which 
he  selected  from  Holy  Scripture.    In  spite  of  Gounod's 
activity  in  the  operatic  field  he  never  ceased  writing  to 
liturgical  texts.    His  compositions  of  this  character 
are  numerous  and  varied.    His  "Messe  Solennelle  de 
Sainte-C^ile".  "Messe  de  P&ques",  "Messe  du  Sacr^ 
Goeur",  and  "Messe  des  Orphtonistes"  have  enjoyed 
great  vogue  in  France,  Belgium,  England,  and  the 
United  States.    The  mass  in  honour  of*  Joan  of  Arc 
and  the  one  in  honour  of  St.  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle 
are  less  widely  known  than  the  first  three  mentioned. 
Although  these  two  works  come  nearer  to  the  spirit  of 
the  liturgy  than  any  of  the  earlier  masses,  neverthe- 
less they  bear  the  general  character  of  all  his  composi- 
tions for  the  church.    Gounod  was  a  child  oi  his 
time  and  of  the  France  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
His  temperament,  emotional  to  the  point  of  senti- 
mentality, his  artistic  education  and  environment 
bound  hun  to  the  theatre  and  prevented  him  from 
penetrating  into  the  spirit  of  the  liturgy  and  from 
giving  it  adequate  musical  interpretation. 

AtUobioonxT^y,  tr.  Cbocubr  (Chicago  and  New  York,  1895); 
Bbllaigub,  Portraita  and  SUhouettea  of  Miuiciaru  (New  Yorx, 
1897);  Saint-Saknb,  Portraita  el  Souvenira  (Paris,  8.  d.);  Pa- 
ONBSBX,  Charlea  Oounod^  aavieetaaa  muvrea  (Paris,  1890). 

Joseph  Ottsn. 

Qonpil,  RenI:,  a  Jesuit  missionary;  b.  1607,  in 
Anjou;  martyred  in  New  York  State,  23  September, 
1642.  Health  preventing  him  from  joining  the  Society 
regularly,  he  volunteered  to  serve  it  gratis  in  Canada, 
as  a  donrU,  After  workine  two  years  as  a  sureeon  in 
the  hospitals  of  Quebec,  ne  started  (1642)  Tot  the 
Huron  mission  with  Father  Jogues,  whose  constant 
companion  and  disciple  he  remained  until  death. 
Captured  by  the  Inxjuois  near  Lake  St.  Peter,  he 
rengnedly  accepted  his  fate.    Lake  the  other  captives 


he  was  beaten,  his  nails  torn  out,  and  his  finger- joints 
cut  off.  On  the  thirteen  days'  journey  to  the  Iro- 
quois country,  he  suffered  from  heat,  huiiger,  and 
blows,  his  wounds  festering  and  swarming  with 
worms.  Meeting  half-way  a  band  of  200  warriors, 
he  was  forced  to  march  between  their  double  ranks 
and  almost  beaten  to  death.  Goupil  might  have 
escaped,  but  he  stayed  with  Jogues.  At  Ossemenon, 
on  the  Mohawk,  they  were  greeted  with  jeers,  threats, 
and  J>lows,  and  Goupil 's  mce  was  so  scarred  that 
Jogues  applied  to  him  the  words  of  Isaias  Qiii,  2) 
prophesymg  the  disfigurement  of  Christ.  He  sur- 
vived the  fresh  tortures  inflicted  on  him  at  Andagaron, 
a  neighbouring  village,  and,  unable  to  instruct  his 
captors  in  the  faith,  he  taught  the  children  the  sign  of 
the  cross.  This  was  the  cause  of  his  death.  Return- 
ing one  evening  to  the  villaee  with  Jogues,  he  was 
felled  to  the  ground  b^  a  natchet-blow  from  an 
Indian,  and  he  expired  mvokine  the  name  of  Jesus. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  order  in  die  Canadian  missions 
to  suffer  martyrdom.  He  had  previously  bound  him- 
self to  the  Society  by  the  religious  vows  pronounced 
in  the  presence  of  Father  Jdgues,  who  calls  him  in  his 
letters  "an  angel  of  innocence  and  a  martyr  of  Jesus 
Christ." 

BiUBBaANi,  Lea  Jiauitea  Marttprs  du  Canada  (Montreal,  1877); 
Shba,  The  Catholic  Church  in  CoUmial  Daua  (New  York.  1886); 
RocHKMONTBix,  Lea  JiauHea  et  la  NouveUe  France  (Pans,  1806); 
Mabtin.  Le  Pire  laaac  Joguea  (Paris,  1882). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 

Qouflset,  Thomas-Marie-Joseph,  French  cardinal 
and  theologian;  b.  at  Montigny-les-Charlieu,  a  viUage 
of  Franche-Comt^,  in  1792;  d.  at  Reims  in  1866.  The 
son  of  a  vine- 
grower,  he  at  first 
laboured  in  the 
fields,  and  did  not 
beein  his  studies 
tillthe  age  of 
seventeen.  Or- 
dained priest  in 
1817,  he  was  a 
curate  for  several 
months,  and  was 
then  charged  with 
teaching  moral 
theology  at  the 
Grand  S^minaire 
of  BesauQon.  He 
retained  this  chair 
until  1830,  acquir- 
ing the  reputation 
of  an  expert  pro- 
fessor and  con- 
summate casuist. 
It  was  then  he 
re-edited  with  accompanying  notes  and  disserta- 
tions the  "Conferences  d'Angers"  (26  vols.,  1823), 
and  the  "  Dictionnaire  th^ologique''  of  Beigier 
(1826),  of  which  he  published  another  edition  in  1843. 
From  these  years  of  his  professorship  date  his  clear 
exposition  of  the  "  Doctnne  de  I'Eglise  sur  le  pr^  k 
int^rSt"  (1825),  "Le  Code  civil  comments  dans  see 
rapports  avec  la  th^logie  morale''  (1827),  and  the 
"Justification  de  la  th^o^e  du  P.  Liguori''  (1829). 
Summoned  to  the  post  of  vicar-general  of  Besan^on  by 
Cardinal  de  kohan,  he  fulfilled  the  duties  of  the  post 
from  1830  to  1835.  At  this  date  he  was  named  Bishop 
of  P^gueux,  and  in  the  foUowing  year  he  presented  to 
Villemain  his  "Observations  sur  la  Ubert6  d'enseigne- 
ment",  a  protest  against  the  monopoly  of  the  univer- 
sity. In  1840  he  was  called  to  tne  Archdiocese  of 
Reims,  but  his  episcopal  duties  did  not  prevent  him 
from  completing  important  theological  works.  In 
1844  appeared  m  French  his  "Thtolode  morale  k 
I'usage  des  curds  et  des  confesseurs '',  which  ran  quickly 
through  several  editions.    His  treatise  on  dogmatk 


Thomas  Cardinal  Qoubsbt 


OOTSBimXHT                         685  OOWXR 

theoloKy  (2  vols.,  1848)  hod  no  less  succeaa.    The  dig-  divided  into  ten  puts,  treats  of  vices  and  virtues, 

nity  oi  CEUxiinal,  for  which  he  was  fitted  by  his  wide  and  of  the  different  grades  of  society,  and  eadeavoun 

knowledge  and  the  Houndness  of  his  doctrine  and  to  point  out  the  path  by  which  a  sinner  may  return  to 

QUineroua  works,  waa  conferred  on  him  in  t8£0.    In  God  and  obtain  pardon  through  tlie  aid  of  Our  Lord 

virtue  of  the  Constitution  of  1852  he  became  senator  Jaeus  Christ  and  of  His  sweet  mother,  the  elorious 

of  the  empire,  and  in  IS56  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Vit^in.    It  concludes  with  a  life  of  Our  Lady,  into 

Honour.    TTia  last  works  were:  "Exposition  des  prin-  which  is  also  naturally  introduced  an  account  of  tbe 

oipea  de  droit  canonique"  (1859);  "Du  droit  de  1'  principaleventsin  the  life  of  Christ.     It  was  probably 

£«lise  touchont  le  possession  dee  biens  destine  au  written  about  1370-1379. 

ciute  et  la  souverainet^  temporelle  du  Pace"  (1862).  The  "Cinkanta  (i.  e.  Cioquante,  Fifty)  Balades" 

FhTsa,  YieiittonBm.U Cardmal Oouun  (Pana,  1884).  really  contains  fifty-two,  or,  it  we  count  the  two  of 

A.  FoTJKSVi.  the  dedication,  fifty-four.     The  first  liftv-one  deal  in 

Oov«nimoBt,  Ftnuis  of.    See  State.  various  wa_yB  with  the  passion  of  love ;  tne  last  of  tbe 
seriea  is  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  with  a  general 

GOWAT,  John,  poet;  b.  between  1327-1330,  prob-  envoi.  The  dedication  to  Henry  IV  comprises,  be- 
ably  in  Kent;  d.  October  1408.  He  was  of  gentle  sides  the  French  verse,  some  I^tin  verse  and  two 
blood  and  well  connected.  He  may  luve  been  a  Latin  prose  quo- 
merchant  in  Iiondan,  but  this  cannot  be  authorita-  tations.  Each 
tively  afiirmed.  It  seems  certain  from  his  writino^  halade  contains 
that,  even  if  trained  to  the  profession  of  the  law,  be  normally  either 
did  not  practise  it.  Leland's  statements  that  he  twenty-eight  or 
frequented  the  law  courts  and  studied  the  laws  of  his  twenty-five  lines 
country  for  gain,  and  that  he  was  chief  judge  of  the  of  ten-syllable 
Common  Pleas,  are  no  longer  accepted  as  correct.  The  verse,  divided  into 
latter  statement  was,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  subs^  ttently  three  stanzas  of 
withdi^wn  by  Leiand,  but  the  revival  of  it  by  Fuller  ei^t  or  seven 
e  it  a  wide  vogue  and  a  long-continued  persistence,     lines ..-—i— 


but 


TOe  p 

oflan<       ,     ,      ,  , , 

and  Kent,  and  possibly  also  in  Essex.     That  he  was 

B  man  of  some  standing  at  court,  as  well  as  a  writer  of  sional    deviations 

acknowledged  eminence,  may  be  inferred  from  his  from  this   model. 

statement  m  the  firat  version  of  his  "Confessio  Aman-  There   are    differ- 

tis",  (11.  43-53),  that  on  one  occasion  King  Richard  II  ent       rhyming 

recognized  him  in  a  boat  on  flte  Thames,  invited  him  schemes     in     the 

into  the  royal  barge,  and  chained  him  to  write  some  work.    It  is  likely 

new  thing  for  the  monarch's  own  inspection  and  de-  thatthe"Balades" 

lectation.     John  Gower,  the  poet,  has  been  by  some  were     written    at 

writera  identified  with  one  John  Gower,  clerk,  who  by  various  periods  in 

punt  from  Kii^  Richard  II  held  the  rectory  of  Great  the  poet's  life  and 

Braited  in  Essex  from  1390  to  1397.     That  the  poet  that      they    were 

and  the  clerk  were  one  and  the  same  person  may,  brought  together,  in 

however,     reasonably    be    doubted.     According    to  now  have  them,  m  i-naa. 

Gower  himself  he  was  not  a  clerk  when  he  wrote  the  TTie  "TraitiS"  deals  with  the  married  stat«  and 

"Mirour  de  I'Omme"  (1.  21772:  Pour  ee  que  je  ne  tuy  seeks  to  show  by  precept  and  example  the  obligation 

Seltri),  and  in  the  Prologus  (1-  ^2)  of  the  "C^n-  of  observing  the  marriage  vow.     It  is  written  m  ten- 

io  Ainantis"  he  calls  himselLa  "bucel  clerk",  that  syllable  verse,  and  consists  of  eighteen  balades,  each 

is,  a  man  of  simple  leamine  or  a  layman.     At  ail  balade    containing    three    seven-line    stanzas.     The 

events  we  may  safely  conclude  that  he  was  not  in  full  rh3m]e8  are  arranged  thus:  ab  ah  hcc.     It  concludes 

Holy  orders,  for  in  January,  1397-8,  iriien  he  was  with  one  stanza  in  the  nature  of  an  envoi — "Al  uni- 

about  seventy  years  of  age,  he  married  Agnes  Ground-  versitS  detoutlemonde" — appended  to  the  eighteenth 

olf,  and  it  might  be  inferred  from  some  passages  in  his  balade,  and  this  envoi-stanza  is  in  turn  fallowed  by 

works  that  she  was  not  his  first  wife.    At  Sia.t  time  thirty-six  rhymed  Latin  hexameters  and  pentameters. 

he  was  living  in  the  priory  of  St.  Mary  Overy  (now  There  are  also  I^tin  marginal  explanations  of  the 

St.  Saviour),  Southwark,  to  which  he  was  a  generous  different  points  discussed.     The  "Traiti^"  was  prob- 

benefactor,  and  he  continued  to  reside  there  ^ter  his  ably  written  in  1397. 

marriage.     About  1400  he  became  blind.     He  died  in  The  "Cinkante  Balades"  and  the  "Trsitid"  were 
October,  1408,  and  was  buried  in  the  chapel  of  St.  '  pVinted  by  the  Roxburghe  Club   in  1818  (ed.  Eari 

John  the  Baptist  in  St.  Mary  Overy.    His  tomb  is  Gower),  and  by  Dr.  Edmund  Stengel  in  1886.    All 

still  to  be  seen.    His  efli^  lies  under  a  canopy,  with  the  French  wonts  were  printed  by  G.  C.  Macaulay  in 

the  head  resting  on  a,  pQlow  formed  of  three  folio  1899,  the  "  Hirour  de  I'Cjmme"  for  the  first  time. 

volumes  inscribed  with  the  titles  of  his  three  best-  IlieLatinworksof  Gower  are  the  "Vox  Clamantis", 

known  works,  namely,  the  "Speculum  Meditantis",  the    "Cronica    Tripertita",    some   eighteen   shorter 

the  "Vox  Clamantis  ,  and  the  "Confesaio  Amantis.'  poems,  the  verses,  and  marginal  and  other  summaries 

Gower  wrote  in  three  languages,  French,  L^tin,  and  already  mentioned  or  to  be  mentioned  below,  and 

English.     His   French   works   are    the    "Mirour   de  probably  a  preface,   found   in  several   manuscripts, 

I'Omme".   or  "Speculum  Hominis",   which  modem  describing   his   three   principal   poems.     ITie    "Vox 

research  has  almost  to  a  certainty  identified  with  the  Clamantis"  contains  10,265  Imes  of  elegiac  verse.     It 

"Speculum  Meditantis",  long  supposed  to   be   lost;  is  in  seven  books,  of  which  the  first  three  have  pro- 

ttae   "Cinkante  Balades";  and  the   "Traiti^".     The  logues,  also  in  elegiacs.     Prefixed  to  the  whole  there 

"Mirour  de  I'Omme",  as  we  now  have  it,  consists  of  is  a  prose  summary  of  each  book.     It  deals  with  the 

28,603  lines,  but,  as  some  leaves  at  the  bepnning,  rising  of  the  peasants  in  1381;  the  need  of  pure  re- 

throu^out  the  work,  and  at  the  end  are  missmg  from  ligious  faith ;  the  vices  of  the  cler^  of  every  degree, 

the  manuscript,  it  probably  consisted  in  its  complete  of  the  merchants,  of  the  lawyers,  and  of  the  common 

■tat«  of  about  31,000  lines.    It  is  written  in  twelve-  people;  and  the  duties  of  a  kmg.    It  calls  on  Richard 

line  etanxas  of  octosyllabic  vetM,  with  two  seta  of  11   to  select  wise   counsellors,   to  avoid   heavy  and 

liiymes  in  each  stanza  arranged  aao  aab  Ma  Ma.    It  is  oppieasive  taxation,  to  abandon  sensuality,  to  restort 


OOYA 


6S6 


Ck>TA 


the  laws,  and  to  banish  crime.  In  the  last  book  the 
poet  shows  the  evils  of  vice  and  the  necessity  of 
repentance.  It  was  probably  begun  in  1381  or  1382 
and  completed  about  1399. 

The  "Cronica  Tripertita"  is  written  in  rhyming 
hexameters  and  is  m  three  parts,  containing  1055 
lines,  with  Latin  prose  niarginal  summaries.  It  gives 
an  account  of  Kin^  Richard's  management  of  the 
affairs  of  the  realm  from  1387  imtil  his  deposition  and 
the  accession  of  Henry  IV  in  139).  It  was  probably 
written  soon  after  the  latter  date.  The  "Vox  Clar 
mantis"  and  the  "Cronica  Tripertita",  together  with 
some  of  the  minor  Latin  poems,  were  printed  by  the 
Roxbuighe  Club  in  1850  (ed.  H.  O.  Coxe) ;  the  "Cron- 
ica  Tripertita''  and  some  minor  poems  were  printed 
in  the  "Political  Poems",  Rolls  Series,  by  T.  WrMit: 
and  four  other  minor  p>oems  were  printed  by  Karl 
Me^er  in  his  -dissertation  entitled  "John  Gower's 
Beziehungen  Zu  CSiaucer  und  Richard  II"  (1889). 
All  the  Latin  poems  were  printed  by  G.  C.  Macaulay 
in  1902. 

Gower's  English  works  are  the  "Gonfessio  Amantis" 
and  a  poem  aadressed  to  King  Henry  IV,  which  from 
its  subject  has  been  called  "  In  Praise  of  Peace".  The 
"Confessio  Amantis"  is  in  a  prologue  and  eight  books. 
It  is  written  throughout  m  octosyllabic  riiyming 
couplets,  with  Latin  verses  interspersed  and  a  Latin 
mai^inai  summary  of  the  text.  It  contains  alto- 
gether 33,446  English  lines.  It  was  begun  probably 
between  1383  and  1386,  and  finished  in  1390,  and  it 
underwent  two  subsequent  revisions  about  1391  and 
1393.  In  its  plan,  which  was  doubtless  borrowed 
from  the  "  Roman  de  la  Rose",  this  work  is  a  dialogue 
first  between  the  poet,  in  the  character  of  a  lover,  and 
Venus,  and  afterwards  between  the  poet,  in  thecharae- 
ter  of  a  penitent,  and  Genius,  whom  Venus  assigns  to 
him  as  confessor.  In  the  conversation  between  the 
penitent  and  the  confessor  the  seven  deadly  sins  are 
discussed  and  illustrated  by  tales  borrowed  from 
Ovid,  Josephus,  Vincent  de  Beauvais,  Statins,  the 
"  Gesta  Romanorum",  the  Bible,  and  other  sources. 
In  the  eigihth  book,  having  described  the  duty  of  a 
king  and  prayed  for  England,  the  poet  bids  farewell 
to  earthly  love. 

The  "Gonfessio  Amantis"  has  come  down  to  us  in 
three  classes  of  manuscripts.  The  principal  devia- 
tions of  the  later  from  the  earlier  forms  are  the  omis- 
sions (1)  of  the  mention  of  Richard  II  in  the  prologue 
as  the  inspirer  of  the  work,  and  (2)  of  complimentary 
references  to  Chaucer  near  the  end  of  the  eighth  book. 
The  reasons  for  these  omissions  are  somewhat 
obscure.  In  the  case  of  the  king  the  change  in  the 
text  may  perhaps  be  set  down  to  a  disapproval  of  the 
royal  policy  which  grew  up  in  Gower's  mind  between 
the  time  he  began  and  that  at  which  he  completed  the 
work,  and  this  view  is  made  all  the  more  probable 
when  we  remember  the  severe  way  in  which  he  else- 
where treats  the  youthful  monarch.  In  the  case  of 
Chaucer  the  omission  may  have  been  due  to  a  feeling 
on  the  part  of  Gower  that  the  lines  were  irrelevant; 
but  it  is  more  likely  to  have  been  the  result  of  a  liter- 
ary quarrel. 

"  In  Praise  of  Peace"  is  a  poem  in  fifty-six  stanzas 
of  seven  lines  each,  rhyming  ab  ab  bcc.  It  is  dedicated 
to  Henrv  IV  and  was  probably  written  in  1400.  It  is 
foUowea  by  fifty-six  lines  of  elegiac  Latin  verse. 

The  "Confessio  Amantis"  was  translated  into 
Portuguese  by  Robert  Payn,  canon  of  the  city  of  Lis- 
bon, and  into  Spanish  prose  by  Juan  de  Cuenca  in 
1400.  It  was  printed  by  Caxton  in  1483,  by  Ber- 
thelette  in  1532  and  1554,  by  Chalmers  in  1810,  by 
Pauli  in  1857,  by  Morley  in  1899,  and,  with  "In 
Praise  of  Peace",  by  Q.  C.  Macaulay  in  1901. 

There  are  severed  manuscripts  of  Gower's  works 
extant,  rangine  from  forty-one  (some  of  them  imper- 
fect) of  the  "(%nfessio  Amantis"  to  one  of  the  "Mir- 
our  de  I'Omme",  of  the  "Cinkante  Balades",  and  of 


"In  Praise  of  Peace".  These  manuscripts  are  to  be 
found  in  various  public  and  private  libraries  in  London, 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  Glasgow,  Lincoln,  Dublin,  Man- 
chester, and  elsewnere. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  while  Gower  on  several  occar 
sions  freely  censures  the  vices  of  the  clergy  of  every 
rank,  secular  and  regular,  he  expressly  disassociates 
himself  from  all  sympathy  with  the  Lollards,  and 
strongly  denounces  "loUaraie"  m  his  later  writings. 
He  lived  and  died  in  full  communion  with  the  OkthoUc 
Church.  It  was  unfortunate  for  Gower's  reputation 
that  for  more  than  two  centuries  he  was  constantlv 
associated  with  Chaucer  and  mentioned  alone  with 
him,  both  being  taken  as  typical  writers  of  Si^ish 
verse  of  the  fourteenth  century.  As  the  canons  of 
criticism  developed,  it  was  inevitable  that  the  minor 
poet  should  suffer  from  contrast  wiUi  his  great  con- 
temporarv.  Hence  Gower  has  been  generally  relegated 
to  an  undeservedly  inferior  rank  amonff  poets.  But 
in  the  "Cinkante  Balades"  at  least  he  displays  many 
true  poetic  qualities,  and  his  art  of  telling  a  story  in  a 
natural  way,  as  shown  for  example  in  the  "Comessio 
Amantis",  is  by  no  means  slender,  and  in  some  respects 
will  stand  comparison  with  Chaucer's  admittedly 
great  gifts  as  a  narrator. 

G.  C.  Macaulat  in  his  edition  of  The  Complete  Work§  cf  John 
Oower  (4  vola.,  Oxford,  1899-1901)  has  ^ven  elaborate  intro- 
ducUons,  notes,  and  glossaries,  and  has  discussed  very  fully  and 
fairly  many  controverted  points  in  connexion  with  Gover. 
This  may  be  regarded  as  the  standard  edition.  Besidee  the  edi- 
tions already  mentioned  the  following  works  may  be  consulted: 
MoRLKT,  English  WrUera,  IV  (London.  1893);  Tatt  in  Did. 
Not.  Biog.t  s.  v.;  Easton,  Readinifa  in  Oower  (Boston,  1805); 
Stow,  A  Survey  of  London  (ed.  Morubt,  London);  The  Retro- 
apectitfe  Review  and  Hiatfirvnd  and  Antiquarian  MaoaeuUt  2Dd 
series,  II  (London,  1828);  Todd,  mueiratione  of  the  Live»  and 
WrUinae  of  Oower  and  CKaucer  (liOndon,  1810);  Baia,  Scripto- 
rum  mustrium  maipris  BtitanninB^  quam  nunc  AnoHam  et 
Scotiam  vacant^  CaUuogue  (Basle,  1557);  Lbz«and,  CommeiUarii 
de  Scriptoribue  Britannicia  (ed.  Hall,  1709):  Idbii,  CoUeelanea, 
ed.  HxABKB  (1715);  Idbm,  Itinerariim,  ed.  Hbabnx  (1710-12); 
FuLLBB,  The  Worthiee  of  RnaUxnd  (London,  1662);  GouoH, 
Sepuiehral  Montanenta,  II  (London,  1796). 

P.  J.  Lennox. 

Qo3ra  y  Ludentas,  Francisco  Jos^  de.  painto* 
and  etcher,  b.  in  Fuendetodos,  Aragon,  Spain,  31 
March,  1746;  d.  in  Bordeaux,  16  April,  1828.  His 
father  was  a  small  landowner  and  could  give  only  a 
meagre  education  to  his  son.  It  is  more  than  prob- 
able that  a  monk  of  §anta  F6  awakened  the  latent  art 
in  the  boy;  and  certain  it  is  that  when  fourteen,  he 
painted  frescoes  in  the  Church  of  Fuendetodo^,  and  a 
year  later  began  regular  art  studies  with  Martines. 
Going  to  SaragOBsa  he  entered  the  San  Luis  Academy, 
where  for  four  or  five  years  he  worked  under  Luxan, 
and  then  went  to  Madrid.  When  only  twenty  years 
old,  he  left  for  Italy  and  worked  his  way  to  Rome  as  a 
bull-fighter.  In  Italv  he  painted  little,  yet  he  won  a 
prize  at  Parma  for  a  "  Hannibal  seeing  Italy  from  the 
Ali)s",  and  completed  in  a  few  hours  a  fuU-length  por- 
trait of  Pope  Benedict  XTV,  now  in  the  Vatican.  On 
Goya's  return  to  Spain  (1775),  Mengs  was  so  impressed 
with  his  talents  tnat  he  commissioned  him  to  make 
sketches  for  the  Prado  and  Eecorial  tapestries,  and 
Goya  was  thereby  brought  into  contact  with  the  court, 
lived  for  the  rest  of  his  ufe  among  princes,  and  bM^ime 
the  most  brilliant  member  of  the  circle  of  Don  Luis, 
the  king's  brother.  He  married  (1775)  Josefa,  daugh- 
ter of  Bayeu.  painter  to  Charles  III,  by  whom  he  had 
twenty  children.  Five  small  canvases  (all  in  San 
Fernando)  painted  at  this  time  are  strikingly  original 
in  composition,  and  have  a  marveUous  silvery  quality 
rivalling  that  of  Velasquez.  In  1780  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Fernando  Academy  in  recognition  of 
his  "Christ  Crucified"  (Prado)  and  his  "St,  Francis 
on  the  Mountain".  He  was  now  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  Spanish  School,  and  well  named  the  ust 
of  the  old  masters  and  the  first  of  tiie  new.  He 
painted  portraits  with  the  greatest  facOily  and  rapidity 
— ^all  marvellous  resemblances — ^and  over  two  hun- 


00YA2 


687 


oozo 


dred  grandees^  poets,  scholars,  and  ereat  ladles  of  the 
court  sat  to  him.  Notable  among  ^ese  canvases  are 
those  of  Queen  Maria  Luisa,  Charles  IV  and  his  fam- 
ily. Dofia  Maria  Josefa.  and  Queen  Isabella  of  Sicily, 
the  last  two  celebratea  for  their  beautiful  and  tender 
representation  of  maidenhood.  In  1789  Goya  was  ap- 
pointed pintor  de  camera  of  Charles  IV  with  an  income 
of  $2500  a  year,  and  in  1795  was  unanimously  elected 
director  of 'the  Madrid  Academy. 

Goya  painted  frescoes  in  the  churches  of  Seville, 
Valencia,  Saragoesa,  Toledo,  and  Madrid,  those  in  S. 
Antonio  de  la  Florida  (Madrid)  being  e^)ecially  no- 
table for  their  grace  and  movement.  His  paintingn, 
other  than  portraits  and  religious  works,  portray  the 
life  of  Spain,  and  exhibit  his  immense  vitality,  rest- 
lessness, energy,  audacity  and  unaffectedness.  His 
technique  was  a  complete  overthrow  of  tradition. 
Impetuous  and  intolerant,  he  sought  etching  as  a 
means  of  expression.    The  ''Capriccioso",  begun  in 

1792,  appeared  in 
1796.  In  this 
series,  dedicated 
to  the  king,  he 
pilloried  the  pre- 
vailing vices  and 
absurdities  with  a 
subtler  and  more 
bitter  needle  than 
Callot's  and  a 
spirit  less  com- 
monplace than 
Hogarth's.  He  is 
often  called  the 
Spanish  Rabelais. 
Goya  almost  in- 
variably used 
aquatint  to  give 
**  depth  **  and  su|;- 
gest  planes  m 
Qiese  et'chings, 
and  every  one  of 
these  eight^r  plates  Delacroix  is  said  to  have  copied. 
The  "Miseries  of  War"  followed  these  and  are  far 
more  serioua  in  conception.  Many  of  them  suggest 
Rembrandt's  methods.  He-  began  lithography  in 
Madrid,  and  the  first  important  artistic  drawing  ever 
made  on  stone  was  by  Goya,  and  this,  too,  when  he 
was  seventy-three. 

Ferdinand  VII,  at  his  restoration  in  1814,  invited 
Goya  to  his  court;  but,  unhappy,  totally  deaf,  and 
growing  blind,  he  left  Madrid  on  the  completion  of  his 
most  important  ecclesiastical  work,  "St.  Joseph  of 
Calasans^',  for  the  church  of  S.  Anton  Abad,  and 
settled  in  Bordeaux.  Here  in  his  eightieth  year  he 
lithographed  the  notable  series  of  bufl-fi^ts.  Goya 
was  the  strongest  figure  in  the  a^  of  tumult  and 
change  in  which  he  lived,  the  last  link  between  tradi- 
tion and  the  great  movement  in  art  of  the  nineteenth 
centurv,  which  he  epitomized  when  he  said:  "a  pic- 
ture, tne  effect  of  wmch  is  true,  is  finished."  He  was 
buried  in  Bordeaux.  One  son,  of  all  his  children,  sur- 
vived him.  His  other  works  are:  double  portrait  of 
La  Maja,  in  the  San  Fernando  Academy;  portrait  of 
Duchess  of  Alva,  in  the  Louvre;  a  collection  of  etch- 
ings and  aouatints  in  the  British  Museum;  equestrian 
portrait  of  Charles  IV,  in  Madrid ;  sanguine  drawing  of 
Duke  of  Wellington,  in  the  British  Museum. 

MEnR-ORAKFB,  Development  of  Modem  Art  (tr.  New  York. 
1006);  Hambrton.  Etehinga  and  Etchen  (Boflton.  1886);  Ybi- 
ASTC,  Life  of  Goya  (Paris,  1867);  Rothenstexn,  Goya  (London. 
1900);  CALYBirr.  F.  J,  Goya  (New  York,  1008). 

Leiqh  Hunt. 

Ctoyai,  Diocese  op  (Gotasibnsis),  co-extensive 
with  the  state  of  the  same  name^  one  of  the  twenty 
states  which,  with  the  Federal  District,  comprise  the 
Republic  of  Brazil.  It  has  an  area  of  288,546  square 
miles,  or  a  little  more  than  six  times  that  of  the  State 


Francbsoo  JosA  ds  Gota 


of  New  York.  The  longitudinal  position  of  the  capital 
(also  calleH  Goya^)  corresponds  to  about  twenty-five 
de^jees  east  of  New  York  City;  and  as  regards  its 
latitude,  it  is  about  as  far  south  of  the  Equator  as,  say, 
Acapulco  in  Southern  Mexico  is  north  of  it.  Tlie  dio- 
cese is  suffragan  of  Bahia  (the  primatial  see),  and  was 
founded  in  1826  by  Leo  XII.  The  ooimtry  is  moun- 
tainous, one  peak  of  the  Serra  dos  Pyreneos  beins 
about  9600  feet  high.  The  soil  is  naturally  fertile  and 
rich  in  precious  metals,  but  for  various  reasons  the 
resources  of  the  state  are  practically  undeveloped. 
CatalSs  is  at  present  (1909)  tne  only  town  touched  by 
a  railway,  (jattle^rearing  is  the  chief  industry.  The 
population  is  about  4()0,000.  Goyaz,  the  capital 
(15,000),  founded  in  1736  as  Santa  ^na,  contains  the 
cathedral,  a  lyceum,  schools  of  classics  and  philosophy, 
and  various  elementary  schools.  The  le^lative  as- 
sembly of  the  state  sits  here.  According  to  an  article 
of  the  constitution,  the  future  federal  capital  of  Brazil 
must  occupy  an  elevated  site  on  a  central  plateau  of 
the  country,  and  it  is  su^ested  that  the  state  of  Goyas 
offers  the  most  suitablelocation  for  the  fulfilment  of 
these  conditions.  The  religious  statistics  are  as  fol- 
lows: secular  priests,  39;  regular,  38;  churches  and 
chs^ls,  36 ;  there  is  a  mission-nouse  of  the  Dominicans 
of  Toulouse,  and  also  a  pension  and  school  of  the 
Dominican  nuns. 

Garkikr,  Almanaque  BraaUeiro  (1903-4);  HoMeWe  Annual 
(London,  1909):  BratU  at  the  Louuiana  Purduue  Exposition 
(St.  Louis,  1904). 

T.  Hunt. 

Ck>io,  Diocese  of  (Goulos-Gaudisiensis),  com- 
prises the  Island  of  Gozo  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
(seventeen  miles  west  of  the  harbour  of  Valetta. 
Malta)  and  islet  of  CominOj  and  has  a  population  oi 
22,700  souls.  It  is  more  picturesque  than  the  sister 
island  of  Malta,  and  the  country,  covered  as  it  is  with 
conical  hills,  is  more  fertile  in  its  plains  and  valleys. 
On  a  central  plateau  the  ruined  fortifications  of  an  an- 
cient town  contain  the  cathedral  church  and  public 
buildings,  outside  of  which  is  a  large  suburb.  Gozo 
is  famed  for  its  grotto  of  Calypso,  at  a  little  distance 
from  which  are  the  ruins  of  a  Cyclopean  temple,  a 
most  conspicuous  monument  of  antiquity. 

Up  to  tne  year  1864,  Gozo  formed  part  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Malta,  but  Pius  IX,  acceding  to  the  rei>eated 
prayer  of  the  clergy  and  the  people,  erected  it  into  a 
separate  diocese  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See. 
On  16  March,  1863,  Monsigndr  Francesco  Michele  Buti- 

E'eg,  a  native  of  Gozo,  was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
ita  and  deputy  auxilia^  of  the  Archbishop-Bisnop 
of  Malta,  for  the  Island  of  Gozo.  He  was  consecrated 
at  Rome  on  3  May  of  the  same  year,  on  22  September, 
1864,  was  created  first  bishop  of  tne  new  Diocese  of 
Gozo,  and  on  the  23rd  day  of  the  following  month 
made  his  solemn  entry  mto  the  new  cathedral. 
Through  the  efforts  of  M^.  Pietro  Pace,  who  was  then 
vicar-general  of  the  diocese  (now  Archbishop  of 
Rhodes  and  Bishop  of  Malta),  a  diocesan  semmary 
was  established  on  the  site  formerly  occupied  by  the 
San  Giuliano  Hospital,  the  revenues  of  which  were  ap- 
propriated to  the  new  institution.  This  seminary  was 
inaugurated  3  November,  1866,  and,  by  the  express 
desire  of  Pope  Pius  IX,  was  placed  under  the  direction 
of  the  Jesuits.  On  the  death  of  Mgr.  Buti^eg,  Father 
Micallef ,  Superior  General  of  the  Augustinian  Order, 
was  made  Bishop  of  Citt&  di  Castello  and  appointed 
administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  Gozo.  He  left  Gozo  in 
May,  1867,  and  in  1871  became  Archbishop  of  Pisa. 
His  successor  to  the  administration  of  the  diocese  was 
Mgr.  Antonio  Grech  Dellcata,  titular  Bishop  of  Chalce- 
don,  a  native  of  Malta,  who,  in  1868,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Gozo,  and  as  such  assisted  at  the  Vatican 
Council.  Mgr.  Grech  Delicata's  charity  towards  the 
poor  went  so  far  that  he  even  divested  himself  of  his 
own  patrimony.  This  worthy  prelate  died  on  the  last 
day  of  the  year  1876. 


oozzi                       ess  oozzou 

Onl2MaTch,  1877,  Mgr.  Canon  Professor  Pietro  Pace,  drive  Goldoni  from  Venice,  is  explained  by  the  pres- 

a  native  of  G020,  was  appointed  to  succeed  Mgr.  Green  ence  in  them  of  many  elements  of  contemporaneous 

Delicata,  and  was  consecrated  at  Rome  by  Cardinal  and  topical  interest.    At  home  they  later  fell  into  ob- 

Howard.     Under  his  administration  the  seminary  livion  m  so  far  as  theatrical  repertories  are  concerned ; 

was  augmented  by  the  installation  of  a  meteorological  for  some  time  they  continued  to  attract  attention 

observatory,  which  was  inaugurated  by  the  celebrated  abroad,  as  is  evinced  b^r  the  consideration  given  to 

Padre  Denza,  Director  of  uie  Vatican  Observatory,  them  by  Goethe,  by  Schiller,  who  made  a  version  of 

During  this  administration  an  episcopal  educational  one  of  them,  the  ''Turandot",  bv  Schopenhauer,  by 

institute  for  girls  was  also  established,  imder  the  care  Wagner,  by  Mme  de  Sta^l,  and  others.    As  J.  A. 

of  the  Sisters  ojf  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  to  whom  was  also  Symonds  has  said  of  them,  and  as  Wagner  seemed  to 

entrusted  the  direction  of  the  annexed  orphan  asy-  apprehend,  they  hav&  in  them  good  material  for  oper- 

lum.    The  same  bishop  provided  the  diocese  with  a  atic  libretti.  He  prepared  some  plavs  based  on  Spanish 

new  episcopal  palace  and  new  monasteries,  besides  dramas  in  opposition  to  the  spread  of  the  sentimental 

laying  out  large  sums  of  monev  on  the  cathedral.    In  drama  as  represented  by  the  drame  larmoyant  and 

1889,  Mgr.  Pace  was  promoted  Archbishop  of  Rhodes  tragHie  bourgeaise  of  French  origin.    Among  other 

and  Bishop  of  Malta.    His  successor  in  the  See  of  works  we  have  from  him  a  chivalrous  and  romantic 

Gozo  (and  actual  bishop)  is  the  Reverend  G.  M.  Camil-  poem  of  satiric  import,  practically  a  mock-heroic,  the 

leri,  O.S.A.,  a  native  of  Valetta  (b.  15  March,  1842).  ''Marfisa  bizzarra^'j  tne  almanac  entitled  "Tartana 

Under  Mgr.  CamUleri's  administration  the  first  dio-  de^r  Influssi",  which  has  attacks  on  Goldoni  and 

cesan  synod  was  celebrated,  in  October,  1903.    Tins  Chiari;  and  the  autobiographical  ''Memorie  della  sua 

synod  was  of  absolute  necessity,  as  the  diocese  was  still  vita".    This  last  rather  entertaining  document  was 

governed  under  the  rules  of  the  Synod  of  Malta  of  called  forth  by  the  strictures  put  upon  him  by  a  rival, 

1703,  and  consequently  lacked  a  safe  guide  adapted  Pietro  Antonio  Gratarol,  whom  he  had  previously 

to  the  times.    Constitutions  and  decrees  were  also  forced  from  Venice  by  the  ridicule  whicn  he  had 

promulgated  and  published  which  gave  new  life  to  the  brought    upon    him    m    a   comedy,    the    "  Drogue 

working  of  the  diocese.  d  'amore ' '.  The  "  Memorie ' '  have  been  translated  into 

The  cathedral  church  of  Gozo  was  built  in  1697-  E^^ish  by  J.  A.  Symonds  (London,   1890).    The 

1703,  by  Lorenzo  Gafa.    Its  ground  plan  is  in  the  ''Fiabei'havebeeneditedbvE.Masi  (Bologna,  1885), 

form  of  a  Latin  cross.    Its  interior  is  adorned  with  with  a  bibliography  of  all  Uozzi's  writings,  while  his 

fine  paintings.    The  "Massagiere di  Maria",  an  Ital-  other  works  may  be  found  in  the  edition  published  at 

ian  periodical,  is  recognized  in  the  Diocese  of  Gozo  as  Venice  in  1802. 

the  official  organ  of  the  sanctuary  of  the  Bl.  Virgin  ta  BfAQBiNi.  lumpi,  la  vita  e  sU  acritU  di  Carlo  Qotei  (Benevoito. 

Pinu.  1883).                                                       ,    ,.    „    ^ 

Fbrrxb,   BedeBvasHeal  Hiatory  of  MaUa  (1877);  Idem,  Do-  J.  D.  M.  FORD. 
acrivUon  of  the  Churche»  of  Malta  and  Goto  (1866);  CoMt.  el 

Decret.  Synod.  Gaud,  prima  (Malta,  1904).  <*.«,«                        »                 « 

Antonio  Vella.  Qoiioli  (Benozzo  di  Lese  di  Sandbo,  sumamed 

GozzoLi),  painter;  b.  at  Florence,  1420;  d.  at  Piaa, 

Ck>isi,  Carlo,  Italian  author,  b.  at  Venice,  1720;  1497.    He  was  a  pupil  of  Fra  Angelico,  and  assisted 

d.  1806.    He  spent  in  military  service  the  three  years  him  in  his  work  at  Rome  and  at  (Svieto.    It  was  not 

that  ensued  upon  the  completion  of  his  school  studies,  until  144*9  that  Benozzo  began  to  work  independently. 

Then  impelled  by  real  necessity,  since  the  family  The  principal  centres  of  his  artistic  activity  were 

means  had  been  wasted  away,  he^  like  his  brother  Montefalco  (1450-1452),  Florence  (1457-1463),  San 

Gasparo,  directed  his  attention  to  literature.    He  be-  Gimignano  (1464-1467),  and  Pisa  (1469-1485).    For 

came  a  member  of  the  Accademia  dei  Granelleschi,  the  church  of  San  Fortunato,  near  Montefalco  in  Um- 

whose  conservative  feelings  with  regard  to  the  native  bria,  he  executed  man^f  frescoes,  among  them  an  An- 

literary  traditions  he  shared,  and  ere  long  began  an  nunciation,  a  Madonna,  and  a  few  altar-pieces;  the 

attack  upon  the  dramatic  methods  of  both  of  the  lead-  best-known  are  the  "  Glory  of  St.  Fortunatus  ",  and  the 

ing  playwrights  of  the  time,  Chi&n  and  Goldoni.    The  "Madonna  of  the  Holy  Girdle"  (now  in  the  Lateran 

iterance -and  the  bombast  of  the  former  had  excited  Museiun).    Fra  Anseuco'S  influence  pervades  all  his 

his  ire,  while  the  reform  advocated  by  Goldoni  seemed  work;  but  the  pupirs  own  personal  traits  are  always 

to  him  undesirable^  inasmuch  as  it  involved  the  abol-  in  evidence.    In  1452  we  find  him  at  Montefalco  decor- 

ishment  of  the  emmently  Italian  commedia  dell*  arte,  ating  the  church  of  St.  Francis.    The  frescoes  in  the 

To  illustrate  his  own  views  as  to  what  was  likely  to  be  choir  are  the  most  noteworthy.  The  ceiling  contains 

a  popular  form  of  the  drama  in  Venice,  be  be^n  the  grandiose  fig^ures  of  saints;  the  end  wall,  the  "Glory 

composition  of  his  "Fiabe",  for  whose  improbable  of  St.  Francis";  the  side  walls,  the  "Life  of  the  Ser- 

plots  he  derived  inspiration  from  various  collections  of  aphic  Patriarch  of  Assisi "  in  twelve  scenes.    At  Flor- 

fantastic  tales,  such  as  those  contained  in  the  Italian  ence  Piero  de'  Medici  commissioned  Benozzo  to  paint 

"  Cunto  de  li  cunti ''  of  Basile,  the  "  Cabinet  des  f^",  in  fresco  the  chapel  of  the  palace  (af tenrards  known  as 

and  Oriental  compUations.    From  Spanish  plays  of  the  Riccardi  Palace)  which  Michelozzo  had  just  built, 

the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centimes  he  also  drew  The  altar  had  aheady  been  decorated  by  a  "  Nativity" 

no  little  matter,  and  withal  he  freely  used  his  own  from  the  hand  of  Filippo  Lippi.    On  the  three  pnn- 

fancy  and  indulged  lavishly  his  own  satirical  powers,  cipal  walls  GozzoU  depicted  the  "Procession  of  the 

There  is  little  oider,  and  hardly  any  subordination  to  Miip;i  in  quest  of  the  new-bom  King".    This  work, 

rule  in  his  "Fiabe'',  which,  it  should  be  said,  differ  which  has  kept  all  its  original  fre^ness  of  colouring, 

from  the  commedie  deU\  arUf  whose  manner  they  were  is  one  of  the  most  successful  of  the  Renaissance  period, 

intended  to  continue,  in  that  they  are  often  written  and  furnishes  a  very  striking  picture  of  the  sumptuous 

out  in  full  and  are  not  merely  sketchy  scenarii.    They  life  led  in  the  fifteenth  century.    All  the  personages  in 


way  of  their  diffusion  outside  of  the  Venetian  region;  design  as  to  be  worthy  of  Fra  Angelico. 
and  they  jumble  together  the  heroic  and  the  grotesque,        In  the  "  city  of  the  beautiful  towers  "  (La  citUi  delle 

the  senous  and  the  ridiculous,  the  real  and  the  tan-  belle  torri),  San  Gimignano,  Gozzoli  painted  for  the 

tastic,  bringing  on  the  scene  devfls,  necromancers,  Ck>llegialea"Martyrdomof  St.  Sebastian";  along  the 

kni^ts,  fairies,  monsters,  and  like  figures.    The  hidi  walls  of  the  choir  in  San  Agostino  he  set  forth  St. 

degree  of  popularity  attained  by  the  "  Fiabe"  in  the  Augustine's  life  in  a  series  of  seventeen  frescoes,  which 

author's  time,  and  it  was  enough  to  enable  him  to  he  employed  as  a  means  of  introducing  the  worid  of 


kttndneiri  the  fifteenth  centurjr,  just  as  he  made  use 


Baoto  at  Pisa:  on  its  northern  wall  he  painted  twenty- 
three  subjects,  twenty-one  of  which  are  taken  from  the 
Old  Testament,  beginning  with  "Noe's  discovery  (or 
invention]  of  wine '  ,  and  endingwith  the  "  Visit  of  the 
Queen  of  Sheba",  a  wonderful  Biblical  epic.  During 
luB  aojoum  at  Pisa  he  found  time  to  paint  m^ny  other 
ffubjecta:theprincipalouei8  the  "Gloiy  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinaa",  now  in  the  Louvre.  It  was,  however,  in 
ftesco  that  Goiioh  won  for  himself  an  immortal  name 
among  Florentine  painters.  He  had  the  honour  of 
leetorniK  narrative  painting  to  the  place  it  had  won 
for  itself  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Benozio  was  a 
lover  of  nature,  a  skilful  landscapiat,  an  adept  at  rep- 
resentine  animal  Ufe,  and  clever  in  the  use  of  ornament. 
His  live^  imagination  revels  in  brilliant  costumes  and 


9  OBAOK 

Among  the  three  fundamental  ideas — sin,  redem^oo, 
and  grace — grace  plays  the  part  of  the  means,  mdis- 
pensable  ana  Divinely  ordained,  to  effect  the  redemp- 
tion from  sin  through  Christ  and  to  lead  men  to  their 

eternal  destiny  in  heaven.  Before  the  Council  of 
Trent,  the  Schoolmen  seldom  used  the  term  gratia 
actualis,  preferring  auxilivm  apeeiale,  motto  divina,  and 
similar  designations;  nor  did  they  formally  distinguish 
actual  grace  from  sanctifying  grace.  But,  in  conse- 
quence of  modem  controversies  re^rding  grace,  it  has 
become  usual  and  necessary  in  theology  to  oraw  a 
sharper  distinction  between  the  transient  help  to  act 
(actual  grace)  and  the  permanent  state  of  grace  (sanc- 
tifying grace).  For  this  reason  we  adopt  this  distinc- 
tion as  our  principle  of  division  in  the  following  expo- 
sition of  the  Catholic  doctrine. 

I.  Actoal  Grace. — Jt  derives  its  name,  actual, 
from  the  Latin  adualU  (ad  actum),  for  it  is  granted  by 


Gouou.  Dbtaik  01 

splendid  architectural  detail.  Imperfections  due  to 
negligence  are  occasionally  met  with  in  his  work,  also 
excess  of  detail  and  awkwardness  of  ^^luping.  These 
faults  arise  from  the  exuberance  of  his  talent  and  are 
more  than  counterl^lanced  by  the  wonderful  quality 
of  his  work.  BenoHO  remained  true  to  the  chaste 
ideals  of  hia  master,  yet  was  able  to  combine  in  his 
work  the  sinoeritj.  the  skill,  and  the  veraciousness  of  a 
charming  story-teller.  Pisan  gratitude  voted  Benouo 
a  tomb  in  the  "  gallery  "  of  the  Campo  Santo  he  had  so 
magnificently  decorated. 

Caowa  AND  Cavalcabelu,  A  Hitlary  at  f  aintinD  in  Ibdu 
(LoDdoD,  1S64-IS60),  III.  4eS  ran.:  Vuusi.  L<  Viu  6^  piA 
acctUoUi  piOori,  ed.  Sanson  (FLorenae,  1878),  III,  45-48; 
OiCDici,  OairlU  da  Bmuz-ArU  (Hay,  1SS9);  Rio,  De  L'Art 
eftrAwnjPaju.  1S71),  II.tTSsqq.;  Faucon  in  L'jlrt  (ISSl  uid 
1883):  HDN-n,  HuMre  de  CaHvendanl  la  Renaiaimce  (Psru. 
ISBI),  n,  ai7-fl28;  Supiho,  /I  Campo  Santo  di  Pin  (FloranM. 
ISM),  I91-ze7l  SORTAIB.  Lt  UaVrt  H  rEltve:  Fta  Anadieo  tt 
Bfuaio  GoMtoli  (Puii,  IMS).  156-ZSO. 

Qabton  Sobtaib. 

OiKCe  (gratia,  Xtl^Oi  in  general,  is  a  supernatural 
gift  of  God  to  intellectual  creatures  (men.  angels)  for 
their  eternal  salvation,  whether  the  latter  be  furthered 
and  attained  through  salutary  acts  or  a  state  of  holi- 
ness. Eternal  salvation  itself  consists  in  heavenly  bliss 
lesulting  from  the  intuitive  knowledge  of  the  Triune 
God,  who  to  the  one  not  endowed  with  grace  "  inhab- 
iteth  light  inacceesible"  (1  Tim.,  vi,  16).  Christian 
^aoe  is  a  fundamental  idea  of  the  Christian  reUeion, 
Uie  pillar  on  which,  bv  a  special  ordination  of  Gad,  the 
majestic  edifice  of  Cbristianity  rests  in  its  entire^. 
VI.— M 


God  for  the  performance  of  salutary  acts  and  is  present 
and  disappears  with  the  action  itself.  Its  opposite, 
therefore,  is  not  possibU  grace,  which  is  without  use- 
fulness or  importance,  but  habUual  grace,  which  causee 
a  state  of  holiness^  so  that  the  mutual  relations  be- 
tween these  two  kmds  of  grace  are  the  relations  be- 
tween action  and  $tale,  not  those  between  actualily  and 
poteniialiiy.  Later,  we  shall  discuss  habitual  grace 
more  fully  under  the  name  of  sanctifying  or  justifying 
grace.  An  to  actual  grace,  we  have  to  examine:  (1)  its 
Nature;  (2)  its  Properties,     The  third,  and  difficult, 

ration  of  the  relationship  between  grace  and  liberty 
U  be  reserved  for  discussion  in  the  article  Gracb, 

CONTROVEBSIEB  ON. 

(1)  Mature  of  Actual  Sroce,— To  know  the  nature 
of  actual  grace,  we  must  consider  both  the  compre- 
hension and  the  extension  of  the  term.  Its  compre- 
hension is  exhibited  to  us  by  (a)  its  definition;  ita 
extension,  by  the  complete  enumeration  of  all  Divine 
helps  of  grace;  in  otner  words,  bv  (b)  the  logical 
division  of  the  idea,  inasmuch  as  the  sum  of  alTUie 
particulars  represents,  in  every  science,  the  logical 
extent  of  an  idea  or  term. 

(a)  The  definition  of  actual  grace  is  based  on  the 
idea  of  grace  in  general,  which,  in  Bibhcal,  classical, 
and  modem  language,  admits  of  a  fourfold  meaning. 
In  the  first  nlace,  subjectively,  grace  signifies  goi^ 
will,  benevolence;  then,  objectively,  it  designates 
every  favour  which  proceeds  from  this  benevolence 
and,  consequently,  every  gratuitous  gift  (donum  gra- 
tuiiwn,  beneficium).    In  the  former  (subjecturai)  seuee. 


aRAOS  690  oraoe' 

the  king's  qrace  grants  life  to  the  criminal  condemned  aiigels  and  in  our  first  parents  in  Paradise,  the  addi- 

to  death;  m  the  latter  (objective)  sense  the  king  dis-  tion  of  this  new  characteristic  appears  self-explana- 

tributes  graces  to  his  lieges.    In  this  connexion  grace  tory.    As  to  the  Scotists,  they  denve  each  and  every 

also  stands  for  charm,  attractiveness;   as  when  we  supernatural  mce  in  heaven  and  on  earth  solely  from 

speak  of  the  three  Graces  in  mythology,  or  of  the  the  merits  of  Christ,  inasmuch  as  the  God-Man  would 

grace  poured  forth  on  the  lips  of  the  bridegroom  (Ps.  have  appeared  on  earth  even  had  Adam  not  sinned, 

xliv,  3),  because  charm  calls  forth  benevolent  love  in  But  they,  too,  are  compelled  to  introduce,  in  the  pres- 

the  giver  and  prompts  him  to  the  bestowal  of  benefac-  ent  dispensation,  a  distinction  between  the  "grace  of 

tions.    As  the  recipient  of  graces  experiences,  on  his  Christ''  and  the  ''^race  of  the  Redeemer"  for  the  lea- 

part,  sentiments  of  gratefulness,  and  expresses  these  son  that,  in  their  ideal  theory,  neither  the  angels  nor 

sentiments  in  thanks,  the  word  (fratice   (plural   of  the  inhabitants  of  Paradise  owe  their  holiness  to 

gratia)  also  stands  for  thanksgiving  m  the  expressions  the  Redeemer.   The  addition,  ex  meriiis  Christi,  must 

gratias  agere  and  Deo  graliaa,  which  have  their  coun-  therefore  be  included  in  the  notion  of  actual  sjaoe. 

terpart  in  the  English,  to  say  grace  after  meals.  But  there  are  also  merely  external  graces,  whicE  owe 

A  comparison  of  these  four  senses  of  the  word  arace  their  existence  to  the  merits  of  Christ's  redemption — 

reveals  a  clear  relationship  of  analogy  among  them,  as  the  Bible,  preaching,  the  crucifix,  the  example  of 

since  grace^  in  its  objective  signification  of  "gratuitous  Christ.    One  of  these,  the  hypostatic  upion,  marks 

gift"  or  "favour",  occupies  a 'central  position  around  even  the  highest  point  of  all  possible  graces.    The 

which  the  other  meaninas  may  be  logically  grouped.  Pelagians  themselves  sought  to  outdo  one  another  in 

For  the  attractiveness  of  the  recipient  as  weU  as  the  their  encomiums  on  the  excellency  of  Christ's  example 

benevolence  of  the  giver  is  the  cause,  whereas  the  and  its  effectiveness  in  suggesting  pious  thougjhts 

expression  of  thanks  which  proceeds  from  the  grateful  and  salutary  resolutions.    They  thus  endeavoured  to 

disposition  is  the  effect,  of  tne  gratuitous  gift  of  grace,  avoid  the  admission  of  interior  graces  inherent  in  the 

This  last>mentioned  meaning  is,  consequently,  the  soul;  for  these  alone  were  opposed  to  Pelagius's 

fundamental  one  in  grace.    The  characteristic  idea  of  proudly  virtuous  supremacy  of  the  free  will  (liberum 

a  free  ^ft  must  be  taken  in  the  strict  sense  and  exclude  arbitriuin)f  the  whole  strength  of  which  resided  within 

merit  in  every  form,  be  it  in  the  range  of  commutative  itself.    For  this  reason  the  Church  all  the  more  em- 

justice  as,  e.  ^.,  in  sale  and  purchase,  or  in  that  of  dis-  phatically  proclaimed,  and  still  proclaims,  the  neoes* 

tributive  justice,  as  is  the  case  in  the  so-called  remu-  sity  of  interior  grace  for  which  exterior  graces  are 

nerations  and  gratuities.    Hence  St.  Paul  says:  "If  by  merely  a  preparation.    Yet  there  are  aliK)  interior 

grace,  it  is  not  now  b^  works:  otherwise  grace  is  no  graces  which  do  not  procure  the  individual  sanctifica- 

more  grace"  (Rom.,  xi,  6).  tion  of  the  recipient,  but  the  sanctification  of  others 

True,  even  gratuitous  Divine  gifts  may  still  fall  throu^  the  recipient.  These,  by  the  extension  of  the 
within  the  range  of  mere  nature.  Thus  we  petition  ^nenc  term  to  specifically  designate  a  new  subdivis- 
God,undertheguidanceof  the  Church,  for  mere  natu-  ion,  are,  by  antonomasia,  called  ^tuitously  given 
IraX  graces,  as  health,  favourable  weather,  deliverance  graces  (vratice  gratis  data).  To  this  class  belong  the 
from  plague,  famine,  and  war.  Now  such  natural  extraordinary  charismata  of  the  miracle-worker,  the 
graces,  which  appear  simultaneously  as  due  and  gra-  prophet,  the  speaker  of  tongues,  etc.  (see  I  Cor.,  xii,  4 
tuitous,  are  by  no  means  a  contradiction  in  themselves,  sqq.),  as  well  as  the  ordinary  powers  of  the  priest  and 
For,  first,  the  whole  creation  is  for  mankind  a  f;ratui-  confessor.  As  the  object  of  tnese  graces  is,  according 
tons  gift  of  the  love  of  God,  whom  neither  justice  nor  to  their  nature,  the  spread  of  the  fingdom  of  God  on 
equity  compelled  to  create  the  world.  And  secondly,  earth  and  the  sanctification  of  men,  their  possession  in 
the  individual  man  can,  in  virtue  of  his  title  of  crea-  itself  does  not  exclude  personal  imholiness.  The  will 
tion,  lay  a  rightful  claim  only  to  the  essential  endow-  of  God,  however,  is  that  personal  righteousness  and 
ments  of  his  nature.  Goods  granted  over  and  above  holiness  should  aJso  distinguish  the  possessor.  With 
this  class,  though  belonging  to  the  just  demands  of  regptl  to  the  personal  holiness  of  man,  only  that  in- 
human nature  in  general,  have  for  him  the  si^iificanoe  terior  grace  is  of  importance  which  is  interiorly  inher- 
of  an  actual  grace,  or  favour,  as,  for  example,  eminent  ent  in  the  soul  and  renders  it  holy  and  pleasing  to  God. 
talents,  robust  health,  perfect  limbs,  fortitude.  We  Hence  its  name,  ingratiating  grace  (gratia  gratum 
would  nave  omitted  mentioning  this  so-called  "grace  faciens).  To  this  category  belongs  not  only  sanctify- 
of  creation",  had  not  Pelagius,  by  emphasizing  the  mg,  but  also  actual  grace. 

gratuitouscharacterof  such  natural  graces,  succeeded,        Taking  into  account,  then,  all  the  elements  so  far 

at  the  Synod  of  Diospolis  or  Lydda  (a.  d.  415)  in  delud-  considered,  we  may  define  actual  grace  as  a  supematr 

ing  the  unsuspecting  bishops  in  regard  to  the  dangere  uralhelp  of  God  for  salutary  acts  aranted  in  consideration 

of  his  heresy.    The  five  African  bishops,  Augustine  of  the  merits  of  Christ, — It  is  called  a  "help of  God  for 

among  them,  in  their  report  to  Pope  Innocent  I,  salutary  acts",  because,  on  the  one  hand,  it  differs  from 

rightly  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  Pelagius  ad-  permanent  sanctifying  grace,  in  that  it  consists  only  in 

mitted  only  the  grace  through  which  we  are  men,  but  a  passing  influence  of  God  on  the  soul,  and,  on  the 

denied  grace  properly  so  called,  through  which  we  are  other,  it  is  destined  only  for  actions  which  have  a 

Christians  and  children  of  God.    Whenever  Scripture  necessary  relation  to  man's  eternal  salvation.    It  is 

and  tradition  speak  simply  of  grace,  reference  is  made  further  called  a  "supernatural  help"  so  as  to  exclude 

to  a  supernatural  grace  which  is  opposed  to  natural  from  its  definition  not  only  all  merely  natural  graces, 

erace  as  to  its  contrary  and  lies  so  far  oeyond  all  right-  but  aJso,  in  a  special  manner,  ordinary  Divine  conser- 

ful  claim  and  strenuous  effort  of  the  creature  that  it  vation  and  concurrence  (concursus  generalis  divinus), 

remains  positively  undue  to  the  already  existing  na-  Finally,  the  "merits  of  Christ"  are  named  as  its  meri- 

ture,  because  it  includes  goods  of  a  Divine  order,  as.  torious  cause  because  all  graces  granted  to  fallen  man 

e.  g.,  Divine  sonship,  indwelling  of  the  Spirit,  vision  oi  are  derived  from  this  one  source.    It  is  for  this  reason 

G(^.   Actual  grace  is  of  this  kind,  because^  as  a  means,  that  the  prayers  of  the  Church  either  invoke  Christ 

it  stands  in  intrinsic  and  essential  relation  to  these  directly  or  conclude  with  the  wolds:  Through  Jesus 

Divine  goods  which  are  the  end.    As  a  consequence,  Christ  Our  Lord, 

the  most  important  element  characteristic  of  its  nature        We  have  laid  down  above,  as  the  most  important 

must  be  the  supernatural.  characteristic  of  the  nature  of  actual  (and  of  every 

As  a  further  determining  factor  must  be  added  its  Christian)  grace,  its  supernatural  character.  ^  This- 

necessary  derivation  from  the  merits  of  Christ's  re-  was  done  partly  because  a  deeper  insight  into  its  n&- 

demption ;  for  there  is  the  question  of  Christian  grace,  ture  may  oe  gained  from  the  analysis  of  this  ^ment. 

In  the  Thomist  theory  of  redemption,  which  considers  As  pure  nature  is  in  itself  completely  incapable  of  per- 

not  Christ,  but  the  Infinity,  as  the  cause  of  grace  in  the  forming  salutary  acts  through  its  own  strength,  aetufti 


OBAOI                             ^  691  OBAOS 

grace  must  come  to  the  rescue  of  its  incapacity  and  to  which  it  ultimately  leads.    The  necessity  of  the 

supply  the  deficient  powers,  without  which  no  super-  physical  causality  of  pace,  as  is  readil^r  seen,  is  nowise 

liatuiul  activity  is  i)068ible.  Actual  grace  thus  becomes  ae{)endent  on  the  existence  of  concupiscence,  but  re- 

a  special  causal  principle  which  communicates  to  im-  mains  iust  as  imperative  for  our  first  parents  in  their 

potent  nature  moral,  and  especially  physical,  p>owers.  state  of  innocence  and  for  the  angels  subject  to  no  evil 

Grace,  as  a  moral  cause,  presupposes  the  existence  tendency.    Actual  grace,  therefore,  considered  under 

of  obstacles  which  render  the  work  of  salvation  so  dif-  this  aspect,  bears  the  name  of  **  elevating  grace ' '  {gratia 

ficult  that  their  removal  is  morally  impossible  without  elevans),  though  not  in  a  sense  which  would  exclude 

special  Divine  help.    Grace  must  bis  brought  into  from  it  the  possibility  of  simultaneously  fulfilling  the 

operation  as  healing  grace  (gratia  aanans,  medicituUis) ;  moral  function  of  healine  grace  in  the  present  state  of 

free  will,  bent  towards  the  earth  and  weakened  by  man.    It  is  only  after  these  considerations  that  the 

concupiscence,  is  yet  filled  with  love  of  good  and  hor-  comprehension  of  the  nature  of  actual  grace  in  all  its 

ror  of  evil.    The  consciousness  of  the  necessity  of  this  relations  becomes  possible,  that  we  may  say,  with 

moral  influence  may  become  so  perfect  that  we  beg  of  Perrone:  Actual  grace  is  that  unmerited  interior  as- 

God  the  grace  of  a  violent  victory  over  our  evil  na-  sistance  which  God,  in  virtue  of  the  merits  of  Christ, 

ture;  witness  the  celebrated  prayer  of  the  Church:  confers  upon  fallen  man  in  order  to  strengthen,  on  the 

"  Ad  te  nostras,  etiam  rebelles,  compelle  propitius  vol-  one  hand,  his  infirmity  resulting  from  sin  and,  on  the 

untates"  (Vouchsafe  to  compel  our  wills  to  Thee,  other,  to  render  him  capable,  by  elevation  to  the  su- 

albeit  they  resist).    In  the  ordinary  course  of  things  pematural  order,  of  supernatural  acts  of  the  soul,  so 

the  Divine  inspiration  of  jov  in  virtue  and  aversion  that  he  may  attaon  justification,  persevere  in  it  to  the 

from  sin  will,  no  doubt,  methodically  lead  to  the  free  end,  and  thus  enter  into  everlasting  life, 

performance  of  salutary  acts;  but  the  moral  influence  (b)  The  Logical  Division  of  actuiu  grace  should  enu- 

of  grace  can  effect  the  temporary  control  of  freedom  merate  all  the  kinds  to  which  the  definition  is  uni- 

in  the  sinner.    The  sudden  conversion  of  the  Apostle  versally  applicable.   If  we  adopt  the  different  faculties 

Paul  is  an  illustration  of  this.     It  will  be  readily  un-  of  the  soiu  as  our  principle  of  division,  we  shall  have 

derstood  that  the  above-mentioned  triumph  over  the  three  kinds:  graces  of  the  intellect,  of  the  will,  and 

obstacles  to  salvation  demands  in   itself  a   grace  of  the  sensitive  faculties.    With  regard  to  the  consent 

which  is  natural  only  in  substance,  but  supernatural  of  the  will  we  distinguish  two  pairs  of  graces:  first, 

in  mode.    Hence  many  theologians  recjuire  even  for  preventing  and  co-operating;    then  efficacious  ana 

the  so-called  state  of  pure  nature  (which  never  ex-  merely   sufficient   grace.    It  must  be  immediately 

isted)  such  natural  graces  as  are  mere  remedies  against  shown  that  all  these  graces  are  no  arbitrarily  in- 

the  fomes  peccati  of  natural  concupiscence.    The  end  vented  entities,  but  actually  existing  realities, 

of  supernatural  bliss  and  the  consequently  necessary  (a)  Graces  ot  the  Different  Faculties  of  the  Soul. — 

endowment  with  supernatural  means  of  grace  would  The  illuminating  grace  of  the  intellect  (gratia  iUumina- 

not  have  existed  in  this  state  (status  naturce  pur<B)j  but  tionis,  iUustrationis)  first  presents  itself  for  considera- 

the  disastrous  results  of  an  evil  tendency  unbndled  tion.    It  is  that  grace  which  in  the  work  of  salvation 

would  have  been  experienced  to  the  same  extent  as  suggests  good  thoughts  to  the  intellect.    This  may 

after  the  fall.  happen  in  a  twofold  manner^  either  mediately  or 

More  important  than  the  moral  causality  of  grace  is  immediately.    The  existence  of  m^iate  graces  of  the 

its  physical  causality,  for  man  must  also  receive  frpm  mind  is  not  only  Vouched  for  a  priori  by  the  presence 

God  the  physical  power  to  perform  salutary  works,  of  merely  external  graces,  as  when  a  stirring  sermon  or 

Without  it,  activity  in  the  order  of  salvation  is  not  the  si^t  of  the  crucifix  forces  the  sinner  to  earnest 

only  more  difficult  and  laborious,  it  is  altogether  im-  reflection;  it  is  also  explicitly  attested  by  Holy  Writ, 

possible.    The  feet  of  a  child,  to  draw  a  comparison  where  the  "commandment  of  the  Liord  "  is  representea 

from  actual  life,  may  be  so  weak  that  a  mere  moral  in-  as  " enlightening  the  eyes"  (Ps.  xviii,  9),  and  the  ex- 

fluence,  such  as  the  holding  out  of  a  beautiful  toy,  will  temal  example  of  Chnst  as  a  model  for  our  imita- 

not  suffice  to  enable  it  to  walk  without  the  physical  tion  (I  Pet.,  ii,  21).    But,  as  this  mediate  grace  need 

support  of  the  mother — the  use  of  the  leading-strings,  neither  interrupt  the  psychological  course  of  the  law 

The  latter  situation  is  the  one  in  which  man  is  placed  governing  the  association  of  ideas  nor  be  of  a  strictly 

with  regard  to  supernatural  activity.  supernatural  nature,  its  sole  object  will  be  to  prepare 

From  the  question  which  is  to  he  discussed  later,  unostentatiously  the  way  for  a  grace  of  greater  im- 
and  which  re^rds  the  metaphysical  necessity  of  grace  portance  and  necessity,  immediate  illuminating  grace, 
for  all  salutary  acts,  whether  of  an  easy  or  difficult  na-  In  the  latter,  the  Holy  Ghost  Himself  through  imme- 
ture,  it  follows,  with  irresistible  logic,  that  the  incapac-  diate  elevation  and  penetration  of  the  powers  of  the 
ity  of  nature  cannot  be  ascrib^  solely  to  a  mere  mind  prompts  the  soul  and  manifests  to  it  in  a  super- 
weakened  condition  and  moral  difficulties  resulting  natural  lieht  the  eternal  truths  of  salvation.  Though 
from  sin,  but  that  it  must  be  attributed  also,  and  prin-  our  sacred  discourses  be  perfect  masterpieces  of  elo- 
cipally,  to  physical  inability.  The  coBomunication  of  (][uence,  thou^  our  picture  of  the  wounds  of  the  cru- 
the  physical  power  to  the  soul  admits,  theologically,  cified  Saviour  be  ever  so  vivid  and  realistic,  they 
of  only  one  interpretation,  namely,  that  grace  raises  alone  can  never  be  the  first  step  towards  the  conver- 
the  faculties  of  the  soul  (intellect  and  will)  above  their  sion  of  a  sinner,  except  when  (jod  by  a  vigorous  im- 
natural  constitution  into  a  supernatural  sphere  of  pulse  stirs  the  heart  and^  according  to  an  expression  of 
being,  and  thus  renders  them  capable  of  substantially  St.  Fulgentius  (Ep.  xvii,  De  incam.  et  grat.,  n.  67), 
supernatural  operations.  The  reason  why,  through  "opens  the  ear  of  the  interior  man".  St.  Paul  ac- 
our  inner  consciousness,  we  can  gain  no  psychologic  knowledges,  also^  that  the  faith  which  his  own  preach- 
knowledge  of  this  higher  activity  of  the  soul  lies  in  the  ing  and  that  of  his  disciple  Apollo  had  sown  in  (jorinth. 
fact  that  our  self-consciousness  extends  solely  to  the  and  which,  under  their  "planting  and  watering'' 
acts,  and  in  no  wise  to  the  substance,  of  the  soul,  (mediate  grace  of  preaching),  had  taken  root,  would 
From  this  same  fact  arises  the  philosophical  necessity  have  miserably  perished,  had  not  God  himself  given 
of  proving  the  spirituality,  the  immortality,  and  the  "the  increase'',  ^ee  I  Cor.,  iii,  6:  "Ego  plantavi, 
very  existence  of  the  human  soul  from  the  character-  Apollo  rigavit,  sed  Deus  incrementum  dedit.")  Among 
istic  natiire  of  its  activity.  Inexorable  theological  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  none  has  more  strongly  em- 
logic  postulates  the  supernatural  nature  of  the  acts  phasised  the  fruitlessness  of  preaching  without  interior 


certainly 
same  supernatural  order  as  the  intuitive  vision  of  God    dram  in  coelo  habet  qui  corda  tenet"  ("  Instruction 


ORAOE  692-  ORAOE 

and  admonition  help  somewhat  externally,  but  he  faoere  debeamus  et  diligere  ut  faciamus"  (Since  both 
who  reaches  the  heart  has  a  place  in  heaven" —  are  gifts  of  God — ^the  knowing  what  we  ought  to  do, 
(Tract.  Ill,  13,  in  I  Joh.).  Tne  more  speculative  and  the  desire  to  do  it).  But  care  must  be  taken  not 
question  may  now  be  asked:  Whether  the  mediate  to  understand  immediately,  by  this  "love",  perfect 
and  immediate  grace  of  the  mind  affects  the  idea,  love  of  God.  which  comes  only  at  the  end  of  the  pro- 
the  judgment,  or  the  reasoning.  There  can  be  no  cess  of  justincation  as  the  crowning-stone  of  the  edifice, 
doubt  that  it  primarily  influences  the  judgment  even  though  Augustine  (De  Trinit.,  VIII,  10,  and  fre- 
O'ucticium),  be  tne  latter  theoretical  (e.  g.  on  the  quently)  honours  with  the  name  caritaa  the  mere  love 
credibility  of  revelation)  or  practical  (e.  g.  regarding  for  good  and  any  good  motion  of  the  will  whatsoever, 
the  hideous  character  of  sin).  But  the  reasonmg  pro-  Berti  (De  theol.  discipl.,  XIV.  7),  therefore,  is  wrong 
cess  and  the  idea  {apmehensio)  may  also  become  a  when  he  asserts  that,  according  to  Augustine,  the 
grace  of  the  mind,  firstly,  because  they  both  belong  to  only  grace  properly  so  called  is  tne  theological  virtue 
the  essence  of  human  Imowledge,  and  grace  always  of  charity.  Are  mith,  hope,  contrition,  fear,  only 
operates  in  z  manner  conformable  to  nature;  secondly,  ^aces  improperly  so  called,  or  do  the^  become  graces 
because  ideas  are  in  final  analysis  but  the  result  and  m  the  true  sense  only  in  connexion  with  charity? 
fruit  of  condensed  judgments  and  reasonings.  ^  It  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty  of  faith 
Besides  the  grace  of  the  mind,  the  strengthening  whether  to  the  graces  of  mind  and  will  so  far  spoken 
grace  of  the  wiU  (generally  called  gratia  insptraiioni^  of  should  be  added  special  actual  graces  affecting  the 
plays  not  only  the  most  important,  but  an  indispen-  sensitive  faculties  of  the  soul.  But  their  existence 
sable,  part,  for  no  works  of  salvation  are  even  think-  may  be  asserted  with  great  probability.  For  if,  ac- 
able  without  operations  of  the  will.  It  may  also  be  cording  to  an  appropriate  remark  of  Aristotle  (De 
either  mediate  or  immediate;  according  as  the  pious  animH,  I^  viii),  it  is  true  that  thinking  is  impossible 
affections  and  wholesome  resolutions  are  awakened  in  without  imagination,  supernatural  thought  also  must 
the  soul  by  the  immediately  preceding  illumination  of  find  its  origmator  and  point  of  support  in  a  corre- 
the  mind  or  by  God  Himself  (by  appropriation  the  sponding  phantasm  to  wnich,  like  the  ivy  on  the  wall, 
Holy  Ghost).  Owing  to  the  psycholc^cal  interpene-  it  clings  and  thus  creeps  upward.  At  any  rate,  the 
tration  of  cognition  and  volition^  every  (mediate  or'  harmonious  agreement  of  the  grace  of  the  intellect 
immediate)  grace  of  the  mind  is  in  itself  also  a  grace  with  the  accompanying  phantasm  can  but  be  of  fav- 
affecting  the  will.  This  twofold  action — on  intellect  ourable  influence  on  the  soul  visited  by  grace.  It  is 
and  will — has  therefore  the  significance  of  two  dif-  likewise  clear  that  in  the  rebellious  motions  of  concu- 
ferent  acts  of  the  soul,  but  of  only  one  grace.  Con-  piscence,  which  reside  in  the  sensitive  faculties,  the 
sequently,  immediate  elevation  and  motion  of  the  will  grace  of  the  will  has  a  dangerous  enemy  which  must 
by  the  Holy  Spirit  can  alone  be  considered  a  new  be  overcome  by  the  infusion  of  contrary  dispositions, 
grace.  The  Pelagians  logically  denied  the  existence  as  aversion  from  sin,  before  the  will  is  arousea  to  make 
especially  of  this  grace,  even  if,  according  to  the  improb-  firm  resolutions.  Paul,  consequently,  thrice  be- 
able  opinion  of  some  historians  of  dogma,  they  were  sought  the  Lord  that  the  sting  ot  the  flesh  mi^t  de- 
forced by  Augustine  in  the  course  of  the  debate  to  part  from  him,  but  was  answered:  "Sufficit  tibi 
admit  at  least  the  immediate  grace  of  the  mind,  gratia  mea"  (II  Cor.^  xii,  9). 

Augustine  threw  in  the  whole  weight  of  his  personality        (p)  Graces  regarding  Free  Will. — If  we  take  the 

in  favour  of  the  existence  and  necessity  of  the  grace  of  attitude  of  free  will  as  the  dividing  principle  of  actual 

the  will,  to  which  he  applied  the  names,  ddedaiio  grace,  we  must  first  have  a  grace  which  precedes  the 

calestiSf  inspiratio  dUectioniSf  cupiditaa  front,  and  the  free  aetermination  of  the  wiU  and  another  which  fol- 

like.    The  celebrated  Provincial  Council  of  Carthage  lows  this  determination  and  co-operates  with  the  wilL 

(a.  d.  418)  confirmed  his  teaching  when  it  declar^  This  is  the  first  pair  of  graces,  preventing  and  co- 

that  grace  does  not  simply  consist  in  the  manifestation  operating  grace  (gratia  prceveniens  et  cooperans) .   Pre- 

of  the  Divine  precepts  whereby  we  may  know  our  venting  grace  must,  according  to  its  physical  nature, 

positive  and  negative  duties,  but  it  also  confers  upon  consist  in  unfree,  indeliberate  vital  acts  of  the  soul; 

us  the  power  to  love  and  accomplish  whatever  we  co-operating  grace,  on  the  contrary,  solely  in  free, 

have  recognised  as  righteous  in  things  pertaining  to  deliberate  actions  of  the  will.    The  latter  assume  the 

salvation  (cf.  Denzinger,  "Enchiridion' ,  10th  ed.,  n.  character  of  actual  graces,  not  only  because  they  are 

104,  Freiburg,  190S).    The  Church  has  never  shared  immediately  suggested  by  God,  but  also  because  they 

the  ethical  optimism  of  Socrates,  which  made  virtue  may  become,  after  the  achievement  of  success,  the 

consist  in  mere  knowledge,  and  held  that  mere  teach-  principle  of  new  salutary  acte.    In  this  maimer  an  in- 

ing  was  sufficient  to  inculcate* it.    If  even  natural  tense  act  of  perfect  love  of  God  may  simultaneously 

virtue  must  be  fought  for,  and  is  ac(|uired  only  through  effect  and,  as  it  were,  assure  by  itself  the  observance 

energetic  work  and  constant  practice,  how  much  more  of  the  Divine  commandments.    The  existence  of  pre- 

does  not  a  supernatural  life  of  virtue  require  the  venting  grace,  o^cially  determined  by  the  Council  of 

Divine  help  of  grace  with  whi^h  the  Christian  must  Trent  (Sess.  Vl,  cap.  v),  must  be  admitted  with  the 

freely  co-operate,  and  thus  advance  by  slow  degrees  in  same  certainty  as  the  facts  that  the  illuminating  grace 

perfection.    The  strengthening  grace  of  the  will,  like  of  the  intellect  belongs  to  a  faculty  not  free  in  itself 

the  grace  of  the  mind^  assumes  the  form  of  vital  acts  and  that  the  grace  of  the  will  must  first  and  foremost 

of  the  soul  and  manifeste  itself  chiefly  in  what  are  exhibit  itself  in  spontaneous,  indeliberate,  unfree  emo- 

called  affectionB  of  the  will.  ^  Scholastic  psychology  tions.   This  is  proved  by  the  Biblical  metaphors  of  the 

enumerates  eleven  such  affections,  namely:  love  and  reluctant  heanng  of  the  voice  of  God  (Jer.,  xvii,  23; 

hatred,  delight  and  sadness,  desire  and  aversion,  hope  Ps.  xciv,  8),  of  the  drawing  by  the  Father  (John^vi, 

and  despair,  daring  and  fear,   finally,  anger.    This  44),  of  the  knocking  at  the  gate  (Apoc.,  iii,  20).    The 

whole  list  or  feelings  has,  with  the  sole  exception  of  Fathers  of  the  Church  bear  witness  to  the  reaUty  of 

despair,  which  imp«ils  the  work  of  salvation^  a  prao-  preventing  grace  in  their  very  appropriate  formula: 

ticu  significance  m  relation  to  good  and  evil;  these  ''  Gratia  est  m  nobis,  sed  sine  nobis",  that  is,  grace  as  a 

affections  may  therefore  develop  into  real  graces  of  vital  act  is  in  the  soul,  but  as  an  unfree,  salutanr  act  it 

the  will.    But,  inasmuch  as  all  motions  of  the  will  does  not  proceecl  from  the  soul,  but  immediately  from 

may  be  ultimately  reduced  to  love  as  fundamental  God.    Thus  Augustine  (De  grat.  et  lib.  arbitr.,  xvii, 

feefing  (cf.  St.  Thomas,  "Summa",  I-II,  Q.  xxv,  a.  33)j  Gregory  the  Great  (Moral.,  XVI,  x),  Bernard  of 

2),  the  functions  of  the  grace  of  the  will  may  be  sys-  Clairvaux  (De  grat.  et  lib.  arbitr.,  xiv),  and  others. 

tematically  focussed  in  love;  hence  the  concise  decla-'  As  the  imfree  emotions  of  the  will  are  by  their  very 

ration  of  the  above-mentioned  Synod  of  Carthage  nature  destined  to  elicit  free  salutary  acts,  it  is  dear 

(L  0*}:  "Cum  sit  utrumque  donum  Dei,  et  scire  qmd  that  preventing  grace  must  develop  into  helping  or 


ORAOE                                 693  ORAOE 

oo-operating  erace  as  soon  as  free  will  gives  its  consent,  ooains  a  merely  sufiScient  one  (gratia  mere  mffcievu)^ 
These  free  ealutarY  acts  are,  according  to  the  Council  although  by  nature  it  would  have  been  completely 
of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  cap.  xvi),  not  only  actual  graces,  sufficient  {gratia  vere  aufficiens)  and  with  good  will 
but  also  meritorious  actions  (actus  meritorii).  There  could  have  been  efficacious.  This  ecclesiastical  con- 
is  just  as  little  doubt  possible  regarding  their  existence  ception  of  the  nature  of  sufficient  grace^  to  which  the 
as  concerning  the  fact  that  many  men  freely  follow  the  Catholic  systems  of  grace  must  invariably  conform 
call  of  grace,  work  out  their  eternal  salvation,  and  themselves,  is  nothing  else  but  a  reproduction  of  the 
attain  the  beatific  vision,  so  that  the  dogma  of  the  teaching  of  the  Bible.  To  cite  only  one  text  (Pro v.,  i. 
Christian  heaven  proves  simultaneously  the  reality  of  24),  the  calling  and  the  stretching-out  of  the  hand  ot 
oo-operatins  graces.  Their  principal  advocate  is  .  Goa  certainly  signifies  the  complete  sufficiency  of 
Augustine  {De  ptkU  et  lib.  aroitr.,  xvi,  32).  If  the  grace,  just  as  the  obstinate  refusal  of  the  sinner  "to 
more  philosophical  question  of  the  co-operation  of  regard"  is  tantamoimt  to  the  free  rejection  of  the 
grace  and  liberty  be  raised,  it  will  be  easily  perceived  pro£fered  hand.  Augustine  is  in  complete  agreement 
that  the  supernatural  element  of  the  free  salutary  act  with  the  constant  tradition  on  this  pomt,  and  Jansen- 
can  be  onlv  from  God,  its  vitality  only  from  the  will,  ists  have  vainly  claimed  him  as  one  of  their  own.  We 
The  postukted  unity  of  the  action  of  the  will  could  have  an  example  of  his  teaching  in  the  following  text: 
evidently  not  be  safeguarded,  if  God  and  the  will  per-  "  Gratia  Dei  est  qu»  hominum  adjuvat  voluntates; 
formed  either  two  separate  acts  or  mere  halves  oi  an  (^uA  ut  non  adjuventur,  in  ipsis  itidem  causa  est,  non 
act. '  It  can  exist  only  when  the  supernatural  power  of  in  Deo  "  (''  It  is  the  grace  of  God  that  helps  the\wills  of 
grace  transforms  itself  into  the  vital  strength  of  the  men;  and  when  they  are  not  helped  by  it,  the  reason  is 
wiU,  constitutes  the  latter  as  a  free  faculty  in  actu  in  themselves,  not  in  God." — "  De  pecc.  mer.  et  rem.", 
primo  by  elevation  to  the  supernatural  order,  and  II,  xvii).  On  the  Greek  Fathers  see  Isaac  Habert, 
simultaneouslyco-operatesas  supernatural  Divine  con-  Theolosja  Graecor.  Patrum,  II,  6  sq.  (Paris,  1646). 
currence  in  the  performance  of  tne  real  salutary  act  or  (2)  Properties  of  Actual  Grace. — After  the  treatment 
actus  secundus.  This  co-operation  is  not  unlike  that  of  of  the  nature  of  actual  grace,  we  come  logically  to  the 
God  with  the  creature  in  the  natural  order,  in  which  discussion  of  its  properties.  These  are  three  m  num- 
both  perform  together  one  and  the  same  act,  God  as  ber:  necessity,  gnitmty,  and  universality, 
first  cause  (causa  vrima)^  the  creature  as  secondary  (a)  Necessity. — With  the  early  Protestants  and 
cause  (causa  secunaa).  For  further  particulars  see  St.  Jansenists,  the  necessity  of  actual  grace  may  be  so 
Thomas,  "  Contra  Gent.",  Ill,  Ixx.  exaggerated  as  to  lead  to  the  assertion  of  the  absolute 
A  second  pair  of  graces  important  for  the  under-  and  complete  incapacity  of  mere  nature  to  do  good; 
standing  of  tne  controversies  on  grace  is  that  of  effica-  or,  with  the  Pelagians  and  Semipelagians,  it  may  De  so 
cious  and  merely  sufficient  grace  (spratia  efficax  et  mere  understood  as  to  extend  the  capacity  of  nature  to  each 
sufftdens).  By  efficacious  grace  is  understood  that  and  evei^y  thing,  even  to  supernatural  activity,  or  at 
Divine  assistance  which,  considered  even  in  actu  least  to  its  essential  elements.  The  three  heresies  of 
prima,  includes  with  infallible  certainty,  and  conse-  earl^  Protestantism  and  Jansenism,  Pela^ianism,  and 
(|uentl^  in  its  definition^  the  free  salutary  act;  for  did  Semipelagianism  furnish  us  with  the  practical  division 
it  remain  inefficacious,  it  would  cease  to  be  efficacious  which  we  adopt  for  the  systematic  exposition  of  the 
and  would  therefore  be  self-contradictory.     As  to  Catholic  doctrme. 

whether  the  infallibility  of  its  success  is  the  result  of  (a)  We  maintain  against  Early  Protestantism  and 
the  physical  nature  of  this  grace  or  of  the  infallible  Jansenism  the  capacitv  of  mere  nature  in  re^ird  to 
foreknowledge  of  God  (scientia  media)  is  a  much  de-  both  religious  knowledj^  and  moral  action.  Funda- 
bated  question  between  Thomists  and  Molinists  which  mental  for  natural  religion  and  ethics  is  the  article  of 
need  not  be  further  treated  here.  Its  existence,  how-  faith  which  asserts  the  power  of  mere  reason  to  derive 
ever,  is  admitted  as  an  article  of  faith  by  both  sides  a  certain  natural  knowledge  of  God  from  creation 
and  is  established  with  the  same  firmness  as  the  pre-  (Vatican.,  Sess.  Ill,  de  revelat.,  can.  i).  This  is  a  cen- 
destination  of  the  elect  or  the  existence  of  a  heaven  tral  truth  which  is  most  clearly  attested  by  Scripture 
peopled  with  innumerable  saints.  As  to  " merely  suffi-  (Wisdom,  xiii,  1  sqq.;  Rom.,  i,  20  sq.;  ii,  14  sq.)  and 
cient  grace",  Calvinists  and  Jansenists  have,  as  is  well  tradition  (see  God).  Unswervingly  adhering  to  this 
known,  eliminated  it  from  their  doctrinal  system,  position,  the  Church  has  ever  exhibited  herself  as  a 
They  admitted  only  efficacious  graces  whose  action  mi^ty  defender  of  reason  and  its  inherent  powers 
overpowers  the  will  and  leaves  no  room  for  freedom,  against  the  ravages  of  scepticism  so  subversive  of  all 
If  Jansen  (d.  1638)  nominallv  admitted  "  sufficient  truth.  Through  the  whole  course  of  centuries  she  has 
grace  ",  calling  it  "  Uttle  grace  (gratia  parva),  he  un-  steadfastly  clung  to  the  unalterable  conviction  that  a 
derstood  by  it,  in  reality,  only '^ insufficient  grace",  faculty  of  perception  constituted  for  vision,  like 
i.  e.  "  one  from  which  no  action  can  result,  except  its  human  reason,  cannot  possibly  be  condemned  to 
insufficiency  be  removed  by  another  grace  (De  grat.  blindness,  and  that  its  natural  powers  enable  it  to 
Christ.,  IV,  x).  He  did  not  shrink  from  reviling  suffi-  know,  even  in  the  fallen  state,  wnatever  is  v/ithin  its 
cient  grace,  understood  in  the  Catholic  sense,  as  a  legitimate  sphere.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Church  also 
monstrous  conception  and  a  means  of  fillins  hell  with  erected  against  presumptuous  Rationalism  and  Theo- 
reprobates,  while  later  Jansenists  discovered  in  it  such  sophism  a  bulwark  for  the  defence  of  knowledge  by 
a  pernicious  character  as  to  infer  the  appropriateness  faith,  a  knowledge  superior  to,  and  different  in  princi- 
of  the  prayer:  "  A  ^ti&  sufficiente,  libera  nos  Dom-  pie  from,  rational  knowledge.  V/ith  Clement  of  Alex- 
ine"  ('From  sufficient  grace,  O  Lord  deliver  us". —  andria  she  drew  a  sharp  distinction  between  yvQait 
Cf.  prop.  G  damn,  ah  Alex.  VIII.  a.  1690  in  Denzinger,  and  wUrnt — knowledge  and  faith,  philosophy  and 
n.  1296).  The  Catholic  idea  ot  sufficient  grace  is  ob-  revelation,  assigning  to  reason  the  douole  r61e  of  indis- 
tained  by  the  distinction  of  a  twofold  element  in  pensable  forerunner  and  docile  handmaid  (cf .  Vati- 
every  actual  grace,  its  intrinsic  ener^  (potestcM  ogendt,  can.,  Sess.  Ill,  cap.  iv).  This  noble  struggle  of  the 
vis)  and  its  extrinsic  efficiency  (efjictentta).  Under  the  Church  for  the  rights  of  reason  and  itc  true  relation  to 
former  aspect  there  exists  between  sufficient  and  effi-  faith  explains  historically  her  decidedly  hostile  atti- 
cacious  grace,  both  considered  in  actu  primo,  no  real,  tude  towards  the  scepticism  of  Nicholas  de  Ultricuria 
but  only  a  logical,  distinction;  for  sufficient  grace  also  (a.  d.  1348),  towards  the  Renaissance  philosophy  of 
confers  full  power  for  action,  but  is  condemned  to  im-  Pomponatius  (1513)  defending  a  "twofold  truth", 
fniitfulness  owing  to  the  free  resistance  of  the  will.  If,  towards  the  so-called  "  log-stick-ond-stone  "  theory 
oil  the  contrary,  extrinsic  efficiency  be  considered,  it  is  (KlotS'Siodc-^nd-Steintheorie)  of  Ilortin  Luther  and 
evident  that  the  will  either  co-operates  freely  or  not.  If  his  followers,  so  inimical  to  reason,  towards  the  doc- 
it  refuses  its  co-operation,  even  the  strongest  grace  re-  trine  of  the  complete  powerleesness  of  nature  without 


ORAOE                                 694  ORAOK 

grace  defended  by  Baius  and  Jansen,  towards  the  turali",  torn.  Ill:  "  Ad  versus  Baium  et  Batanos ",  Co- 
Oystem  of  Hermes  imprep;nated  with  Kantian  criti-  lc^;ne,  1648;  J.  Ernst,  "  Werke  und  Tugenden  der  Un* 
cism,  towards  traditionahsm,  which  based  all  moral  gl&ubigen  nach  Au^ustinus",  Freiburg,  1871). 
and  religious  knowledge  on  the  authority  of  language  The  ethical  capacity  of  pure,  and  especially  of  fallen, 
and  instruction,  finally,  against  the  moaem  Agnosti-  nature  has  undoubtedly  also  its  determined  limits 
cism  of  the  Modernists,  which  undermines  the  very  which  it  cannot  overstep.  In  a  general  manner,  the 
foundations  of  faith,  and  which  was  onlv  recently  possibilitv  of  the  observance  of  the  easier  natural  pre- 
dealt  so  fatal  a  blow  oy  Pope  Pius  X's  condemnation,  cepts  without  the  aid  of  natural  or  supernatural  grace 
Documentary  evidence  has  thus  been  produced  that  may  be  asserted,  but  not  the  possibility  of  the  oraerv- 
the  Catholic  Church  far  from  being  an  institution  of  ance  of  the  more  difficult  commandments  and  prohi- 
obscurantism",  has  at  all  times  fulfilled  a  powerful  bitions  of  the  natural  law.  The  difficulty  of  determin- 
and  far-reaching  mission  of  civilisation,  since  she  took  ing  where  the  easy  ends  and  the  difficult  begins  ^nll 
reason  and  science  under  her  powerful  patronage  and  naturally  lead,  in  some  secondary  questions,  to  great 
defended  their  rights  against  those  very  oppressors  of  diversity  of  opinion  among  theologians.  In  funda- 
reason  who  are  accustomed. to  bring  a^inst  her  the  mental  points,  however,  harmony  is  easily  obtainable 
^oundless  char^  of  intellectual  inferiority.  A  sound  and  exists  in  fact.  In  the  first  place,  all  without  ex- 
intellectuaUsm  is  just  as  indispensable  a  condition  of  oeption  are  agreed  on  the  proposition  that  fallen  man 
her  life  as  the  doctrine  of  a  supernatural  order  raised  cannot  of  his  own  strength  observe  the  natural  law  in 
above  all  the  limits  of  nature.  (Cf.  Chastel,  ^'De  la  its  entirety  and  for  a  long  time  with<7ut  occasional 
valeur  de  la  raison  humaine  " ,  Paris,  1854.)  errors  and  lapses  into  grievous  sin.  And  how  could  he? 
Not  less  reasonable  an  attitude  was  assumed  by  the  For,  according  to  the  council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  cap. 
Church  respecting  the  moral  capabilities  of  fallen  man  xiii).  even  the  already  justified  man  will  be  victorious 
in  the  domain  of  natural  ethics.  Against  Baianism,  in  tne  "  conflict  with  the  flesh,  the  world,  and  the 
the  forerunner  of  Jansenism,  she  adhered  in  her  teach-  devil "  only  on  condition  that  he  co-operate  with 
ing  to  the  conviction  confirmed  by  healthy  experi-  never-faOing  grace  (cf.  Rom.,  vii,  22  sqq.).  Secondly, 
ence,  that  natural  man  is  capable  of  performing  some  all  theologians  admit  that  the  natural  will,  unaided  by 
naturally  ^ood  works  without  actual  grace,  and  par-  Divine  assistance,  succumbs,  especially  in  the  fallen 
ticularly  without  the  grace  of  faith,  and  that  not  all  state,  with  moral  (not  ph^ical)  necessity  to  the  attack 
the  deeds  of  infidels  and  pagans  are  sins.  This  is  evi-  of  vehement  and  enaurin^  temptations  against  the 
denced  by  the  condemnation  of  two  propositions  of  Decalogue.  For  could  it  by  its  own  strength  decide  the 
Baius  by  Pope  Pius  V  in  the  year  1567:  "  Liberum  ar-  conflict  in  its  own  favour  even  at  the  most  critical  mo- 
bitrium  sine  gratise  Dei  adjutorio  nonnisi  ad  peccan-  ments,  that  power  which  we  have  just  eliminated 
dum  valet "  ("  Free  will  without  the  aid  ot  God's  would  be  restored  to  it,  namely  the  power  to  observe 
grace  avails  for  nothing  but  sin." — ^Prop.  xxvii) ;  and  unaided,  through  the  prompt  victory  over  vehement 
again:  "Omnia  opera  infidelium  stmt  peccata  et  phil-  temptations,  the  whole  natural  law  in  all  its  extent, 
osoohorum  virtutes  sunt  vitia"  ("All  the  acts  of  in-  The  practical  si^ficance  of  this  second  universally 
fidels  are  sins,  and  their  virtues  are  vices." — ^Prop.  admitted  proposition  lies  in  the  acknowledgment  that, 
25).  The  history  of  paganism  and  everyday  experi-  according  to  revelation,  there  is  no  man  on  earth  who 
ence  condemn,  moreover,  with  equal  emphasis  tnese  does  not  occasionally  meet  with  this  or  that  grievous 
extravagant  exaggerations  of  Baids.  Among  the  duties  temptation  to  mortal  sin,  and  even  the  j  ustifiea  are  no 
of  the  natural  moral  law  some — as  love  for  parents  or  exception  to  this  law;  wherefore,  even  they  are  bound 
children,  abstention  from  theft  and  drunkenness — are  to  constant  vigilance  in  fear  and  trembling  and  to 
of  such  an  elementary  character  t^at  it  is  impossible  never-ceasing  prayer  for  Divine  assistance  (cf.  Council 
to  perceive  why  they  could  not  oe  fulfilled  without  of  Trent,  1.  c).  In  the  third  question,  whether  natural 
grace  and  faith  at  least  by  judicious,  cultured,  and  love  of  God,  even  in  its  highest  form  (amor  Dei  naturar 
noble-minded  pagans.  Did  not  the  Saviour  himself  lis  perfectus),  is  possible  without  grace,  the  opinions  of 
recognize  as  something;  good  natural  human  love  and  theolc^'ans  are  still  very  divergent.  Bellarmine  de- 
f raternal  greeting,  such  as  they  exist  also  among  pub-  nies  this  possibility  on  the  ground  that,  without  any 
licans  and  pagans?  He  denied  to  them  only  a  super-  grace,  a  mere  natural  justification  could  in  such  a  case 
natural  rewani  (mercedemj  Matt.,  v,  46  sq.).  And  be  brought  into  being  through  the  love  of  God.  Sco- 
Paul  has  explicitly  stated  that  "the  Gentiles,  who  tus,  on  the  contrary,  spiritedly  defends  the  attainabil- 
have  not  the  [Mosaic]  law,  do  by  nature  [naturaliter,  it^  of  the  highest  natural  love  for  God.  A  golden 
^c(l  those  thin^  that  are  of  the  law"  (Rom.,  ii,  14).  middle  course  will  easily  open  to  the  one  who  accu- 
The  Fathers  of  tne  Church  did  not  judge  differently,  rately  distinguishes  between  affective  and  effective 
Baius,  it  is  true,  adduced  Augustine  as  his  chief  wit-  love.  The  affective  element  of  the  highest  love  is^  as 
ness,  and  in  the  latter's  writings  we  find,  to  be  sure,  natural  duty,  accessible  to  the  mere  natural  will  with- 
sentences  which  seem  to  favour  him.  Baius,  how-  out  grace.  Effective  love,  on  the  contrary,  since  it 
ever,  overlooked  the  fact  that  the  former  rhetorician  supposes  an  unchanging,  i^stematic,  and  active  will, 
and  Platonic  idealist  of  Hippo  does  not  always  weigh  would  entail  the  aTOve-discarded  possibility  <^  tri- 
every  word  as  carefully  as  the  warv  Schoolman,  umphing  over  all  temptations  and  of  observing  the 
Thomas  Aquinas,  but  consciously  delights  (cf .  Enarr.  whole  moral  law.  (For  further  details  on  these  mter- 
in  Ps.  xcvi,  n.  19)  in  antonomastically  applying  to  the  esting  problems,  see  Pohle,  "  Lehrbuch  der  Dogma- 
genus  the  designation  which  belongs  only  to  the  high-  tik",  4th  ed.,  II,  364-70,  Paderbom,  1909.) 
est  species.  As  he  calls  the  least  good  motion  of  the  According  to  Jansenism,  the  mere  absence  of  the 
will  caritos,  by  anticipation,  so  he  brands  every  un-  state  of  grace  and  love  {status  gratia  ei  cariUUis) 
meritorious  work  {opus  steriliter  honum)  as  sin  {pecca-  branded  as  sins  all  the  deeds  of  the  sinner,  even  the 
turn)  and  false  virtue  {falsa  virtus).  In  both  cases  it  is  ethically  eood  ones  (e.  g.,  almsgiving).  Tfajs  was  the 
an  obvious  use  of  the  rhetorical  figure  called  catachre-  lowest  ebb  in  its  disparagement  and  depreciation  of 
sis.  With  a  strong  perception  for  the  ethically  good,  the  moral  forces  in  man;  and  here,  too,  Baius  had 
wherever  it  may  be  found,  he  eulogizes  elsewhere  the  paved  the  way.  The  possession  of  sanctifying  erace 
chastity  of  his  heathen  friend  Alypius  (Confess.,  VI,  x)  or  theological  love  thus  became  the  measure  and  cri- 
and  of  the  pagan  Polemo  (Ep.  cxl,  2),  admires  the  terion  of  natural  morality.  Taking  as  his  basis  the 
civil  virtues  of  the  Romans,  the  mastera  of  the  world  total  corruption  of  nature  through  original  sin  (i.  e. 
(Ep.  cxxxviii,  3),  and  gives  expression  to  the  truth  concupiscence)  as  taught  by  early  Protestantism, 
that  even  the  most  wicked  man  is  not  found  com-  Quesnel,  especially  (Prop,  xliv  in  Dennnger,  n.  13^4), 
pletely  wanting  in  naturally  good  works  ("De  Spiritu  g^ve  the  above-expressed  thought  the  alleged  Augus- 
et  literft",  o.  xxviii. — C(.  Ripalda,  "De  Ente  supema-  tinian  form  that  tnere  is  no  medium  between  love  (A 


ORAOE  695  ORAOS 

God  and  love  of  the  world,  charit;^  and  concupiscence,  Denzinger,  nn.  106-8)  and  emphasized  the  absolute 
BO  that  even  the  pr^ers  of  the  impious  are  nothing  necessi^  of  grace  for  all  salutary  acts.  TVue,  Pela- 
else  but  sins.  (Cfr.  Prop,  xlix:  "  Oratio  impiorum  est  gius  (d.  405)  and  his  disciple  Coelestius,  who  found  an 
novum  peocatiun  et  quod  Deu^  illis  conceait,  est  no-  active  associate  in  ihe  skilful  and  learned  Bishop 
vum  in  eos  judicium'').  The  answer  of  the  Church  Julian  of  Eclanum,  admitted  from  the  beginning  the 
to  such  severe  exaggerations  was  the  dogmatic  Bull,  improper  creative  grace,  later  also  a  merely  external 
"Uni^nitus"  (1713),  of  Pope  Clement  XI.  The  supernatural  grace,  such  as  the  Bible  and  the  example 
Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  can.  vii)  had  however  al-  of  Christ.  But  the  heresiarch  rejected  with  all  Uie 
ready  decreed  against  Martin  Luther:  "Si  auis  dix-  moi^e  obstinacy  the  inner  grace  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
erit,  opera  omnia  quse  ante  justificationem  nunt . . .  especially  for  the  will.  The  object  of  grace  was,  at 
vere  esse  peccata  .  .  .  anathema  sit"  (If  axiyone  the  most^  to  facilitate  the  work  of  salvation,  in  no  wise 
shall  say  that  all  the  works  done  before  justification  to  make  it  fundamentallv  possible.  Never  before  had 
are  indeed  sins,  let  him  be  anathema).  Moreover,  a  heretic  dared  to  lay  the  axe  so  unsparingly  to  the 
what  reasonable  man  would  concede  that  the  process  deepest  roots  of  Christianity.  And  never  again  did  it 
of  justification  with  its  so^Kudled  dispositions  consists  occur  in  ecclesiastical  history  that  one  man  alone,  with 
in  a  long  series  of  sins?  And  ^  the  Bible,  in  order  to  the  weapons  of  the  mind  and  ecclesiastical  science, 
effect  the  conversion  of  the  sinner,  frequently  sum-  overthrew  and  annihilated  in  one  generation  an 
mons  him  to  contrition  and  penance,  to  prayer  and  equally  dangerous  heresy.  This  man  was  Augustine. 
almsdeeds,  shall  we  admit  tne  blasphemy  that  the  In  the  short  period  between  a.  d.  411  and  a.  d.  413  no 
Most  Holy  summons  him  to  the  commission  of  so  fewer  than  twenty-four  synods  were  held  which  con- 
many  sins? — ^The  Catholic  doctrine  on  this  pointy  ob-  sidered  the  heresy  of  Pelagius.  But  the  death-blow 
stinately  adhered  to  through  all  the  centuries,  is  so  was  dealt  as  early  as  416  at  Mileve,  where  fifty-nine 
clear  that  even  an  Augustine  could  not  have  departed  bishops,  under  the  leadership  of  St.  Augustine,  laid 
from  it  without  becozning  a  public  heretic.  TYue,  down  me  fundamental  canons  which  were  subse- 
Baius  and  ^uesnel  succeeded  m  cleverlv  concealing  auently  (418)  repeated  at  Carthage  and  received,  after 
'their  heresy  m  a  phraseolojgy  similar  to  the  Augustin-  tne  celebrated  ^'Tractoria"  of  Pope  Zosimus  (418), 
lan,  but  without  penetrating  the  meaning  of  Angus-  the  value  of  definitions  of  faith.  It  was  there  that  the 
tine.  The  latter,  it  must  be  conceded,  in  the  course  absolute  necessity  of  grace  for  salvation  triumphed 
of  the  struggle  with  self-confident  Pela^nism,  ulti-  over  the  Pelagian  idea  of  its  mere  utility,  ana  the 
mately  so  strongly  emphasized  the  opposition  between  absolute  incapacity  of  nature  over  supreme  self-suffi- 
graoe  and  sin.  love  of  God  and  love  oi  the  world,  that  ciency.  When  Au^tine  died,  in  430,  Pelagianism 
the  intermediary  domain  of  naturally  good  works  al-  was  dead.  The  decisions  of  faith  issued  at  Mileve  and 
most  completely  disappeared.  But  scholasticism  had  Carthage  were  frequently  renewed  by  oecumenical 
long  since  applied  the  necessary  correction  to  this  ex-  councils,  as  in  529  at  Orange,  lastly  at  Trent  (Sess. 
aggeration.    That  the  sinner,  in  consequence  of  his  VI,  can.  ii). 

habitual  state  of  sin,  must  sin  in  everything,  is  not  the        The  beautiful  parable  of  the  vine  and  its  branches 

doctrine  of  Augustine.    The  imiversality  of  sin  in  the  (John,  xv,  1  sqq.)  should  have  been  sufficient  to  reveal 

world  which  he  contemplated,  is  not  for  nim  the  result  to  Pelagianism  what  a  striking  contrast  there  was 

of  a  fundamental  necessity,  but  merely  the  manifesta-  between  it  and  antecedent  Christianity.    Augustine 

tion  of  a  general  historical  phenomenon  which  admits  and  the  synods  time  and  again  used  it  in  the  contro- 

of  exceptions  (De  spir.  et  lit.,  c.  xxvii.  n.  48).    He  versy  as  a  very  decisive  proof  out  of  the  mouth  of  the 

specifically  declares  marital  love,  love  of  children  and  Saviour  Himself.    Only  when  the  supernatural  vital 

friends  to  be  something  lawful  in  all  men,  something  union  of  the  Apostles  with  the  vine  (Christ)  planted 

commendable,  natural  and  dutiful,  even  though  Di-  by  the  Father  is  established,  does  it  become  possible 

vine  love  alone  leads  to  heaven.    He  admits  the  pos-  to  bring  forth  supernatural  fruit;   for  "without  me 

sibility  of  these  natural  virtues  also  in  the  impious:  you  can  do  nothing"  (John,  xv,  5).    The  categorical 

"Sed  videtis,  istam  caritatem  esse  posse  et  impiorum,  assertion  of  the  necessity  of  grace  for  the  holy  Apos- 

i.  e.  paganorum,  Judeeorum,  hsereticorum "  (Serm.  ties  themselves  brin^  home  to  us  still  more  forcibly 

occxlix detemp.  in Migne,  P.L.,  XXXIX,  1529).  the  absolute  incapacity  of  mere  fallen  nature  in  the 

(fi)  Pelagianism,  which  still  survives  under  new  performance  of  salutary  acts.    All  supernatural  ac- 

forms,  feUmto  the  extreme  directly  opposed  to  the  tivity  may  be  concretely  summed  up  in  the  three  fol- 

theories  rejected  above.    It  exaggerated  the  capacity  towing  elements:  salutaiy  thoughts,  holy  resolves, 

of  human  nature  to  an  incredible  degree,  and  hardly  gpod  actions.    Now  the  Apostle  Paul  teaches  that 

left  any  room  for  Christian  grace.    It  amoimted  to  right  thinking  is  from  God  (II  Cor.,  iii,  5),  that  the 

nothing  less  than  the  divinization  of  the  moral  forces  righteous  will  must  be  based  on  Divine  mercy  (Rom., 

of  free  will.    Even  when  it  was  question  of  acts  tend-  ix,  16),  finally  that  it  is  God  who  works  in  us,  "  both  to 

ing  to  supernatural  salvation,  natural  will  was  de-  will  and  to  accomplish"  (Phil.,  ii.  13).    The  victorious 

clared  able  to  rise  by  its  own  strength  from  justification  struggle  of  St.  Augustine,  which  earned  for  him  the 

to  eternal  life.    Rank  naturalism  in  its  essence,  Pela-  honourable  title  of  "Doctor  of  Grace",  was  merely  a 

gianism  contained,  as  a  logical  consequence,  the  sup-  struggle  for  the  ancient  Catholic  truth.    Pela^nism 

{)ression  of  original  sin  and  the  negation  of  grace.    It  was  immediately  felt  in  the  Christian  community  as  a 

aid  down  the  proud  assertion  that  the  sovereign  will  thorn  in  the  flesh  and  as  the  poison  of  novelty.    Be- 

may  ultimately  raise  itself  to  complete  holiness  and  fore  all  the  world  Augustine  could  attest;  "Talis  est 

impeccability  (impeccantiat  dpafULprrriata)  throu^  the  hseresis  pelagiana,  non  antiqua,  sed  ante  non  multum 

persevering  observance  of  all  the  precepta,  even  the  tempus  exorta"  (Such  is  the  Pelagian  heresy,  not 

most  difficult,  and  through  the  infallible  triumph  over  ancient,  but  having  sprung  up  a  short  time  ago.;'— De 

every  temptation,  even  the  most  vehement.    This  grat.,  et  lib.  arbitr.,  c.  iv).    In  fact,  the  teaching  of 


temptation",  served,  properly  speaking,  no  purpose:  The  constant  practice  of  prayer  in  the  ancient  Church 

it  was  at  most  a  proof  of  his  humility,  not  a  profession  pointed  significantly  to  her  lively  faith  in  the  necessity 

of  the  truth.    In  no  other  part  of  the  system  is  the  of  grace,  for  prayer  and  grace  are  correlative  ideas, 

vanity  of  the  Christian  Diogenes  so  glaringly  percepti-  which  cannot  be  separated.    Hence  the  celebrated 

ble  through  the  lacerated  cloak  of  the  philosopher,  axiom  of  Pope  Celestme  I  (d.  432):  "Ut  legem  cre- 

Hence  the  Provincial  Synod  of  Carthage  (418)  in-  dendi  statuat  lex  supplicandi"  ("That  the  law  of 

Sisted  on  the  true  doctrine  on  this  very  point  (see  prayer  may  determine  the  law  of  belief ". — See  Den^ 


ORAOE  696  ORAOE 

Bincer,!!.  139).    It  is  clearly  evident  that  the  Fathers  debtors"  (Matt.,  vi,  12).    A  holj  Apostle  had  to 

of  tbe  Church  wished  the  universally  expressed  necee-  acknowledge  of  himself  and  his  intimate  friends:  "  In 

sity  of  grace  to  be  understood  not  merely  as  a  moral  manv  things  we  all  o£Fend  "  (James,  iii,  2).    Boldly 

necessity  for  the  strengthening  of  human  weakness,  coula  the  hagiompher  in  the  Old  Testament  raise  the 

but  as  a  metaphysical  one  for  the  communication  of  question  not  difficult  of  answer:  "  Who  can  say:  My 

physical  powers.    For  in  their  comparisons  they  state  heart  is  clean,  I  am  pure  from  sin?  "  (Proverbs,  zx,  9). 

that  grace  is  not  less  necessary  than  are  wings  for  fly-  This  view,  defended  by  the  Bible,  was  also  the 

ing,  we  eyes  for  seeing,  the  rain  for  the  growth  of  constant  sentiment  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 

plants,  etc.    In  accorcmnce  with  this,  they  also  de-  to  whom  the  proud  language  of  the  Pelagians  was 

clare  that,  in  as  far  as  supernatural  activitv^  is  tx>n-  unknown.    To  the  latters  consideration  Augustine 

cemed.  jgntoe  is  just  as  indispensable  for  the  aneels  (De  nat.  et  grat.,  xxxvi)   presents  the  impressive 

not  suDject  to  concupiscence,  and  was  formanbeK)re  thoughts:    "Could  we  bring  toother  here  in  living 

the  fall,  as  it  is  for  man  after  the  sin  of  Adam.  form  all  the  saints  of  both  sexes  and  question  them 

There  is  need  of  special  refutation  of  Pelagiiis's  whether  they  were  without  sin,  would  they  not  ex- 
presumptuous  contention  that  man  is  capable  of  claim  unanimously:  'If  we  say  that  we  have  no  sin, 
avoiding  unaided  during  his  whole  lifetime  all  sins;  we  deceive  ourselves,  and  the  truth  is  not  in  us'?"  (I 
nay,  that  he  can  even  rise  to  impeccabilitv.    The  John,  i.  8.) 

CoundU  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  can.  xxiii),  with  much        (7)  Semipelagianism  is  an  unsuooessful  attempt  to 

more  precision  than  the  S^od  of  Mileve  (416),  an-  effect  a  compromise  between  Pelagianism  and  Au^us- 

swerea  this  monstrosity  with  the  definition  of  faith:  tinism,  attributing  to  mere  nature  and  its  capabihties 

"Si  quis  hominem  semel  justificatum  dixerit  .  .  .  a  somewhat  greater  importance  in  matters  pertaining 

posse  m  totd  vitd  pec^cata  omnia  etiam  venialia  vitare,  to  salvation  than  Augustine  was  willing  to  concede, 

nisi  ex  speciali  Dei  privilegio,   quemadmodum  de  Several  pious  monks  of  Marseilles  (hence  also  the 

beat&  Virgine  tenet  ecclesia,  anathema  sit"  (If  any-  name  of  ''Massilians"),  John  Cassian  (d.  432)  at  their 

one  shall  sa^  that  a  man  once  justified  .  .  .  can,  head,  held  (about  a.  d.  428)  the  following  opinion  of  the 

throughout  his  life,  avoid  all  sins,  even  venial^  unless  relationship  between  nature  and  grace:  (1)  A  distino- 

by  a  special  privilege  of  God,  as  the  Church  beheves  of  tion  must  oe  established  between  "  the  b^inniiiyg  of 

the  Bl.  Virgm  Mary,  let  him  be  anathema).  faith"   (initium  fidei)  and  "increase  in  the  faith" 

This  celeorated  canon  presents  some  difficulties  of  {augmerUum  fidei)'  the  former  may  be  referred  to  the 

thought  which  must  be  briefly  discussed.    In  its  gist  natural  power  of  free  will,  while  increase  in  the  faith 

it  is  an  affirmation  that  not  even  the  justified,  much  and  faith  itself  can  only  be  the  work  of  Christian 

less  the  sinner  and  infidel,  can  avoid  all  sins,  especially  grace.    (2)  Nature  can  merit  grace  through  its  own 

venial  ones,  through  his  whole  life  except  by  special  efforts,  but  this  natural  merit  (merUum  naiura)  is  only 

Privilege  such  as  was  granted  to  the  Mother  of  God.  founded  in  eauity,  it  does  not  confer,  as  Pelagius  con- 
he  canon  does  not  assert  that  besides  Mary  other  tended,  a  rignt  m  strict  justice.  (3)  ''Final  perse- 
saints,  as  St.  Joseph  or  St.  John  the  Baptist,  possessed  verance  "  {£nium  Tferseverantia)  specifically  can  be 
this  privflege.  Almost  all  theologians  rightly  con^  secured  by  the  justified  with  their  own  strength,  and 
sider  this  to  be  the  sole  exception,  justified  only  by  is  therefore  not  a  special  grace.  (4)  The  bestowid  or 
the  dignity  of  the  Divine  maternity.  Justice  is  done  denial  of  baptismal  grace  in  children  is  dependent  on 
to  the  wording  of  the  canon,  if  by  totd  vitd  we  under-  their  conditional  future  merits  or  demerits,  which  the 
stand  a  long  period,  about  a  generation,  and  by  peo-  Omniscience  of  God  foresaw  not  historically,  but 
cato  venioita  chiefly  the  semi-deliberate  venial  sins  due  hypothetically  from  eternity. — Although  this  last 
to  surprise  or  precipitancy.  It  is  in  no  way  declared  proposition  is  philosophically  false,  the  Church  has 
that  a  great  saint  is  unable  to  keep  free  from  all  sin  never  condemned  it  as  heretical;  the  first  three 
during  a  short  interval,  as  the  interval  of  a  day;  nor  theses,  on  the  contrary,  have  been  rejected  as  opposed 
that  he  is  incapable  of  avoiding  for  a  long  time  with  to  Catholic  teaching. 

ordinary  grace  and  without  special  privilege  all  venial        Informed  by  his  disciples.  Prosper  and  Hilary,  of 

sins  committed  with  full  dfeliberation  or  complete  events  at  Marseilles,  Augustine  energetically  set  to 

liberty.    The  same  must  be  said  with  still  ggreater  work,  in  spite  of  his  advanced  age,  and  wrote  his  two 

reason  of  mortal  sins,  although  the  preservation  of  books  against  the  Semipelagians:    "De  Prsedestina- 

baptismal  innocence  may  be  ofrare  occurrence.    The  tione  sanctorum"  and  "De  dono  perseverantis". 

expression,  omnia  peccaUi^  must  be  understood  coUeo-  Simultaneously  he  humbly  acknowledged  that  he  had 

tively,  as  applying  to  the  sum,  and  not  distributively,  the  misfortune  of  having  professed  similar  errors  pre- 

as  meaning  each  individual  sin,  which  would  no  longer  viously  to  his  episcopal  consecration  (a.  d.  394).    He 

be  a  sin  iiit  could  not  be  avoided  in  every  instance,  attacked  resolutely,  though  with  mildness  and  mod- 

For  the  same  reason  the  words,  non  voase,  desi^ate  eration,  all  the  positions  of  his  adversaries^  rightly 

not  a  physical,  but  a  moral  impossibility  of  avoiding  looking  upon  their  attitude  as  a  relapse  mto  the 

sin,  i.  e.  a  difficulty  based  on  insuperable  obstacles  already    defeated    Pelagianism.    After    Augustine's 

which  only  a  special  privilege  could  suppress.    The  death,  his  disciples  resumed  th0  struggle,    l^e^  suo- 

meaning  is,  therefore:  The  observer  of  a  long  series  of  oeeded  in  interesting  in  their  cause  P^pe  Celestine  I, 

temptations  in  the  life  of  a  just  man  will  find  that  at  who,  in  his  dogmatic  writing  to  the  bishops  of  Gaul 

some  time  or  other,  to-day  or  to-morrow,  the  will  held  (431),  laid  down  as  a  rule  of  faith  the  funda^oental 

captive  by  concupiscence  will  succumb  with  moral  teaching  of  St.  Augustme  on  original  sin  and  grace, 

necessity.    This  may  be  due  to  n^ieence,  surprise.  But  as  tnis  so-caUed  "  Indiculus"  was  issued  more  as  a 

weariness,  or  moral  weakness — all  of  wnich  are  factors  papal  instruction  than  as  an  ex  cathedrd  definition,  the 

that  do  not  completely  destroy  the  freedom  of  the  will  controversy  still  continued  for  almost  a  century,  until 

and  thus  admit  at  least  of  a  venial  sin.    This  hard  St.  Csesarius  of  Aries  convoked  the  Second  Synod  of 

truth  must  naturally  grieve  a  proud  heart.    But  it  is  Orange  (a.  d.  529).    This  synod  received  the  solemn 

precisely  to  curb  pride,  that  most  dangerous  enemy  of  confirmation  of  Pope  Boniface  II  (530)  and  was  thus 

our  salvation,  and  to  nourish  in  us  the  precious  virtue  vested  with  cecumenical  authority.    (According  to 

of  humility,  that  God  permits  these  falls  into  sin.  the  opinion  of  Scheeben  and  Gutb^Iet  this  confirma- 

Nothing  incites  us  more  powerfully  to  vigilance  and  tion  extended  only  to  the  first  eight  canons  and  the 

perseverance  in  prayer  than  the  consciousness  of  our  epilogue.)    From  now  on  Semipeta gjanism,  also,  was 

sinfulness  and  infirmitv.    Even  the  greatest  saint  proscribed  as  heresy,  and  Augustinism  was  oom- 

must,  therefore,  pray  daily  not  out  of  hypocrisy  or  pletely  victorious. 

self-deception,  but  out  of  an  intimate  knowledge  of        In  the  refutation  of  Semipelagianism,  in  bo  far  as 

his  heart:  "Forgive  us  our  debts,  as  we  forgive  our  the  necessity  of  actual  grace  is  concerned,  it  will  not 


ORAOE  697  ORAOE     ' 

be  amuB  to  follow  an  adult  throu^  all  the  stages  on  which  ultimately  terminates  the  process  of  iustificar 
the  way  to  salvation,  from  the  state  of  unbelief  and  tion,  can  be  attained  only  through  absolutely  supei^ 
mortal  sin  to  the  state  of  ^race  and  a  happy  death,  natural  acts,  for  the  performance  of  which  nature 
With  regard,  first,  to  the  period  of  unbelief ,  tne  Second  without  grace  is  physically  incapable.  Hence  the 
Synod  of  Orange  (can.  v)  decreed  that  prevenient  Bible,  besides  faith,  also  refers  otner  dispositions,  as 
zrace  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  infidel  not  only  for  "hope"  (Rom.,  xv,  13)  and  'Move"  (I  John,  iv,  7) 
Ukith  itself,  but  also  for  the  vei^  beginning  of  faith,  exphcitly  to  God  as  their  author;  and  tradition  has 
By  the  ** beginning  of  faith",  it  intended  to  designate  unswervmgly  adhered  to  the  priority  of  grace  (cf.  St. 
all  the  goocfaspirations  and  motions  to  believe  which  Augustine,  *'Enchir.",  xxxii).  Chice  the  adult  has 
precede  faith  properly  so  called,  as  early  dawn  i>re-  finally  reached  the  state  of  grace  after  a  happy  ter- 
cedes  sunrise.  Consequently,  the  whole  preparation  mination  of  the  process  qf  justification,  the  obhgation 
for  the  faith  is  made  under  the  influence  of  grace,  e.  g.  devolves  upon  him  of  compljring  with  many  ne^ti ve 
the  iostruction  of  persons  to  be  converted.  The  ao-  and  positive  duties  in  order  to  preserve  sanctifjdng 
curacy  of  this  view  is  confirmed  by  the  Bible.  Ac-  grace,  persevere  in  virtue  imtil  the  end,  and  gain 
cording  to  the  assurance  of  the  Saviour,  external  heaven  after  a  happy  death.  Will  he  be  capable  of 
preaching  is  useless  if  the  invisible  influence  of  ^raoe  accomplishing  all  tnis  without  a  constant  stream  of 
(the  being  drawn  by  the  Father)  does  not  set  m  to  actual  graces?  It  might  appear  so.  .For  the  justified 
effect  the  gradual  "coming"  to  Christ  (John,  vi,  44).  person  is,  through  the  possession  of  sanctifying  grace 
Were  faith  rooted  in  mere  nature,  were  it  based  on  and  supernatural  virtues,  permanently  maintained  in 
mere  natural  inclination  to  believe  or  on  natural  the  supernatural  order.  It  is  not  unnatural,  there- 
merit,  nature  could  legitimately  glory  in  its  own  fore,  to  admit,  prescinding  from  final  perseverance, 
achievement  of  the  work  of  salvation  in  its  entirety,  that  he  is  enabled  by  his  supernatural  nabit  to  per- 
from  faith  to  justification — nay,  to  beatific  vision  it-  form  salutary  actions.  This  is  in  reality  the  teaching 
self.  And  still  Paul  (I  Ck>r..  iv,  7:  £ph.,  ii^  8  sq.)  of  Molina,  Bellarmine,  Billot,  and  others.  But  to 
abominates  nothing  so  mucn  as  the  'glorying"  of  this  view  Perrone  (De  gratiA,  n.  203)  rightly  objects 
nature.  Although  Augustine  could  substantiate  his  that  Holy  Writ  makes  no  distinction  between  the  dif- 
doctrine  by  references  to  the  anterior  Fathers  of  the  ferent  degrees  of  the  work  of  salvation,  that  Augus- 
Church,  as  Cyprian,  Ambrose,  and  Gregory  of  Nasian-  tine  (De  nat.  et  grat.,  xxiv)  proclaims  the  constant 
zus,  he  seems  to  have  been  embarrassed  by  the  Semi-  need  of  srace  also  for  the  "healthy"  and  "justified", 
pelagian  appeal  to  the  Greeks,  chiefly  Chiysostom.  and  finally  that  the  Church  requires  an  uninterrupted 
He  pleaded  the  circumstances  of  the  time  (De  praed.  influence  of  grace  even  for  the  good  works  of  the  lust, 
sanctor.,  c.  xiv).  In  fact,  difference  of  doctrine  be-  and  puts  in  the  mouths  of  all  Christians  without 
tween  the  East  and  the  West  cannot  be  denied,  exception  the  prayer:  "Actiones  nostras,  ausBsumus 
With  delight  could  the  Semipelagians  quote  from  Domine,  aspirando  praeveni  et  adjuvando  prose- 
C^rysostom  passages  like  the  following:  "We  must  quere",  etc.  And  does  not  concupiscence,  which  re- 
first  select  good  and  then  God  adds  what  apper-  mains  also  in  the  justified,  stand  m  need  of  at  least 
tains  to  his  office;  he  does  not  act  antecedently  healing  grace?  Moreover,  no  passive  habit  puts  itself 
to  our  will  so  as  not  to  destroy  our  liberty"  (Horn,  in  motion,  but,  like  a  well-tuned  harp,  must  be,  as  it 
xii  in  Hebr.,  n.  3).  How  must'  this  attitude  of  were,  brought  into  play  by  some  external  agency.  It 
the  Eastern  Church  be  explained? — To  gain  a  cor-  might  be  added  that  nature,  raised  to  a  permanent 
lect  notion  of  the  then  existing- circumstances,  it  supernatural  state,  still  retains  its  natural  activity 
must  be  remembered  that  the  Greeks  had  to  defend  and  consequently  requires  a  supernatural  impulse  for 
not  only  grace,  but  almost  more  so  the  freedom  of  the  supematuml  actions. 

will.  For  the  anti-Christian  systems  of  Gnosticism,  The  most  important  concern,  however,  which  the 
Manichseism,  and  neo-Platonism— a11  products  of  the  just  man  must  take  to  heart  is  final  perseverance,  be- 
East — stood  completely  under  the  spell  of  the  liberty-  cause  it  is  a  decided  characteristic  of  the  predestined 
destroying  philosophy  of  fatiJism.  In  such  an  environ-  and  assures  entrance  into  heaven  with  infallible  cer- 
ment  it  was  important  to  preserve  intact  the  freedom  tainty.  The  Semipelagian  delusion  that  this  great 
of  the  will  even  under  the  mfluence  of  grace,  to  arouse  jprace  may  be  due  to  the  initiative  and  power  of  the 
slothful  nature  from  the  fatalistic  sleep,  and  to  rec-  just  was  refuted,  after  the  Second  Synod  of  Orange 
ommend  the  ascetical  maxim:  "Help  yourself,  and  (can.  x),  chiefly  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  Vt^ 
Heaven  will  help  you.''  It  may  have  been  imprudent  can.  xxii)  in  tlSe  following  proposition  of  faith:  "Si 
to  leave  the  necessity  of  prevenient  grace  altogether  in  quis  dixerit,  justificatum  .  .  .  sine  speciali  auxilio 
the  background  because  of  false  considerations  of  Dei  in  accepta  justiti&  perse verare  posse  .  .  .  ,  ana- 
timeliness,  and  to  insist  almost  exclusively  on  oo-  themasit."  Here,  also,  the  explanation  of  some  diffi- 
operating  grace  while  silently  presupposing  the  ex-  culties  will  facilitate  the  correct  interpretation  of  the 
istence  of  prevenient ,  grace.  But  was  Chr3r80stom  canon.  Final  perseverance,  in  its  most  perfect  sense, 
opposing  a  Pelagius  or  a  Cassian?  In  fact  he  dso  consists  in  the  untarnished  preservation  of  baptismal 
knew  and  admitted  prevenient  grace,  as  when  he  innocence  until  death.  In  a  less  strict  sense  it  is  the 
writes:  "  You  do  not  nold  of  yourself,  but  you  have  preservation  of  the  state  of  grace  from  the  last  conver- 
reoeived  from  God.  Hence  you  have  received  what  sion  until  death.  In  both  senses  we  have  what  is 
you  possess,  and  not  only  this  or  that,  but  ever3rthing  called  perfect  perseverance  {perseverantia  perfecta). 
you  have.  For  these  are  not  your  own  merits,  but  By  imperfect  perseverance  (perseverantia  imperfecta)  , 
the  grace  of  God.  Although  you  cite  faith,  you  owe  it  must  be  understood  the  temporary  continuance  in 
nevertheless  to  call"  (Hom.  xii  in  I  Cor.).  Chrysos-  grace,  e.  g.,  for  a  month  or  a  year,  imtil  the  commi»- 
tom  was  alwa3r8  orthodox  in  the  doctrine  on  grace.  sion  of  toe  next  mortal  sin.  We  must  distinguish 
After  the  triumph  over  unbelief,  the  process  of  also  between  passive  and  active  perseverance,  accord- 
justification  begins  with  faith  and  concludes  only  with  ing  as  the  justified  dies  in  the  state  of  grace,  independ- 
the  infusion  of  sanctifying  grace  and  theological  love,  ently  of  his  will,  as  baptized  children  and  the  insane, 
The  question  is«whether,  on  this  arduous  road,  grace  or  actively  co-operates  with  grace  whenever  the  state 
must  precede  and  co-operate  with  every  salutary  step  of  grace  is  imperilled  by  grievous  temptations.  The 
of  the  believing  sinner.  The  negative  attitude  of  the  Council  of  Trent  had,  above  all,  this  latter  case  in 
Semipelagians,  who  ascribed  the  dispositions  for  justi-  view,  since  it  speaks  of  the  necessity  of  a  special  as- 
fication  to  the  natural  efforts  of  free  will,  was  pro-  sistance  (auxQium  8peciale)t  which  can  designate 
scribed  as  heretical  at  Orange  (can.  vii)  and  again  at  nothing  else  but  an  actual  erace  or  rather  a  whole 
Trent  (Sess.  VI,  can.  iii).  ffigbtly  so.  For  the  thor-  series  of  these.  This  "specialpuoe''  is,  consequently, 
oughly  supernatural  sonship  of  Ckid  (JUiatio  adopUva),  not  conferred  with  the  possession  of  sanctifying  grace. 


ORAOS 


698 


GRACE 


nor  is  it  to  be  confounded  with  ordinaiy  graces,  nor 
finally  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  result  of  the  mere  power 
of  perseverance  (posse  perseverare).  Hence,  as  a  new 
and  special  grace,  it  ultimately  is  but  a  continuous 
series  of  efficacious  (not  merely  sufficient)  f^races  com- 
bined with  a  particular  external  protection  of  God 
against  fall  into  sin  and  with  the  final  experience  of  a 
happy*  death.  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  can. 
xvi)  IS  therefore  justified  in  speaking  of  it  as  a  great 
gift — ''  magnum  donum ' '.  The  Bible  extols  finalper- 
severance,  now  as  a  special  Grace  not  included  in  the 
bare  notion  of  justification  (Phil.,  i,  6;  I  Pet.,  i,  5),  now 
as  the  precious  fruit  of  special  prayer  (Matt.,  xxvi,  41 ; 
John,  xyii,  11;  Col.,  iv,  12).  Augustine  (De  dono 
perse  v.,  c.  iii)  used  the  necessity  ofsuch  prayer  as  a 
oasis  of  argumentation,  but  added,  for  the  consolation 
of  the  faithful,  that,  while  this  great  grace  could  not 
be  merited  by  good  works,  it  could  by  persevering, 
eenuine  prayer  oe  obtained  with  infallible  certaintv. 
Hence  the  practice  of  pious  Christians  to  pray  daily 
for  a  good  death  can  never  be  too  earnestly  com- 
mended. 

(b)  Gratuity. — ^Beside  the  necessitv  of  actual  grace, 
its  absolute  ^tuity  stands  out  as  the  second  funda- 
mental Question  in  the  Christian  doctrine  on  this  sub- 
ject. The  very  name  of  grace  excludes  the  notion 
of  merit.  But  the  gratuity  of  specifically  Christian 
grace  is  so  great  and  of  such  a  superior  character 
that  even  mere  natural  petition  for  grace  or  positive 
natural  dispositions  cannot  determine  God  to  the  be- 
stowal of  his  supernatural  assistance.  A  mere  nega- 
tive preparation  or  mere  ne^tive  dispositions,  on  tne 
contrary,  which  consist  only  in  the  natural  removal  of 
obstacles,  are  in  all  probabinty  not  essentially  opposed 
to  gratuity.  Owing  to  its  gratuitous  character,  grace 
cannot  be  earned  by  strictly  natural  merit  either  in 
strict  justice  (meritum  de  condigno)  or  as  a  matter  of 
fitness  {meritum  de  congruo).  But  is  not  this  asser- 
tion in  conffict  with  the  dogma  that  the  just  man  can, 
through  supernatural  works,  merit  de  condigno  an  in- 
crease in  the  state  of  grace  and  eternal  gloiy,  just  as 
the  sinner  can,  through  salutary  acts,  earn  de  congruo 
justification  and  all  graces  leading  up  to  it?  That  it 
IS  not,  will  be  clearly  evident  if  it  be  remembered  that 
the  merits  springing  from  supernatural  grace  are  no 
longer  natural,  but  supernatural  (cf.  Council  of  Trent, 
Sess.  VI,  cap.  xvi).  The  absolute  gratuity  of  grace  is. 
therefore,  safeguarded  if  it  is  referred  to  the  initial 
grace  (prima  grcUia  vocarut),  with  which  the  work  of 
salvation  begins,  and  whicn  is  preceded  by  pure  and 
mere  nature.  For  it  then  follows  that  the  wnole  sub- 
sequent series  of  graces,  up  to  justification,  is  not  and 
cannot  be  merited  any  more  than  the  initial  grace. 
We  shall  now  briefly  examine  the  gratuity  of  grace  in 
its  several  degrees  as  indicated  above. 

(a)  The  gratuitous  character  of  grace  cat^orically 
excludes  real  and  strict  natural  merit  with  a  rightful 
claim  to  just  compensation  as  well  as  merit  improperly 
so  called  implying  a  claim  to  reward  as  a  matter  of  fit- 
ness. The  meritorious  character  of  our  actions  in  the 
former  sense  was  defended  by  the  Pelagians,  while  the 
Semipelagians  advocated  it  in  the  latter  meaning. 
To  this  twofold  error  the  infallible  teaching  authority 
of  the  Church  opposed  the  dogmatic  declaration  that 
the  initial  grace  preparatory  to  justification  is  in  no 
wise  due  to  natural  merit  as  a  determining  factor  (Cf. 
Second  Synod  of  Orange,  epilogue;  Council  of  Trent, 
Sess.  VI,  cap.  v).  The  cate^rical  synodal  expres- 
sion, nuUis  protcedentibus  meritis,  wards  off  from  grace, 
as  a  poisonous  breath,  not  only  the  Pelagian  condi^ 
merit,  but  also  the  Semipelagian  congruous  ment. 
The  presupposition  that  grace  can  be  merited  by  nat- 
ural deeds  involves  a  latent  contradiction.  For  it 
would  be  attributing  to  nature  the  power  to  bridge  over 
with  its  own  strengtn  the  chasm  lymg  between  the  nat- 
ural and  the  supernatural  order.  In  powerfully  elo- 
quent words  does  Paul,  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 


declare  that  the  vocation  to  the  Faith  was  not  mntea 
to  the  Jews  in  consequence  of  the  works  of  the  Mosaic 
Law,  nor  to  the  pagans  because  of  the  observance  of 
the  natural  moral  law,  but  that  the  concession  was  en- 
tirely gratuitous.  He  inserts  the  harsh  statement: 
"  Therefore  he  hath  mercy  on  whom  he  will ;  and  whom 
he  will,  he  hardeneth  "  (Kom.,  ix,  18).  The  Doctor  of 
Grace,  Augustine  (De  peccato  orig.,  xxiv,  28),  like  a 
secona  Paul,  advocates  the  absolute  gratuity  of  grace, 
when  he  writes:  "  Non  enim  eratia  Dei  erit  uUo  modo, 
nisi  gratuita  fuerit  onmi  modb ''  (For  it  will  not  be  the 
grace  of  God  in  any  way  unless  it  has  been  gratuitous  in 
every  way).  He  lays  stress  on  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple: "  Grace  does  not  find  the  merits  in  existence,  but 
causes  titiem",  and  substantiates  it  decisively  uius: 
"  Non  p;ratia  ex  merito,  sed  meritum  ex  gratiA.  Nam 
si  gratia  ex  merito,  emisti^  non  gratis  accepisti"  (Not 
grace  by  merit,  but  merit  by  grace.  For  if  grace  by 
merit,  tiiou  hast  bought,  not  received  gratis. — Senn.. 
169,  c.  II).  Not  even  Chrysostom  could  be  suspected 
of  Semipelagianism,  as  he  thought  in  this  matter  pre- 
cisely like  Paul  and  Au^tine. 

(p)  While  natural  merit  suppresses  the  idea  of  gratu- 
ity in  grace,  the  same  cannot  be  affirmed  of  natural 
prayer  (preces  naturas,  oratio  natwralis)^  as  long  as  we 
do  not  ascribe  to  it  any  intrinsic  ri^t  to  be  he^xl  and 
to  God  a  duty  to  answer  it — a  ri^t  and  duty  which 
are  undoubtedly  implied  in  supernatural  petitions  (cf . 
John,  xvi,  23  sc].).  Prayer  does  not,  like  meri^  ap- 
peal to  the  justice  or  equity  of  God.  but  to  his  libenu- 
ity  and  mercy.  Tlie  sphere  of  influence  of  prayer  is 
consequently  much  more  extensive  than  the  power  of 
merit.  The  sratuity  of  dliristian  grace  is,  nevertho- 
less,  to  be  understood  so  strictly  that  pure  nature  can- 
not obtain  even  the  smallest  grace  by  the  most  fervent 
grayer.  Such  is  the  doctrine  asserted  by  the  Second 
3mod  of  Orange  (can.  iii)  a^inst  the  Semipelagians. 
It  is  based  on  a  positive  Divine  decree  and  can  no 
longer  be  deduced- from  the  intrinsic  impossibility  of 
the  contrary.  It  is  therefore  permissiDle,  without 
prejudice  to  tlie  Faith,  to  adopt  Ripalda's  opinion  (De 
ente  supemat.,  disp.  xix,  sect.  3),  which  holds  that, 
in  an  economy  of  salvation  different  from  the  present, 
natural  prayer  for  grace  would  be  entitled  to  be  heard. 
How  litUe  this  is  me  case  in  the  present  dispensation 
is  best  learned  from  the  language  of  the  Bible.  We 
are  told  tliat  in  our  infirmity  "we  know  not  what  we 
should  pray  for  as  we  ought;  but  the  Spirit  himself 
asketh  for  us  with  unspeakable  groanings  '  (Rom.  viii, 
26;  df.  I  Cor.,  xii,  3).  The  supernatural  union  with 
Christ  is,  moreover,  represented  as  the  indispensable 
condition  of  every  successful  petition  (John,  xv,  7). 
Every  wholesome  prayer  beins  in  itself  a  salutary  act, 
it  must,  according  to  antecedent  statements,  spring 
from  prevenient  ^race.  Augustine  (De  dono  persev., 
xxiii^  64)  in  vivid  descriptions  brings  home  to  the 
Semipelagians  their  delusion  in  thinking  that  true 
prayer  comes  from  us  and  not  from  God  who  inspires  it. 
On  an  almost  identical  level  with  natural  prayer 
stand  the  positive  preparation  and  dispositions  to 
grace  (cavacUcLS,  sive  prcBparatio  positiva).  It  often 
occurs  in  numan  life  tnat  the  positive  disposition  to  a 
natural  good  includes  in  itself  a  certain  claim  to  satis- 
faction, as,  e.  g.  thirst  of  itself  calls  for  qu^ching. 
This  is  stiU  more  the  case  when  the  disposition  has 
been  acquired  by  a  positive  preparation  tor  the  good 
in  question.  Thus  the  student  has  aocjuired  by  his 
preparation  for  the  examination  a  certam  claim  to  be 
sooner  or  later  admitted  to  it.  But  how  about  graceT 
Does  there  exist  in  man  a  positive  disposition  and  a 
claim  to  grace  in  the  sense  that  the  withholding  of 
this  expected  blessing  would  sensibly  injure  and  bit- 
terly disappoint  the  soul  ?  Or  can  man,  unaided,  posi- 
tively dispose  himself  for  the  reception  of  grace,  con- 
fident that  God  will  reward  his  natural  efforts  witih  the 
bestowal  of  supernatural  grace?  Both  suppositkins 
are  untenable.    For,  according  to  the  express  teach* 


a&ACDS  609  ORAOE 

fng  of  the  Apostle  Paul  and  of  the  Fathers  of  the  conae^ti^na),  on  the  contrary,  can  only  be  absolute,  i.  e. 

Church,  the  gratuity  of  srace  is  rooted  solely  in  the  a  will  of  justice,  as  Qod  must  simply  reward  or  punish 

supreme  freedom  of  the  Irvine  will,  and  the  nature  of  according  as  one  has  deserved  by  his  works  heaven  or 

man  possesses  not  even  lie  sli^test  claim  to  erace.  hell. — We  consider  here  solely  the  "antecedent  will" 

As  a  consequence,  the  relapse  into  Semipelagianism  is  to  save;  r^arding  the  will  of  justice  see  Prbdestina- 

imavoidable  as  soon  as  we  seek  in  the  positive  disposi-  tion.  ^ 

tion  or  preparation  a  cause  for  the  bestowal  of  grace.  Against  the  error  of  the  Calvinists  and  Jansenists 
It  should  DC  remembered,  moreover,  that  nature  is  the  ecclesiastical  teaching  authori^  (cf.  Council  of 
never  found  in  its  pure  form,  but  that,  from  the  be-  Trent,  Sess.  VI,  can.  xvii;  Prop,  v  Jansenii  danm.,  in 
ginning,  mankind  is  defiled  by  original  sin.  This  Denzinger,  n.  827,  1096)  proclaimed  in  the  fi^  place 
consideration  still  more  forcibly  puts  before  us  the  the  doctrine  that  God  seriously  wills  the  salvation 
necessity  of  denying  to  sinful  nature  the  power  to  not  of  the  predestined  only,  but  also  of  other  men. 
draw  down  upon  itseSf,  like  an  arid  region,  the  effusion  As  the  Church  obliged  all  her  faithful  to  the  recital  of 
of  Divine  grace,  either  by  its  naturalconstitution  or  the  passage  of  the  creed,  "  Qui  propter  nos  homines  et 
its  own  endeavours.  propter  nostram  salutem  desoendit  de  coelis'',  it  is 
(y)  Negative  disposition  or  pieparation  (capacitoB  also  established  with  certainty  of  faith  that  at  least  all 
sive  pngparaHo  neaativa)  designates,  in  general,  the  the  faithful  are  included  in  the  universality  of  salya- 
absence  or  remaval  of  obstacles  whidi  are  an  impedi-  tion  willed  by  God.  Not  to  mention  the  touching 
ment  to  the  introduction  of  a  new  form,  as  green  scene  in  whicn  Jesus  weeps  over  the  im^nitent  Jem- 
wood  is  dried  up  to  become  fit  for  burning.  The  salem  (cf.  Matt.,  xxiii^  37).  the  following  is  the  declara- 
question  arises,  whether  the  re(^uirement  of  such  tion  of  the  Saviour  himself  respecting  believers:  "For 
merely  negative  natural  preparation  is  reconcilable  God  so  loved  the  world,  as  to  give  his  only-begotten 
with  the  absolute  gratuity  of  grace.  Some  of  tiie  Son;  that  whosoever  believeth  in  him,  ma^  not  perish, 
earlier  Schoolmen  cited  in  answer  the  celebrated  but  may  have  life  everlasting"  (John,  iii,  16).  Far 
much-debated  axiom :  Fadenti  quod  in  se  est,  Deu8  non  from  limiting  the  will  to  save  to  these  two  classes  of 
denegat  graHam  (To  the  one  who  does  what  in  him  lies,  men,  the  predestined  and  believers,  theologians  ad- 
God  does  not  deny  grace).  If  among  the  propoeea  here  to  the  theolo^cal  conclusion  that  God,  without 
interpretations  of  this  proposition  we  adopt  the  one  regard  to  original  sm,  wills  the  eternal  salvation  of  all 
asseiting  that,  in  consequence  of  the  commendable  en-  ^^  posterity  of  Adam.  The  range  of  this  will  cer- 
deavours  of  the  natural  will,  God  does  not  withhold  tainfy  extends  fiirther  than  the  circle  of  believers,  the 
from  anyone  the  first  grace  of  vocation,  we  necessarily  eterzial  reprobation  of  many  of  whom  is  a  notorious 
fall  into  the  Semipelagian  heresy  refuted  above.  In  fact.  For  Pope  Alexander  VIII  (1690)  condenmed 
ordersystematically  to  exclude  this  contingency, many  the  proposition  that  Christ  died  "for  all  the  faithful 
Schoolmen  thus  interpreted  the  axiom  with  St.  Inomas  and  only  for  them  "  (pro  omnibus  et  solia  Mdibus. — See 
(Summa,  I-II.  Q.  cix,  a.  6):  "To  the  one  who  accom-  Densinger,  n.  1294).  The  foreknowledge  of  original 
plishes  what  ne  can  with  the  help  of  supernatural  sin  is  no  reason  for  God  to  except  some  men  from  his 
grace  God  grants  further  and  more  powerfulgraces  up  will  of  redemption,  as  the  Calvinist  sect  called  Infra- 
to  justification."  But,  interpreted  in  this  manner,  lapsarians  or  Postlapsarians  (from  infra,  or  post,  lap- 
the  axiom  offers  nothing  new  and  has  nothing  to  do  sum)  asserted  in  Holland  against  the  strictly  Calvinist 
with  the  above-proposed  question.  There  remains,  opinion  of  those  called  Supralapsarians  or  Antelapsar- 
therefore,  a  third  interpretation:  God,  obt  of  mere  ians  (from  supra,  or  ontejtojMum.—^eeARMiNiANisM). 
liberality,  does  not  withhold  His  grace  from  the  one  In  proof  of  the  Catholic  contention,  the  Council  of 
who  accomplishes  what  he  can  with  his  natural  moral  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  cap.  ii)  rested  on  the  Biblical  text 
strength,  i.  e.  from  the  one  who,  by  deliberate  absten-  which  exhibits  the  propitiatory  sacrifice  of  Christ  as 
tion  from  offences,  seeks  to  dispose  God  favourably  offered  not  only  for  our  sms,  "  but  also  for  those  of  the 
towards  him  and  tnus  prepares  himself  negatively  for  whole  world"  (I  John,  u,  2).  We  possess,  besides, 
erace.  Some  theologians  (e.  g.  Vasquez,  Glossner)  two  classical  Scriptural  passages  which  exclude  all 
d^ared  even  this  most  mitigated  ana  mildest  inter-  doubt.    The  Book  of  Wisdom  (xi,  24  sqq.)  eulogizes  in 

{>retation  to  be  Semipelagian.    Most  modem  theo-  stirring  language  the  all-exceeding  mercy  of  God  and 

ogical  authorities,  however,  with  Molina,  Suarez,  and  bases  its  umversality  on  the  omnipotence  of  God  (quia 

Lrasius,  see  in  it  nothing  else  but  the  expression  of  the  omnia  potes),  on  his  universal  domination  (quoniam 

trutli:  To  the  one  who  prepares  himself  negatively  tiui  sunt;  dUtgis  omnia,  qua  fecisti),  and  on  his  love  for 

and  places  no  obstacle  to  the  ever-ready  influence  of  souls  (^t  amas  animas).    Wherever,  therefore,  Di- 

erace,  God  in  general  is  more  inclined  to  offer  his  grace  vine  omnipotence  and  domination  extend,  wherever 

ttk&n  to  another  who  wallows  in  the  mire  of  sin  and  immortal  souls  are  to  be  fotmd,  thither  also  the  will  to 

thus  neglects  to  accomplish  what  lies  in  his  power.  In  grant  salvation  extends,  so  that  it  cannot  be  exclusive 

this  manner  the  cause  of  the  distribution  of  grace  is  of  any  human  being.    After  St.  Paul  (I  Tim.,  ii,  1 

located  not  in  the  dignity  of  nature,  but.  conformably  sqq.)  nas  ordained  prayers  for  all  men  and  proclaimed 

to  orthodoxy,  in  the  universal  will  of  God  to  save  man-  them  "acceptable  in  the  sight  of  God  our  Saviour, 

kind.  who  will  have  all  men  to  be  saved"  (omnes  homines 

(c)  Universality. — The  universality  of  grace  does  tmZt  «a2vo8^m),  he  adds  a  threefold  motivation:  "For 

not  conflict  with  its  sratuity,  if  God,  in  virtue  of  his  there  is  one  God,  and  one  mediator  of  God  and  men, 

will  to  save  all  men,  distributes  with  sovereign  liberty  the  man  Christ  Jesus:  who  ^ve  himself  a  redemi)tion 

his  graces  to  all  adults  without  exception.    But  if  the  for  all "  (1.  c.) .    Hence  it  is  just  as  true  that  the  will  to 

universality  of  grace  is  only  a  result  of  the  Divine  will  grant  salvation  extends  to  all  men  as  it  is  that  God  is 

to  save  all  mankind,  we  must  first  turn  our  attention  the  God  of  all  men,  and  that  Christ  as  mediator  as- 

to  the  latter  as  the  basis  of  the  former.  sumed  the  nature  of  all  men  and  redeemed  them  on 

(a)  By  the  "will  to  save"  (voluntas  Dei  salvifica)  the  Cross.    In  regard  to  tradition,  Passa^Ua,  ^a  early 

theologians  understand  the  earnest  and  sincere  will  of  as  1851,  brilliantly  demonstrated  the  umversality  of 

God  to  free  sdl  men  from  sin  and  lead  them  to  super-  this  Divine  intention  from  two  hundred  Fathers  of  the 

natural  happiness.    As  this  will  refers  to  human  na^  Church  and  ecclesiastical  writers.    Augustine  alone 

ture'as  such,  it  is  a  merciful  will,  also  called  "first"  or  presents  some  difiBculty.    It  may,  however,  be  con- 

"antecedent  will"  (voluntas  prima  sive  antecedens).  sidered  as  certain  to-day  that  the  great  Bishop  of 

It  is  not  absolute,  but  conditional,  inasmuch  as  no  one  Hippo  interpreted  in  the  year  412  tne  Pauline  text 

is  saved  if  he  docs  not  will  it  or  does  not  comply  with  with  all  the  other  Fathers  <rf  the  Church  in  the  sense  of 

the  conditions  laid  down  by  God  for  salvation.    The  a  universal  will  to  save  all  men  without  exception  and 

"second"  or  "consequent  will"  (voluntas  secunda  sive  that  subsequently  he  never  explicitly  retracted  this 


0RA<7S 


700 


O&AOS 


view  (De  spir,  et  lit.,  xxiii,  58).  But  it  is  equally  cer- 
tain tnat  irom  421  onwards  (cf.  Enchir.,  xxvii,  103; 
Contr.  Julian.,  IV,  viii,  42;  De  corr.  et  ^t.,  xv,  47)  he 
attempted  such  tortuous  and  violent  interpretations 
of  the  clear,  unmistakable  text  that  the  Diyme  will  re- 
gaiding  human  salvation  was  no  longer  universal,  but 
particmar.  The  mystery  can  only  be  solved  by  the 
admission  that  Augustine  still  believed  in  a  plurality 
of  literal  senses  in  the  Bible  (cf.  Confess.^  XII,  xvii 
sqo.).  To  avoid  the  necessity  of  imputmg  to  the 
Holy  Ghost  the  inspiration  of  contradictious  in  the 
same  text,  he  conceived  in  his  three  divergent  inter- 
pretations the  Divine  will  concerning  salvation  as  the 
"second"  or  "consequent  will",  which,  as  absolute 
will  destining  men  to  eternal  happiness,  must  natu- 
rally be  particular,  no  less  than  tne  consequent  will 
affecting  the  reprobate  (cf .  J.  B.  Faure,  "  Note  in  £n- 
chir.  s.  Augustini",  c.  103,  p.  195  8(iq.,  Naples^  1847). 
The  most  difficult  problem  concerning  this  Divme  will 
to  save  all  men,  a  real  crux  theolo^runif  lies  in  the 
mysterious  attitude  of  God  towards  children  dying 
without  baptism.  Did  God  sincerely  and  earnestly 
will  the  salvation  also  of  the  little  ones  who,  without 
fault  of  their  own,  fail  to  receive  the  baptism  of  water 
or  blood  and  are  thus  forever  deprived  of  the  beatific 
vision?  Only  a  few  theologians  (e.  g.  Bellarmine, 
Vasquez)  are  bold  enough  to  answer  this  question  in 
the  negative.  Either  invincible  ignorance,  as  among 
the  pagans,  or  the  physical  order  of  nature,  as  in  still- 
births, precludes  the  possibility  of  the  administration 
of  baptism  without  the  least  culpability  on  the  part  of 
the  children.  The  difficulty  lies,  therefore,  in  tne  fact 
that  God,  the  author  of  the  natural  order,  eventually 
declines  to  remove  the  existing  obstacles  by  means  of 
a  miracle.  The  well-meant  opinion  of  some  theolo- 
gians (Arrubal,  Kilber,  Mannens)  that  the  whole  and 
fiUl  guUt  falls  in  all  instances  not  on  God,  but  on  men 
(for  example,  on  the  imprudence  of  the  mothers),  is 
evidently  too  airy  an  hypothesis  to  be  entitled  to  con- 
sideration. The  subterfuge  of  Elee,  the  writer  on 
dogma,  that  self -consciousness  is  awakened  for  a  short 
time  in  dying  children,  to  render  baptism  of  desire 
possible  to  them,  is  just  as  unsatisfactory  and  objec- 
tionable as  Cardinal  Cajetan's  admission,  disapproved 
of  by  Pius  X,  that  the  prayer  of  Christian  parents,  act- 
ing like  a  baptism  of  desire,  saves  their  children  for 
heaven.  We  are  thus  confronted  ¥dth  an  unsolved 
mystery.  Our  ignorance  of  the  manner  does  not  de- 
stroy, however,  the  theological  certainty  of  the  fact. 
For  the  above-cited  Biblical  texts  are  of  such  unques- 
tionable universality  that  it  is  impossible  to  exclude  a 
Eriori  millions  of  children  from  the  Divine  will  to  save 
umankind.— <^f.  Bolgeni,  "Stato  dei  bambini  morti 
sensa  battesimo"  (Rome,  1787);  Didiot,  "Ungetauft 
verstorbene  Kinder^  Dogmatische  Trostbriefe" 
(Kempen,  1898);  A.  Seitz,  "Die  Heilsnotwendigkeit 
der  Kirohe"  (Freiburg,  1903),  pp.  301  sqq. 

(P)  The  umversality  of  grace  is  a  necessary  ooAse- 
quonce  of  the  will  to  save  all  men.  For  adults  this 
will  transforms  itself  into  the  concrete  Divine  will  to 
distribute  "  sufficient"  graces;  it  evidently  involves  no 
obligation  on  God  to  bestow  only  "efficacious"  graces. 
If  it  can  be  established,  therefore,  that  God  grants  to 
the  three  classes  of  the  just,  sinners,  and  infideb  truly 
sufficient  graces  for  their  eternal  salvation,  the  procn 
of  the  universality  of  grace  will  have  been  furnished. 
Without  prejudice  to  this  universality,  God  may 
either  await  the  moment  of  its  actual  necessity  before 
bestowing  grace,  or  He  may,  even  in  time  of  need  (e.  g. 
in  vehement  temptation),  ^-ant  immediately  only  the 
grace  of  prayer  {gratia  oraiiania  sive  remote  aufficiens). 
But  in  the  latter  case  he  must  be  ever  ready  to  confer 
immediate  grace  for  action  (gr.  operaiumia  a.  proxime 
auffwifms)^  S  the  adult  has  made  a  faithful  use  of  the 
grace  oi  prayer. 

So  far  as  the  category  of  the  just  is  concerned,  the 
heretical  proposition  of  Jansen, that  "the  observance 


of  some  commandments  of  God  is  impossible  to  the 
just  for  want  of  erace''  (see  Denzinger,  n.  1092),  had 
already  been  exploded  bv  the  anathema  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  (see Council  of  I'rent,  Sess.  VI,  can.  xviii).  In 
fact  Holy  Wiit  teaches  concerning  the  just,  that  the 
yoke  of  Jesus  is  sweet,  and  His  buraen  light  (Matt.,  xi, 
30),  that  the  commandments  of  God  are  not  heavy  (I 
John,  V,  3),  that "  God  is  faithful,  who  wiU  not  suffer  3rou 
to  be  tempted  above  that  which  you  are  able :  but  will 
make  also  with  temptation  issue,  that  you  may  be  able 
to  bear  it "  (I  Cor.,  x,  13).  These  statements  warrant 
not  only  the  full  possibility  of  the  observance  of  the 
Divine  commandments  and  the  triimiph  over  vAe- 
ment  temptations;  they  virtually  express  simultane- 
ously the  concession  of  the  necessary  grace  without 
which  all  these  salutary  acts  are  known  to  be  abso- 
lutely impossible.  It  is  true  that  in  the  polemical 
writmgB  of  some  Fathers  of  the  Church  a^unst  the 
Pelagians  and  Semipelagians  we  read  the  proposition: 
"The  grace  of  Goa  is  not  granted  to  all.''  But  a 
closer  examination  of  the  passages  immediately  re- 
veals the  fact  that  they  speak  of  efficacious,  not  of 
sufficient,  grace.  This  distinction  is  expiessly  stated 
by  the  anonymous  writer  of  the  fifth  century  whom 
Pope  Gelasius  commends  as  an  "experienced  ecclesi- 
astical teacher"  {probaiua  ecdeaia  magisUr),  In  his 
excellent  work  "De  vocatione  gentiimi",  he  differen- 
tiates the  "general"  (benignilas  Dei generdtU)  and  the 
"pwticular  '  economy  of  grace  (specialia  miaericor^ 
dta),  referring  the  former  to  the  distribution  of  suffi- 
cient, the  latter  to  that  of  efficacious,  f^raoes.  We 
come  to  the  second  class,  that  of  Christian  sinners, 
among  whom  we  reckon  apostates  and  formal  heretics, 
as  these  can  hardly  be  placed  on  a  par  with  the  heathen. 
In  their  valuation  of  the  distribution  of  grace,  theolo- 
^ns  distinguish  somewhat  sharply  between  ordinaiy 
sinners  (among  whom  they  include  habitual  and  re- 
lapsing sinners)  and  those  sinners  whose  intellect  is 
blmded,  and  whose  heart  is  hardened,  the  so-called 
obdurate  sinners  {obcaecait  et  indurati,  impcmiterUea). 
The  bestow^  of  grace  on  the  former  group  is,  they  say, 
of  a  higher  degree  of  certainty  than  its  concession  to  the 
latter,  although  for  both  the  univeisaUty  of  sufficient 
grace  is  beyond  any  doubt.  Not  only  is  it  said  of 
sinners  in  general:  "I  desire  not  the  death  of  the 
wicked,  but  that  the  wicked  turn  from  his  way,  and 
live"(Ezech.,xxxiii,  11),  and  again:  "The  Lord  .  .  .  . 
dealetn  patiently  for  your  sake,  not  willing  that  any 
should  perish,  but  that  all  should  return  to  penance 
(II  Peter,  iii,  9),  but  even  the  obdurate  and  impenitent 
sinners  are  energetically  summoned  by  the  Bible  to 
dutiful  penance  or  at  least  are  most  vehemently  rep- 
rimanded because  of  their  wickedness  (Is.,  Ixv,  2: 
Rom.,  ii,  4;  Acts,  vii,  61).  Now  where  a  duty  of 
conversion  exists,  the  necessary  ^^race  must  be  at  hand 
without  which  no  conversion  is  possible.  For,  as 
Augustine  (De  nat.  et  ^t.,  xliii,  n.  50)  affirxns: 
"Deus  impossibilia  non  jubet"  (God  does  not  give 
impossible  orders).  Obduracy,  however,  forms  such  a 
powerful  obstacle  to  conversion  that  some  ancient 
theologians  embraced  the  untenable  opinion  that  God 
finally  completely  withdraws  from  tnese  sinners,  a 
withdrawal  due  to  His  mercy,  which  desires  to  save 
them  from  a  more  severe  punishment  in  hell.  But 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas  (De  verit.,  Q.  xxiv,  a.  11) 
stated  that  "complete  obduracy"  (obetinatio  per- 
fecta)f  or  absolute  impossibility  of  conversion,  begins 
only  in  hell  itself;  "incomplete  obduracy",  on  the 
contrary,  ever  presents  on  earth  in  the  enfeebled  moral 
affections  of  the  heart  a  point  of  contact  through 
which  the  appeal  of  ^race  may  obtain  entrance. 
Were  the  rigorist  opimon  of  God's  complete  aban- 
donment of  the  obdurate  correct,  despair  of  God's 
mercy  would  be  perfectly  justified  in  such  souls.  The 
Catholic  catechism,  however,  presents  this  as  a  new 
grievous  sin. 
The  third  and  last  question  arises:  Is  the  grace  of 


O&AOE                                 701  ORAOS 

God  al§0  conceded  to  the  heathen?    The  Divine  readi-  retain  and  increase  it  where  it  is  already  present,  iti 

ness  to  grant  assistance  also  to  the  heathen  (see  Den-  excellence,  dignity^  and  importance  become  imme* 

singer,  n.  1295,  1379)  is  a  certain  truth  confirmed  by  diately  apparent;  tor  holiness  and  the  sonship  of  God 

the   Church   against   the   Jansenists   Amauld   and  depend  solel}^  upon  the  possession  of  sanctifying  srace, 

Quesnel.       To  question  it  is  to  deny  the  above-  wherefore  it  is  frequently  called  simply  grace  without 

demonstrated  intention  of  God  to  save  all  men;  for  the  any  qualifying  word  to  accompany  it  as,  for  instance, 

overwhelming  majority  of  mankind  would  fall  outside  in  the  phrases  ''to  live  in  grace''  or  "to  fall  from 

its  range.    Tne  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  Paul  (Rom.,  grace". 

ii,  6  sqq.),  la3rB  stress  on  God's  impartiality  towards  All  pertinent  questions  group  themselves  around 

Jews  and  Greeks,  without  ''respect  of  persons",  on  the  three  points  of  view  from  which  the  subject  may  be 

Day  of  Judgment,  when  he  wiD  rewaixl  also  the  Greek  considered: — 

"that  worketh  good"  with  eternal  life.    The  Fathers  (1)  The  preparation  for  sanctifying  grace,  or  the 

of  the  Church,  as  Clement  of  Rome  (I  ep.  ad  Cor.,  process  of  justification, 

vii),  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Cohort,  ad  gent.,  9),  and  (2)  The  nature  of  sanctifying  grace. 
Chrysoetom  (Hom.  viii  in  John,  n.  1),  do  not  doubt  '      (3)  The  characteristics  of  sanctifying  grace, 

the  dispensation  of  sufficient  graces  to  the  nations  (1)  Preparation  for  Sanctifying  Grace,  or  the  Process 

''that  sit  in  darkness  and  in  the  shadow  of  death",  of  Juaiification  (for  exhaustive  treatment  of  justifica- 

Orosius  (De  arbitr.  Hbert.,  n.  19),  a  disciple  of  St.  tion  see  article  on  Justification). — ^The  word  justifi* 

Augustine,  proceeds  so  far  in  his  optimism  as  to  be-  cation  (jiiatificaiiOf  from  justum  facere)  derives  its  name 

Ueve  in  this  distribution  of  grace  "quotidie  per  tem-  from  justice  (juetttva),  by  which  is  not  merely  meant 

]x>ra,  per  dies,  per  momenta,  per  drofta  et  cunctis  et  the  cardinal  vu-tue  in  the  sense  of  a  constant  purpose  to 

singuhs"  (daily  through  the  seasons,  through  the  davs,  respect  the  rights  of  others  (auum  cuique)^  nor  is  the 

through  the  moments,  through  the  smallest  possible  term  taken  in  the  concept  of  all  those  virtues  which  go 

divisions  of  time,  and  to  all  men  and  every  man).  But  to  make  up  the  moral  law,  but  connotes,  especially, 

the  clearer  the  fact,  the  more  obscure  the  manner.    In  the  whole  inner  relation  of  man  to  God  as  to  his  super- 

what  way,  one  instinctively  asks,  did  God  provide  for  natural  end.    Every  adult  soul  stained  either  with 

the  salvation  of  the  heathen?    Theologians  to-day  original  sin  or  with  actual  mortal  sin  (children  are  of 

generally  give  the  following  presentation  of  the  proc-  course  excepted)  must,  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  state  of 

ess:  It  IS  presupposed  that,  according  to  Hebr.,  xi,  6,  justification,  pass  through  a  short  or  long  process  of 

the  two  dogmas  of  the  existence  of  God  and  of  future  justification,  which  may  be  likened  to  the  g^^ual 

retribution  must  be,  in  all  instances,  believed  not  onlv  development  of  the  chila  in  its  mother's  womb.    This 

by  necessity  of  means  (necessitate  medii),  but  also  witn  development  attains  its  fullness  in  the  birth  of  the 

explicit  faith  (Jide  explicita)  before  the  process  of  justi-  child,  accompanied  by  the  anguish  and  suffering  with 

fication  can  be  initiated,  v  As  a  consequence,  God  will  which  this  birth  is  invariably  attended;  our  rebirth  in 

not  refrain  in  extraordinary  cases  from  miraculous  God  is  likewise  preceded  by  great  spiritual  sufferings 

intervention  in  order  to  save  a  noble-minded  heathen  of  fear  and  contrition. 

who  conscientiously  observes  the  natural  moral  law.  In  the  process  of  justification  we  must  distinguish 
He  may  either,  in  a  miraculous  manner,  depute  a  mis-  two  periods:  first,  the  preparatory  acts  or  dispositions 
sionarv  to  him  (Acts,  i,  1  sqq.),  or  teach  him  the  re-  (faith,  fear,  hope,  etc.);  then  the  last,  decisive  mo- 
vealed,  truths  through  an  angel  (Cardinal  Toletus),  or  ment  of  the  traxisformation  of  the  sinner  from  the 
be  ma,y  come  to  his  assistance  by  an  interior  private  state  of  sin  to  that  of  iustification  or  sanctif^ring  grace, 
revelation.  It  is  clear,  nevertheless,  that  these  differ-  which  may  be  callea  the  active  justification  (oc^im 
ent  ways  cannot  be  considered  as  everyday  ordinary  justificationis) ;  with  this  the  real  process  comes  to  an 
means.  For  the  multitude  of  heathen  this  assistance  end.  and  the  st<ate  of  habitual  holmess  and  sonship  of 
must  be  found  in  a  universal  means  of  salvation  Goa  begins.  Touching  both  of  these  periods  there 
equall^r  independent  of  wonderful  events  and  of  the  has  existed,  and  still  exists,  in  part,  a  great  conflict 
preaching  of  Christian  missionaries.  Some  modem  of  opinion  between  Catholicism  and  Protestantism, 
theologians  discover  it  in  the  circumstance  that  the  This  conflict  may  be  reduced  to  four  differences  of 
two  dogmas  mentioned  above  were  already  contained  teaching.  By  a  iustifying  faith  the  Church  under- 
in  the  primitive  supernatural  revelation  made  in  Para-  stands  oualitatively  the  theoretical  faith  in  the  truths 
disc  for  all  mankind.  These  truths  were  subsequently  of  Revelation,  and  demands  over  and  above  this  faith 
spread  over  the  whole  world,  survive,  as  a  meagre  otheracts  of  preparation  for  justification.  Protestant- 
remnant,  in  the  traditions  of  the  pagan  nations,  and  ism,  on  the  other  hand,  reduces  the  process  of  justifica- 
are  orally  transmitted  from  generation  to  veneration  tion  to  merely  a  fiduciary  faith ;  and  maintains  that  this 
as  supernatural  truths  of  salvation.  The  Knowable-  faith,  exclusive  even  of  good  works,  is  all-sufficient  for 
ness  of  these  dogmas  by  unaided  reason  does  not  con-  justincation,  laying  ^«at  stress  upon  the  scriptural 
stitute  an  objection,  for  they  are  simultaneously  statement  sola  fides  justificat.  The  Church  tesishes 
natural  and  revealed  truths.  Once  the  condition  of  that  justification  consists  of  an  actual  obliteration  of 
external  preachine  (cf .  Rom.,  x,  17 :  " fides  ex  auditu ' ')  sin  and  an  interior  sanctification.  Protestantism,  on 
has  thus  been  fulfilled,  it  only  remains  for  God  to  the  other  hand,  makes  of  the  forgiveness  of  sin  merely 
hasten  to  man's  assistance  with  his  supernatural  il-  a  concealment  of  it,  so  to  speak;  and  of  the  sanctifica- 
luminating  and  strengthening  grace  and  to  initiate  tion  a  forensic  declaration  of  justification,  or  an  ex- 
with  the  faith  in  God  and  retribution  (which  implic-  temal  imputation  of  the  justice  of  Christ.  In  the 
itly  includes  all  else  necessary  for  salvation)  the  proo-  presentation  of  the  process  of  justification,  we  wUl 
ess  of  justification.  In  this  manner  the  attainment  everywhere  note  this  fourfold  confessional  conflict, 
of  the  state  of  grace  and  of  eternal  glory  becomes  (a;  The  Fiduciary  Faitli  of  the  Protestants. — ^The 
possible  for  the  heathen  who  faithfullv  co-operates  with  Council  of  Trent  (S^.  VI,  cap.  vi,  and  can.  xii)  decrees 
the  grace  of  vocation.  However  all  this  may  be,  one  that  not  the  fiduciary  fsdth,  out  a  real  mental  act  of 
thing  is  certain:  every  heathen  who  incurs  eternal  faith,  consisting  of  a  firm  belief  in  all  revealed  truths 
damnation  will  be  forced  on  the  last  day  to  the  honest  makes  up  the  faith  of  justification  and  the  "  beginninj^, 
confession:  "It  is  not  for  want  of  grace,  but  through  foundation,  and  source"  (loc.  cit.,  cap.  viii)  of  justin- 
my  own  fault  that  I  am  lost."  cation.    What  did  the  Reformers  with  Luther  imder- 

(For  the  relation  between  grace  and  liberty,  see  stand  by  fiduciary  faith?    They  understood  thereby 

Grace,  Controversies  on.)  not  the  first  or  fundamental  deposition  or  preparation 

II.  Sanctipyinq  Grace.— -Since  the  end  and  aim  of  for  the  (active)  justification,  but  merely  the  spiritual 

all  efficacious  grace  is  directed  to  the  production  of  grasp  {instrumentum)  with  which  we  seize  and  lay  hold 

sanctifying  grace  where  it  does  not  already  exist,  or  to  of  the  external  justice  of  Christ  and  with  it,  as  with  a 


QKAXm 


702 


ORAOS 


mantle  of  ^race,  cover  our  sins  (which  still  continue  to 
exist  interiorly)  in  the  infallible,  certain  belief  (fldtbcia) 
that  God,  for  the  sake  of  Christ,  will  no  longer  hold  our 
sins  against  us.  Hereby  the  seat  of  justifying  faith  is 
transferred  from  the  intellect  to  the  will;  and  faith 
itself,  in  as  far  as  it  still  abides  in  the  intellect,  is  con- 
verted into  a  certain  belief  in  one's  own  justification. 
The  main  question  is:  "Is  this  conception  Biblical?" 
Murray  (De  gratia,  disp.  z,  n.  18,  Dublin,  1877)  states 
in  his  statistics  that  the  word  fides  (Tims)  occurs 
eighty  times  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  and  in  the 
synoptic  Gospels,  ana  in  only  six  of  these  can  it  be 
construed  to  mean  fiducia.  But  neither  here  nor 
here  else  does  it  ever  mean  the  conviction  of,  or 


an 


beuef  in,  one's  own  justification,  or  the  Lutheran  fidu- 
ciary faith.  Even  in  the  leadins  text  (Rom.,  iv,  5)  the 
justifying  faith  of  St.  Paul  is  ioentical  with  the  men- 
tal act  of  faith  or  belief* in  Divine  truth;  for  Abraham 
was  justified  not  by  faith  in  his  own  justification,  but  by 
faith  in  the  truth  of  the  Divine  promise  that  he  would 
be  the  "  father  of  many  nations  (cf.  Rom.,  iv,  9  sqq.). 
In  strict  accord  with  this  is  the  Pauline  teisMihing  that 
the  faith  of  justification^  which  we  must  profess 
''with  heart  and  mouth",  is  identical  with  the  mental 
act  of  faith  in  the  Resurrection  of  Christ,  the  central 
dogma  of  Christianity  (Rom.,  x,  9  sq.),  and  that  the 
minimum  expresslv  necessary  for  justification  is  con- 
tained in  the  two  dogfnas:  tne  existence  of  God,  and 
the  doctrine  of  eternal  reward  (Heb.,  xi,  6). 

The  Redeemer  EUmself  made  belief  in  the  teaching 
of  the  Gospel  a  necessary  condition  for  salvation, 
when  he  solemnly  commanded  the  Apostles  to  preach 
the  Gospel  to  the  whole  world  (Mark,  xvi,  15).  St. 
John  the  Evangelist  declares  his  Gospel  has  been  writ- 
ten for  the  purpose  of  excitins  belief  in  the  Divine 
Sonship  of  Christ,  and  links  to  this  faith  the  possession 
>  of  eternal  life  (John,  xx,  31).  Such  was  the  mind  of 
the  Christian  Church  from  the  beginning.  To  say 
nothing  of  the  testimony  of  the  Fathers  (cf .  BeUar- 
mine,  De  justific,  Ij  9),  Saint  Fulgentius,  a  disciple  of 
St.  Augustine,  in  his  precious  booklet,  ''De  verA  fide 
ad  Petrum'',  does  not  understand  by  true  faith  a 
fiduciary  faith,  but  the  firm  belief  in  all  the  truths 
contained  in  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  he  calb  this 
faith  the  "  Foundation  of  all  good  things  ",  and  the  **  Be- 
ginning of  human  salvation^'  (loc.  cit.,  Prolog.)*  The 
practice  of  the  Church  in  the  earliest  ages,  as  shown  by 
the  ancient  custom,  going  back  to  Apostolic  times,  of 
giving  the  catechumens  (irartixo^M**^  from  Jcart|xc?^ 
vivd  voce  instruere)  a  verbjed  instruction  in  the  articles 
of  faith  and  of  directing  them,  shortly  before  baptism, 
to  make  a  public  recitation  of  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
strengthens  this  view.  After  this  they  were  called 
not  fidudtdee  but  pddes^  in  contra-distinction  to  infi/- 
ddes  and  hcBretici  (from  cUpeSrtei,  to  select,  to  proceed 
eclectically)  who  rejected  Revelation  as  a  whole  or  in 
part. 

In  answer  to  the  theological  question:  How  many 
truths  of  faith  must  one  expressly  (fide  explicUd)  be- 
lieve under  command  (necessitate  vrcBcepti)  ?  theolo- 
g'ans  say  that  an  ordinary  Catholic  must  expressly 
low  and  believe  the  most  impK>rtant  dogmas  and  the 
truths  of  the  moral  law,  for  instance,  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  the  Decalogue,  the  six  precepts  of  the  Church, 
the  Seven  Sacraments,  the  Our  Father.  Greater 
things  are,  of  course,  expected  from  the  educated, 
especially  from  catechists,  confessors,  preachers, 
wherefore  upon  these  the  studv  of  theology  rests  as  an 
obligation.  If  the  question  oe  put:  In  how  many 
truths  as  a  means  (necessitate  meaii)  must  one  believe 
to  be  saved?  many  catechists  answer  Six  things: 
God's  existence;  an  eternal  reward;  the  Trinity;  the 
Incarnation;  the  immortality  of  the  soul;  the  neces- 
sity of  Grace.  But  according  to  St.  Paul  (Heb.,  xi,  6) 
we  can  onlv  be  certain  of  the  necessity  of  the  first  two 
dogmas,  whOe  the  belief  in  the  Trinity  and  the  Incar- 
nation could  not  of  course  be  exacted  from  ante- 


Christian  Judaism  or  from  Paganism.  Then,  too, 
belief  in  the  Trinit]^  may  be  impBcitlv  included  in  the 
dogma  of  God's  existence,  and  belief  in  the  Incarna- 
tion in  the  dogma  of  the  Divine  providence,  just  as 
the  immortality  of  the  soul  is  implicitly  included  in 
the  doKma  of  an  eternal  reward.  However,  there 
arises  uyr  any  one  baptised  in  the  name  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  and  entering  thus  the  Church  of  Christ,  the 
necessity  of  making  an  act  of  explicit  faith  QMes  ex- 
plicita).  This  necessity  (necessitas  medit)  arises  per 
accidenSf  and  is  suspenaea  only  by  a  Divine  dispensa- 
tion in  cases  of  extreme  necessity,  where  such  an  act 
of  faith  is  either  physically  or  morally  impossible,  as  in 
the  case  of  pagans  or  those  dsring  in  a  state  of  uncon- 
sciousness. For  further  matter  on  this  point  see 
Pohle,  "Lehrbuch  der  Dogmatik",  4th  ed.,  II,  488 
sqq.  (Paderbom,  1909). 

(b)  The  Solsrfides  doctrine  of  the  Protestants. — 
The  Council  of  Trent  (Sees.  VI,  can.  ix)  decrees  that 
over  and  above  the  faith  which  formalljr  dwells  in  the 
intellect,  o^er  acts  of  predisposition,  arising  from  the 
will,  such  as  fear,  hope,  love,  contrition,  and  good  reso- 
lution (loc.  cit.,  cap.  vi),  are  necessaij  for  uie  recep- 
tion of  the  grace  ot  justification.  This  definition  was 
made  by  the  council  as  against  the  second  fimdamen- 
tal  error  of  Protestantism,  namely  that  "faith  alone 
justifies"  (sola  fides  justificat). 

Martin  Luther  stands  as  the  originator  of  the  doc- 
trine of  justification  by  faith  alone,  for  he  hoped  that 
in  this  wise  he  might  be  able  to  calm  his  own  con- 
science, which  was  in  a  state  of  gr^t  perturbation, 
and  consequently  he  took  refuge  behind  the  assertion 
that  the  necessitv  of  good  works  over  and  above  mere 
faith  was  altogether  a  pharisaical  supposition.  Mani- 
festly this  did  not  bring  him  the  i>eace  and  comfort  for 
which  he  had  hoped,  and  at  least  it  brou^t  no  convic- 
tion to  his  mind ;  for  many  times,  in  a  spirit  of  honesty 
and  i^eer  good  nature,  he  applauded  good  works,  but 
recoenizea  them  only  as  necessarjr  concomitants,  not 
as  efficient  dispositions,  for  justification.  This  was 
also  the  tenor  of  Calvin's  interpretation  (Institutes, 
III,  11, 19).  Luther  was  surprised  to  find  himself  by 
his  unprecedented  doctrine  in  direct  contradiction  to 
the  Bible,  therefore  he  rejected  the  Epistle  of  St. 
James  as  ''one  of  straw"  and  into  the  text  of  St.  Paul 
to  the  Romans  (iii,  28)  he  boldlv  inserted  the  word 
alone.  This  falsification  of  the  Bible  was  certainly  not 
done  in  the  spirit  of  the  Apostle's  teaching,  for  no- 
where does  St.  Paul  teach  that  faith  alone  (without 
charity)  will  bring  justification,  even^  though  we 
shoula  accept  as  also  rauUne  the  text  given  in  a  dif- 
ferent context,  that  supernatural  faith  alone  justifies, 
but  the  fruitless  works  of  the  Jewish  Law  do  not. 

In  this  statement  St.  Paul  emphasizes  the  fact  that 
grace  is  purely  gratuitous;  that  no  merely  natural 
good  works  can  merit  grace ;  but  he  does  not  state  that 
no  other  acts  in  their  nature  and  purport  predisposing 
are  necessary  for  justification  over  and  above  the  re- 
quisite faith.  Any  other  construction  of  the  above 
passage  would  be  violent  and  incorrect.  If  Luther's 
mterpretation  were  allowed  to  stand,  then  St.  Paul 
would  come  into  direct  contradiction  not  only  with  St. 
James  (ii,  24  soq.),  but  also  with  himself;  for,  exoq[>t 
St.  John,  the  favourite  Apostle,  he  is  the  most  out- 
spoken of  all  Apostles  in  proclaiming  the  necessitf  and 
excellence  of  charity  over  faith  in  tne  matter  of  justi- 
fication (cf.I  Cor., xiii,  l,sqci.).  Wheneverfaith  justifies 
it  is  not  faith  alone,  but  faiti  made  operative  and  re- 
plenished by  charity,  (cf.  Gal.,  v.  6,  ''fides,  quae  per 
caritatem  operatur").  In  the  plainest  languase  the 
Apostle  St.  James  says  this:  "e<  operibus  justificatur 
homo,  et  non  ex  fide  tantum"  (James,  u,  24);  and 
here,  by  works,  he  does  not  understand  the  pagan 
0ooa  works  to  which  St.  Paul  refere  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans,  or  the  works  done  in  fulfilment  of  the 
Jewish  Iaw,  but  the  works  of  salvation  made  possible 
by  the  operation  of  supernatural  grace,  which  was 


ORAOE 


703 


ORAOE 


recognized  by  St.  Augustine  (lib.  LXXXIII,  Q.  Ixxvi. 
n.  2)!  In  conformity  with  this  interpretatipn  ana 
with  this  only  is  the  tenor  of  the  Scriptural  doctrine, 
namely,  t^at  over  and  above  faith  other  acts  are 
necessary  for  justification,  such  as  fear  (Ecclus.,  i,  28), 
and  hope  (Rom.,  viii,  24),  charity  (Luke,  vii,  47)^  pen- 
ance with  contrition  (Luke,  xiii,  3;  Acts^^  ^^>  ^f  ^^)i 
almsgiving  (Dan .,  i v.  24 ;  Tob ..  xii,  9) .  Without  char- 
ity and  the  works  ol  charitv  taith  is  dead.  Faith  re- 
ceives life  only  from  and  tnrough  charity  (James,  ii, 
26).  Only  to  dead  faith  (fides  informis)  is  the  doc- 
trine applied:  ''Faith  alone  does  not  justify".  On 
the  other  hand,  faith  informed  by  charity  (fides  for- 
mata)  has  the  jpower  of  justification.  St.  Augustine 
(De  Trinit.,  XV,  18)  expresses  it  pithily  thus:  "Sine 
caritate  quippe  fides  potest  auidem  esse,  sed  non 
et  prodesse. '    Hence  we  see  tnat  from  the  verv  be- 

S'nning  the  Church  has  taueht  that  not  only  faith  but 
lat  a  sincere  conversion  of  heart  effected  by  charity 
and  contrition  is  also  requisite  for  justification — ^witr- 
ness  the  regular  method  of  administering  baptism  and 
the  discipline  of  penance  in  the  early  Church. 

The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  cap.  viii)  has,  in  the 
light  of  Revelation,  assi^ed«to  faith  the  only  correct 
status  in  the  process  of  justification,  inasmuch  as  the 
council,  by  declaring  it  to  be  the  "banning,  the 
foundation^  and  the  root",  has  placed  faith  at  the 
very  front  m  the  whole  process. 

Faith  is  the  beginning  of  salvation,  because  no  one 
can  be  converted  to  G(^  unleai  he  recognize  Him  as 
his  supernatural  end  and  aim,  just  as  a  mariner  with- 
out an  objective  and  without  a  compass  wanders  aim- 
lessly over  the  sea  at  the  mercy  of  wmd  and  wave. 

Faith  is  not  only  the  initiatory  act  of  justification, 
but  the  foundation  as  well,  because  upon  it  all  the 
other  predisposing  acts  rest  securely,  not  in  geometric 
regularity  or  inert  as  the  stones  of  a  building  rest  upon 
a  foundation,  btit  organically  and  imbued  with  life  as 
the  branches  and  blossoms  sprinjg  from  a  root  or  stem. 
Thus  there  is  preserved  to  faith  m  the  Catholic  system 
its  fundamental  and  co-ordinating  significance  m  the 
matter  of  justification.  A  masterly,  psycholo^cal 
description  of  the  whole  process  of  justification, 
which  even  Ad.  Hamack  styles  "a  magnificent  work 
of  art",  will  be  found  in  the  famous  cap.  vi,  "Dispon- 
untur"  (Denzinger,  n.  798).  Accordmg  to  this  the 
process  of  justification  follows  a  regular  order  of  pro- 
gression in  four  stages:  from  faith  to  fear,  from  fear 
to  hope,  from  hope  to  incipient  charity , from  incipient 
charity  to  contrition  with  purpose  of  amendment.  If 
the  contrition  be  perfect  (contritio  cariUUe  perfeda), 
then  active  justification  results,  that  is,  the  soul  is 
immediately  placed  in  the  state  of  grace  even  before 
the  reception  of  the  sacrament  of  baptism  or  penance, 
though  not  without  the  desire  for  the  sacrament  (vo- 
turn  sacramenix).  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  contrition 
be  only  an  imperfect  one  (attritio),  then  the  sanctify- 
ing grace  can  only  be  imparted  by  the  actual  recep- 
tion of  the  sacrament  (ci.  Trent.  Sess.  VI,  cc.  iv  and 
xiv).  The  Council  of  Trent  haa  no  intention,  how- 
ever, of  making  the  sejquence  of  the  various  stages  in 
the  process  of  justification,  given  abov^,  inflexible;  nor 
of  making  any  one  of  the  sta^  indispensable.  Since 
a  real  conversion  is  inconceivable  without  faith  and 
contrition,  we  naturally  place  faith  at  the  beginning 
and  contrition  at  the  end  of  the  process.  In  excep- 
tional cases,  however,  for  example  in  sudden  conver- 
sions, it  is  quite  possible  for  the  sinner  to  overlap  the 
intervening  stages  between  faitii  and  charity,  in  which 
case  fear,  hope,  and  contrition  are  virtually  included 
in  charity. 

The  "justification  by  faith  alone"  theory  was  by 
Luther  styled  the  article  of  the  standing  and  falling 
church  (arUculus  stantis  et  caderUis  ecdesicB)^  and  by 
his  followers  was  regarded  as  the  material  princi^e  of 
Protestantism,  just  as  the  sufficiency  of  the  Jdible 
without  tradition  was  considered  its  formal  principle. 


Both  of  these  principles  are  un-Biblical  and  are 
not  accepted  anywhere  to-day  in  their  original  se- 
verity, save  only  in  the  very  small  circle  of  orthodox 
Lutherans. 

The  Lutheran  Church  of  Scandinavia  has,  according 
to  the  Swedish  theolo^an  Kroeh-Tonningh,  expen- 
enced  a  silent  reformation  which  in  the  lapse  ot  the 
several  centuries  has  eradually  brought  it  back  to  the 
Catholic  view  of  justification,  which  view  alone  can  be 
supported  by  Revelation  and  Christian  experience 
(ci.  Domer,  "  Geschichte  der  protestantischen  Theolo- 

?ie",  361  sqq.,  Munich,  1867;  M6hler,  "Symbolik", 
16,  Mainz,  1890:  "Realencyk.  fQr  prot.  TheoL",  s.  v, 

"Rechtfertigung^O. 

(c)  The  Frotestant  theory  of  non-Imputation. — 
Embarrassed  by  the  fatal  notion  that  original  sin 
wrought  in  man  an  utter  destruction  extending 
even  to  the  annihilation  of  all  moral  freedom  of 
election,  and  that  it  continues  its  existence  even 
in  the  just  man  as  sin  in  the  shape  of  an  inerad- 
icable concupiscence,  Martin  Lutner  and  Calvin 
taught  very  logically  that  a  sinner  i»  justified  by  fidu- 
ciary faith,  in  such  a  way,  however,  tliat  sin  is  not 
absolutely  removed  or  wiped  out,  but  merely  covered 
up  or  not  held  i^iinst  the  sinner.  Accoiding  to  the 
teaching  of  the  Catholic  Church,  however,  in  active 
justification  an  actual  and  real  forgiveness  of  sins 
takes  place  so  that  the  sin  is  really  removed  from  the 
soul,  not  only  original  sin  by  baptism  but  also  mortal 
sin  by  the  sacrament  of  penance  (Trent,  Sess.  V,  can. 
v;  Sees.  VI,  cap.  xiv;  Sess.  XIV,  cap.  ii).  This  view  is 
entirely  consonant  with  the  t^chme  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, for  the  Biblical  expressions:  " plotting  out"  as 
applied  to  sin  (Ps.,  1,  3;  Is.,  xliii,  25;  xliv,  22;  Acts, 
ill  19),  "exhausting"  (Heb.,  ix,  28).  "takmg  away" 
[II  Kines,  xii,  13;  I  Par.,  xxi,  8;  Mich.,  vii,  18;  Ps. 
X  (HebO)  15;  cii,  12],  cannot  be  reconciled  with  the 
idea  of  a  mere  covering  up  of  sin  which  is  supposed  to 
continue  its  existence  in  a  covert  manner.  Other 
Biblical  expressions  are  just  as  ih'econcilable  with 
this  Lutheran  idea,  for  instance,  the  expression  of 
"cleansing"  and  "washing  away" 'the  mire  qf  sin 
(Ps.,  1,  4,  9;  Is.,  i,  18;  Ezech.,  xxxvi,  25;  I  Cor.,  vi, 
11;  Apoc.,  i,  5),  that  of  coming  "from  death  to  life" 
(Col.,  li,  13;  I  John,  iii,  14);  the  removal  from  dark- 
ness to  light  (Eph.j  V,  9).  Especially  these  latter 
expressions  are  significant,  because  they  characterize 
the  justification  as  a  movement  from  one  thing  to  an- 
other which  is  directly  contrarjr  or  opposea  to  the 
thing  from  which  the  movement  is  maoe.  The  oppo- 
sites,  black  and  white,  night  and  day,  darkness  and 
light,  life  and  death,  nave  this  peculiarity,  that  the 
presence  of  one  means  the  extinction  of  its  opposite. 
Just  as  the  sun  dispels  all  darkness,  so  does  the  advent 
of  justifying  grace  drive  away  sin,  which  ceases  from 
that  on  to  nave  an  existence  at  least  in  tlie  ethical 
order  of  thinss,  though  in  the  knowledge  of  God  it 
may  have  a  shadowy  idnd  of  existence  as  someUiing 
which  once  was,  but  has  ceased  to  be.  It  becomes 
intelligible,  therefore,  that  in  him  who  is  justified, 
thoueh  concupiscence  remain,  there  is  "no  condemna- 
tion" (Rom.,  viii,  1) ;  and  whv,  according  to  James  (i, 
14  sqq.),  concupiscence  as  such  is  really  no  sin ;  and  it 
is  apparent  that  St.  Paul  (Rom.,  vii,  17)  is  speaking 
only  figuratively  when  he  calls  concupiscence  sin, 
because  it  sprines  from  sin  and  brings  sin  in  its  train. 
Where  in  the  Bible  the  expressions  " covering  up"  and 
"not  imputing"  sin  occur,  as  for  instance  in  Ps.  xxxi, 
1  sq.,  they  must  be  interpreted  in  accordance  with 
the  Divine  perfections,  for  it  is  repugnant  that  God 
should  declare  any  one  free  from  sin  to  whom  sin  is 
still  actually  cleaving.  It  is  one  of  God's  attributes 
always  to  substantiate  His  declarations ;  if  He  covers 
sin  and  does  not  impute  it,  this  can  only  be  effected  by 
an  utter  extinction  or  blotting  out  of  tne  sin.  Tradi- 
tion also  has  always  taught  this  view  of  the  forgive- 
ness of  sins.     (See  Denifle,  "Die  abendlftndischen 


ORAOE                                 704  ORAOE 

Schriftausle^r  bis  Luther  Qber  justitia  Dei  and  justi-  in  accordance  with  reason.    For  in  a  man  who  is  at 

ficatio '^  Mainz,  1905).  once  sinfiil  and  jxist,  half  holy  and  half  unholy,  we 

(d)  The  Protestant  theory  of  Imputation. — Calvin  cannot  possibly  recognize  a  masterpiece  of  God's  om- 
rested  his  ^eory  with  the  nesative  moment,  holding  nipotence,  but  only  a  wretched  caricature,  the  deform- 
that  justification  ends  with  me  mere  forgiveness  of  ity  of  which  is  exag^rated  all  the  more  by  the  violent 
sin,  in  the  sense  of  not  imputinff  the  sin;  but  other  introduction  of  the  lustice  of  Christ.  The  logical  con- 
Reformers  (Luther  and  Melan<£thon)  demanded  a  sequences  which  follow  from  this  system,  and  which 
positive  moment  as  well,  concerning  the  nature  of  have  been  deduced  bnr  the  Reformers  themselves,  are 
which  there  was  a  very  pronounced  disagreement.  At  indeed  appalling  to  Catholics.  It  would  follow  that, 
the  time  of  Osiander  (d.  1552)  there  were  from  four-  since  the  justice  of  Christ  is  always  and  ever  the  same, 
teen  to  twenty  opinions  on  the  matter,  each  differing  every  person  Justified,  from  the  ordinary  everyday 
from  every  other;  but  they  had  this  in  common  that  person  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Mother  of  God,  would 
they  all  clenied  the  interior  holiness  and  the  inher-  possess  precisely  the  same  justification  and  would 
ent  justification  of  the  Catholic  idea  of  the  process,  nave,  in  degree  and  kind,  the  same  holineSb  and  ius- 
Amonp  the  adherents  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  the  tice.  This  deduction  was  expressly  made  by  Luther. 
foUowmg  view  was  rather  generally  accepted:  The  Can  any  man  of  sound  mind  accept  it?  If  this  be  so, 
person  to  be  justified  seizes  by  means  of  the  fiducianr  then  the  justification  of  children  by  baptism  is  impos- 
faith  the  exterior  justice  of  Christ,  and  therewith  sible,  for,  not  having  come  to  the  age  of  reason,  tney 
covers  hi^  sins;  this  exterior  justice  is  imputed  to  cannot  have  the  fiduciary  faith  wherewith  they  must 
him  as  if  it  were  his  own,  and  he  stands  before  God  as  seize  the  justice  of  Christ  to  cover  up  their  original  sin. 
having  an  outward  justification,  but  in  his  inner  self  Very  logically,  therefore,  the  Anabaptists,  Mennon- 
he  remains  the  same  sinner  as  of  old.  This  exterior,  ites,  and  Baptists  reject  the  validity  of  infant  bap- 
forensic  declaration  of  justification  was  received  with  tism.  It  would  likewise  follow  that  the  justification 
gpat  acclaim  by  the  frenzied,  fanatical  masses  of  that  ac<^uired  by  faith  alone  could  be  forfeited  only  by  infi- 
time,  and  was  given  wide  and  vociferous  expression  in  delity,  a  most  awful  consequence  which  Luther  (De 
the  cry:  "Justitia  Christi  extra  noB*\  Wette,  II.  37)  clothed  in  the  following  words,  though 

The  Catholic  idea  maintains  that  the  formal  cause  he  could  nardly  have  meant  them  senously:   "Pecca 

of  justification  does  not  consist  in  an  exterior  imputa-  fortiter  et  crede  fortius  et  nihil  nocebunt  centum  hom« 

tion  of  the  justice  of  Christ,  but  in  a  real,  interior  icidia  et  mille  stupra."    Luckily  this  inexorable  logic 

sanctification  effected  by  grace,  which  abounds  in  the  falls  powerless  against  the  decency  and  gcxxl  morals  of 

soul  and  makes  it  permanently  holy  before  God  (cf.  the  Lutherans  of  our  time,  and  is,  therefore,  harmless 

Trent,  Sees.  VI,  cap.  yii ;  can.  xi).    Although  the  sin-  now,  though  it  was  not  so  at  the  time  of  the  Peasants' 

ner  is  justified  by  the  justice  of  Christ,  inasmuch  as  the  War  in  the  Reformation. 

Redeemer  has  merited  for  him  the  grace  of  justifica-  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  cap.  vii)  defined  that 
tion  (causa  mmtorta),  nevertheless  he  is  formally  theinherent  justice  is  not  only  the  formal  cause  of  jus- 
justified  and  made  holy  by  his  own  personal  justice  tification,  but  as  well  the  only  formal  cause  (unica 
and  holiness  (causa  fonnalis)^  just  as  a  philosopher  by  fortnalis  causa) ;  this  was  done  as  against  the  heretical 
his  own  inherent  learning  becomes  a  scholar,  not,  how-  teaching  of  the  Reformer  Bucer  (d.  1551),  who  held 
ever,  by  any  exterior  imputation  of  the  wisdom  of  God  that  the  inherent  justice  must  be  supplemented  by 
(Trent,  Sess.  Vl.'can.  x).  To  this  idea  of  inherent  the  imputed  justice  of  Christ.  A  furmer  object  of 
holiness  which  tneologians  call  sanctifying  grace  are  this  decree  was  to  check  the  Catholic  theologian  AI- 
we  safely  conducted  by  the  words  of  Holy  Writ.  bert  Pighius  and  others,  who  seemed  to  doubt  that  the 

To  prove  this  we  may  remark  that  the  word  iusHfi-  inner  justice  could  be  ample  for  justification  without 

care  (Gr.  JacatoOy,  Heb.  JH^  in  Hiphil)  in  the  Bible  may  being  supplemented  by  another  favour  of  God  (favor 

have  a  fourfold  meaning:—  Dei  extemus)  (cf.  Paflavacini,  Hist.  Cone.  Trident-, 

(a)  The  forensic  declaration  of  justice  by  a  tribunal  VIII,  11,  12).    This  decree  was  well-founded,  for  the 

or  court  (cf.  Is.,  v,  23;  Prov.,  xvii,  15).  nature  and  operation  of  justification  are  determined 

(/9)  The  interior  growth  in  holiness  (Apoc,  xxii,  11).  by  the  infusion  of  sanctifying  grace.    In  other  words, 

(y)  As  a  substantive,  justification  the  external  law  without  the  aid  of  other  factors,  sanctifying  grace  in 

(Ps.  cxviii,  8,  and  elsewhere).  itself  possesses  the  power  to  effect  the  destruction  of 

(d)  The  inner,  immanent  sanctification  of  the  sin-  sin  and  the  interior  sanctification  of  the  soul  to  be  jus- 
ner. — Only  this  last  meaning  can  be  intended  where  tified.  For  since  sin  and  grace  are  diametrically  op- 
there  is  mention  of  passing  to  a  new  life  (Eph.,  ii,  5;  posed  to  each  other,  the  mere  advent  of  grace  is  suffi- 
Col.,  ii,  13;  I  John,  iii,  14) ;  renovation  in  spirit  (Eph.,  cient  to  drive  sin  away;  and  thus  erace,  m  its  positive 
iv,  23  sg.) ;  supernatural  likeness  to  God  (Rom.,  viii,  operations,  immediately  brings  about  holiness,  kin- 
29;  II  Cor.,  iii,  18;  II  Pet.,  i,  4);  a  new  creation  (II  ship  of  God,  and  a  renovation  of  spirit,  etc.  From 
Cor.,  y,  17;  Gal.,  yi,  15);  rebirth  in  God  (John,  i!i,  5;  this  it  follows  that  in  the  present  process  of  justifica- 
Tit.,  iii,  5^  James,  i,  18),  etc.,  all  of  which  designations  tion,  the  remission  of  sin,  both  orighiAl  and  mortal,  is 
not  only  imply  a  setting  aside  of  sin,  but  express  as  linked  to  the  infusion  of  sanctifying  f;raoe  as  a  conditio 
well  a  permanent  state  of  holiness.  All  of  these  sine  qud  non,  and  therefore  a  remission  of  sin  without 
terms  express  not  an  aid  to  action,  but  rather  a  form  a  simultaneous  interior  sanctification  is  theologically 

controversy 
^  sin  rests  on 
sical  contrari- 
ogmatik".  II, 
I  ("Die  Myst. 

.        .  sqq.,  Freiburg,  1898). 

28) ;  as  a  participation  in  the  Divine  nature  (II  Pet.,  i,  (2)  The  Nature  of  Sanctifying  Grace.— The  real  na- 

4) ;  the  abiding  seed  in  us  (I  John,  iii,  9),  and  so  on.  ture  of  sanctifying  grace  is,  by  reason  of  its  direct  in- 

As  regards  the  tradition  of  the  Church,  even  Hamack  visibility,  veiled  in  mystery,  so  that  we  can  learn  its 

admits  that  St.  Augustiae  faithfully  reproduces  the  nature  better  by  a  study  of  its  formal  operations  in  the 

teaching  of  St.  Paul.    Hence  the  Council  of  Trent  soul  than  by  a  study  of  the  grace  itseltT    Indissolubly 

need  not  go  back  to  St.  Paul,  but  only  to  St.  Angus-  linked  to  the  nature  of  this  grace  and  to  its  formal 

tine,   for  the  purpose  of  demonstrating  that   the  operations  are  other  manifestations  of  grace  which  are 

Protestant  theory  of  imputation  is  at  once  against  St.  referable  not  to  any  intrinsic  necessity  but  to  the 

Pfud  and  St.  Augustine.  goodness  of  God;  accordingly  three  questions  pressnt 

Moreover,  this  theory  must  be  rejected  as  not  being  Siemselves  for  consideration: 


O&AOE 


705 


ORAOE 


(a)  The  inner  nature  of  sanctifying  grace. 

(b)  ItsTormal  operations. 

(c)  Its  supernatural  retinue. 

(a)  The  Inner  Nature. — (a)  As  we  have  seen  that 
sanctifying  grace  designates  a  grace  producing  a  per- 
manent condition,  it  follows  that  it  must  not  oe  con- 
founded with  a  particular  actual  @^ce  nor  with  a 
series  of  actual  graces,  as  some  ante-Tridentine  theolo- 
gians seem  to  have  held.  This  view  is  confirmed  by 
the  fact  that  the  grace  imparted  to  children  in  bap- 
tism does  not  differ  essentially  from  the  sanctifying 
grace  imparted  to  adults,  an  opinion  which  was  not 
considered  as  altogether  certain  under  Pope  Innocent 
III  (1201),  was  regarded  as  having  a  hign  degree  of 
prolxability  by  Pope  Clement  V  (1311),  and  was  de- 
nned as  certain  b}r  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  V,  can. 
iii-v).  Baptiised  infants  cannot  be  justified  by  the 
use  of  actual  grace,  but  only  by  a  grace  which  effects 
or  produces  a  certain  condition  in  the  recipient.  Is 
this  grace  of  condition  or  state,  as  Peter  Lombard 
(Sent.,  I,  dist.  xvii,  §18)  held,  identical  with  the  Holy 
Spirit,  whom  we  may  call  the  permanent,  uncreated 
grace  {graJtia  increata)?  It  is  quite  impossible.  For 
the  person  of  the  Holy  Ghost  cannot  be  poured  out 
into  our  hearts  (Rom.,  v,  5),  nor  does  it  cleave  to  the 
soul  as  inherent  justice  (Trent,  sess.  VI,  can.  xi),  nor 
can  it  be  increased  by  good  works  Qoc.  cit.,  can.  xxiv), 
and  all  this  is  apart  from  the  fact  that  the  justifying 
grace  in  Holy  Writ  is  expressly  termed  a  "gift  [or 
grace]  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  CActs,  ii,  38;  x,  45),  and  as 
the  abiding  seed  of  God  (I  John,  iii,  9).  From  this  it 
follows  that  the  grace  must  be  as  distinct  from  the 
Holy  Ghost  as  the  gift  from  the  giver  and  the  seed 
from  the  sower;  consequently  the  Holy  Spirit  is  our 
holiness,  not  by  the  holiness  by  which  He  Himself  is 
holy,  but  by  that  holiness  by  which  He  makes  us  holy. 
He  is  not,  therefore,  the  causa  farmaliSf  but  me^y  the 
causa  efjicienSf  of  our  holiness. 

Moreover,  sanctifying  grace  as  an  active  reality, 
and  not  a  merely  external  relation,  must  be  philosoph- 
ically either  substance  or  accident.  Now,  it  is  cer- 
tainly not  a  substance  which  exists  by  itself,  or  apart 
from  the  soul,  therefore  it  is  a  physical  accident  inher- 
ing in  the  soul,  so  that  the  soul  becomes  the  subject  in 
which  grace  inheres;  but  such  an  accident  is  in  meta- 
physics called  quality  (qualiiaSf  woiArris),  therefore 
sanctifying  grace  may  be  philosophically  termed  a 
" permanent, supernatural  quality  of  the  soul",  or, as 
the  Roman  Catechism  (P.  II,  cap.  ii,  de  bap.,  n.  50) 
says,  *'  divina  c|ualitas  in  anim4  inhserens  ". 

03)  Sanctifying  grace  cannot  be  termed  a  habit  (fiab- 
Uus)  with  the  same  precision  as  it  is  called  a  quality. 
Metaphysicians  enumerate  four  kinds  of  quality:  habit 
and  aisposition;  power  and  want  of  power;  nassion 
and  passible  quality,  for  example^  to  blush,  pale  with 
wratn;  form  and  figure  (cf.  Aristotle,  Categ.^  VI). 
Manifestly  sanctifying  grace  must  be  placed  in  the 
first  of  these  four  class^,  namely  habit  or  disposition; 
but  as  dispositions  are  fleeting  things,  and  habit  has  a 
permanency,  theologians  agree  that  sanctifying  grace 
IS  undoubtedly  a  Imbit,  hence  the  name:  Habitual 
Grace  {gratia  habUualis).  HabUus  is  subdivided  into 
habitus  entUaUims  and  habitus  operativus.  A  habitus 
eniitativus  is  a  quality  or  condition  added  to  a  sub- 
stance by  which  condition  or  Quality  the  substance  is 
found  permanently  good  or  baa,  for  mstance:  sickness 
or  health,  beauty,  deformity,  etc.  Habitus  operativus 
is  a  disposition  to  prod«ce  certain  operations  or  acts, 
for  instance,  moderation  or  extravagance;  this  habi- 
tus is  called  either  virtue  or  vice  just  as  the  soul  is  in- 
clined thereby  to  a  moral  good  or  to  a  moral  evil. 
Now,  since  sanctifying  gmce  does  not  of  itself  impart 
any  such  readiness^  celerity,  or  facility  in  action,  we 
must  consider  it  pnmarily  as  a  habitus  eniitativuSf  not 
as  a  htdnttui  operativus.  Therefore,  since  the  popular 
concept  of  hdntus,  which  usually  designates  a  readi- 
ness, does  not  accurately  express  the  idea  of  sancti- 
VI.— 46 


fying  orace,  another  term  is  employed,  i.  e.  a  quality 
after  the  manner  of  a  habit  (qualitas  per  modum  hdb> 
tiu),  and  this  term  ui  applied  with  BeUarmine  (De 
^t.  et  lib.  arbit.,  I,  iii).  Grace,  however,  preserves  an 
inner  relation  to  a  supernatural  activity,  because  it 
does  not  impart  to  the  soiil  the  act  but  rather  the  dis- 
position to  perform  supernatural  and  meritorious  acts; 
therefore  grace  is  remotely  and  mediately  a  disposi- 
tion to  act  {habitus  remote  operativus) .  0^  account  of 
this  and  other  metaphysical  subtleties  the  Council  of 
Trent  has  refrained  from  applying  the  term  habitus  to 
sanctifying  grace. 

In  the  oroer  of  nature  a  distinction  is  made  between 
natural  and  acquired  habits  {habitus  innatus,  and 
habUus  acquisitus),  to  distinguish  between  natural  in- 
stincts, such,  for  instance,  as  are  common  to  the 
brute  creation,  and  acquired  habits  such  as  we  de- 
velop by  practice,  for  instance  skill  in  playing  a  musi- 
cal instrument  etc.  But  grace  is  supernatural,  and 
can  not,  therefore,  be  classed  either  as  a  natural  or  an 
acquired  habit ;  it  can  only  be  received,  accordin^y,  by 
infusion  from  abov^,  therefore  it  is  a  supernatural  in- 
fused habit  {habitus  infusus). 

(7)  If  theologians  could  succeed  in  establishing  the 
identity  sometimes  maintained  between  the  nature  of 
^race  and  charity,  a  great  step  forward  would  be  taken 
m  the  exaxnination  of  the  nature  of  grace,  for  we  are 
more  familiar  with  the  infused  virtue  of  charity  than 
with  the  hidden  mysterious  nature  of  sanctifying 
grace.  For  the  identity  of  grace  and  charity  some  en 
the  older  theologians  have  contended — Peter  Lom- 
bard, Scotus,  Bellarmine.  Lessius,  and  others— declar- 
ing that,  according  to  tne  Bible  and  the  teaching  of 
the  Fathers,  the  process  of  justification  may  be  at 
times  attributable  to  sanctifying  gnace  and  at  other 
times  to  the  virtue  of  chanty.  Similar  effects  de- 
mand a  similar  cause;  therefore  there  exists,  in  this 
view,  merely  a  virtual  distinction  between  the  two, 
inasmuch  as  one  and  the  same  reality  appeara  under 
one  aspect  as  ^race,  and  under  another  as  charity. 
This  similarity  is  confirmed  by  the  further  fact  that 
the  life  or  death  of  the  soul  is  occasioned  respectively 
by  the  presence  in^  or  absence  from,  the  soul  of  char-, 
ity.  Nevertheless,  all  these  arguments  may  tend  to 
establish  a  similarity,  but  do  not  prove  a  case  of  iden- 
tity. Probably  the  correct  view  is  that  which  sees  a 
real  distinction  between  grace  and  charity,  and  this 
view  is  held  by  most  theologians,  including  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  Suarez.  Many  passages  m  Scripture 
and  patrology  and  in  the  enactments  of  synods  con- 
firm this  view.  Often^  indeed,  grace  and  charity  are 
placed  side  by  side,  which  could  not  be  done  without  a 
pleonasm  if  they  were  identical.  Lastly,  sanctifying 
erace  is  a  habitiu  entUativus,  »,nd  theological  chanty  a 
habitus  operativus:  the  former,  namely  sanctifymg 
erace,  being  a  habitus  entitativuSf  informs  and  trans- 
K>rms  the  substance  of  the  soul;  the  latter,  namely 
charity,  bein^  a  habitus  operativus^  supematurally 
informs  and  influences  the  will  (cf.  Ripalda.  "Ut 
ente  sup.'',  disp.  cxxiii;  Billuart,  ^'De  gratis  ,  disp. 
iv,  4). 

(9)  The  climax  of  the  presentation  of  the  nature  of 
sanctifying  grace  is  founa  in  its  character  as  a  partici- 
pation in  the  Divine  nature,  which  in  a  measure  indi- 
cates its  specific  difference.  To  this  imdeniable  fact 
of  the  supernatural  participation  in  the  Divine  nature 
is  our  attention  directed  not  oply  by  the  express 
words  of  Holy  Writ:  ut  eificiamini  dtvince  consortes 
naturcB  (II  Pet.,  i,  4),  but  also  by  the  Biblical  concept 
of  "the  issue  and  birth  from  God",  since  the  begotten 
must  i^ceive  of  the  nature  of  the  progenitor,  thou^  in 
this  case  it  only  holds  in  an  accidental  and  analogical 
sense.  Since  this  same  idea  has  been  found  in  the 
writings  of  the  Fathers,  and  is  incorporated  in  the 
litui^  of  the  Mass,  to  dispute  or  reject  it  would  be 
nothing  short  of  temerity.  It  is  difficult  to  excogitate 
a  manner  {modus)  in  which  this  participation  of  the 


aRAOE 


706 


OaAOE 


Divine  nature  is  effected.  Two  extremes  must  be 
avoided,  so  that  the  truth  will  be  found. 

An  exaggerated  theory  was  taught  by  certain 
m]^ics  and  quietists,  a  theory  not  free  from  panthe- 
ir^ic  taint.  In  this  view  the  soul  is  formally  changed 
into  God,  an  altogether  untenable  and  mipossible 
hypothesis,  since  concupiscence  remains  even  after 
justification,  and  the  presence  of  concui>iscence  is,  of 
couiBe,  absolutely  repugnant  to  the  Divine  nature. 

Another  theory,  held  by  the  Scotists,  teaches  that 
the  participation  is  merely  of  a  moral -juridical  na- 
ture, and  not  in  the  least  a  physical  participation. 
But  since  sanctifying  grace  is  a  physical  acciaent  in 
the  soul,  one  cannot  help  referring  such  participation 
in  the.  Divine  nature  to  a  physical  and  intenor  as- 
similation with  God,  by  virtue  of  which  we  are  per- 
mitted to  share  those  ^oods  of  the  Divine  order  to 
which  God  alone  by  His  own  nature  can  lay  claim. 
In  any  event  the  "participatio  divinse  naturae"  is 
not  in  any  sense  to  be  considered  a  deification,  but 
oi^  a  making  of  the  soul  ''like  unto  God".  To  the 
difficult  question:  Of  which  special  attribute  of  God 
does  this  participation  partake?  theologians  can 
answer  only  by  conjectures.  Manifestly  only  the 
communicable  attributes  can  at  all  be  considered  in  the 
matter,  wherefore  Gonet  (Clyp.  thomist.,  IV,  ii,  x) 
was  clearljr  wrong  when  he  said  that  the  attribute  of 
participation  was  the  aseitas,  absolutely  the  most 
incommunicable  of  all  the  Divine  attnbutes.  Ri- 
palda  (loc.  cit.,  disp.  xx,  sect.  14)  is  probably  nearer 
the  truth  when  he  suggests  Divine  sanctity  as  the 
attribute,  for  the  very  idea  of  sanctifying  grace  brings 
the  sanctity  of  God  into  the  foreground.^ 

The  theory  of  Suarez  (De  grat.,VII,  i,  xxx),  which 
is  also  favoured  by  Scripture  and  the  Fs^thers,  is  per- 
haps the  most  plausible.  In  this  theory  sanctifying 
grace  imparts  to  the  soul  a  participation  in  the  Divine 
spirituality,  which  no  rational  creature  can  bv  its  own 
unaided  powers  penetrate  or  comprehend.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  office  of  grace  to  impart  to  the  soul,  in  a 
supernatural  way,  that  degree  of  spirituality  which  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  gjive  us  an  idea  of  God  and  His 
spirit,  eitner  here  below  in  the  shadows  of  earthly  ex- 
istence, or  there  above  in  the  unveiled  splendour  of 
Heaven.  If  we  were  asked  to  condense  all  that  we 
have  thus  far  been  considering  into  a  definition,  we 
would  formulate  the  following:  Sanctifying  grace  is 
"a  quality  strictly  supernatural,  inherent  in  the  soul 
as  a  hcMius,  by  which  wo  are  made  to  participate  in 
the  divine  nature". 

(b)  Formal  Operations. — Sanctifying  Grace  has  its 
formal  operations,  which  are  fundamentally  nothing 
else  than  the  formal  cause  considered  in  its  various 
moments.  These  operations  are  made  known  by 
Revelation;  therefore  to  children  and  to  the  faithfm 
can  the  splendour  of  grace  best  bepresented  by  a  vivid 
description  of  its  operations.  Tnese  are:  sanctity, 
beauty,  friendship,  and  sonship  of  God. 

(a)  The  Sanctity  of  the  soul,  as  its  first  formal 
operation,  is  contained  in  the  idea  itself  of  sanctifjring 
grace,  inasmuch  as  the  infusion  of  it  makes  the  subject 
holy  and  inaugurates  the  state  or  condition  of  sanctity. 
So  far  it  is,  as  to  its  nature,  a  physical  adornment  of  the 
soul;  it  is  also  a  moral  form  of  sanctification,  which  of 
itself  makes  baptized  children  just  and  holy  in  the 
sight  of  God.  This  first  operation  is  thrown  into  relief 
by  the  fact  that  the  "  new  man",  created  in  justice  and 
holiness  (Eph.,  iv,  24),  was  preceded  by  the  "old 
man"  of  sin,  and  that  grace  changed  the  sinner  into  a 
saint  (Trent,  Sess.  VI,  cap.  vii:  ex  injusto  fit  Justus), 
The  two  moments  of  actual  justification,  nanidly  the 
remission  of  sin  and  the  sanctification,  are  at  the  same 
time  moments  of  habitual  justification,  and  become 
the  formal  operations  of  grace.  The  mere  infusion  of 
the  grace  effects  at  once  the  remission  of  original  and 
mortal  sin,  and  inaugurates  the  condition  or  state  of 
holiness.     (See  Pohle,  Lehrb.  der  Dogm.,  527  sq."^ 


(fi)  Although  the  beauty  of  the  soul  is  not  men- 
tioned by  the  teaching  ofiioe  of  the  Church  as  one  of 
the  operations  of  grace,  nevertheless  the  Roman  Cate- 
chism refers  to  it  (P.  II,  cap.  ii,  de  bap.,  n.  50).^  If  it 
be  permissible  to  understand  by  the  spouse  in  the 
Canticle  of  Canticles  a  symbol  of  the  soul  decked  ir 
grace,  then  all  the  passages  touching  the  ra\'ishing 
beauty  of  the  spouse  may  find  a  fitting  application  to 
the  souL  Hence  it  is  that  the  Fathers  express  the 
supernatural  beauty  of  a  soul  in  grace  by  the  most 
splendid  comparisons  and  figures  of  speech,  for  in- 
stance: "a  clivine  picture"  (Ambrose);  "a  golden 
statue"  (Chrysostom) ;  "a  streaming  light'*  (Basil), 
etc.  Assuming  that,  apart  from  the  material  beauty 
expressed  in  the  fine  arts,  there  exists  a  purely  spir- 
itual beauty,  we  can  safely  state  that  grace,  as  the 
participation  in  the  Divine  nature,  calls  fortii  in  the 
soul  a  physical  reflection  of  the  uncreated  beauty  of. 
God,  which  is  not  to  be  compared  with  the  soul's 
natural  likeness  to  Crod.  We  can  attain  to  a  more 
intimate  idea  of  the  Divine  likeness  in  the  soul  adorned 
with  grace,  if  we  refer  the  picture  not  merely  to  the 
absolute  Divine  nature,  as  theprototype  of  all  beauty, 
but  more  especially  to  the  Trinity  whose  glorious 
nature  is  so  cnsurmingly  mirrored  in  the  soul  by  the  Di- 
vine adoption  and  the  inhabitation  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
(cf .  H.  Krug,  De  pulchritudine  divina,  Freibuiig,  1902 J. 

(7)  The  Friendship  of  God  is,  consequently,  one  of 
the  most  excellent  of  the  effects  of  grace;  Aristotle 
denied  the  possibility  of  such  a  friendship  by  reason  of 
the  great  disparity  between  Crod  and  man.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  man  is,  inasmuch  as  he  is  God's  crear 
ture.  His  servant,  and  by  reason  of  sin  (original  and 
mortal)  he  is  Crod's  enemy.  This  relation  of  service 
and  enmity  is  transformed  by  sanctifyin^g  grace  into 
one  of  friendship  ('Rient,  Sess.  VI,  cap.  vii:  ex  inimico 
amicus).  According  to  the  Scriptural  concept  (Wis., 
vii,  14;  John^  xv,  15)  this  friendship  resembles  a 
mystical  matrimonial  union  between  the  soul  and  its 
Divine  spouse  (Matt.,  ix,  15;  Apoc.,  xix,  7).  Friend- 
ship consists 'in  the  mutual  love  and  esteem  of  two 
persons  based  upon  an  exchange  of  service  or  good 
office  (Aristot.,  "Eth.  Nicom.",  VIII  sq.).  True 
friendship  resting  only  on  virtue  {amicitia  honesta) 
demands  undeniably  a  love  of  benevolence,  which 
seeks  only  the  happiness  and  well-being  of  the  friend, 
whereas  the  friendly  exchange  of  benefits  rests  upon  a 
utilitarian  basis  (amicitia  utilis)  or  one  of  pleasure 
(amicitia  deleciabilis).  which  presupposes  a  selfish 
love;  still  the  benevolent  love  of  friendship  must  be 
mutual,  because  an  unreauited  love  becomes  merely 
one  of  silent  admiration,  wnich  is  not  friendship  by  any 
means.  But  the  strong  bond  of  union  lies  undeiuably 
in  the  fact  of  a  mutual  benefit,  by  reason  of  which 
friend  regards  friend  as  his  other  self  (alter  ego).  Fi- 
nally, between  friends  an  equality  of  position  or  station 
is  demanded,  and  where  this  does  not  exist  an  elevar 
tion  of  the  inferior's  status  (amicitia  excdlentuE).  as, 
for  example,  in  the  case  of  a  friendship  between  a  king 
and  noble  subject.  It  is  easy  to  perceive  that  all 
these  conditions  are  fulfilled  in  the  fnendship  between 
God  and  man  effected  by  grace.  For,  just  as  God  re- 
sards  the  just  man  with  the  pure  love  of  benevolence. 
He  likewise  prepares  him  by  the  infusion  of  theologi- 
cal charity  for  tne  reception  of  a  correspondingly  pure 
and  unselfish  affection.  Aeain,  althoujgh  man's 
knowledge  of  the  love  of  God  is  very  limited,  while 
God's  knowled^  of  love  in  man  is  perfect,  this  con- 
jecture is  sufficient — indeed  in  human  friendships  it 
alone  is  possible — to  form  the  basis  of  a  friendly 
relation.  The  exchange  of  gifts  consists,  on  the  part 
of  God,  in  the  bestowal  of  supernatural  benefits,  on 
the  part  of  man,  in  the  promotion  of  God's  giorv,  and 
partly  in  the  performance  of  works  of  fraternal  char- 
ity. There  is,  indeed,  in  the  first  instance,  a  vast 
difference  in  the  respective  positions  of  Cod  and  man; 
but  by  tbe  infusion  of  grace  man  receives  a  patent  of 


aaACE 


707 


GRACB 


nobility,  and  thus  a  friendship  of  excellency  (amicitta 
excdlerUicE)  is  established  between  God  and  the  just. 
(See  Schiffini,  "De  grati&  divin&",  305  sqq.,  Freiburg, 
1901.) 

(9)  In  the  Divine  filiation  of  the  soul  the  formal 
workincs  of  sanctifying  grace  reach  their  culminating 
point;  by  it  man  is  entitled  to  a  ^are  in  the  patemfd 
inheritance,  which  consists  in  the  beatific  vision. 
This  excellence  of  grace  is  not  only  mentioned  count- 
less times  in  Hol^  Writ  (Rom.,  viii,  15  sq.;  I  John,  iii, 
1  sq.,  etc.),  but  is  included  in  the  Scriptural  idea  of  a 
re~birth  in  God  (cf.  John,  i,  12  sq.;  iii,  5;  Titus,  iii,  5; 
James,  i,  18,  etc.).  Since  this  re-birth  in  God  is  not 
effected  by  a  substantial  issuance  from  the  substance 
of  God,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Son  of  God  or  Logos 
(Chrislus),  but  is  merely  an  analogical  or  accidental 
coming  forth  from  Crod,  our  sonship  of  God  is  only  of 
an  adoptive  kind,  as  we  find  it  expressed  in  Scripture 
(Rom.,  viii,  15;  Gal.,  iv,  5).  This  adoption  was  de- 
fined by  St.  Thomas  (III,  Q.  xxiii,  a.  1) :  peraonce  ex- 
tranem  in  filium  el  heredem  gratuUa  assumptio.  To  the 
nature  of  this  adoption  there  are  four  requisites:  (i) 
the  original  unrelatedness  of  the  adopted  person;  (ii) 
fatherly  love  on  the  part  of  the  adopting  parent  for 
the  person  adopted ;  (iii)  the  absolute  gratuity  of  the 
choice  to  sonship  and  heirship;  (iv)  the  consent  of  the 
adopted  child  to  the  act  of  adoption.  Applying  these 
conditions  to  the  adoption  of  man  by  God,  we  find 
*  that  God's  adoption  exceeds  man's  in  every  point,  for 
the  sinner  is  not  merely  a  stranger  to  God  but  is  as  one 
who  has  cast  off  His  friendship  and  become  an  enemy. 
In  the  case  of  human  adoption  the  mutual  love  is  pre- 
sumed as  existing,  in  the  case  of  God's  adoption  the 
love  of  God  effects  the  requisite  disposition  in  the  soul 
to  be  adopted.  The  ereat  and  unfathomable  love  of 
God  at  once  bestows  tne  adoption  and  the  consequent 
heirship  to  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  the  value  of 
this  inheritance  is  not  diminished  by  the  number  of 
coheirs,  as  in  the  case  of  worldly  inheritance. 

God  does  not  impose  His  favours  upon  any  one. 
therefore  a  consent  is  expected  from  »iult  adopted 
sons  of  Ciod  (Trent,  Sess.  VI,  cap.  vii,  per  volunUvriam 
8uscej)tumem  groHce  et  donorum).  It  is  quite  in  keep- 
ing with  the  excellence  of  the  heavenly  Father  that  He 
should  supply  for  His  children  during  the  pilgrimage 
a  fitting  sustenance  which  will  sustam  the  dignity  of 
their  position,  and  be  to  them  a  pledge  of  resurrection 
and  eternal  life*  and  this  is  the  Bread  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist  (see  Eucharist). 

(c)  The  Supernatural  Retinue. — ^This  expression  is 
derived  from  the  Roman  Catechism  (P.  II.,  c.  i,  n.  51), 
which  teaches:  ''Huic  (gratise  sanctificanti)  additur 
nobilissimus  omnium  virtutum  comitatus".  As  the 
concomitants  of  sanctifying  grace,  these  infused  vir- 
tues are  not  formal  operations,  but  gifts  r^ly  dis- 
tinct from  this  grace,  connected  nevertheless  with  it 
by  a  physicaLor  rather  a  moral,  indissoluble  link — re- 
lationship. Therefipre  the  Council  of  Vienne  (1311) 
speaks  ot  informans  gratia  et  virttUee,  and  the  Council 
of  Trent,  in  a  more  general  way,  of  gratia  et  dona. 
Hie  three  theological  virtues,  the  moral  virtues,  the 
seven  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the  personal  in- 
dwelling of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  soul  are  all  consid- 
ered. The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  c.  vii)  teaches 
that  the  theological  virtues  of  faith,  hope,  and  char- 
ity are  in  the  process  of  justification  infused  into  the 
soul  as  supernatural  habits.  Concerning  the  time  of 
infusion,. it  is  an  article  of  faith  (Sess.  VI,  can.  xi)  that 
the  virtue  of  charity  is  infused  immediately  with  sanc- 
tifying grace,  so  that  throughout  the  whole  term  of 
existence  sanctifying;  grace  and  charity  are  found  as 
inseparable  companions.  Concerning  the  habitus  of 
faith  and  hope,  Suarez  is  of  the  opinion  (as  a^inst  St. 
Thomas  ana  St.  Bonaventure)  that,  assuming  a  fa- 
vourable disposition  in  the  recipient,  they  are  infused 
earlier  in  the  process  of  jxistification.  Universally 
known  is  the  expression  of  St.  Paul  (I  0>r.,  xiii,  13), 


"  And  now  there  remain  faith,  hope,  and  charity,  these 
three:  but  the  ereatest  of  these  is  charity."  Since, 
here,  faith  and  hope  are  placed  on  a-  par  with  charity, 
but  charity  is  considered  as  diffused  in  the  soul  (Rom., 
v,  5),  conveying  thus  the  idea  of  an  infused  habit,  it 
wiU.  be  seen  that  the  doctrineof  the  Church  so  conso- 
nant with  the  teaching  of  the  Fathers  is  also  supported 
by  Scripture.  The  tneological  virtues  have  God  di- 
rectly as  their  formal  object,  but  the  moral  virtues  are 
directed  in  their  exercise  to  created  things  in  their 
moral  relations.  All  the  special  moral  virtues  can  be 
reduced  to  the  four  cardinal  virtues:  prudence  (pru- 
dentia),  justice  (justitia)^  fortitude  (fortitvdo)^  tem- 
perance (temperantia).  The  Church  favours  the  opin- 
ion that  along  with  grace  and  charity  the  four  carcfinal 
virtues  (and,  according  to  many  theologians,  their 
subsidiary  virtues  also)  are  communicated  to  the  souls 
of  the  just  as  supernatural  habitus,  whose  office  it  is  to 
^ve  to  the  intellect  and  the  will,  in  their  moral  rela- 
tions with  created  things,  a  supernatural  direction 
and  inclination.  By  reason  of  tne  opposition  of  the 
Scotists  this  view  enjoys  only  a  degree  of  probability, 
which,  however,  is  supported  by  passives  m  Scripture 
(Pro v.,  viii,  7;  Ezech.,  xi,  19;  II  Pet.,  1,  3  sqq.)  as  well 
as  the  teaching  of  the  Fathers  (Augustine,  Gregory 
the  Great,  and  others).  Some  theologians  add  to  the 
infusion  of  the  theoloeical  and  moral  virtues  also  that 
of  the  seven  gifts  of  tne  Holy  Ghost,  thou^  this  view 
cannot  be  called  anything  more  than  a  mere  opinion. 
There  are  difficulties  in  uie  way  of  the  acceptanoe  of 
this  opinion  which  cannot  be  here  discussed. 

The  article  of  faith  goes  only  to  this  extent,  that 
Christ  as  man  possessed  the  seven  gifts  (cf .  Is.,  xi,  1 
sqq.;  Ixi,  1;  Luke,  iv,  18).  Remembering,  however, 
that  St.  Paul  (Rom.,  viii,  9  sqq.)  considers  Christ,  as 
man,  the  mystical  head  of  mankind,  and  the  august 
exemplar  of  our  own  justification,  we  may  possibly  as- 
sume that  God  gives  m  the  process  of  justification  also 
the  seven  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

The  crowning  point  of  justification  is  found  in  the 
personal  indwelling  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  It  is  the  per- 
fection and  the  supreme  adornment  of  the  justified 
soul.  Adequately  considered,  the  personal  indwelling 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  consists  of  a  twofold  grace,  the 
created  accidental  grace  (gratia  creata  acddenlalis), 
and  the  uncreated  substantial  grace  (gratia  increata 
substanticdis) .    The  former  is  the  basis  and  the  indis- 

S (Usable  assumption  for  the  latter;  for  where  God 
imself  erects  His  throne,  there  must  be  found  a  fit- 
ting and  becoming  adornment.  The  indwelling  of  the 
HoT^  Spirit  in  the  soul  must  not  be  confounded  with 
God's  presence  in  all  created  things,  by  virtue  of  the 
Divine  attribute  of  Omnipresence.  Tne  personal  in- 
dwelling of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  soul  rests  so  securely 
upon  the  teaching  of  Holy  Writ  and  of  the  FatJbers 
that  to  deny  it  would  constitute  a  grave  error.  In 
fact,  St.  Paul  (Rom.,  v,  5)  says:  "  The  charity  of  God  is 
poured  forth  in  our  hearts,  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  is 
given  to  us".  In  this  passage  the  Apostle  distin- 
guishes clearly  between  tne  accidental  g^ttce  of  theo- 
lo^cal  charity  and  the  Person  of  the  Uiver.  From 
this  it  follows  that  the  Holy  Spirit  has  been  given  to  us, 
and  dweUs  within  us  (Rom.,  viii,  11),  so  that  we  reaUy 
become  temples  of  ihe  Holy  Ghost  (I  Cor.,  iii,  16  sq.; 
vi,  19).  Among  all  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  (except- 
ing, perhaps,  St.  Augustine)  it  is  the  Greeks  who  are 
more  especially  noteworthy  for  their  rapturous  utter- 
ances touching  the  infusion  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Note 
the  expressions:  ''The  replenishing  of  the  soul  with 
balsamic  odours",  "a  glow  permeating  the  soul",  "a 
gilding  and  refining  of  the  soul".  Against  the  Pneu- 
matomachians  they  strive  to  prove  me  real  Divinity 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  from  His  indwelling,  maintaining 
that  only  God  can  establish  Himself  in  Uie  soul ;  surely 
no  creature  can  inhabit  any  other  creatures.  But 
clear  and  undeniable  as  the  fact  of  the  indwelling  is, 
equally  difficult  and  perplexing  is  it  in  degree  to 


OKAOfi                               708  OKAOE 

explain  the  method  and  manner  {modua)  of  this  in-  case,  we  must  content  ourselves  with  a  moral  oeiw 

dwelling.  tainty,  which,  of  course,  is  but  warranted  in  the  case 

Theologtans  offer  two  explanations.    The  .greater  of  baptized  children,  and  which,  in  the  case  of  adults, 

number  hold  that  the  indwelling  must  not  be  consid-  diminishes  more  or  less,  just  as  all  the  conditions  of 

ered  a  substantial  information,  nor  a  hypostatic  union,  salvation  are  complied  with — ^not  an  easy  matter  to 

but  that  it  really  means  an  indwelline  of  the  Trinity  determine.    Nevertheless  any  excessive  anxiety  and 

(John,  xiv,  23),  but  is  more  Qpecificafly  appropriated  disturbance  may  be  allayed  (Kom.,  viii,  16, 38  s^.)  by 

to  the  Holy  Ghost  bv  reason  of  His  notional  character  the  subjective  conviction  that  we  are  probably  m  the 

as  the  Hypostatic  Holiness  and  Personal  Love.  state  of  grace. 

Another  small  group  of  theologians   (Petavius,  (b)  Inequality. — ^If  man,  as  the  Protestant  theory 

Scheeben,  Hurter,  etc.),  basing  their  opinion  upon  the  of  justification  teaches,  is  justified  by  faith  alone,  by 

teaching  of  the  Fathers,  especially  the  Greek,  distin-  the  external  justice  of  Christ,  or  God,  the  conclusion 

^uish  between  the  inhabitatio  toHus  TrinUatiSf  and  the  which  Martin  Luther  (Sermo  de  Nat.  Maris)  drew 

mhabUatio  Spiritua  SancH,  and  decide  that  this  latter  must  follow,  namely  that  "we  are  all  equal  to  Mary 

must  be  r^rded  as  a  union  (unto.  Imm^cs)  pertainiiuz  to  tiie  Mother  of  God  and  just  as  holy  as  she  '|.    But  if, 

the  Holy  Ghost  alone,  from  which  the  other  two  Per-  on  the  other  hand,  according  to  the  teaching  of  the 

sons  are  excluded.     It  would  be  difficult,  if  not  im-  Church,  we  are  justified  by  the  justice  and  merits  ot 

possible,  to  reconcile  this  theory,  in  spite  of  its  deep  Christ  in  such  fashion  that  this  becomes  formally  oui 

mystical  sig^ficance,  with  the  recoenized  principles  own  justice  and  holiness,  then  there  must  result  an 

A  the  doctrine  of  ihe  Trinity,  nam^y  the  law  of  ap-  inequality  of  grace  in  individuals,  and  for  two  reasons: 

propriation  und  Divine  mission.    Hence  this  theory  first,  because  according  to  the  eenerosity  of  God  or  the 

IS  almost  universally  rejected  (see  Franzelin,  "  De  Deo  receptive  condition  of  the  soul  an  uneaual  amount  of 

trino  "fthes.  xliii-uviii,  Rome,  1881).  grace  is  infused;  then,  also,  because  the  grace  origi- 

(3)  The  Charaderistics  of  Sanctifying  Grace. — ^The  nally  received  can  be  increased  by  the  performance  of 

Protestant  conception  of  justification  boasts  of  three  good  works  (Trent,  Sess.  VI,  cap.  vd,  can.  xxiv). 

characteristics:  absolute  certainty  (certitudo),  com-  This  possibility  of  increase  in  grace  by  ^ood  works^ 

plete  uniformity  in  all  the  justified  (cBquplitas),  un-  whence  would  follow  its  inequality  in  individuals,  finds 

forfeitableness   (inamisaibUitae).    Acconiing  to   the  its  warrant  in  those  Scriptural  texts  in  which  an  in- 
teaching  of  the  Church,  sanctifying  grace  has  ihe 
poeite  characteristics:  uncertamty  (incertiludo), 

equality  (inasqualUae)^  and  amissibility  (amissibilitas)^    ,  _  ,    - ,     . 

(a)  Uncertainty. — ^The  heretical  doctrine  of  the  Re-  sion,  as  early  as  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  to 
formers,  that  man  by  a  fiduciary  faith  knows  with  defend  the  old  Faith  of  the  Church  against  the  heretic 
absolute  certainty  that  he  is  justined,  received  the  at-  Jovinian,  who  strove  to  introduce  into  the  Church  the 
tention  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  cap.  ix),  in  Stoic  doctrine  of  the  ecjuality  of  all  virtue  and  all  vice, 
one  entire  chapter  (De  tnani  fiduciA  hoareticoruin),  St.  Jerome  (Con.  Jovin.,  II,  xxiii)  was  the  chief  de- 
three  canons  (loc.  cit..  can.  xiii-xv)  condemning  the  -  fender  of  orthodoxy  in  this  instance.  The  Churdi 
necessity,  the  sdl^ea  power,  and  the  function  of  never  recognized  any  other  teaching  than  that  laid 
fiduciary  faith.  The  object  of  the  Church  in  down  by  St.  Augustine  (Tract,  in  Jo.,  vi,  8):  ^''Ipsi 
defining  the  dogma  was  not  to  shatter  the  trust  sancti  in  ecclesiA  sunt  alii  aliis  sanctiores,  alii  auis 
in  Goa  (certUuM)  epet)  in  the  matter  of  personal  meliores."  Indeed,  this  view  should  commend  itself 
salvation,  but  to  repel  the  misleading  assumptions  to  every  thinking  man. 

of  an     unwarranted  certainty  of  salvation  (certi'  The  mcrease  of  grace  is  by  theologians  justly  called 

tvdo  fidei).    In  doing  this  the  Church  is  altogether  a  second  justification  (justificaHo  aecunda),  as  distinct 

obedient  to  the  instruction  of  Holy  Writ,  for,  since  from  the  first  justification  (justificaUo  prima),  which  is 

Scripture  declares  that  we  must  work  out  our  salva-  coupled  with  a  remission  of  sin;  for,  though  there  be 

tion  "with  fear  and  trembling"  (Phil.,  ii,  12),  it  is  im-  in  the  second  justificatibn  no  transit  from  sin  to 

possible  to  reeard  our  individual  salvation  as  some-  grace,  there  is  an  advance  from  grace  to  a  more  perfect 

thinff  fixed  and  certain.    Why  did  St.  Paul  (I  Cor.,  ix,  snaring  therein.    If  inquiry  be  made  as  to  the  mode  of 

27)  chastise  his  body  if  not  afraid  lest,  having  preached  this  increase,  it  can  only  oe  explained  by  the  jAuky- 

to  others,  he  might  himself  ''become  a  castaway"?  sophical  maxim:    "Qualities  are  susceptible  of  in- 

He  says  expressly  (I  Cor.,  iv,  4):  "For  I  am  not  con-  crease  and  decrease";  for  instance,  light  and  heat  by 

sdous  to  myself  of  any  thing,  yet  am  I  not  hereby  jus-  the  varying  degree  of  intensity  increase  or  diminish, 

tified;  but  he  that  judgeth  me^  is  the  Lord."    Tradi-  The  question  is  not  a  theolc^cal  but  a  philosophical 

tion  also  rejects  the  Lutheran  idea  of  certainty  of  jus-  one  to  decide  whether  the  increase  be  effected  oy  an 

tification.    Pope  Gregory  the  Great  Qib.  VII,  ep.  xxv)  addition  of  grade  to  grade  {additio  gradus  ad  gradum)^ 

was  asked  by  a  pious  ladyof  the  court,  named  Gr^ria,  as  most  theologians  believe;  or  whether  it  be  by  a 

to  say  what  was  the  state  of  her  soul.    He  replied  that  deeper  and  firmer  taking  of  root  in  the  soul  (f^J^^ 

she  was  puttins  to  him  a  difficult  and  useless  Question,  radicatio  in  aubjedo),  as  many  Thbmisto  claim.    This 

which  he  could  not  answer,  because  God  had  not  Question  has  a  special  connexion  with  that  ooncenung 

vouchsafed  to  him  any  revelation  concerning  the  state  me  multiplication  of  the  habittuU  act. 

of  her  soul,  and  only  after  her  death  could  she  have  But  the  last  question  that  arises  has  decidedly  a 

any  certain  knowledge  as  to  the  for^veness  of  her  theological  phase,  namely,  can  the  infusion  of  sanctify* 

sins.    No  one  can  be  absolutely  eertam  of  his  or  her  in^  grace  be  increased  infinitely?    Or  is  there  a  limit,  a 

salvation  unless — as  to  Magdalen,  to  the  man  with  pomt  at  which  it  must  be  arrested?    To  mamtain  that 

the  palsy,  or  to  the  penitent  thief — a  special  revela-  the  increase  can  go  on  to  infinity,  i.  e.  that  man  by 

tion  oe  given  (Trent,  Sess.  VI,  can.  xvi).    Nor  can  a  successive  advances  in  holiness  can  finally  enter  into 

theological  certeinty,  any  more  than  an  absolute  cer-  the  possession  of  an  infinite  endowment  involves  a 

tainty  of  belief,  be  claimed  re^rding  the  matter  of  mamfest  contradiction,  for  such  a  grade  is  as  impos- 

salvation,  for  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel  is  strongly  op-  sible  as  an  infinite  temperature  in  physics.    Theoreti- 

posed  to  anythine  like  an  unwarranted  certainty  of  cally,  therefore,  we  can  consider  only  an  increase 

salvation.    Therefore  the  rather  hostile  attitude  to  without  any  real  limit  (in  indefinitum).    Practically, 

the  Gospel  spirit  advanced  by  Ambrosius  Catherinus  however,  two  ideals  of  unattamed  and  unattainable 

(d.  1 553),  in  his  little  work :  "  De  certitudine  gratise ' ',  holiness  have  been  determined ,  which,  nevertheless,  are 

received  such  general  opposition  from  other  theolo-  finite.    The  one  is  the  inconceivably  mat  holiness 

ffians.    Since  no  metaphysical  certainty  can  be  cher-  of  the  human  soul  of  Christ,  the  other  uie  fullness  ci 

ished  in  the  matter  oi  justification  in  any  particular  grace  which  dwelt  in  the  soul  of  the  Virgin  Maiy. 


OKAOE 


709 


OKAOfi 


(c)  Amissibility .— In  consoDanoe  with  his  doctrine  of 
lufftification  by  faith  alone,  Luther  made  the  loss  or 
forfeiture  of  justification  depend  solelv  upon  infidel- 
ity, while  Calvin  maintained  that  the  predestined 
could  not  possibly  lose  their  justification;  as  to  those 
not  predestined,  he  said,  God  merely  aroused  in  them  a 
deceitful  show  of  faith  and  j  ustification.  On  account  of 
the  grave  moral  dangers  which  lurked  in  the  assertion 
that  outside  of  unbelief  there  can  be  no  serious  sin 
destructive  of  Divine  grace  in  the  soul,  the  Council 
of  Trent  was  obliged  to  condemn  (Sess.^  VI,  can. 
xxiii,  xxvii)  both  these  views.  The  lax  principles  of 
"evangelical  liberty",  the  favourite  catchword  of  the 
budding  Reformation,  were  simply  repudiated  (Trent, 
Sess.  VI,  can.  xix-xxi).  But  the  synod  (Sess.  VI, 
cap.  xi)  added  that  not  venial  but  only  mortal  sin 
involved  the  loss  of  grace.  In  this  declaration 
there  was  a  perfect  accord  with  Scripture  and  Tradi- 
tion. Even  in  the  Old  Testament  the  prophet 
Ezechiel  (Ezech.,  xviii,  24)  says  of  the  godless:  ^'All 
his  justices  which  he  hath  done,  shall  not  be  remem- 
bered: in  the  prevarication,  by  which  he  hath  prevar- 
icated, and  in  hid  sin,  which  he  hath  committed,  in 
them  he  shall  die."  Not  in  vain  does  St.  Paul  (I  Cor., 
x^  12)  warn  the  just:  "Wherefore  he  that  thinketh 
himself  to  stand,  let  him  take  heed  lest  he  fall";  and 
state  uncompromisingly:  "The  unjust  shall  not  possess 
the  kingdom  of  GckI  .  .  .  neither  fornicators,  nor 
idolaters,  nor  adulterers  .  .  .  nor  covetous,  nor 
drunkards  .  .  .  shall  possess  the  kin^om  of  God" 
(I  Cor.,  vi,  9  sq.).  Hence  it  is  not  by  mfidelity  alone 
that  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  will  be  lost.  Tradition 
shows  that  the  discipline  of  confessors  in  the  early^ 
Church  proclaims  the  belief  that  grace  and  justifica- 
tion are  lost  by  mortal  sin.  The  principle  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith  alone  is  unknown  to  the  Fathers.  Tlie 
fact  that  mortal  sin  takes  the  soul  out  of  the  state  of 
grace  is  due  to  the  yerjr  nature  of  mortal  sin.  Mortal 
sin  is  an  absolute  turning  away  from  God,  the  super- 
natural end  of  the  soul,  and  is  an  absolute  turning  to 
creatures;  therefore,  habitual  mortal  sin  cannot  exist 
with  habitual  grace  any  more  than  fire  and  water  can 
co-exist  in  the  same  subject.  But  as  venial  sin  does 
not  constitute  such  an  open  rupture  with  God,  and 
does  not  destroy  the  friendship  of  God,  therefore  ve- 
nial sin  does  not  expel  sanctifymg[  grace  from  the  soul. 
Hence,  St.  Augustine  says  (£ie  spir.  et  lit.,  xxviii,  48): 
"  Non  impediunt  a  vit&  cetemA  justum  qusedam  pee- 
cata  venialia,  sine  quibus  hsdc  vita  non  ducitur." 

But  does  venial  sin,  without  extinguishing  grace, 
nevertheless  diminish  it,  just  as  good  works  give  an 
increase  of  gprace?  Den3rs  the  Carthusian  (d.  1471) 
was  of  the  opinion  that  it  does,  though  St.  Thomas  re- 
jects it  (II-U,  Q.  xxiv,  a.  10).  A  gradual  decrease  of 
grace  would  only  be  possible  on  the  supposition  that 
either  a  definite  number  of  venial  sins  amounted  to  a 
mortal  sin,  or  that  the  supplv  of  grace  might  be 
diminished,  grade  by  grade,  down  to  ultimate  ex- 
tinction. The  first  nypothesis  is  contrarv  to  the  na- 
ture of  venial  sin;  the  second  leads  to  the  heretical 
view  that  ^race  may  be  lost  without  the  commission 
of  mortal  sm.  Nevertheless,  venial  sins  have  an  in- 
direct influence  on  the  state  of  grace,  for  they  make  a 
relapse  into  mortal  sin  easy  (cf.  Ecclus.,  xix,  1).  Does 
the  loss  of  sanctifying  grace  bring  with  it  the  forfeit- 
ure of  the  supernatural  retinue  of  infused  virtues? 
Since  the  theological  virtue  of  charity,  though  not 
identical,  nevertheless  is  inseparably  connected  with 
grace,  it  is  clear  that  both  must  stand  or  fall  together, 
hence  the  expressions  "to  fall  from  grace"  and  "to 
lose  charity"  are  equivalent.  It  is  an  article  of  faith 
(Trent,  Sess.  VI,  can.  xxviii,  cap.  xv)  that  theological 
faith  may  survive  the  commission  of  mortal  sin,  and 
can  be  extinguished  only  by  its  diametrical  opposite, 
namelVy  infidelity.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  matter  of 
Church  teaching  that  theological  hope  also  survives 
mortal  sin,  imless  this  hope  should  be  utterly  killed  by 


its  extreme  opposite,  namety  despair,  thou£^  proba- 
bly it  is  not  destroyed  by  its  second  opposite,  prs- 
siunption.  With  regard  to  the  moral  virtues,  the 
seven  pifts  and  the  indwelling  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
which  mvariably  accompany  grace  and  charity,  it  is 
clear  that  when  mortal  sin  enters  into  the  soul  they 
cease  to  exist  (cf.  Suarez,  "De  gratiA",  IX,  3  sqq.J. 
As  to  the  fruits  of  sanctif3ring  grace,  see  Merit. 
.  Gbnbhal  LmRATURB:— St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  I-II.  Q. 
cix-cxiv,  and  his  oommentaton:  Billuabt,  De  gratid,  ed.  Lb- 
QUBTTB  (Paris,  s.  d.).  Ill;  SjLiMJLitncmsBKB,  De  gratid  Dei  in 
Cure,  tKeol,,  IX  sgq.  (Paris,  1870);  Db  Lbmob,  Panoplia  divina  ' 
gratia  (Li^ge,  1676);  Soto,  Denaturd  et  gratid  (Venice,  1560); 
also  Bbllarminb,  Suabbz,  Vabqvbi.  and  particularly  Rxpaiaa, 
De  ente  eupematurali  (3  vols.,  Cologne,  1648).  Among  later 
authors  cf.  Cbrcia,  De  ffratid  Christi  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1879); 
Maublla.  i>e  gratid  Chruli^  3rd  ed.  (Rome,  1882);  Satolu, 
De  gratid  (Rome,  1886);  Scmmsu  De  gratid  divind  (Freiburg. 
1901);  Laboussb,  De  gratid  divind  (Louvain,  1902);  Hbrb- 
MANN,  Traetatue  de  divind  gratid  (Rome,  1904};  L^picibr,  De 
gratid  (Paris,  1907);  van  Noobt,  De  gratid  Chrtali  (Amsterdam, 
1908);  Billot,  De  gratid  Christi  et  libera  ar6t<ru>,  I  (Rome, 
1908);  Tbrribn,  La  grace  et  la  gloire(2  vols.,  Paris,  1897);  von 
SchXclbr,  Natur  und  UebemeUur:  Dae  Dogma  von  der  unade 
(Muns,  1865);  Idbm,  Neue  Untereuehunoen  Hber  doe  Doptna 
von  der  Onade;  Kuhn,  Die  chriatliche  Lmre  von  der  gGttlidien 
Onade  (TQbingen,  1868);  Klbutqbn.  Theologieder  Vorzeit,  2nd 
ed.,  II  (Milnster.  1877).  152  sqq.j:  Oswald,  Die  Lehre  von  der 
Heiligungj_3rd  ed.  (Paderbom,  1885);  Hbinrich-Gutbbrlbt, 
Dogmat.  Theologie,  VIII:  Von  der  Gnade  (Mains,  1897).  See 
also  the  manuals  on  dogmatic  theology,  espedaUy  those  by 
JuNGMANN,  Hubtbb,  Schbbbbn,  Einig,  Simar,  Cbr.  Pbsch. 
Tbpb,  etc.  For  complete  treatment  see  Pohlb,  Ldirbuch  der 
Dogmatik,  4th  ed..  II  (Paderbom,  1909).  329-578;  for  the 
teaching  of  the  Fathers  of  Isaac  Habbrt,  Theol.grweor.  Patrum 
circa  univeraam  materiatn  gratia  (Paris,  1646);  £.  Scholb,  Die 
Lehre  dee  hi.  Baeiliue  von  der  Gnade  (Freiburg,  1881);  HOmmbb, 
Dee  hi.  Oregar  v.  Naziam  Lehre  von  der  Gnade  (Kempten,  1880); 
Wbiol,  Die  HeOatehre  dee  hi.  CwiU  v.  Alix.  (Bfains.  1905). 

Actual  Gbacb: — Palmibri,  De  gratid  divind  actucui  (Qui* 
pen,  1885);  Schbbbbn,  Natur  und  Gnade  (Mains,  1861);  GLoea- 
NBR,  L^re  dee  hi.  Thomas  vom  Wesen  der  Gnade  (Muns,  1871); 
G.  Btoniub,  De  gratia  auxiliis  in  Bbcanub,  Theol.  »cholastiea 
(Rouen,  1658);  Boucat,  Theol,  Patrum  dogmatico-eeholaatieo' 
ponftMi  (Paris,  1718);  Zaocaria,  Dissert,  de  adjutorio  sine  quo 
non  in  Thesaur.  theol.,  V  (Venice.  1762);  Ernst.  Werke  und 
Tugenden  der  Ungldubigen  nach  Auguatintts  (Freirurg,  1871); 
WdRTBR,  Die  Geisteaentwicklung  <us  hi.  Auqua^*nu»  (Pader- 
bom. 1892);  Rottmannbr,  Der  Auaustiniemus  (Munich, 
1892);  WoL,r9(iRVBMB,  Augustinus  (Paderbom,  1898).  Con- 
cerning Jansenism  cf .  Ubchamps,  De  haresi  janfeniand  (Paris, 
1654);  Font  ANA,  Bu22a  "  Uniqenitus**  dogm4U%ce  propugnata 
(Rome,  1717);  Duchbbnb,  Hisloire  du  baianisme  (Douai, 
1731);  LxNBBNMANN,  Michod  Bajus  und  die  Grundlegung  dee 
Jansenismus  (TObingen,  1867);  Schill,  Die  Konstitution 
**  Unigenitus*\  ihre  Veranlasaung  und  ihre  Folgen  (Freiburg, 
1876):  Ingold,  Rome  et  France:  La  seeonde  phase  du  Jansin' 
iame  (Paris,  1901 ).  Gonceming  Pelagianism  and  Semipelagian- 
ism  cf .  WOrtbr,  Der  Pelagianiamus  nadi  seinem  Uraprung  und 
seiner  L^re  (Freiburg,  1874) ;  Klasbn,  Die  innere  Entwieklung 
des  Pelagianiamus  (Freiburg,  1882);  Schwanb,  Dogmeng^ 
aehichte,  2nd  ed.,  II  (Freiburg,  1895).  I|60  sqq.;  H.  Zimmbb, 
Peloffius  in  Irland  (Berlin,  1901);  WioaBRS.  Geachichte  dee 
Semtpdagianiamus  (Hamburg,  1835);  A.  Hoch,  Ldire  des  Joh, 
Casa%an  von  Natur  und  Gnade  (Freiburg,  1895) ;  A.  Koch,  Der 
hi.  Fauatua,  Biachof  von  Riez  (Stuttgart,  1895):  WOrtbr,  Zut 
Dogmengeachichte  des  Semipdagianiamua  (MQnster,  1900); 
MiNOBS,  Die  Gnadenlehre  dea  Duns  Scotua  auf  ihren  angeblidien 
Pdagianiamua  und  Semipelagianiamua  geprHjl  (MQnster,  1906); 
Pasbaglia,  De  partitione  voluntatia  divina  in  primam  et  aecun^ 
dam  (Rome,  1851);  MAsmsB,  De  w^untate  aalvificd  el  pngdea^ 
tinatione  (Louvain,  1883);  A.  Fischbr,  De  aalute  inpddium 
(Essen,  1886);  Buccbroni,  De  auxUio  avfj^cienti  infldelibua 
data  (Rome,  1890);  F.  Schmid,  Die  auaaerorderUlichen  Hens' 
wege  jUr  die  gefallene  Menachheit  (Brixen,  1899). 

SANcrinriNG  Gracb: — A.  Vboa,  Dti  Juatifieatione  doetrina 
univeraa  (Venice,  1548);  Bbllarminb,  De  j'uatificatione  impii, 
ed.  FfevRB,  VI  (Paris,  1873),  149  sqq.;  Bbcanub,  De  gratid 
habituali  (Rouen,  1658);  Katbchthalbr,  De  gratid  aandifieante 
(Saliburg,  1886);  Villada,  De  effectibua  lormalibua  gratia 
halntualia  (Valladolid,  1899);  L.  Hubbrt,  De  gratid  aanctifir 
cante  (Pans,  1902);  Nubbbaum,  Die  Lthre  der  katholiachim 
Kirche  fiber  die  Rechtfertigung  (Munich,  1837);  Bartmann.  St. 
Paulus  und  St.  Jacobus  aber  die  Rechtfertigung  (Freiburg,  1897); 
W.  LiBBB.  Der  heilanotwendige  Glaube.  aein  Begriff  und  Jnhalt 
(Freiburg,  1902);  J.  Wibbbr,  S.  Pault  doetrina  de  i'uatiAcatime 
(Trent,  1874);  Simar,  Theologie  dea  hi.  Paulua,  2nd  ed.  (Frei- 
burg, 1883);  MdHLBR,  Symbolik  (Mains,  1890);  Ad.  Har- 
NACK,  Dogmengeadiichte^  3rd  ed.,  Ill  (Freiburg,  1896);  L. 
Galbt,  La  foi  et  lea  atuvrea  (Montauban,  1902);  Dbnitlb,  Die 
tAendl&ndiachen  Schriftausleger  Hber  justitia  Dei  u.  ptatificatio 
(Mains,  1905);  Krogh-Tonnxng,  Die  Gnadenlehre  wid  die  atillt 
Reformation  (CThristiania,  1894);  A.  Radbmachbr,  Die  nber- 
natQrliche  Lebenaordnung  nach  der  patdiniachen  und  johan' 
neiachen  Theologie  (Freiburg,  1903);  Tbrribn,  La  grdce  el  la 
gioire  ou  la  filiation  adoptive  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1897);  Kirbch- 
KAMP,  Gnade  und  Glorie  in  ihrem  inneren  Zuaammenhang 
(Warsburg.  1877);  Haog,  Die  Reichtamer  der  gotUichen  Gnade 
und  die  Schufert  three  Verluatea  (Ratisbon,  1889):  Schbbbbn, 
Di^  Herrliehkeaen  der  adtUiehen  Gnade,  8th  ed.  (Freiburg.  1908); 


ORAOE 


710 


GRACE  . 


Lahoubsb.  Deviriutibiai  theoloffieia  (Louvain,  1890):  Maszbi«ia, 
X>e  virtutihua  infuaia  (Rome,  1894);  Satollz,  De  habitibua 
(Rome,  1897);  Bouquillon,  De  virltUibua  thecHogicis  (Bruges, 
1890);  ScHirriNi,  De  virtiUiinie  xnfuais  (Freiburg,  1904);  C. 
Weiss,  S.  Thonue  de  septem  donie  dodrina  (Vienna,  1895); 
Oberdorffer,  De  inhabtitUione  SpirUus  S.  in  antmabue  juslo- 
rum  (Toumai,  1890);  B.  Froobt,  De  VinhabUatimi  da  St. 
Esprit  dans  lea  dmes  justea  (PariH^  1901);  De  Bellevue, 
Uauvre  du  St.  BaprU  ou  la  sanclificaiifm  des  dmes  (Paris,  1901); 
Dbharbb,  Die  voUkommene  Ltche  OoUes  (Ratisbon,  1856); 
Marchant,  Die  theol.  Tugenden  (Raiisbon,  1854);  KiR»ni- 
KAM p,  Der  Geiat  dea  Katholidamtta  in  der  Lehre  vom  Otnuhen  und 
wm  der  Litbe  (Paderbom,  1894);  J.  Reglbk,  Die  aioben  Gaben 
.  dea  hi.  Oeiatea  (Ratisbon,  1899). 

J.  POHLE. 

Grace,  Controversies  on. — ^These  are  concerned 
chiefly  with  the  relation  between  grace  and  free  will. 
How  can  the  all-persuasiveness  of  grace,  which  exer- 
cises such  a  potent  influence  on  the  human  will  and 
elicits  therefrom  such  good  works,  reside  harmoni- 
ously in  the  ha.me  subject  with  the  simultaneous  con- 
sent of  the  free  will?  Since  merely  sufficient  grace 
(gratia  mere  suffidena)  in  its  very  concept  contains  the 
idea  of  a  withholding  of  consent  on  the  part  of  free 
will,  and  is  therefore  at  the  very  outset  destined 
to  inefficiency  (gratia  inefficax)^  the  question  in  its  last 
analysis  reduces  itself  to  the  relation  between  free  will 
and  efficacious  erace  (gratia  efficax),  which  contains  the 
very  idea  that  by  it  and  with  it  the  free  will  does  pre- 
cisely that  "which  this  grace  desires  should  be  done. 
The  most  radical  solution  would  be  simply  to  cut  the 
Gordian  knot,  and  with  the  Pelagians  set  aside  super- 
natural grace,  or  with  the  Reformers  and  Jansenists 
banish  entirely. all  free  will.  For  whether  we  boldly 
set  aside  the  first  or  the  second  alternative,  in  either 
case  the  great  problem  of  the  relation  between  grace 
and  free  will  will  have  been  disposed  of,  and  the  great 
4  mystery  solved  in  the  simplest  manner  possible.  For 
if  there  be  no  grace,  why,  then,  all  things  are  accom- 
plished by  the  liberum  arbitrium;  if  there  be  no  free; 
dom,  then  erace  reisns  supreme.  As  against  the 
Pelagians  and  Semipelagians  the  existence  and  neces- 
sity of  efficacious  grace  for  all  meritorious  acts  was 
duly  treated  in  the  article  Grace.  Here  we  propose 
to  defend  briefly  the  preservation  of  free  will  with 
erace  as  against  the  systems  of  the  Reformers  and 
Jansenists,  which  are  hostile  to  free  will. 

I.  Heretical  Solutions. — According  to  Luther's 
theory,  man's  free  will  was  so  impaired  by  original  sin 
that  hke  a  horse  it  could  perform  good  or  bad  acts  only 
as  "it  was  ridden  either  by  God  or  the  devil".  Nor 
did  the  Redemption  by  CJnrist  restore  the  will  as  it 
was  enjoyed  in  Paradise;  therefore  the  will  influenced 
by  grace  must  by  an  interior  necessity  follow  in  all 
tnin^  the  coercion  of  grace.  Of  all  tiie  Reformers, 
Calvin  (Instit.,  lib.  II)  has  given  the  most  consistent 
and  scholarly  theory  of  the  loss  of  free  will  imder 
erace.  He  maintains  that  the  sin  of  Adam  annihi- 
lated the  freedom  of  the  will ;  that  the  Redemption  did 
not  restore  this  primitive  freedom,  though  it  released 
roan  from  the  bondage  of  Satan ;  that,  nowever,  the 
will  influenced  by  grace  does  not  remain  entirely  pas- 
sive, but  preserves  the  spontaneity  of  its  unfree  acts. 
The  later  Lutherans,  as  well  as  those  of  the  present 
time,  scarcely  ever  emphasize  as  harshly  as  their 
master  the  moral  impotence  of  nature  in  tne  domain 
of  ethical  good,  but  the  followers  of  Calvin  still  cling 
stubbornly  to  nis  teaching  (cf.  G.  van  Noort,  "De 
gratia  Christi",  Amsterdam,  1908,  p.  16).  In  opposi- 
tion to  both  sects,  the  CouncU  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  can. 
iv-v)  defined  as  dogma  not  only  the  survival  of  moral 
freedom  in  spite  of  original  sin,  but  also  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  freedom  of  the  will  acted  upon  ana  working 
with  grace,  especially  efficacious  grace. 

The  definition  of  Jansei:  (d.  16^)  is  not  materially 
different  from  that  of  Luther  and  Calvin,  save  only 
that,  in  distinguishing  more  closely  between  freedom 
from  external  coercion  (libertas  a  coactione)  and  free- 
dom from  intrinsic  necessity  (libenaf»  ab  intrinsecA  ne- 
ceasitate),  he  concedes  to  the  will  unde^  ^he  influence  of 


grace  only  the  former  kind  of  liberty,  at  the  same  time 
maintaining  against  all  sound  ethics  that  in  our  fallen 
state  the  mere  freedom  from  external  coercion  is  suffi- 
cient for  merit  and  demerit,  and  that  therefore  the  really 
decisive  freedom  from  intrinsic  necessity  is  not  required. 
In  its  exterior  form  this  system  seeks  to  clothe  itself 
completely  in  Augustinian  attire,  and  to  give  the  im- 
pression that  even  St.  Augustine  taught  unqualified 
Jansenism.  The  system  teaches  that  the  will  of  fallen 
man  sways  like  a  reed  between  two  delights,  the  heav- 
enly delieh  t  of  grace  (delectatio  caUfAia  s.  caritas)  and  the 
earthly  aelight  of  concupiscence  (ddedatio  terrena  «. 
concupisceniia).  Both  are  ever  present  in  man;  like 
hostile  forces,  each  strives  for  tne  mastery,  the  irre- 
sisting  will  being  necessarUy  overcome  by  whichever 
delight  happens  to  be  the  stronger.  If  tne  heavenly 
delight  be  stronser  than  the  opposing  earthly  one,  it 
overcomes  as  efficacious  grace  (gratia  efficaz  s.  magna), 
the  will  with  an  irresistible  impulse  for  good,  fi,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  evil  delight  be  the  stronger,  it 
compels  the  will  to  sin  and  this  in  spite  of  the  likewise 
present  heavenly  delight,  which  as  sufficient  grace 
(gratia  aufficiens  8,  parva)  is  just  too  weak  to  gain  the 
ascendancy  over  the  other.  If  both  these  ddights  are 
exactly  equal  in  strength  so  as  to  maintain  a  perfect 
equilibrium,  then  the  will  remains  trembling  in  the 
balance.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  theory  is  conceived 
in  perfect  accord  with  the  parallelogram  of  forces,  and 
reduces  itself  in  its  last  analysis  to  the  most  extreme 
determinism,  and  absolutely  kills  all  freedom.  Not 
the  conquering  power  of  the  heavenly  delight  (ddeeta- 
tio  cceleatis  victnx),  which  is  emphasized  in  the  Augus- 
tinian system  also,  but  the  idea  that  this  delisht  cannot 
be  resisted  (gratia  irreaiatibilts)  was  branded  as  heresy 
hpr  Innocent  X  on  31  May,  1653  (cf.  Denzinger,  "En- 
chiridion Symbolorum",  ed.Bannwart,  S.J.,  1908,  n. 
1093  and  1095). 

The  sources  of  our  faith  record  a  decided  protest 
against  the  subjugation  of  free  will  by  efficacious  grace. 
For  if  grace,  instep  of  elevating  and  ennobling  free  will, 
subverts  it,  then  all  the  Biblic^  counsels  and  prohibi- 
tions relative  to  the  affairs  of  salvation  which  can  be 
accomplished  only  with  the  help  of  efficacious  grace, 
become  vain  and  meaningless.  Unly  in  the  event  of  the 
will  remaining  free  have  the  words  of  Christ  any  signifi- 
cance :  "  If  thou  wilt  enter  into  life,  keep  the  command- 
ments ' '  (Matt.,  xix,  1 7) .  Saint  Paul  presupposes  the  co- 
operation of  free  will  when  -he  writes  to  nis  disciple 
Timothy : "  Exercise  thyself  (exerce  te  ipsum)  unto  gooli- 
ness  "  (I  Tim.,  iv,  7),  and  again  when  ne  says  generally: 
"  And  every  man  shall  receive  his  own  reward,  according 
to  his  own  labour ' '  (I  Cor.,  iii,  8) .  Tradition,  as  Osdvin 
candidly  admits  (Instit.,  II,  3, 10),  regards  freedom  of 
wUl  and  the  efficacy  of  grace  not  as  antagonistic 
principles,  but  as  harmonious  factors.  like  Jansen, 
nowever,  Calvin  believes  that  he  can  regard  St.  Au- 
gustine as  a  supporter  of  his  heresy.  How  unfounded 
and  mistaken  is  this  claim  has  been  cleariy  demon- 
strated in  the  article  Augustinb,  Saint. 

II.  Catholic  Systems  of  Grace. — ^According  as  the 
theological  examination  of  grace  and  free  wiU  in  its 
efforts  to  demonstrate  the  mutual  relations  between 
the  two  took  as  its  starting-point  respectively  either 
grace  or  free  will,  two  pairs  of  closely  related  systems 
were  evolved:  Thomism  and  Augustinianism,  which 
take  grace  as  the  starting-point,  and  Molinism  and 
Congruism,  which  set  out  from  free  will.  These  are 
the  extremes.  The  middle  eround  is  held  by  Syncre- 
tism, which  may  be  regarded  as  an  eclectic  system 
making  an  effort  at  compromise. 

(1)  Thomism. — ^This  system  rests  upon  thoughts  to 
which  St.  Thomas  him  self  in  his  time  gave  expression. 
It  received  its  most  significant  development  from 
the  subtle  Michael  Tafiez  (1528-1604),  a  Dominican 
gifted  with  a  remarkably  clear  and  acute  mind,  who 
was  the  chief  opponent  of  Molina.  From  the  idea 
that  God  is  the  prmal  cause  (causa  prima)  and  the 


GRACE  711  GRACE 

prime  mover  (motor  primus)  ^  it  is  concluded  that  majestic  structure,  and,  by  inserting  levers  of  criti- 
every  act  and  eveiy  movement  of  the  thoroughly  cism  in  these,  they  believe  they  can  i£ake  the  founda- 
contmgent  secondary  causes  {causce  secundce)  or  crea-  tions  of  the  edifice  and  encompass  its  downfsJl.  We 
lures  must  emanate  from  the  first  cause,  and  that  by  shall  here  confine  ourselves  to  the  four  greatest  objeo- 
the  application  of  their  potentiality  to  the  act.  But  tions  which  Molinism  marshals  against  Thomism. 
God,  respecting  the  nature  of  things,  moves  necessary  The  first  objection  is  the  danger  that  in  the  Thomis- 
agents  to  necessary,  and  free  agents  to  free,  activity —  tic  system  the  freedom  of  the  will  cannot  be  main- 
including  sin,  except  that  God  is  the  originator  only  of  tained  as  a^nst  efficacious  grace,  a  difficulty  which 
its  physical  entity,  not  of  its  formal  mahoe.  Inas-  by  the  way  is  not  unperceived  bv  the  Thomists  them- 
much  as  the  Divine  influence  precedes  all  acts  of  the  selves.  For  since  the  essence  of  freedom  does  not  lie 
creature,  not  in  the  order  of  time,  but  in  that  of  cau-  in  the  contingency  of  the  act  nor  in  the  merely  passive 
sality,  tne  motion  emanating  from  God  and  seconded  indifference  of  the  will,  but  rathk*  in  its  active  indif- 
by  free  intelligent  agents  tfuces  on  the  character  of  a  ference — ^to  will  or  not  to  will,  to  will  this  and  not 
physical  promotion  (prcemotio  pkysica)  of  the  free  that — so  it  appears  impossible  to  reconcile  the  physi- 
acts,  which  may  also  be  called  a  physical  predeter-  cal  predetermination  of  a  particular  act  by  an  a&en 
mination  (prcedeterminatio  pkysica),  tiecause  the  free  will  and  the  active  spontaneousness  of  the  determina- 
determination  of  the  will  is  accomplished  only  by  tion  by  the  will  itself;  nay  more,  they  seem  to  exclude 
virtue  of  the  divine  predetermination.  ea«h  other  as  utterly  as  do  determinism  and  indeter- 

In  this  promotion  or  predetermination  is  also  found  minism,  necessity  and  freedom.    The  Thomists  an- 

the  medium  of  the  Divme  knowledge  by  which  God's  swer  this  objection  by  making  a  distinction  between 

omniscience  foresees  infallibly  all  the  future  acts,  senaua  compositussnd  aensus  divisuSf  but  the  Molinists 

whether  absolute  or  conditional,  of  intelligent  crea-  insist  that  this  distinction  is  not  correctly  applicable 

tures,  and  which  explains  away  at  once  the  undemon-  here.    For  just  as  a  man  who  is  boimd  to  a  cnair  can- 

strable  and  ima^ary  scieniia  media  of  the  Molinists.  not  be  said  to  be  sitting  freely  as  long  as  his  ability  to 

For  just  as  certainly  as  God  in  His  predetermined  do-  stand  is  thwarted  by  mdissoluble  cords,  so  the  will 

crees  knows  His  own  will,  so  certainly  does  He  know  predetermined  by  efficacious  grace  to  a  certain  thing 

all  the  necessarily  included  determinations  of  the  free  cannot  be  said  to  retain  the  power  to  dissent,  espe- 

will  of  creatures,  be  they  of  absolute  or  conditional  cially  since  the  will,  predetermmed  to  this  or  that  act, 

futurity.    Now  if  we  carry  these  philosophical  princi-  has  not  the  option  to  receive  or  disregard  the  premo- 

ples  from  the  domain  of  the  natural  to  the  supemat-  tion,  since  this  dei>ends  simply  and  solely  on  the  will  of 

ural.  then  efficacious  grace  {gratia  efficax)  must  be  re-  God.    And  does  not  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI, 

garaed  as  a  physical  promotion  of  the  supematurally  cap.  v,  can.  iv)  describe  efficacious  grsce  as  a  grace 

equipped  will  to  the  performance  of  a  good  act,  for  rev-  which  man  "  can  reject ",  and  from  which  he  "  can  dis- 

elation  undeniably  refers  back  to  grace  not  only  the  s«^nt"?    Conse(]uently,  the  very  same  grace,  which  de 

possibility,  but  also  the  willing  and  the  actual  per-  facto  is  efficacious,  mi^t  under  other  circumstances 

lormance  of  a  good  act.    But  the  will  predetermined  oe  inefficacious.    Herein  the  second  objection  to  the 

to  this  free  good  act  must  with  a  metaphysical  cer-  Thomistic  distinction  between  grcUia  efficax  and  gratia 

tainty  correspond  with  grace,  for  it  woulcf  be  a  contra-  sufficiens  is  already  indicated.    If  both  graces  are  in 

diction  to  assert  that  the  conaensuSf  brought  about  by  their  nature  and  intrinsically  different,  it  is  difficult  to 

efficacious  grace,  can  at  the  same  time  be  an  actual  see  how  a  grace  can  be  really  sufficient  which  requires 

dissensus.    This  historical  necessity  (necessitaa  canst'  another  grace  to  complete  it.    Hence,  it  would  ap- 

guerUi4E)f  involved  in  every  act  of  freedom  and  distin-  pear  that  the  Thomistic  gratia  sufficiens  is  in  reality  a 

guishable  from  the  compelling  necessity  (necessitas  gratia  insufficiens.    The  Thomists  cannot  well  refer 

consequenlis)f  does  not  destroy  the  freedom  of  the  act.  the  inefficacy  of  this  ^ace  to  the  resistance  of  the  free 

For  although  it  be  true  that  a  man  who  is  freely  sit-  wUl,  for  this  act  of  resistance  must  be  traced  to  a  pra^ 
ting  cannot  at  the  same  time  be  standing  (sensus  com"  moiio  physica  as  inevitable  as  the  efficacious  grace. 
positus),  nevertheless  his  freedom  in  sitting  is  main-  Moreover  a  third  great  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that 
tained  by  the  fact  that  he  might  be  standing  instead  sin,  as  an  act,  demands  the  predetermining  activity  of 
of  sitting  (sensus  divisus),  So  it  remains  true  that  the  ''first  mover",  so  that  God  would  according  to 
grace  is  not  efficacious  because  the  free  will  consents,  this  system  appear  to  be  the  originator  of  sinful  acts, 
but  conversely  the  free  will  consents  because  grace  The  Thomistic  distinction  between  the  entity  of  sin 
efficaciously  premoves  it  to  the  willing  and  i>erform-  and  its  malice  offers  no  solution  of  the  difficulty.  For 
ing  of  a  good  act.  Hence  gratia  efficax  is  intrinsically  since  the  Divine  influence  itself,  which  premoves  ad 
and  by  its  nature  (ab  intrinseco  s.  per  se)  efficacious,  unum,  both  introduces  physically  the  sin  as  an  act  and 
and  consequently  intrinsically  and  essentially  differ-  entity,  and  also,  by  the  simultaneous  withholding  of 
ent  from  sufficient  grace  (gratia  sufficiens),  which  the  opposite  premotion  to  a  ^ood  act,  makes  the  sin 
imparts  only  the  posse^  not  the  agere.  To  make  itself  an  inescapable  fatality,  it  is  not  easy  to  explain 
merely  suffi(nent  grace  efficacious  a  new  supplementary  why  sin  cannot  be  traced  back  to  God  as  the  origina- 
grace  must  needs  be  supplied.  How  then  is  such  a  tor.  Furthermore,  most  sinners  commit  their  mis- 
grace  really  sufficient  (gratia  vere  sufficiens)?  To  this  deeds,  not  with  a  regard  to  the  depravity,  but  for  the 
most  of  the  Thomists  reply:  If  the  free  will  did  not  sake  of  the  physical  entity  of  the  acts,  so  that  ethics 
resist  the  grace  offered,  Gfoa  would  not  hesitate  to  sup-  must,  together  with  the  wickedness,  condemn  the  phys- 
ply  the  efficacious  grace  so  that  the  failure  of  the  grace  ical  entity  of  sin.  The  Molinists  deny  that  this  ob- 
is to  be  referred  to  the  sinful  resistance  of  the  free  will  jection  affects  their  own  system,  when  they  postulate 
(cf.  Limbourg,  S.J.,  "Selbstzeichnung  der  thomisti-  the  concursus  of  God  in  the  sinful  act,  and  help  them- 
schen  Gnademehre"  in  ''Zeitschrift  fUr  kathol.  Theol-  selves  out  of  the  dilemma  by  drawixig  the  distinction 
ogie",  Innsbruck,  1877).  between  the  entity  and  malice  of  sin.  They  say  that  the 

A  survey  of  the  strictly  regulated  uniformity  of  this  Divine  co-operation  is  a  concursus  simtdfaneus,  which 

^stem,  of  the  relentless  and  logical  sequence  of  the  employs  the  co-operating  arm  of  God  only  alter  the 

idea  of  the  causa  prima  and  motor  primus  in  every  nat-  will  by  its  own  free  determination  has  decided  upon 

ural  and  supernatural  activity  of  creatures,  and  lastly  the  commission  of  the  sinful  act,  whereas  the  Tho- 

of  the  lofty  and  resolute  defence  of  the  inalienable  mistic  co-operation  is  essentially  a  concursus  prcevius 

right  of  grace  to  be  considered  the  chief  factor  in  the  which  as  an  inevitable  physical  premotion  predeter- 

anair  of  salvation,  must  instil  into  the  minds  of  im-  mines  the  act  regardless  of  the  fact  whether  the  hu- 

partial  and  dispassionate  students  a  deep  respect  for  man  will  can  resist  or  not.    From  this  consideration 

the  Thomistic  system.     Nevertheless  tne  Molinists  arises  the  fourth  and  last  objection  to  the  claim  of  the 

claim  that  there  are  certain  gaps  and  crevices  in  this  Thomists,  that  they  have  only  apparently  found  in 


OKAOE 


712 


OKAOX 


their  physical  premotion  an  infallible  medium  by 
which  God  Imows  in  advance  with  absolute  certainty 
all  the  free  acts  of  his  creatures,  whether  they  be  good 
or  bad.  For  as  these  premotions,  as  has  been  shown 
above,  must  in  their  last  analysis  be  considered  the 
knell  of  freedom,  they  cannot  well  be  considered  as  the 
means  by  which  God  obtains  a  foreknowledge  of  the 
free  acts  of  rational  aeents.  Consequently  the  claims 
and  proper  place  of  tne  acientia  media  in  the  system 
may  be  regarded  as  vindicated. 

(2)  Auffustinianism. — Just  as  Thomism  appeals 
to  the  teaching  of  St.  Thomas  as  its  authority, 
Augustinianism  appeals  to  St.  Augustine.  Both 
systems  maintain  that  grace  is  intrinsically  and  by  its 
very  nature  efficacious,  but  Augustinianism  claims 
merely  a  proBdeterminatio  moralis,  and  proceeds  not 
from  the  concept  of  God  as  the  first  and  universal 
cause  and  prime  mover,  but  with  Jansen  builds  upon 
the  idea  of  a  twofold  delight  in  human  nature.  The 
exponents  of  this  system  are:  Berti,  Bellelli,  Louis  Ha- 
bert,  Bertieri,  Brancatus  de  Lauria,  and  others.  The 
greatest  defender  of  the  system  is  Laurentius  Berti 
(16%-1766),  wh6  in  his  work  "De  theologicis  dis- 
ciplinis"  (Rome,  1739 — )  propounded  the  theory  with 
such  boldness,  that  the  Archbishop  of  Vienne,  Jean 
d'Yse  de  Salmon,  in  his  work  entitled  "  Le  Bajanisme 
et  le  Jans(6nisme  resuscit^s  dans  les  livres  de  Bellelli  et 
Bertieri''  (s.  1.,  1745),  declares  it  to  be  nothing  other 
than  a  revival  of  Jansenism.  After  an  official  investi- 
gation, however,  Benedict  XIV  exonerated  the  system. 

The  foundation  of  the  system  is  the  same  as  that  of 
Jansenism,  though  it  claims  to  be  thoroughly  Augus- 
tinian.  In  Augustinianism  also  there  is  a  ceaseless 
conflict  betweenthe  heavenly  delight  and  the  evil  de- 
light of  the  flesh,  and  the  stronger  delight  invariably 
gains  the  mastery  over  the  will.  Sufficient  grace,  as  a 
weak  delieht,  imparts  merelv  the  ability  {posse),  or 
such  a  feeble  will  that  only  tne  advent  of  tne  victor- 
ious delight  of  grace  (ddedatio  caslestis  victriXf  cantos) 
can  guarantee  the  will  and  the  actual  deed.  There- 
fore, like  Thomism,  the  system  postulates  an  essential 
difference  between  sufficient  and  efficacious  grace. 
The  necessity  of  gratia  efficaz  does  not  spring  from  the 
subordinate  relation  between  causa  prima  and  causa 
secunda,  but  from  the  inherited  jjerversity  of  fallen 
human  nature,  whose  evil  inclinations  can  no  longer, 
as  once  in  Paradise,  be  overcome  by  the  converting 
grace  (gratia  versatilis;  adjutorium  sine  quo  rum),  but 
only  by  the  intrinsically  efficacious  heavenly  delight 
(gratia  efficax;  adjutorium  quo). 

Augustinianism  differs,  however^  from  Jansenism  in 
its  most  distinctive  feature,  since  it  regards  the  influ- 
ence of  the  victorious  delight  as  not  intrinsically  coer- 
cive, nor  irresistible.  Though  the  will  follows  the  rel- 
ativelv  stronger  influence  of  grace  or  concupiscence 
infallibly  (inJaUibiliter),  it  never  does  so  necessarily 
(necessario).  Although  it  may  be  said  with  infallible 
certainty  that  a  decent  man  of  good  morals  will  not 
walk  through  the  pubhc  streets  in  a  state  of  nuditv,  he 
nevertheless  retains  the  physical  possibility  of  doing 
so,  since  there  is  no  intrinsic  comoulsion  to  the  main- 
tenance of  decency.  Similar  to  this  is  the  efficacy  of 
^race.  We  may  refrain  from  a  criticism  of  Augustin- 
ianism since  it  never  really  became  a  school,  and  since 
it  has  as  little  in  common  with  true  Augustinism,  as 
Jansenism  has.  (Cf.  Schiffini.  "De  gratia  divina'', 
Freiburg,  1901,  p.  422  sqq.;  also  the  article  Augus- 
TiNB,  Saint.) 

(3)  Molinism. — ^The  famous  work  of  the  Jesuit 
Molina,  ''Concordia  liberi  arbitrii  cum  gratis  donis" 
(Lisbon,  1588),  brought  in  Spain  the  learned  Domini- 
can Baflez  to  the  valiant  defence  of  Thomism.  In 
1594  the  dispute  between  the  Tliomists  and  the  Molin- 
ists  reached  a  fever  heat.  Pope  Clement  VIII  in  order 
to  settle  the  dispute  convened  in  Rome  a  Congrepatio 
de  Auxiliis  (1598-1607),  and  to  this  the  Domimcans 
and  the  Jesuits  sent,  at  the  pope's  invitation,  their 


ablest  theologians.  After  the  congregation  had  beea 
in  session  for  nine  years  without  reaching  a  conclusion, 
Paul  V,  at  the  advice  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  per- 
mitted both  systems,  stron^ljr  forbidding  the  Jesuits 
to  call  the  Dominicans  Calvmists,  or  the  I>ominicans 
to  name  the  Jesuits  Pelagians.  Tlie  deliberations  of 
the  congregation  are  fully  set  out  in  the  article  Con- 

OttEGATIO  DE  AUXILUB. 

It  seems  fitting  to  say  a  few  words  here  conoeming 
the  celebrated  Spanish  Jesuit,  Peter  Arrubal,  who  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  controversv  between  the  Domini- 
cans and  the  Jesuits  (from  22  Feb.,  1599,  to  20  March, 
1600)  as  well  as  in  the  disputations  held  before  Clem- 
ent VIII  (1602-1606).  Peter  Arrubal  was  bom  in 
1559  at  Cenioero  in  the  Diocese  of  Calahorra;  he  died 
at  Salamanca  on  22  Sept.,  1608.  On  21  April, 
1579,  he  entered  the^  Jesuit  novitiate  at  Alcaic 
Later  on  he  taught  theology  at  Alcali,  Rome,  and 
Salamanca.  During  the  (Ssputation  on  Grace,  he 
distinguished  himself  by  refutmg  the  Apologia  of  the 
Dominicans,  composed  by  them  against  the  teaching 
of  Molina.  In  tne  pubhc  disputations  held  before 
the  Holy  Father,  he  was  the  leader  of  the  Jesuits. 
Successfully  and  impressively  he  demonstrated  in 
these  disputations  that  the  teaching  of  Molina  was 
altogether  removed  from  Semipelsjgianism,  and  that 
he  TMolina)  merely  tau^t  the  holdings  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  and  in  no  wise  introduced  into  the  Church  any 
new  doctrine.  The  Holy  Father  forbade  the  publica- 
tion of  any  work  on  the  disputed  question  by  reason  of 
the  intense  excitement  then  prevalent,  consequently 
ArrubalVi  great  work  "De  auxiliis  gratise  divins"  re- 
mained unpublished.  But  two  folio  commentaries, 
"In  primam  partem  Sumnue  theol.  S.  Thoms"  (Mad- 
rid, 1619,  1622;  2nd  ed.,  Cologne,  1630),  were  pre- 
pared by  him  and  published  throuj^  the  agency  of  P. 
De  Villegas  and  P.  De  la  Paz,  both  Jesuits.  ^ 

The  fundamental  principles  of  the  Molinistic  system 
of  grace  are  the  following:  efficacious  grace  and  suf- 
ficient grace,  considered  in  actu  primo^  are  not  in 
naturd  and  intrinsically  different  one  from  the  other 
(as  the  Tliomists  hold),  but  only  accidentally  so  and 
according  to  their  external  success,  inasmuch  as  suffi- 
cient grace  becomes  efficacious  just  as  soon  as  the  free 
will  corresponds  with  it.  If  the  will  withholdsits  con- 
sent then  sufficient  grace  remains  inefficacious  and  is 
termed  "merely  sufficient  grace' '  (gralia  mere  sufficiens). 
Now  since  one  and  the  same  gra^  may  in  one  instance 
be  efficacious,  and  in  another  inefficacious,  it  follows 
that  the  so-called  gratia  efficax  must  be  conceived  ac- 
cording to  its  essence  as  ejficax  ab  extrinsico.  In  this 
conception  there  is  no  lessening  of  the  dignity  and  pri- 
ority of  grace.  For  since  the  anticipatory  grace  invests 
the  created  will,  quite  irrespective  of  its  consent  in  adu 
prima,  supematurally  with  moral  and  physical  powers, 
and  since  moreover,  as  a  supernatural  concursus,  it 
influences  the  actus  secundus  or  good  act  and  thus 
becomes  efficacious  grace,  it  follows  that  the  good  act 
itself  is  the  joint  product  of  grace  and  free  will,  or 
rather  more  the  work  of  grace  than  of  free  will.  For 
it  is  not  the  will  which  by  its  free  consent  determines 
the  power  of  grace,  but  conversely  it  is  grace  which 
makes  the  free  good  act  possible,  prepares  for  it  and 
co-operates  in  ite  execution.  Tlie  infallibility  of  the 
success,  which  is  contained  in  the  very  idea  of  effica- 
cious grace,  is  not  to  be  explained  by  the  intrinsic 
nature  of  this  grace,  nor  by  a  supernatural  prcemotio 
phyaica,  but  rather  by  the  Theologoumeium  of  the 
scierUia  media,  by  virtue  of  which  God  foreknows  from 
idl  eternity  whether  this  particular  will  would  freely 
co-operate  with  a  certain  grace  or  not.  But  since 
God  by  virtue  of  His  scientia  media  has  at  His  own 
disposal  all  the  sufficient  and  efficacious  ^raoe,  the 
infallibility  of  the  successful  outcome  remains  in  per- 
fect accord  with  the  freedom  of  the  will,  and  further- 
more the  dogma  concerning  final  peiaeveranoe  and 
predestination  is  entirely  preserved. 


OBAOX  713  O&AOE 

It  is  apparent  that  above  aU  Molinism  is  determined  aU  the  various  phases  of  the  Catholic  doctrineof  mce, 
to  throw  a  wall  of  securit  v  around  the  free  will.  The  it  would  seem  that  the  congruistic  remodelled  Molin- 
Thomists  maintain  that  this  is  done  at  the  expense  of  ism  comes  fairlv  near  the  truth,  because  it  is  intelli- 
graoe.  Instead  of  making  the  free  will  dependent  on  gently  adjustea  between  the  anti-grace  Pelagianism 
the  power  of  grace,  it  is  will  which  freelv  determines  and  Semipelagianism  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  anti- 
the  success  or  failure  of  grace.  Thus  in  tne  last  analy-  free-will  Calvinism  and  Jansenism  on  the  other.  Nev- 
sis  it  is  human  will  whicn  decides  whether  a  partictdar  ertheless  there  are  numerous  critics  who  find  much  to 
grace  shall  prove  efficacious  or  not,  although  revela-  object  to  in  Congruism,  and  who  fail  to  see  in  it  a  clear 
tion  teaches  that  it  is  God,  who  with  His  grace  gives  solution  of  the  problem  of  grace  and  free  will.  They 
both  the  willing  and  the  doing  of  a  good  act.  Even  find  it  difficult  to  believe  that  grace  adjusts  itself 
friends  of  Molina,  notably  Cardinal  Bellarmine  (De  slavishly  to  all  the  ciroumstances  of  the  recipient, 
grat.  et  lib.  arbitr..  I,  12),  saw  the  force  of  this  diffi-  when  the  story  of  many  a  conversion  diows  that  grace 
culty  and  declined  to  follow  the  extreme  Molinism,  simply  lays  hold  of  man  and  without  much  parley 
which,  by  the  way,  was  not  taught  by  Molina.  This  leads  him  whithersoever  it  would  have  him  go.  Thus, 
explains  the  Instruction  issued  by  Claudius  Acquavi ya,  grace  does  not  depend  for  its  efficacy  on  the  con^ruity 
the  General  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  year  1613,  (meeting  of  the  circumstances,  but  conversely  the  coneruity  of 
all  the  teaching  body  of  the  Society  to  lay  increased  the  cireumstances  is  shaped  and  brought  about  by 
stress  on  the  fact  that  efficacious  grace  differe  from  grace.  Like  all  the  other  systems  Congruism  is  forced 
sufficient  grace  not  onlv  ab  extrinseco,  but  also  in  its  to  the  confession:  "  We  are  standing  before  an  im- 
moral (not  its  physical)  nature  even  in  actu  primOf  solved  mystery." 

inasmuch  as  efficacious  grace  being  a  special  joft  of        (5)  Syncretiam, — ^In  the  conviction  that  in  each  of 

God  has  a  higher  moral  value  than  merely  sufficient  the  four  systems  we  have  thus  far  considered  there 

grace,  which  according  to  the  infallible  foreknowledge  must  be  in  spite  of  imperfections  many  ^ins  of  truth, 

of  God  recoils  ineffectively  in  consequence  of  the  the  Syncretic  system  nopes  by  proceedmg  in  an  eclec- 

resistanoe  of  the  will.    Thus  it  remains  true  that  God  tic  manner,  by  adopting  the  eood  points  of  the  various 

Himself  effects  our  good  deeds,  not  that  He  merely  systems  and  eliminating  all  that  is  improbable  and 

supplies  us  with  the  potentiality.  ^  secondary,  to  evolve  another  or  fifth  system.  The  first 

(4)  CongrwUm  is  based  on  an  unessentially  modified  incitement  to  the  creation  of  this  system  came  from 

form  of  Molinism,  than  which  it  is  more  carefully  the  Paris  Sorbonne(Ysambert,Isak,Habert,Duplessis 

worked  out  in  its  details.    It  was  endorsed  by  the  d' Argentic,  Toumely),  whose  views  received  a  certain 

Jesuit  General  Claudius  Acquaviva  (d.  1615)  and  by  consecration  from  the  fact  that  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori, 

his  successors  Muzio  Vitelleschi  (d.  1645)  and  Picco-  the  great  Doctor  of  the  Churoh,  endorsed  them  {"  Op. 

lomini  (d.  1651),  and  was  made  the  official  SYstem  of  dogmat.",  ed.  Walter,  I,  517  sqq.;  II,  707  sqq.). 

the  Society  of  Jesus.    The  system  was  really  origi-  Among  recent  exponents  of  this  system  may  be  men- 

nated  by  Molina  himself,  but  received  its  definitive  tioned:  Godfrey  a  Graun,  Schwetz,  Cardinal  Katsch- 

form  from  the  labours  of  Bellarmine,  Suarez,  Vas-  thaler,  Herrmann.    The  distinguishing  trait  of  the 

quez,  and  Lessius.    It  takes  its  name  from  the  gratia  Syncretic  system  is  found  in  the  acceptance  of  two 

cangrua,  that  is,  a  grace  suited  to  the  circumstances  of  Quite  distinct  sorts  of  efficacious  grace,  namely,  the 

the  case,  which  is  opposed  to  the  gratia  incongrua,  a  (Thomistic-Augustinian)  fratia  ab  itUrinseco  efficax  and 

grace  namely  which  is  not  suited  to  the  ciroumstances  the  (MolinistioH>>ngruistic)  gratia  ab  extrinseco  efficax. 

of  a  certain  case.    Both  of  these  concepts  are  purely  Their  respective  functions  are  so  apportioned,  that  the 

Augustinian,  as  a  reference  to  Augustine  (Ad  Simph-  intrinsically  predetermining  grace  ot  the  Thomists  (i.  e. 

cianiun,  I,  Q.  ii,  n.  13)  wiU  show.  of  the  Ausustinians,  as  e.  g.  in  the  writings  of  St. 

It  is  quite  obvious  that  gratia  cangma  corresponds  Alphonsus  Liguori)  is  employed  in  the  difficmt  works, 

with  emcacious  grace,  and  gratia  tnoongrtui^  with  e.  g.  in  the  patient  endurance  of  ^reat  trials,  in  the 

merely  sufficient  grace.    Accordingly  the  efficacy  of  a  overcoming  of  severe  temptations,  m  the  execution  of 

^raoe  depends  upon  its  pecuhar  agreement  or  congru-  difficult  duties,  etc. — while  on  the  other  hand  the  non- 

ity  with  the  interior  and  exterior  dispK>sition  of  the  predeterminins  grace  of  the  Molinists  is  reserved  for 

recipient,  whereby  a  certain  relationship  of  choice  is  the  less  difficult  good  works,  such  as  a  short  prayer,  a 

estaolished  between  grace  and  free  will,  which  at  the  slight  mortification,  etc.    Both  these  graces  are  given 

hand  of  God  in  the  light  of  His  scientia  media  becomes  by  God  for  the  performance  of  their  respective  Tunc- 

the  infallible  means  of  carryine  out  all  His  designs  of  tions. 

grace  in  great  things  and  small  with  certain  success        Prayer  is  placed  as  a  link  joining  the  two,  and  as  the 

and  without  violence.    Even  a  small  grace,  which  by  proper  and  practically  infallible  means  of  obtaining 

reason  of  its  congruity  is  attended  with  success,  has  an  the  Thomistic  grace  necessary  for  the  performance  of 

incomparably  greater  sanctifying  value  than  ah  ever  tlie  difficult  works  of  salvation.   Who  prays  will  secure 

so  much  more  powerful  grace,  which  by  reason  of  un-  his  eternal  salvation;  who  does  not  pray  will  be  lost 

favourable  circumstances  of  inclination,  training,  and  forever.   If  any  qpe  thing  is  to  be  specially  singled  out 

environment  fails  in  its  purpose,  and  therefore  as  a  for  commendation  in  this  Syncretic  system  of  grace,  it 

gratia  incongnui  appears  to  the  Divine  foreknowledge  is  its  insistence  on  the  fact,  which  cannot  be  too 

asnierely  sufficient.    Concerning  (he  method  of  oper-  strongly  emphasized,  that  prayer  is  our  individual 

ation  of  the  efficacious,  or  the  congruous  pace,  the  duty,  an  absolute  necessity  and  an  infallible  means  in 

Congruists  like  the  Molinists  make  three  divisions:  the  the  attainment  of  our  eternal  salvation.    Our  minds 

efficacy  of  power  (efficacia  virtutis);   the  efficacy  of  cannot  be  too  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  truth  of  the 

union  {efficacia  connexionis) ;  the  efficacy  of  inf alubU-  statement  that  our  present  provision  of  grace  is  essen- 

ity   (efficacia  infaUibUitatia),    The   efficacy   of  the  tially  and  intrinsically  a  magnificent  economy  of 

power  to  will  and  to  do  is  peculiar  to  the  efficacious  prayer.    Even  though  Syncretism  had  performed  no 

and  sufficient  grace,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  derived  neither  other  service  than  the  vigorous  proclamation  of  this 

from  the  human  will  nor  from  the  Divine  foreknowl-  great  truth,  it  alone  were  sufficient  to  rescue  the  sys- 

edge.  tem  from  oblivion.    The  system  has  not,  it  is  true, 

The  efficacy  of  the  union  between  act  and  grace  de-  solved  the  real  problem  of  the  relation  between  grace 

pends  upon  the  free  will,  because  according  to  the  and  free  will.    ()n  the  contrary,  the  linking  together  of 

dogma  efficacious  ^race  is  not  irresistible,  but  can  be  the  two  kinds  of  efficacious  grace  only  increases  the 

rejected  at  any  time.    The  efficacy  of  infallibility  difficulties  found  in  the  other  systems.    Consiequently 

springs  not  from  the  physical  nature  of  grace  but  from  this  system  ends  like  the  othere  in  the  inevitable  con- 

the^  infallible  foreknowledge  of  God  (scierUia  media),  viction  that  we  are  confronted  by  a  great  mystery, 
which  cannot  be  deceived.   After  due  consideration  of        For  leiierml  Utflorature,  see  artiele  Qbacb,  also:  BBLLABioifB, 


GRACE 


714 


GRACE 


DeGrcUid  et  libero  arbtfrio  in  0pp..  ed.  Ftvttx  (Paris,  1873),  V,  VI; 
W6RTEB.  Die  christUcfu  Lekrt  tiber  dot  VerhOUnU  von  Onade 
und  Freiheit  6m  an/  Auouatinua  (Freiburg,  1856).  The  Uterature 
on  ipedal  features  is  so  vast  as  to  be  almost  impossible  of  exam- 
ination.   We  give  here  only  the  leading  works  of  each  system: 

I.  Thomistb. — ^BAftcs,  CtfmmetU.  in  S.  Thorn,  (Salamanca, 
1884 — );  Alvarsx,  Dt  atixiliu  gratia  el  humani  arhitrii  nribut 

iRome,  1612;;  Iobm.  Reapontionum  libri  IV  (Louvain,  1622); 
^BOESMA,  De  diviwB  gratia  auxiliit  (Salamanca,  1611);  Qonbt, 
Clifpetu  theUogia  thomittica  (16  vols.,  Bordeaux.  1659-^9); 
CoNTBNSON,  Tkeologia  menlit  et  cordie  (Lyons,  1673);  Db 
Lbmos,  Panoplia  diviwe  gratia  (4  vols.,  Liege,  1676);  Qon- 
DIN,  De  eeierUid  et  voluntate  Dei  (new  ed..  Louvain,  1874); 
Qom,  Thenlogia  sehotaetieo-dogmatica  jtata  mentem  diti 
Thoma  (Venice,  1750);  Gauanioa,  Tkeologia  dogmatica  in 
eyttema  redaeta  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1776);  Billuabt,  De  gratid 
(ed.  Lequrtb),  III;  Iobm,  Le  Thomittne  triomi^ant  (Fans, 
1725) :  DuMMERMUTH,  S.  Tkoma»  et  dottrina  pramotionie  phy*' 
iea  (Paris,  1886);  Idem,  De/eiMio  doetrina  8.  Thoma  de  vrw- 
motione  TphyeieA  against  Father  Frins,  S.J.  (Paris,  1896);  Man- 
ses, PoetibUitaa  prcrmotionis  pkyaica  thomi»liea  in  aetihua 
liherie  (Fribourg,  1895);  Feloner,  Die  Lehre  dee  hi,  Thomas 
Hber  die  WUlennfreiheit  der  vemUnftigen  Weeen  (Pra^e,  1800); 
Papaqni,  La  mente  di  S,  Tomaso  intomo  alia  monone  divina 
neUe  creature  (Benevento,  1001);  Ude,  Doetrina  Capreoli  de 
influxu  Dei  in  aetua  voluntatie  humana  (Gras,  19()5);  Del 
Prado,  De  gratid  H  libero  >4trbitrio  (3  vols.,  Freiburg  im  Br., 
1907). 

II.  AuonsTiNiANisTB. — NoRisins,  Vindicia  Aumutiniana 
(Padua,  1677);  Bbrti,  De  theUogieie  diecij^inie  (8  vols.,  Rome, 
1739 — );  Bbllelu,  Mene  S,  Augustini  de  modo  reparalionie 
humana  natura  (2  vols.,  Rome,  1773);  TBOifAsaiN,  Mimciree 
eur  la  grdee  (Louvain,  1668). 

III.  MouNiSTS  AND  (IloNaRuiBTB. — MouNA,  Concordia  liheri 
arbUrii  cum  gratia  donie  (Lisbon,  1858;  new  ed.,  Paris,  1876); 
Pl\tbl,  Audoritan  contra  pradeterminationem  phgsicam  pro 
acientid  medid  historice  propugnata  (Lyons,  1665);  Idem,  Seten' 
tia  media  theologice  de/enea  (2  vols..  Lyons,  1674-76);  Db 
Aranoa,  De  Deo  eeientCt  pradeetinante  et  auxilianie  eeu  Schola 
arientia  media  (Saragossa,  1693);  Suabkf,  De  conewrau,  mo- 
tione et  aumlio  Dei  (new  ed.,  Paris,  18.50);  Idbm,  De  auxilio 
eficaci  in  0pp.  (Paris,  1856),  XI;  Iobm,  De  verd  inteUigentid 
auxilii  effioada  in  Opp.  poalhum.,  X,  .\ppend.;  Lbssius,  De 
gratid  efficaci  in  Opuscula,  tom.  II  (Pans,  1878);  Sardaona. 
Tkeologia  dogmatico-polemica  (Ratiflbon,  1771);  Wircb- 
burgensbs  (K11.BBB),  De  gratid  (new  ed.,  Paris,  1853);  MuR- 
R.VT,  De  gratid  (Dublin,  1877) :  Junomann,  De  gratid  (Ratisbon, 
1896) ;  Db  San.  De  Deo  uno,  I :  De  metUe  S,  Thoma  circa  prade- 
terminationea  physicaa  (Louvain,  1894);  .  Frins.  8,  Thoma 
doetrina  de  cooperaiione  Dei  cum  omni  naturd  ereatdt  praaertim 
liberd,  aeu  S.  Thomaa  pradeterminationia  pkyaica  adveraariua 
(Paris,  1890):  Ds  RioNON,  Batiea  et  Molina,  Hiatoire,  Doc- 
trinea.  Critique  mitaphyauiue  (Paris,  1883);  PoHLB.  Lehrbueh 
der  DogmatiA,  II  (Paderbom,  1909),  452-83. 

IV.  SrNCRcnsTs. — Over  and  above  the  works  of  St.  AXiPBON- 
8UB,  the  following  may  be  consulted:  Tournblt,  De  gratid 
(Venice,  1755)-  Herrmann  De  divind  gratid  (Rome,  190i), 
337-501.  Portions  of  the  following  may  be  cited  here:  Pscci, 
8entema  di  S.  Tomaao  circa  Vinfiuaao  di  Dio  auUe  cuione  delle 
creature  ragionevoli  e  euUa  aeienxa  media  (Rome,  1885); 
Adeodatus  (peeudonyin),  J.  Peccia  Schrift  .  .  .  analyaiert 
(Maine,  1888).  For  historical  literature,  see  CoNORBaATiG  de 
Atnciuis. 

J.  POHLE. 

Grace,  Thomas.    See  Sacramento,  Diocese  of. 

Grace,  William  Russel,  philanthropist  and  mer- 
chant, b.  at  Cork,  Ireland,  10  May,  1832;  d.  at  New 
York,  21  March,  1904.  His  father  was  originally  from 
Queen's  County,  where  the  Graces  lived  from  the  days 
of  their  ancestor,  Raymond  I>e  Gros,  who  wei|t  to  Ire- 
land with  Strongbow;  his  mother,  a  Russel  from  Tip- 
perary,  was  a  convert  to  the  Catholic  Faith.  James 
Grace,  his  father,  went  from  Ireland  to  Peru  in  1860, 
but  not  being  successful  there,  returned  to  Ireland, 
while  his  son,  William  Russel,  remained  behind  and  in 
time  became  a  partner  with  the  firm  of  John  Bryoe  at 
Callao.  This  firm  became  Grace  Brothers  &  Co.,  and 
W.  R.  Grace  &  Co.,  with  offices  in  New  York,  San 
Francisco,  and  every  city  of  importance  on  the  west 
coast  of  South  America.  Grace  also  established,  at 
New  York,  The  New  York  and  Pacific  Steamship  Co.. 
and  other  financial  cnt>erprises.  In  1859  he  marriea 
Lilias  Gilchrist  of  Thomaston,  Maine. 

Ho  loft  Peru  in  the  year  1864  and  for  a  time  lived  in 
Brooklyn,  then  in  187S  moved  to  New  York.  At  the 
time  of  the  famine  in  Inland  in  1878  and  1879  his 
firm  contribut<*d  to  the  relief  fund  one-fourth  the  <»argo 
of  provisions  sent  in  tho  steamship  Constellation  for 
the  famine  stricken.  This  fact  and  others  made  him 
so  popular  that  he  was  nominated  for  Mayor  of  New 
York,  and,  in  spite  of  much  opposition  from  bigoted 
ources,  elected  in  1880.    He  was  the  first  Cl&tbolic 


to  hold  that  office.  He  was  re-elected  in  1884  and 
served  a  second  term.  An  attempt  to  induce  him  to 
accept  a  nomination  for  a  third  term  was  made,  but  he 
declmed  to  run. 

A  fact  that  best  shows  the  Christian  character  of  the 
man  is  that  durinjg  his  two  terms  as  mayor  he  went  to 
Mass  every  mormng  in  the  neighbouring  church  of  St. 
Agnes  before  goins  to  official  work.  His  chief  benev- 
olent work  was  tne  foimdation  of  the  Grace  Insti- 
tute in  May,  1897,  which  he  dedicated  to  the  memory 
of  his  parents.  Tlie  object  of  this  institution  was  to 
give  free  tuition  to  women  in  dressmaking,  stenoj^- 
raphy,  tvpewriting,  book-keeping,  and  domestic  sci- 
ence. The  poor  are  also  generally  helped  by  this  in- 
stitution. He  was  prompted  to  founa  and  endow  it 
after  a  stud^r  of  the  economic  conditions  of  workmen's 
families  during  a  strike  among  the  employees  of  one 
of  his  enterprises.  The  institution  is  non-sectarian, 
and  is  under  the  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Cluuity. 

Henbt  A.  Brann. 

Oraco  at  Meals.— In  Apostolic  times  St.  Paul 
counsels  the  faithful:  '*  Whether  you  eat  or  drink,  or 
whatsoever  elseyou  do,  do  all  to  the  glory  of  God  "  (I 
Cor.,  X,  31).  This  precept  did  not.  cease  to  be  ob- 
served. ''Before  taking  nourishment",  says  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  "it  is  fittmg  to  praise  the  Creator  of  all 
things,  and  it  is  fitting  also  to  sing  His  praises  when 
we  take  as  nourishment  the  things  created  by  Him" 
(PfiBd..  II,  iv).  Tertullian,  a  contemporary  of  Clem- 
ent, snows  us  the  Christians  of  the  beginning  of  tiie 
third  century  maJcing  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  taking 
their  places  at  table  (De  cor.  milit.,  iii).  ''Our  re- 
pasts", says  he,  referring  to  the  Agnpe,  "are  in  noth- 
ing vile  or  immodest.  We  do  not  reclme  until  we  have 
prayed  to  God.  In  like  manner  prayer  concludes  the 
feast"  (Apol.,  xxxi).  Christian  archaK)lo^  has  col- 
lected a  large  number  of  cup-bases  on  which  may  be 
read  a  shortprayer,  e.  g.  "Drink  in  Christ",  "Drink 
piously",  "To  the  wortniest  of  friends,  drink  and  live 
with  all  thine  and  in  thy  turn  make  a  toast." 

One  of  the  most  ancient  f ormuls  of  prayer  at  meals 
is  found  in  a  treatise  of  the  fourth  century,  attributed 
without  foundation  to  Saint  Athanasius.  Having 
made  the  sign  of  the  cross,  the  prayer  followed:  "We 
^ve  Thee  thanks,  our  Father,  tor  the  holy  Resurrec- 
tion which  Thou  nast  manifested  to  us  through  Jesus, 
Thy  Son;  and  even  as  this  bread  which  is  here  on  this 
table  was  formerly  scattered  abroad  and  has  been 
made  compact  and  one,  so  may  Thy  Church  be  re- 
united from  the  ends  of  the  earth  for  Thy  Kingdom, 
for  Thine  is  the  power  and  the  ^lory  for  ever  and  ever. 
'Amen."  Apart  from  its  intrinsic  interest  this  formula 
possesses  a  certain  importance  because  it  reproducee 
m  paij  the  formula  of  the  "Didache".  The  prayer 
said  on  rising  from  table  is  a  little  longer:  "The  merci- 
ful and  compassionate  Lord  has  given  nourishment  to 
those  who  fear  Him.  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  to  the 
Son  and  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  now  and  forever  and 
throughout  the  ages.  Almighty  God  and  Our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  whose  name  is  above  all  names,  we  give 
Thee  thanks  and  praise  Thee  because  Thou  hast 
deigned  to  give  us  a  portion  of  Thy  goods  and  nourish- 
ment for  our  body.  We  pray  ana  beseech  Thee  to 
give  us  in  like  maimer  heavenly  nourishment.  Make 
us  fear  and  reverence  Thy  terrible  and  glorious  name, 
and  grant  that  we  may  never  disobey  Thy  precepts. 
Write  in  our  hearts  Thy  law  and  Thy  justice.  Sanc- 
tify our  mind,  our  soul,  and  our  body  through  Thy 
dear  Son,  Jesus  (^hrist  Our  Ixird.  To  Whom  with 
Thee  belongs  glory,  dominion,  honour,  and  adoration 
for  ever  and  ever.    Amen." 

It  is  not  difficult  to  find  examplr^  m  the  writings  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  in  the  collections  of  canons, 
and  in  the  liturgical  books,  notably  in  the  Gelasian  Sac- 
ramentary  and  the  Bobbio  Sacramentary  (Muratori, 
"Liturgia  Romana  vetus",  I,  col.  745;  II,  col.  949). 


ORADISKA 


715 


GRADUAL 


In  the  Roman  Liturgy  the  Benedicite  and  the  Graces 
are  compositions  in  which  Psalms  cxliv  and  xxxiii  are 
utilized,  several  versicles  being  omitted.  From  the 
most  ancient  times  Psalm  xxxiii  has  been  pre-emi- 
nently the  ^Communion  psalm.  At  the  midday  meal 
Ps.  1  IS  recited,  in  the  evening  Ps.  cxvi.  The  origin  of 
these  formulae  is  monastic,  hence  the  pious  commemo- 
ration of  benefactors. 

On  the  chief  hturgical  feasts:  Easter,  Pentecost, 
etc.,  a  selection  of  verses  recalling  the  solemnity  of 
the  day  is  substituted  for  the  formulse  in  use  at 
ordinary  times.    See  also  Thanksgiving. 

ScvoAMORB  in  Did.  Chrut.  Antiq.,  s.  v.',  Cabrol,  La  Prih-e 
cmiiaue,  xxvj  364-309:  von  dbr  Goi/n,  Txaehoebete  und  Abend- 
makUgebele  tn  der  oiiaurisUichen  und  in  der  griechiachen  Kirche 
(Leipsig.  1905). 

H.  Leclebcq. 

Oradiflka.    See  Gdnz,  Diocese  of. 

Orado,  Diocese  of.    See  Aquileia;  Venice. 

Oradual  (Lat.  Graduale,  from  qraduSy  a  step),  in 
English  often  called  Grail,  is  the  oldest  and  most 
important  of  the  four  chants  that  make  up  the  choir's 
part  of  the  Proper  of  the  Mass.  Whereas  the  three 
others  (Introit,  Offertory,  and  Communion)  were 
introduced  later,  to  fill  up  the  time  while  something 
was  being  done,  the  Gradual  (with  its  supplement,  the 
Tract  or  Alleluia)  represents  the  singing  of  psalms 
alternating  with  readings  from  the  Bible,  a  custom 
that  is  as  old  as  these  readings  themselves.  Like 
them,  the  psalms  at  this  place  are  an  inheritance  irom 
the  service  of  the  Synagogue.  Copied  from  that 
service,  sdtemate  readings  and  psalms  filled  up  a  great 
part  of  die  first  half  of  the  Litur^  in  ever^^  part  of  the 
Christian  world  from  the  beginnmg.  Originally  whole 
psalms  were  sung.  In  the  Apostolic  Constitutions" 
they  are  chanted  after  the  lessons  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment: "The  readings  by  the  two  (lectors)  being 
finished,  let  another  one  sine  the  hymns  of  David  and 
the  people  sing  the  last  words  after  him"  (r&  dir6^Tcxa 
^o^aXX/rw,  I  Ij  57) .  This  use  of  whole  psalms  went  on 
till  the  fifth  century.  St.  Augustine  says:  "We  have 
heard  first  the  lesson  from  the  Apostle.  Then  we 
sang  a  psalm.  After  that  the  lesson  of  the  gospel 
showed  us  the  ten  lepers  healed  ..."  (Serm.  clxxvi,  1). 
These  psalms  were  an  essential  part  of  the  Liturgy, 
Quite  as  much  as  the  lessons.  "They  are  sung  for 
tneir  own  sake;  meanwhile  the  celebrants  and  assist- 
ants have  nothing  to  do  but  to  listen  to  them"  (Du- 
chesne, "Origines  du  Culte  chr^tien",  2nd  ed.,  Paris, 
1898,  p.  161).  They  were  sung  in  the  form  of  a  psaU 
mu8  reaponsorius,  that  is  to  say,  the  whole  text  was 
chanted  by.  one  person — a  reader  appointed  for  this 
purpose.  [For  some  time  before  St.  Gregory  I,  to 
sing  these  psalms  was  a  privilege  of  deacons  at  Rome. 
It  was  suppressed  by  him  in  595  (Ibid.).]  The  people 
answered  each  clause  or  verse  bv  some  acclamation. 
In  the  "Apostolic  Constitutions  (above)  they  repeat 
his  last  modulations.  Another  way  was  to  sing  some 
ejaculation  each  time.  An  obvious  model  of  this  was 
Ps.  cxxxv  with  its  refrain:  "quoniam  in  eetemum 
misericordia  eius"^  from  which  we  conclude  that  the 
Jews  too  knew  the  principle  of  the  responsory  psalm. 
We  still  have  a  classical  example  of  it  in  the  Invita- 
torium  of  Matins  (and  the  same  Ps.  xciv  in  the  third 
Nocturaof  the  Epiphany) .  It  appears  that  original  ly , 
while  the  number  of  Biblical  lessons  was  still  indefinite, 
one  psalm  was  sung  after  each.  When  three  lessons 
became  the  normalcustom  (a  Prophecy,  Epistle,  and 
Gospel)  they  were  separated  by  two  psalms.  During 
the  fifth  century  (Duc)iesne,op.cit.,p.  160)  the  le&sons 
at  Rome  were  reduced  to  two;  but  the  psalms  still 
remain  two,  although  both  are  now  joined  together 
between  the  Epistle  and  Gospel,  as  we  shall  see. 
Meanwhile,  as  in  the  case  of  many  parts  of  the  Liturgy, 
the  psalms  were  curtailed,  till  only  fragments  of  them 
were  left.    This  process,  appliecf  to  the  first  of  the 


two,  produced  our  Gradual;  the  second  became  the 
Alleluia  or  Tract. 

I.  The  name  Gradual  comes  from  the  place  where  it 
was  sung.  In  the  First  Roman  Ordo  (10)  it  is  called 
Responsum;  Amalarius  of  Metz  (ninth  century)  calls  it 
CarUus  Reaponsorius;  Isidore  (seventh  century)  Re- 
sponaoriuntf  "quod  uno  canente  chorus  consonando 
respondet"  ("De  Eccl.  Olficiis",  I,  8;  Ordo  Rom.  II, 
7.  Cf .  Mabillon,  "Musaeum  Italic",  II,  9,  note  f).  This 
name  was  also  used,  as  it  still  is,  for  the  chants  after 
the  lessons  at  Matins;  so  the  liturgical  Responsorium 
was  distinguished  later  by  a  special  name.  The 
reader  who  chanted  the  psalm  stood  on  a  higher  place, 
ori^inalljr  on  the  steps  of  the  ambo.  He  was  not  to  so 
right  up  into  the  ambo,  like  the  deacon  who  sang  the 
Gospel,  but  to  stand  on  the  step  from  which  the  sub- 
deacon  had  read  the  Epistle  (Ordo  Roman.  I,  10,  II, 
7:  "he  does  not  go  up  higher,  but  stands  in  the  same 
place  where  the  reader  stood  and  begins  the  Respon- 
sorium alone;  and  all  the  choir  answer  and  he  alone 
sings  the  verse  of  the  Responsorium. "  Cf .  Ordo  Rom. 
Ill,  9,  VI,  5).  Later  in  various  local  churches,  when 
the  ambo  was  disappearing,  other  places  were  chosen, 
but  the  idea  of  a  high  place,  raised  on  steps,  persists. 
At  Reims,  the  steps  of  the  choir  were  usea,  some- 
times a  special  pulpit  was  erected.  Beleth  (twelfth 
century)  says  that  on  ordinary  days  the  cantor  stands 
on  the  altar-6tep«,  on  feasts  on  the  ambo  (Rationale, 
II,  P.  L,,  CCII) ;  Durandus  a  little  later  writes:  "  Dicitur 
Graduale  a  gradibus  altaris,  eo  quod  in  festivis  diebus 
in  gradibus  cantatur"  (Gradual  is  so  called  from  the 
steps  of  the  altar,  on  which  it  was  sung  on  holidays. — 
Rationale,  IV,  19).  There  seems  then  to  be  no 
doubt  that  the  name  comes  from  the  place  where  it 
was  sun^;  Caidinal  Bellarmine's  idea  that  the  gradua 
in  question  are  those  the  deacon  i^  climbins  for  thp 
(]k)spel  while  the  Gradual  is  being  chanted  (De  Mis»&, 
II,  16)  is  a  mistake.  We  have  seen  that  thi^  psalm 
was  not  sung  to  fill  up  time  during  the  procession  to 
the  ambo.  Originally  the  deacon  and  sill  the  minis- 
ters would  wait  till  it  was  over  before  beginning  their 
preparation  for  the  Gospel.  The  older  name  Reapon- 
aonum  lasted,  as  an  alternative,  into  the  Middle  Ages* 
Durandus  uses  it  constantly  and  jgives  a  mystic 
explanation  of  the  word  ("  Responsorium  vero  dicitur 
quia  versui  vel  epistolae  correspondere  debet",  etc., 
loc.  cit.,  i.  e. "  Responsory  is  so  called  because  it  ought 
to  correspond  to  the  verse  or  epistle"). 

It  is  difficult  to  sav  exactly  when  the  Gradual  got  its 
present  form.  We  nave  seen  that  in  St.  Augustine's 
time,  in  Africa,  a  whole  psalm  was  still  sung.  So  also 
St.  John  Chrysostom  alludes  to  whole  psalms  sung 
after  the  lessons  (Hom.  in  Ps.,  cxlv) ;  as  late  as  the 
time  of  St.  Leo  I  (d.  461),  in  Rome  the  psalm  seems 
not  yet  to  have  been  curtailed :  "  Wherefore  we  have 
sung  the  psalm  of  David  with  united  voices,  not  for 
our  honour,  but  for  the  glory  of  CJhrist  the  Lord" 
(Serm.  ii  in  anniv.  assumpt.).  Between  this  time  and 
the  early  Middle  Ages  the  process  of  curtailing  brought 
about  our  present  arrangement. 

II.  Order  of  the  Gradual. — If  we  open  a  Missal, 
at  most  of  the  days  in  the  vear  (the  exceptions  will  be 
described  below),  we  fina  between  the  Epistle  and 
Gospel  a  set  of  verses  with  some  Alleluias  marked 
Graduale,  Although  the  whole  text  follows  this  head- 
iilg,  although  we  usually  speak  of  it  all  as  the  Gradual, 
there  are  here  two  quite  distinct  liturgical  texts, 
namely  the  first  part,  which  is  the  old  psalmua  re- 
apansoriua  (now  ttie  Gradual  in  the  strictly  correct 
sense),  and  the  Alleluia  with  its  verse,  the  Alleluiatic 
verse  {I'ersuH  alhluiaticus) .  We  have  seen  that  these 
two  chants  came,  orieinally,  one  after  each  of  the 
lessons  that  preceded  tlie  Gospel.  Now  that  we  have 
only  one  such  lesson  as  a  rule  (the  Epistle),  the  Gradual 
ana  Alleluiatic  verse  (or  its  substitute)  are  sung  to- 

f ether.    But  there  are  still  cases  of  their  separation. 
Q  Lent,  as  we  shall  see,  the  Alleluia  is  replaced  by  the 


GRADUAL                               716  GRADUAL 

Tract.    A  number  of  Lenten  Masses  that  have  kept  in  gloiy"  (De  Officiis,  I).    So  also  Sicaidus  of  Cre- 

the  old  three  lessons  also  keep  the  old  arrangement,  by  mona:  "Gongrue  quoque  in  Alleluia  jubilamus  [this 

which  t^e  Gradual  follows  the  first,  the  Tract  the  means  singing  the  neum]  ut  mens  illuc  rapiatur  ubi 

second  (e.  g.  Wednesdays  in  the  Lenten  Ember  week  Sancti  exsultabunt  .  .  .  "  (Mitrale,    III,  3,  P.  L., 

and  Holy  Week),  others  (e.  e.  the  E^ber  Saturday)  GCXIII);  Durandus:  "  Est  etiam  Alleluia  modicum  in 

that  have  more  than  three  lessons  have  a  Gradual  sermone  et  multum  in  pneuma,^  quia  gaudium  illud 

after  each  of  the  former  ones  and  a  Tract  after  the  majus  est  auam  poesit  explicari  sermone.    Poeuma 

Epistle.    There  are  again  others  (e.  g.  Tuesday  in  enim  seu  jubilus  qui  fit  in  fine  exprimit  ^udiiun  et 

Holy  Week),  in  which  there  is  no  Tract  at  aU,  but  amorem  credentium",  that  is,  "the  Alleluia  is  short 

only  a  Gradual  after  the  first  lesson.    And  even  when  in  word  and  long  in  neum,  because  that  joy  is  too 

thev  are  sung  together  their  essential  separation  is  ^reat  to  be  expressed  in  words.    For  the  neum  or 

still  marked  by  the  fact  that  they  have  quite  different  jubUua  at  the  end  denotes  the  joy  and  love  of  the 

melodies,  in  different  modes.     Thus,  on  the   first  faithful"  etc.   (Rationale,  IV,  20;   see   the   vihtAe 

Advent  Sunday  the  Gradual  is  in  the  first  and  second  chapter).    Tlie  question  of  the  neum  is  discussed  and 

modes  mixed,  the  Alleluia  in  the  eighth;  the  next  many  authorities  quoted  in  Pothier,  "Les  M^odies 

Sunday  has  a  fifth-mode  Gradual  followed  by  a  first-  Gr^riennes  d'apres  la  tradition"  (Toumai,  1881), 

mode  Alleluia,  and  so  on.    The  Gradual  itself  always  xi,  170-9.    It  should  certainly  never  be  omitted, 

consists  of  two  verses,  generally  from  the  same  psalm^  In  the  case  of  a  figured  Gradual  a  lubOus  in  £gured 

There  are  however  many  cases  of  their  being  taken  from  music  should  be  supplied.    After  the  jubilus  of  thb 

different  psalms;  some,  of  verses  from  other  books  of  second  Alleluia  a  verse  follows.    This  verse  is  by  no 

Scripture  (e.  ^.  those  for  the  Immaculate  Conception  means  so  commonly  taken  from  the  psalms  as  the 

are  from  Judith) ;  and  a  few  in  which  the  text  is  not  verses  of  the  Gradual,  and  there  are  a  great  many 

Scriptural.    The  feast  of  the  Seven  Dolours  has  such  cases,  especially  on  feasts  of  saints,  of  a  fragment  of  a 

verses,  "  Dolorosa  et  lacrymabilis  es  Vii^  Maria"  Christian  poem,  or  other  verse  not  from  the  Bible. 

. . « and  "  Virgo  Dei  Genitrix"  ...  So  also  '%enedicta  On  St.  Lawrence's  feast  (10  AugOi  for  example,  the 

et  venerabilis  es  Virgo  Maria"  for  the  Visitation  Alleluiatic   verse   is:    "Levita    Laurentius    bonum 

(July  2)  and  other  feasts  of  the  B.  V.  M.,  and  the  first  operatus  est,  qui  per  signum  cnicis  cs&cos  illuminavit" 

verse  of  the  Gradual  for  Requiems  ("  Requiem  aeter-  (The  Levite  Lawrence,  who  made  the  blind  see  by  the 

nam  .  .  .  ")•    The  first  of  these  two  verses  keeps  the  si^  of  the  Cross,  worked  a  good  work).    This  AJle* 

old  name  Respanaariumf  the  second  is  marked  V  (for  luiatic  verse  is  a  kind  of  continuation  of  the  jubilus 

versus).    It  may  be  that  the  first  represents  the  former  with  a  text  fitted  to  the  long-drawn  neums.    Tlien  a 

acclamation  of  the  people  Gike  the  Invitatorium  of  thirJ Alleluia,  the  same  as  the  second  with  its  jubilus, 

Matins),  and  that  the  second  is  the  fragment  of  the  ends  the  chant. 

psalm  originally  sung  by  the  lector  (Gihr,  Messopfer,  There  are  two  exceptions  to  this  order.    T^e  first  is 

410;  and  note  4  from  (juyetus,  Heortologia,  Venice,  when  the  Alleluia  is  replaced  by  the  Tract.    Since 

1726).  this  word  be^an  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  special  sign  of 

'  The  second  chaait  is  normally  the  versus  aUeluior  joy,  most  suitable  for  Eastertide,  it  followed,  as  an 

ticus  (in  this  case  the  shorter  one).    The  use  of  the  obvious  corollary,  that  it  should  not  be  sung  in  times 

word  Alleluia  in  the  Litui^  is  also  a  very  old  inherit-  of  penance  or  mourning.    There  is  no  such  idea  in  the 

ance  from  the  Synagogue.    It  became  a  cry  of  joy  East,  where  they  sing  Alleluia  always,  even  in  the 

without  much  reference  to  its  exact  meanine  in  a  Office  for  the  Dead,  as  was  once  done  at  Rome  too 

langua^  no  lon^r  understood  (as  did  ^osonna).    Its  (Atchley,  Ordo  Rom.  I,  78-9).    That  Latins  some- 

Slace  in  the  Litui^  varied  considerably.    In  the  times  avoid  it  was  one  of  their  many  preposterous 

yzantine  Rite  it  comes  as  the  climax  of  the  Cherubic  grievances  at  the  time  of  Cserularius's  schism  (Card. 

Hymn  at  the  Great  Entrance  (Bri^tman,  Eastern  Humbert's  Dialogus,  LVI-LVII,  in  Will,  "Acta  et 

Liturgies,  Oxford,  1896,  p.  379) ;  in  uie/jallican  Rite  Scripta  de  Controv.  Eccl.  Grsecffi  et  Latins",  Leipzig, 

it  was  sung  at  the  Offertory  (Duchesne,  Orisines  du  1861,  pp.  122-3).    In  the  West,  from  Septuagesima  to 

Culte  Chretien,  Paris,  1898,  p.  160,  n.  1).    its  place  Easter  (even  on  feasts),  on  Ember  days,  most  vigils, 

here  before  the  Gospel  is  peculiar  to  the  Roman  Kite,  and  at  Requiems,  the  Alleluiatic  verse  disappears. 

It  appears  that  beiore  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  I  (d.  The  Vigils  in  question  generally  have  only  the  Giudual 

604)  it  was  sung  only  during  Eastertide  (E^.  ix — see  (but  some  have  the  Al&luia,  e.  g.  the  eves  of  Ep^hany 

Duchesne,  loc.  cit.;  Atchley,  Ordo  Rom.  I,  78-9).  Ascension,   Whitsunday).    On  the  other  days  the 

Sozomen  goes  further:  ''At  Rome,  Alleluia  is  sung  Gradual  is  followed  by  the  Tract.    The  Tract  ((riacfu«) 

once  a  year,  on  the  first  day  of  the  Paschal  feast,  so  is  the  second  psalm  sung  between  the  lessons,  which, 

that  many  Romans  use  this  oath :  may  they  hear  and  although  later  displaced  oy  the  Alleluia  on  most  days, 

sin^  that  hymni"  (Hist.  Eccl.,  VII,  xix).    This  con-  has  kept  its  place  here.     We  find  it  as  an  alternative 

nexion  with  Easter  (unknown  in  the  East)  afterwards  to  the  Alleluia  in  the  First  Roman  Ordo:  "Post^uam 

led  to  additional  Alleluias  being  scattered  throughout  legerit  cantor  cum  cantatorio  adsoendit  et  dicit  re- 

the  Mass   in  Eastertide  (at  the  Introit^  Offertory,  sponsum.    Ac  deinde  per  alium  cantorem,  si  fuerit 

Communion,  etc.) ;  but  its  old  and  essential  place  for  tempus  ut  dicatur  Alleluia,  concinitur,  sin  autem  trac- 

the  normal  Liturgy  is  here,  where  it  has  aisplaoed  tum.sinminustantummoaoresponsumcantatur",  i.e. 

the  former  seconcTpsa^mtM  responsorius.    It  will  be  ''After  the  reading  (of  the  Epistle)  the  cantor  ascends 

noticed  that  the  three  great  Alleluias  that  usher  in  with  his  book  and  chants  the  Response.    'nien,if  itbe 

Easter  on  Holy  Saturday  come  here  in  the  place  of  the  proper  season,  another  cantor  chants  the  Allduia; 

the  Gradual.     The  chant  consists  of  two  Alleluias  but  if  tne  Alleluia  have  to  be  omitted  [i.  e.  in  times  of 

sung  to  exactly  the  same  melody.    At  the  end  of  penance]  the  Tract  or  at  times  [as stOl  on  v^ils]  only  tiie 

the  second  one  its  last  sound  (a)  is  continued  in  a  Response  is  sung"  (ed.  Atchley,  London,  1905,  p.  130, 

Ions  and  complicated  neum.     This  musical  phrase  supplemented  by  Ordo  Rom. III).  The  name  "Tract", 

(cafied  variously  neumOf  jubilation  jubilus^  cantilena)  is  Psatmus  tractu^,  was  dven  to  it,  because  it  was  sunjg 

a  very  old  and  essential  element  of  the  Alleluia.    A  straight  througn  without  any  answer  by  the  choir 

great  number  of  medieval  commentators  insist  on  it,  {in  una  tractu).     This  was  the  special  note  of  the 

and  explain  it  by  various  mystic  reasons.  For  instance  second  psalm,  that  distinguished  it  from  the  first 

Rupert  of  Deutz   (Rui)ertus  Tuitiensis,  O.  S.  B.,  psalmus  responsorius  (AmSarius  of  Mets,  De  eccl. 

twelfth  oentui7):'^e  rejoice  rather  than  sing  (jubila-  ofiic,  III,  12;  Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  108).    Later  authors 

mus  magis  c[uam  canimus) . . .  and  prolong  the  neums.  explain  the  word  incorrectly  as  describing  the  slow 

that  the  mmd  be  surprised  and  filled  with  the  joyful  and  mournful  way  in  which  it  was  sung  ("  a  trahendo, 

sound,  and  be  carried  thither  where  the  saints  rejoice  quia  lente  et  lugubriter  cantatur",  '^from  trakendot 


GRADUAL 


717 


OftADUAL 


because  it  is  sungslowly  and  mournfully". — De  Carpo, 
"Bibl.  liturg.",  Pt.  I,  a.  2,  quoted  by  Gihr,  op.  cit., 
416).  Durandus  gives  this,  with  other  symbolic 
reasons,  for  the  name : "  It  is  cisdled  tract  from  trahendo 
because  it  is  simg  drawn  out  {miia  tractum  caniiur)  and 
with  a  harshness  of  voice  and  length  of  words;  since  it 
implies  the  misery  and  labour  of  our  present  life" 
(Rationale,  IV,  21.  See  the  whole  chapter).  The 
text  of  the  "Ordo  Rom.  I"  quoted  above  shows  that 
it  was  sung  from  the  steps  of  the  ambo,  like  the 
Gradual.  We  have  still  a  few  Masses  in  which  the 
Pmltnus  tractus  has  kept  its  original  nature  as  a  whole 
psalm.  On  the  first  Sunday  of  Lent  it  is  Ps.  xc;  on 
Palm  Sunday,  Ps.  xxi;  on  Good  Friday,  Ps.  cxxxix. 
Otherwise  the  Tract  too  has  been  shortened  to  two  or 
three  verses.  It  is  nearly  always  taken  from  Script- 
ure, but  not  seldom  from  other  books  than  the  Psal- 
ter; verses  from  various  psalms  or  other  texts  often 
follow  one  another,  connected  only  by  the  common 
idea  that  runs  through  them.  Mondays,  Wednesdays, 
and  Fridays  in  Lent  are  the  old  ferice  Uqiiimce^  me 
official  days  of  penance,  that  still  keep  oertam  peculiar- 
ities (in  choir,  on  these  days,  the  Office  for  the  Dead, 
the  penitential  and  gradual  psalms  are  said).  Except 
on  Wednesday  inHoly  Week  they  have  the  same  Tract, 
a  prayer  for  forgiveness  from  Ps.  cii  and  Ixxviii.  All 
feasts  that  may  come  between  Septuagesima  and 
Easter  and  all  common  and  votive  Masses  have  a 
Tract,  to  be  used  in  that  time.  Good  Friday  has  two 
Tracts,  one  after  the  Prophecy  and  one  after  the  lesson 
from  Exodus  that  takes  the  ^ace  of  the  Epistle;  it 
has  no  Gradual.  The  first  Easter  Mass  on  Holy 
Saturdf^,  among  many  other  peculiarities,  keeps  so 
much  of  the  nature  of  a  Lenten  vijeil  that  it  has,  after 
the  great  Alleluia  and  its  verse^  a  Iract.  On  Whitsun 
eye  the  characters  of  Eastertide  and  a  vigil  are  com- 
bined. It  has  no  Gradual,  but  first  an  Alleluia,  then  a 
Tract.  It  will  be  noticed  that  each  verse  in  the  Tracts 
is  marked  V.  This  calls  attention  to  the  nature  of  the 
old  psalmus  tractus  that  was  sung  straight  through  by 
the  cantor.    There  are  no  responses  for  the  choir. 

The  second  exception  to  the  usual  order  is  in  Easter- 
tide (from  the  first  Easter  Mass  to  the  Saturday  after 
Pentecost).  During  this  time  the  great  Alleluia  is 
8un^ ;  it  has  displaced  the  Gradual  altogether.  "  Rightly 
during  the  fifty  days  in  memory  of  this  our  most  peace- 
ful and  happy  deed^  we  are  accustomed  to  sing  Alleluia 
oftener  ana  more  joyfully"  (St.  Bede,  II  nom.,  x). 
All  exception  in  this  season  is  the  Easter  octave. 
The  greatest  feasts  have  always  kept  older  arran^ 
ments,  so  on  Easter  Day  and  till  the  Friday  followmg 
the  normal  Gradual  followed  by  the  Alleluiatic  verse 
(and  a  sequence)  has  remainea.  From  White  Satur- 
day to  the  end  of  paschal  time,  including  all  feasts, 
instead  of  these  two  separate  chants,  one,  the  great 
Alleluia,  is  substituted.  Two  Alleluias  are  sung  first 
as  a  sort  of  antiphpnj  the  second  has  a  jubilus.  Two 
verses  follow,  each  with  an  Alleluia  and  jubilus  at  the 
end.  These  last  two  Alleluias  have  the  same  melody, 
different  from  that  of  the  first  two.  The  verses  are 
taken  from  all  parts  of  the  Bible,  in  the  Proprium 
temporis  chiefly  from  passajges  in  tne  New  Testament 
about  the  Resurrection,  m  this  case  too  feasts  and 
other  Masses  that  may  occur  in  Eastertide  are  pro- 
vided with  this  great  Alleluia,  as  an  alternative  to  be 
used  then.  Lastly,  five  occasions  (Easter,  Whitsun, 
Corpus  Christi,  the  Seven  Dolours,  and  Requiems) 
have  a  sequence  after  the  Gradual.  These  five  are  all 
that  Pius  V's  reform  left  of  the  innumerable  medieval 
poems  once  inserted  at  this  place  (see  Sequences). 

III.  The  Gradual  in  Other  Rftes. — In  the  East, 
too,  there  are  fragments  of  the  psalms  once  sung  be- 
tween the  lessons,  that  therefore  correspond  to  our 
Gradual.  In  the  Byzantine  Rite  the  reader  of  the 
Epistle  first  chapts  "the  Psalm  of  David"  and  then 
the  "Prokeimenon  [wpoKtlfuvop]  of  the  Apostle".* 
Both  are  short  fragments  of  pisalms.    The  Prokei- 


menon  only  is  now  usually  read.  It  is  printed  before 
each  Epistle  in  the  "  Apostolos".  After  the  Epistle  the 
reader  should  sing  Alleluia  and  another  fragnent  of  a 
psalm  (Brightman,  op.  cit.,  p.  370-1).  "Diis  too  is 
now  alF^ys  omitted  by  both  Orthodox  and  Melchites; 
even  the  Prokeimenon  seems  to  be  said  only  on  Sun- 
days and  feasts  in  many  churches  (Charon,  Le  Rite 
byzantin,  Rome,  1908,  683-4;  but  I  have  found 
churches  where  it  is  still  used  every  day).  The 
Armenian  Rite,  which  is  only  a  modified  form  of  that 
of  Constantinople,  has  however  kept  the  older  arrange- 
ment of  three  lessons.  Before  the  Prophecy  a  frag- 
ment called  the  Saghmos  Jathu  (Psalm  of  dinner- 
time) is  sung,  before  the  Epistle  the  Meaedi  (/Mvcddioy), 
again  a  verse  or  two  from  a  psalm,  and  before  the 
uospel  the  Alelu  Jaahu  (Alleluia  of  dinner-time)  con- 
sisting of  two  Alleluias  and  a  verse  (Brightman,  op. 
oit.,  425-6).  Of  the  two  older  rites,  that  of  St.  James 
has  the  same  arrangement  as  Constantinople  (a  Pro- 
keimenon before  and  an  Alleluia  after  tne  Epistle, 
Brifhtman,  36),  that  of  St.  Mark  has  a  verse  and  an 
Alleluia  after  it  (ibid.,  118).  The  Nestorians  have 
hymns  (not  Biblical  texts)  before  both  Epistle  and 
Gospel  which  they  call  ^urgamoy  and  three  verses  of 
psalms  each  followed  by  three  Alleluias  (this  group  is 
called  Zumara)  after  the  Epistle  (Brifihtman,  257- 
260).  -  The  Gallican  Rite  in  tne  time  of  St.  Germanus 
of  Paris  (d.  576)  had  three  lessons.  The  Benedicite 
eantide  (which  he  calls  Benedictio)  was  sung  after  the 
second,  sometimes  by  boys,  sometimes  by  a  deacon 
(Duchesne,  Origines,  185-7).  The  place  of  this 
canticle  was  not  alwavs  the  same.  At  times  it  fol- 
lowed the  first  lesson  (loid.).  The  present  Ambrosian 
Rite  sometimes  has  a  Prophecy  before  the  Epistle. 
In  this  case  there  follows  the  PaalmeUuSf  two  or  three 
verses  from  a  psalm.  After  the  Epistle,  Hallelujah  is 
sung  (on  feasts  of  Christ,  except  m  Octaves,  twice), 
then,  a  verse,  then  again  Hallelujah.  In  Lent,  on 
vigils  and  fast  days,  instead  of  this  the  Canius  (our 
Tract)  is  used.  After  the  Gospel  follows  the  ArUi- 
fhona  post  Evangelium,  from  various  books  of  Scripture 
(except  in  Lent  and  on  fast  davs).    And  on  certain 

?;reat  feasts  there  i^also  an  antiphon  before  the  Gospel 
Ruhr.  Gen.  Miss.  Ambros.,  (ll).  The  Mozaraoic 
Rite  has  three  lessons.  After  the  IVophecy  follows 
a  chant  marked  PsaUendo.  It  has  two  verses,  then  a 
third  marked  V,  then  the  second  is  repeated.  The 
priest  says: '' Silentium  facite"  and  the  Epistle  is  read. 
Nothing  is  simg  after  the  Epistle.  In  the  seventh 
century  a  Council  of  Toledo  (633)  commanded  under 
pain  of  excommunication  that  the  Gospel  should 
follow  the  Epistle  immediately.  After  the  Gospel 
follows  the  LaudOf  consisting  ot  an  Alleluia,  a  verse, 
and  a  second  Alleluia  (Missale  mixtum,  P.  L.,  LXXXV, 
e.  s.  for  the  first  Sunday  of  Advent,  col.  110, 112). 

IV.  Rules  for  the  Gradual. — ^The  nature  and 
arraneement  of  the  chants  that  form  the  Gradual  in 
the  Roman  Rite  have  already  been  explained,  so  that 
little  need  be  added  here  about  its  use.  As  a  result 
of  the  reaction  of  low  Mass  upon  high  Mass  (by  which 
everything  suns  by  anyone  else  must  also  be  read  by 
the  priest  at  the  altar),  the  celebrant  at  high  Mass 
reads  the  Gradual  with  the  Alleluia,  Tract,  or  Se- 
quence, according  to  the  form  for  the  dav,  immediately 
after  he  has  reaa  the  Epistle  and  at  the  same  place 
(this  is  just  as  at  low  Mass).  As  soon  as  the  sub- 
deacon  has  finished  chanting  the  Epistle,  the  Gradual 
(of  course,  again^  in  the  complete  form  for  the  day)  is 
sung  by  tne  choir.  There  is  now  no  rule  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  its  parts.  All  may  be  sung  straight 
through  by  the  whole  choir.  It  is  however  usual 
(partly  for  the  sake  of  artistic  effect)  to  divide  the 
texts  so  that  some  are  sung  by  one  or  two  cantors. 
A  common  arran^ment  is  mr  the  cantors  to  sing  the 
first  words  of  the  Gradual  (to  the  asterisk  in  the  cnoir- 
books),  the  choir  continues,  the  cantors  sing  the  versus 
and  the  first  Alleluia,  the  cnoir  the  second,  the  cantors 


GRADUAL                               718  GRAHAM 

the  Alleluiatic  verse,  and  the  choir  the  last  Alleluia,  new  duties.  His  engaging  personality  soon  endeared 
Or,  all  Alleluias  are  sung  by  the  cantors,  the  choir  only  him  to  both  clergy  andpeople.  Had  he  lived  loneer, 
joining  in  the  neum.  Similar  arrangements  may  be  he  mipht  have  been  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  ^g- 
made  easily  for  the  Tract  or  the  great  Alleluia  in  lish  bishops,  but  unfortunately  his  constitution,  un- 
Eastertide.  Normally  it  is  all  8ung[  to  plain-song  and,  dermined  b^  the  Roman  summers,  was  unable  to  with- 
now  that  we  have  the  Vatican  edition,  to  the  form  in  stand  the  ngours  of  the  Enelish  climate.  After  some 
that  book.  But  there  is  no  law  about  this,  and  the  years  of  ill-health,  he  died  of  dropsv.  His  writings  in- 
Gradual  may  be  sung  to  any  figured  music  that  satis-  elude:  "A  Dissertation  on  the  fable  of  Papal  Anti- 
fies  the jrainciples  of  the^'Motu  Proprio'^of  22  Nov.,  christs''  (London,  1816);  "A  Winter  Evening  Dia- 
1903.  There  IS  a  useful  arran^ment  of  all  Propers  of  logue  ....  or.  Thoughts  on  the  Rule  of  Faith" 
the  Mass  in  simple  figured  music  by  Tozer  (New  York,  (London,  1816) ;  and  various  journals,  letters,  and 
2  vols.,  1906)  against  which  the  only  objection  is  that  MSS.  in  connexion  with  his  residence  in  Rome;  his 
the  composer  has  ignored  the  jubilus  at  the  end  of  the  notes  on  the  old  archives  of  the  Englidi  College  there 
Alleluia.  are  of  some  historical  interest ;  all  are  in  the  Westmin- 

V.  G11ADUAI/-B00K. — ^The  name  Gradual  {Gradtude  ster  archidiocesan  arehives. 

Ramanum)  is  also  used  for  the  book  that  contains  the  ^  Coopbb  ukDiet.  Nat.^  ^*<v..  «.  y.:  Gillow,  BM,  Dui,  Bng, 

music  sung  by  the  choir  at  Ma«   ^-nie^name  comes  ^;^-  |S»; ''£^^^±^r'^,  'iS^,^ 

from  this  most  unportant  chant,  but  the  book  con-  Praton,  ii,  284;  GenOanan^t  Mogotme,  CIII.  378,  652;  Lail^'B 

tains  the  plain-song  music  for  the  Ordinary  (this  part  is  Diredory,                               n   1?   \xt            n 

also  published  alone  with  the  title  Ordinarium  Mismb  C.  F.  Wemtss  Brown. 

or  Kyriale)  and  all  the  Propers  for  the  year.    This  n^mjj    xi.     x 

book  is  one  of  the  three  parts  of  the  old  Roman  Anti-  ,**  1     ^'  Y^®  *«™  f  conamon  usace  .among  ar- 

phonarium.    Originally  all  the  chants  of  the  choir  chaeologists  to  designate  a  class  of  rude  mscnptiona 

were  contained  m  that.    But  by  the  ninth  century  scratched  on  the  waUs  of  ancient  monuments,  gener- 

it  was  already  divided  into  three,  the  Qraduale  or  ^^^  sepulchral,  as  distmguished  from  the  fonnal  m- 

CantaUmum  for  Mass,  and  the  Respongiale  and  Anti-  s^Ptwns.  engravoi  on  ihe  tombs  of  the  deceaswi. 

phananum  (in  a  stricter  sense)  for  the  Office  ( Amalsr  P®  inscriptions  of  this  onier  traced  by  pijgnms  be- 

nus  of  Metz,  De  Ordine  Antiphonarii,  P.L.,  XCIX,  in  tween  the  fourth  and  nmth  ^ntunes,  on  the  walls  of 

prolog.),    -rtie  history  of  the  book  forms  pkrt  of  that  the  gal  eries,  proved  mva^uable  to  De  Rorai  and  later 

of   tfe  development  of   plain-song.    An   authentic  archsBologistsmtheirexploratioMof  the  Roman ^t«- 

edition  (the  Me&ic«a)  was  wsued  at  Rome  in  1614.    It  combs     At  an  early  sta^m  his  (»iwr  E^  R^ 

is  now  supplanted  by  the  Vatican  edition  (1908),  of  realized  the  unportance  of  these  gpffitiu    Their  ab- 

which   reproductions  are  being  issued   by  various  ^"""^  ^f^^P  the  walls  of  a  ^lery  si^ified  that  there 

Dublishers.  was  nothmg  of  importance  m  the  vicinity,  whereas,  on 

Among  the  medieval  writers  see  especially  Durandus,  Ra-  the  other  hand,  their  presence  meant  that  the  ex- 

tioruUe  dxvinorum  Officiorum,  IV.  19-21 :  Gihr,  Daa  heUige  Mesa-  plorer  was  m  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  an  im- 

anfer  (6th  ed..  Freiburg  im  Br. .  1^7).  ^427^uchesnb,  portant  crypt  or  Other  sepulchral  monument  which 

Ongtnea  du  CttUe  chrilten  (2Dd  ed.,  Pans,  1898).  107-8,  161-3;  !'_^  ,w»«*o,«,.»^  *U^  ^U»^  fif  »  ^^^^.r^       v^^  U  ««- 

At^lbt,  Ordo  Romanxta  jnimua  (London.  1905),  73-9;  Nikbl.  opce  contamed  the  relics  Of  a  martyr.    Here  it  was 

Geachickte  der  katholiaehm  Kirchenmuaik  (Breslau,  1908).  I,  83  that  a  piOUS  pUgrim  of  old,  before  leavmg  the  vener- 

sqq.,  and  passim.  ated  tomb,  woiud  take  advantage  of  the  occasion  to 

Adrian  Fortescue.  scratch  on  the  adjoining  wall  hw  name,  with  some- 

Oradnal  Psalms,— Fifteen  psalms,  viz.  Pss.  119-  *"°^  the  date  of  his  visit,  or  a  pious  exclamation  or 

133  (in  Hebrew  120-134),  bear  the  u^scription  in  He-  Pf^Xf '^  ^  J^®  saint,  as  e.  g,  that  near  the  pa^  crypt 

u^2  rss^H*^^  «n^iw  P«  i9n  f^9^\  Koq  n^Cw^t*   in  fi^o  O'  *"®  catacomb  of  St.  Callistus:  "Sancte  Suste  m 

brew  npytDH  TB',  Fs.  120  (121)  hasnpWD^,  in  the  „_x^  v^aKooa  in  nrofi^no-  fnoa  A„«»i;»  T>*...*.„4 ;«.,'» 


festivals  m  Jerusalem,  pilgnm-songs  (see  FBalms).  „«,;«> ;rjl  ^c4X.L»^ZZJa^^I.I^^T^^a\^^ 

The  days  on  which  th4  (SnSiual jpsa&is  were  formerly  f^'^^'Z  L  I^^.^L  l5^,rtt"?SQ^'''^'lT*-  * 

recited  Ire  still  indicated  in  the  ftoman  Breviaiy,  but  ^J^^J.ft^J^^J^         \l^\  "^"^^  ^T 

the  obligation  of  reciting  them  was  removed'^y  St.  L^Xo^aX"--^"^^^ 

John  Corbett.  EJ«^^  inscriptions  of  the  third  and  fourth  century. 

The  great  necropolis  of  the  oasis  m  the  Libyan  desert 
Oradwell,  Robert,  Bishop;  b.  at  aifton-in-th^  abo  wntains  a  number  of  interesting  Cferist^^ 
Fylde,  Lancashire,  26  Jan.,  1777;  d.  in  London,  15  (Kaufmaim,Handbuchderchri8U.  Are^              Graf- 
March,  1833;  went  to Douai  inl791.    The coUege being  ^^l^^  ^\^,  ^f^^^  ^n  ancient  Christian  altars  of  the 
suppressed  by  the  French  revolutionists,  he  was  con-  St'I..^^^   ^^^^   oentunes    (Le  Blant    Inscnptions 
fined  for  some  time,  and  was  not  allowed  to  return  to  Chr^tiennes  de  la  Gaule).                   .    ^    ,    .  .^. 
England  till  1795     With  most  of  the  Douai  refugees,  ^'^YJ^^rd'ci^^B^S.Jl^;^^ 
he  went  to  Crook  Hall,  Durham,  where  he  was  or-  1907);  NoBTHcon  and  BsowNLow,i2oma<S0<t<f7mMa(LoDdoo, 
dained  priest  in  1802.    He  taught  poetry  and  rhetoric  1878).                                                    «    „ 
for  seven  years  at  Crook  Hall,  ancf  at  the  new  collie  Maurice  M.  Hassett. 
at  Ushaw.    About  this  time,  Pius  VII  decided  to  Grafton.    See  Lismore  (Australia),  Diocbbs  of, 
reopen  the  English  College  at  Rome,  and  on  Dr.  Lin-  /»«.!..««  n^              an.'                r^ 
gaiS^recommindation,  Gradwcll  wm  appointed  reo-  <»r*l^«a,  Charles.    See  Plymouth,  Diochie  of. 

tor  (1818).    Under  his  prudent  administration  the  es-  Graham,  Patrick,  first  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews 

tablishment  flourished  exceedingly.    He  also  acted  as  and  Metropolitan  of  Scotland,  date  of  birth  uncertain ; 

Roman  agent  for  the  English  vicars  Apostolic,  exhibit-  d.  1478.    He  was  a  son  of  Mary,  younger  daughter  of 

ing  tact  and  diplomacy  in  this  ofiBce.    In  1821  the  Robert  III,  by  her  third  husbsmd,  SirWilliam  Graham 

pope  made  him  a  doctor  of  divinity.    In  1828  he  was  of  Kincardine,  ancestor  of  the  didces  dT  Montrose.    He 

consecrated  Bishop  of  Lydda,  as  coadjutor  to  Bishop  was  educated  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews,  where. 

Bramston,  the  vicar  Apostolic  of  the  London  district,  in  1457,  he  held  the  position  of  dean  of  the  Faculty  01 

and  he  came  to  London  soon  afterwards  to  teke  up  his  Arte.    In  1463  he  oecame  Bishop  of  Brechin.    In 


GRAIL 


719 


ORAXL 


1466  he  succeeded  his  half-brother,  the  illustrious 
Bishop  Kennedy,  in  the  See  of  St.  Andrews.  He  pro- 
ceeded to  Rome  to  receive  the  confirmation  of  Paul  II. 
and  remained  abroad  until  1469  to  escape  the  avowea 
enmity  of  certain  powerful  nobles.  While  in  Rome  he 
obtained  the  erection  of  St.  Andrews  into  an  archbish- 
opric and  metropolitan  church,  to  which  the  other 
twelve  sees  were  subjected  as  suffra^ns.  This  was 
announced  to  the  king,  bishops,  and  diocesan  chapters 
of  Scotland  by  a  Bull  of  Sixtus  IV,  dated  27  Aug.,  1472. 
The  announcement  aroused  a  storm  of  opposition. 
The  See  of  York  ineffectually  appealed  against  the 
loss  of  Galloway,  its  suffragan  for  more  than  five  cen- 
turies, and  the  consequent  deprivation  of  all  future 
claim  to  jurisdiction  in  Scotland;  ih&t  of  Trondlyem 
as  ineffectually  resented  the  transference  of  the  Dio- 
ceses of  Arg^le  and  the  Isles;  the  king  and  the  whole 
episcopate  of  Scotland  set  themselves  to  resist  the  inno- 
vation, rendered  still  more  odious  by  the  nomination 
of  the  new  archbishop  as  Apostolic  nuncio  to  raise  sub- 
sidies for  a  crusade.  James  III,  bribed  by  the  bishops 
with  an  offering  of  12,000  marks  (according  to  some 
writers),  joined  them  in  appealing  to  Rome  against  his 
cousin  the  archbishop.  Sixtus  IV,  in  vie\v  of  the  ex- 
traordinary charges  Drought  against  Graham,  sent  a 
nuncio,  John  Huseman,  to  Scotland  to  investigate. 
The  accusation  induded  heresy,  schism,  simonv,  dis- 
ob^ience  to  the  Holy  See,  with  reviling  ana  blas- 
phemy against  its  authority;  the  claiming  by  the  arch- 
bishop of  the  papacy,  as  imposed  upon  him  by  God  for 
the  reform  of  the  Church;  the  appointment  of  le^tes, 
prothonotaries,  and  suchlike  officials;  the  revoking  of 
papal  indulgences,  because  granted  for  lucre;  the  say- 
ing of  Mass,  even  thrice  a  day,  when  under  the  ban 
of  excommunication,  suspension,  and  interdict.  The 
nuncio,  after  examining  numerous  witnesses,  sent  a  re- 
port to  Rome,  and,  after  its  due  consideration  by  a 
commission  of  cardinals,  Graham  was  declared  guilty 
of  the  alleged  charges.  He  was  deprived  of  all  digm- 
ties,  degraded  from  orders,  and  subjected  to  imprison- 
ment for  life.  He  died  in  the  Castle  of  Lochleven  in 
1478,  and  was  buried  in  the  old  priorv  there.  Many 
historians  regard  him  as  a  zealous  and  good  bishop,  a 
victim  to  the  persecution  of  his  enemies,  though  this 
scarcely  explains  his  condemnation.  Whether  he  lost 
his  reason  under  the  stress  of  trouble,  or  whether  he 
had  become  imbued  with  Lollardism  (as  Dickson 
suggests,  though  the  charge  concerning  Mass  seems  to 
contradict  this),  it  is  impossible  to  say,  in  the  absence 
of  all  official  records  except  the  Bull  of  deposition, 
dated  9  Jan.,  1478. 

Bellesheim.  history  of  the  Catholic  Churdi  in  ScoUand  (Edin- 
burgh. 1800),  II.  87-94;  Lesley,  History  of  Scotland  (Edin- 
burrii.  1830),  40;  Spottibwoodb. //istorv  of  the  Churdi  of  j5oo<- 
iana  (Edinburgh,  1847),  I.  115:  Dickson,  Accountt  of  the  Lord 
High  Trtaaurer  of  Scotland  (Eainburgh,  1877).  I.  Preface,  pp. 
xlvi-lii;  Tueineb,  Vetera  monumenta  Hibem.  et  Scotor.  (Rome, 
1864).  465-480. 

Michael  Babbett. 

Qrail,  The  Holy,  the  name  of  a  legendary  sacred 
vessel,  variously  identified  with  the  chalice  of  the 
Eucharist  or  the  dish  of  the  Paschal  lamb,  and  the 
theme  of  a  famous  medieval  cvcle  of  romance.  In  the 
romances  the  conception  of  the  Grail  varies  consider- 
ably; its  nature  is  often  but  vaguely  indicated^  and, 
in  the  case  of  Chrestien's  Perceval  poem,  it  is  left 
whoUv  unexplained.  The  meaninjg  of  the  word  has 
also  beefl  variouslv  explained.  The  generally  ac- 
cepted meaning  is  that  given  by  the  Cistercian  chron- 
icler Helinandus  (d.  about  1230),  who,  under  the  date 
of  about  717,  mentions  a  vision,  shown  to  a  henmt 
concerning  the  dish  used  by  Our  Lord  at  the  Last 
Supper,  and  about  which  the  hermit  then  wrote  a 
Latin  b(X)k  called  " Gradale".  "Now  in  French",  so 
Helinandus  informs  us,  "Gradalis  or  GraddU  means  a 
dish  {acyJleUa)f  wide  and  somewhat  deep,  in  which 
costly  viands  are  wont  to  be  served  to  the  rich  in  de- 
grees (gradatim),  one  morsel  after  another  in  different 


rows.  In  popular  speech  it  is  also  called  'greal', 
because  it  is  pleasant  (grata)  and  acceptable  to  hhn 
eating  therein"  etc.  (Tissier,  Biblioth.  Cisterc.,  VII, 


English  "grail 
alis"  or  from  "cratalis"  (crater,  a  mixing-bowl).  It 
certainly  means  a  dish,  the  derivation  from  "grata"  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  passa^  cited  above  or  from 
"aer6er"  (to  please)  in  the  French  romances  is  sec- 
onaary.  The  explanation  of  "San  greal"  as  "sang 
real"  (kingly  blood)  was  not  current  until  the  later 
Middle  Ages.  Other  et3rmologies  that  have  been  ad- 
vanced may  be  passed  over  as  obsolete. 

When  we  come  to  examine  the  literary  tradition 
concerning  the  Grail  we  notice  at  the  outset  that  the 
Grail  legend  is  closely  connected  with  that  of  Perceval 
as  well  as  that  of  King  Arthur. .  Yet  all  these  legends 
were  originally  independent  of  each  other.  The  Per- 
ceval story  may  have  a  m3rthical  origin,  or  it  may 
be  regarded  as  the  tale  of  a  simpleton  (Fr.,  nicelot) 
who,  however,  in  the  end  achieves  ^at  things.  In 
all  the  versions  that  we  have  of  it,  it  is  a  part  of  the 
Arthurian  le^nd,  and,  in  almost  all,  it  is  furthermore 
connected  with  the  Grail.  So  the  reconstruction  of 
the  original  Grail  legend  can  be  accomplished  only  b^ 
an  analytical  comparison  of  all  extant  versions,  and  is 
a  task  that  has  given  rise  to  some  of  the  most  .difficult 
problems  in  the  whole  range  of  literary  history. 

The  great  body  of  the  Grail  romances  came  into 
existence  between  the  years  1180  and  1240.  After 
the  thirteenth  century  nothing  new  was  added  to  the 
Grail  legend.  Most  of  these  romances  are  in  French, 
but  there  are  versions  in  Cxerman,  English,  Norwegian, 
Italian,  and  Portuguese.  These  are  of  very  unequal 
value  as  sources,  some  are  mere  translations  or  recasts 
of  French  romances.  Now  all  these  romances  may  be 
conveniently  divided  into  two  classes:  those  which 
are  concerned  chiefly  with  the  quest  of  the  Grail,  and 
with  the  adventures  and  personahty  of  the  hero  of  this 
quest;  and  those  that  are  mainly  concerned  with  the 
history  of  the  sacred  vessel  itself.  These  two  classes 
have  been  styled  respectively  the  Quest  and  the 
Early  History  versions. 

Of  the  first  class  is  the  "Conte  del  Graal"  of  Chres- 
tien  de  Troyes  and  his  continuators,  a  vast  poetic 
compilation  of  some  60,000  verses,  composed  between 
1180  and  1240,  and  the  Middle  High  German  epic 
poem  "Parzival"  of  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  writ- 
ten between  1205  and  1215,  and  based,  according  to 
Wolfram's  statement,  on  the  French  poem  of  a  certain 
Kyot  (Guiot)  of  Provence,  which,  however,  is  not  ex- 
tant and  the  very  existence  of  which  is  doubtful.  To 
these  may  be  added  the  Welsh  folk-tales  or  "Mabino- 
gion"  known  to  us  only  from  MSS.  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  though  the  material  is  certainly  older,  and 
the  EngUsh  poem  "Sir  Percy velle",  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  In  these  latter  versions  only  the  adventures 
of  Perceval  are  related,  no  mention  being  made  of  the 
Grail.  Of  the  Early  History  versions  the  oldest  is  the 
metrical  trilogy  of  Robert  de  Boron,  composed  be- 
tween 1170  and  1212,  of  which  only  the  first  part,  the 
"Joseph  d'Arimathie",  and  a  portion  of  the  second, 
the  "  Merhn ' ',  are  extant.  We  nave,  howe ver,  a  com- 
plete prose  version,  preserved  in  the  so-called  Didot 
manuscript.  The  most  detailed  history  of  the  Grail  is 
in  the  "(jrand  St.  Graal",  a  bulky  French  prose  ro- 
mance of  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  where 
we  are  told  that  Christ  Himself  presented  to  a  pious 
hermit  the  book  containing  this  history.  Besides 
these  versions  we  have  three  French  prose  romances, 
^so  from  the  thirteenth  century,  which,  though  con- 
cerned chiefly  with  the  quest,  give  also  an  account  of 
the  history  of  the  sacred  vessel.  Of  these  the  most 
notable  is  the  "Queste  del  St.  Graal",  well  known  to 
English  readers  because  it  was  embodied  almost  en- 
tire in  Malory's  "Morte  d'Arthur".    The  others  are 


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720 


O&AIL 


the  so-called  "Didot  Perceval" or  ''La  petite  queste" 
and  the  lengthy  and  prolix  '' Perceval  le  Gallois", 
also  known  as  ^Perlesvaus". 

The  poem  of  Chrestien,  regarded  by  many  as  the 
oldest  known  Grail  romance,  tells  of  Perceval's  visit  to 
the  Grail  castle,  where  he  sees  a  Oraal  borne  in  by  a 
damsel.  Its  accompaniments  are  a  bleeding  lance 
and  a  silver  plate.    It  is  a  precious  vessel  set  with 

J'ewek,  and  so  resplendent  as  to  eclipse  the  lights  of  the 
lall.  All  the  assembled  knights  show  it  reverence. 
Mindful  of  an  injunction  not  to  inquire  too  much, 
Perceval  does  not  ask  concerning  the  significance  of 
what  he  sees,  and  thereby  incurs  guilt  and  reproach. 
Undoubtedly  Chrestien  meant  to  relate  the  hero's 
second  visit  to  the  castle,  when  he  would  have  put  the 
Question  and  received  the  desired  information.  But 
tne  poet  did  not  live  to  finish  his  story,  and  whether 
the  explanation  of  the  Oraalf  offered  by  the  continua- 
tors,  is  that  which  Chrestien  had  in  mind,  is  doubtful. 
As  it  is^  we  are  not  informed  by  Chrestien  what  the 
GrcuU  signifies;  in  his  version  it  has  no  pronounced 
religious  character.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Early 
History  versions  it  is  invested  with  the  ^atest  sanc- 
tity. It  is  explained  as  the  dish  from  which  Christ  ate 
the  Paschal  lamb  with  his  disciples,  which  passed  into 
possession  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea.  and  was  used  by 
nim  to  gather  the  Precious  Blooa  of  Our  Saviour, 
when  His  bod  v  was  taken  from  the  Cross.  It  becomes 
identified  with  the  Chalice  of  the  Eucharist.  The 
lance  is  explained  as  the  one  with  which  Longinus 
pierced  Our  Lord's  side,  and  the  silver  plate  becomes 
the  paten  covering  the  chalice.  The  quest  in  these 
versions  assumes  a  most  sacred  character,  the  atmos- 
phere of  chivahic  adventure  in^  Chrestien's  poem 
3rields  to  a  militant  asceticism,  which  insists  not  only 
on  the  purity  of  the  quester,  but,  in  some  versions 
(Queste,  Perlesvaus).  on  his  virginity.  In  the 
"Queste"  and  "Grand  St.  Graal'',  moreover,  the  hero 
is  not  Perceval  but  the  maiden-knieht,  Galaad.  But 
the  other  knights  of  the  Roimd  Table  are  also  made  to 
participate  in  the  quest. 

The  early  history  of  the  Grail  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  story  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea.  When 
he  is  cast  into  prison  by  the  Jews,  Christ  appears  to 
him  and  gives  him  the  sacred  vessel,  through  which  he 
is  miraculously  sustained  for  forty-two  years,  until 
liberated  by  Vespasian.  The  Grail  is  then  brought  to 
the  West,  to  Bntain,  either  by  Joseph  and  Josephes, 
his  SOB  (Grand  St,  Oraal),  or  by  Alam,  one  of  his  Idn 
(Robert  de  Boron).  Galaad  (or  Perceval)  achieves 
the  Quest;  after  the  death  of  its  keeper  the  Grail 
vanisnes.  According  to  the  version  or  the  "  Perles- 
vaus*' Perce vaJ  is  removed,  no  one  knows  whither,  by 
a  ship  with  white  sails  on  which  is  displayed  a  red 
cross.  In  the  Guiot- Wolfram  version  we  meet  with 
a  conception  of  the  Grail  wholly  different  from  that 
of  the  French  romances.  Wolfram  conceives  of  it  as 
a  precious  stone,  la^mt  exUlU  (i.  e.  lapU  or  lapsi  ex 
caAis  ?)  of  special  punty,  possessing  miraculous  pNowers 
conferred  upon  it  and  sustained  by  a  consecrated 
Host  which,  on  every  Good  Friday,  a  dove  brings 
down  from  heaven  and  lays  down  upon  it.  The 
angels  who  remained  neutral  during  the  rebellion  of 
Lucifer  were  its  first  euardiaQs;  then  it  was  broujght 
to  earth  and  entrustea  to  Titurel,  the  first  Grail  king. 
It  is  guarded  in  the  splendid  castle  of  Munsalvaesche 
(moTw  aalvoHoma  or  iUvaiicust)  bv  a  special  order  of 
kn^hts,  the  Templeisen,  chosen  by  itself  and  nour- 
ished by  its  miraculous  food-giving  power. 

The  relationship  of  the  GraU  versions  to  each  other, 
especially  that  ot  Chrestien  to  those  of  Robert  de 
Boron  and  the  "  Queste  ",  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  Nor 
is  their  relative  chronology  certain.  But  m  all  these 
versions  the  legend  appears  in  an  advanced  state  of 
development,  the  preceding  phases  of  which  are  not 
attested  by  literary  monuments,  and  can,  therefore, 
only  be  conjectured.    The  origin  of  the  legend  is  in- 


volved in  obscurity,  and  scholars  are  divided  in  their 
views  on  this  point.  An  Oriental,  a  Celtic,  and  a 
purely  Christian  orion  have  been  claimed.  But  the 
Oriental  parallels,  like  the  sun-table  of  the  Ethio- 

Sians,  the  Persian  cup  of  Jamshid,  the  Hindu  paradise, 
ridavana,  are  not  very  convincing,  and  Wolfram's 
statement,  that.  Kyot's  source  was  an  Arabic  manu- 
script of  Toledo,  is  open  to  grave  doubt.  It  is  differ- 
ent with  the  Celtic  theory.  There  are  undoubtedly 
Celtic  elements  in  the  legend  as  we  have  it;  the  Perce- 
val story  is  probably,  and  the  Arthurian  legend  cer- 
tainly, of  Celtic  origm,  and  both  of  these  legends  are 
intimately  connected  with  the  quest  story.  Talis- 
mans, such  as  magic  lances  and  food-gi^g  vessels, 
figure  prominently  in  Celtic  myths  and  folk-tales. 
According  to  this  theory  the  "Mabinogion",  with  its 
simple  story  of  vengeance  by  means  of  talismans  and 
devoid  of  religious  sip;nificance,  would  yield  the  ver- 
sion nearest  to  the  original  form  of  the  legend.  Back 
of  the  quest-story  wouM  be  some  pre-Christian  tale  of  a 
hero  seeking  to  avenge  the  injunr  done  to  a  kinsman. 
The  religious  element  would  then  be  of  secondary 
origin,  and  would  have  come  into  the  legend  when  tfae 
old  vengeance-tale  was  fused  with  the  legend  of  Joseph 
of  Arimathea,  which  is  essentially  a  legend  of  the  con^ 
version  of  Britain. 

Those  who  maintain  the  theory  of  a  purely  Chris- 
tian origin  regard  the  religious  element  in  the  story  as 
fundamental  and  trace  the  leading  motif  a  to  Christian 
ideas  and  conceptions.  It  is  derived  from  the  apocry- 
phal Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  which  is  known  to  have  had 
a  ereat  vogue  in  the  twelfth  century,  particulariv  in 
Bntain.  There  we  read  how  Joseph,  whom  the  Jews 
had  imprisoned,  is  miraculously  fed  by  Christ  Himself. 
Additional  traits  were  supplied  by  the  "  Vindicta  Sal- 
vatoris",  the  legendary  account  of  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  Fifthermore,  Joseph  was  confused  with 
the  Jewish  historian,  Josephus,  whose  liberation  by 
Titus  is  narrated  by  Suetonius.  The  food-producing 
properties  of  the  vessel  can  be  explained^  without  re- 
sorting to  Celtic  parallels,  by  the  association  of  the 
Grail  with  the  Sacrament  of  the  Eucharist,  which 
gives  spiritual  nourishment  to  the  faithfiu.  Tlie 
purely  Qiristian  legend  which  thus  had  arisen  was 
brou^t  into  contact  with  the  traditional  evangelisa- 
tion of  Britain,  and  then  developed  on  British  soil,  m 
Wales,  and  thus  the  Celtic  stamp,  which  it  undeniably 
bears,  is  accounted  for.  In  connection  with  the  leg- 
endary conversion  of  Britain  it  is  noteworthy  that  the 
literary  accounts  of  this  event  are  connectea  with  the 
famous  Abbey  of  Glastonbury,  which  is  also  inti* 
mately  associated  with  the  leeend  of  Arthur,  Glaston- 
bury being  identified  in  William  of  Malmesbuiy's 
account  with  the  mytJoic  Avalon.  So  scholars  are  in- 
clined to  connect  this  British  sanctuary  with  the  ori- 
gin of  the  Grail  romances.  Possibly  Walter  Map,  who 
died  as  Archdeacon  of  Oxford  in  1210,  and  to  whom  is 
ascribed  the  auUiorship  of  a  Grail-Lancdot  <^cle,  got 
his  information  from  tnat  abbey.  The  first  Grail  ro- 
mance was  then  probably  written  in  Latin  and  be- 
came the  basis  for  the  work  of  Robert  de  Boron,  who 
was  an  English  knight  imder  Kinc;  Henry*  II,  and  a 
contemporary  of  Chrestien  and  of  Map. 

The  tully  developed  Grail  legend  was  later  on  still 
further  connected  with  other  l^ends,  as  in  Wolfram's 
poem  with  that  of  Lohengrin,  the  swan-knij^t^  and 
also  with  that  of  Prester  john,  the  fabled  Qinstian 
monarch  of  the  East.  Here  also  the  storv  of  Klin- 
schor,  the  magician,  was  added.  After  tne  Renais- 
sance the  Grau  leeend,  together  with  most  medieval 
lecends,  fell  into  oDlivion,  irom  which  it  was  rescued 
wnen  the  Romantic  movement  set  in  at  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  most  famous  modern 
versions  are  Tennyson's  "Holy  Grafl"  in  the  "Idylls 
of  the  King"  (1869),  and  Wasner's  music-drama,  the 
festival-play,  ''Parsifal",  produced  for  the  first  time 
atBayreuthinl882. 


ORAMIORA 


721 


ORAN 


A  word  as  to  the  attitude  of  the  Church  towards 
the  legend.  It  would  seem  that  a  legend  so  dis-' 
tinctively  CSiristian  would  find  favour  with  the 
Church.  Yet  this  was  not  the  case.  Excepting 
Helinandus,  clerical  writers  do  not  mention  the 
Grail,  and  the  Church  ignored  the  legend  completely. 
After  all,  the  I^end  contained  elements  of  which  the 
Church  could  not  approve.  Its  sources  are  in  apoc- 
ryphal, not  in  canonical,  scripture;  and  the  claims  of 
sanctity  made  for  the  Grail  were  refuted  by  their  very 
extrava^nce.  Moreover^  the  legend  claimed  for  the 
Oiurch  m  Britain  an  origm  well  nigh  as  illustrious  as 
that  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  independent  of  Rome. 
It  was  thus  calculated  to  encourage  and  to  foster  any 
separatist  tendencies  that  might  exist  in  Britain.  As 
we  have  seen,  the  whole  tradition  concerning  the 
Grail  is  of  late  origin  and  on  many  points  at  variance 
with  historical  truth. 

The  "  Queste  "  was  edited  by  Fumivall,  "  La  Queste 
del  Saint  Graal''  (Roxburghe  Qub,  London,  1864). 
also  the  Grand  St.  Graal  uQder  the  title  "Seynt  Graal 
or  the  Sank  Ryal",  etc.  (Roxburdie  Qub,  London, 
1861-63).  The  Perlesvaus  is  in  Potvin's  edition  of 
Chrestien,  I  (Mons,  1866);  the  Didot  Percevaf  in 
Hucher,  "  Le  Saint  Graal"  (Le  Mans,  1874-78).  Rob- 
ert de  Boron's  poem  was  edited  by  Michel,  "  Le  roman 
du  St.  Graal ''^  (Boideaux,  1841),  Malory's  "Morte 
D'Arthur"  by  Sommer  (London.  188&-91),  and  the 
Perlesvaus  rendered  into  Englisn  by  Evans,  ''The 
Hi^  History  of  the  Holy  Grail"  (London,  1898). 

(S^  WOI^TRAM  VON  ESCHENBACH.) 

For  a  critioal  discussion  and  full  summarieB-of  the  Grail 
romances  consult  BiBCH-HiB8CHrBU>,  ZHe  Sage  vom  Oral  (Leip- 
sig,  1877),  and  Nutt,  Studies  on  the  Legend  of  the  Holy  Orail 
(London,  1888),  and  The  Legends  of  the  Holy  Grail  (London. 
1902);  WBCH88LBR.  Die  Sage  vom  heiligen  Ural  in  ihrer  Ent" 
wiekhmg  hie  auf  Richard  Warners  Pars^al  (Halle,  1808).  con- 
tains a  complete  bibliography  of  the  subject  up  to  1808. 
See  also  HaxNOBLB,  Ueberdie  framdsischen  GrtUromane  in  Denh- 
schriften  der  Wiener  Akademie,  phU.-  hist.  Klasse,  XL  (Vienna. 
1801);  HxsTS.  Parxifal  (2nd  ed..  Stuttgart,  1808),  pp.  413-66; 
DoMANia,  ParMtvalstudien,  II  (Paderbom,  1880);  Rhts.  The 
Origin  of  the  Holy  Orail  in  Studtes  in  the  Arthurian  Legend  (Ox- 
ford. 1801).  300-32;  Gaston  Pajus,  Histoire  liiUraire  de  la 
France,  XXX  (1888).  pp.  1-10,  27-20,  30-44,  247-263;  Paulin 
Pabib,  Les  Romans  de  la  Table  Ronde,  I-V  (Paris.  1868-77),  and 
in  Romania^  1. 1  sq.;  Baist.  Artus  und  der  Gral  in  ZeitsehriftJUr 
romionische  PhUoianie,  10.  326  sq.;  Gh5bbr,  Framdsische  Lit- 
teratur  in  Orundrtss  der  romanischen  PhUologie   (Strasburg. 


Arthur  F.  J.  Remt. 
Oramignay  Pbtronius.   See  Allahabad,  Diocese 


OF. 

Orammont.    See  Grandmont,  Abbey  and  Order 

OP. 

Oramont,  EtroiNiE  de,  religious  of  the  Societv  of 
the  Sacred  Heart;  b.  at  VersailleB,  17  September, 
1788:  d.  at  Pans,  19  November,  1846.  Her  father, 
the  Count  de  Gramont  d'Aster,  was  attached  to  the 
Court  of  Louis  XVI;  he  had  married  a  daughter  of 
the  Count  de  Bois^lin,  maid  of  honour  to  Queen 
Marie  Antoinette.  jThe  family  was  driven  into  exile 
by  the  fall  of  the  monarchy  and,  after  travelling  in 
Germany  and  Italy,  settled  at  Richmond  in  England. 
After  the  death  of  the  Count  de  Gramont  d'Aster  his 
widow  was  for  a  time  in  straitened  circumstances,  and 
maintained  herself  and  her  child  by  teaching.  She 
soon  returned  to  France,  where  Eugenie  learnt,  at 
Amiens,  to  Imow  the  new  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
of  which  she  became  a  member  m  1806.  Her  mother 
also  joined  it  a  few  years  afterwards,  and  made  her 
novitiate  under  the  guidance  of  her  own  daughter.  In 
1815,  notwithstanding  her  youth  and  the  drawback  of 
a  slight  physical  deformity^  Mother  de  Gramont  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  nrst  school  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  opened  m  Paris,  Rue  des  Postes,  afterwards 
transferred  to  the  Rue  de  Varenne.  The  school  flour- 
ished under  her  care  and,  after  a  short  interruption  of 
her  work  by  the  revolution  of  1830,  she  was  sent  back 
VI.-^46 


to  govern  the  house  as  ^perioress  and  continued  to  do 
so  until  her  death  in  1846.  Mother  de  Gramont's  re- 
markable intelligence  and  influence  were  of  great  value 
in  the  important  work  entrusted  to  her,  and  she  estab- 
lished  the  school  in  the  Rue  de  Varenne  so  firmly  in  its 
position  that  the  only  anxiety  of  the  foundress  of  the 
society  concerning  it  was  the  success,  almost  too  bril- 
liant for  her  love  of  hiddenness  and  sim^citv,  which 
attended  the  work.  She  knew  the  weak  side  of  Mother 
de  Gramont's  character  as  well  as  her  great  gifts,  and 
she  was  not  deceived  as  to  the  dangers  of  a  mind  which 
was  too  receptive  of  strong  influences  and  very  difficult 
to  disillusion.  In  a  time  of  trial,  during  the  first  year 
of  her  religious  life  at  Amiens,  when  the  existence  of 
the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  was  in  great  danger. 
Mother  de  Gramont  was  one  of  those  who  were  misled 
by  the  action  of  M.  de  St.  Est^ve;  and  as^in,  in  an- 
other critical  moment  in  1839,  she  took  a  une  of  con- 
duct in  opposition  to  the  foundress  which  she  after- 
wards recognized  and  deplored  to  tJie  end  of  her  life; 
her  sorrow  for  her  error,  it  is  said,  hastened  her 
death.  She  died  in  the  most  perfect  union  of  affection 
with  the  foundress.  Blessed  Madeleine  Sophie  Barat, 
asking  pardon  of  her  and  of  the  whole  society  for  the 
errors  of  judgment  into  which  she  had  been  led — her 
personal  devotedness  to  the  mother  general  had  never 
wavered. 

Life  of  Venerable  Maddeine  Louise  Sofcjkie  Barat  (Roebamp- 
ton,  1000);  Baunabd,  Histoire  de  la  Vinirable  Mh'e  Barat 
(Paris,  1876.  1900).  tr.  Fullbrton  (Roehampton,  1876). 

Janet  Stuart. 

Gran  (Hungarian  Ebztergom;  Lat.  Strigonium), 
Archdiocese  of  (Strigoniensis),  in  Hungary.  From 
the  earliest  time  of  its  existence  (eighth  century)  up  to 
the  bc^nning  of  the  eleventh  century  the  Diocese  of 
Gran  embra^d  the  greater  part  of  Hungary,  but  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  its  ex- 
tent was  consicferably  diminished  by  the  founding  of 
the  Archaiocese  of  Bdcs.  Gran,  however,  alwajrs  re- 
mained the  most  important,  and  the  Archbishop  of 
Gran  was  looked  upon  as  tne  Primate  of  Hungary. 
The  jurisdiction  of  Gran  extended  ori^ally  over  the 
whole  of  Upper  Hungary  to  the  territory  of  the  Cu- 
mans  beyond  the  Theiss.  In  1766  two  more  dioceses 
were  established  in  this  territory,  Neusohl  (Beszter- 
cze-Bdnya)  and  Rosenau  (Rozsny6),  and  in  1804  the 
Diocese  of  Erlau  was  separated  from  the  Archdiocese 
of  Gran,  and  raised  to  the  archiepiscopal  rank,  with  the 
suffragan  sees  of  Rosenau,  Szepes,  Kaschau  (Kassa), 
and  Szatm^r .  In  1 776  the  Greek  Ruthenian  Bishoprics 
of  Eperies,  Munk^U»,  and  Kreuz  (Kdr56)  were  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Gran ;  but 
in  1852  Kreuz  was  transferred  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Agram,  to  which  it  had  formerly  belonged.  The  Arch- 
diocese of  Gran  extends  to-day  over  fourteen  counties, 
and  has  as  suffragans  Neutra  (Nyitra),  Veszpr^m, 
Waitzen  (Vicz),  Steinamanger  (Szombathely),  Stuhl- 
weissenbun?  (Sz^kes-Feh^rvAr),  Raab  (Gy6r),  FUnf- 
kirchen  (F^).  and  Neusohl  (Besztercze-B^ya) 
(Latin  Rite),  also  the  Greek  Ruthenian  Dioceses  of 
Eperies  and  Munkics.  There  are  three  chapters,  the 
metropolitan  chapter  at  Gran  with  22  members,  the 
collegiate  chapter  of  Presburg  with  13  members,  and 
the  chapter  at  T^mau  (Nag^-Szombat)  with  6  mem- 
bers. The  archdiocese  is  divided  into  three  vicariates, 
Gran,  Tvmau,  and  Budapest;  8  archdeaneries,  the 
cathedral  deanery  of  Gran  and  those  of  Bars,  Hont, 
Komom  (Komdjt)m),  Neograd  (N6gr£d),  Neutra 
(Nvitra),  Presburg  (Pozsony).  and  Sassin  (Sasv6r); 
and  46  deaneries,  of  which  21  belong  to  the  Vicariate 
of  Gran,  one  to  that  of  Budapest,  and  24  to  that  of 
Tymau.  There  are  also  in  the  archdiocese  13  abbeys, 
and  24  exempt  abbeys.  At  one  time  the  parishes 
numbered  over  a  thousand,  and  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century  exceeded  nine  hund red .  On  ac- 
count of  the  continued  advance  of  the  Turks  and  the 
spread  of  Protestantism,  this  number  rapidly  de- 


great  Peter  Pizminy,  the  zealous  opponent  of  Protes-     nected  with  that  of  Hungry.     Up  ti 

^ntiam,  conditions  were  improved,  and  after  his  death     century  the  archbishop  resided  at  Graii,  uui  wik:ii  iit 

there  were  185  parishes.    To-day  the  numl)er  is  givpn    Turks  overran  Hnnrary  after  the  battle  of  Mohdcs.  ii 


,8  480,  and  the  total  number  of  clergy  in  thearcndio-  which  the  primate,  Ladislaus  SzdikSn  {1524-26).  ^ 
cese  92.1,  of  whom  729  are  occupiedwith  the  cure  of  slain,  Paul  V!ir(lai(1527-49)  removed  the  seat  to  Pre»- 
soula.  There  are'  5  seminaries  for  the  training  of  bura,  and  when  Gran  aliiO  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
-priests,  the  central  semmary  at  Budapest,  that  of  Turks,  to  Tyrnau,  which  remained  the  seat  of  the 
Gran,  the  Pazmaneum  at  Vienna,  and  the  preparatory  archdiocese  until  1820.  This  period  is  one  of  the  sud- 
seminariesatPresburgand  Tynmu.  There  is  also  an  deal  epochs  in  the  history  of  the  see.  Ecclesiastical 
archiepiscopal  eyranaa[um  connected  with  the  Tyrnau  diseiptme  became  relaxed,  and  notwithstanding  the 
Beminary.  The  students  number  about  262,  There  efforts  of  Nikolaus  Olih  (1563-68),  Protestantism 
are  in  the  archdiocese  134  religious  houses  of  men  and  gained  more  and  more  territory.  Af  t«r  the  death  nf 
women,  whose  members  number  collectively  2487.  Anton  Veranotiua  (1569-7H),  the  episcopal  see  re- 
in the  three  vicariates  of  the  archdiocese  (1909)  there  mained  vacant  for  twenty-tiiroe  veais.  It  was  the 
are  1,480,531  Catholics,  and  1,057,282  members  of  greatest  of  all  the  archbishops  of  Gran,  PeUs  PfU- 
other  creeds.  mdny  (1616-37),  who  stemmed  the  decline  of  Catholi- 
The  already  existing  See  of  Gran  was  raised  to  met-  cism  in  Gran.    He  succeeded  in  reconciling  with  tht 


ropolitan  rank  by  St.  Stephen  (c.  1000-38),  first  King  Church  many  influential  families  of  Hun^iy^  ana 

of  Hungary,  who  converted  the  cotmtry  to  the  Catho-  thus  brou^t  about  the  ecclesiastical  reorganiiation  ol 

lie  Faith  and  organized  the  Cbureh  there.     He  chose  the  country.     Apulpitoratorof  distinction  he  earned 

for  the  metroporttanseeGran.at  that  time  the  richest  imperishable  fame  by  his  cultivation  of  the  Hungarian 

and  most  important  oity  in  Hungary  and  the  royal  language  and  won  a  lasting  place  in  the  history  uf 

residence.     St.  Adalbert,  Bishop  of  Prague  and  mar-  Hungarian  literature.     For  the  advancement  of  the 

tyr,  was  chosen  patron  of  the  arehldocese.     It  was  Catholic  relig  '   "  '" 

Adalbert  who  converted  the  royal  family  to  the  Catho-  founded  at  V . . , 

lie  Qiurch  and  evangelized  the  country.     The  metro-  the  training  of  priests.     The  University  of  TVmwi 

politan  church  of  Gran 'ia  dedicated  to  him,  the  titular  was  also  founded  Whim,  butwas  transferred  to  Budat 

patron  being  the  Blessed  Vi:^n.     The  first  cathedral  (Ofen)  by  Maria  Theresa.     In  1891  Klaudius  Vasiary 

was  be%un  by  St.  Stephen  in  998.    The  foundation  was  a[)point«d  archbishop. 

stone  oT  the  present  building  was  laid  by  Alexander         In  virtue  of  his  dignity  as  Primate  of  Hungary,  the 

von  Rudnay  (archbishop  1819-^1),  and  it  was  finished  Arehbisbop  of  Gran  posBeases  a  number  of  eitraordi- 

under  Johann  Simor  (1866-92).     In  1198  the  royal  nary  privflegcs,     Johann  von  Kanizsai  (I387-141S) 

palace  at  Gran  was  given  t«  the  archbishop  for  his  resi-  was  the  first  to  be  mentioned  as  Primate  of  Hunearr, 

dence.     The  first  arehbishop  was  Astericus  Anastasius  though  the  primacy  was  connected  with  the  Arcndio- 

(Astrik-Anastaz)   (990-c.  1036),  who  was  the  most  cese  of  Gran  as  early  as  1279.     The  primate  is  entitlol 

loyal  co-operator  of  King  Stephen  in  organizing  Catho-  to  hold  national  synods,  is  Legatus  Natusof  the  Holy 

lie  Hungary,  and  who  was  sent  by  Stephen  to  Rome  to  Roman  Church,  has  therefore  the  rirfit,  inside  of  hu 

becpapal  approval  for  the  organization  of  the  Clhurch  legation,  to  have  the  cross  carried  l>efore  bim,  and 

in  Hungary,  and  to  ask  for  the  crown.     It  was  also  deals  directly  with  the  Holy  See.     As  primate  he  bv 

Astericus  who,  in  the  year  1000,  crowned  Stephen  as  the  right  to  visit  the  episcopal  sees  and  the  religiou* 

first  Kii)g  of  Hungary  with  the  crown  sent  by  Pope  houses  in  Hungry,  with  the  exception  of  the  exempt 

Sylvester  II.  Arcbabbey  of  Fannonhalma  (S.  Hartintis  in  Hooie 


QEANADA 


723 


GRANADA 


Pannoniffi).  Since  1715  the  primate  has  also  been  a 
Prince  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  having  the  title  of 
Prince  Primate.  He  is  the  chief  and  privy  chancellor 
of  Hungary,  and  therefore  keeper  of  the  great  seal  of 
the  kingdom.  Formerly  he  was  also  a  member  of  the 
supreme  court,  and  in  still  earlier  times,  governor, 
viceroy,  and  First  Count  {Erbobergesvan)  of  the 
County  of  Gran.  To  the  primate  also  belonged  the 
right  to  superintend  the  royal  mint,  and  for  this  he 
received  a  certain  sum  out  of  its  revenues  (jus  pMeti). 
According  to  an  ancient  custom,  he  has  the  right  of 
crowning  the  king  and  of  anointing  the  queen.  By  a 
gift  of  archiepiscopal  property  he  was  at  one  time  able 
to  confer  nobility  (Praduiladel),  The  right  to  take  an 
o&th  before  a  court  of  justice  through  his  deputy,  and 
not  personally,  was  another  privile^  of  the  Primate  of 
Hungary.  The  primate  is  also  chief  priest  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  Order  of  St.  Stephen,  established  in  1764. 
As  first  banneret  {baro  regnx)  of  Hungary,  he  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Upper  House. 

Knaus,  Mcnumenia  eedesiof  Strigimienaia.  I,  II  (Gran,  1861- 
66);  Frankl,  BeiMige  zur  Oeadi.  der  BrUwicklung  aer  Rechte  des 
Bnxnachofa  von  Gran  aU  Primaa  legatus  naiua  und  GrosahanxUr 
(1866);  ToHOK.  Die  Prima6€  Ungams  (Budapest,  1859);  KarA- 
XBONTI,  Wervtaren  die  eraten  Erzbischdfe  GranaQt  in  SxAzadok, 
XXVI;  Das  katolieehe  Ungam.  II  (Budapest,  1902);  Die  Kami- 
taie  und  St&dte  Ungame.  Komttat  Gran  (Budapest,  1908);  Sch^ 
maHtftnue  deri  ardndiotceaie  Strigonienaia  pro  1909. 

A.  Aldasy. 

Oranada,  Archdiocese  of  (Granatensis),  in 
Spain,  founded  by  St.  Cecilius  about  the  year  64,  was 
made  an  archiepiscopal  see  by  Alexander  VI,  23  Jan., 
1493.  The  history  of  this  city,  the  long  line  of  its 
prelates  (imintemipted  imtil  the  twelfth  century  and 
restored  in  1437),  its  illustrious  men,  and  its  famous 
monuments  can  hardly  be  summarized  within  the 
limits  of  this  brief  article.  In  the  Roman  period  the 
city  appears  as  Municipium  Florentinum  Eliberrit- 
anum.  On  its  Iberian  coins,  minted  in  the  Roman 
republican  period,  the  city  is  called  Ilurir;  on  Latin 
corns,  Iliber  and  Florentia;  on  Visigothic  coins,  Ili- 
berri,  Miberri,  and  Liberri.  Pliny  calls  it  Eliberri: 
Ptolemy,  'l\Kip€pls;  Herodian,  'IXX//3i7p.  01er6n  and 
£3na,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  were  similarly 
called;  the  name  seems  derived  from  the  Basque 
language,  in  which  iri-herri,  or  ili-berrif  signifies  **  new 
town''.  In  the  eighth  century,  under  Arab  domina- 
tion, this  name  was  changed  to  Granada^  ori^allv  the 
name  of  that  particular  Quarter  of  the  city  inhabited 
since  the  thira  century  oy  the  Jews,  to  whom  the 
Mussulman  conquerors  entrusted  the  custody  of  the 
city;  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  several  Palestinian 
peoples  in  the  Old  Testament  are  called  Rimmon, 
"pomegranate"  (in  Spanish,  granada). 

The  famous  codex  of  San  Millan  (St.  Emilian), 
written  in  the  tenth  century,  and  now  preserved  in  the 
Escorial  Library,  supplies  us  with  a  catalogue  of  the 
bishops  of  Elliberis,  sixty-two  in  number,  from  St. 
Cecilius  to  Agapius  (64  to  957).  The  names  of  many 
of  these  and  the  periods  of  their  reifi;ns  are  also  estab- 
lished by  the  Acts  of  coimcils,  by  their  own  writing, 
and  by  other  authors,  native  and  foreign.  St.  Cecil- 
ius, whose  feast  was  kept  by  the  visigothic  and 
Mozarabic  Church  on  1  May,  was  one  of  the  seven 
Apostolic  men  sent  from  Rome  by  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul  to  preach  the  Cxospel  in  Hispania  Bsetica,  where 
they  suffered  martyrdom.  On  15  May,  301,  the 
famous  synod  known  as  the  Councfl  of  Eliberis  assem- 
bled at  Granada  (see  Elvira,  Council  of),  forty-three 
bishops  being  present,  among  them,  besides  Flavian 
of  Granada,  the  great  Hosius  of  Cordova,  Liberius  of 
M^rida,  Melantius  of  Toledo,  Decentius  of  Le6n,  and 
Valerius  of  Saragossa.  The  eighty-one  canons  of  this 
council  reflect  the  state  of  dogma  and  church  discipline 
in  a  time  when  persecution  and  antagonism  were 
aroused  by  Roman  imperial  authority,  the  Jews, 
heretics,  and  schismatics.  St.  Gregory,  Bishop  of 
Elliberis,  who  assisted  at  the  Councils  of  Sirmium  and 


Rimini,  and  was  the  constant  antagonist  of  the  Arian 
heresy,  bears  witness  to  the  purity  of  Catholic  faith 
which  this  see  always  maintained.  Bishop  Stephanus 
(Esteban)  assisted  at  the  Third  Council  of  Toledo 
(589),  which  extinguished  the  Arian  heresy  in  Spain; 
Bishop  Bisinus  at  the  Second  of  Seville  (619);  Bishop 
Felix  at  the  Fourth  of  Toledo  (633) ;  the  signatures  of 
successive  bishops  of  Elliberis  in  later  councils  attest 
the  accuracy  of  the  aforesaid  San  Millan  catalogue. 
In  777  Bishop  Egila  was  honoured  by  letters  of  praise 
from  Adrian  I.  St.  Leovigild,  who,  in  the  year  852, 
suffered  martyrdom  at  C6rdova,  was  a  native  of 
Granada ;  and,  not  long  after  (858),  the  See  of  Granada 
was  occupied  by  the  wise  Recesmund,  memorable  for 
his  astronomical  and  literary  achievements,  as  well  as 
his  embassies  on  behalf  of  Abd-er-Rahman  III,  Caliph 
of  C6rdova,  to  the  Emperors  of  Germany  and  of  Con- 
stantinople. It  was  to  him  that  Liutprand  dedicated 
his  history  of  the  kines  and  emperors  of  Europe. 

The  Se!^  of  Granada  remained  inviolate  until  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  Christian  (Moz- 
arabic) population  having  called  to  their  aid  Alfonso 
the  Fighter  (el  BatalUidor)^  King  of  Aragon  and  Na- 
varre, and  conqueror  of  Saragossa,  he  led  his  hosts 
within  sight  of  Granada;  but  the  expedition  being 
defeated,  some  of  the  Christians  departed  with  the 
kine,  and  the  Almohades  carried  off  the  remainder 
by  force  to  Marrucos.  Thenceforward  the  Christian 
population  consisted  of  captives  and  foreigners,  and 
no  bishop  held  the  title  of  Granada.  Gams,  in  his 
"Series  Episcoporum",  makes  St.  Pedro  Pascual  (d.  6 
Dec,  1300)  a  Bishop  of  Granada  in  the  second  half  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  an  error  which  has  been  cor- 
rected since  the  publication  of  the  "  Regesta"  of  Boni- 
face VIII  (Paris,  1884).  The  new  list  of  Bishops  of 
Granada  begins  13  Sept.,  1437,  and  continues  until 
1492,  according  to  the  researches  of  Eubel  in  the  Vati- 
can registers. 

With  the  surrender  of  the  city  to  the  Catholic 
sovereigns  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  (2  Jan.,  1492),  be- 
gan a  period  of  splendour  for  the  See  of  Granada.  A 
WW  days  after  that  event,  the  Catholic  sovereigns 
there  ratified  with  Christopher  Columbus  the  compact 
which  was  to  result,  before  the  end  of  that  year,  in  the 
discovery  of  the  New  World.  On  30  Jan.  they  issued 
the  decree  of  expulsion  against  all  Jews  inhabiting 
their  dominions  in  Spain  and  Italy. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  first  Archbishop  of  Gra- 
nada, the  queen's  confessor,  transferred  from  the  See 
of  Avila,  was  not  hostile  to  Columbus,  but  his  constant 
friend,  as  Don  Antonio  Sanchez  Moguel,  Member  of 
the  (Spanish)  Royal  Academy  of  History,  has  prom- 
ised to  demonstrate.  In  this  modem  period  of  more 
than  four  centuries'  duration,  Granadalias  been  ruled 
by  many  archbishops  eminent  for  learning  and  virtue, 
e.  g.  Caniinal  Caspar  de  Avalos,  who  founded  the  uni- 
versity (1531),  Pedro  Guerrero,  a  distinguished  mem- 
ber of  the  Coimcil  of  Trent,  ana  Manuel  Bonel  y  Orbe, 
Patriarch  of  the  Indies;  it  nas  given  birth  to  innumer- 
able writers,  among  whom  the  Dominican  Luis  de 
Granada  and  the  «^uit  Francisco  Su^rez  are  con- 
spicuous ;  it  was  the  cradle  of  the  Order  of  St.  John  of 
God.  Indeed,  it  has  lon^  been  a  centre  of  vigorous 
spiritual  life,  proof  of  which  is  abundantly  furnished 
by  its  churches,  its  conventual  buildings,  and  the  vast 
material^  resources  there  devoted  to  works  of  charity. 
Its  cathedral  contains  the  tombs  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  and  of  the  Empress  Isabella,  wife  of  Charles 
V.  Early  in  the  present  century,  that  famous  monu- 
ment of  Spanish  art^  the  Cartuja  (Chartreuse)  of 
Granada,  from  which  its  austere  anchorites  had  been 
driven  by  the  barbarous  decree  of  exclaustration 
(1835),  was  acquired  and  restored  by  the  Jesuits,  who 
have  established  in  it  their  novitiate  for  New  Castile, 
Estremadura,  and  Andalusia,  also  a  school  of  the 
sacred  sciences,  and  a  iieismological  and  astronomical 
observatory  which  publishes  9.  periodical   bulletin 


ORANADA 


724 


ORANOOLAS 


highly  valued  in  scientific  circles  both  in  the  Old  and 
the  New  Worid. 

HObnbb,  hhtcriptumea  Hispania  UUina  (Berlin.  1860,  1S92), 
285~292»  882-885;  Inscriptionea  Hispania  Christiana  (Berlin, 
1871).  33. 34.  Supplem.  (Berlin.  1900).  58;  99-102;  Fita.  B(detin 
ds  la  Real  Aeademia  de  la  Hxsioria  (Madrid,  1892).  XXI.  u; 
Bspalia  Sagrada  (Madrid,  1754),  XII.  79-220;  Gams.  Series 
eptacoporum  (1873).  34-36. 38:  Supplem.  84;  Eubbl.  Hierarchia 
eeclesxcuUica  medii  CBvi  (Munich.  1901).  178;  Simonbt.  Hiatoria 
de  los  mozdrabes  de  Espafia  (Madrid,  1897-1903).  938;  db  GAl- 
▼BZ,  San  Pedro  Pasciud  ainspo  de  Ja&n  y  mdrtir  (Ja^n.  1903), 
325-329;  BuUeHn  de  la  SociSU  hdge  d*  Astronomie  (Jan..  1908); 
CompUs  rendus  de  la  primera  Asamblea  general  de  Sismcloffia 
(The  Hague.  Sept.,  1907). 

F.  Ftta. 

Granada,  Universitt  of. — The  origin  of  this  uni- 
versity is  to  be  traced  to  the  Arab  school  at  Cordova, 
which,  when  the  city  was  captured  by  St.  Ferdinand 
in  1236,  was  removed  to  Granada  and  there  continued. 
When  Granada  in  its  turn  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Catholic  sovereigns  one  of  their  earliest  and  chief  cares 
was  to  secure  the  preservation  of  letters  and  the  art  of 
imparting  knowledge,  in  which  the  Arabfi  had  bc^n  so 
well-versed,  and  the  school  was  taken  under  their 
protection.  However,  it  did  not  receive  the  status  of 
a  university  until  the  reign  of  Charles  V,  when  a  Bull 
of  erection,  dated  1531,  was  issued  by  Clement  VII. 
The  institution  is  endowed  with  privil^es  similar  to 
those  enjoyed  by  the  Universities  of  Bologna,  l^aris, 
Salamanca,  and  Alcaic  de  Henares.  The  lar^  build- 
ine  which  it  occupies  was  erected  by  the  Jesmts  and  is 
admirably  suitea  to  its  purpose.  The  curriculum 
covers  a  wide  field,  the  faculties  including  those  of  law, 
medicine,  social  science,  etc.  The  umversity  has  a 
seismological  station  in  the  observatory  of  Uartuja. 
The  magnificent  library  contains  40,000  volumes,  and 
includes  a  polyglot  Bible,  several  valuable  works  of 
theology,  and  some  Arabic  MSS. 

Blanche  M.  Kbllt. 

Orancolas,  Jean,  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  theo- 
logian, liturgist ;  b.  near  Chateaudun,  about  1660 ;  d.  at 
Paris,  1  Ausust,  1732.  Having  received  the  degree 
of  Ekictor  oiTheology  of  the  faculty  of  Paris  in  1686, 
he  became  chaplain  to  the  brother  of  Louis  XIV.  He 
pronounced  the  funeral  oration  of  this  prince,  but  his 
panegyric  displeased  the  son  of  the  deceased,  the  Duke 
of  Ondans.  future  Regent  of  France,  who  dismissed 
him  from  nis  house.  His  unfortunate  essay  caused 
Grancolas  to  abandon  official  eloc[uenoe,  and,  having 
devoted  much  time  to  studying  litureical  ceremonies 
and  comparing  the  various  iisages  with  the  text  of  the 
ancient  writers  who  have  given  an  account  of  them,  he 
undertook  to  communicate  to  the  public  his  observa- 
tions on  this  head.  His  first  work  aealt  with  the  anti- 
?|uity  of  the  ceremonies  of  the  sacraments.  The 
avourable  reception  accorded  this  endeavour  led  Gran- 
colas to  publish  the  next  year  a  study  of  the  custom  of 
dippins  the  consecrated  bread  in  the  wine.  However, 
the  autnor  was  desirous  of  participating  in  less  severe 
auestions,and  wi^ed  to  engage  in  theological  polemics. 
At  that  time  the  matter  of  Quietism  was  creating  a 
^at  stir  in  the  world,  and  Grancolas  conceived  the 
idea  of  plunging  into  the  quarrel  by  a  refutation  of  the 
heresy  which  he  entitled  ''  Le  Qui^tisme  contraire  au 
doctnne  des  sacraments"  (Quietism  contrary  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Sacraments),  and  which  appeared  in 
1693. 

This  work  contains  a  history  of  the  life,  doctrine, 
and  condemnation  of  Molinos.  Grancolas  herein  sets 
forth  the  principles  of  the  Spanish  mystic  and  of  hb 
followers,  whicn  principles  he  proceeds  to  refute 
from  Scripture  and  the  tradition  of  the  Fathers. 
This  new  work  attracted  little  attention,  and  shared 
the  fate  of  so  many  other  theological  demonstrations 
called  forth  by  the  Quietist  heresy  and  scarcely  re- 
membered to^ay.  However,  from  his  own  point  of 
view,  Grancolas  is  master  of  his  subject  and  nandles 
it  firmly,  but  he  displays  the  usual  qualities  and  d^ 


fects  found  in  his  other  works,  namely,  an  erudition 
of  the  first  order  derived  directly  from  original  sources, 
a  profound  and  wide  acquaintance  with  the  question 
he  treats  and  germane  topics,  a  too  evident  rudeness 
of  expression  and  lack  of  culture,  as  well  as  an  obvious 
disdain  for  composition.  His  works  offend  chiefly  in 
this  last  particular.  Grancolas  scarcely  took  the 
trouble  to  arranjge  and  connect  the  points  of  an  ai^gu- 
ment,  being  satisfied  to  throw  them  into  a  he^^  luid 
deprived  them  by  this  disorder  of  a  part  of  their  de- 
monstrative value.  Despite  these  defects  idl  the 
works  of  Grancolas  retain  their  value  as  books  of  refer- 
ence. His  collections  of  texts  do  not  do  away  wiUi 
the  necessity  of  having  recourse  to  originals,  although 
the  translations  he  gives  are  generally  exact  and  very 
clear,  but  he  is  useml,  inasmuch  as  he  omits  nothing 
essential  and  also,  if  necessary^  in  determining  the 
sense  of  a  word.  An  original  mmd,  he  belongs  to  the 
theological  school  of  Thomaasin  and  Petau  mo  read- 
ily replace  discussion  by  the  exposition  of  traditional 
opinions  in  chronological  order,  but  he  scarcely  troubles 
to  develop  the  sense  of  his  texts.  His  real  originality 
is  as  a  litui^t,  although  even  here  he  does  not  rise 
above  the  second  ranx.  Ingenious  without  being 
systematic,  imaginative  without  beine  adventurous, 
the  commentary  in  most  of  his  works  is  valuable, 
especially  in  the  "Ancien  sacramentaire  de  I'E^ise" 
and  in  the  ''Commentaire  sur  le  Br^viaire  romain". 

His  principal  writings  are:  "Traits  de  TanUquit^ 
des  c^n^momes  des  sacrements"  (Paris,  1692);  "De 
rintinction,  ou  de  la  coutume  de  tremper  le  pain  con- 
sacr6  dans  le  vin''  (Paris,  1693) ;  "  Le  Quidtisme  con- 
traire ^  la  doctrine  des  sacrements"  (Paris,  1693); 
"  Instructions  sur  la  religion  tiroes  de  TEcriture  sainte" 
(Paris,  1693);  "La  Science  des  confesseurs  ou  la 
mani^re  d'administrer  le  sacrement  de  Penitence" 
(Paris,  1696);  "Histoire  de  la  communion  sous  une 
seule  espdce,  avec  un  Traits  de  la  concomitance,  ou  de 
la  Presence  du  Corps  et  du  Sane  de  J^us  Christ  sous 
chaoue  espdce''.  (Paris,  1696);  '  L'ancienne  discipline 
de  1  Eglise  sur  la  Confession  et  sur  les  pratiques  les 
plus  importantes  de  la  Penitence"  (Paris,  1697), 
"  Heures  sacr^es  ou  exereice  du  chr6tien  pour  entendre 
la  messe  et  pour  approcher  des  saerements,  tir6  de 
TEcriture  Sainte"  (Paris,  1697):  "Tradition  de 
TEglise  sur  le  p4ch^  originel  et  sur  la  reprobation  des 
enfants  morts  sans  bapteme''  (Paris,  1698) ;  "  L'ancien 
p^nitentiel  de  TE^glise  ou  les  penitences  que  I'on  im- 
posait  autrefois  pour  chaque  p6che  et  les  devoirs  de 
tons  les  etats  et  professions  presents  par  les  saints 
Pdres  et  par  les  conciles"  (Paris,  1698) ,"  Les  anciennee 
liturgies  ou  la  mani^re  dont  on  a  dit  la  sainte  Messe 
dans  chaque  si^le  dans  les  £}glises  d'Orient  et  dans 
celles  d'Occident"  (Paris,  1697);  "L'ancienne  sacre- 
mentaire  de  FEglise,  oii  sont  toutes  les  pratiques  qui 
s'observaient  dans  radministration  des  saerements 
chez  les  Grecs  et  chez  les  Latins"  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1690- 
99) ;  "  La  morale  pratique  de  TE^ise  sur  les  preceptes 
du  Decalogue :  ou  la  manidre  de  conduire  les  lUnes  dans 
le  sacrement  de  penitence''  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1701);  "La 
tradition  de  I'Eglise  dans  le  soulagement  des  es^ 
claves"  [J.  G.  (?)]  (Paris,  1703) ;  "  Traits  de  la  Messe  et 
de  Poffice  divin''  (Paris,  1713);  "Dissertations  siir  les 
messes  quotidiennes  et  sur  la  confession"  (Paris,  1715) ; 
"  Le  Br6viaire  des  latques  ou  POffice  Divin  abr§ge" 
(Paris,  1715);  "Les  catechismes  de  Saint  Cyrille  de 
Jerusalem  avec  des  notes  et  des  dissertations"  (Paris, 
1715);  "Commentaire  historique  sur  le  Br^viaire 
romain"  (Paris,  1700,  and  Venice,  1734);  "La  critique 
abr6g6e  des  ouvrages  des  auteura  eccl^siasticiues"  (2 
vols.,  Paris,  1716);  "Instruction  sur  le  Jubiie  avec 
des  resolutions  de  plusieurs  cas  but  oette  matiere" 
(Paris,  1722);  "Histoire  abi^g^e  de  I'E^^,  de  la 
ViUe  et  de  FUniversitede  Paris'^  (Paris,  1728); "  L'lm- 
itation  de  J^sus  Christ,  traduction  nouvelle  pr6cedfe 
d'une  Dissertation  sur  I'auteur  de  oe  livre''  (Paris, 
1729).    Grancolas  favours  the  claims  of  Ubertino  d 


OaANDE&ATH 


725 


GaANDMONT 


Casale,  a  Franciscan  who  lived  shortlv  before  the 
fourteenth  century,  to  the  authorship  of  the  Imitation. 

Do  Put,  BiMio(J^9ue</ea  auteun  ecd.  (seventeenth  century); 
HoBlBi.  Orand  dietumn,  AittoKgua,  IV,  179-80. 

H.  Leclercq. 

GrandwathiTHEODOR,  b.  19  June,  1839,  at  Giesen- 
kirchen,  Rhine  Province;  d.  19  March,  1902,  at  Val- 
kenburg,  Holland.  After  completing  the  course  in 
the  gymnasium  at  Neuss,  he  studied  theology  in  the 
University  of  TQbingen,  and  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  at  Monster,  Westphalia  (3  April,  1860).  Be- 
tween 1862  and  1874  he  finished  his  studies  in  the 
classics,  philosophy,  theology,  and  canon  law.  In 
1874  he  was  appointed  professor  of  canon  law  in  the 
college  of  Ditton  Hall,  England,  where  from  1876  to 
1887  he  taueht  dogma  and  apologetics.  In  1887  he 
was  sent  to  the  college  of  the  Society  at  Exaeten,  Hol- 
land, to  succeed  Father  Schneemann  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  "Acta  et  Decreta  Concilii  Vaticani*'.  In 
1893  he  was  called  to  Rome,  where  Leo  XIII  placed 
the  archives  of  the  Vatican  Council  at  his  disposal, 
with  a  view  to  a  history  of  that  council.  In  189/  and 
1898  he  replaced  the  professor  of  apologetics  at  the 
Gregorian  University.  In  1901  failing  nealth  com- 
pelled him  to  retire  to  the  college  at  Valkenburg, 
where  he  prepared  the  first  two  volumes  of  his  history 
of  the  Vatican  CounciL 

Granderath's  name  will  live  for  ever  among  scholars 
in  connexion  with  his  monumental  labours  on  the 
Vatican  Council.  In  preparation  for  them  he  first 
edited  the  "Acta  et  Decreta  sacrosancti  oecumenici 
Concilii  Vaticani"  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1890),  the  seventh 
volume  of  the  "  Acta  et  Decreta  sacrorum  Conciliorum 
recentiorum''  in  the  "Collectio  Lacensis".  This  was 
followed  by  "Constitutiones  Dogmatics  ss.  oecumenici 
Concilii  Vaticani  ex  ipsis  ejus  actis  ^cplicatse  atque 
illustratse  "  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1892).  The  publication 
of  his  "Geschichte  des  vaticanischen  Koncils  von 
seiner  ersten  AnkOndigungbis  zu  seiner  Vertagung, 
nach  den  authentischen  Dokumenten  dargestellt  ' 
was  continued  after  the  author's  death  Inr  his^ellow- 
Jesuit  Konrad  Kirch.  Two  volumes  of  this  work, 
which  the  author  himself  prepared  for  the  press,  were 
issued  in  1903  at  Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  the  first 
dealing  with  the  preliminary  history  and  the  second 
wiUi  the  proceedings  of  the  council  to  the  end  of  the 
third  public  session.  The  third  and  last  volume  was 
published  in  1906  and  treats  of  the  final  proceedings. 
A  French  translation  is  being  issued   at   Brussels 

(1908^ ) ,  The  ^at  merit  of  Granderath  's  work  con- 

fdsts  in  his  refutation  of  biased  accounts  of  the  council 
animated  by  hostility  to  the  Church;  he  opposes  to 
them  a  history  based  upon  authentic  materials.  For 
the  first  time  the  unabridged  text  of  the  acts  of  the 
council,  especially  of  the  discourses  delivered  in  the  gen- 
eral congregations,  was  laid  before  the  public.  Gran- 
derath was  also  the  author  of  many  apologetic,  dogma- 
tic, and  historical  articles  in  the  "Stimmen  aus 
Maria-Laach"  (1874-99),  the  "Zeitschrift  far  kath. 
Theologie"  (1881-86),  and  the  "Katholik"  (1898). 
The  second  edition  of  the  "Kirchenlexikon''  contains 
also  several  lengthy  articles  from  his  pen,  among 
others  that  on  the  Vatican  Council  (XII,  607-33). 

LauchbBt  in  Bioffraphiadiea  Jahrbuch  (Berlin.  1904),  VII» 
265. 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 

Orandidier,  Philippe- Andr£,  priest  and  historian, 
b.  at  Strasburg,  Alsace,  9  Nov.,  1752;  d.  at  the  Abbe^ 
of  Luntzel  (Lucelles),  Sundgau,  11  Oct.,  1787.  This 
gifted  scholar  was  appointed  archivist  of  the  Diocese 
of  Strasburg  at  the  earlv  age  of  eighteen  by  the  prince- 
archbishop,  Cardinal  de  Kohan,  and  at  twent^r-five 
had  been  admitted  to  twen^-one  scientific  societies 
in  France  and  Germany.  His  forte  was  critical  in- 
vestigation, but  his  intense  application  soon  under- 
mised  bis  health,  and  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty- 


four.  In  recognition  of  his  services  he  was  made 
canon  of  Strasburg,  and,  shortly  before  his  death, 
royal  historiographer  for  Alsace.  We  owe  to  him  two 
Volumes  of  the  Histoire  de  I'^lise  .et  des  ^vdques- 
princes  de  Strasbouig  depuia  la  tondation  de  V^vMk^ 
jusqu'A  nos  jours"  (Strasbuijg,  1776-78),  an  account 
of  the  early  ecclesiastical  history  of  Alsace  to  965. 
From  the  manuscripts  of  Grandidier  Liblin  continued 
this  monumental  work  imder  the  title:  "(Euvres  his- 
toriques  in^dites  de  Ph.-A.  Grandidier"  (Colmar, 
186^7),  in  six  volumes.  Pius  VI  expressed  his  ad- 
miration of  Grandidier's  work  and  encouraged  the 
young  savant  to  further  labours.  The  other  canons 
of  Strasburg  therefore  held  themselves  slighted  and  so 
opposed  Grandidier 's  scientific  methods — even  ques- 
tioning the  soundness  of  his  faith — that  for  a  while  he 
dropped  all  historical  work.  He  soon  yielded,  how- 
ever, to  his  love  of  science,  and  gave  new  evidence  of 
his  skill  in  historical  research  by  the  "Essais  histo- 
riques  et  topographiques  sur  Tl^glise  cathi§drale  de 
Strasbourg"  (Strasburg,  1782)  and  by  the  "Histoire 
eccl^siastique,  militaire,  civile  et  litt^raire  de  la  pro- 
vince d'Alsace"  (Strasburg,  1787).  Recently  P.  In- 
gold  edited  in  five  volumes  the  correspondence  of  this 
savant:  "Nouvelles  oeuvres  in^dites;  Les  Corres- 
pondants  de  Grandidier"  (Paris,  1895-97). 

SfACH.Eloqe  hiatcriqtie  de  Grandidier  (Colmar,  1851);  Iobm* 
UAbbi  Orandidier  dana  eea  entvres  cKoiaiea  (Strasburg,  1865). 
See  also  Notice  nor  la  vie  et  lea  cmvree  de  Grandidier  (Colmar, 
1858). 

Patricius  Schlagbr. 

Orandmont,  Abbet  and  Order  of,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Hte-Vienne,  France.  The  exact  date  of  the 
foundation  of  the  order  is  very  uncertain.  The  tradi- 
tional story  involves  serious  chronological  difficulties, 
and  is  bas^  on  a  Bull  of  Gregory  VII  now  shown  to  be 
a  forgery  (see  Mart^ne  and  Durand,  Ampl.  Coll.,  VI, 
PraefT).  The  founder,  St.  Stephen,  is  said  to  have 
settled  in  the  valley  of  Muret  near  Limoges  in  1076, 
but  Mart^ne  considers  that  the  origin  of  the  order  can- 
not be  placed  earlier  than  about  1100.  The  Order  of 
Grandmont  has  been  claimed  bv  both  Benedictines 
and  Canons  Regular  as  a  branch  of  their  respective 
institutes,  although  the  Grandmontines  always  main- 
tained that  they  formed  a  distinct  order.  Mar- 
t^ne  considers  that  St.  Stephen  modelled  his  insti- 
tute upon  the  life  of  the  Carthusians.  The  so-called 
"  Rule  of  St.  Stephen"  was  compiled  at  the  request  of 
the  fourth  prior,  Etienne  de  Liciac,  by  Hu^  of  La- 
certa,  and  embodies  the  customs  of  Grandmont  some 
20  or  30  vears  after  St.  Stephen's  death.  The  founder 
himself  left  no  authentic  writing.  His  maxim  was: 
"There  is  no  rule  save  the  Gospel  of  Christ":  as  this 
was  the  basis  of  all  rules,  to  practise  its  morality  was 
to  fulfil  all  the  duties  of  a  good  religious.  The  early 
Grandmontines  were  noted  for  their  extreme  austerity. 
Poverty  was  most  strictly  observed ;  the  rule  forbade 
the  possession  of  lands,  cfittle,  revenue,  or  impropriate 
churches.  Begging  was  only  permitted  when  Uiere 
was  no  food  in  the  house,  ana  even  then  the  local 
bishop  was  first  to  be  informed  of  their  state.  The 
law  of  silence  was  also  very  severe,  as  were  the  rules 
of  fasting  and  abstinence. 

After  the  founder's  death  in  1124  his  disciples  mi- 
grated to  the  neighbouring  rocky  desert  of  Grandmont, 
owing  to  a  dispute  about  the  ownership  of  Muret. 
Under  Etienne  de  Liciac  the  order  spread  rapidly, 
and  in  1170  numbered  sixty  monasteries,  mostly  m 
Aquitaine,  Anjou,  and  Normandy.  Under  his  suc- 
cessor, Bernard  de  Boschiac,  eighty  new  foimdations 
were  made,  and  the  "bons  hommes"  were  to  be  found 
in  nearly  every  diocese  of  France.  The  influence  of  the 
Grandmontines  reached  its  height  in  the  twelfth 
century.  Their  holy  austerity  roused  the  admiration 
of  all  beholders,  and  the  kings  of  En^and  and  France 
vied  with  one  another  in  bestowing  favours  upon  them. 
Henry  II  of  England  had  the  monastery  rebuilt,  and 


GRAND 


726 


GRANT 


St.  Louis  erected  a  Grandmontine  house  at  Vincennes. 
The  golden  age  of  Grandmont  however  lasted  only^ 
some  sixty  years  after  the  founder's  death.  Frons^ 
that  time  onwards  the  history  of  the  order  is  an  almost 
uninterrupted  series  of  disputes.  Even  in  the  twelfth 
century  tne  ill-defined  position  of  the  lay  brothers 
caused  troubles.  They  were  far  more  numerous  than 
the  choir-monks,  and  were  given  entire  control  of  all 
temporalities  in  order  that  the  latter  might  be  entirely 
free  to  carry  on  their  spiritual  duties.  Gradual  relaxa- 
tion of  the  rules  of  poverty  led  to  great  possessions, 
and  thus  increased  the  importance  of  the  lay  brothers, 
who  now  claimed  equality  with  the  choir-monks. 
This  led  to  scandalous  scenes.  In  1185  the  lay 
brothers  at  Grandmont  rose  in  open  revolt,  expelled 
Prior  Guillaume  de  Trahinac  with  200  of  the  religious, 
and  set  up  an  intruder.  The  political  situation  em- 
bittered these  dissensions,  the  order  being  divided  into 
two  parties,  French  and  English.  Successive  popes 
tried  to  restore  peace,  but  in  vain.  In  1219  the  prior 
of  Grandmont  and  forty  monks  were  again  expelled 
by  the  rebellious  lay  brothers.  In  1244  the  papal 
delegates  advised  a  union  of  the  order  with  the  Cister- 
cians as  a  means  of  ending  the  disputes.  This  threat 
and  the  expulsion  of  a  large  number  of  monks  pro- 
duced a  certain  degree  of  peace.  Nimibers,  however, 
declined;  about  1150  the  order  had  over  1200  mem- 
bers, but  towards  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century  only  800.  Moreover,  a  relaxation  of  the  rule 
(1224)  led  finally  to  the  cessation  of  all  observance. 

In  1317  John  XXII,  sometimes  said  to  have  been  a 
Grandmontine  monk,  issued  the  Bull  *'  Exigente  deb- 
ito"  to  save  the  order  from  complete  destruction.  Its 
organization  was  altered  and  certain  mitigations  were 
approved.  The  number  of  houses  was  reduced  from 
149  to  39.  The  prior  of  Grandmont  was  made  an 
abbot,  and  the  superiors  of  the  dependent  houses,  who 
had  hitherto  been  known  as  "  Correctors",  were  for  the 
future  to  bear  the  title  of  Prior.  The  Abbot  of  Grand- 
mont was  to  be  elected  by  his  own  community,  and 
not,  as  before,  by  the  deputies  of  the  whole  order. 
A  general  chapter,  to  be  attended  by  the  prior  and  one 
monk  from  each  dependent  house,  was  to  be  held 
annually.  These  vigorous  measures  brought  about  a 
slight  recovery,  but,  in  spite  of  the  vigilance  of  the 
Holy  See  and  the  good  administration  of  the  first 
abbots,  the  improvement  was  of  short  duration.  The 
order  suffered  severely  during  the  Hundred  Years 
War.  From  1471  till  1579  Grandmont  was  held  by 
commendatory  abbots;  shortly  after  the  latter  date 
there  were  only  eighi  monks  in  the  monastery.  The 
Huguenots  seized  the  abbey  on  one  occasion,  but  were 
expelled  by  Abbot  Rigaud  de  Lavaur  in  1604.  In 
1643  Abbot  Georges  Bamy  (1635-1654)  held  a  eeneral 
chapter,  the  first  for  134  years,  at  which  Dom  Charles 
Fr^mon  was  authorized  to  found  the  Strict  Observance 
of  the  Order  of  Grandmont.  This  new  branch,  which 
remained  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  abbot,  was  con- 
spicuous for  the  primitive  austerity  of  its  observance, 
but  never  numbered  more  than  eight  houses.  By  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  two  Obser- 
vances together  numbered  only  about  150  members, 
but  the  quarrels  were  as  frequent  and  as  bitter  as  ever. 
Grandmont  was  one  of  the  first  victims  of  the  Com- 
mission des  R^guliers.  The  religious  of  the  Strict 
Observance  were  dispersed  in  1 780 ^  but  the  struggle 
for  existence  was  prolonged  till  1787,  when  the  iSst 
two  monks  were  ex|>ellcd  from  the  mother-house. 
The  monastery  was  finally  destroyed  at  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  aiid  nothing  but  a  few  frag- 
ments of  wall  now  remains. 

Grandmont  never  produced  any  writers  of  im- 
portance. Apart  from  a  number  of  lives  of  St. 
Stephen,  the  most  important  work  issuing  from  Grand- 
mont was  Gerard  Ithier's  treatise  ''De  institutione 
novitiorum" — a  favourite  spiritual  work  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  usually  but  erroneously  attributed  to  Hugh  of 


St.  Victor.  The  original  habit  of  Grandmont  was  a 
coarse  tunic  with  scapular  and  hood,  brown  in  the 
early  days  but  changed  later  to  black.  The  monks 
gradually  laid  aside  scapular  and  hood  in  favour  o( 
rochet  and  biretta.  The  original  habit  was  resumed 
by  the  Strict  Observance.  The  founder  had  expressly 
forbidden  the  reception  into  the  order  of  houses  of 
religious  women,  nevertheless  four  small  nunneries 
in  me  Diocese  of  Limoges  were  admitted.  Outside 
France  the  order  only  possessed  five  houses,  two  in 
Snain  and  three  in  England.  These  latter,  situated  at 
Aiberbury,  Creswell,  and  Grosmont,  never  attained 
any  importance  and  were  occupied  by  a  very  small 
number  of  monks. 

Beaunicr,  RecueU  hiatorimie  dea  archeviehia^  etc.  (Paria, 
1900);  GuiBBRT,  Destruction  de  Vordre  de  Grandmont  in  BuUdin 
de  la  8oe.  Arch,  et  Hist,  du  Limousin,  XXII-XXV  (Limoges, 
1877);  Hbimbuchbr,  Orden  u.  Kongreqationent  1  (PiMlerbom« 
1907);  Herzoo  and  Hauck,  Realencyklop6die,  Yll  (Leipiis. 
1899);  HfcLTOT,  Hist,  des  Ordres,  VII  (Paris,  171.S).  The  rule 
will  be  found  in  P.  L.,  OCIV,  and  in  MARrfeNB,  Deantiipiia  err/e- 
sia  ritibus,  IV  (Baesano,  1788);  MARTfeNB.  Ampliesima  eoUee- 
tio,  VI;  Haur^au,  Sur  queUjues  ierivaina  de  Vordre  de  Grand- 
mont in  Notices  el  extraiU  dee  M8S.,  XXIV.  pt.  II.  247-57. 

Ratmund  Webster. 

Grand  Rapids,  Diocese  of  (Qrandormensis), 
created  12  May^  1882,  out  of  the  Diocese  of  Detroit, 
and  made  to  mclude  the  lower  peninsula  of  the 
State  of  Michigan,  U.  S.  A.,  north  of  the  southern  line 
of  the  Counties  of  Ottawa,  Montcalm,  Gratiot,  and 
Saginaw,  and  west  of  the  eastern  line  of  the  Counties  of 
Saginaw,  Bay,  and  the  adjacent  islands,  an  area  of 
22,561  square  miles.  In  this  section  there  were  then 
about  50,000  Catholics  attended  by  34  priests.  There 
were  33  churches,  33  missions,  41  stations,  11  parish 
schools,  and  an  orphan  asylum.  In  the  rural  regions 
colonies  of  Belgians  and  emigrants  from  Holland  had 
settled,  with  an  admixture  of  Irish;  to  these  Poles 
have  sm<!e  been  added.  Henry  Joseph  Richter,  ap- 
pointed the  first  bishop,  was  consecrated  at  Grand 
Kapids,  22  April,  1883.  He  was  bom  at  Neuen- 
kirchen,  Duchy  of  Oldenburg,  Germany,  9  April,  1838, 
and  ordained  priest  at  Rome,  10  June,  1865.  Under 
his  direction  tne  diocese  prospered  steadily  in  all  di- 
rections. Several  religious  communities  of  men  are 
located  there:  Franciscans  (both  Minorites  and  Con- 
ventuals), Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Redemptorists, 
and  Premonstratensians.  The  religious  conununities 
of  women  are:  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Sisters  of  Charity 
(Mt.  St.  Joseph,  Ohio),  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame, 
Ursuline  Sisters.  Sisters  of  Charity  (E^mitsbure), 
Sisters  of  Proviaenoe,  Felician  Sisters,  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary,  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Christian  Cliarity. 

Statistics:  Priests  133  (regulars  24);  ecclesiastical 
students  60;  churches  with  resident  priests  91;  mis- 
sions with  churches  92;  stations  38;  chapeU  18; 
academies  fur  girls  2;  high  schools  2,  pupils  242;  par- 
ish schools  66,  pupils  13,545;  orphan  asylums  2. 
inmates  325;  inaustrial  schools  1,  pupils  138  j  total 
voung  people  under  Catholic  care  14,108;  hospitals  7; 
home  for  ^d  poor  1 ;  Catholic  population  126,057. 

Catholic  Dtrectoru  (Milwaukee.  1009);  Rbuss.  Bioo.  Cyd. 
Cath.  Hierarchy  of  UnUed  Slates  (Milwaukee,  1888);  Miekia^ 
Catholie  (Detroit),  files. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Granjon,  Henry.    See  Tucson,  Diocssb  op. 

Granti  Thomas,  first  Bishop  of  South wark;  b.  at 
Ligny-les-Aircs,  Arras,  France,  25  Nov.,  1816;  d.  at 
Rome,  1  June,  1870.  He  was  the  son  of  Bernard 
(irant,  an  Irishman  who  enlisted  in  the  British  army, 
l)ecame  sergeant,  and  finally  purchased  a  commission. 
His  mother,  Ann  MacOowan,  was  also  Irish  by  hiKh. 
In  January,  1829,  he  was  sent  to  Ushaw  College,  where 
he  studiea  until  1836,  when  he  went  to  the  English 
College  at  Rome.  There  he  was  ordained  priest,  28 
Nov.,  1841,  was  created  doctor  of  divinity  and  ap- 


GRANVELL£ 


727 


GBANVELLB 


pointed  as  secretary  to  Cardinal  Acton,  a  position  in 
which  he  acquired  a  thorough  knowledge  of  canon  law, 
and  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  method  of  con- 
ducting ecclesiastical  affairs  at  Rome.  InOctober, 
1S44,  at  the  early  a^  bf  twenty-eight,  he  became 
rector  of  the  English  College,  and  was  made  agent  for 
the  English  bishops.  In  this  capacity  he  was  of  great 
assistance  to  Dr.  Ullathome,  who  was  then  negotiating 
for  the  restoration  of  the  English  hierarchy.  He  also 
translated  for  Propaganda  Si  English  documents  re- 
lating to  the  matter,  and  furnished  the  materials  for 
the  historical  preface  to  the  Decree  of  1850.  A-  year 
later,  he  was  appointed  to  the  new  Diocese  of  South- 
wark,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  on  6  July,  1851. 
Though  he  came  to  England  almost  as  a  stranger,  he 
soon  won  the  confidence  of  Catholics  and  others.  As 
the  Government  was  shy  of  transacting  business  di- 
rectly with  Cardinal  Wiseman,  many  negotiations  were 
carried  on  by  Dr.  Grant,  who  was  specially  successful 
in  obtaining  from  the  Government  the  appointment 
of  military  and  naval  chaplains,  as  well  as  prison 
chaplains. 

To  the  newly  appointed  hierarchy  he  was,  as  Bishop 
Ullathome  testified,  most  useful:  ''His  acuteness  of 
learning,  readiness  of  resource  and  knowledge  of  the 
fonns  of  ecclesiastical  business  made  him  invaluable  to 
our  joint  counsels  at  home,  whether  in  synods  or  in  our 
yearly  episcopal  meetings;  and  his  obligingness,  his 
untiring  spirit  of  work,  and  the  expedition  and  accu- 
racy with  which  he  struck  off  documents  in  Latin, 
Italian,  or  English,  naturally  brought  the  greater  part 
of  such  work  on  his  shoulders."  In  the  administra- 
tion of  his  diocese  he  proved  equal  to  the  task  of 
organization,  which  was  necessary  in  an  age  of  rapid 
expansion,  while  the  remarkable  sanctity  of  his  pri- 
vate life  led  to  his  being  generally  regarded  as  a  samt, 
and  caused  Pius  IX,  when  he  heard  of  his  death,  to 
exclaim  "Another  gaint  in  heaven!*'  The  virtues  of 
charity  and  humility  in  particular  were  practised  by 
him  in  an  heroic  degree.  The  last  years  of  his  life 
were  spent  in  great  suffering,  causecl  by  cancer,  and 
when  he  set  out  to  attend  the  Vatican  Council  at  Rome 
in  1870,  he  knew  that  he  would  not  return.  He  was 
ai^pointed  member  of  the  Congregation  for  the  Oriental 
Rites  and  the  Apostolic  Missions,  but  was  too  ill  to 
take  an  active  part  in  the  proceedings.  After  death 
his  body  was  brought  bacK  to  England  for  burial. 
His  works  were  a  translation  of  the  "Hidden  Treas- 
ure" of  Blessed  Leonard  of  Port  Maurice  (Edinburgh, 
1855),  and  "  Meditations  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  before 

Renewal  of  Vows"  (London,  1874). 

O'Meara  (pseudonym  Grace  Ramsat),  Thomas  Grani,  First 
Bishop  of  SmUkwark  (London,  1874);  Ullatiiornb,  Historu  of 
the  ReslonUion  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy  in  England  (London, 
1871):  ViRTUB  in  The  Month,  New  Series,  II;  Gillow,  BxbL 
EHct.  lEng.  Cath.,  a.  v.;  Cooper  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Pur- 
cell,  Life  of  Cardinal  Manning  (London,  1895),  II.  56-57,  77* 
113,  149,  423;  Ward,  Life  and  Times  of  Cardinal  Wiseman 
(London,  1897),  L  272;  II,  338.  346;  Ullathornb,  Character 
o/ BtsAop  Gntn/ in  l^ert  of  A  re^taAop  C/UoXA^Trne  (London,  8.  d. ) ; 
Thomas  Orant,  The  Children's  Prelate  in  The  Messenger  (New 
York,  1891),  pp.  510-518. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Oranvelle,  Antoinb  Perrenot  de,  known  in  his- 
tory as  Cardinal  de  Granyelle  (Granvella),  b.  at 
Omans  in  Franche-Comt4,  20  August,  1517;  d.  at 
Madrid,  21  September,  1586.  He  was  the  son  of  Nico- 
las Perrenot,  prime  minister  of  Charles  V,  studied  at 
Padua  and  Louvain,  and  at  an  early  age  was  intro- 
duced by  his  father  to  political  life.  Ecclesiastical 
favours  and  benefices  were  showered  upon  the  young 
man.  He  became  prothonotary  Apostolic  in  1529, 
archdeacon  of  Besan^on,  archdeacon  of  Cambrai,  and 
was  made  Bishop  of  Arras  in  1538  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one.  He  resided  very  little  in  his  diocese  and  lived  at 
Brussels,  where  he  had  an  active  share  in  his  father's 
political  negotiatiohs.  He  was  charged  with  address- 
ing the  Council  of  Trent  in  the  name  of  the  emperor 
(9  Jan.,  1543),  and  took  an  active  part  in  aU  the  im" 


portant  affairs  of  Charles  V,  e.  g.  the  interview  of  Nice, 
the  Peace  of  Cr6py  (1544),  the  Interim,  and  the  mar- 
riage of  Philip  II  with  Mary  Tudor  of  England.  In 
1550  he  succeeded  his  father  as  keeper  of  the  em- 
peror's seal,  but  did  not  bear  the  title  of  chancellor 
His  influence  continued  to  grow  under  Philip  II.  He 
was  named  Archbishop  of  Mechlin  in  1550  and  cardi> 
nal  in  1561. 

As  member  of  the  Council  of  State  of  the  Low 
Countries  he  was  the  most  valued  counsellor  of 
the  regent,  Margaret  of  Parma;  apropos  of  this  it 
must  be  remembered  that  when  leaving  the  country 
Philip  II  recommended  his  sister  to  refer  all  important 
affairs  to  a  council  of  three,  one  of  whom  should  be 
Granvelle.  He  was  in  direct  correspondence  with  the 
king,  and  freely  judged  and  criticized  the  regent.  So 
much  power  aroused  the  jealousy  of  the  nobility, 
especially  that  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  the  Comte 
d'Egmont;  the  chief  personages  of  the  Low  Countries, 
who  were  mdignant  at  seeing  Granvelle  preferred  be- 
fore them.  Every  means  was  employed  to  stir  up 
popular  opinion  against  him,  caricature,  song,  and 
pamphlet.  The  regent  and  even  the  king  himself 
were  besieged  with  protests.  Finally  the  nobles  de- 
clared that  they  would  refrain  from  assisting  at  the 
Council  of  State  as  lone  as  thev  should  meet  the  car- 
dinal there.  The  king  oelieved  it  prudent  to  sacrifice 
his  favourite  in  the  face  of  such  stubborn  and  fierce 
hostility.  Accordingly  Granvelle  was  "  authorized  to 
visit  his  mother  in  Burgundy  "  (1564).  He  was  never 
to  see  the  Low  Countries  again,  though  on  his  de- 
parture he  left  behind  his  pampers,  books,  and  pictures, 
m  the  hope  of  a  speedy  return.  He  withdrew  to  his 
native  Besangon,  whence  he  continued  to  correspond 
with  the  king.  By  the  latter  he  was  sent  to  Rome  in 
1565,  where  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  formation  of 
the  Holy  League,  which  resulted  in  the  celebrated  vie-* 
torv  of  Lepanto.  In  1571  the  kin^  named  him  viceroy 
of  Naples,  which  post  he  held  until  1575  and  then  re- 
turned to  Rome.  In  1577  Philip  II  offered  to  allow 
him  to  return  to  the  Low  Countries  under  Margaret  of 
Parma,  but  the  cardinal  refused  to  return  to  a  country 
which  he  had  left  under  such  humiliating  circum- 
stances, and  where  he  could  no  longer  be  of  use.  The 
king  then  summoned  him  to  Madrid  (1 579) .  At  Madrid, 
as  at  Brussels,  Besan<^on,  Naples,  and  Rome,  he  was  a 
faithful  and  valued  counsellor,  though  towards  the  end 
his  repute  seems  to  have  diminished .  Having  resigned 
from  his  Archdiocese  of  Mechlin,  he  receive!  that  of 
Besangon  in  1584.  He  died  at  Madrid,  and  was  buried 
at  Besan^on,  but  his  remains  were  scattered  during 
the  French  Revolution. 

Comely  of  person,  speaking  seven  lanffua^s,  liberal, 
of  an  even  disposition,  unswervingly  mitnful  to  his 
masters,  possessing  great  political  penetration,  and  of 
an  astonishing  activity,  Granvelle  was  moreover  a 
generous  and  enlightened  patron  of  arts  and  letters. 
He  has  been  reproached  with  avarice;  in  fact  he  was 
never  satiated  with  riches  and  honours,  but  was  un- 
skilled in  the  art  of  gaining  popularity.  Ebcclusively 
preoccupied  with  the  service  of  nis  masters,  he  scorned 
to  win  the  affection  of  the  multitude,  and  was  as 
much  detested  in  Germany  as  in  the  Netherlands. 
Owing  to  his  great  influence  he  was  held  responsible 
for  everything  that  was  done,  even  when  he  nad  ad- 
vised against  it.  Worldly  and  ostentatious,  and  more 
than  once  accused  of  laxity  of  morals,  Granvelle  pos- 
sessed the  qualities  and  defects  of  a  prelate  of  the 
Renaissance,  with  a  superiority  of  intellect  and  sense  of 
hi.^  duties  as  a  statesman  which  deserve  respect.  His 
vast  correspondence  is  an  inexhaustible  source  of  in- 
formation concerning  the  history  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  It  might  almost  be  said^  writes  the  cele- 
brated archivist  Gachard,  that  no  mmister  ever  wrote 
as  much  as  the  Cardinal  de  Granvelle.  His  corres- 
pondence has  been  edited  partly  in  France  by  Weiss, 
*'  I.eg  papjers  d*i5tat  d©  Granvelle"  (9  vols.,  4to,  1841- 


OR4Pn 


728 


ORAS8B 


52)^  partly  in  Belgium,  "  La  correspondence  du  cardi- 
nal Granvelle"  (12  vols.,  4to,  1878-96),  the  first  three 
volumes  by  E.  PouUet,  the  remainder  by  Ch.  Piat. 

LbvAqdb,  Mimoim  wur  aervir  h  Vkiatcire  au  cardinal  An- 
tome  Perrenol  de  Oranvme  fParis,  1753);  db  Coubchbtbt*  Hit' 
Urir9  du  eardinal  de  Granvme  (Paris,  1761;  Bruisels,  1784);  db 
Gbrlachb,  Philippe  II  el  GranveUe  (Bruatels,  1842);  Gachabd. 
htvenlaire  dee  papien  laiasis  par  le  eardinal  de  Oranvelle  d 
Madrid;  Idbm ,  Inventaire  dee  paniere  trouvia  h  Bruxettee  in  Bxd- 
letine  die  la  eommieaion  royale  de  rhietoire,  Ser.  Ill,  Vol.  IV; 
Idbm,  La  eharte  du  eardinal  de  GranveUe  en  1664  in  Btudm  et 
nolicee  hiUtiiriguee  eoncemanl  lea  Paua-Baa  (BniaaelB,  1890); 
Wautbbs  in  Biooraphie  nalionale  de  Bdgiquet  VIII;  Fibbnnb, 
Hiataire  de  Bdotque,  III  (1907). 

GODBFROID  KUBTH. 

Grapti.    See  Theodorus  and  Theophanes. 

Orasse,  Fran^ois-Jobbph-Paul,  Count  and  Mar- 
quess de  Grasse-Tilly,  lieutenant-general  of  the  naval 
forces;  b.  near  Toulon,  1723;  d.  at  Paris,  11  January, 
1788.  His  family  was  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  French 
nobUitv.  His  father,  Francois  de  Grasse-Rouville,  Mar- 
quess de  Grasse,  was  a  captain  in  the  army.  At  the  age 
of  eleven,  Francois-Joseph  entered  the  naval  service  of 
the  Kni^ts  of  Malta  (1734),  and  served  during  the 
Turkish  and  Moorish  wars.^  In  1739  he  entered  the 
French  navy,  and,  after  serving  on  several  vessels,  was, 
in  1747,  captured  and  taken  raisoner  to  f^^and, 
where  he  remained  two  years.  Ketumine  to  France, 
he  was  made  a  lieutenant,  and  served  under  La  Galis- 
soni^re  during  the  Seven  Years  War,  and  under 
D'Ache  in  the  East  Indies.  Promoted  to  captain  in 
January,  1762,  he  received  the  brevet  of  Knight  of 
St.  Louis  in  1764. 

The  treaty  of  alliance  between  France  and  the 
United  States  was  signed  6  February,  1778.  The  first 
naval  engagement  after  the  signing  of  the  treaty  took 
place  off  Ushant,  27  July,  1778,  between  the  French 
fleet  under  Count  D'Orvilliers  and  the  English  under 
Admiral  Keppel.  Count  de  Grasse  was  in  command 
of  the  "  Robuste ",  and  was  severel^r  engaged  during 
the  action,  which  was  undecisive  in  its  results.  Pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  he  sailed  from 
Brest  in  1779,  in  command  of  a  squadron,  to  the  West 
Indies  to  join  the  fleet  under  Count  d'Estaing,  who 
was  subsequently  succeeded  in  command  by  Count 
de  Guichen. 

Returning  to  France,  he  was  promoted  to  lieu- 
tenant-g^n^ral  des  arm!^  navales  (admiral),  and 
sailed  from  Brest  for  the  West  Indies  on  24  March, 
1781,  with  a  fleet  of  23  ships  of  the  line  and  a  lar^ 
convoy  under  his  command.  He  arrived  off  Marti- 
nique, 28  April,  1781,  and  next  day  had  an  enga^ment 
with  the  English  fleet  under  Admiral  Hood,  which  re- 
sulted in  Hood's  withdrawal.  On  2  June,  1781,  he 
captured  the  Island  of  Tobago,  and  then  proceeded  to 
Cape  Francis  (now  Cap  Haltien),  where  he  found 
awaiting  him  a  French  fngate  bearing  dispatches  from 
Washington  and  Rochambeau,  urging  his  co-operation 
in  the  proposed  movement,  by  which  it  was  hoped  to 
strike  a  decisive  blow  at  the  English  forces  in  Virginia. 
I>e  Grasse  acted  promptly;  the  frigate  that  brou^t 
the  dispatches  was  sent  back  to  Newport,  Rhode  Island, 
and,  b^r  15  August,  Washington  and  Rochambeau  knew 
of  the  intended  coming  of  the  fleet.  Three  thousand 
five  hundred  soldiers  under  command  of  Marquess  St- 
Simon  were  taken  on  board  and  also  a  large  sum  of 
money,  urgently  needed  by  the  Americans.  On  30 
August,  1781,  De  Grasse  anchored  in  Lynn  Haven  Bay, 
just  within  the  Capes  of  the  Chesapeake,  with  28  ehipa 
of  the  line.  Three  days  before  (27  August,  1781),  tne 
French  squadron  at  Newport,  consisting  of  four  frig- 
ates and  eiriiteen  transports,  under  Count  de  Barras, 
sailed  for  the  rendesvous,  making  a  wide  detour  to 
avoid  the  English  fleet  then  at  New  York.  Immedi- 
ately on  learning  of  De  Barras's  departure,  the  Eng- 
lish fleet  under  Admirals  Graves  and  Hood  sailed  for 
the  Chesapeake  to  intercept  De  Barras  before  he  could 
join  De  Grasse.  The  English  fleet  arrived  off  the 
Chesapeake,  5September,  1781.    De  Grasse  got  under 


way,  went  out  to  meet  them,  and,  without  bringing  oo 


a  general  engagement,  manaeed  his  fleet  so 
that  many  oi  the  English  snips  were  very  severely 
damaged.  De  Grasse  kept  the  Rngliah  fleet  en^^tged 
for  five  days,  and  then  returning  found  De  Bams 
safely  at  anchor. 

Graves  returned  to  New  York,  and  with  him  dis- 
appeared all  hope  of  relieving  or  reinforcing  the  Eng- 
luh  forces  at  Yorktown  under  Lotd  Comwallis.  The 
siege  of  Yorktown  continued,  but  the  control  of  the 
sea  made  only  one  issue  possible,  and  with  the  sur- 
render of  Lord  Comwallis  on  19  October,  1781,  the 
independence  of  the  United  States  was  virtually  de- 
cided. On  receiving  the  news  of  the  surrender^  Congress 
named  13  December,  1781,  a  day  of  thanksgiving,  axxi 
on  29  October,  1781,  the  thanks  of  Congress  were 
tendered  to  Washington,  to  Rochambeau,  and  to  De 
Grasse.  It  was  also  voted  to  present  to  Rochambeau 
andtoDe  Grasse  two  pieces  of  the  field  ordnance  taken 
from  the  British  at  the  capitulation  of  Yorictown,  to  be 
engraved  with  a  ^ort  memorandum.  The  day  after 
the  capitulation  Washington  wrote  to  De  &as9e: 
"  The  surrender  of  Yorktown,  the  honour  of  which  be- 
longs to  your  Excellency,  has  greatly  anticipated  (in 
time)  our  most  sanguine  expectations". 

On  5  November,  1781,  De  Grasse  sailed  from  the 
Chesapeake,  arriving  at  Martinique  on  the  I^th.  In 
January,  1782,  he  captured  the  Island  of  St.  Kitts. 
On  8  April,  1782,  the  fleet  under  De  Grasse  was  at- 
tacked by  Admiral  Rodney  off  Martinique,  with  no 
advantage  resulting  to  either.  On  12  April,  however, 
the  greatest  naval  battle  of  the  century  ^own  as  the 
Battle  of  the  Saints,  from  the  adjacent  islands  <^  Les 
Saintes)  was  f  ou^t.  Both  fleets  engaged  in  desperate 
action,  which  lasted  from  daylidit  until  after  6  p.  m., 
when  De  Grasse's  flagship,  the  "  ville  de  Paris",  struck 
her  colours  after  a  brilliant  but  hopeless  defence;  the 
other  ^ps  of  the  fleet,  except  those  captured,  scattered 
and  fled  for  safety. 

After  the  surrender,  De  Grasse  was  taken  by  Rodney 
to  Jamaica,  and  thence  a  prisoner  to  En^apd,  where 
he  received  a  ^reat  deal  of  flattering  attention,  which 
he  accepted  with  such  complacency  as  to  irritate  lus 
coimtrymen,  by  whom  he  was  accused  of  not  having 
maintained  the  dignity  and  reserve  becoming  one  who 
had  been  vanauisned.  While  a  prisoner  on  parole  in 
London  he  puolished  a  defence  of  his  conduct  of  the 
battle,  and  accused  his  captains  of  disobedience,  etc, 
blaming  them  for  his  defeat.  In  1 783,  after  peace  was 
proclaimed,  he  returned  to  France.  A  court  martial 
was  ordered  (1784),  Tfhich  entirely  exonerated  every 
one  whom  he  had  attacked.  De  drasse  was  not  satis- 
fied with  the  finding  of  the  court,  protested  against  it, 
and  demanded  a  new  trial.  The  minister  oi  marine, 
in  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  his  protest,  replied  in 
the  name  of  the  kin^:  "  His  Majesty,  dissatisfied  with 
3rour  conduct  in  this  respect,  lorbios  you  to  present 
yourself  before  him".  ^  Viewed  with  disfavour  by  the 
King,  De  Grasse  went  into  retirement,  and  his  publie 
career  was  closed.  Four  years  afterwards  he  died, 
11  January,  1788. 

He  was  married  three  times.  His  surviving  chil- 
dren were  driven  into  exile  during  the  Revolution,  and 
reached  the  United  States.  His  son,  Ck>unt  AlezaAdcr 
de  Grasse,  Marquess  de  Tilly,  was  appointed  by  the 
United  States  Government  engineer  of  Georsia  and 
the  Carolinas,  and  a  pension  of  one  thousand  dollars  a 
year  was  bestowed  on  his  daughters.  Two  of  the 
daughters  died  of  yellow  fever  at  C^hailestoD,  South 
Car^ina,  1799,  but  the  youngest,  Madame  de  F^u,  was 
long  a  resident  of  New  Yoif.  She  left  two  sons  and 
five  daughters;  the  dau^ters  married  leading  mer- 
chants of  New  York. 

Bancroft.  Hiatcry  of  the  United  Staiee;  WmaoB,  Namtim 
and  Critical  Hiatory  al  America  (New  York,  1888);  MAcnina. 
/mpcrioi  Didionary  at  Univeraal  Biograpky  (IxMMk»);  Apfffh 
tone  Cyclopedia  <7  American  Biographu  (Hew  Yonc,  IwS): 
Mahan,  The  hifluenee  of  Sea  Power  upon  Hidary  (Boston,  18M); 


0&AS8EL 


729 


O&ATIAK 


LabOOBSB.  OrandDietiannair€  UniventUedu  XlX'Siide  (Paris. 
1872):  Magiuini  of  American  History  (New  York»  1881);  Mab- 
TIN,  Hislcry  of  France  (tr.  Boston,  1866);  Srba,  The  opero" 
Hone  df  the  French  fleet  under  the  Count  de  Grasee  in  1781-89, 
with  tieteh  of  life  of  De  Oraeee  in  Bradford  Clvb  Seriett  No.  3 
(150 copies);  Jowmal  of  ConQrese,  Philadelphia. 

John  Fubbt. 

Gritosel,  LoRENZ,  Coadjutor-elect  of  Baltimore;  b. 
at  Ruemannsfelden,  Bavaria,  18  August,  1753;  d.  at 
Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A..  October,  1793.  He  was  a 
novice  or  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  the  time  of  its  sup- 

?ire8sion  and  was  subsequently  ordained  priest,  in 
787  he  left  his  native  land  for  the  American  mission 
at  Father  Farmer's  invitation,  and  in  March,  1787,  he 
was  given  charge  of  the  German  members  of  St. 
Mary^  congregation  in  Philadelphia,  and  of  the 
Catholics  scattered  through  New  Jersey.  He  spent 
six  years  in  Philadelphia  and  during  that  time  became 
noted  for  his  learning,  zeal,  and  piety.  When  it  be- 
came necessary,  owing  to  the  spread  of  the  Faith,  to 
appoint  a  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Carroll  of  Baltimore 
Father  GrSssel  was  chosen  for  the  office  and  the  peti- 
tion for  his  appointment  was  formally  made  to  Rome, 
24  September,  1793.  The  petition  was  minted, 
GrSssel  thus  being  the  first  German-bom  Catholic 
appointed  to  a  bishopric  in  the  United  States^  but 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Brief  naming  him  titular 
Bishop  of  Samosata  (8  Dec.,  1793),  Grftssel  had  suc- 
cumbed to  yellow  fever  contracted  while  attending  the 
victims  of  the  plague  which  that  year  ravaged  Pnilar 

delphia. 

Srba.  Life  and  Timet  of  Ihe  Moet  Rev,  John  Carroll  (New 
York.  1888) :  Idbm.  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  U.S.  (New  York, 
1856);  U.  8,  Cath.  Hist.  Magazine  (New  York,  Jan.,  1887); 
Woodatodt  Letter$,  II.  102;  Rbuss,  Bioo.  Cydo,  of  the  Cath, 
Hierarchy  of  U,  8.  (MUwaukee.  1808). 

Blanche  M.  Kellt. 

Grassifl,  Paris  de,  master  of  ceremonies  to  Juh'us 
n  and  Leo  X ;  b.  at  Bologna,  about  1470 ;  d.  at  Rome, 
10  June,  1528.  He  was  the  nephew  of  Antonio  de 
Grassis,  nimcio  to  Frederick  III,  and  Bishop  of  Tivoli. 
Cardinal  Achille  de  Grassis,  his  brother,  one  of  the 
confidential  diplomats  of  Julius  II,  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Bologna  by  Leo  X,  and  died  in  1523.  In 
1506  Paris  de  Grassis  succeeded  the  famous  Burchard, 
master  of  ceremonies  to  Alexander  VI,  and  continued 
his  "Diarium"  (ed.  Thuasne,  Paris,  1883-84).  The 
portion  of  the  diary  written  by  de  Grassis  covers  the 
closing  years  of  Juhus  II  and  the  pontificate  of  Leo  X, 
and  is  a  precious  reference  work  for  the  historian.  De 
Grassis  was  not  a  historian,  merely  a  chronicler;  with 
pedantic  fidelity  he  jotted  down  the  minutis  of  all 
pontifical  ceremonies,  trivial  occurrences  at  the  Curia, 
the  consistories  and  processions,  the  coming  and  ^ing 
of  ambassadors,  journeys,  etc.  He  had  no  pobtical 
prejudices,  though  he  shows  that  he  had  but  small  sym- 

gkthy  for  France  or  for  various  curial  dignitaries, 
is  sole  interest  was  ceremonial  and  court  etiquette. 
Nevertheless  his  eye  was  alert  to  catch  all  that  went 
on  around  him;  in  consequence  we  owe  him  quite  a 
number  of  anecdotes  that  throw  much  light  on  the 
characters  of  the  two  popes.  Moreover,  being  the 
almost  inseparable  companion  of  both  popes  on  their 
journeys,  e.  g.  of  Julius  II  during  his  campaign  against 
the  Ronukgna,  he  supplies  us  with  manv  details  that 
fill  in  or  set  off  the  narrative  of  tne  historian. 
Ordinarily  his  work  offers  more  to  the  historian  of  Re- 
naissance culture  than  to  the  student  of  ecclesiastico- 
political  conditions.  The  sixteen  manuscript  copies 
of  the  ''Diarium"  are  not  all  complete,  the  more  im- 
portant codices  being  those  of  the  Vatican,  and  of  the 
Kossiana  LU>rary  at  Vienna.  Partial  abbreviated 
editions  are  owing  to  D6llinger  (Beitrfige  zur  Ge- 
schichteder  letsten  sechs  Jahrhimderte,  1882, 363)  and 
to  Frati  (Bologna,  1886).  Delicati  (II  diario  di  Leone 
X,  da  P.  de  Grassis,  Rome,  1884)  edited  a  lengthy  r6- 
sum^  of  the  work,  with  notes  by  Armellini.  Some 
attribute  to  him  an  ''Historia  Leonis  X"  (Pott- 


hast,  Bibl.  Hist.  Med.  M\\,  2d  ed.,  11,  894),  and  a 

treatise  on  papal  elections,  meant  to  combat  the 

opinion  of  Barbatia  that  the  pope  was  not  bound  by 

ante-election  capitulations    (Souchon,   Die    Papst- 

wahlen,  Brunswick,  1888,  16).    This  treatise  is  in 

Ddllinger's  edition,  pp.  343^^346.    To  de  Grassis  also  is 

attributed,  perhaps  on  better  grounds,  a  book  entitle<{ 

''De  cseremoniis  cardinalium  et  episcoporum  in  eorum 

dioecesibus"  (Rome,  1564).    In  1515  Leo  X  made  him 

Bishop  of  Pesaro,  but  he  retained  his  office  of  master 

of  ceremonies  until  the  pope's  death. 

Besides  the  sources  mentioned  above  see  Pabtob,  Oeechichte 
der  Papete  (Freiburg,  1904-7),  III  and  IV,  pasaim. 

U.  Beniqni. 

Grass  Valley.    See  Sacramento,  Diocese  of. 

Oratiaii»  Roman  Emperor,  son  of  Valentinian  I; 
b.  at  Sirmium,  359 ;  d.  at  Lyons,  383.  Before  he  had 
attained  his  ninth  ^rear  he  received  the  purple  robe  and 
diadem,.with  the  title  of  Augustus;  and  on  the  death 
of  his  father  (375)  he  became  Eknp^r  of  the  West. 
His  half-brother,  Valentinian  II,  an  infant,  was  asso- 
ciated with  him  in  the  title.  He  fixed  his  residence  at 
Trier,  and  devoted  himself  to  opposing  the  advance  of 
the  Alamanni,  whom  he  routed  m  the  great  battle  of 
Ck>lmar  (378).  His  collea^e  in  the  east,  Valens,  was, 
however,  defeated  and  slam  by  the  Goths  in  the  same 
vear  at  the  battle  of  Adrianople.  Gratian,  feeling 
himself  unequal  to  the  task  of  governing  the  whole 
empire  alone,  assigned  the  eastern  portion  to  Theodo- 
sius  I.  Up  to  this  time  he  had  shown  himself  to  be  a 
wise  ruler  and  a  brave  and  skilful  general,  but  now  he 
began  to  ne^ect  his  duties  and  to  devote  himself  to 
hunting  and  other  sports.  A  rebellion  which  arose  in 
Britain  imder  Maximus,  one  of  his  generals,  spread 
into  Gkiul.  Gratian,  who  was  residing  at  Paris,  fled  to 
Lyons,  and  was  there  treacherously  slain  (25  Aug., 
383).  Gratian's  reign  marks  a  distinct  epoch  in  the 
transition  of  the  empire  from  paganism  to  Christian- 
ity. At  the  time  of  his  accession  (375)  he  refused  the 
insignia  of  pontifex  maximus,  which  even  Constantine 
and  the  other  Christian  emperors  had  always  accepted. 
At  the  instance  of  St.  Ambrose,  who  became  his  chief 
adviser,  he  caused  the  statue  of  Victory  to  be  removed 
from  the  senate  house  at  Rome  (382).  In  this  same 
year  he  abolished  all  the  privileges  of  the  pagan  pon- 
tiffs and  the  grants  for  the  support  of  pagan  worship. 
Deprived  of  the  assistance  of  the  State,  paganism  rap- 
idly lost  influence.  Gratian  did  not  gp  so  far  as  to 
confer  upon  the  Church  the  privileges  and  emolu- 
ments wnich  he  took  from  the  pagans,  but  he  gave 
proof  of  his  seal  by  undoing  the  effects  of  Valens's  per- 
secution, and  by  taking  measures  for  the  suppression 
of  various  forms  of  heresy.  Though  in  general  his 
policy  was  one  of  toleration,  he  made  apostasy  a  crime 
punishable  by  tlie  State  (383).  It  was  for  Gratian 
that  St.  Ambrose  wrote  his  great  treatise  "De  Fide". 

AlLard.  Le  Chrietianieme  el  rlsmpire  Remain  (Paris,  1898); 
DB  Broglib,  Saint  Ambroise  (Paris,  1899);  Gibbon,  Decline 
and  Fall  Ol  the  Roman  Empire  (London,  1815),  xxv-xxvii; 
RiCHTBR,  Iau  wesirOmieeke  neieh,  beaondera  unter  den  Kaieem 
Gratian,  Valentinian  II.  und  Maximua  (Berlin,  1865);  Tiulb- 
MONT,  Hiet.  dee  Empereura  (Paris,  1701),  V,  136-88,  705-26; 
Bbdonot,  Hiat.  de  la  deatruction  du  paganiame  en  Occident 
(Paris,  1835):  BoiasiBR,  Lafindu  paganiame  (Paris.  1891). 

T.  B.  SCANNELL. 

Gratian,  Jerome,  spiritual  director  of  St.  Teresa 
and  first  Provincial  of  the  Discalced  Carmelites;  b.  at 
Valladolid,  6  June,  1545;  d.  at  Brussels,  21  Sept., 
1614.  The  son  of  Diego  Gracian  de  Aldorete,  secre- 
tary to  Charles  V  and  Philip  II,  and  of  Jane  de  Antisco, 
daughter  of  the  Polish  ambassador  at  the  Spanish 
(>>urt,  he  received  his  early  education  in  his  native 
town  and  at  the  Jesuit  College  in  Madrid.  He  after- 
wards studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  Alcdd 
where  he  took  his  degrees  and  was  ordained  priest  in 
1569.  The  position  of  his  family,  his  talents  and  vir- 
tues would  have  opened  for  him  the  door  to  the  high- 
est dignities,  but,  having  become  acquainted  with 


G&ATIAK 


730 


ORATIAKOPOUS 


some  Teresian  nuns,  he  took  the  habit  of  the  Discaloed 
Carmelites  at  Pastrana,  25  March,  1572,  under  the 
name  of  Jerome  of  the  Mother  of  God.  Even  during 
his  novitiate  he  was  employed  in  the  direction  of  souls 
and  the  administration  of  the  convent,  and,  almost 
immediately  after  his  profession  (28  March,  1573), 
was  nominated  pro-vicar  apostolic  of  the  Calced  Car- 
melites of  the  Province  of  Andalusia.  This  province, 
which  for  many  years  had  given  trouble,  resented  the 
nomination  of  one  who  had  only  just  entered  the  order, 
and  oiTered  a  stubborn  resistance  to  his  regulations, 
even  after  his  faculties  had  been  confirmed  and  ex- 
tended by  the  Nuncio  Hormaneto.  In  virtue  of  these 
same  faculties  Gratian  founded  a  convent  of  Discalced 
Carmelites  at  Seville,  of  which  he  became  prior,  and 
approved  of  the  establishment  of  several  other  con- 
vents of  friars  as  well  as  of  nuns. 

The  chapter  of  1575,  listening  to  the  complaints  of 
the  Andalusians,  decided  to  dissolve  the  reformed 
convents,  but  the  nuncio  gave  Gratian*  fresh  powers, 
and  for  a  while  the  reform  continued  to  spread.  Hor- 
maneto was  succeeded  by  Sega  (Jime,  1577).  who, 
prejudiced  by  false  rumours,  turned  against  the  follow- 
ers of  St.  Teresa.  Gratian  was  censured  and  relegated 
to  the  convent  of  Alcaic,  and  the  other  leading  mem- 
bers of  the  reform  suffered  similar  punishments,  until 
at  length  Philip  II  intervened.  The  <next  chapter 
general  (1580)  granted  the  Discalced  Carmelites  ca- 
nonical approbation'  and  Gratian  became  their  supe- 
rior. Ever  since  he  had  first  met  St.  Teresa  (1575),  he 
had  remained  her  director,  to  whom,  at  the  command 
of  Our  Lord,  she  made  a  personal  vow  of  obedience, 
while  Gratian  in  all  his  works  guided  himself  by  the 
lights  of  the  saint.  In  her  books  and  in  numerous 
letters  she  bears  testimony  to  their  agreement  in  spir- 
itual as  well  as  administrative  matters;  they  were  also 
at  one  in  favouring  the  active  life,  the  care  of  souls, 
and  missionary  work.  After  St.  Teresa's  death  a 
party,  calling  themselves  zelantif  came  into  promi- 
nence, with  Nicholas  Doria  at  their  head,  whose  ideal 
of  religious  life  consisted  in  a  rigid  observance  of  the 
rule  to  the  exclusion  of  exterior  activity.  Although 
St.  John  of  the  Cross  and  other  prominent  men  were 
on  Gratian 's  side,  the  opposite  party  came  into  office 
in  1585,  and  Gratian  was  chared  with  having  intro- 
duced mitigations  and  novelties.  In  order  to  give 
effect  to  his  views  Doria  introduced  a  new  kind  of  gov- 
ernment which  concentrated  all  power,  even  in  details, 
in  the  hands  of  a  committee  under  his  own  presidency. 

Great  was  the  consternation  among  the  moderate 
party,  greater  still  tiiat  of  the  mms,  who  resented  any 
mterference  in  their  affairs.  Through  the  instrumen- 
tality ofSt.  John  of  the  Cross  and  Father  Gratian,  the 
nuns  obtained  from  Rome  approval  of  St.  Teresa's 
constitutions,  whereupon  Doria  resolved  to  exclude 
the  nuns  from  the  order.  He  also  understood  that  so 
long  as  the  opposition  was  being  led  by  Gratian  (St. 
John  of  the  Cross  having  meanwhile  died)  the  new 
government  could  never  come  into  force.  On  pretext, 
therefore,  that  his  writings  reflected  unfavourably  on 
the  superiors,  Gratian  was  summoned  to  Madrid,  and, 
the  inK>rmations  taken  against  him  having  been  mat^ 
rially  altered  by  a  personal  enemy,  he — the  director 
and  right  hand  of  St.  Teresa,  the  soul  of  her  reform, 
and  for  ten  years  its  superior — was  expelled  from  the 
order  on  17  February,  1592.  This  sentence,  based  on 
falsified  evidence,  was  confirmed  by  the  king,  the  nun- 
cio, and  even  by  the  authorities  at  Rome,  who  com- 
manded Gratian  to  enter  some  other  order. 

The  Carthusians,  Capuchins,  and  the  Dominicans 
would  not  receive  him,  but  the  Augustinians  con- 
sented to  employ  him  in  the  foundation  of  some 
reformed  convents.  The  ship,  however,  which  was  to 
carry  him  from  Gaeta  to  Rome,  was  taken  by  pirates 
and  he  was  made  prisoner.  Working  among  the 
(Christian  slaves  in  the  ba^io  at  Tunis,  he  strength- 
ened those  who  were  wavering,  reconciled  apostates  at 


the  f!sk  of  his  life,  and  liberated  many  with  the  alms  he 
suceeeded  in  collecting.  After  eighteen  months'  cap- 
tivity he  obtained  his  freedom  and  returned  to  Rome. 
Clement  VIII,  to  whom  on  a  former  occasion  he  had 
revealed  secrets  made  known  to  him  in  prayer,  hearing 
of  his  works  and  sufferings,  exclaimed :  ''  Inis  man  is  a 
saint",  and  caused  the  process  of  expulsion  to  be  re- 
examined and  the  sentence  to  be  rescinded  (6  March, 
1596).  But,  as  his  return  to  the  Discalced  Carmelites 
would  have  revived  the  former  dissensions,  Gratiaa 
was  affiliated  to  the  Calced  Friars  with  all  the  honours 
and  privileges,  and  the  right  to  practise  the  Rule  of 
the  Reform.  He  was  sent  to  Ceuta  and  Tetuan  to 
preach  the  Jubilee  (1600-1605),  proceeded  afterwards 
to  Valladolid  to  assist  his  dyin^  mother,  and  wa.s 
finally  called  to  Brussels  by  his  friend  and  protector, 
Archduke  Albers  (1606).  There  he  continued  a  life 
of  self-abnegation  and  apostolic  zeal.  Buned  in  the 
chapter-house  of  the  Calced  Carmelites  at  Brussels,  his 
remains  wer^  repeatedly  transferred,  but  finally  lost 
during  the  Revolution. 

The  list  of  Gratian^s  writingB  in  Latin,  Spanish,  and  Italian 
fills  eip;hteen  columns  in  Antonio,  BihliotMca  Hitpana  nov<i 
(Madnd.  1783),  576  sqq.;  the  works  printed  during  his  lifetime 
and  immediately  after  nis  death  have  become  exceedingly  rare. 
Within  the  last  years  there  appeved  for  the  first  time  his  auto- 
biography {Per^rrinacionea  de  Anaataaio,  Burgos,  1905),  and  hts 
Memotn  of  St.  Tere»a  {Didlogoa  de  Santa  Tereaa,  Burgos,  1909). 
while  some  other  important  manuscripts  are  ready  for  publica- 
tion. Besides  these  sources  see  St.  Tbrbsa,  Boo%  of  Foundations 
(chapter  xxiii),  which  should  be  compared  with  other  por- 
tions of  her  writings  and  the  annotations  by  various  cdtton; 
Biblioth.  Carmdit.,  I,  645;  Grbooibjc  db  St.  Jofibpu.  Le  P 
Gratien  el  «es  Jttgea  (Rome,  1904;  also  in  Italian  and  Spanish). 

B.   ZiMHEEUIAN. 

Gratian  (Gratxanus),  Johannes. — ^The  little  that 
is  known  concerning  the  author  of  the  "  Concordantia 
discordantium  canonum'\  more  generally  called  the 
"  Decretum  Gratiani ",  is  fumishecTby  that  work  itself, 
its  earliest  copies,  and  its  twelfth-century  "  summx  " 
or  abrid^ents.  Gratian  was  bom  in  Italy,  perhaps 
at  Chiusi,  in  Tuscany.  He  became  a  Camaldolese 
monk  (some  say  a  Benedictine),  and  taught  at  Bologna 
in  the  monastery  of  SS.  Felix  and  Nabor.  Later,  it 
was  said  that  he  was  a  brother  of  Peter  Lombard, 
author  of  the  "Liber  Sententiarum",  and  of  Peter 
Comestor,  author  of  the  "Historia  Scholastics". 
Mediaeval  scholars  united  in  this  wa^,  bv  a  fictive 
kinship,  the  three  great  contemporaries  wno  seemed 
as  the  fathers  of  canon  law,  theology,  and  Biblical 
history.  It  is  no  less  false  to  assert  that  he  was  a 
bishop.  Nor  is  it  certain  at  what  time  he  compiled 
the  "Decretum".  It  did  not  exist  previous  to  1139; 
for  it  contains  decrees  of  the  Second  Lateran  Council, 
held  in  that  year.    A  common  oninion  places  its  com- 

?letion  in  1151.  Recent  research,  however,  points  to 
140,  or  to  a  date  nearer  thereto  than  to  1151.  The 
"Decretum"  was  certainly  known  to  Peter  Lombard, 
for  he  makes  use  of  it  in  his  "  Liber  Sententiarum". 
Gratian  died  before  the  Third  Lateran  Council  (1179), 
some  say  as  early  as  1160.  It  is  not  certain  that  he 
died  at  Bologna,  though  in  that  city  a  monument  was 
erected  to  hun  in  the  church  of  St.  Petronius.  He  is 
the  true  founder  of  the  science  of  canon  law.  See 
Corpus  Juris  Canonici;  Decretals,  Papal. 

Sarti  and  Fattorini,  De  elaria  archiovmnaaii  Bononiensis 
wofestoribua,  I  (Bologna,  1896);  Schultb,  GeadiiiJUe  der  Quel- 
len  uTui  Literatur  dee  canoniechen  RedUs  (Stuttgart,  1875-^).  I. 
46  sqq. ;  Laurin,  Introductio  in  eorpua  juria  canonici  (Freiburg 
im  Br.,  1889),  10  sqq.;  Fournier,  Deux  controvenes  aur  let 
oriainee  du  D^et  de  Oratien  in  Revue  d'kiatoire  et  de  liiUraturt 
rdtgieusee.  III  (Paris,  1898),  97  sqq..  253  sqq.;  Mocci,  Sola 
atorico  aiuridica  aul  Decreto  di  Graziano  (Sassari,  19(M);  Gacf- 
DBNZI,  L'eta  del  Decreto  di  Graaiano  e  I'antidiiasimo  Ma.  Caasi- 
neae  di  eaao  in  Studi  e  memorie  per  la  atoria  dell*  Univeraith  di 
Boloqna,  I  (Bologna,  1907);  Brandilsonb,  NotitiaauOraxiano 
e  au  Niccolo  de  Tuideadiiat  ibid. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Oratianopolis,  a  titular  see  in  Csesarea  Maure- 
tania,  Africa.  This  city  does  not  figure  in  a  list  of 
the  bishoprics  of  the  province  preserved  in  a  docu- 
ment of  tne  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  unless  it  be 


a&ATZtrS  731  QKATBT 

disKuiaed  under  the  native  name  (see  "  Byuntiniache  the  convent  of  BUchenbeiv,  and  decided  to  become 

Zeitachrifl",  1892,  II,  26,  31).    Ita  histofy.  location,  a  priest.    He  was  ordained  at  Stniabuii  on  22  De- 

and  present  condition  are  unknown.    Three  of  its  cember,  1S32,  and  remained  there  for  several  years 

bishops  are  known;  Pnblicius  (Cstholic),  Deut«riua  with  Bau tain.    Jn  1841,  Gratry  becamcdirector  oF  the 

(Donatist),  both  at  the  Confeienee  of  Carthage  in  4 1 1 ;  CoU^  Stanislas  in  I'ariH,  but,  in  1846,  accepted  the 

and  Thalossiua,  present  at  the  Conft^rcnce  of  486.  position   of  chspLiin   of   Ihc  "  Ecole  nortnale  fiipe- 

Gamb.  S*ri«  ipincopwum  eoJ.  C'oiA..  48fl.  rieure".      It  WBK  then  thai  he  published  his  Krst  Work; 

S.  VAILH&.  "Demandes  ct  n?pon.se6  siir  Ics  devoirs   sociaux''. 

When  Vacherot.  director  of  studies  at  the  Ex:ole  nor- 

Oratiai  (van  Graeh).  Ortwin,  humanist;  b.  1475  nude,  published  the  third  volume  of  his  "  Histoire  de 
at  Holtwick,  near  Coesfeld,  Westphalia;    d.  at  Co-  I'Ecole  d'Alexandrie",  a  polemic  took  place  between 
logne.  22  Hay,  1542.     He  belonged  to  an  impover-  him  and  Giatry;  Vacherot  was  obliged  to  leave  the 
ished  noble  family,  and  was  accordingly  received  in  school,  and  Gratry  himself  reaignea  his  charge  one 
the  house  of  his  uncle  Johannes  van  Graesat  Deventer  year  later  (1851).     After  a  year  spent  at  Orleans  as 
(wherefore  he  generally  called  himself  Davenlriensis),  vicar-general  of  Bishop  Diipanloup,  Gratry  united  his 
and  was  educated  at  the  local  school,  where  he  re-  efforts  with  Abb£  P£titot,  in  Paris,  fur  the  restoration 
celved  his  fiist  scientilic  instruction  from  the  renowned  in  France  of  the  Oratory  under  the  name  of  Oratoire 
Alexander  Hegius.     In  1501  be  went  to  the  Univer-  de  I'lmmacul^  Conception.    In  1863,  Gratry  was  ap- 
sity  of  Cologne  to  pursue  his  philosophical  studies.    As  pointed  professor 
&  member  of  the  Kuyk  Burse  he  became  licentiate  in  of  moral  tbeology 
150B,  magisler  in  1506,  and  profestor  aHium  m  1507.  in  the  faculty  of 
His  salary  as  professor  being  insufficient,  he  accepted  theology  of  Paris ; 
the  position  of  skilled  adviser  and  corrector  in  the  and  in  1867  he  was 
world-famous  Quentell  printine  establishment,  where  elected    a    mem- 
many   classicsil    authors   of   tne   Middle   Ages   were  berof  the  French 
published  under  his  direction.     These,  according  to  Academy,    suc- 
usage,  he  provided  with  introductions  and  rhymed  ceeding     fiarante 
dedications.     As  a  disciple  of  Hegius  he  was  naturally  in  the /auleuil once 
a  fanatical  humanist  and  a  devoted  adherent  of  Peter  occu^Hed  by  Vol- 
of  Ravenna;    he  also  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the  taire.   At  the  time 
most  prominent  scientific  minds  of  his  time.     But  of  the  Council  of 
things  soon  changed.     He  was  attacked  bitterly  by  the        Vatican 
the   younger   intellectual    element,   especially    theu"  (1870),    he  de- 
leader,  Hermann  von  dem  Busche,  on  account  of  his  clared    himself 
taking  the  part  of  the  Cologne  University  theologians  against  the  papal 
and  t%e  Dominicans  on  the  occasion  of  the  ReuchUn  infallibility  in  sev- 
controversy,  as  well  as  on  account  of  his  Latin  transla-  cral  letters,  edited 
tionsof  various  writin^of  the  Jewish  convert,  Pfeffer-  under    the    titla- 
kom.     Gratiushadatthat  time  just  finished  a  literary  "MonseiKneur 
tournament  with  von  dem  Busche,  and  had  been  made  I'Evfque    d'Orl^ 

the  lau^ing-stock  of  the  literary  world  by  thtf  venom-  ans     et     Monsei-     Anoesix-JoMFH-ALFHoMss  Obatbt 

OUfl     Epistolie  obscurorum  virorura    ,  his  adversanes  gneur    I'Archeve- 

Bucceedmg  in  vilifying  him  from  both  the  moral  and  quedeMahnea".  ThesewerecondemnedbytheBishop 
scientific  standpoints,  denouncing  him  as  a  drunkard  of  Strasbui^,  and  Gratry,  who  had  already  lived  for  al- 
and guilty  of  ottler  vices,  and  as  an  incompetent  Latin  most  ten  years  outside  of  hisconununity  and  had  been 
and  Greek  scholar.  This  procedure  was  the  more  publiclyrepiovedbyhisauperidr inl869forhispartioi- 
eflective  from  the  fact  that  he  ignored  attacks,  and  did  pation  m  a  certain  association,  formed  under  the  name 
not  defend  himself  from  the  beginning.  He  only  at-  of  the  International  League  for  Peace,had  to  sever  his 
tacked  his  defamers  when  Leo  X  excommunicated  the  connexion  with  the  Oratory.     After  the  proclamation 

.  Guibert, 

ecurorum  virorum",  was  ve^  weak  and  missed  ita  had  taken  possession  of  the  See  of  Paris  in  December, 

mark,  so  that  the  portra^yal  of'^his  character  remained  1871,  he  wrote  him  a  public  letter  wherein  he  retracted 

distorted  up  to  modem  times  and  it  is  only  of  late  that  all  that  he  had  written  against  the  infaltibility  of  the 

due  credit  is  given  him.     In  1520  he  was  ordained  to  pope.  HewaethensuReringfromanabecessontheneek: 

theprieethood and  devotedhimself  thenceforth  entirely  hewenttoHontreux,neartheLakeof  Geneva.anddied 

to  literary  work.     The  magnum  opu»  of  his  literary  there  in  1872.     Among  the  chief  works  of  Gratry,  be- 

BCtivity  is;  "Fasciculus  rerum  eipetendarum  ac  fugi-  sides  those  already  named  are:  "UneEtudesur  la  so- 

endarum"  (Cologne,  1535),  a  collection  of  sixty-six  phistique  contemporaine,  ou  Lettre  k  M.  Vacherot" 

more  or  less  weighty  treatises  of  various  authors  on  (Paris,  1861);  "De  la  Connaissance  de  Dieu"  (2  vols., 

ecclesiastical  and  profane  history,  dogma  and  canon  Paris,  1853);  "Logique"  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1855);  "De 

law,  compiled  to  expose  the  noxious  elements  in  the  la  Connaissance  de  I'&me"  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1858);  "La 

Church's  organism,  and  prepare  a  way  for  a  future  Philosophiedu  Credo"  (185i);"Les  Sources"  (1862); 

council  to  remedy  them.     It  tias  been  wrongly  claimed  "Commentaire  sur  I'Evangile  de  Saint  Matthieu"  (2 

thatthiswork,  put  on  the  index  on  account  of  ita  anti-  vols.,  1863);  "Les  Sophistes  et  la  Critique"  (Paris, 

clerical  tendency,  was  not  from  the  pen  of  Gratius.  1864);  "Henri  Percy  ve"  (Paris,  1866);  "La  Morale  et 

Ctatn.H»mAniudtndakitoTwAtnVtrtintlBrirn}iUdrT-  ]^  Loj  Je  I'Histoire"    (2  vols.,    Paris,    1868);    "Les 

'^li^^^lk^^t^l^^AS.X^^T^CX  hf^X  Sources  de  U  R^n^tion  sociale"  (a  reprint  with 

'X,  000-802.  some  changes  of  his  first  work);  "rsouvenirs  de  ma 

Patricios  Schlaqbr.  Jeunesse"  (1874);  "Meditations  inMites"  (1874). 

Gratry  exercised  a  great  influence  during  his  life  by 

Oratiy,      AoanSTE-JoSEpH-ALPHONSB,      French  his  personality — distinguished  forgreatness  of  thought, 

Bri«t  and  writor;  b.  at  Lille,  30  March,  1805;  d.  at  generosity  ofheart,  and  optimistic  enthusiasm — and, 

iontreux,    Switzerland,    7    February,    1872.     After  after  his  death,  bv  his  works.     In  the  last  twenty 

brilliantly  finishing  his  classical  studies,  he  entered  the  years   his    books   have    been    frequently    reprinted, 

polytechnic  schoofat  Paris.    At  the  end  of  his  course.  Among  tiose  who  e^ne  under  his  influence,  we  may 

(1828),  he  went  to  Strasburg,  spent  some  months  at  mention  especially,  Charles  and  Adolphe  (later  Car- 


author,  readers,  and  disseminators  of  the  "Epistolra"     of  papal  infallibility,  Gratry  eaVe  his  full  and 
(1517).     His  defence,   entitled   "Lamentationes  ob-     adhesion  tothedogma,  and,  when  Archbishop( 


O&ATZ 


732 


G&AVXEE 


dinal)  Perraud,  Heinrich,  de  Margerie,  Nourrisson,  H. 
Pereyve,  and  Lik>n  Oll^Lapnme.  Concerning  Gratry's 
philosophical  conceptions  we  may  say  that  the  pregnant 
truth  mich  underhes  his  philosophy  is  to  be  found  in 
two  of  his  fundamental  principles:  (1)  that  we  must 
seek  the  truth  with  our  wnole  soul,  that  is,  with  all  the 
faculties  and  helps  given  to  us  bvGod — our  sensibility, 
imagination,  reason,  love,  and  the  li^tof  revelation — 
and  with  the  necessary  moral  conofition.  (2)  That  a 
thing  is  truly  known  only  through  its  relation  to  God, 
its  author  and  ruler,  as  man  is  truly  developed  onl^ 
through  his  ascent  toward  God,  his  creator  and  his 
end.  But  when  he  comes  to  determine  the  respective 
values  and  relation  of  these  faculties,  Gratry,  with  a 
soul  naturally  sensitive,  seems  to  yield  too  much  to 
feeling  and  love,  and  the  relations  between  reason  and 
faith  are  not  always  clearly  respected.  God,  for  him, 
is  felt  or  experienced  rather  than  thought  or  known 
throu^  reasoning;  He  is  felt  by  the  ''divine  sense'' 
through  the  dialectical  process  which  is  analogous  to 
the  inductive  process  in  physics  and  the  infinitesimal 
process  in  mathematics ;  in  presence  of  a  certain  degree 
of  beaut^r  and  perfection  perceived  in  nature,  the  soul 
develops  in  itself  a  capacity  for  exaltation,  which  raises 
it  from  the  finite  to  the  infinite.  These  indeed  are 
hi^  and  inspiring  thoughts,  but  the  clear  statement 
of  truth  requires  a  stricter  analysis  and  a  more  vigorous 
treatment.  These  characteristics,  however,  explain 
the  feeling  of  attraction  mixed  with  anxiety  one  feels 
on  perusine  Gratry 's  works;  they  help  one  to  under- 
stand the  ideal  grandeur  of  the  moral  inspirations  and 
the  vague  Utopian  dreaminess  one  meets  in  such  close 
juxtaposition  on  many  of  his  pages. 

Souvenirs  de  ma  Jeunease;  Pkrraud,  Le  P.  Gratry ,  L§tder- 
niera  iours,  ton  testament  spirUud  (Paria,  1872);  Iobm,  Le  Pire 
Gratry,  sa  vie  et  ses  ctuvres  (Paris,  1900):  Chauvin,  Ii«  Pkre 
Gratry  (Paris,  1001) ;  OuJb-Laprunb,  Eloge  du  P.  Gratry 
(Paris,  ISOe). 

George  If.  Sauvaqe. 

Orati,  Peter  Alotb,  schoolmaster  and  exegete,  b. 
17  Aug.,  1769,  at  Mittelberg,  Allgau,  Bavaria;  d.  at 
Darmstadt,  1  Nov.,  1849;  received  his  elementary 
training  in  the  monastic  school  at  FQssen,  studied- 
classics  in  Au^burg,  and  in  1788  entered  the  clerical 
seminary  at  DiUingen,  to  take  up  the  study  of  philoso- 
phy and  theol^y.  His  student  years  were  character- 
ised by  deep  piety  and  an  intense  love  of  studv.  After 
his  ordination  to  the  priesthood,  in  1792,  he  held  the 
office  of  privslte  tutor,  and  in  1796  was  placed  in  charge 
of  tlie  parish  church  of  Unterthalheim,  near  Horb,  on 
the  Rhine.  In  spite  of  his  manifold  parochial  duties 
he  found  time  to  prepare  several  textbooks  and  other 
small  works  on  Christian  instruction,  for  use  in  ele- 
mentary schools.  Besides,  being  of  a  literary  turn  of 
mind  and  ur^ed,  no  doubt,  by  the  spirit  of  the  age,  he 
at  the  same  time  turned  his  attention  to  other  occupa- 
tions, choosing  for  his  special  field  of  labour  New  Tes- 
tament exegesis.  In  1812  he  published  "  Neuer  Ver- 
such,  die  ^tstehung  der  drei  ersten  Evangelien  zu 
erkl&ren"  (Stuttgart,  1812),  in  which  he  adopted  the 
hypothesis  of  a  Hebrew  original  as  the  basis  of  one  of 
the  83rnoptic  Gospels.  The  learning  and  critical  skill 
exhibitea  in  this  work  attracted  the  attention  of 
scholars,  and  won  for  him  on  28  September  of  the 
same  year  the  chairs  of  Greek  language  and  Biblical 
hermeneutics  in  the  University  of  Ellwangen.  Recog- 
nizing his  abilities  and  future  usefulness,  the  Um- 
versity  of  Freiburg,  in  1813,  conferred  on  him  the 
doctorate  in  theology. 

During  his  professoriate  in  Ellwangen  he  published: 
(1)  ^'Kntische  Untersuchungen  Ckber  Justins  apos- 
tolische  Denkwurdigkeiten"  (Stutt^rt,  1814);  (2) 
"  Ueber  die  Interpolationen  in  dem  Bnefe  des  Apostels 
Paulus  an  die  Rfimer  "  (Ellwangen,  1814);  (3)  *' Ueber 
die  Gpenzen  der  Freiheit,  die  emem  Katholiken  in  der 
Erklarung  der  Schrift  zusteht"  (Ellwangen,  1817); 
(4)  "  Dissertatio  in  Pastorem  Herms  ",  in  "  Constanzer 


Archiv  ",  1817,  II,  224  sqq.  On  the  amalgamation  of 
the  University  of  Ellwangen  with  that  of  lilbingeQ,  in 
1817,  he  accompanied  the  theologicad  faculty  t£iUier, 
and  continued  his  lectures  on  hermencfUtics.  Here  he 
published  his  ''Kritische  Untersuchungen  tiber  Mar- 
cions  Evangelium"  (Tubingen,  1818),  and  with  the  co- 
operation of  his  friends  Drey^  Herbst,  and  Hirscher, 
founded  in  1819  the  TObineen  *'  Theologiache  Quartal- 
schriff,  a  publication  which  from  its  inception  has 
enjoyed  an  uninterrupted  existence. 

The  same  year  he  received  an  invitation  to  the  chair 
of  Sacred  Scripture  in  the  newly  erected  faculty  of 
theology  in  the  University  of  Bonn.  His  reputation 
attended  him  here,  and  he  lectured  with  great  success. 
This,  however,  was  of  short  duration.  The  university, 
though  now  free  from  the  Rationalism  and  Febronian' 
ism  which  characterized  the  first  period  of  its  exist* 
ence,  was  gradually  xmdergoing  the  influence  of  a  new 
movement  known  as  Hermesianism,  the  originator  of 
which  was  Georg  Hermes,  professor  of  theology  and 
an  intimate  friend  of  Gratz.  The  high  reputation  of 
Hermes,  the  popular  character  of  his  lectures,  as  well 
as  the  fact  that  they  were  devoted  to  the-examination 
of  the  philosophical  systems  of  Kant  and  Fichte,  in- 
duced Gratz  to  sympathize  with  his  distinguished 
friend  and  associate  himself  w^ith  the  new  movement. 
The  step  was  a  fatal  one.  He  regretted  it  deeply  and 
desired  to  abandon  his  position  in  the  university.  All 
eiforts  to  this  effect  failed,  however,  and  at  uie  in- 
stance of  his  more  trustworthy  friends  he  continued  to 
lecture  at  Bonn  till  1823.  He  remained  a  member  of 
its  theological  faculty  till  1826,  and  in  1828  was  called 
to  Trier,  there  to  become  a  member  of  the  municipal 
council  and  also  of  the  school  board.  His  success  in 
this  new  field  of  activity  was  remarkable.  He  devoted 
all  his  time  and  energy  to  the  reorganization  of  the 
studies,  and  to  placing  the  schools  generally  on  a  hi^er 
scale  of  efficiency  than  they  had  hitherto  attained. 
While  in  Bonn  he  published:  (1)  "  Apologet  des  Kath- 
olicismus,  Zeitsclirift  fQr  Freunde  aer  Wahrheit  und 
der  BruderUebe"  (Mainz,  1820-24,  9  fasc.};  (2)  "No- 
vum Testamentum  grseco-latinum"  (TObmgen,  1820; 
Mainz,  1827);  and  (3)  ''Kritischer  Commentar  dber 
das  Evangehum  des  Matthaus''  (Tilbingen,  1821-23). 
This  commentary,  owing  to  the  extensive  use  the  au- 
thor made  of  Protestant  works,  was  severely  attacked 
by  'Binterim  and  GOrres.  Gratz  repUed  in  the  sixth 
fascicle  of  his  "  Apologeten ",  ,^^^^6  ^^  friends  pub- 
lished in  his  defence  "  Drei  6ffentliche  Stimmen  gegen 
die  Angriife  des  Pastors  Binterim  auf  den  Commentar 
des  Professors  Gratz,  nebst  drei  Beilagen"  (Bonn, 
1825).  He  also  undertook  the  continuation  of  the 
"Thesaurus  juris  ecclesiastici "  of  Aug.  Schmidt,  SJ., 
which,  however,  remained  unfinished. 

ScHULTB  in  AUgem.  deut.  Biogr.,  IX,  602;  Hitbtbii,  Nomen^ 
clator;  Wbrnbr.  Gesch.  d.  kath.  Theoloffie,  206.  401.  484.  528; 
TheolMische  Quartalschr.  (TQbingen^  1824).  293.  316,  464-505; 
KathaUa,  XIV  (1824).  16-28. 

Joseph  Scbroedeb. 

Oravier,  Jacques,  a  Jesuit  missionary;  b.  1651  at 
Moulins,  where  he  studied  classics  and  philosophy 
under  the  Jesuits;  d.  in  I^ouisiana  in  1708.  He  joined 
the  Jesuit  order  in  1670,  studied  theology  at  the 
college  of  Louis-le-Grand,  Paris,  and  was  sent  to 
Canada  in  1685.  Iii  1686  he  went  to  Michilimackinac. 
In  1689  he  succeeded  AUouez  in  the  Illinois  missi<Hi 
be^n  by  Marquette.  He  is  the  true  founder  of  that 
mission,  where  he  spent  ten  years  of  incredible  hard- 
ship and  suffering.  He  was  the  first  to  master  the 
Illinois  idiom,  and  reduced  it  to  grammatical  form. 
He  grouped  Kaskaskia  and  Peona  Indians  at  the 
Rocher,  near  Fort  St.  Louis,  and  despite  the  machinar 
tions  of  the  medicine-men  hejnoulded  his  fiod^  into  a 
model  Christian  Church.  In  his  task  he  was  seconded 
by  a  saintly  woman,  daughter  of  a  Kadcaskia  chuf. 
In  1696  he  was  superior  at  Michilimackinac,  with 
the  title  of  vicar-general  of  Bishop  St.  Vallier.    Id 


QRAVJNA 


733 


a&AZ 


1700  he  returned  to  the  Illinois  mission.  In  1706  the 
ungrateful  Peorias  attacked  and  cruelly  wounded  the 
missionary.  An  arrow-head  imbedded  in  his  arm 
could  never  be  extracted  even  by  surgeons  in  Paris. 
In  1708  Gravier  returned  to  Liouisiana,  where  he  died 
of  his  wound  that  same  year. 

RocmMONTEix,  Les  JfauUea  d  la  NouvtUe  France  CMontreal» 
1896):  Shxa,  The  Catholic  Church  m  Colonial  Days  (New  York. 

1886).  Lionel  Lindsay. 

Gravina,  Dominic,  theologian;  b.  in  Sicily,  about 
1573;  d.  in  the  Minerva,  at  Rome,  26  Aug.,  1643.  He 
entered  the  Dominican  Order  at  Naples,  and  made  his 
classical  and  sacred  studies  in  the  order's  schools.     As 

Brof essor  of  theolog}^  in  the  Dominican  college  of  St. 
Dominic  (Naples),  in  the  Minerva,  and  in  other 
schools  of  his  order,  he  became  the  most  celebrated 
theologian  of  his  time  in  Italy.  He  was  made  master 
of  sacred  theology  by  a  general  chapter  of  the  order 
held  at  Rome  in  1608,  and  then  became  dean  of  the 
faculty  of  the  theological  college  of  Naples.  In  the 
pulpit  also  he  gain^  great  renown,  and  was  fre- 
quently called  upon  to  conduct  Lenten  courses  and  to 
preach  before  ro]pe  Paul  V.  He  displayed,  more- 
over, a  tireless  activity  in  the  administrative  offices 
of  prior  and  provincial  in  his  own  province,  and  of 
procurator  general  and  vicar-general  of  the  entire 
order.  While  discharging  the  duties  of  these  two 
offices,  to  the  latter  of  which  he  was  raised  by  Pope 
Urban  VIII,  who  had  caused  the  general  to  be  re- 
moved, he  was  also  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace.  Of 
his  many  writings  on  theological  subjects,  chiefly  of  an 
apologetic  character,  a  large  number  have  never  been 
published.  Of  the  published  works  the  most  important 
are:  "Catholicse  prsescriptiones  adversus omnes haere- 
ticoe"  (7  vols.,  Naples,  1619-^9);  "Prosacro  drdinis 
Sacramento  vindicise  orthodoxse"  (Naples,  1634;  Co- 
logne, 1638);  "Apologeticus  ad  versus  novatorum 
calumnias"  (Naples,  1629;  Cologne,  1638);  "Lapis 
Lydius  ad  discemendas  veras  a  f alsis  revelationibus  " 
(2  vols.,  Naples,  1638),  a  mvstical  writing. 

QuirriP  and  Echabd,  Scrip.  Ord.  Freed.,  II,  ^2-3;  Rjsich- 
■BT,  Monumenta  Ord.  Prved.    Historica,  XI,    106.  152,  341; 

XII,  139.  Arthur  L.  McMahon. 

Oravina,  Giovanni  Vincenzo,  Italian  jurist  and 
lUUratewr  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries; 
b.  at  Rogliano,  Calabria,  21  January,  1664;  d.  at 
Rome,  6  January,  1718.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  years 
he  went  to  Naples  to  study  Latin,  Greek,  and  law,  not 
neglecting,  however,  his  mother-tongue.  He  went  to 
Rome  in  1689,  where  he  taught  civil  and  canon  law. 
He  had  just  been  called  to  an  important  chair  of  law 
at  the  University  of  Turin  when  ne  was  attacked  by 
the  illness  of  which  he  died.  The  juristic  studies  to 
which  he  devoted  himself  with  more  ardour  than  taste 
did  not  cause  him  to  forget  poetry.  In  1690  he  was 
co-f  ounder^  under  the  name  of  Opico  Erimanto.  of  the 
"  Aocademia  degli  Areadi ''  of  Rome,  specially  oevoted 
to  poetry.  Later  he  quarrelled  with  the  members  of 
this  academy,  and  tried  unsuccessfully  to  establish  an 
"Anti-Arcadia".  The  freedom  with  which  he  spoke 
of  everyone,  the  good  opinion  he  entertained  of  nim- 
self,  and  the  scorn  he  exnibited  for  many  literary  per- 
sons, made  him  many  enemies.  But  he  had  the  merit 
of  having  been  the  patron  of  the  poet  Metastasius. 
His  work  on  canon  law:  '' Institutiones  canonic»" 
(Turin,  1782,  1742,  etc.;  ed.,  Rome,  1832)  is  a  clear, 
but  very  elementary  handbook.  His  chief  work  on 
civil  law  is  "Originum  juris  civilis  libri  tres"  (Naples, 
1701,  1713;  Venice,  1730).  This  was  translated  into 
French  under  the  title  "Esprit  des  lois  romaines" 
(Paris.  1775).  Another  work  is  "De  imperip  Ro- 
mano liber  singularis",  published  in  the  editions  of  his 
"  Originum  juris  civilis  libri  tres  ".  Among  his  literary 
works  the  following  are  deserving  of  mention:  "Delle 
antiche  favole"  (Rome,  1696);  "Delia  Ragione 
PoeticaUbridue"  (Rome,  1709;  Naples,  1716);  '^Tra- 


gedie  cinque"  (Naples,  1712);  "Orationes  et  Opus- 
cula"  (Naples,  1712;  Utrecht,  1713);  "Delia  tra^dia 
librouno"  (Naples,  1715). 

NicsRON.  Mimoirea  pour  aervir  a  Vhiatoire  dot  hommes  Hhu* 
ires  (Paris,  1734).  XXIX.  233  sa.:  FAaBBRi.  VUa  dea  Oravina  in 
RaccoUa  di  opuacuii  adentif.  c  fuel.  (Venice.  1768);  ScHULns, 
Oeachichle  der  Qttdlen  urui  LiUratur  dea  canoniaehen  Rachta 
(Stuttgaxt,  1875-1880),  lU,  601;  Schxbeb  in  Kinhenlejoeon, 
8.  v. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Gravina  and  Montdpeloso,  Diocese  of  (Gravi- 
NENsis  ET  Montis  Pelusii). — Gravina  is  a  town  in 
the  Province  of  Ban  (Southern  Italy)  on  a  river  of  the 
same  name,  since  the  ninth  century  an  episcopal  see, 
suffragan  of  Acerenza  and  Matera.  In  1818  it  was 
united  ceaue  principaliter  with  Montepeloso,  which 
dates  bacK  to  the  twelfth  century  (some  say  the  fif- 
teenth) and  was  suffragan  of  Potenza.  Montepeloso 
is  situated  on  a  hill  in  the  Province  of  Potenza.  In 
975  it  was  defended  against  the  Saracens;  in  999 
Gregorio  Tracomonte,  a  native  of  Bari,  defeated  there 
the  Byzantines.  The  cathedral  of  Gravina  treasures 
in  a  splendid  reliquary  an  arm  t>f  St.  Thomas  k  Becket 
obtained  by  Bishop  Roberto  in  1179.  The  first 
known  Bishop  of  Gravina  is  Leo ;  other  bishops  of  note 
are:  Samuele  (1215),  who  built  at  his  own  expense 
the  church  of  the  Madonna  di  Altamura,  afterwards 
an  archipresbyterate  nullins  (i.  e.  exempt  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  neighbouring  bishop;  see  Exemp- 
tion); Giacomo  II  (1302),  who  altered  the  rite  from 
Greek  to  Latin  by  order  of  the  Archbishop  of  Acer- 
enza; Vincenzo  C^iustiniani  (1593),  a  Genoese  noble- 
man, who  founded  the  seminary,  the  church  of  the  Ma- 
donna delle  Grazie,  and  the  Capuccinelle  convent* 
Domenico  Gennini  (1645),  who  built  the  episcopal 
residence;  Fra  Domenico  Valvassori  (1680),  a  patron 
of  learning  and  founder  of  an  ''aocademia  teologica". 
The  united  dioceses,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See, 
contain  9  parishes  and  28,000  souls,  7  convents  for 
women,  and  2  girls'  schools. 

Cappblletti,  Le  Chieae  d'lialia  (1870),  XXI;  Pauzzolo- 
Gbavina,  La  Caaa  Gravina  (Palermo,  1888). 

U.  Benigni. 

Oral,  University  of,  located  in  the  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Steiermark,  owes  its  establishment  to  the 
Counter-Reformation  and  the  efforts  of  Archduke  Karl 
von  Steiermark,  who,  in  1584,  requested  Pope  Gregory 
XIII  to  grant  autonomous  university  privileges  to  the 
Jesuit  college  of  Graz,  which  had  been  founded  in  1573 
and  was  alreadv  possessed  of  a  theological  and  philo- 
sophical school.  The  documents  of  the  archducal 
foundation  and  of  papal  recognition  are  dated  1  Janu- 
ary, 1585.  The  latter,  however,  was  not  made  public 
until  15  April,  1586,  the  occasion  being  the  dedication 
exercises  of  the  institution  as  a  university,  and  it  bore 
the  signature  of  the  new  pope,  Sixtus  V.  The  letter 
of  recognition  of  Emperor  Kudolf  II  followed  soon 
after.  The  archduke  endowed  the  seat  of  learning 
with  a  yearly  income  and  set  aside  for  its  benefit  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  products  yielded  by  Govern- 
ment lands.  The  papai  Bull  directed  the  Jesuit 
priests  in  charge  to  give  public  instruction  in  theology, 
philosophy,  and  the  liberal  arts,  as  was  customary 
m  other  advanced  schools  of  a  similar  character. 
The  first  scholastic  year  of  the  university  began  in 
1586. 

Subsequent  to  the  Counter-Reformation,  Archduke 
Ferdinand  signed  on  behalf  of  the  institution  which 
his  father  had  created  a  second  document  of  founda- 
tion, in  which  he  confirmed  its  purpose  as  set  forth  in 
the  original  decree,  declaring  it  to  be  ''the  service  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Catholic  Religion",  and  placed  it  on 
a  solid  material  basis.  He  enriched  it  with  new 
buildings  and  presented  it  with  the  revenues  and  full 
ecclesiastical  supremacy  of  Miihlstatt,  in  Carinthia, 
and  of  other  estates  of  the  Crown,  including  the  right 
of  independent  jurisdiction  and  exemption  from  the 


GREAT 


734 


GREAT 


payment  of  duties  and  taxes.  He  obtained  from 
rope  Clement  VIII  a  confirmation  of  the  MQhlstatt 
grant,  with  which  the  college  of  Graz  had  been  given 
diocesan  rights  over  the  whole  of  that  principality. 
He  founded  a  burse  for  poor  students,  whicn  was 
called  the  Ferdinandeum.  Another  and  similar 
foundation  was  the  Joaepktnumj  which  was  raised  by 
private  subscriptions  (1743-49).  It  was  not  long  be- 
fore the  cathedral  chapter  of  Salzburg  claimed  for 
itself  diocesan  powers  in  the  district  of  Mdhlstatt;  but 
a  settlement  was  reached  at  a  trial  held  in  1659. 
whereby  on  the  one  hand  the  ordinariate  powers  ana 
independent  jurisdiction  of  the  college  of  Graz  were 
recognized,  while  on  the  other  certain  concesssions 
were  made  to  the  Diocese  of  Salzburg.  Legal  pro- 
ceedings withNthe  Kftmten  authorities  regarding  the 
exemption  of  the  MQhlstatt  district  from  property 
taxes,  which  proceedings  lasted  more  than  one  nundred 
years,  resulted  in  a  defeat  for  the  Jesuit  Orcbr  in  1755. 

This  institution  of  Graz  was  the  Jesuits'  centre  of 
activity  in  their  labours  for  the  reclaiming  of  Steier- 
mark  to  Catholicity.  Here  was  prepared  aU  the  mate- 
riid  necessary  for  such  a  mission,  here  Catholic  influence 
found  a  new  sourccf  of  strength  in  the  founding  of 
academic  sodalities  of  Mary  and  other  societies  of  like 
import.  Its  school  festivids  were  celebrated  with 
dramas  of  a  spiritual  as  well  as  profane  character  and 
with  farces  and  comedies  in  Latm  and  German,  which 
were  produced  in  the  college  theatre.  The  chief  aim 
of  these  plays  was  to  awaken  sentiments  of  faith  and 
patriotism,  and  they  formed  a  notable  addition  to  the 
dramatic  literature  of  the  day. 

As  earlv  as  the  year  1604,  Ueorg  Stobftus  von  Palm- 
burg,  Bishop  of  Liavant,  advocated  the  further  broad- 
ening of  the  University  of  Graz  by  the  addition  to 
its  staff  of  a  faculty  of  jiuisprudence.  But  though 
negotiations  were  undertaken  to  this  end  between  the 
institution  and  the  Government,  the  former's  insist- 
ence that  its  autonomy  should  remain  unimpaired 
caused  these  negotiations  to  be  suspended  until  the 
dissolution  of  the  Jesuit  Order.  After  the  establish- 
ment, in  Graz,  of  private  courses  in  jurisprudence  out- 
side of  the  universit V,  and  the  execution  of  a  reform  in 
theologicr.1  and  philosophical  studies  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  State  Directors  of  Studies  and  the  altenng  of 
examination  methods,  the  univet^ity  was  plaoea  in 
1760  under  the  supervision  of  a  State  Commission  of 
Studies  designatea  for  this  purpose,  and  therefore 
lost  almost  entirely  its  monastic  character  of  the 
Josephine  period.  The  year  1773  proved  to  be,  owing 
to  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  the  last  school  year  of 
the  Jesmt  college  at  Graz.  ^  The  university  became  a 
State  institution,  its  material  possessions  were  seized 
upon  for  the  public  treasury,  and  its  course  of  instruc- 
tion was  remodelled  to  conform  with  that  laid  down 
by  the  newly-established  imperial  Commission  of 
Studies  for  the  University  of  Vienna.  The  winter  of 
1778  saw  the  inauguration  of  a  faculty  of  jurisprudence 
which  consisted  of  two  professors,  while  higher  in- 
struction in  medicine  was  likewise  introduced,  which 
received  gradual  development.  At  the  end  of  1782 
Joseph  11  issued  a  decree  converting  the  university 
into  a  lyceum  with  four  faculties  and  the  right  to 
award  oegreec  in  theology  and  philosophy.  The 
number  of  instructors  was  restricted  to  twelve.  But 
the  Lyceum  of  Graz  recovered  in  the  summer  of  1827 
its  former  rank  and  name  as  a  univ' raity,  through  a 
grant  of  the  Emperor  Francis.  Its  faculty  of  philoso- 
phy grew  steadily,  and  a  duly  orgR,nized  faculty  of 
medicine  was  added  by  an  imperial  decree  of  January, 
1863.  The  Alma  Mater  GrtBcensis  has  since  then 
occupied  the  third  place  among  the  institutions  of 
learning  in  German-speaking  Austria.  The  technical 
high  school  which  haa  been  founded  ii>  1814  was  taken 
over  by  the  State  in  1874. 

Kronss,  OeaehiehU  der  KaTt^Frttnzen9'UhipeniUU  in  Graz 

^^^^^*  Karl  Hoeber. 


Oreat  Oonncil.    See  Sanhedrik. 

Great  Fall8>  Diocese  or  (Grbatormensib),  cre- 
ated by  Pope  Pius  X,  18  May,  1904,  comprises  the 
following  counties  in  the  State  of  Montana:  Carbon, 
Cascade.  Chouteau,  Custer,  Dawson,  ]«eigus,  P^uk, 
Rosebua,  Sweet  Grass,  Valley,  and  Yellowstone.  It 
is  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  of  Montana,  U.  S. 
A.;  total  area  is  94,158  square  miles. 

The  titular  city.  Great  Falls,  is  most  appropriately 
named,  as  the  Missouri  River  at  this  pomt  falls  533 
feet  in  a  series  of  cascades,  giving  an  ecjuivalent  of 
340,000  h.  p.,  and  thus  ranking  next  to  Niagara,  both 
in  scenic  beauty  and  mechanical  value.  This  cheap 
power  is  utilized  by  large  manufacturing  plants — flour 
mills,  plaster  mills,  iron  works,  smelting  and  reduction 
works,  etc.  The  annual  output  of  one  smelter  alone 
is  over  100,000,- 
000  pounds  of 
copper,  with  laroe 
q^uantities  of  gold, 
silver,  and  letui  as 
by-products.  Over 
5,000.000  acres  of 
rich  farmland  are 
tributary  to  the 
city;  1,000,000 
acres  being  irri- 
gated by  the  U.  S. 
Reclamation  Ser- 
vice and  private 
enterprises.  The 
region  adjacent  to 
the  city  is  also  rich 
in  mineraLs — cop- 
per, sapphires, 
^Id,^  silver,  lead,* 
iron,  gypsum, 
limestone,  ana 
bituminous  coal 
(the  output  of  this 
last  for  1907  being 
1,240,000  tons). 
Besides  its  impor- 
tance as  a  manu- 
facturing centre,  Great  Falls  ranks  next  to  Butte  as 
the  most  populous  city  in  Montana,  and  is  generally  re- 
garded as  pre-eminently  the  home  city  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region. 

In  the  year  1850  Father  De  Smet,  S  J.,  and  his  com- 

f  anions  were  the  first  missionaries  to  celebrate  the 
lolv  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  in  the  territorv  now  cov- 
ered by  the  Diocese  of  Great  Falls.  Tnis  notable 
event  took  place  at  Fort  Benton,  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion of  the  Missouri  River,  2600  miles  from  its  mouth, 
at  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi.  The  Jesuit  Fa- 
tliers  established  missions  to  the  Indians  in  Montana 
as  earl^  as  1841,  and  most  of  these  missions  are  still  in 
a  flourishing  condition.  At  St.  Peter's  Mission,  which 
is  now  the  mother-house  of  the  Ursuline  Order  of  Mon- 
tana, 2732  baptisms  of  Indians  were  recorded  in  the 
Baptismal  Renter  from  1855  to  1879.  The  eariy 
missionaries  made  many  converts  among  the  different 
tribec  of  Indians,  and  established  among  the  white 
settlers  a  healthy  Catholic  influence  ihib  effects  of 
which  are  still  noticeable.  The  non-Catholics  are  re- 
spectful, and  most  generous  in  contributing  towards 
the  erection  of  churches  and  charitable  institutions. 
The  Catholics  are  well  represented  in  different  sec- 
tions, in  the  social,  commercial,  and  professional  life 
of  the  community.  The  Very  Rev.  Mathias  Clement 
Lenihan,  vicar  forane  and  missionary  rector,  of  Mar- 
shalltown,  Iowa,  was  appointed  first  Bishop  of  Great 
Falls,  20  May,  and  consecrated  21  September,  1904,  at 
St.  Raphaers  Cathedral,  Dubuque,  Iowa.  He  was 
bom  6  October,  1854,  at  Dubuque,  Iowa,  U.  S.  A.,  was 
educated  at  St.  Joseph's  Coll^,  Dubuque,  where  he 


St.  Ann's  CathidraLi  Qbsat  Falls, 
Montana 


GREECE 


735 


OBEEOE 


was  a  charter  student  and  at  St.  John's  GoUeee, 
Prairie  du  Chien^  Wisconsin,  conducted  by  the  Broth- 
ers of  the  Christian  Schools,  and  made  his  theological 
studies  at  the  Grand  Seminary,  Montreal,  Canada, 
where  he  was  ordained  priest  21  December,  1879. 
Bishop  Leni'ian  was  the  first  native  of  the  State  of 
Iowa  to  be  raised  to  the  priesthood .  His  first  appoint- 
ment was  at  Vail ;  his  second,  at  Marshalltown,  where 
he  built,  besides  a  school  and  church,  the  St.  Thomas 
Hospital  in  memory  of  his  brother,  the  late  Rt.  Rev. 
Thomas  M.  Lenihan,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Cheyenne, 
Wyoming.  Immediately  after  his  installation  Bishop 
Lenihan  devoted  his  energies  to  temperance  reform, 
.  to  the  installation  of  a  parochial  school  system,  and  to 
the  erection  of  a  cathedral.  The  fine  cut-stone  edifice 
which  now  serves  as  the  cathedral  of  Great  Falls  was 
completed  and  dedicated,  15  December,  1907,  to  St. 
Anne,  the  mother  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  Two  more 
churches  are  now  building  at  Great  Falls,  as  well  as  a 
large  oxphans'  home  that  will  be  conducted  by  the  Sis- 
ters of  Charity  of  Providence,  who  also  have  charge 
of  Columbus  Hospital  and  Maternity  Home.  The 
diocese  is  in  a  prosperous  condition,  both  spiritually 
and  materially.  New  parishes  are  being  created  and 
new  churches  are  being  erected  in  nearly  every  dty. 

StoHstics. — At  the  creation  of  the  diocese  (1904) 
the  Catholic  population  was  10,000;  the  number  of  the 
clergy  was  17  (12  diocesan,  6  regular).  At  present 
(1909)  there  is  a  Catholic  population  of  15,052;  the 
number  of  clergy  has  doubled  (24  diocesan,  8  regular) ; 
there  are  45  churches.  44  stations,  9  chapels ;  12  eccle- 
siastical students;  8  brothers; '98  religious  women;  5 
academies  for  young  ladies  (400  pupfls) ;  5  parochial 
schools  (680  pupils) ;  4  Indian  schools  (420  pupils) ;  4 
hospitals  (32K)0  patients  annually).  The  religious 
oonununities  in  the  diocese  include :  Jesuit  Fathers,  four 
charges ;  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  (Province 
of  Quebec)'  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Providence  (Mon- 
treal, Canada),  three  charges:  Sisters  of  Charity,  Leav- 
enworth; Sisters  of  the  Holy  Humility  of  Mary 
(Ottumwa,  Iowa) ;  Daughters  of  Jesus ;  Ursuline  Nuns, 
five  charges. 

Pax<ladino,  Indian  and  White  in  the  Northwest  (Baltimore, 
1894);  The  Iowa  Catholic  Meeaenger  (Davenport,  Iowa,  1904); 
WiLTZzus,  The  Catholic  Directory  (Milwaukee,  1908). 

Joseph  Medix. 

Greece  will  be .  treated  in  this  article  under  the 
following  heads:  I.  The  Land  and  the  People;  II.  The 
Church  m  Greece  before  the  Schism;  III.  The  Ortho- 
dox Church  in  Greece;  IV.  Constitution  of  the  Church 
of  Greece;  V.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Greece;  VI. 
Protestants  and  Other  Sects;  VII.  The  Church  in 
Enslaved  Greece. 

I.  The  Land  and  the  People. — ^The  Greeks  are  a 
people  who  appear  first  in  history  as  separated  in 
various  small  States,  but  bound  toother  oy  a  com- 
mon language,  religion  and  civilization,  in  the  south 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  the  islands  around,  and  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor  opposite.  For  about  three  cen- 
turies these  States  attained  a  perfection  in  every  form 
of  civilization  that  ^ves  them  the  first  place  in  the 
history  of  Europe.  Then  the  Greek  ideal — Hellenism 
— spread  over  Asia,  Egypt,  and  westward  to  Italy. 
The  original  race  gradually  sinks  in  importance;  the 
States  have  disappeared.  But  the  power  of  the  Greek 
language,  Greek  learning,  Greek  art  is  never  ex- 
hausted; the  magic  of  the  old  memories  still  works  in 
every  age;  while  political  changes  cause  the  rise  and 
fall  of  other  governments,  Hellenism  never  ceases  from 
its  conquests.'  The  ^reat  Roman  Empire,  having  be- 
come too  unwieldy,  is  divided,  and  Greece  gradually 
swallows  up  the  eastern  half.  For  nearly  ten  cen- 
turies a^in  Greece  reigns  from  Constantinople.  The 
flood  of  Islam  sweeps  over  the  lands  she  had  moulded; 
instead  of  destroying  her,  this  brin^  her  to  fresh  con- 
quests across  the  distant  West.  Last  of  all,  chiefly 
because  of  the  magic  of  her  name,  the  land  where  Hel- 


lenism was  bom  has  succeeded  in  shaking  off  the 
tyrant  and  we  have  a^in  a  free  Greece.  But  Hellas 
means  more  than  this  small  country.  It  is  that 
mighty  force,  undying  from  Homer  to  the  present 
Phanar  at  Constantinople,  that,  through  all  changes 
of  government,  has  been  expressed  in  the  same  lan- 
guage, has  evolv^  its  own  ideals,  and,  imbroken  in  its 
continuity*  for  nearly  thirty  centuries,  has  moulded  to 
its  own  hkeness  nearly  every  race  it  met.  The  bar- 
barous tribes  of  Asia  Minor — Macedonians,  Christian 
Arat»,  Egyptians  and  Slavs,  Phoenicians  and  Italians, 
Wallachians  and  even  some  branches  of  the  great 
Turkish  race — met  this  ideal  in  turn,  learned  to  talk 
Greek  and  to  call  themselves  Hellenes.  And  at  the 
knees  of  this  mother  all  Europe  has  stood. 

It  is  not  the  object  of  this  article  to  tell  again  the 
long  story  of  Greece.  One  or  two  salient  points  only 
will  clear  the  ground  for  an  account  of  Christianity 
among  ihis  people. 

First  of  all,  what  is  Greece? — ^The  question  may 
easily  be  answered  now.  The  Conference  of  London, 
in  1831,  and  the  Treaty  of  1897  have  arran^  the 
frontier  of  the  modem  kingdom.  In  the  past  it  is  less 
easy  to  answer.  Greece  was'not  united  as  one  State 
even  in  classical  times;  Alexander's  empire  included 
all  manner  of  nations;  imder  Rome  the  scattered 
Greeks  gradually  learned  to  call  themselves  Romans. 
The  only  answer  that  can  be  given  for  any  period  is 
that  Greece  is  the  land  where  Greeks  live ;  any  country, 
any  city  where  the  people  in  the  great  majority  spoke 
Greek,  were  conscious  of  being  Greeks,  was  at  that 
time  at  any  rate  a  part  of  Hellas:  S3rracuse  and  Hali- 
camassus  as  much  as  Athens  and  Corinth.  This  only 
removes  the  question  one  step,  since  one  now  asks: 
What  is  a  Greek?  To  demand  evidence  of  pure  de- 
scent from  one  of  the  original  Dorian,  Ionian,  or 
iEolian  tribes 'would  be  hopeless.  It  has  been  the 
special  mission  of  Hellas  to  impose  her  language  and 
ideals,  even  the  consciousness  of  being  a  Greek,  on 
other  races.  Of  the  enormous  number  of  people  since 
Alexander  who  spoke  Greek  and  called  themselves 
Greeks  the  great  majority  were  children  of  Hellenized 
barbarians.  Moreover  districts  were  inhabited  by 
mixed  populations.  The  great  towns — Antioch  and 
Alexandria,  for  instance — were  more  or  less  com- 
pletely Hellenized,  while  the  peasants  around  kept 
their  original  languages. 

One  must  use  the  names  Greek  and  Oreece  as  com- 
parative ones.  Where  a  certain  decree  of  Greek  con- 
sciousness (shown  most  obviously  m  the  use  of  the 
language)  prevails,  there  we  may  call  the  people 
Greeks,  more  or  less  so  according  to  the  measure  of 
ihfiiT  absorption  by  Hellas.^  The  old  Greek  States 
covered  about  the  territory  included  in  the  modem 
kingdom  and  the  islands,  with  colonies  around  the  ^ 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  Sicily,  Southern  Italy,  Northern 
Egypt,  even  Southern  Gaul.  Alexander  (336-23  b. 
c.)  upset  these  limits  altogether.  Himself  a  Hellen- 
ized Macedonian,  descended  from  people  whom  the  old 
Greeks  certainly  considered  barbarians  (thoujgh  Mace- 
donians seem  to  have  been  akin  to  the  ifiohans),  his 
empire  spread  the  Greek  ideal  and  language  through- 
out Asia  and  Egypt.  When  Rome  conquered  Greece 
(146  B.  c.)  there  was  no  longer  any  question  of  a 
Greek  political  nation.  But  the  race  goes  on,  and 
the  language  never  dies.  Constantine  (a.  d.  32i-37) 
meant  his  new  city  t.  be  Roman.  But  here,  too, 
Hellas  gradually  absorbed  her  conquerors.  At  least 
from  the  time  of  Justinian  I  (527-65)  the  Eastern 
Empire,  in  spite  of  its  Roman  name,  must  be  counted 
a  Greek  State.  The  Byzantine  period  (roughly  from 
527  to  1453)  is  the  direct  continuation  of  the  older 
Greek  civilization.  It  is  true  that  Byzantine  civiliza- 
tion was  influenced  from  other  sides  (from  Rome  and 
Asia  Minor,  for  instance) ;  but  this  would  apply  to  the 
old  Greek  ideals  too,  on  which  Egypt,  Persia,  and 
Asia  had  their  influence;  it  is  the  normal  process  of  the 


GBEEOS  736 

development  of  any  civilization  to  absorb  foreign  influ-  tive,  the  real  centre  is  still  the  Phanar  at  Constanti- 

ences  ^p^ually,  without  breaking  its  own  continuity,  nople.    It  is  here,  even  more  than  at  Athens,  that  the 

Only,  m  this  period  the  centre  ot  gravity  has  moved  "  Great  Idea"  of  a  Greece  that  shall  cover  the  Balkans 

from  Athens  to  Constantinople.    It  was  a  special  is  cherished;  it  is  hither,  to  the  Phanar  and  the  patri- 

characteristic  of  the  Turkish  conquest  that  it  neither  arch,  that  the  eyes  of  all  Greeks  are  tiumed.    Kins 

destroyed  nor  absorbed  the  races  subject  to  the  sul-  George,  with  his  Danish  family,  takes  his  stipend  and 

tan.    The  difference  of  relieion,  involvmg  in  this  case  enjoys  such  slieht  authority  as  his  turtnilent  Parlia- 

an  entirely  different  kind  <h  life  and  different  ideals  in  ment  allows  to  nim,  but  the  head  of  the  nation,  as  a 

everything,  prevented  absorption;  and  the  subject  Greek  told  Dr.  Geliser  in  1898^  is  not  the  king  at  Athens, 

Christians  were  too  valuable  an  asset  as  taxpayers  to  but  the  oecumenical   patriarch   at  Constantinople, 

be  wiped  out  by  the  Arabs.    So,  after  1453,  except  for  (Gelzer,  "  Geistliches  und  Weltliches  aus  dem  tOrk.- 

the  loss  of  independence  and  the  persecution  in  a  more  griech.  Orient",  Leipzig,  1900.    See  Forteecue,  "The 

or  less  acute  form  that  they  suffered,  the  older  Eu-  Orthodox  Eastern  Church".  240-244,  273-283.) 
ropean  races  in  the  Balkans  went  on  as  before.     No        Something  must  be  said  about  the  name.    T^e  land 

doubt  numbers  of  Greeks  did  apostatize,  learn  to  and  the  people  that  we  call  Greece  and  Greeks  are  in 

sp^k  Turkish  and  help  to  build  up  that  artificial  con-  their  own  language  Hellas  and  Hellenes.    Greek  is  a 

fusion  of  races  which  we  call  the  Turks.    But  the  form  of  the  Latin  GrcBcus,  which  in  various  modificar 

enormous  majority  kept  their  faith  in  spite  of  grievous  tions  (griechej  grec,  greco^  etc.)  is  used  in  all  Western 

disabilities.    They  kept  their  language,  too,  and  their  languages.    GrcectM  is  rpauc6f,  an  older  name  for  the 

consciousness  of  being  Greeks.    They  never  called  people.    rpau(6t  was  a  mythical  son  of  Thessaloe. 

themselves  Turks  (a  word  that  in  the  Balkans  is  still  Or,  since  this  should  rather  be  understood  as  derived 

commonly  used  for  Moslem),  nor  thought  of  them-  inversely  (the  person  as  an  eponymous  myth  from  the 

selves  as  part  of  the  Turkish  State.    They  were  Greeks  race),  various  other  derivations  have  been  proposed, 

(which  is  what  their  name  *Pw/«aiiM  really  meant),  their  VpoMtfn  (a  form  *Pau:6t  also  exists)  is  said  to  have 

Land  was  Greece  still,  though  imhappily  held  by  a  meant  oripinally  ''shaegv-haired",  or  "freeman",  or 

foreign  tyrant,  for  whose  removal  they  never  ceased  "dweller  in  a  valley  *'(W.  Pape,  "W6rterbuch  dcr 

to  pray.  ^  griechischen  Eigennamen",  3rd  ed.,  Brunswick,  1870, 

The  real  danger  to  the  ideal  of  Greater  Greece  cov-  s.  v.  FpaixoO.    The  first  people  so  called  were  the 

ering  all  the  Balkans  was  not,  is  not  now,  the  Turk,  people  of  Dodona  in  Epirus,  then  the  Greeks  in  gen- 

who  remains  always  only  an  unpleasant  incident  in  eral.    After  the  common  use  of  Uie  other  name,  %e^ 

the  history  of  these  lands;  it  is  the  presence  of  other  2en«,  this  one  still  survived.    It  occurs  occasionally  in 

Christian  races,  Slavs,  who  dispute  the  Greek  ideal  classical  writers;  after  Alexander  it  became  common, 

with  their  languages  and  national  feeling.    Were  it  especially  among  Greeks  abroad  (in  Alexandria,  etc.). 

not  for  these  Slavs  we  could  count  Greece  as  having  From  them  it  was  adopted  into  Latin.    But  in  Greek, 

absorbed  Macedonia  and  Thrace  by  the  time  of  Alex-  too,  it  lasts  through  the  Middle  Ages  as  an  alternative 

ander,  and  as  covering  nearly  all  the  Balkans  to  the  name  for  the  HeUenes  of  dassidu  times  (Stephen  of 

Danube  ever  since.    But  the  Bulgar,'the  Serb,  the  Byzantium,  about  a.  d.  4(X):  VpaMhn,  6  'EXXiyr,  quoted 

Wallachian — and  Albanian  too— are  there  with  their  by  Sophocles  in  "Greek  Lexicon  of  the  Roman  and 

languages  and  nations  to  oppose  the  "Great  Idea"  of  Byzantine  Periods",  New  York,  1893,  s.  v.  rpaurfe). 

which  every  Greek  dreams.    So  we  must  still  count  Latins  and  other  foreigners,  as  well  as  Greeks  writing 

Greece  as  a  scattered  and  relative  element  amons  to  such  people,  use  it  not  seldom  for  any  Greek,  as 

others.     Under  the  Turk  Constantinople  was  still  "Grscus"  in  Latin. 

the  centre  of  this  element.  The  oecumenical  patriarch  The  other  names:  HeUae  ('EXXdt)  and  Hellene 
took  the  place  of  the  emperor;  his  court,  the  Phanar,  CBXXijy)  are  the  classical  ones.  Hellas  was  a  city  of 
was  the  heart  of  Hellenism,  where  the  purest  Greek  was  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly.  From  there  the  name  If  el- 
spoken,  the  memory  of  the  old  Greek  States  most  alive,  lene  spread  throughout  Thessaly.    Herodotus  distin- 

In  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  wave  euishes  in  Thessaly  "  two  chief  people:  the  older  Pe- 
of  enthusiasm  foriibertv  started  by  the  French  Revo-  lassie,  the  other  the  Hellenic  race",  and  tells  how  the 
lution  reached  the  Rayans,  as  the  Christian  subjects  of  Hellenes  invaded  that  land  under  Dorus,  son  of  Hel- 
the  sultan  were  called  by  the  Turks.  TheRaytdis  had  len — another  epon3rmous  mythical  hero  (I,  Ivi,  cf. 
never  ceased  to  hope  for  the  day  when  "this  so  ^ori-  Iviii).  The  elder  Pliny  applies  the  name  further:  ''From 
ous  and  noble  race  should  no  longer  have  to  submit  to  the  neck  of  the  Isthmus  [going  north]  Hellas  begins, 
a  godless  turban"  (Ph.  Skuphos  in  his  Ahiffis  rcdt  which  is  called  b^r  our  people  Grscia"  ("Ablsuimi 
r6y  XptcT6w) ;  the  Klephts  and  Armatoles  had  kd^t  angustiis  Hellas  ^  incipit,  nostris  Graecia  appellata. 
up  a  ceaseless,  if  hopeless,  rebellion  against  the  pa-  In  ea  prima  Attice,  antiquitus  Acte  vocata  — Nat. 
shas  and  kaimakams.  In  1814  the  "  Hetairia  Pnil-  Hist.,  IV,  vii).  Long  before  the  New  Testament  the 
ike"  was  foimded  at  Odessa,  to  work  for  the  free-  names  were  used  by  every  one  in  our  sense  of  Greece 
dom  of  Greece.  In  the  revolution  that  followed,  and  Greek.  So  in  I  Mach^  viii,  9  and  18.  *BXXdt  oo- 
from  1821  to  1833,  Greeks  joined  equally  all  over  the  curs  once  (Acts,  xx^2),  EXKrip  many  times  (e.  g., 
Turkish  Empire,  in  the  islands  and  the  coast  towns  of  Rom.,  x,  12),  in  the  New  Testament.  In  the  parti- 
Asia  Minor,  in  Constantinople  and  Salonica  as  much  tions  of  the  Roman  Empire  neither  Gnecia  nor  Hellas 
as  in  Attica  and  the  Peloponnesus.  The  treaty  that  appears.  The  Peloponnesus  and  the  land  up  to  Thes- 
finally  gave  freedom  only  to  the  lower  part  of  the  pe-  saly  formed  the  Province  of  Achaia,  then  came  Thee- 
ninsula  was  a  bitter  disappointment  to  thousands  of  salia  and  Epirus,  then  Macedonia  and  Thracia.  But 
Greeks  still  subject  to  the  Turk.  No  doubt  a  more  popular  use  kept  the  older  name  (e.  g.,^  Pausanias, 
generous  concession  was  impossible;  but  one  must  VlI,  xvi);  a  Greek  still  called  himself 'EXXiyr.  As 
remember  that  the  modem  Kingdom  of  Greece  is  only  (Christianity  spread  Hellene  began  to  suggest  pagan — 
a  fraction  of  what  has  an  equal  right  to  the  name  of  a  worshipper  of  the  Hellenic  gods.  Eventually  this 
Hellas.  The  merchants  of  Smyrna  and  Salonica,  the  evil  flavour  absorbed  the  word  altogether,  m  the 
Phanariots  of  C!k>nstantinople,  the  peasants  of  Crete,  Greek  Fathers  it  always  means  simply  "a  heathen", 
and  even  of  distant  CTyprus,  hang  out  the  blue  and  white  St.  Athanasius  wrote  a  treatise  against  the  heathen 
flag  on  feast  days,  talk  Greek  to  their  wives,  and  are  and  called  it:  A6yot  icaS'  *EW^pt9P,  so  all  the  others. 
just  as  much  conscious  of  being  Greeks  as  the  citizens  Julian,  in  his  hopeless  attempt  to  revive  the  old  gods, 
of  Athens.  Outside  of  "free  Greece"  (^  ilsMvBipa  always  uses  it  in  this  sense  and  makes  the  most  of  its 
'EWdt),  "captive  Greece"  (4  alxiM\d^ii  'EXXit)  honourable  sound.  But  (Christianity  was  stronger 
waits  and  hopes.  Of  this  scattered  fatherland,  con-  than  the  memory  of  Hellas,  so  from  this  time  the  nam^ 
Bsdered  as  one  country,  whether  now  free  or  still  cap-  falls  into  discredit  till  quite  modem  times. 


737  GBKBOX 

All  through  th«  Middle  Agee  Greeks  colled  them-    his  two  Epistlea  to  the  Corinthians.    For  an  ncoount 
selves  'Fuiiaiat,  meamng  oituens  of  the  Roman  Em-    of  this,  the  most  typical  of  the  Pauline  Churches,  see 
pire  broueht  by  Constantine  to  his  new  capita).  This    Belaer,  op.  cit.,  V,  xl  (pp.  476-489). 
strange  aaaptation  of  their  conquerora'  name  lasted        The  alleRed  mission  of  other  Apoatloa  to  Greece 
till  the  nineteenth  century.    Even  now  peasants  call    rests  on  a  less  firm  footing.    St.  Andrew  is  said  to 
themselves  'Fh/uSh,  and  (except  in  towns  and  among    have  preached  in  Scythia,  llirace,  Epirus,  Macedonia, 
schoolmasters)  the  Greek  for    Do  you  speak  Greek?       and  Achaia,  and  to  nave  been  crucified  (on  a  cross  oi 
is:   'OfuX^t  'Pufuiid;     It  was  during  the  great  le-     the  shape  to  which  he  has  given  his  name)  at  Patras, 
vival  of  political  national  feeling  at  the  begmning  of    by  order  of  the  Proconsul  MgeaM.    The  story  of  his 
the  nineteenth  century  that  the  classical  name  b^an    miasion  and  martyrdom  is  as  old  as  the  second  cen- 
to be  used  again,  almost  as  a  war-cry,  by  the  people     tury.     It  formed  pari  of  a  work  on  the  Apostles  writ- 
whose  imagination  was  full  of  Pericles  and  Socrates,    ten  then  by  a  heretic,  Leucius  Charinus  (Leukios 
When  the  Horea,  the  islands,  and  part  of  the  mainland    Chareinoe.— cf .  Epiphanius,  "  adv.  Iter.",  Ixi,  1 ;  Iziii, 
succeeded  in  throwii^  off  the  Turk,  the  first  provis-    2).  There  is  on  alleged  contemporary  encyclical  letter 
ional  independent  government  naturally  called  ita 
territory  neither  after  the  Turkish  vilayets  nor  Roman 
province,  but  went  back  to  the  glorious  name  Hellai. 
And  when  thinffs  were  settled  by  the  London  Confer- 
ence, in  1832,  the  new  kingdom  was  the  BoriXttk  r^i 
'EXXiBst,  and  Otto  of  Bavaria  became  (title  unknown 
to  history)  i  BovtXcOf  ti3f  'EXX^wr. 

II.  Thb  Chubcb  in  Greece  Betorb  tbb  Schibu 
(62-1054). — Greece  possesses  by  the  most  undisputed 
ri^t  an  Apostolic  Church.  St.  ^ul,  in  his  seoond 
musionary  journey  (52-53,  with  Silas  and  Timothy), 
while  he  was  at  Troaa  m  Mysia,  saw  the  vision  ("  Past 
over  into  Macedonia,  and  help  us",  Acta,  zvi,  0)  that 
brought  him  for  the  first  time  to  Europe.  At  Philippi 
in  Macedonia  he  founded  the  first  Cbristian  Church 
on  European  soil  (ibid.,  12  sq.).  Thence  he  came  to 
Theesalonica  (ivii  1),  Berea  (xvii,  10),  and,  travelling 
southwards,  to  Auiens  (xvii,  15).  Here  be  preached 
about  "the  unknown  God"  on  the  Areopagus  (xvii, 
22-31),  and  went  on  to  Corinth  (sviii,  1).  At  Corinth 
he  was  brousht  before  Qallio,  "proconsul  of  Achaia" 
(iviii,  12);  Irom  Cenchne,  the  port  of  Corinth,  he 
sailed  back  te  Epbesus  with  Priscilla  and  Aquila 
(zviii,  18).  Id  the  third  journey  (54-58)  he  came 
again  to  Macedonia  (about  the  year  57 — Acts,  xx,  1), 
thence  "to  Greece"  (tit  t^f  'BXXdSo,  xi,  2),  and 
stayed  three  months  at  Corinth  (sx,  3),  then  back  to 
Asut  Minor  (Troas)  by  Macedonia  (zx,  4,  5).  In  all 
these  places  St.  Paul  preached,  according  te  his  cus- 
tom, first  te  the  colonies  of  Jews  and  then  to  Gentiles 

too;  in  aU  he  left  Christian  communities  from  which  ^^^^^  „,  g,_  elsdioteiu^  Athws 
others  m  the  neishbourhood  were  formed  by  hu  dis- 
ciples: "  I  havepTanted,  Apollo  watered,  but  God  gave    of  the  priests  and  deacons  of  Achaia  which  tells  the 
the  increase"  (1  Cor.,  iii,  6).    So  that  he  could  say:    stoiv,includingspeeche8made by thesaintin verse: — 
"From  Jerusalem  round  about  as  far  as  UDtoIllyricum,            O  bona  crux  diu  desiderata, 
IbavereDlenishedthegoepelofChrist"(Rora.,iv,  19).            lam  concupiscent!  animo  pneparata. 
Among  tne  Pauline  Churches  of  Greece  two  stand  out            Securus  et  gaudens  venio  ad  te, 
as  the  most  important — those  of  Athens  and  Corinth.             Et  tu  exsultans  suscipias  me. 
This  is  what  one  would  expect  from  the  Apostle's             Discipulum  eius  qui  pependit  in  te. 
J  practice  of  bringing  his  message  first  andmost        The  whole  text  is  published  by  Tischendorf,  "Acta 


■mpletely  to  the  great  cities.    From  these  it  would    Apostolorum  apicrypha"  (Leipzig,  1851,  p.  105-131), 

„  ,  .  ....  (]■),  where  the  questio 

economically,  atilTheld  a  great  place  through  he"r    discussecl.    The  lessons,  antiphons,  and  re8ponsei8_  for 


spread  more  easily  to  the  country  round.     Athens,  in     and  LipetUB,       Die   apokryph.  Apoateleeschichten" 

St.  Paul's  time  no  longer  of  first  importance  politically     (1883,  1,543  sq.),  where  the  question  olits  origin  ir 


immortal  memoriee.     A  number  of  Romans  had  set-  St.  Andrew's  day  (30  Nov.)  in  the  Roman  Breviary 

tied  there,  such  as  T.  Pomponius  Atticus,  Cicero's  are  taken  from  this  document.      On  account  of  the 

friend.     "These  are  apparently  the  "foreign  dwellers"  tradition   that   St.  Andrew  preached  in  Thrace,  the 

(ot   iwiliiiiiiSTTtt  iim)  of  Acts,   xvii,  21.     There  was  Patriarchs  of  Constantinople  claim  him  as  their  first 

tiao  a  colony  of  Jews,  to  whom  St.  Paul  preached  predeceesorj   the  Russians  have  enlarged  his  mission 

firrt.     "  He  disputed,  therefore,  in  the  synagogue  with  m  Scythia  mto  the  conversion  of  their  country  (he 

the  Jews,  and  with  them  that  served  God  [toii  etpoiii-  came  and  preached  as  far  as  Kiev).    St.  Thomas  and 

rou],  and  in  the  market-place,  every  day  with  them  St.  Matthew  are  also  said  to  have  visited  Greece  on 

that  were  there"  (the  heathen— Acts,  xvii,  17).    Of  missbnary  journeys. 

far  greater  practical  importance  was  Coriath,  then  one        The  Church  spread  rapidly  in  Greece.    We  hear  of 

of  the  chief  commercial  centres  of  the  empire,  the  resi-  bishops    in    various    cities   during   the   persecution, 

dence  of  Gallic,  Proconsul  of  Achaia  (Acts,  xviii,  12).  Under  the  Emperor  Hadrian  (117-38),  Publius,  Bishop 

Corinth  became  the  centre  of  the  Apostle's  work,  the  of  Athens,  was  martyred  (Euseb.,  H.  E..  iV,  xxiii). 

chkf  centre  of  Christianity  in  Greece.     It  is  supposed  A  certain  Philip  was  Bishop  of  Gortyna  (ibid.).     Eu- 

UiathewroteherehisEpistleto  theRomans(J.Belser,  sebius  writes  of  Dionysius  of  Corinth  and  his  works 

"Binleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament",  Freiburg  im  (ibid.).     Publius  at  Athens  was  succeeded  by  Quad- 

Br.,  1901,  p.  507),  both  those  to  the  Thessalonians  ratus  the  apolt^ist  (Bardenhewer,  "Altldrchl.  Lit- 

(ibid,  461  and  4^),  perhaps  ^at  to  the  Galatians  (bo  teraturgeschichte,  I).     Aristidee  of  Athens  was  also  a 

Zahn).    "•  .     ..    -^      .     ." 


QREEOS 


738 


QBEBOS 


In  this  first  period  in  Greece,  as  everywhere,  the 
bishoiM  of  the  cnief  towns  have  a  oertam  preoddenoe, 
even  jurisdiction,  over  their  fellow-bishoi)s  ('^Orth. 
Eastern  Church",  pp.  7-8) .  Heraclea  was  the  ecclesi- 
astical metropolu  of  Thrace,  ThessaJonica  of  Mace- 
donia, Corinth  of  Achaia.  Domitius  of  Heraclea, 
under  Antoninus  Pius  (138-61),  witneeuaed  the  martyr- 
dom of  St.  Gljcera;  his  successor,  Philip,  was  burnt  to 
death  at  Adnanople  under  Diocletian  (284-05).  Piny- 
tus.  Bishop  of  Crete,  corresponded  with  Dionysius  of 
Corinth  (Euseb.,  H.  E.,  IV,  xxiii).  After  Constantine 
(324-337)  the  local  dhurches  were  organized^  more 
^stematically,  according  to  Diocletiairs  division  of 
the  empire  (Orth.  Eastern  Chureh,  pp.  21-23).  Greece 
became  part  of  the  Prefecture  of  Illyricum,  Thrace  be- 
longed to  the  "East"  {PrcBfedura  Orientis),  The 
Prefectiu^es  of  Gaul,  Italjr,  and  Illyricum  made  up  the 
Roman  Patriarchate  (ibid.,  p.  21),  so  that,  legallv, 
Greece  became  part  of  that  patriarehate.  Normally 
it  should  have  iu9ed  the  Roman  Rite  and  belonged  to 
Western  Christendom.  But  lUyriciun  was  an  endless 
source  of  dispute  between  East  and  West,  till  the 
Great  Schism  (ibid.,  pp.  44-45,  Duchesne,  "L'lUyri- 
cum  eccldsiastique  ",  in  "  Eglises  s^par^ ' '  (Paris,  2nd 
ed.,  1905,  pp.  229-79).  In  Thrace,  Constantinople 
succeeded  in  displacing  the  old  metropolis,  Heraclea, 
and  then  in  becoming  a  patriarehate,  eventually 
claiming  even  the  second  place  after  Rome,  at  the 
Second  and  Fourth  General  Councils  (Orth.  Eastern 
Church,  pp.  28-47).  Since  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
(431)  Cyprus  has  been  an  autocephalous  Chureh  (il^id., 
47-50) ;  Crete  was  part  of  Illyricum  and  shared  in  the 
disputes  about  it.  In  379,  under  Gratian  and  Theo- 
dosius,  Illyricum  was  divided  politically  into  Eastern 
and  Western  Illyricum.  The  western  half  (Pannonia 
Prima  and  Secunda,  Pannonia  Ripariensis^  Dalmatia 
and  Noricum  Primmn  and  Secundum)  remamed  joined 
to  the  Italian  prefecture;  the  eastern  part  (Macedo- 
nia, Thessalia,  old  Epirus,  Achaia,  New  Epirus,  Crete, 
IVsevalitana — which  is  now  Albania — Dacia  Meditei^ 
ranea,  and  Dardania — t.  e.  our  Servia)  became  part  of 
the  eastern  half  of  the  empire,  then  of  the  Eastern 
JQmpire.  The  Patriarehs  of  Constantinople  claimed 
this  Eastern  Illyricum  as  part  of  their  patriarehate, 
and  eventually,  in  spite  of  the  popes'  protests,  suc- 
ceeded in  asserting  their  jurisdiction  over  it.  East- 
em  Illyricum  then  included  part  of  what  we  call 
Greece,  the  rest  was  occupied  by  the  (civil)  diocese  of 
Thrace  and  Cyprus. 

Lequien,  in  his  "Oriens  Christianus",  I  and  II 
(Paris,  1740),  gives  lists  of  the  (^hurehes  of  these  lands 
with  their  arrangement  in  provinces  and  the  names  of 
all  their  bishops,  as  far  as  they  were  known  in  his  time. 
The  Byzantine  Patriarehate  consisted  of  the  (civil) 
dioceses  of  Pontus  (I,  351-662),  Asia  (I,  663-1090), 
Thrace  (I,  1091-1246),  Eastern  Illyricum  (II,  1-26). 
Of  these  the  diocese  of  Thrace,  to  some  extent,  and 
the  diocese  of  Eastern  Illyricum,  entirely,  cover  our 
Greece. 

The  diocese  of  Thrace  had  seven  ecclesiastical  prov- 
inces: (1)  Euro^,  with  Heraclea  as  metropolis  (I, 
1101-1154).    This  province  once  had  twenty,  in  Le- 

auien's  time  only  five,  sees,  Rhedsestus,  Parium, 
[etra-and-Athyra,  Tzurloes  and  Myriophyta.  (2) 
Thrace  (as  distinct  from  the  diocese)  with  Philip- 
popolis  as  metropolis  (I,  1155-1170).  (3)  Haemimon- 
tum,  metropolis  Adrianople  (I,  1171-1192).  (4) 
Rhodopes,  metropolis  Trajanople  (I,  1193-1210).  (5) 
Scythia,  metropolis  Tomi  (Tifiris  or  '£6fus,  now  ex- 
tinct, I,  1211-1216).  (6)  MoBsia  (or  Mysia)  Infe- 
rior, metropolis  Mareianople  (Preslav  Up4ff\apa), 
I,  1247-1251).  (7)  Walachia,  metropolis  Tergovite,  is 
no  longer  in  any  sense  Greek.  Compare  with  this  list 
the  metropolitan  sees  (74)  of  the  patriarchate,  ar- 
ranged in  three  classes,  according  to  their  place  in  the 
svnod,  in  Silbemagl,  ''Verfassung  u.  gegenw&rtiger 
Bestand  s&mtlicher  Kurchen  des  Orients^',  Regens- 


burg,  2nd  ed.,  1904,  pp.  33-35.  The  title  mdrapolUan 
is  now  given  to  almost  every  bishop. 

In  Lequien's  list  the  second  grsat  diocese,  Eastern 
Illyricum,  whose  capital  was  Thessalonica  (vol.  H, 
1-318),  covers  practically  all  Greece.  Before  the 
division  of  Illyncum  its  capital  was  Sirmium.  We 
have  seen  that  Western  Illyricum  remained  part  of 
the  Roman  patriarehate  ana  was  in  no  sense  Greece. 
The  eastern  diocese  had  nine  provinces  (see  above); 
of  these  only  the  first  seven  can  oe  called  Greek,  and  in 
many  of  them  the  Slav  element  was  very  powerfuL 
The  Slav  invasions  of  the  empire  began  under  Anasta- 
sius  I  (491-518)  in  493;  various  Slav  tribes  and  the 
non-Aiyan  Bulgars  (who  soon  adopted  a  Slav  lan- 
guage and  became  practically  Slavs  too)  pressed 
soutnward  into  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Theseoly,  even 
Achaia,  in  increasing  numbers,  throughout  the  whole 
period  of  the  empire  at  Constantinople;  so  Uiat 
always,  and  still  in  our  own  time,  they  form  a  rival 
influence  to  the  Greeks  throughout  these  lands. 
The  old  sees  of  these  seven  more  or  less  Greek  prov- 
inces are,  according  to  Lequien:  (1)  Province  of  Mace- 
donia (II,  27-102)^  metropolis  Thessalonica,  with  suf- 
fragan Sees  of  Philippi,  Berrhoea,  Dium  (A(or),  Stobi 
(Zr6/3o(),  Parthicopolis,  Doberus,  Cassandria,  Edessa, 
Pycli^A  or  Citrum,  Heraclea  Sintica,  Amphipolis,  Lem- 
nos  (the  island),  Thassus,  Serra,  Bargala,  Theorium, 
Campania  or  Castrium,  Poliana,  Pogoiana,  Zichnae, 
Drygobitzia,  Melenias,  Drama,  Ardamerium,  Rhend- 
ina,  Deabolis,  Hierissus,  Lycostoouum  and  Servia. 
(2)  The  Province  of  Thessaly  (II,  102-132)  had  as 
metropolis,  Larissa,  as  suffragan  sees,  Demetrias,  Ze> 
tunium  (ZrrroOptop  or  Ziir6ptop),  CaBB&re&  in  Thessaly, 
Gomphi  (r^M^oc),  Echinus,  Pharsalus  Lamia,  Scope- 
lus,   Tricca   {TpiKKfi,   now  Trikala)^  Hypata  (neut 

?lur.),  metropolis,  Thebes  of  Phthiotis,  Sciathus^ew 
^atras,  Ezerus,  Demonicum-and-Elasso,  Stags,  Thau- 
macus,  Litzarand-Agraphorum,  PhersSj  Lcedori- 
cium,  Marmaritzium.  Bezena,  Peparethi.  (3)  Old 
Epirus  (II,  133-154)  had  for  its  metropolis  Nicopolii, 
and  for  sufTraean  sees,  Anchiasmum  (or  OnchisimuB), 
Phcenic^,  Dooona,  Buthrotus,  Adrianople  (in  Epirus), 
Photica,  Eurcea  (Etfpoia),  Coreyra  (the  island,  Corfu), 
^tus,  loannina  (now  Janina),  Leucas,  Achelous.  (4) 
Hellas  (II,  155-239)  had  as  metropolis,  Corinth,  and 
for  sufifragan  sees,  Cenchreae  ( Vulg.  Cenchne,  Ktrxp^ 
the  port  of  Corinth),  Old  Patras,  Ai^gos,  Nauplia, 
Megalopolis  in  Arcadia,  Lacedsemon,  Coronea  (K^ 
ptia  in  BoBotia),*  Elis,  or  Elea,  in  Achaia,  Te^  in 
Arcadia,  Messene  in  the  Peloponnesus,  Carystus  m  £u- 
boea,  Naupactus,  Arta  (now  Larta,  formeriy  Ambnr 
cia),  Oreus  ('Ope^),  Porthmus,  Marathon,  Elatea, 
Me^ra  (neut.  plur.).  Opus  ('Oro^),  Platsa,  Thebes 
in  %oeotia,  Thespis,  Tanagra  (both  fem.  sing,  and 
neut.  plur.))  Scaiphia,  C^halcis,  Monembasia  (fem. 
sing.)»  Strategis,  Pyrgus  (or  Pjrrgium),  TrcBzen,  His  in 
the  Peloponnesus,  iBgina  (the  island),  Aulon,  or  Sdon 
(the  old  Delphi),  Amyclie,  Olena,  Methone,  Scynis 
(iKdpos,  the  island),  Zacynthus  (^mte),  Cephalenia, 
Diaulia,  Pylus,  Brestene,  Andrusa,  Mendinitza,  Tier- 
nitza,  Ceos  (the  island).  (5)  New  Epirus  (II,  240- 
255)  had  for  metropolis,  Dyrrhacium  (Aufi^x*'^)i  f^^ 
for  suffra^n  sees,  Scampe,  Apolloniarand-Bullidis, 
Amantia,  Decatera  (neut.  plur.,  in  Dalmatia),  Aulon 
(A6X(6r)  Listra  (neut.  plur.),  Dribastus,  Stephaniar 
cum.  (6)  Crete  (II,  256-274)  had  for  metropolis  Got- 
tyna  (of  which  St.  Titus  was  first  bishop),  Gnossus, 
Arcadia,  Hiera  Petra,  Lappa,  Phcenix,  Hieracleopolis, 
Subrita,  Apollonia^  Eleutherse,  Chersonesus,  Qrdonia, 
Cissamus,  Cantam. — ^The  other  provinces  (Irovali- 
tana,  Dacia  Mediterranea,  and  Dairdania)  do  not  con- 
cern Greece. 

The  remnants  of  these  sees  left  to  the  oecumenical 
patriarch,  after  Turkish  spoliation  and  the  independ- 
ence of  the  modem  Greek  Chureh,  wiU  be  seen  m  Sil- 
bemagrs  list. 

III.  The  Orthodox  Church  in  Grbectb.— Tbf 


aSEEOX 


739 


PatriarehB  of  Constantinoi>le  had  succeeded  in  assert- 
ing jurisdiction  over  all  this  vast  territory,  as  well  as 
over  Asia  Minor  and  the  purely  Slav,  lands  to  the 
North.  After  the  schism  of  Cserularius  (1054)  these 
metropolitans  and  bishops  followed  their  patriarch  by 
striking  the  pope's  name  from  their  diptychs.  They, 
too,  like  their  criief ,  learned  to  abhor  Latin  customs,  to 
look  on  the  Latin  Church  under  the  pope  as  a  fallen 
branch  and  a  synagogue  of  Satan.  There  is  no  trace 
of  independent  action  in  any  of  these  local  Greek 
Churches.  They  all  used  the  cyzantine  Rite  and  fol- 
lowed the  Byzantine  Patriarch  f aithf ullv.  Durine  the 
short-lived  imions  of  Lyons  (1274)  and  Ferrara-Floi^ 
ence  (1439)  they  became  Uniats  too.  They  cared  for 
the  union  as  little  as  did  their  leaders  at  Constanti- 
nople and  fell  away  again  as  easily  as  they  had  joined. 
The  Latin  conquest  of  their  lands  (after  the  Fourth 
Crusade,  in  1204)  brought  about  a  rival  Latin  hier- 
archy and  something  very  like  persecution  for  the 
Greeks.  Naturally,  tney  hated  and  scorned  the  Latin 
bishops  and  eroaned  imder  the  disabilities  they  suf- 
fered from  the  Frankish  princes  and  from  Venice. 
The  Slavs  invaded  their  lands,  destroyed  many  of 
their  cities,  so  that  Greek  dioceses  disappear  because 
there  are  no  more  Greeks  left  in  great  tracts  of  what 
they  still  afifect  to  call  Greece;  but  the  remnants  that 
mamtain  themselves  still  look  to  Constantinople  for 
orders  and  still  keep  the  Byzantine  Rite  in  Greek. 
The  Turkish  conquest  brought  about  still  greater  hard- 
ships. Invited  m  the  first  instance  as  allies  by  the 
fatal  policy  of  the  Emperor  John  VI  (Cantacuzene, 
1341-55),  the  Turks  first  took  hold  of  European  soil  by 
seizing  Kallipolis  (in  the  Thracian  Chersonese)  in  1356. 
From  this  time  they  steadily  advanced,  taking  city 
after  city,  ravaging  and  plundering  what  they  could 
not  keep.  In  1361  they  took  Adrianople  and  made  it 
their  capital  in  Europe  till  the  fall  of  Constantinople. 
Then,  moving  north,  they  conquered  the  remnants  of 
Stephen  Dushan's  great  Servian  Empire  (Battle  of 
Kossova,  1389).  Lastly,  nearly  a  century  after  they 
had  first  landed  in  Europe,  they  finished  their  work  b^ 
taking  Constantinople  (29  May,  1453).  From  this 
time  till  the  nineteenth  century  the  Greeks  and  the 
Orthodox  Church  in  Greece  were  subject  to  a  Moslem 
government.  The  Sultans  applied  the  usual  terms  of 
Moslem  law  regarding  non-Moslem  Theists  to  the 
Christian  population  of  their  empire  (Orth.  Eastern 
Church,  233-244).  There  was  to  be  no  active  perse- 
cution. (Christians  suffer  certain  disabilities.  They 
may  not  serve  in  the  army,  and  they  have  to  pay  a 
poll-tax;  they  must  dress  differently  from  their  mas- 
ters, ma^  not  have  as  high  houses,  may  put  no  sign  of 
their  faith  (crosses)  outside  their  churches,  nor  ring 
church  bells,  nor  bear  arms,  nor  ride  on  horses.  Their 
evidence  may  not  be  accented  in  a  court  of  law  against 
a  Moslem.  To  convert  a  Moslem  to  their  faith,  i^uce 
a  Moslem  woman,  speak  openly  against  Islam,  make 
any  treaty  or  alliance  with  people  outside  the  Moslem 
empire  is  punished  with  death.  As  lone  as  they  keep 
these  laws  they  are  not  to  be  molesteof  further,  and 
they  are  quite  free  with  regard  to  their  religion.  Of 
course  any  Christian  may  turn  Moslem  at  any  time; 
if  he  does  so  it  is  death  to  go  back.  (Durine  the  last 
century  the  European  Powers  have  forced  the  Porte 
to  moaify  most  of  these  laws.)  The  Orthodox  were 
or^nizea  into  a  subject  community  under  the  name 
of  T^man  Nation  (rum  miUet,  a  strange  survival  of  the 
name  of  the  old  Roman  Empire  which  the  Turks  had 
destroyed).  Their  civil  head  was  the  oecumenical  pa- 
triarch. ^  During  the  century  after  the  Turkish  con- 
ouest  this  patriarch  reached  the  height  of  his  power; 
then,  in  1591,  Russia  became  an  independent  Church 


^  example  followed  later  bv  one  branch  of  the 
patriarchate  after  another,  till  he  is  now  the  merest 
shadow  of  what  his  predecessors  were.  Durine  the 
centuries  between  the  fall  of  Constantinople  and  the 
beginning  of  Greek  independence  the  Greek  Church 


(although  it  was  certainly  not  happy)  has  no  history, 
unless  one  counts  as  such  the  affairs  of  the  patriarchate 
(Cyril  Lucaris  and  the  Synod  of' Jerusalem  in  1672,  for 
instance  J  op.  cit.,  264-268).  The  other  Greek  bishops 
paid  their  heavy  fees  to  the  patriarch  and  the  govern- 
ment; the  pariah  priests  paid  their  heavy  fees  to  the 
bishops.  The  hideous  oppression  of  the  Turk  ovei^ 
shadowed  all  their  lives.  For  the  Turk  has  never  kept 
his  own  fairly  tolerant  law.  The  tribute  of  children 
for  the  Janissary  guard  was  levied  till  1638.  The 
Christians  were  always  in  a  state  of  simmering  rebellion 
and  the  Turks  were  always  punishing  their  attempts 
by  wholesale  massacre.  In  Crete  ^,000  Christian 
children,  in  the  year  1670,  were  torn  from  their  par- 
ents, circumcized,  and  brought  up  as  Moslems;  in 
Asia  Minor  thousands  of  Gree&  had  their  tongues  torn 
out  for  not  talking  Turkish  (op.  cit. ,  237-238) .  Mean- 
while the  clergy  celebrated  the  Holy  Liturgy  on 
Sundays,  worked  in  the  fields,  and  kept  wine-shops  on 
week-days.  But  for  the  kamdaukion  (or  kcdemau" 
hum — the  tall  hat  without  a  brim)  there  was  little 
to  distinguish  them  from  other  peasants.  But  they 
kept  alive  faith  in  Christ  and  Hellas,  prayed  for 
better  days,  were  generally  at  the  bottom  of  each 
attempt  at  resisting  the  pasha's  abominations,  and 
bore  silent  but  heroic  witness  for  Christ  during  those 
dark  centuries.  And  who  can  reproach  them  for 
bein£  poor  and  ignorant?  The  schism  (not  the  fault 
of  these  poor  Papadea  at  any  rate)  had  cut  them 
off  from  the  West.  Europe  had  forgotten  them. 
They  had  everything  in  the  world  to  ^m  bjr  turning 
TurK;  and  yet  they  kept  the  Christian  faith  alive 
among  their  people,  in  spite  of  pashas,  and  soldiers, 
and  massacres.  Their  little  dark^  dirty  churches  were 
the  centres  not  only  of  Christianity  but  of  Hellenism 
too.  And  while  their  wives  poured  out  the  strong 
resinous  wine  for  whispering  conspirators,  their  sons 
were  out  on  the  hills,  klephU  and  armatoloi  keeping  up 
the  hopeless  war  for  Greece. 

The  Greek  War  of  Independence  brought  a  great 
change  to  the  Church  of  the  free  kingdom.  The  cfergy 
had  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  revolution.  In  1821, 
at  the  be^ning  of  the  movement,  when  Alexander 
Hypsilanti  was  making  his  absurd  attempt  to  rouse 
the  vlachs,  Gregory  V  of  Constantinople,  forced  by  the 
Turkish  government,  denounced  the  "Hetairia  Phi- 
like "  and  excommunicated  the  rebels.  But  the  Met- 
ropolitan of  Patras,  Germanos,  the  Archimandrite 
Dikaios  (Pappa  Phlesas),  and  other  leadine  ecclesias- 
tical persons  openlv  took  the  side  of  the  Greeks, 
helped  them  with  their  counsels,  and  in  many  cases 
even  joined  in  the  fighting.  Dikaios  made  a  heroic 
stand  with  3000  men  against  Ibrahim  Pasha's  Egyp- 
tians at  Maniaki  on  Mount  Malia.  In  1822  the  Turxs 
began  their  series  of  reprisals  by  barbarously  murdei^ 
ing  the  Patriarch  Gregory  V  in  his  vestments,  after  the 
Liturgy  of  Easter  Dav  (22  April),  although  he,  so  far 
from  being  responsible,  had  obeyed  them  by  excom- 
municating his  fellow-countrymen.  Throu^out  the 
war  the  Greek  Church  showed  that  the  cause  of  her 
children  was  her  cause  too.  But,  in  spite  of  Greek 
enthusiasm  for  Gregory  V  (his  relics  were  buried  with 
great  honour  at  Athens  in  1871),  the  court  of  the 
patriarch  (the  Phanar)  was  too  much  tmder  the  power 
of  the  sultan  for  the  free  Greeks  to  submit  to  its  juris- 
diction. The  example  of  Russia  showed  that  a  na- 
tional Church  could  remain  Orthodox  and  keep  the 
communion  of  the  patriarch  while  beine  itself  inde- 
pendent of  his  authority.  As  soon  as  the  affairs  of 
free  Greece  began  to  be  settled,  one  of  the  first  acts  of 
the  national  party  was  to  throw  off  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Phanar.  Alexander  Koraes  wrote  at  the  time: 
"The  clergy  of  that  part  of  Hellas  that  is  now  free 
cannot  submit  to  the  authority  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  who  is  under  the  power  of  the  Turk; 
it  must  rule  itself  by  a  S3mod  of  freely  elected  pre- 
lates"  (UoKiTucal  IIap€uW<rctf,  quoted   by  KvriaKOSi 


aBEBOE  740 

'BncV.  'IrropUif  Athens,  1898,  III,  f  42,  p.  154).  The  Synod;  and  that  the  holy  chrism  should  be  suit  from 
first  Natioxial  Assembhes  (at  Epidaunis  and  Trcezen)  CJonstantinople.  The  first  of  these  points  has  become 
in  1822  and  1827,  while  declanng  that  the  Orthodox  a  fixed  rule;  the  second  obtains  so  far,  but  there  is  in 
faith  is  the  religion  of  Greece,  hadpointedly  said  noth-  Greece  a  strong  movement  in  favour  of  consecrating 
ing  about  the  cecumenical  patriaroh.  In  July,  1833,  the  chrism  at  Athens.  For  the  rest  the  patriarch's 
the  Greek  Parliament  at  Nauplion  drew  up  a  constitu-  rules  were  rejected.  The  royal  commissioner  sits  in 
tion  for  the  national  Church.  Imitating  Russia,  they  the  Holy  Synod,  and  the  Greek  Church  is  as  Erastian 
declared  their  Church  autocephalous — independent  of  as  that  of  Russia.  The  Holy  Synod  is  named  in  the 
any  foreign  authority — and  proceeded  to  set  up  a  lituray  instead  of  the  patriarch.  Forced  bv  Russia, 
"Holy  Directing  Synod  "to  govern  it.  They  also  sup-  the  Fhanar  had  to  give  in  and  to  acknowfed^  yet 
pressed*  of  the  great  niunber  of  almost  deserted  monas-  another  loss  to  its  patriarchate  and  another  "  Sister  in 
teries  in  Greece,  all  that  had  less  than  six  monks  as  Christ",  the  "Holy  Directing  Synod"  of  the  auto- 
inmates.  In  1844  the  same  thing  was  repeated,  and  cephalous  Church  of  Hellas.  Since  then  there  has  been 
copies  of  the  law  were  sent  to  Constantinople  and  to  no  more  question  about  this  point;  the  common  cause 
the  other  Orthodox  Churches.  The  patriarch  was  of  all  Greeks  against  Slavs  in  the  Bsdkans  has  restored 
exceedingly  indignant  at  what  he,  not  unnaturally,  very  friendly  feeling  between  the  free  Greeks  and  their 
described  as  an  act  of  schism.  The  Greek  Govern-  Fhanariot  brothers.  Two  political  changes  further 
ment  had  put  off  the  evil  moment  of  annoimcing  to  diminished  the  jurisdiction  of  the  patriarch  and  en- 
him  its  new  arrangement  as  long  as  it  dared.  Between  larged  that  of  the  Greek  Svnod.  In  1866  England 
1822,  and  1844  the  Greek  Church  considered  itself  ceded  the  Ionian  Isles  to  Greece.  True  to  the  now 
autocephalous,  managing  its  own  affairs  by  its  synod,  acknowledged  principle  tiiat  the  Church  must  reflect 
but  had  sent  no  notice  of  the  change  to  the  Phanar.  the  politico  situation,  the  Greek  Government  at  once 
So  the  patriarch  affected  to  ignore  the  change.  But  separated  the  dioceses  of  these  islands  from  the  patri- 
he  showed  his  anger  plainly  enough  in  1841,  when  he  archate  and  joined  them  to  the  Church  of  Greece, 
received  notice  from  the  Greek  Church  that  she  had  The  Phanar  made  an  ineffectual  protest,  and  for  a 
excommunicated  for  heresy  Theophilos  Kalres,  the  short  time  there  was  an  angry  correspondence  between 
founder  of  the  "Theosebismoe"  sect,  an  imitation  of  Athens  and  Constantinople.  But  once  more  the  pa- 
French  Deism.  The  patriaroh  ( Anthimos  IV)  refused  triaroh  had  to  give  in  and  submit  to  his  loss.  In  I98I 
to  accept,  or  even  to  answer,  this  letter.  So  also  did  Thc^salv  and  put  of  Epirus  were  added  to  Greece,  and 
his  successor^  Germanos  IV,  refuse  to  notice  the  decla-  again  their  dioceses  were  made  subject  to  the  Greek 
ration  of  their  independence  that  he  received  from  his  Synod  by  the  government.  Tliis  time  the  patriarch 
former  subjects  in  1844.  In  1849  the  Greek  Svnod  did  not  even  trouble  to  protest, 
made  another  attempt.  James  Rizos.  the  Greek  IV.  Constitution  of  the  Church  of  Greece. — 
minister  at  Constantinople,  had  just  died  and  the  pa-  The  laws  that  fix  the  establishment,  ozganization,  and 
triaroh  buried  him  with  great  honour.  The  Greek  regulations  of  the  Greek  Churoh  are  those  of  1852,  in 
Government  sent  the  Archimandrite  Misael,  thenpres-  wmch  the  parliament,  having  finally  rejected  the  pa- 
ident  of  the  synod,  to  Constantinople  with  the  new  triarch's  Tomos,  repeated  and  codified  ibe  arrange- 
Order  of  the  Holy  Saviour  and  a  message  of  thanks  to  ments  made  by  various  governments  since  1822: — 
the  patriaroh  (Anthimos  IV  restored)  from  the  au-  "The  dominant  religion  in  Hellas  is  the  Eastern 
tocephalous  Churoh  of  Greece.  Anthimos  took  the  Orthodox  Churoh  of  Christ.  Every  other  known  reli> 
order  and  then  said  that  he  knew  nothing  of  an  auto-  gion  may  be  practised  witl^ut  hmdrance  and  shall 
cephalous-,  Greek  Church.  The  Greek  Synod  sent  enjoy  the  protection  of  the  laws,  only  Proeelytism  and 
another  circular  to  him  and  to  all  the  other  Orthodox  all  other  attacks  on  the  dominant  Religbn  are 
Churohes,  explaining  what  had  been  done  and  pro-  forbidden." 

claiming  their  independence.    At  last^  in  1850,  Anthi-        "The  Orthodox  Churoh  of  Hellas  acknowledges  as 

mos  IV  summoned  his  synod  to  consider  the  matter,  her  Head  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.    She  is  indias^ubly 

The  result  of  its  consultation  was  the  famous  Tomos.  united  in  faith  with  the  Church  of  Constantinople  and 

The  Tomos  at  last  acknowledged  a  certain  limited  in-  with  every  other  Christian  Church  of  the  same  per- 

dependence  of  the  Greek  Holy  Synod;  but  proceeded  suasion  [as  Constantinople].    She  is  autocephalous, 

to  lay  down  a  number  of  rules  for  its  guidance.  ^  Any  uses  her  sovereign  rights  independently  of  any  other 

sort  of  interference  of  the  State'is  absolutely  forbidden,  Churoh,  and  is  ruled  by  the  members  of  Uie  Holy 

there  is  to  be  no  rojral  commissioner  in  the  synod,  the  Synod''  (Arts.  1  and  2  of  the  Constitution  of  18647. 

EEitriaroh  is  to  lie  named,  as  before,  in  the  Holy  There  are  now  32  sees  in  Greece  of  which  the  first  is 
iturgy,  the  chrism  is  to  be  procured  from  him,  and  Athens,  which  includes  the  Nomas  (political  depart- 
all  important  matters  must  still  be  referred  to  his  ment)  of  Attica;  further,  (2)  Corinth,  (3)  Patras,  (4) 
judgment.  The  tone  of  the  Tomos  is  still  that  of  ab-  Larissa,  Pharsalus  and  Platamon,  (5)  Monembasia  and 
solute  authority;  each  clause  begins  with  the  words:  Lacedsemonia,  (6)  Arta,  (7)  Corfu  (Kerkyra),  (8) 
"We  command  that  ..."  ^  Cephallenia,  (9)  Thebes  and  Livadia,  (10)  Demetrias, 
This  document  produced  an  uproar  in  Greece.  (11)  Syros,  Tenos  and  Andros,  (12)  Mantinia  and  Cy- 
Afraid  of  a  formal  schism,  the  Synod  was  at  first  dis-  nuria,  (13)  Chalcis  and  Carystia  (for  the  island  of 
posed  to  accept  it.  There  was  also  a  conservative  Euboea),  (14)  Zante  (Zakynthos),  (15)  AtboIis,  (16) 
party  led  by  Oikonomos  (d.  1857),  who  were  opposed  Akamania  and  Naupaktos,  (17)  Photis,  (18)  TVicala 
to  any  change  and  inclined  to  submit  tc  the  patriaroh  (Tricca,  or  Trikke)  and  Staigai,  (19)  Messenia,  (20^ 
in  everything.  But  the  feeling  of  tlio  'majority  was  Leucas  and  Ithaca,  (21)  Triphyua  and  Olyxnpia,  (22) 
strongly  against  any  sort  of  submission.  The  free  Gytheios  and  Oitylos^  (23)  Phokis,  (24)  Ilia,  (25) 
Greeks  had  determined  to  have  nothing  more  to  do  Phanarios  and  Thessaliotis,  (26)  Eroytania.  (27)  Kala- 
with  the  Phanar  at  all.  Pharmakides  (d.  1860),  the  brytai  and  Aigialia,  (28)  Gortys  and  Me^opolis,  (29) 
leader  of  the  Liberal  party  (with  a  distinct  Protest-  Kytherai,  (30)  Hydra  and  Spetsai,  (31)  T^era,  (32) 
antizing  tenden^),  answered  the  Tomos  by  an  indig.  Paronaxia.    Hitherto  the  bishops  of  all  these 


nant  protest:  "The  [patriarohal]  Svnodical  Tomos,  or  have  borne  the  quite  meaningless  title  MetropoUtan. 

conceminn  Truth"  (6  ^vpoBixht  Tbftot  1j  vtpi  dXij^Uit,  The  Government  has  declared  that  as  tlie  present 

Athens,  1&52).    And  the  Parliament  (alwayr  the  last  incumbents  die  cut  their  successors  shall  bo  cadled 

court  of  appeal  for  these  independent  Orthodox  simply  bishops;  only  Athens  is  to  be  ;:  permanent 

Churohes)  rejectee!  eveiy  l^ind  of  mtcrference  on  the  metropoliticai  see. 

part  of  the  patriaroh.    Eventually  the  Greek  Church  The  Holy  Synod,  to  which  all  bishops  are  subject, 

admitted  two  points  from  the  Tomos:  that  the  Metro-  meets  at  Athens.    The  Metropolitan  of  Athens  is  al- 

politan  of  Athens  should  be  ex  ofjicio  President  of  the  ways  president  for  life.    Four  other  bidiops  are  chosen 


741    •  QBEBOE 

by  the  Govenunent  as  members  from  the  hierarchy,  in  tuns  of  the  clergy),  hypomnematographo8  (secretary), 
turn,  according  to  the  dates  of  their  consecrations,  and  hieromemnon  (master  of  ceremonies).  These 
They  sit  for  one  year,  from  the  1st  of  September,  then  persons,  who  are  all  priests,  form  an  advising  comicil. 
return  to  their  dioceses.  But  the  Government  may  All  are  paid  by  Government.  When  a  see  is  vacant 
keep  not  more  than  two  as  members  for  a  longer  time,  the  Holv  Synod  recommends,  and  the  State  appoints, 
If  the  president  is  prevented  from  attencung,  the  one  of  tnem  to  administer  the  diocese  (vicar  capitular) 
bishop  next  in  seniority  is  to  take  his  place.  All  mem-  till  the  successor  is  appointed.  A  bishop  who  has 
bers  of  the  Synod  must  take  an  oath  of  fidelitv  to  the  resigned  from  old  age  or  infirmity  receives  a  pension 
king  at  their  appointment.  Besides  these  five  oishops,  of  200  drachmai  a  month.  Parishes  are  divided  of- 
the  Synod  is  attended  by  a  royal  commissioner  (a  lay-  ficially  into  those  of  cities,  small  towns,  and  villages, 
man  appointed  by  Government).  He  has  no  vote,  but  Each  group  of  from  25  to  70  families  makes  up  a  vil- 
no  act  is  valid  unless  he  is  present  and  signs  the  docu-  lage  parish,  towns  of  151  to  200  families  form  a  parish 
ment.  Tlie  Synod  has  two  secretaries,  two  writers,  of  the  second  class,  and  those  of  301  to  1000  families 
and  a  servant,  all  appointed  by  Government.  The  one  of  the  first  class.  Parishes  of  the  first  and  second 
secretaries  and  writers  are  clerks  in  Holy  Orders.  All  dass  have  at  least  one  deacon  and  one  parish  priest, 
affairs  of  the  Synod  with  foreisn  Chivches  are  con-  Larger  areas  are  subdivided.  The  people  elect,  and 
trolled  by  the  Government's  Minister  for  Foreign  the  i>ishops  appoint,  the  clergy.  The  priests  have 
Affairs.  In  questions  tnat  are  not  purely  religious  only  their  stole-fees  as  income,  so  that  in  the  villages 
(ecclesiastical  seminaries,  marriage,  divorce,  etc.)  the  they  nearlv  always  have  a  trade  or  keep  an  inn  as  well, 
consent  of  the  Government  is  required.  The  Presi-  The  last  religious  census,  made  in  1897,  is  published  by 
dent  of  the  Synod  receives  3d00  drachmai  ($720),  the  Kophiniotos  CH  'E/c/cX1^r(a  ^i^  'BXXddi,  Athens,  1897). 
other  bishops  2400  drachmai  ($480)  yeariy.  besides  At  that  time  there  were  4025  parishes,  with  5423  mar- 
their  episcopal  salaries.  The  firat  secretary  nas  4800  ried  and  242  unmarried  priests.  For  their  education 
drachmai,  the  second  2880  drachmai  a  year,  the  first  there  are  four  elementary  seminaries:  at  Athens,  Tri- 
writer  120  drachmai  a  month,  the  second  90  drachmai  polls,  Corfu,  and  Larissa.  These  satisfy  the  not  very 
a  month.  The  royal  commissioner  receives  6000  nig^  demands  of  the  village  clergy,  and  4116  priests 
drachmai  a  ^rear.  The  acts  of  the  Synod  are  sealed  had  received  only  this  amount  of  education,  according 
with  its  o£Bcial  seal  bearing  a  cross  (practically  the  to  the  census  of  1897.  ^  A  smattering  of  classical  Greek, 
arms  of  the  kingdom:  Azure  a  cross  oouped  argent)  a  little  general  education,  knowledge  of  the  catechism 
and  the  inscription:  'Ay(a  X69080S  r^  ^/ccXi^laf 'EXXd^ot.  (it  can  nardly  be  called  theolo^),  and  enou^  litur- 
Its  jurisdiction  is  described  as  extending  over  ques-  gical  knowledge  to  perform  their  functions  is  all  that 
tions  of  faith  (only,  of  course,  in  the  sense  of  preserv-  any  one  expects  of  the  village  priests.  They  have  no 
ing  the  Orthodox  Faith  of  the  Seven  Councils),  rites  books  except  their  service-books  and  perhaps  a  New 
and  canon  law,  religious  instruction,  duties  of  clerks  Testament.  What  they  read  is  one  of  the  endless 
in  Holy  cnrders,  ecclesiastical  discipline,  examinations  number  of  newspapers,  and  what  they  care  about  is 
for  ordination,  consecration  of  churehes,  celebration  the  chanj^  of  ministry  and  the  wretched  local  politics 
of  feasts  and  services.  The  Synod  can  appeal  to  the  that  excite  the  passionate  interest  of  all  Greeks. 
Government  to  put  down  heretics  ana  refractory  In  1856  the  Government  established  hi^er  schools 
clergy  (there  have  been  cases  of  imprisonment  for  for  the  clersy  at  Syros^  Chalcis  and  Tripohs,  in  1875  a 
heresy  among  the  Orthodox  cleigy),  and  dangerous  fourth  was  begun  at  Corfu.  It  appears  that  all  these 
books  against  faith  or  morals.  Other  matters,  such  as  institutions  came  to  an  end  for  want  of  students 
public  processions,  building  of  seminaries,  extraordi-  (Kyriakos,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  $50).  Still  higher  in  the 
nary  feasts  on  weekda^rs  (mvolving  public  holidavs).  scale  is  the  Athenian  semmary  called  the  Rhizarion 
and  all  the  points  mentioned  above  tnat  are  described  (foimded  by  the  brothere  Rhixares  in  1843)  whose  stu- 
as  " mixed '^  ^ecclesiastical  and  political),  must  be  ar-  dents  attend  lectures  at  the  university  besides  those 
ranged  bv  the  united  action  of  tne  Synod  and  Govern-  of  their  own  institution.  This  is  the  only  seminary 
ment.  In  all  services  in  the  kingdom  the  Holy  Synod  that  in  any  way  comes  up  to  our  standard.  Its  stu- 
is  prayed  for  after  the  king  and  queen  (instead  of  the  dents  form  the  aristocracy  of  the  clergy  and  become 
patriareh).  But  when  the  Metropolitem  of  Athens  arehimandrites,  professors,  and  bishops, 
celebrates  in  Synod,  all  the  patriardis  are  prayed  for.  There  are  a  great  many  monasteries  in  Greece.  In 
The  royal  commissioner  is  ofcourse  an  imitation  of  the  spite  of  the  suppression,  m  1833,  of  the  small  ones,  80 
Russian  "Procurator  of  the  Holy  Synod".  The  man-  remained.  There  are  now  250,  with  1322  choir  monks 
ner  of  appointing  members  to  the  Synod,  the  need  of  and  545  lay  brothers,  also  9  convents,  with  152  nuns 
the  Commissioner's  signature  for  its  acts,  its  depend-  and  68  novices  (census  of  1897).  The  head  of  each 
ence  on  the  Government  generaUy,  as  well  as  the  way  monastery  is  the  arohimandrite,  or  hegumemos  (ab- 
of  appointing  bishops  and  deciding  all  reallv  import-  bot),  elected  by  the  monks'  and  confirmcMl  by  the 
antmiEUiters,8howthat,inroiteofDiomedesIvyriakos's  bishop  of  the  diocese.  He  must  be  a  priest-monk 
indignant  protest  ('E«xX.  Irropta,  III,  155-156),  the  (l^po/i6raxof).  He  is  assisted  by  two  counsellors,  also 
Greek  Chureh  is  quite  hopelessly  Erastian.  ^  elected  by  the  community  from  amone  the  monks 
Bishops  are  appointed  by  tne  king  (advised,  of  who  made  their  reli^ous  profession  not  less  than  six 
course,  by  his  mmisters).  The  Synod  presents  three  years  ago.  There  is  a  new  election  of  counsellors 
names,  of  which  he  chooses  one.  A  bishop  must  be  every  five  years.  Over  each  convent  an  oikonomos  is 
thirty-five  years  old,  a  doctor  of  theology,  and  must  placed,  a  priest  not  less  than  sixty  years  old,  chosen  by 
have  taught  theology  or  preached  for  some  time,  the  Synod;  he  is  the  real  superior  of  the  convent. 
Before  consecration  ne  takes  an  oath  of  obedience  keeps  its  keys,  and  is  responsible  for  its  state.  Under 
(and  of  his  episcopal  duties)  to  the  Synod,  after  it  an  his  presidency  the  nuns  elect  an  abbess  (irtovtUpurffa). 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king.  He  can  only  be  de-  All  monasteries  and  convents  have  endowments  con- 
posed  by  the  Synod  with  the  royal  consent.  The  trolled  and  administered  by  consent  of  the  Synod  and 
Metropolitan  of  Athens  receives  an  income  of  6000  Government.  Monasteries  whose  revenues  exceed 
drachmai  ($1200),  all  other  bishops  4000  drachmai.  5000  drachmai  a  year  have  to  spend  part  of  it  on  the 
Besides  this  there  are  various  stole-fees  (see  sub-title  support  of  schools  and  preachers.  Some  monasteries 
Altarage,  Vol.  I,  p.  359).  Each  bishop  has  a  curia  are  very  rich.  The  first,  the  laura  of  the  Falling 
of  eig)it  members,  namely,  his  oikonomoa  (who  is  re-  Asleep  of  the  Mother  of  God,  at  Pentelis,  in  the  Diocese 
sponsible  for  property  and  financial  questions),  sakeUf  of  Athens,  has  an  income  of  166,085  drachmai.  A  full 
arios  (who  looks  after  the  monasteries),  chartophyUix  list  of  monasteries  and  convents  is  given  by  Silber- 
(to  take  care  of  arehives),  protekdikos  (lawyer),  sXceuo-  nag^,  "  Verfassung  u.  gegenw.  Bestand, "  2na  ed.,  pp. 
phylax  (Sacristan),  aakeUion  (responsible  for  the  man-  78%. 


ORSBOE                             742  OBSEOK 

The  political  census  of  1895  was  destroyed  in  the  obvious  visible  things  that  they  see  mean  moie  to 

war  of  1897.    The  former  one  of  1889  counted  2,172,-  them  than  remote  questions  of  jurisdiction  and  the 

148  Orthodox  Greeks  out  of  a  total  population  of  actual  names  that  ma^  occur  (whether  p<^,  or  patri- 

2,217,000.    Though  this  number  is  certainly  very  arckf  or  synod)  in  the  mtercessory  prajrers.     The  for- 

much  exaggerated  (the  Catholics  alone  claim  more  eign  character  of  all  Catholic  missions  in  Greece  is  the 

than  the  omerence  between  the  two  figures),  the  Or-  fi^:eat  difficultv  always;  the  authorities  of  these  mis- 

thodox  are  the  overwhelming  majority.   Their  Church  sions  are  nearlv  always  not  only  Latins  but  foreigners 

does  much,  according  to  its  own  ideas,  for  the  better  — Italians.    Undoubtedly  the  mstitution  of  a  native 

instruction  and  moral  improvement  of  the  laitv.    In  Uniat  hierarchy  using  the  Byzantine  Rite  would  be 

1875,  the  professors  of  the  theological  faculty  at  the  first  step  towards  converting  Greece.    Nor  is  the 

Athens  formed  a  society  called  the  '"Brotherhood  of  technical  objection  a  really  senous  one.    The  Italo- 

the  Friends  of  Christ"  ('AdeX^^i^  tQp  4>iKiixplffTUp)  Greeks  show  that  people  can  use  the  Byiantine  Rite 

for  this  purpose.    Other  societies  of  the  same  land  are  in  the  Roman  patriarchate.    Or  why  not  waive  the 

the^Society  of  St.  Paul",  "TheHoly  Union"  (6  («y>^  whole  Question  of  Illyricum,  as  Rome  eventually 

Zdpdtff/tot)  and  "The  Reform"  (4 ' AydvXoo'it).     They  waived  ner  objection  to  the  rank  of  Ck>nstantinople, 

publish  popular  works  of  religious  instruction,  prayer-  and  set  up  a  IJniat  Byzantine  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 

books,  ana  cheap  editions  of  the  Liturgy  in  great  num-  nople  with  jurisdiction  all  over  the  Balkans  and  Asia 

bers,  books  of  controversv,  religious  newspapers;  and  Minor?    It  was  said  that  Leo XIII  contemplated  such 

they  hold  meetings  with  me  lectures  and  mstructions.  a  step  before  he  died.  The  first  great  revival  of  Cath- 

Almost  every  publisher  in  Greece  (where  every  book-  olicity  in  the  Levant  was  after  the  Fourth  Crusade 

seller  is  a  puohsher)  produces  such  little  books  of  reli-  (1204).    It  is  well  known  that  the  crusaders  estab- 

g'ous  knowledge,  accounts  of  Church  History,  anti-  lished  not  only  a  Latin  emperor  but  a  Latin  patriarch 

Oman  controversy,  and  so  on.    And  every  Greek  has  and  Latin  bishops  all  over  their  empire.     When  the 

read  spme  little  pamphlet  of  32  pa^  against  the  pope  legitimate  line  oi  emperors  took  the  city  back  (1261) 

or  the  Bulgars,  so  as  to  garnish  his  conversation  with  the  Latin  patriarch  fled.    But  the  Latin  bishops  went 

very  loose  references  to  the  Byzantine  Empire,  Pho-  on  under  the  protection  of  the  Frankish  States  that 

tins,  and  Pope  Joan.    One  of  the  best  popular  com-  lasted  till  the  Turkish  conauest.    A  complete  and 

pendiums  is  Nicholas  Ch.  Ambrazes:    *H  'Op$68ofyt  most  satisfactory  histonr  of  these  Frankish  States  has 

^RtacKi^ffla  (constantly  reprinted,  e.  g..  Athens,  1906,  now  been  written  by  Mr.  William  MiUer  (The  Latins 

etc.).    Demetrios  S.  Balanos  (MvoXai^f),  *H  'Eir«Xi|0-(a  in  the  Levant,  London^  1908).    A  mere  ^anoe  at  the 

/uLv  rod,  rQf  xal  T&rt  \oLrpt6tT9n  6  Qtbti  (Athens,  1907),  maps  of  this  volume  will  show  the  fluctuations  of  the 

in  the  series  ''Useful  Books '^  gives  a  good  popubur  ao-  various  little  principalities.    In  1214  (p.  81)  theare 

count  of  the  Liturgy  and  Church  Service  generally,  were  a  principality  of  Achaia,  a  lordship  of  Athena, 

Among  the  almost  infinite  number  of  Greek  news-  three  baronies  of  Euboea,  a  duchy  of  the  Archipelaeo 

papers  a  great  number  are  religious  periodicals.    The  and  a  county  palatinate  of  Cephalonia.    Venice  hdd 

"Reform"  society  publishes  a  monthlv  with  the  same  Modon  in  the  Peloponnesus,  and  Chalcis  in  EuboBa. 

title:  *H  'AydrXcurtt   (edited  by  M.  Galanos).  Some  of  By  1278  the  Greeks  have  got  back  Eubcea,  Venice  has 

the  best  known  are  the  l^^yytkus^  ZdXrcy^,  EAary«Xu(df  Crete.    In  1388  part  of  the  Peloponnesus  nas  returned 

K^pv^,^  *lepofir^fuap^  'OpSbdo^os  *Erc^(6pi7<rif ,  BpiiffKevTiKii  to  the  eim)eror:  Venice  has  taken  part  of  Eubcea.  In 

^wr^,  'Hx«^  T^t  'OpSjoBo^latf  Xit&p,  Zii^i)/>,  'Aydrri,  ^iKolp-  1462  the  Turks  have  nearly  all  the  mainland,  the  pope 

Opunrta,  Xpiffrtapucii '  AXi^ia,  etc.  holds  Monembasia,  Venice  keeps  Crete,  all  Eubosa  {as 

For  the  more  prominent  thedlogians  and  writers  of  a  vassal  state),  and  some  islands  of  the  Archipdago. 

the  Greek  Churcn  since  its  foundation  see  Kyriakos,  In  all  these  lands,  then,  there  were  Latin  bishops;  and 

op.  cit.,  Ill,  §§51,  52.    The  most  important  are  the  parts  of  the  population  (notably  in  Syros  and  the 

conservative  Oikonomos  (d,  1857)  and  the  Liberal  Ionian  Isles)  had  become  Latin.    Innocent  III  (1198- 

Theoklitos  Pharmakides  (d.  1860) .  1216)  established  a  Latin  Archbishopric  of  Athens  with 

V.  The  Cathouc  Church  in  Greece. — ^With  the  eleven  suffragan  sees.  Cf  these,  three — ^Andros^ 
exception  of  a  very  few  scattered  Uniat  congregations.  Chios  and  Syros — ^remained,  the  otners  soon  become 
all  Catholics  in  Greece  are  Latins.  This  is  explained  titular  sees.  Till  1834  Catholics  in  the  Peloponnesus 
partly  historically  and  also  by  the  strictly  le^  pod-  were  subject  to  the  Bishop  of  Zante,  all  others  to  the 
tion.  After  the  Great  Schism  the  first  restoration  of  patriarchiBd  vicar  at  Ck>nstantinople.  Gregmy  XVL 
the  Catholic  Faith  was  made  by  the  crusaders,  the  m  1834,  established  Aloysius  M.  Blands,  Bishop  of 
Frankish  princes  who  ruled  as  their  successors,  and  Syros,  as  "  Apostolic  Delegate  for  the  Kin^om  of 
Venice.  None  of  these  authorities  cared  at  all  about  G&eece".  He  had  jurisdiction  over  sdl  the  kmgdom, 
the  Byzantine  Church  or  its  rights.  Wherever  their  including  the  parts  of  Thessaly  added  in  1882.  The 
power  extended  they  set  up  Latin  bishops,  just  as  at  Turks  gave  the  same  toleration  to  the  "  Latin  Nation" 
home,  and  tried  to  persuade  the  people  to  turn  Latin  as  to  the  "Roman  [Orthodox]  Nation".  Since  the  in- 
by  harassing  disabilities  that  often  became  real  prase-  dependence  of  Greece  Latin  missionaries,  especiallv 
cution.  Whatever  native  Catholic  commimities  now  Jesuits  and  Sisters  of  Charity,  have  openea  schools  tSi 
exist  are  the  successors  of  those  set  up  bv  the  Franks  over  the  kingdom.  Corfu  forms  a  kind  of  basis,  since 
and  Venetians.  They  are  strengthened  by  foreigners  here  the  population  is  very  considerably  Italianised 
(French  and  Italian  merchants^  etc.)  who  are  natu-  and  Catholic.  Other  schools  are  at  Athens,  Syros. 
rally  Latins  too.  The  le^Hustification  of  what  seems  Tenos,  Naxos.  etc.  In  1890  the  Latin  Bishop  of 
an  anomalous  situation  is  that  Greece  is  part  of  111^-  Athens  openea  a  secondary  school  for  boys  that  has 
cum,  and  Illyricum,  according  to  the  ancient  right  had  a  great  influence.  The  Italian  Government  has 
never  abandoned  by  the  popes,  belongs  to  the  Roman  also  founded  schools  in  many  oi  the  chief  towns.  In 
patriarchate.  According  to  tne  general  (but  by  no  1869  and  1870  there  were  violent  debates  in  the  Greek 
means  quite  universal)  principle,  that  rite  follows  pa-  Parliament  about  these  schools.  Many  members 
triarchate,  all  Greeks  should  be  not  only  Catholics  but  wanted  to  close  them  and  forbid  all  Cathohc  schools  in 
also  Latins.  On  the  other  hand^  there  is  no  doubt  the  kingdom.  Eventually  the  Government  inid^tAri 
that  this  circumstance  is  a  great  hmdrance  to  the  con-  that  an  Orthodox  catechist  should  be  appointed  in  aQ 
version  of  Greece.  It  womd  be  much  easier  to  per-  schools  where  there  are  any  Orthodox  cnildren. 
suade  Greeks  simply  to  return  to  the  old  allegiance  of  There  are  a  number  of  laws  in  Greece  made  to  hamper 
the  first  see,  as  Uniats  have  done  elsewhere,  than  to  the  work  of  Catholic  missionaries.  In  1830  the  Par- 
make  them  go  through  so  radical  an  netting  of  their  liament  declared  that  the  toleration  granted  to  all  reli- 
lives  as  is  involved  in  turning  Latin.  Throu^out  the  gions  does  not  involve  allowing  any  damage  to  the 
East  people  are  abnormally  attached  to  their  rites,  the  state  Church — a  vague  statement  that  opens  the  way 


QBSEOE 


743 


to  forbidding  any  proselytising.  In  1833  a  law  was 
passed  requirius  all  papal  Bulls^  Briefs,  etc.,  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  before  their 
publication.  Five  Catholic  bishops  (of  Syros,  Tenos 
and  Mvkonos,  Naxos,  Thera,  and  Corfu)  are  recog- 
nized By  the  Government;  no  other  sees  may  be 
erected  without  its  consent.  The  Latin  Archbishop 
of  Athens  is  not  reco^ized  by  the  State. 

The  present  Cathohc  hierarchy  is:  (1)  Archdiocese 
of  Athens,  established  in  1875,  when  Bishop  Marankos 
of  Svros  took  up  his  seat  there,  in  spite  of  the  protest 
of  the  Government.  By  this  act  the  metropolitan 
jurisdiction  of  Syros  was  practically  transferred  to 
Athens.  In  this  diocese  are  14  parishes,  13  priests, 
and  about  18,000  Catholics.  (2)  Archdiocese  of  Corfu 
(Corcyra,  Kerkyra),  with  7  churches,  10  priests,  and 
4000  Catholics.  (3)  Zante  (Zak^thos)  and  jOephalo- 
nia  united  (suffragan  of  Corfu),  including  the  islt^ds 
of  2iante,  Cephalonia,  S.  Maura,  Ithaca,  Cerigo,  with 
3  parishes,  7  priests,  1000  Catholics.  (4)  Archdiocese 
of  Naxos  with  1  parish,  6  priests,  350  Catholics.  (5) 
AndroB  (suffragan  of  Naxos),  administered  bv  the 
Bishop  of  Tenofi  and  Mykonos.  (6)  Santorin  (Thera), 
suffragan  of  Naxos,  with  which  is  imited  the  cidminis- 
tration  of  Melos,  1  parish,  8  priests,  460  Catholics.  (7) 
Chios  (suffragan  of  Naxos),  3  churches,  8  priests,  300 
Catholics.  (8)  S3rros  (now  suffragan  of  Naxos),  6 
parishes,  25  priests,  7000  Catholics.  (9)  Tenos  and 
Mykonos  (suffragan  of  Naxos),  26  churches,  26  priests 
and  5000  Cathobcs  (Werner,  "  Orbis  Terrarum  Catho- 
licus",  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1890,  pp.  131-133). 

These  figures  give  a  Catholic  population  of  36,110. 
Another  census  Quoted  by  W.  G6tz,  "  Griechenland, 
Kirchliche  Statistik",  in  "RealencykL  fUr  prot. 
Theologie",  3rd  ed»  Leipzig,  1899,  VII,  168)  gives 
50,000  Catholics.  (Jn  the  other  hand  ^e  have  seen 
that  the  Government,  in  1889,  admitted  only  14,687 
other  (not  Orthodox)  Christians  altogether.  A  few 
coi^gregations  of  Byzantine  Uniats  in  the  kingdom, 
served  by  priests  of  their  own  rite,  depend  on  the 
Latin  bishops  (Echos  d'Orient,  1906,  p.  336). 

VI.  Protestants  and  Othbb  Sects. — ^There  are  a 
few  small  communities  of  Greeks  who  have  left  the 
Orthodox  Church,  either  converted  by  Protestant 
missionaries  or  following  some  newprotestantizing.or 
rationalizing  leader  of  their  own.  English  and  Ameri- 
can missionaries  have  been  at  work  here,  disseminating 
bibles  and  holding  prayer-meetings,  since  1810. 
Protestant  schools  were  opened  by  a  certain  Hildner 
in  Syros  in  1827.  by  King  and  Hill  at  Athens  in  1832. 
At  nrst  the  Ortnodox  seem  to  have  watched  their 
movements  without  suspicion.  The  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Societ}r  had  even  arranged  with  the  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  for  the  sale  of  their  bibles. 
But  these  were  founcf  to  exclude  the  deuterocanonical 
books  and  to  be  done  into  Modem  Greek  from  the 
Massoretic  text  without  reference  to  the  Septuagint, 
the  official  text  of  the  Orthodox  Church.  The  mis- 
sionaries also,  not  content  with  selling  their  bibles, 
held  prayer-meetings  in  opposition  to  the  liturgical 
services  and  preached  against  sacraments  and  cere- 
monies. So  the  Orthodox,  led  by  the  great  conserva- 
tive Oikonomos,  became  suspicious  of  them;  they 
were  denounced  as  disturbers  of  the  public  peace,  and 
in  some  places  their  schools  and  conventicles  were 
closed.  King  was  expelled  from  Athens  in  1852,  but 
he  soon  came  back  and  went  on  with  his  work.  He 
formed  a  number  of  native  Greek  preachers  and  mis- 
sionaries to  propagate  his  ideas  (Ksdopathakes,  Sakel- 
larios,  Konstantinos,  and  so  on),  and  died  in  1869. 
The  end  of  this  disturbance  about  the  missionaries 
was  that  the  Government  granted  entire  toleration, 
but  the  Orthodox  Church  formally  excommimicatea 
them  and  their  adherents.    At  first  it  had  been  a 

auestion  of  selling  bibles  and  preaching  to  the  Ortho- 
^  ox  rather  than  of  forming  a  new  sect.  Now  the  issue 
18  quite  dear;  the  Orthodox  are  forbidden  to  attend 


the  missionaries'  meetings,  to  these  have  built  up  re^ 
ular  congregations  with  ministers.  People  who  jom 
these  leave  the  established  Church  and  become  Irot- 
estants.  The  first  church  of  these  Greek  Protestants 
was  opened  at  Athens  in  1874.  They  call  themselves 
'Eiayy€\iKoi  and  Ata/uifyrvpd/ievoL.  The  church  at 
Athens  has  about  100  attendants.  In  1880  an  at- 
tempt to  build  one  at  the  Pirseus  ended  in  a  riot  in 
which  the  building  was  destroyed.  A  few  scattered 
Greek  Protestants  attend  foreign  Protestant  churdies. 
At  Athens  there  is  a  Lutheran  Church  foimded  by 
King  George  to  satisfy  his  religious  needs  and  those  of 
his  Danish  attendants.  Its  pastor  (now  a  German, 
Hofprediger  v.  Schierstadt)  preaches^  to  about  200 
Danes,  Germans,  and  Swiss.  There  is  an  Anglican 
church  with  about  100  English  and  American  attend- 
ants and  another  little  meeting-house  of  an  American 
sect  nearly  opposite  Hadrian's  Arch :  also  a  Salvation- 
ist meeting-house.  The  number  of  Greeks  attracted 
by  all  these  people  put  together  is  infinitesimal. 

There  are  also  a  few  small  sects  that  have  arisen  out 
of  the  Orthodox  Church  without  the  help  of  foreign 
Protestants.  Theophilos  Kalres,  a  priest,  founded  a 
kind  of  Deism  on  the  lines  of  the  French  Encycloped- 
ists which  he  called  "God-worship"  {OwaePurfuU), 
In  1849  he  published  his  Gospel,  which  he  called 
r  rcMTcin).  Hie  was  considerably  persecuted  for  a  time, 
and  twice  put  in  prison,  where  he  died  in  1853.  An- 
drew Laskaratos  and  one  or  two  other  writers  made  a 
desultory  campaign  against  the  established  Church  in 
favour  of  what  they  considered  to  be  primitive  Chris- 
tianity. A.  Papaaiamantopulos  started  a  Positivist 
movement.  The  question  of  Darwinism  brought 
about  friction  between  the  Holy  Synod  and  the  Gov- 
ernment on  one  side,  and  certain  university  professors 
at  Athens  on  the  other.  Plato  Drakules  wrote  an 
amazing  mystification  of  a  Gnostic  and  Cabbalistic 
kind  that  he  called  "Li^t  from  within"  (^^'  ^k  tQv 
UpSop),  Except  that  of  KaXres,  these  movements  did 
not  form  organized  sects.  In  the  other  direction  a 
monk,  C!hristopher  Papulakis,  and  a  layman,  Makra- 
kis,  excited  the  people  against  the  Holy  Synod,  the 
Government,  ana  the  umversity,  in  the  name  of  the 
old  faith.  Papulakis  (1852)  was  put  into  a  monastery; 
Makrakis,  after  a  long  career  of  opposition,  was  ex- 
communicated by  the  Holy  Synod  (1879)  and  impris- 
oned for  two  years  by  the  (jovemment.  He  had 
opened  a  church  served  by  priests  of  his  way  of  think- 
ing; this  was  shut  up.  Aa  soon  as  he  came  out  of 
prison  he  began  agam  a  propaganda  that  now  pro- 
duced a  formal  sect,  was  agam  tried  for  heresy  and 
sedition,  and  imprisoned.  He  has  since  his  second 
release  continued  to  form  his  sect  and  to  lead  a  cam- 
paign of  extreme  opposition  against  the  ''apostate" 
State  CHiurch.  His  followers  number  about  5000; 
they  follow  Unes  very  like  those  of  the  Russian  Ras- 
kolniks  (q.  v.)— the  official  Church  has  fallen,  her 

griests  have  lost  all  power  of  administering  sacraments, 
er  rites  are  schismatics!;  they,  the  Makrakists,  alone 
are  the  really  orthodox. 

There  are  about  6000  Sephardim  Jews  in  Greece, 
and  in  1889  the  census  counted  24,165  Moslems,  living 
dbiefly  in  Thessaly.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  the  Govern- 
ment that  these  Moslems  have  always  been  treated 
with  perfect  toleration.  They  are  excused  from  ser- 
ving m  the  army  imder  a  flag  marked  with  the  cross. 
Hiey  have  their  mosques  wherever  they  want  them, 
and  the  muezzin  still  cries  from  the  minaret,  as  loudly 
as  when  the  sultan  reisned  here,  that  Mohammed  is 
the  prophet  of  God.  Nevertheless,  ereat  numbers  of 
Moslems  crossed  the  frontier  into  Turkey  when  Greece 
became  free;  the  addition  of  more  territory  in  1881 
led  to  another  great  emigration,  and  the  Moslem  popu- 
lation of  Greece  is  still  steadily  duninishing.  ^  Natu- 
rally, they  find  the  changed  conditions  humiliating. 
At  Larissa  and  thereabouts  one  finds  Turkish  quarters 
with  their  mosque,  as  across  the  frontier,  but  many 


744 


more  such  villages  are  now  deserted,  and  their  mosques 
in  ruins. 

VII.  The  Church  in  Enslaved  Greece. — Greeks 
outside  the  kingdom  are  practically  all  Orthodox. 
They  form  a  great  part  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Constan- 
tinoi>le,  the  aristocracy  of  the  Patriarchates  of  Alex- 
andria, Antioch  and  Jerusalem,  and  the  whole  Orth6- 
dox  population  of  Cyprus.  In  all  these  parts  except 
Cyprus  the  same  evolution  is^  taking  place.  For 
many  centuries  the  Greeks  had  it  all  their  own  way. 
All  the  important  offices — ^those  of  patriarchs,  metro- 
politans, archimandrites — were  never  given  to  the 
native  Orthodox  Christians,  but  were  kept  in  the  hands 
of  a  little  group  of  Greeks  generally  sent  out  by  the 
Phanar.  In  each  case  the  awakening  of  national  senti- 
ment during  the  nineteenth  oenturv  nas  produced  this 
result:  the  natives  (Slavs,  or  Wallachians,  or  Arabs) 
are  makins  tremendous,  and  now  alwi^  successful, 


efforts  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  these  Greeks  and  to 
have  bishops  of  their  own  races,  the  Liturgy  in  their 
own  tongues.  And  everywhere  the  Greeks  are  waging 
a  hopeless  war  in  the  name  of  Conservatism  to  keep 
their  predominance.  Russia  steps  in  everywhere, 
always  on  the  side  of  the  natives;  so  each  year  the 
Greek  element  has  to  retire,  and  the  Greeks  get  more 
and  more  angry.  This  haa  produced  the  appalling 
combination  of  schisms  and  the  degrading  wrangles 
that  rend  the  Orthodox  Church. 

In  tiie  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople  the  Bulgars 
have  made  a  formal  schism  since  1872.  They  have  an 
exarch  at  Constantinople,  and  his  exarchist  bishops 
dispute  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Greek  (patriarchist) 
hierarchy  all  over  Macedonia.  There  are  now  exar- 
chist bisnops  at  Ochrida,  Uskub,  Monastir,  Nevrokop, 
Veles,  Strumitza,  Debra.  In  all  the  other  dioceses, 
save  five,  they  havepriests  and  churches.  This  is  the 
greatest  schism.  The  Greek  does  not  like  latins  or 
Protestants;  but  he  hates  the  Bulgarian  schismatics 
far  the  most  of  all.  For  this  question  see  R.  von 
Mach,  "  Der  Machtbereich  des  buljrarischen  Exarchate 
in  der  TOrkei"  (Leipzig,  1906);  D.  M.  Branco,  "La 
Mac^oine  et  sa  population  chr<6tienne"  (Paris,  1905) ; 
Fortescue,  "  Orth.  Eastern  Church  ",  pp.  316-323.  At 
Alexandria  things  are  better.  The  O^hodox  patri- 
arch, Photios,  is  of  course  a  Greek  (he  has  had  a 
stormy  career— " Orth.  East. Church",  285-286):  but 
he  haa  taken  the  trouble  to  learn  Arabic  and  allows 
the  Liturgy  to  be  celebrated  in  Arabic  to  some  extent; 
sdso  he  hates  the  Phanar  and  is  unceasingly  eng&Ked  in 
quarrels  with  his  brother  of  Constantinople,  oo  his 
subjects  are  fairly  content.  There  is  a  schiun  at  Anti- 
och. After  a  long  line  of  Phanariot  patriarehs,  the 
Arabs  at  last  succeed  in  getting  an  Arab  patriarch, 
Meletios,  in  1899.  He  was  at  once  excommunicated  by 
Constantinople,  apparently  for  not  being  a  Greek.  He 
died  in  1906  and  again,  in  spite  of  the  frantic  efforts  of 
the  Greeks,  another  Arab,  Gregory  Hadad,  succeeded 
him.  Gregory  is  excommunicate,  too^  for  the  same 
reason ;  and  the  See  of  Antioch,  to  the  mfinite  scandal 
of  all  respectable  Orthodox  Christians,  is  still  in 
schism  with  Constantinople  ("Orth.  E.  Church",  287- 
288).  The  trouble  at  Jerusalem  may  be  read  in  all  the 
newspapers.  The  Patriarch  Damianos  is  a  Greek ;  he 
has  always  been  disliked  by  the  Arabs,  now  he  haa 
begun  to  try  to  concfliate  tnem^  so  his  Greek  Synod 
has  deposed  him  for  being  civil  to  Arabs,  and  the 
Arabs  will  not  have  him  b^use  he  is  a  Greek.  The 
latest  reports  say  that  he  is  still  in  the  palace,  guarded 
by  Turkish  solaiers;  and  his  monks  and  Synod  con- 
sider him  no  longer  patriarch  (op.  cit.,  289-290).  In 
C^rus,  though  they  are  all  Greeks,  they  have  a  schism 
too.  Since  1900  the  quarrel  of  the  two  pretenders  to 
the  archiepiscopal  see,  Cyril  of  C3rrenia  and  Cyril  of 
Kition,  has  disturbed  the  whole  Orthodox  world. 
There  are  endless  ramifications  of  this  quarrel.  For 
eight  years  every  Cypriote  newspaper  haa  had  a  daily 
leader  about  T6  iKKkn^vMruAw  Zi^rrifiai  the  ludicrous 


scandal  gets  worse  every  month,  and  is  likely  to  last 
so  long  as  both  the  claimants  survive. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  just  to  say  a  word  about  the 
state  of  Greece  now,  compared  with  what  it  was  under 
the  Turk.  Western  Europeans  are  disappointed  with 
the  kingdom.  They  seem  to  have  expected  it  to  leap 
to  our  level  at  once.  The  muddled,  and  not  always 
honest,  finances  of  the  Government,  the  ludicrous  in- 
ternal politics,  a  widespread  and  not  altogether  un- 
just suspicion  of  Greek  honesty  and  the  odious  type  of 
Levantme  Greek  that  one  meets,  have  produced  a 
strong  reaction  since  the  burst  of  PhilheUenism  at  the 
time  of  the  War  of  Independence.  Much  of  this  is  no 
doubt  deserved.  If  one  lands  in  Greece  from  Europe 
one  will  notice  many  things  that  excite  one's  indignia- 
tion  or  laughter,  fiut  let  anyone  go  to  Greece  luter 
spending  some  time  under  the  sulSatn's  government; 
in  spite  of  all  Greek  faults,  the  difference  is  simply 
enormous.  Coming  back  from  Asia  or  European 
Turkey,  the  traveller  in  Greece  feels  that  he  is  in  Eu- 
rope. However  unsatisfactory  things  may  still  be,  he 
has  crossed  the  chasm  that  separates  Europe  and 
Christendom  from  Asia  ^d  Islam.  Greece  may  be  a 
long  way  behind  France  or  England,  in  the  same  class 
of  country;  she  is  simply  part  of  another  world  com- 
pared with  Turkey. 

PoHLMANN,  Orundriu  der  griechiscKen  QetthiekU  nAtt  Oucl- 
lenkunde  (MUnioh,  1806,  3rd  ed. — has  exoellent  biblk^nniky); 
Lbquzkn,  Orient  Chriatianua  (Paris,  1740,  3  yols. — stm  Ibe 
standard  work  for  the  historv  of  the  sees);  Hsbtsbuki,  G^ 
§diiehU  der  Byzantiner  und  dee  Oemaniedien  Reiekee  (Berlin, 
1883 — ^tells  tiie  story  of  Bysantlne  times)  ^  Kbumbaghsb,  (?•- 
echidde  der  bytantiniachen  LiUeratur  (Munidi,  2nd  ed.  1897— 
contains  an  admirable  summary  of  the  political  histoty  by  H. 
Gelser,  pp.  911-1067,  bioffraphioal  notices  of  all  writers  and 
exhaustive  bibliosraphy);  Pabooibb:  L'Sgiiee  byzantme  de  5f7 
t,  8A7  (Paris,  1905). 

For  the  schism,  HBBOBNBdTHBB,  Pfudiua  (3  toIs.,  Ralisban, 
1867)  is  stUl  the  most  complete  and  reliable  account.  Bri&- 
BiBR,  Le  Schisme  oriental  du  XI*  eiide  (Paris,  1899);  Wiu^ 
Acta  et  aeripta  qtUB  de  controveraiie  eod.  oraca  el  latina  eete.  XI 
convpoeita  extant  (LeipsiK.  1861 — oives  the  documents). 

Tne  Orthodox  nave  now  a  rival  to  HergenrOther  in  Kbbmob, 
*l0Topta  Tov  tryCviiaToe  (Athens,  4  vols.,  two  of  which  are  pub- 
lished, 1905, 1907);  KTBlAKOB,'B«cAi|<rMivTtici»1<rropui  (Athens,  3 
vols.,  1898)  in  the  third  volume  tells  the  story  of  the  established 
Chur«h  of  Greece. 

ScBuiDT.Kritieche  Oeaehiehte  der  neugriechieehen  und  der 
rueeischen  Kirdte  (Mains,  1854 — not  very  critical ;  a  vehement 
attack  on  the  Erastian  Holy  Synods  of  these  Qiurehes);  SxLr 
BBBNAGXi,  Verfaeaung  u.  geffentoArtiffer  Beyond  eOandicker  Xtr* 
dien  dee  Oriente  (Ratisbon,  2nd  ed.  by  ScazNirsBB,  1904 — for 
tiie  Greek  CSiuroh  see  pp.  66-84);  PmiPioe,  L'Bgliae  OrientaU 
(Rome,  1855). 

For  the  Greek  Revolution  and  establishment  of  Ae  kinfldonit 
Phillips,  The  War  of  Greek  Independaiee  (London,  1897); 
Phiubmon,  AoKitiioP  'loTopucbr  wtpi  r^t  4AAi|vun|c  'Biwmrmeri/owm 
(Athens,  4  vols.,  1859). 

Statistics  m  Kophiniotis,  *H  'E»c^i|<rMi  w  'BAAi&  (Athens, 
1897);  Webnbr,  Orhie  Terrnrum  Catholieue  (Freiburg  im  Br.. 
1890--^or  the  Catholic  sees,  cap.  xv,  pp.  117-119);  Braiuvobd, 
Macedonia  (London,  1906-— for  the  situation  between  Greeks 
and  Slavs);  Echoe  d Orient  (six  times  a  year  since  1897,  pub- 
lished by  the  Augustinians  at  Constantinople;  gives  always  the 
latest  news  about  the  Orthodox  Churdi):  Fortb8cub,  Tke  Or^ 
thodox  Baatem  Church  (London,  1907),  and  further  bibliography 
there,  pp.  xv-zxvii;  the  Greek  Qiuroh,  pp.  312-3 1& 

Adrian  Fortbscuk. 

Greek  Oatholics  in  America. — The  Uniat  churches 
of  the  Byzantine  or  Greek  Rite  were  ahnost  un- 
known to  the  United  States  some  twenty-five  years 
ago.  Occasionally  a  priest  of  that  rite  from  Syria 
came  to  America  to  ask  assistance  for  his  people 
who  were  struggUng  amid  the  Moslems,  but  while  nis 
visit  was  a  matter  of  curiosity,  his  rite  and  the  peoples 
who  followed  it  were  wholly  unknown  to  American 
Catholics.  To-day,  however,  emigration  has  in- 
creased to  such  an  extent  and  is  drawn  from  so  many 
lands  and  peoples  that  there  are  representatives  of 
most  of  the  Eastern  rites  in  America,  and  particularly 
those  of  the  Greek  Rite.  .  These  have  lately  arrived 
in  large  numbers  and  have  erected  their  churches 
all  over  the  country.  The  chief  races  which  have 
brou^t  the  Greek  Rite  with  them  to  the  United 
States  are  the  various  Slavs  of  Austro-Hungary,  and  . 
they  are  now  approaching  such  a  position  ofmaterial 


745 


well-being  and  intellectual  development  as  to  be 
reckoned  with  as  one  of  the  factors  of  Catholic  life  in 
the  United  States.  Other  races  have  also  brou^t  the 
Greek  Rite  with  them  and  established  it  where  they 
have  settled.  The  advent  of  the  Slavs  into  the 
United  States  really  commenced  about  1879-1880. 
Those  of  the  Greek  Rite  came  ^m  the  north-eastern 
portion  of  the  Austro-Himgaiian  monarchy,  where 
they  inhabited  chiefly  the  northern  and  southern 
slopes  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  which  form  the 
boundary  line  between  Galicia  and  Hungary.  The 
first  of  the  new-comers  were  miners  in  the  coal  dis- 
tricts. During  the  troublous  times  in  Pennsylvania, 
from  1871  to  1879,  when  the  "Molly  Maguires"  ter- 
rorised the  mining  districts  and  practically  defied  the 
authority  of  the  State,  the  various  coal  companies 
determined  to  look  abroad  for  foreign  labour  to  re- 
place their  lawless  workmen,  and  so  they  introduced 
the  Austrian  Slav  to  the  mining  re^ons  of  Pennsylr 
vania.  His  success  in  wage-earning  mduced  his  coim- 
tr3rmen  to  follow,  and  the  coal  companies  and  iron- 
masters of  Pennsylvania  were  quick  to  avail  themselves 
of  the  new  and  less  costly  labour.  This  was  before 
any  of  the  present  contract  labour  laws  were  enacted. 
The  Slav  was  willing  to  work  for  longer  hours  than  the 
English-speaking  labourer,  to  perform  heavier  work, 
and  to  stolidly  put  up  witn  inconveniences  which  his 
predecessor  would  not  brook.  He  came  from  a  land 
m  which  he  had  originally  been  a  serf  (serfdom  was 
abolished  in  Austria-Hungary  in  1848,  and  in  Russia 
in  1861),  then  a  degraded  poverty-stricken  peasant 
with  haidly  anything  to  call  his  own,  and  it  was  no 
wonder  that  America  seemed  to  offer  him  boundless 
opportunity  to  earn  a  living  and  improve  his  condition. 
At  first  he  was  a  cheap  man;  but  in  the  course  of  a 
very  short  time  the  Slav  became  not  a  mere  pair  of 
strong  hands,  but  a  skilled  worker,  and  as  such  he 
drove  out  his  competitors,  and  his  success  drew  still 
more  of  his  countrymen  across  the  sea.  .In  the  an- 
thracite coal  region  of  Pennsylvania  there  were  in 
1880  but  some  1900  Slavs;  in  1890,  over  40,000;  and 
in  1900,  upwards  of  81,000.  The  same  proportion 
holds  good  of  the  bituminous  coal-mining  districts  and 
of  the  iron  regions  in  that  and  other  states.  Taking 
simply  the  past  four  years  (1905-1908),  the  immigra- 
tion of  the  Slovaks  and  Rutnenians,  bo^  of  the  Greek 
Catholic  Rite,  has  amounted  to  215,972.  This  leaves 
out  of  consideration  the  immigration  (147,675)  of  the 
Croatians  and  Slavonians  for  uie  same  period,  though 
a  considerable  portion  of  them  are  also  of  the  Greek 
Rite.  These  Slavs  brou^t  with  them  their  Greek 
Catholic  rites  and  practices,  but  they  were  illiterate, 
Ignorant,  the  poorest  of  the  poor,  and  knew  nothing  of 
the  En^h  language.  Herding  together  in  camps 
and  settlements,  and  working  like  sens  at  the  most  ex- 
hausting labour,  they  had  but  little  opportunity  to 
improve  themselves  or  to  learn  the  language,  customs, 
and  ways  of  the  Americans  around  them,  while  both 
American  and  foreign-bom  Catholics  failed  to  recog- 
nise in  them  fellow-Catholics,  and  so  passed  them 
scornfully  by,  and  the  American  of  the  olaer  stock  and 
anti-Catholic  prejudices  too  often  held  them  in  su- 

Sreme  contempt.  Yet  as  soon  as  they  gathered  some 
ttle  substance  and  formed  a  settled  community  they 
sent  for  their  clergy.  When  these  arrived,  they,  too, 
were  often  imbueowith  national  and  racial  preiudices, 
and  knew  too  little  of  the  English  language  ana  Amer- 
ican ideas  and  customs  to  initiate  immediately  the 
progress  of  their  people,  yet  thev  created  for  them 
churches,  schools,  and  a  branch  of  their  native  litera- 
ture upon  American  soil,  and  gradually  brought  them 
into  touch  with  the  people  around  them.  In  this  they 
were  seconded  by  many  educated  la3rmen  who  also 
followed  their  countrymen,  and  the  result  has  been 
that  the  Greek  Rite  has  now  been  established  in  the 
United  States  much  more  solidly  and  with  greater 
Virility  than  it  is  in  many  of  the  dioceses  in  south- 


eastern Europe.  Other  races  and  nationalities  have 
also  established  themselves  besides  the  Slavs;* and 
there  are  in  America  also  the  Rumanians,  the  Syrians, 
and  the  Italians  who  follow  the  Greek  Rite.  But  the 
people  who  have  been  foremost  and  most  enthusiastic 
m  tne  support  of  and  devotion  to  their  Oriental  Rite 
are  the  so-called  Ruthenians,  a  name  used  to  designate 
the  Ruthenians  proper  and  also  those  Slovaks  who  are 
their  immediate  nei^bours.  In  order  to  understand 
f  ull^  their  position  and  relations  in  America,  some  of 
their  history  and  peculiarities  should  begiven. 

I.  RuTHENiAN  Greek  Cathoucs. — Toe  word  Ru- 
thenian  is  derived  from  the  later  Latin  RtUhema,  the 
former  name  for  Russia,  and  of  course  the  Ruthenians 
might  well  be  called  Russians.  Indeed,  the  present 
Ruthenians  declare  that  they  are  the  original  Russians, 
and  that  the  present  Russia  and  Russians  owe  their 
name  and  nation  to  the  accident  of  successful  conquest* 
and  assimilation.  Their,  own  name  for  themselves  is 
Rtuinif  and  it  is  probable  that  Ruthenian  was  merely 
an  attempt  to  put  this  word  into  Latin.  The  word 
RtUheni  is  first  foimd  in  the  writings  of  the  Polish 
annalist,  Martinus  GaUus  (1190),  andthe  Danish  his- 
torian, Sazo  Grammaticus  (1203).  The  ori^boal  word 
Rttsini  is  derived  from  Rua,  the  abstract  word  for 
Russian  fatherland  or  dwelling-place  of  the  Slavic  peo- 
ple; and  the  English  word  "Russian"  may  therefore 
mean  a  derivative  from  the  word  Rtis,  as  denominat- 
ing the  race,  or  it  may  mean  a  subject  of  the  Russian 
Empire.  Tne  former  is  ruasky,  the  latter  roatiisky,  in 
the  Russian  and  Ruthenian  languages,  and  hence, 
while  the  first  word  is  translated  either  as  RtLsaian  or 
RtUhenianf  it  carries  no  special  reference  to  the  Rus- 
sian Empire.  These  people  are  also  called  "Little 
Russians  '  (an  expression  chiefly  used  for  them  in  the 
Russian  Empire),  originally  an  allusion  to  their 
stature  as  contrasted  with  the  Muscovites.  Their 
language  is  known  as  Ruthenian  or  Little  Russian, 
and  is  spoken  in  Northern  Hungary,  Galicia,  Buko- 
wina,  and  in  the  Provinces  of  Volh3rnia,  Podolia, 
Chelm,  and  Kiev  in  Russia.  It  is  quite  similar  to  the 
Russian  language  of  the  Russian  £!mpire  (sometimes 
called  Great  Russian),  bearing  about  the  same  relation 
to  it  as  Lowland  Scotch  does  to  English,  or  PlaU- 
deutach  to  German,  and  rather  closer  than  Portuguese 
does  to  Spanish.  The  Ruthenians  (in  Austria)  and 
Little  Russians  (in  Russia)  use  the  Russian  alphabet 
and  write  their  language  in  almost  the  same  orthog- 
raphy as  the  Great  Russians  of  St.  Petersburg  and 
Moscow,  but  they  pronounce  it  in  many  cases  very 
dififerently,  quite  as  the  French  and  F^ngliah  might 
pronoimce  dinerently  a  word  written  the  same  in  each 
language.  This  fact  has  led  in  late  years  to  a  recen- 
sion of  tne  Russian  alphabet  in  Galicia  and  Bukowina  by 
the  governmental  authorities,  and  by  dropping  some 
letters  and  adding  one  or  two  more  and  then  spelling 
all  the  words  just  as  they  are  pronounced,  they  have 
produced  a  new  language  at  least  to  the  eye.  This  is 
the  "phonetic"  alphabet  and  orthography,  and  as 
thus  introduced  it  difiFerentiates  the  Ruthenian  lan- 
guage of  these  provinces  more  than  ever  from  the 
Russian.  .The  phonetic  system  of  orthography  is  still 
fiercely  opposed  at  home  and  in  America,  and  as  an 
Austrian  governmental  measure  it  is  regarded  by 
many  as  an  effort  to  detach  the  Ruthenians  from  the 
rest  of  the  Russian  race  and  in  a  measure  to  Polonise 
them.  This  battle  of  the  reformed  phonetic  spelling 
rages  as  fiercely  in  the  United  States  as  in  Austria. 
Indeed  the  Greek  Catholic  bishop  here  has  found  it 
necessary  to  issue  his  official  documents  in  both  the 
phonetic  and  the  etymologic  spelling  (as  the  older 
form  is  called),  so  as  to  meet  the  views  of  both  parties. 
The  phonetic  spelling  has  never  been  introduced 
among  the  Ruthenians  in  Hun^arv,  and  their  section 
of  the  language  is  still  written  m  the  customary  form, 
there  and  in  the  United  States.  Besides  the  RutJie- 
nians  there  are  also  the  Slovaks  who  Uve  in  Northern 


0BEEK 


746 


and  North-western  Hungary,  close  neighbours  to  the 
Ruthenians,  who  are  Greek  Catholics,  and  who  speak 
a  language  almost  like  the  Bohemian,  yet  similar  to 
the  Ruthenian.  It  is  written,  however,  with  Roman 
letters,  and  the  pronimciation  follows  the  Bohemian 
more  than  the  Ruthenian.  These  people  seem  to  have 
been  origindly  Ruthenian,  but  became  gradually 
changed  and  moulded  b^  the  Bohemians  and  their 
language  and  for  a  long  time  wrote  their  langua^  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  Bohemian.  The  Bohemians, 
however,  are  in  the  Austrian  part  of  the  empire,  while 
the  Slovaks  are  in  Hungary.  They  have  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  large  numbers,  and  are  about 
equally  divided  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Rites. 
Tnis  again  necessitates  the  publication  of  church 
matters,  prayer  books,  journals,  etc.,  in  the  Slovak 
language.  It  illustrates  the  difficulties  of  the  Greek 
Catholic  priests  in  the  United  States,  since  they  are 
likely  to  have  in  their  parishes  Ruthenians  (of  the  old 
and  new  orthographies),  Slovaks,  and  even  those  who 
speak  only  Hungarian,  having  lost  their  Slavic  tongue. 
It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  a  Greek  Catholic 
priest  capable  of  speiJdng  five  langua^:  Ruthenian, 
Slov^,  Himgarian,  German,  and  English.  It  is  these 
people  as  a  whole  who  are  comprehended  under  the 
term  Ruthenian,  althou^  that  term  applies  strictly 
to  those  speaking  Russian  and  using  the  Russian 
alphabet.  After  the  eleventh  century  the  larger  por- 
tion of  Russians  fell  away  from  the  umty  of  the  Church 
in  the  schism  of  Constantinople,  while  a  minority  con- 
tinued faithful  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  later  many 
more  returned  to  unity.  The  Holy  See,  therefore, 
made  use  of  the  ancient  word  Ruthenian  to  designate 
those  Russians  who  followed  the  Greek  Rite  in  unity 
with  the  Holy  See,  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  Northern  Russians  who  adhered  to  the  schism. 
Later  on,  those  Russians  who  joined  the  union  under 
the  PoUsh  king^  received  the  same  name,  and  the 
word  RiUhenian  ia  to-day  used  exclusively  to  designate 
the  Russians  of  Austro-Hungary,  who  are  Greek 
Catholics,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Russians  of  the 
Russian  Empire,  who  are  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  faith. 

The  language  of  the  Mass  and  the  other  liturgical 
services  according  to  the  Byzantine  Rite  is  the  ancient 
Slavonic  {slarodavianski)^  and  the  Greek  Lifursy  was 
originally  translated  b}r  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius 
about  the  year  868,  and  it  has  remained  substantially 
the  same  ever  since.  It  is  curious  to  notice  that  the 
Ruthenian  language  is  much  closer,  both  in  spelling 
and  pronunciation,  to  the  church  Slavonic  than  the 
present  Russian  language  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Mos^ 
cow.  The  letters  m  which  the  church  books  are 
printed  are  the  Cvrillic,  or  KinUiisa^  said  to  have  been 
mvented  or,  rather,  adapted  by  St.  C3rril  from  the 
Greek  alphabet,  together  with  some  additional  letters 
of  his  own  invention.  It  consists  of  forty-three  letters 
of  archaic  form  as  used  in  the  church  books,  but  has 
been  altered  and  reduced  in  modem  Russian  and 
Ruthenian  to  thirty-five  letters.  In  the  year  879 
Pope  John  VIII  formally  authorized  the  use  of  the 
Slavonic  language  forever  in  the  Mass  and  in  the  whole 
liturgy  and  offices  of  the  Church,  according  to  the 
Greek  Rite,  and  its  use  has  been  continued  ever  since 
bv  the  Catholic  and  the  Orthodox  (schismatic)  Greeks 
of  the  Slavic  races.  This  is  the  language  used  in  the 
Sluzhebnik  (Missal),  Trdmik  (Ritual),  Chaaoslov  (Book 
of  Hours),  and  other  church  books  of  the  Ruthenian 
Greek  Catholics  in  America. 

After  the  schism  of  Constantinople  (1054)  most 
of  the  Russians  became  estranged  from  the  unity  of 
the  Church.  (See  under  Greek  Church,  Vol.  VI, 
pp.  760-62.)  In  1595  the  Russian  bishops  of  Lithu- 
ania and  Little  Russia  determined  to  return  to 
unity  with  the  Holy  See,  and  held  a  council  at 
Brest-Litovsk,  at  which  a  decree  of  union  was 
adopted,  and  where  they  chose  two  of  their  num- 
ber, Ignatius  Potzey  and  Cyril  Terletzki,  to  go  to 


Rome  and  take  the  oath  of  submission  to  the  pope. 
They  declared  that  the^  desired  to  return  to  the  tull 
unlt3r  of  the  Church  as  it  existed  before  the  schism  of 
Photius  and  Csrularius,  so  as  to  have  in  Russia  one 
united  Catholic  Church  again.  No  change  in  their 
rites  or  their  calendar  was  required  by  Rome,  but  the 
whole  of  the  ancient  Greek  Litur^,  service,  and  disci- 
pline (excepting  a  few  schismatic  saints'  days  and 
Practices)  was  to  go  on  as  before.  In  December,  1595, 
lement  VIII  solemnlv  ratified  the  union  of  the  two 
Churches  in  the  Bull  ''Magnus  Dominus''.  On  6 
October,  1596,  the  union  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches  was  proclaimed  and  ratified  in  the 
Russian  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland.  A  large 
number  of  the  Russian  bishops  immediately  went  over 
to  the  union.  In  Chelm  theltussian  Bishop  Zbiruiski 
led  the  way  with  his  whole  diocese,  and  his  suocessor, 
Methodius  Terletzki,  was  a  valiant  champion  of  the 
Uniat  Church.  This  Greek  Uniat  Church  even  pro- 
duced a  inart3rr  for  the  Faith,  St.  Josaphat,  Arch- 
bishop of  Polotzk,  who  was  slain  by  the  Orliiodoz 
partisans  in  1633.  In  Galicia,  however,  the  union 
was  slower.  While  priests  and  congr^ations  became 
Uniat,  the  Bishops  of  Peremysl  and  Lfemberg  stood 
out  for  nearly  a  century.  But  on  23  June,  1691, 
Innocent  Vinnitzki,  Bishop  of  Peremysl,  joined  the 
union,  and  in  1700  Joseph  Snumlanski,  Bishop  of  Lem- 
berg  (it  was  afterwards  restored  to  metropolitan 
dignity  by  the  pope  in  1807),  also  took  the  oath  of 
union  with  the  Holy  See.  From  that  time  till  now 
the  Russians  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Carpathian 
Mountains  and  on  both  sides  of  the  River  Dniester  have 
been  united  with  Rome.  On  the  southern  side  of  the 
Carpathians  the  Russians  also  accepted  the  union.  In 
the  year  1636  Vassili  Tarasovitch,  Bishop  of  Munkics, 
acknowled^d  the  pope  as  the  head  of  the  Church  and 
for  it  he  was  persecuted,  imprisoned,  and  forced  to 
resign  his  see.  But  union  with  the  Holy  See  could 
not  be  stayed  by  such  means,  and  on  24  April,  1646,  it 
was  accomplished  in  the  city  of  Ungvar  by  Peter  Rob- 
toshinski,  the  then  Bishop  of  Munkto,  and  George 
Yakusitch,  Bishop  of  A^  (Erlau).  These  two  bishops 
in  solemn  council,  with  sixty-three  priests,  abjured  the 
schism  and  confessed  themselves  Greek  clergy  holding 
the  Faith  of  Sts.  C3rril  and  Methodius  in  communion 
with  Rome.  Since  that  time  the  Ruthenian  people 
(including  the  Greek  Slovaks)  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Htmgary  have  acknowledged  the  pope  as  the  visible 
head  of  the  undivided  Catholic  Church. 

These  Ruthenians  have  continued  to  practise  their 
ancient  Greek-Slavonic  rites  and  usages,  and  their 
forms  of  worship  introduced  into  the  United  States 
seem  strange  to  the  Catholic  accustomed  only  to  the 
Roman  Rite,  and  have  made  them  objects  of  distrust 
and  even  active  dislike,  so  that  a  few  of  the  most 
salient  differences  may  be  pointed  out,  although  a  full 
statement  will  be  found  in  the  various  articles  on  the 
Eastern  rites,  ceremonies,  and  vestments.  The  Mass 
itself  is  said  in  ancient  Slavonic,  the  altar  is  separated 
from  the  body  of  the  church  by  a  hi^  partition  called 
the  icanostamsj  upon  which  the  pictures  of  Christ  and 
His  Mother,  as  well  as  various  saints,  are  placed,  and 
the  vestments  of  the  Mass  are  quite  different.  The 
stole  is  a  broad  band  loop^  aroimd  the  neck  and 
hanging  strai^t  down  in  front,  the  chasuble  is 
cut  away  at  the  front  and  closely  resembles  the 
Roman  cope,  and  instead  of  the  maniple  two  broad 
cuffs  are  worn,  while  a  broad  belt  takes  the  place  of 
the  girdle  or  cincture.  Married  men  may  be  ordained 
to  the  diaconate  and  priesthood ;  but  bisnops  must  be 
celibate,  nor  can  a  deacon  or  priest  manr  after  or- 
dination. Priests  impart  the  Sacrament  of  Confirma- 
tion to  children  immediately  after  baptism,  and  Com- 
munion is  given  to  the  laity  under  Doth  forms,  the 
consecrated  species  being  mingled  together  in  the 
chalice  and  admimstered  to  the  communicant  with 
a  spoon.    Organs  are  not  used  in  their  churches,  and 


747 


their  ehurch  year  follows  the  Julian  Calendar,  which  is 
now  thirteen  days  behind  the  Gregorian  Calendar  in 
use  in  the  United  States  and  Western  Europe.  Be- 
sides this,  the  Ruthenians  (and  the  Russian  Ortho- 
dox likewise),  display  the  so-called  ''three-armed" 
(or  Russian)  cross  -^  fashioned  in  this  manner 
upon  their  churches  n  and  use  it  upon  their  mis- 
sals, prayer-books,  paintings  and  banners,  as  well  as 
other  objects.  They  make  the  sign  of  the  cross  in 
the  reverse  direction  to  the  Roman  method,  and  in 
their  relidous  services  the  men  and  women  are 
segregated  from  each  other  upon  different  sides  of 
their  churches. 

It  is  from  these  people,  inhabiting  Galicia,  Buko- 
wina,  and  Hungary,  that  the  Rutheman  Greek  Catho- 
lic population  has  come.  Their  earliest  immigration 
to  the  United  States  began  in  1879,  from  the  western 
portion  of  Galicia  near  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  the 
so-called  Lemkovschini,  and  tnen  spread  throughout 
the  C^alician  and  Htmgarian  sides  of  the  mountains. 
At  first  it  was  hardly  noticed,  but  it  grew  year  by  year« 
the  earliest  immigrants  coming  from  Gr^Dow,  (xorlice, 
Jaslo,  Nell  Sandec,  Krosno,  and  Sanok  m  Galicia,  and 
from  Szepes,  Saros,  Abauj,  and  Ung  in  Hungary,  until 
finally  the  governmental  authorities  began  to  notice 
it.  At  the  post  offices  in  many  of  the  mountain  places 
in  the  Ruthenian  portion  of  Galicia  it  was  observed 
that  the  peasants  were  receiving  larpe  sums  of  money 
from  then-  fathers,  sons,  or  brotnera  m  America.  The 
news  spread  rapidly,  the  newspapers  and  officials 
taking  it  up,  and  so  emigration  was  at  once  stimulated 
to  the  hignest  degree.  Every  year  it  has  increased, 
and  Ruthenian  societies  are  formed  here  to  assist  their 
newty-arrived  brethren  to  find  employment  and  to 
pive  mformation  to  those  at  home  about  America.  It 
IS  impossible  to  tell  exact!  v  how  many  Ruthenian  and 
Slovak  Greek  Catholics  nave  come  to  the  United 
States,  because  no  statistics  have  been  kept  by  the 
United  States  Government  in  regard  to  religious  faith 
of  immigrants,  and  not  always  accurate  ones  in  regard 
to  race  or  nationality.  Still  the  immigration  reports 
show  that  immigration  from  Austria-Hungary  from 
1861  to  1868  was  annually  in  the  hundreds;  and  from 
1869  to  1879  it  ranoed  from  1500  to  8000  annually;  and 
in  1880  it  suddenly  rose  to  17,000.  From  1880  to 
1908  the  total  immigration  from  AustriarHungary  to 
the  United  States  amoimted  to  2,780,000,  and  about 
twenty  per  cent  of  these  were  Ruthenians  and  Slovaks. 
Within  the  last  four  years  (1905-1908)  the  immigra- 
tion of  the  Slovaks  and  Ruthenians  has  amountea  to 
215,972.  To  this  must  be  added  the  Croatians  and 
Slavonians  (117,695),  a  large  proportion  of  whom  are 
of  the  Greek  Rite.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  at 
present  in  the  United  States  between  350,000  and 
400,000  Greek  Catholic  Ruthenians,  including  as  such 
the  Greek  Catholic  Slovaks  and  Croato-Slovenians. 
Tlie  largest  number  (over  one-halO  are  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, while  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Ohio  have 
each  a  very  large  number  of  them,  and  the  remainder 
are  scattered  all  through  the  New  Elngland  and  West- 
em  states.  From  the  best  information  obtainable 
in  advance  of  the  coming  census  of  1910  their  distri- 
bution is  as  follows: — 


Pennsylvania 
New  York 

190,000 

Indiana 

6,000 

50,500 

Minnesota 

3,000 

New  Jersey 

40,000 

Colorado,  Dakota, 

Ohio 

35,500 

Nebraska     and 

Connecticut 

10,000 

Montana,  about 

8,000 

Illinois 

8,000 

West  Virginia,  Vii^ 

Massachusetts 

7,500 

ginia    and    the 
Southern  States, 

Rhode  Island 

1,500 

Missouri 

6,500 

about 

5,000 

After  the  Ruthenian  immigration  had  begun  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  it  was  but  natural  that  they  should 
desire  to  establish  a  Cihurch  of  their  own  nte.    At 


Shenandoah,  Pennsylvania,  the  Ruthenian  settlement 
had  so  increased  that  towards  the  end  of  1884  they  sent 
a  petition  to  Archbishop  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Sylves- 
ter Sembratovitch,  Metropolitan  of  Lemberg,  prasdng 
that  a  Greek  Catholic  priest  mi^t  be  sent  to  them  to 
found  a  parish  of  the  Greek  Rite  at  that  place.  The 
petitioners  promised  to  build  a  church  for  him  if.  he 
were  sent.  In  the  following  year  (1885)  Rev.  Ivan 
Volanski,  of  the  Diocese  of  Lemberg,  arrived  in  the 
United  States,  the  first  Greek  Catholic  priest  to  take 
up  work  among  his  people  here.  On  his  arriviJ  he 
presented  himself  in  Philadelphia  with  his  letters,  but, 
being  a  married  priest,  he  encountered  great  difficulty 
in  being  recognized  as  a  Catholic  priest  in  good  stand- 
ing. However,  he  proceeded  to  Shenandoah,  where 
imder  great  difficulties  and  discouragements  he  organ- 
ized his  oongr^ation  and  for  about  a  year  celebrated 
Mass  and  other  services  in  a  hired  hall,  for  he  was  unable 
to  obtain  the  use  of  the  local  ^tin  churches  for  Greek 
services.  The  matter  of  his  regularity  and  his  accept- 
ance as  a  priest  in  Pennsylvania  for  the 'Ruthenians 
was  finally  arranged  through  Cardinal  Sembratovitch. 
Early  in  1886  he  completed  at  Shenandoah  a  Uttle 
frame  church  dedicated  to  St.  Michael  the  Archangel, 
the  first  Greek  Catholic  church  in  America.  He  then 
organized  there  the  first  Greek  Catholic  Society,  that  of 
St.  Nicholas,  built  and  organized  a  small  parochial 
school,  and  then  proceeded  to  form  congregations  and 
to  found  churches  in  other  places  where  the  Rutheni- 
ans were  thickly  settled.  During  his  stay  he  organized 
congregations  and  started  churches  atHazleton  (1887), 
Kingston  (1888),  and  Olyphant  (1888)  in  Pennsyl- 
vama,  at  Jersey  City,  New  Jersey  (1889),  and  at  Min- 
neapolis, Minnesota  (1889).  Finding  his  Ruthenian 
people  without  any  reading-matter  in  their  own  lan- 

giage,  he  sent  to  (xalicia  for  Russian  t3rpe,  and  in  the 
tter  pa^  of  1886  he  obtained  a  few  fonts  from  the 
Shevchenko  printing  office  at  Lemberg.  He  then 
commenced  the  publication  in  "phonetic  Ruthenian 
of  a  small  paper  issued  everv  two  weeks  at  Shenan- 
doah imder  the  name  of  ''America".  This  paper 
lived  imtil  about  1890,  but  ^t  involved  in  the  labour 
troubles  in  the  mining  districts  which  destroyed  much 
of  its  usefulness.  In  the  spring  of  1887  the  Metropoli- 
tan of  Lemberg  sent  him  another  priest.  Rev.  zeno 
Lakovitch  (unmarried),  and  a  lay  teacher,  Volodimir 
Semenoviteh  from  the  University  of  Lemberg.  Father 
Lakovitch  laboured  at  Kinmton  and  at  Wilkesbarre, 
where  he  died  a  year  later.  In  1888  Rev.  Constantine 
Andrukovitch  was  sent  from  Lemberg,  and,  in  addition  • 
to  his  parochial  work,  he,  with  Father  Volanski,  imder- 
took  to  establish  a  series  of  stores  in  several  towns  in 
Pennsylvania  to  sell  goods  to  the  Ruthenians  and  thus 
avoid  the  enormous  prices  which  the  mining  com- 
panies charged  them.  Ilie  business  venture  was  un- 
successful, and,  with  other  matters,  it  caused  the  recall 
of  Father  Volans^  to  Galida.  He  remained  there 
some  time,  then  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  Brazil, 
where  his  wife  died,  when  he  returned  to  Galicia, 
where  he  was  a  piuish  priest  imtil  his  death  in  1905. 
This  business  venture  also  caused  the  suspension  of 
Father  Andrukoviteh,  who  returned  to  Galicia  in  1892. 
The  next  three  Greek  clergymen  were  Rev.  Theophan 
Obushkeviteh  (of  Galicia)7  Rev.  Cornelius  Laurisin, 
and  Rev.  Augustin  Laurisin  (of  Hungary),  who  took 
up  their  missionary  work  energetically.  The  first  two 
are  still  Greek  Cauiolic  parish  priests  in  this  country. 
Since  their  coming  there  nas  been  a  constant  accession 
of  Ruthenian  Greek  priests  from  Galicia  and  Hungary, 
and  the  building  of  churches  and  schools  has  gone  on 
with  increasing  success.  Even  quite  costly  (lurches 
have  b^n  built.  In  Jersey  City  the  old  church  has 
given  way  to  a  fine  stone  and  brick  church,  which  is  an 
excellent  specimen  of  Russian  architecture,  while  at 
Homesteaa  and  Shamokin,  Pennsylvania,  there  are 
quite  costly  churches  erected.  Many  of  the  Greek 
cnurches  are  purchases  from  Protestant  denominations 


748 


altered  and  rearranged  for  the  neoesBities  of  their  rite, 
while  one  or  two  are  churches  brought  over  from  the 
schismatics.  The  first  Greek  Catholic  Mass  in  New 
York  City  was  celebrated  in  the  basement  of  St. 
Brigid's  church  on  Avenue  A  (which  was  put  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Greeks  bv  the  late  Archbisnop  Corri- 
gan),  on  19  April,  1890,  by  the  Rev.  Alexander  Dzu- 
bay,  who  is  still  in  active  parish  work  in  America. 
This  Greek  congregation  afterwards  bought  a  church 
in  Brooklyn  (St.  Elias,  1892),  and  there  was  no  Ru- 
thenian  church  in  Manhattan  imtil  the  Greek  Catholic 
church  of  St.  Georee  was  opened  in  1905.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1909,  the  Greek  Bishop  Soter  bought  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  church  in  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  re- 
fitted it,  and  consecrated  it  as  the  Greek  (cathedral  of 
St.  Maiy  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  and  in  the  ad- 
joining parish  house  and  rectory  will  also  open  a  semi- 
nary for  the  education  of  American  priests  of  the 
Greek  Rite.  Of  course  many  Ruthenian  settlements 
in  various  localities  are  too  poor  to  build  and  maintain 
a  church,  nor  are  there  just  at  present  sufi^ient  priests 
in  America  to  attend  to  their  spiritual  needs.  Still 
there  are  at  present  (1909)  about  140  Ruthenian 
Greek  Catholic  churches  in  the  United  States,  and 
there  are  also  ten  more  new  ones  projected  for  waiting 
congregations.  Their  churches  are  distributed  as 
follows: — 


Pennsylvania 

80 

Indiana 

3 

New  York 

14 

Missouri 

3 

Ohio 

12 

West  Virginia 

2 

New  Jersey 

10 

Minnesota 

2 

Connecticut 

4 

Rhode  Island 

1 

Illinois 

4 

Virginia 

1 

Massachusetts 

4 

The  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  clergy  in  the  United 
States  consists  (1909),  of  one  bishop  and  118  priests, 
originating  from  the  following  dioceses: — 


Diocese 


Monks  Secular  Clergy 

Celibates  Married  Widowers 


Lemberg 

4 

8 

5 

5 

Przmjrsl 

6 

12 

2 

Stanislau 

« 

2 

2 

1 

Eperies 
Munk^U» 

13 

10 

2 

30 

5 

Kreutz 

Scranton 

2 

•  Philadelphia 

Pittsbui^ 

» 

6 

25 

64 

23 

Several  of  these  priests  are  converts  from  the  Ortho- 
dox Greek  Church  m  the  United  States.  As  has  been 
said,  men  who  are  alreadv  married  are  ordained  to  the 
diaconate  and  priesthood  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  so 
it  naturally  followed  that  married  priests  were  sent 
to  America.  While  a  married  priesthood  seems 
repugnant  to  a  Catholic  of  the  Latin  Rite,  yet  it 
is  strongly  adhered  to  b^  the  Greek  Cathohcs  as 
vaguely  a  part  of  their  nationality  and  Eastern  Rite. 
All  American  Greek  Catholic  priests  will  hereafter  be 
ordained  from  celibate  candidates  only,  according  to 
the  provisions  of  the  Apostolic  Letter  "Ea  semper", 
whidi  will  be  referred  to  later.  The  growing  impoiv 
tance  of  the  Greek  Rite  in  America,  the  dissensions 
arising  out  of  old-country  political  factions  among  the 
Ruthenians,  which  will  be  mentioned  later  on,  and 
which  occasioned  serious  interference  with  the  normal 
growth  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  the  increasing  in- 
tensity of  the  efforts  of  the  Russian  Orthodox  to 
detach  the  Ruthenians  in  America  from  their  faith 
and  unity  (see  Greek  Orthodox  Church  in  Amer- 
ica) caused  the  Holy  Father  in  1907  to  provide  a 


Greek  Catholic  bishop  for  America.  Previous  to  this 
(1902)  the  Holv  See  had  sent  the  Rig^t  Rev.  Andrew 
Hodobay,  titular  abbot  and  canon  of  the  Greek  Dio- 
cese of  Eperies,  as  Apostolic  visitor  to  the  Ruthenians 
in  America,  who  examined  the  conditions  of  the 
Catholics  of  the  Greek  Rite  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  retiuned  to  Europe  in  1906  with  his  report. 
The  choice  of  a  bishop  for  the  Ruthenian  Greek  uath- 
olics  fell  upon  the  Right  Rev.  Stephen  Soter  Ortynald, 
a  Basilian  monk,  h^umenos  of  the  monastery  of  St. 
Paul,  Michaelovka,  Galicia.  On  12  Mav,  1907,  he 
was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Daulia  by  the  Most 
Rev.  Andrew  Roman  Ivanovitch  Scheptitsky,  Greek 
Metropolitan  of  Lemberg,  and  the  other  Greek  bishops 
of  Gaucia,  and  he  arrived  in  America  on  27  August, 
1907.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  (September,  1907)  the 
Apostolic  Letter  ''£a  semper",  concerning  the  new 
bishop  for  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  in  the 
United  States,  his  powers  and  duties,  and  the  general 
constitution  of  the  Greek  Rite  in  America  was  pub- 
lished. It  created  considerable  dissatisfaction  among 
the  Greek  der^  and  laity  inasmuch  as  it  did  not  pro- 
vide for  any  diocesan  power  or  authority  for  the  new 
bishop,  but  placed  him  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  Latin 
bishops,  and  as  it  modified  several  of  their  immemorial 
privileges  in  various  ways.  The  Sacrament  of  Con- 
nrmation  was  thereafter  to  be  withheld  from  infants 
at  baptism,  and  was  not  to  be  conferred  by  priests,  but 
was  reserved  for  the  bishop  only  (as  in  the  Latin  Rite 
and  among  the  Greeks  in  Italy),  and  married  priests 
were  not  thereafter  to  be  ordained  in  America  or  to  be 
sent  thither  from  abroad,  while  the  reflations  as  to 
the  marriage  of  persons  of  the  two  ntes  were  also 
modified.  The  Greek  Ruthenian  laitv  saw  in  it  an 
attack  upon  their  Slavic  nationality  and  Eastern  Rite, 
an  idea  which  the  Russian  Orthodox  Church  eageriy 
fostered  and  magnified.  They  were  told  b^  the  Or- 
thodox that  the  whole  letter  was  a  latimzation  of 
their  Greek  Rite  in  regard  to  confirmation  and  Holy 
orders,  and  was  a  nullification  in  America  of  the 
Decrees  of  the  popes  that  their  rite  should  be  kept 
intact.  This  resulted  in  some  losses  (about  10,000) 
from  the  Ruthenians  to  the  Russian  Church,  but 
already  many  of  tiiem  are  coming  back.  Matters, 
however,  adjusted  themselves,  and  the  work  of 
the  new  bishop  is  having  good  results.  The  whole 
matter  of  a  Greek  bishop  in  America  is  so  far  in  an 
experimental  stage,  and  it  rests  upon  the  extent  of 
the  current  and  future  immigration,  the  stability 
and  solidarity  of  the  Ruthmiians  in  Uieir  adherence 
to  their  faith  and  rite,  as  to  what  powers  and 
authority  their  bishop  shall  ultimately  have.  Where 
there  is  an  evident  and  actual  need  for  it  the  Holy  See 
has  always  granted  the  erection  of  Oriental  dioceses, 
but  where  a  minority  of  a  population  seems  bound  to 
become  assimilated  with ,  and  eventually  absorbed  into, 
the  surrounding  population  the  case  may  be  entirely 
otherwise.  The  newly  appointed  bishop  has  had 
success  in  establishing  churches  and  parochial  schools 
and  in  inducing  his  Ruthenian  flock  to  become  Ameri- 
can citizens  and  identify  themselves  with  American 
life  while  not  abandoning  their  faith  and  their  East- 
em  Rite.  He  aims  to  establish  EngUsh-Ruthenian 
schools  in  each  Greek  parish  and  to  open  a  Ruthenian- 
American  seminary  at  Philadelphia  tor  the  education 
of  American-bom  Ruthenians  as  priests  of  the  Greek 
Rite.  There  is  alreadv  one  American-Rutbenian 
priest,  lately  ordained.  In  purely  theological  matters 
they  will  l>e  educated  as  in  Latin  seminaries,  if  not 
actually  sent  there  for  lectures,  but  in  the  Oriental 
church  rites,  discipline,  liturgical  language,  music,  and 
customs  the  proposed  seminary  will  fill  a  place  for  the 
Ruthenians  which  our  present  diocesan  seminaries  do 
not  fill.  The  number  of  church  or  parochial  8<^ools 
of  the  Ruthenians  is  about  fi^fty,  where  instruction 
in  English,  Ruthenian,  church  catechism,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  a  general  education  is  given.    No  organised 


749 

Sunday-school  system  has  as  yet  been  established  matten  and  the  like,  having  always  the  Greek  Rite 

amongst  them,  nor  are  there  any  nuns  or  religious  and  the  Ruthenian  race  as  their  main  inspiration. 

enfpEiged  in  teaching  in  the  United  States.  Some  of  them  provide  that  their  members  must  e^ow 

In  order  to  understand  somewhat  clearly  the  situa-  that  they  have  made  their  Easter  communion  or 
tion  of  the  Ruthenians  in  America,  account  must  be  forfeit  membership,  and  provide  for  the  dropping  of  a 
taken  of  their  national  home  politics,  which  they  brinjg  member  when  he  ceases  to  be  a  Cathohc.  These 
with  them  and  fight  out  often  quite  bitterly  in  this  brotherhoods  or  lodges  are  combined  into  a  general 
coimtry.  As  alr^y  said,  they  are  from  the  northern  federation  or  union  which  takes  in  the  whole  United 
and  southern  slopes  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  States.  It  has  its  annual  convention  composed  of 
The  northern  Ruthenians  derisively  call  their  southern  delegates  from  the  various  brotherhoods,  ana  alwavs 
brethren  "Htmgarians"  (Madyart),  while  the  latter  has  some  well-known  Greek  Catholic  priest  as  its 
return  the  compliment  by  calling  the  former  " Poles''  spiritual  director.  The  largest  and  oldest  of  these 
(Poliakt).  The  point  of  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  each  federated  societies  is  the ' '  Sovedineniya  Greko-Kaf to- 
of  the  nationahties  named  is  cordially  detested  by  licheskikhRusskikh  Bratstv  ^'  (Russian  Greek  Catholic 
the  Ruthenians  on  either  side.  But  these  are  merely  Union),  which  was  founded  in  Pennsylvania  in 
surface  divisions  between  the  two  bodies  of  the  same  February,  1892.  It  is  almost  wholly  composed  of 
race.  Their  actual  factional  differences  are  much  Slovaks  and  South-Carpathian  Ruthenians.  It  now 
deeper.  There  may  be  said  to  be,  broadly  speaking.  (1909)  has  542  brotherhoods  and  22,490  members, 
three  Ruthenian  parties  or  factions  in  the  United  and  has  besides  a  junior  organization  for  young  people 
States:  (1)  The  Mo9cophileSf  or  MoskalofhUen  {Mo^  in  which  there  are  163  brotherhoods  and  54C^  mem- 
kal  is  the  Little  Russian  word  for  a  Great  Russian),  bers,  and  is  in  a  flourishing  condition  in  every  way. 
who  aim  at  an  imitation,  if  not  an  actual  adoption,  It  also  publishes  a  weekly  Ureek  Catholic  newspaper 
of  all  things  Russian  as  found  in  the  present  Ejnpire  at  Homest^Mi,  Pennsylvania — Uie  ''Amerikanslry" 
of  Russia,  looking  towards  Moscow  as  the  seed  and  Russky  Viestzuk  (American  Russian  Messenger), 
kernel  of  Russian  or  Slavic  development,  and  who  are  printed  both  in  the  Russian  and  the  Slovak  languages, 
strong  supporters  of  Panslavism;  (2)  the  UkrairUzi,  In  Ruthenian  politics  it  is  the  representative  of  the 
or  Ukrainians  (the  Ukraine  is  the  adjoining  border-  Ugro-russki  pflxty.  The  second  oi  these  federations 
land  provinces  of  Russia  and  Galicia),  who  stand  for  is  the  "Russky  Narodny  So^us  "  (Russian  Nationid 
the  interests  of  the  Ruthenian  people  in  Austria  and  Union),  which  was  founded  m  1894  and  is  a  Gidician 
of  the  Little  Russians  in  Russia,  as  distinct  and  apart  offshoot  from  the  preceding  scx;iety.  It  is  chiefly 
from  the  Great  Russians,  and  who  desire  to  develop  composed  of  Galicians  who  are  Ukrainians,  and  who 
the  Ruthenian  (Little  Russian)  language,  literature,  express  themselves  strong  against  the  Russian 
and  race  along  their  own  lines,  entirely  aistinct  ana  Empire  and  the  Orthodox  Church.  *It  now  has  249 
apart  from  that  of  the  present-day  Russian  Empire;  brotherhoods  and  12,760  members,  and  it  likewise 
and  (3)  the  Ugro-rtuski,  or  Hungarian  Ruthenians,  publishes  a  weekly  newspaper,  the  "Svoboda" 
who  keep  all  the  old  Russian  racial  traditions,  rever-  (Liberty),  which  is  printea  in  New  York  City,  in 
encing  their  Russian  language,  literature,  and  ancestry  "phonetic"  Little  Russian.  The  third  of  these 
as  mmlels  to  follow  in  their  aevelopment,  but  at  the  f^erations  is  the  ''  Obshchestvo  Russkikh  Bratstv  " 
same  time  refusing  to  follow  the  ideas  of  Moscow  and  (Society  of  Russian  Brotherhoods),  which  was 
St.  Petersburg  in  such  development,  either  in  Hungary  founded  1  July,  1900.  It  is  composed  almost  whollv 
or  in  the  Umted  States.  The  first  two  parties  are  of  Galicians  of  the  Mosoophile  party,  and  a  small 
Galicians,  the  last  one  Slovaks  and  Hungarian  Ru-  minority  of  its  membership  is  also  made  up  of  Ga- 
thenians.  These  parties  are  sometimes  divided  into  licians  who  are  either  Greek  Orthodox  or  of  Ortho- 
smaller  factions,  perplexing  for  an  outsider  to  undei^  dox  proclivities,  for  it  is  quite  pro-Russian  and 
stand,  such  as  those  who  desire  to  introduce  the  opposed  to  the  Ukrainians.  It  has  now  120  brother- 
Hungarian  language  and  customs,  even  using  Him-  hoods  and  6530  members,  and  publishes  its  weeklv 
garian  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Chureh.  It  is  needless  to  newspaper,  Pravda  (Truth)  at  Olyphant,  Pennsyl- 
say  that  none  of  these  larger  parties  ever  agree  upon  vania,  m  the  Ruthenian  old-style  spelling.  There  is 
any  one  subject  other  than  their  Slavic  nationality  also  the  "Rimsko  a  GrekoKatohckaJednota"  (Roman 
and  Greek  Rite.  The  Moscophiles  often  unite  with  and  Greek  Catholic  Union)  of  Pennsylvania,  a  Slavic 
the  Greek  Orthodox  and  Russian  societies  upon  the  organization  which  has  some  175  brotherhoods  and 
sliglitest  pretext  when  Russo-Slavic  ideals  are  to  be  about  9000  members,  and  it  is  estimated  that  about 
proclaimed,  and  are  fiercely  against  ever^hin^  that  one-third  of  these  are  Greek  Catholic.  This  federation 
does  not  look  Russiaward,  for  Russia  is  their  big  also  publishes  a  weekly  paper,  ''Bratstvo"  (Brother- 
brother.  On  the  other  hand  the  Ukraintsi  wiU  have  hood)  in  tiie  Slovenian  languace.  Besides  these  pub- 
nothing  to  do  with  modem  Russia ;  it  is  behind  the  age  lications  there  is  also  the  "  Duimpastyr  "  (The  Pastor), 
and  lags  in  the  march  of  civilization;  and  they  have  published  in  New  York,  which  is  excfusivehr  a  religious 
besides  offended  both  the  other  parties  by  adopting  periodical  and  devoted  solely  to  the  affairs  of  the 
the  "phonetic"  style  of  spelling.  This  ofifenoe  seems  Greek  Catholic  Church  in  America.  In  it  the  oflficial 
to  be  mtensified  because  the  new  Greek  bishop  is  some-  utterances  of  the  Greek  bishop  are  usually  published, 
what  of  their  way  of  thinking.  The  Ugro-russki  are  There  are  also  many  other  American  Ruthenian 
violentl^r  opposed  to  whatever  does  not  accord  with  the  papers  and  periodicals  which  have  nothing  whatever 
racial  views  and  traditions  of  the  Rutheflian  and  to  do  with  cnureh  matters,  but  are  devoted  to  labour 
Slovak  people  within  the  borders  of  Hungary,  and  questions,  national  issues,  and  to  Socialism.  Unfor- 
do  not  agree  with  the  views  and  actions  of  either  tunately,manyof  these  publications,  even  the  Catholic 
of  the  other  two  parties.  Consequently^,  the  Greek  ones,  exhibit  too  much  of  a  tendency  to  attack  their 
CaUiolic  bishop  has  to  publish  his  ofiicial  communi-  opponents  in  strong  language  and  to  belittle  the 
cations  in  Ruthenian,  both  phonetic  and  old-style,  effortsof  those  not  of  their  party,  and  their  usefulness 
and  in  Slovak,  in  order  to  reach  all  his  people.  for  good  is  thereby  lessened.    From  time  to  time 

Of  course  these  Greek  Catholics  of  such  varied  various  religious  works  and  a  number  of  booklets  on 

views  have  organized  into  societies.    Each  church  chureh  and  national  topics  have  been  published  in 

has  its  own  local  religious  and  singing  societies,  but  Slovak  and  Ruthenian,  and  every  year  there  are 

there  are  other  and  larger  bodies  known  as  "  brother-  issued  a  number  of  year-books  or  calendars  containing 

hoods"  or  lodges  (bratstva),  which  have  been  of  great  a  variety  of  information  and  illustrations  ooncemine 

assistance  in  ouilding  up  the  Ruthenian  churehes.  the   Ruthenian   Greek   Catholics   in   America   and 

Tliey  are  usually  of  the  nature  of  mutual  benefit  abroad, 
societies,  assist  in  finding  work,  helping  in  religious       llie  immigration  of  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics 


750 

into  the  United  States  and  the  organization  of  their  latter  only  obtained  its  independence  after  the  Riubo- 
(^uiches  and  rite  has  been  too  recent  to  properly  speak  Turkish  war  of  1878,  and  in  turn  bc^gan  the  educatiaD 
by  name  of  any  distinguiBbed  representatives  of  their  and  enlightenment  of  its  people, 
clergy  or  laity.  Nearly  everyone  who  took  a  prom-  The  Rumanian  language  is  a  Latin  tongue,  some- 
inent  part  in  their  settlement  and  development  is  what  similar  to  Italian,  but  with  a  considerable  mix- 
still  alive  and  engaged  in  active  work,  while  a  vigorous  tiu«  of  Slavic,  Greek,  and  Turkish  words  in  it.  It  is 
youn^r  generation  bom  on  American  soil  is  now  also  the  language  of  the  Mass  and  Utumcal  offices 
growmg  up.  Among  the  Greek  priests  here  in  America  according  to  the  Greek  Rite  among  the  Rumanians, 
are  several  who  are  authors  of  learned  works  upon  the  and  is  an  instance  where  the  Church  has  made  a 
church  language  and  ritual,  others  who  have  filled  modem  tongue  the  liturgical  language.  Owing  to 
posts  of  considerable  distinction  in  the  dioceses  in  Slavonic  influences,  the  Rumanian  language  was 
Hungary  and  Galicia  whence  they  came,  and  many  formerly  written  in  Slavonic  or  Russian  characten, 
whohave  constantly  employed  their  tongue  and  pen  and  this  continued  until  about  1825,  when  l^e  Roman 
in  the  education  and  improvement  of  their  fellow-  alphabet  was  adopted,  first  by  the  Catholic  Ruma- 
,  countrymen  in  this  county.  There  is,  however,  no  nians  and  then  by  the  Orthodox,  and  it  has  been  used 
religious  order  of  women  of  the  Greek  Rite,  nor  anv  for  the  Rumanian  language  ever  since.  Even  for 
association  whatever  of  women  devoted  to  church  church  books  the  Slavonic  Tetters  (the  Cyrillic  alpha- 
service  in  the  United  States,  nor  has  any  attempt  been  bet)  had  to  give  way  to  the  Latin  letters,  just  as  the 
made  so  far,  either  on  the  part  of  the  clergy  or  laity,  Slavonic  Liturgy  in  the  church  services  had  aven 
to  establish  here  anything  of  the  kind.  away  to  the  Rumanian,  and  now  both  the  Catnoiic 

In  addition  to  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  in  the  and  the  Orthodox  Mass-books  and  Office-books  are 
United  States,  there  are  a  large  number  of  them  in  printed  beautifully  in  Latin  letters  and  modem 
Canada.  They  are  principally  settled  in  the  provinces  Rumanian,  whether  for  use  in  the  churches  of  Tran- 
of  Manitoba,  Alberta,  and  Saskatchewan,  where  they  sylvania  or  Rumania.  Tlie  Rumanian  Church, 
have  devoted  themselves  to  agricultural  pursuits,  it  although  Greek  in  rite,  was  originally  under  the  juti»- 
is  said  that  a  Ruthenian  often  works  hard  in  the  diction  of  Rome  up  to  the  ninth  oentmy,  when  Con- 
United  States,  saves  up  his  money,  and  emigrates  to  stantinople  assumed  jurisdiction  over  it,  and  later  on, 
Canada,  where  he  can  obtain  cheap  land  imder  the  when  Constantinople  fell  into  schism,  the  Rumanian 
homestead  acts.  There  is  besides  a  considerable  Church  went  with  it.  Frequently,  however,  during 
direct  immigration  from  Galicia  and  Himgary,  but  the  the  centuries  that  followed,  partially  successful  at- 
majority  of  the  Canadian  Ruthenians  are  Galicians.  tempts  were  made  towards  reunion.  At  the  time  fA 
Their  fiSrst  church  (St  Nicholas)  in  Canada  was  built  the  so-called  Reformation  in  Western  Europe  the 
about  1900  at  Winnipeg  by  the  Basilian  monks  who  Cidvinists  endeavoured  to  persuade  a  portion  of  the 
are  in  charge  of  the  Greek  missions  of  the  northwest.  Rumanian  clergy  and  their  flocks  to  embrace  the 
The  Very  I&v.  Platonides  Filas,  O.  S.B.M.,  who  is  now  new  doctrines.  This  naturally  led  to  an  examination 
(1909)  the  superior  of  the  order  in  Galicia,  Was  the  of  matters  wherein  the  Roman  Church  differed  from 
first  missionary  sent  there.  Afterwards,  in  1905,  an-  the  Calvinists,  and  also  to  thepoints  wherein  it  was 
other  chiuxsh  (St.  Joeaphat)  was  built  at  Edmonton,  in  harmony  with  the  Greek  Chiuvh,  and  later  to  a 
Later  on  a  monastery  was  established  in  Winnipeg,  with  desire  for  union  with  it.  The  union  of  the  Rumanian 
a  branch  at  Monaster,  Alberta.  From  these  central  Greek  Church  in  Himgary  (for  the  other  Rumanians 
points,  there  are  now  (1909)  over  sixty  missionary  sta-  were  subjects  of  Turkey)  with  the  Holv  See  dates 
tions  established  with  small  Greek  chapels  at  Oaknook,  from  1700.  The  preliminaries  for  imion  nad  been  in 
Swan  River,  Barrows,  Ethelbert,  Garland,  Grand  progress  for  sevend  years  before,  and  once  or  twice 
View,  Minatonas,  Yorkton,  Beaverdale,  Rabbit  Hill,  had  been  on  the  eve  of  success.  In  the  jrear  just  men- 
Star,  Lamont,  Nundare,  and  Skaro.  In  this  section  tioned  the  Metropolitan  Athanasius  held  a  general 
the  Ruthenians  have  to  contend  with  the  Russian  synod  of  the  clergy  of  Transylvania  at  Alba  Julia 
Orthodox  missions,  which  are  well  provided  for,  and  (Gsrulyafehervar),  which  declared,  on  5  September, 
with  certain  schismatics  from  the  Russian  Orthodox  1700,  that  ''freely' and  spontaneously  moved  thereto 
known  as  the  ^  Seraphimites ' ',  or  independent  Gneco-  by  the  impulse  of  Divine  Grace,  we  have  entered  upon 
Russian  Church.  There  are  three  missionarv  com-  a  imion  with  the  Roman  Catholic  church".  This 
munities  of  the  Basilian  monks :  at  Winnip^,  Eximon-  decree  was  signed  bythe  metropolitan,  64  arch-priests, 
ton,  and  Monaster.  The  Greek  clergy  in  Canada  and  1563  priests.  The  act  of  union  was  confirmed  at 
consist  of  eifi^t  monks  and  four  secular  priests.  ■  The  Rome  in  the  following  year,  and  the  Greek  Catholic 
number  of  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  is  between  hierarchy  was  for  a  long  time  the  only  Greek  hier- 
45,000  and  50,000,  widely  scattered  through  these  archy  in  Transylvania  Towards  the  middle  of  the 
northwest  territories.  In  Canada  there  is  a  religious  last  century  the  Greek  Orthodox  Rumanian  hierarchy 
order  of  women  of  the  Greek  Rite,  the  Servants  of  was  idso  established.  The  Rumanian  Greek  Catholics 
Mary  (14  in  number),  whose  mother-house  is  in  Lem-  are  very  proud  of  their  union  with  Rome,  and  church 
berg,  Galicia.  They  have  schools  at  Winnipeg,  Ed-  documents  are  often  dated  not  onlv  bv  the  year  of 
monton.  Monaster,  and  in  some  outlying  districts.  The  our  Lord  (pre  anvl  DommduC),  but  also  by  the  year  of 
Canadian  Ruthenians  publish  a  small  paper  (Canadian  the  union  (pre  antd  de  la  aania  untre). 
Farmer)  and  have  several  societies  on  the  pattern  of  The  Rumanian  immigrant  does  not  seem  to  have 
those  in  the  United  States.  begun  to  come  to  the  United  States  until  idx>ut  the 

II.  Rumanian  Greek  Catholics. — ^These  people  beginning  of  the  present  century.  In  the  year  1900 
come  from  the  eastern  provinces  of  Hungary  known  Rumanian  immigration  from  Transylvania  and 
as  Transylvania.  They  are  of  a  nationality  which  Northern  Hungary  began  to  flow  towards  the  United 
claims  to  come  down  from  the  Roman  colomsts  who  States,  and  lately  has  been  followed  by  inunigration 
were  settled  there  by  the  Emperor  Trajan,  and  hence  from  Rumania  itself.  It  has  steadily  incr^ised  until 
they  still  call  themselves  Romani,  These  Transyl-  now  (1909)  there  are  between  60,000  and  70,000 
vanians  are  really  of  an  older  political  order  and  settle-  Rumanians  in  the  United  States.  Nearly  all  these 
ment  than  the  independent  country  known  as  Ru-  have  come  from  Himgary;  only  a  small  minority  are 
mania,  which  bounds  Transylvania  on  the  east.  The  from  the  Kingdom  of  Rumania.  Those  from  Hun- 
inhabitants  of  both  lands  are  of  the  same  stock,  but  gary  are  from  the  southern  and  western  counties  of 
those  in  Himgarv  were  organised  and  in  possession  of  Trs^ylvania,  chiefly  the  counties  of  Ssatmar,  8iila^, 
a  fair  amount  of  education  and  political  rights  under  Fogaras,  Bihar,  and  Temes.  The  Greek  Catholics 
Hungarian  rule  whilst  the  present  Kingdom  of  Ru-  among  them  number  about  45,000,  and  they  are  scat- 
QUUQia  was  still  oppressed  under  TurkiSi  rule.    The  tered  through  the  United  States  from  the  AtiantiD  to 


751 

the  Pacific.    The  chief  places  where  the  Rumanian  tinder  Russian  influence,  for  it  is  neariy  always  applied 

Greek  Catholics  are  settled  are  Cleveland,  Youn^  to  the  Catholics.    After  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  the 

town,   Columbus,   Newark,   and   Cincinnati,    Ohio;  Melchites  followed  the  fortunes  of  the  Greek  Church 

Sharon,  Erie,  Pittsburg,  Windber,  and  Scalp  Level,  of  Constantinople.    When  it  separated  from  Rome 

Pennsylvania;  Aurora,  Indianapolis,  Indiana  Harbor,  they  also  mdually  became  separated,  merelv  through 

and  Terre  Haute,  Indiana;  Trenton,  New  Jersey;  St.  inertia.    Occasionally  a  bishop  became  Catholic,  and 

Louis,  Missouri;  and  New  York  City.    They  are  all  there  were  sporadic  attempts  to  reunite  them  with 

quite  poor  and  are  generally  foimd,  like  all  recent  immi-  the  Holy  See.    Cyril  V,  who  was  elected  Patriarch  of 

grants,  in  the  humblest  and  poorest  waUcs  of  life.  They  Antioch  about  the  year  1700,  decided  to  come  back  to 

hick  sufficient  missionary  pnests  of  their  own  rite,  and  unity  and  made  his  submission  and  profession  of  the 

at  present  many  additional  priests  would  be  welcome.  Catholic  Faith  to  Pope  Clement  XI,  and  his  example 

The  Rev.  Dr.  Epaminondas  Lucaciu  was  the  first  Greek  was  followed  by  the  Archbishop  of  Tyre  and  Sidon, 

CathoUc  Rumanian  priest  to  come  to  this  country,  the  Bishop  of  Beirut,   and  other  prelates.    From 

He  was  sent  here  in  1904  by  the  Greek  Catholic  Bishop  that  time  on  the  Syrian  Greek  Cathohcs  have  had  a 

of  Lugos,  at  the  request  of  the  late  Bishop  Horstmann  restored   Catholic   line   of   Patriarchs   of   Antioch. 

of  Cleveland,  who  was  asked  for  a  priest  of  their  own  Strangely  enou^,  the   word  MdchUe.  which  had 

rite  by  the  Rumanians  settled  in  Cleveland.    When  he  been  used  to  designate  those  who  adhered  to  the 

came,  he  set  about  forming  a  congregation  and  build-  doctrines  of  the  Chureh  of  Constantinople  when  it 

ing  a  church  for  his  people  of  the  ureek  Rite.    His  was  Catholic  and  in  unity,  and  who  even  followed  it 

energy  and  ability  among  his  countrymen  led  to  the  when  it  left  the  unity  of  the  Church,  came  eventually 

erection  and  dedication,  on  21  October,  1906,  of  the  to  mean,  after  the  union  of  C3nril  V  and  his  fellow- 

chureh  of  St.  Helena  in  Cleveland — ^the  first  Ruman-  bishops,   almost  exclusively  fiiose   Ssrrians  of  the 

ian  Greek  Catholic  church  in  America.    His  seal  also  Greek  Rite  who  were  Catholics  and  united  wiUi  the 

led  to  the  formation  of  congregations  in  other  localities  Holy  See.    Their  rite,  of  course,  is  the  same  as  that  of 

which  he  visited  reeularly.    In  1908  the  second  Ru-  the  other  Greek  Catholics,  but  the  language  used  in 

manian  church  was  ouilt  and  dedicated  at  Scalp  Level,  the  Mass  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  and 

Pennsylvania,  which  serves  as  the  central  point  for  in  the  chureh  offices  is  the  Arabic,  with  the  exception 

missionary  work  among  the*  Rumanians  of  Pennsyl-  of  certain  prayer-endinj^  and  versicles  of  the  Mass, 

vania.    In  1909  the  third  Rumanian   church  was  which  are  still  intoned  in  the  original  Greek.    Still  a 

completed  and  dedicated  at  Aurora,  IlUnois,  and  it  Melchite  priest  may  celebrate  entirely  in  Greek  if  he 

serves  in  its  turn  as  the  centre  of  Greek  Catholic  work  so  desires,  and  the  Catholic  Missal  is  printed  in  parallel 

among  the  Rumanians  of  the  Western  States.    A  columns  in  each  language  as  to  the  parts  which  are  to 

fourth  has  just  been  constructed  at  Youngstown,  be  intoned  or  said  sJoud. 

Ohio.  There  are  now  (1909)  four  Rumanian  Greek  At  first  these  S3rrians  were  in  small  numbers  and 
Catholic  priests  in  the  United  States,  and  more  are  were  not  distingiushable  from  the  Arabio-«peaking 
shortlv  expected  to  arrive.  Greek  Catholic  congrega-  Maronites  or  from  the  Syro- Arabian  Orthodox  Greeks, 
tions  have  been  formed  in  many  localities,  and  they  all  of  whom  began  to  come  to  this  country  about  the 
are  regularly  visited  by  the  Greek  Catholic  priests  same  date.  This  Syrian  immigration,  as  compared 
who  are  here,  and  regular  parishes  will  be  formed  and  with  that  from  other  lands,  has  never  been  very  large, 
churehes  erected  as  soon  as  possible.  A  Rumanian  The  Greek  Catholics  came  at  first  from  the  same  loccui- 
'Greek  chapel  is  now  in  course  of  formation  in  New  ties  as  the  Maronites — Beirut  and  Mount  Lebanon: 
York  City  and  awaits  a  priest  from  Transylvania,  but  now  they  come  from  Damascus  and  other  parts  ot 
While  they  have  a  small  Catholic  chureh  paper,  "Cato-  Syria  as  well.  In  1891  Rev.  Abraham  Bechewate,  a 
licul  American",  they  also  publish  a  fine  el^t-page  Basilian  monk  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
weekly,  ''Romanul",  at  Cleveland  and  New  York,  Saviour,  from  Saida  in  the  Diocese  of  Zahleh  and  Far- 
which  gives  a  great  deal  of  chureh  news,  and  they  also  zul.  Mount  Lebanon,  was  sent  to  this  country  by  the 
publish  a  httle  monthly  magazine  and  an  illustrated  Patriarch  of  Antioch  to  take  up  missionary  work 
year-book  in  which  many  details  of  their  churehes,  among  his  countrvmen.  So  far  he  has  been  instru- 
societies,  and  progress  are  given.  The  weekly  paper  mental  in  establishing  missions  and  congregations  in 
was  originally  founded  by  Father  Lucaciu  to  provide  various  cities  and  in  having  other  priests  sent  to  assist 
reading-matter  and  general  news  for  hispeople,  but  it  him.  His  first  efforts  were  connned  to  New  York 
has  since  passed  into  other  hands.  Their  societies  City^  and  at  present  the  Melchites  in  New  York  City 
arenotstnctly  speaking  chureh  organizations,  but  are  use  the  basement  of  St.  Peter's  chureh  on  Barelav 
rather  mutual  TOnefit  societies  for  Rumanians,  and  Street,  but  they  have  bought  ground  in  Brooklyn  with 
some  even  have  a  Hmited  membership  of  the  Ortho-  a  view  to  erecting  a  Syrian  Greek  Catholic  chureh 
dox,  for  the  Rumanians  of  Himgary,  whether  Greek  there.  After  Father  Bechewate  other  pliests  were  sent 
Catholic  or  Gr^E  Orthodox,  are  very  closely  united  to  take  up  the  work  at  various  places  throu^out  the 
upon  racial  and  national  feelings,  and  do  not  exhibit  United  States.  At  the  present  time  (1909)  there  are 
the  hostility  sometimes  shown  between  the  two  altogether  fourteen  Melchite  churches  or  congrega- 
Churehes  elsewhere.  The  principal  societies  are  tions  in  the  United  States  and  just  across  the  border  in 
''Dacia  Romana",  "  Ardealana",  ''Unirea  Romana^',  Canada.  Besides  these  there  are  many  mission  sta^ 
and  "Societatea  Traian",  numbering  altogether  tions  which  the  Melchite  Greek  priests  visit  periodi- 
about  3000  members,  and  generally  identified  with  cally.  These  churehes  are  situated  at  the  fdlowing 
the  chureh  congregations.  places:  New  York  City;  Boston  and  Lawrence,  Mas- 
Ill.  Strian  (Melchite)  Greek  Catholics. —  sachusetts;  Omaha,  Nebraska;  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Du- 
About  1886  the  first  immigration  from  the  Mediter-  bois  and  Scranton,  Penni^lvania;  Chicago  and  Joliet, 
ranean  coasts  of  Asia  began  to  reach  the  shores  of  the  Illinois;  Rockley,  South  Dakota;  La  Crosse,  Wiscon- 
United  States,  when  the  Armenians,  Greeks,  and  sin;  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island;  and  Montreal  and 
Syrians  began  to  swell  the  numbers  of  our  immigrants.  Toronto,  Canada.  So  far  they  have  erected  four  fair- 
Among  them  came  the  S3rrian  Greeks,  or  those  Syrians  sized  churches  in  Lawrence,  Cleveland,  Dubois,  and 
who  were  of  the  Byzantine  Rite,  whether  Catholic  La  Crosse.  The  cost  of  land  in  the  large  cities  has 
or  Orthodox.  The  name  MdchUe  (see  under  Greek  prevented  them  from  building,  so  that  their  conj^rega- 
Church,  VoL  VI,  p.  755),  is  occasionally  used  to  tions  in  the  other  places  are  assembled  either  m  the 
designate  a  Syrian  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Faith,  Latin  churches  or  in  rented  premises.  The  number  of 
but  now  it  rarely  has  that  meaning,  since  the  the  Ssrrian  Greek  Catholics  in  the  United  States  (1009) 
schismatics  prefer  to  be  known  as  S3rro-Arabians,  at  is  between  8000  and  10,000,  and  they  are  to  be  found 
leafli  in  the  United  States,  where  they  are  largely  chiefly  in  the  New  England  States,  Pennsylvania* 


752 

Ohio,  and  Illinois.  For  their  spiritual  needs  there  are  Philadelphia,  and  Chica^,  and  throu^^out  the  Stales 
thirteen  Ssnian  Greek  Catholic  priests,  seven  of  them  of  Pennsylvania  and  Ilhnois.  It  is  claimed  that  the 
Basilian  monks  of  the  Conereeation  of  the  Holy  Greek  Catholic  population  of  Italy  has  sent  a  third  of  its 
Saviour  from  the  Diocese  of  ZStHA  and  Faraul,  four  of  number  to  America,  and  some  well-informed  Albanese 
them  Basilian  monks  of  the  Congregation  of  St.  John  have  even  declared  that  there  are  perhaps  more.  They 
(Soarite)  from  the  Dioceses  of  Aleppo  and  Zahleh,  and  estimate  that  there  are  20,000  oi  them  in  the  United 
two  secular  priests  from  the  Diocese  of  Beirut.  States,  the  ereater  part  of  whom  are  in  the  vicinity 
Owing  to  the  poverty  of  most  Syrian  congregations,  of  New  York  and  Pniladelphia.  As  a  rule  thev  have 
they  have  not  maintained  any  schools  and  have  no  not  shown  themselves  in  any  wise  as  devoted  church- 
Simday-school  instruction,  and  the  majority  of  the  attendants,  but  that  may  be  because  they  have  been 
Syrian  children  attend  the  nearest  Latin  parochial  in  a  measure  neglected,  for  everyone  assumes  that  an 
school,  if  there  be  one.  They  have  a  small  Arabic  Italian  must  be  of  the  Roman  Rite  and  ought  to  go  to 
paper  **  Al-Kown  "  (The  Universe) ,  published  in  New  a  Latin  church.  They  have  neither  the  means  to  oon- 
York  City,  and  have  the  church  society  of  St.  George,  struct  churches  of  their  own  rite  nor  do  they  care  to 
IV.  Italian  Greek  Catholics. — In  the  extreme  frequent  churches  of  the  Latin  Rite,  althou^  their 
southern  part  of  Italy  and  in  the  Island  of  Sicily  the  societies  usually  attend  the  Italian  Catholic  churches 
Greek  Rite  has  always  flourished,  even  from  Apostolic  and  celebrate  their  festivals  according  to  the  Latin 
times.  Three  of  the  popes  (Sts.  Eusebius,  Agatho,  Rite.  In  many  places  they  attend  the  churches  of  the 
and  Zacharias)  were  Gre^  from  that  reaon.  Many  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics,  and  in  some  few  instances 
of  the  Greek  saints  venerated  by  the  Church  were  some  have  gone  to  the  Hellenic  churehes  of  the  Greek 
Southern  Italians  or  Sicilians,  and  the  great  Greek  mon-  Orthodox,  where  the  language  of  the  ritual  is  Greek, 
astery  of  Grottaferrata  near  Rome  was  founded  bv  St.  During  the  year  1904  the  first  (and  so  far  the  only) 
Nilus,  a  native  of  Rossano  in  Calabria.  The  Greek  Italian  Greek  Catholic  priest,  Papaa  TRev.)  Ciro  Pin- 
Rite  in  Southern  Italy  never  feU  into  schism  or  sepa-  nola,  was  sent  from  Sicily  by  Cardinal  Celesia  of 
rated  from  unity  with  Rome  at  the  time  of  the  great  Palermo  to  the  United  States,  to  look  after  the  scat- 
Sclusm  of  Constantinople.  Although  they  held  to  tered  flock  of  Greek  Catholics  here,  and  he  is  now  a 
their  faith  and  rite,  yet  the  fact  that  they  were  not  priest  of  the  Archdiocese  of  New  York.  He  foimd 
thereafter  closely  alued  with  their  fellow-Greeks  of  that  these  Italians,  being  accustomed  to  the  language 
Constantinople  caused  the  followers  of  their  rite  to  and  rites  of  the  Greek  Chureh,  as  well  as  infected  by  t& 
diminish.  After  the  schism  an  idea  grew  up  among  inertia  of  so  many  of  the  newcomers  to  these  shores, 
the  Italians  of  the  Roman  Rite  that  the  Greek  Ian-  had  not  attendea  the  Latin  Catholic  churehes,  and 
suage  and  ritual  were  in  some  indefinable  way  identi-  that  they  had  become  the  prey  of  all  sorts  of  mission- 
fied  with  the  schism.  This  was  intensified  upon  the  ary  experiments  to  draw  them  away  from  their  alle- 
failure  of  the  Greeks  after  the  Council  of  Florence  giance  to  the  Faith.  Besides,  they  were  among  the 
(1428)  to  adhere  to  the  union.  Therefore,  as  the  poorest  of  the  Italian  immierants  and  had  been  unable 
Greek  language  died  out  among  the  southern  Italiaiis,  to  establish  or  maintain  a  chapel  or  chureh  of  their  rite, 
they  gradually  gave  up  their  Greek  Rite  and  adopted  He  took  energetic  steps  to  look  after  them  and  on 
the  Roman  Rite  instead.  While  the  Greek  Rite  thus  Easter  Day,  1906,  had  the  pleasure  of  opening  the 
became  gradually  confined  to  monasteries,  religious  first  Italian  Greek  Catholic  cnapel  on  Broome  Street 
houses,  and  country  towns,  and  would  perhaps  never  in  the  City  of  New  York.  This  has  progressed  so  far 
have  died  out  on  Italian  soil,  yet  it  was  reinforced  in  a  that  he  has  now  a  larger  missionary  (uiapel  (Our  Lady 
singulso*  manner  by  immigration  from  the  Balkan  of  Grace)  on  Stanton  Street,  with  a  congiegation  A 
peninsula  in  the  period  between  1450  and  1500.  The  about  400,  where  the  Greek  Rite  in  the  Greek  language 
Albanians,  who  were  converted  to  Christianity  and  fol-  is  celebrated.  He  has  also  various  miasionaiy  stations 
low«d  the  Greek  Rite,  usine  the  Greek  language  in  in  Brooklyn  and  on  Long  bland,  which  he  visits  at 
their  liturgy,  were  persecuted  by  the  Turks,  and,  by  re^^ular  intervals,  but  he  nas  been  unable  to  do  any- 
reason  of  ^e  many  Turkish  victories  over  the  Alban-  thmg  for  the  Italian  Greek  Catholics  in  Pennsylvania 
ians  under  their  chieftain,  George  Castriota,  also  known  and  elsewhere.  Other  priests  of  their  rite  are  needed, 
by  his  Turkish  name  of  Scanderb^  (Alexander  Bey),  There  is  a  small  school  attached  to  the  Greek  Catholic 
were  foreed  to  leave  their  native  land  in  large  num-  chapel  in  New  York  where  the  Chureh  CJatechism  and 
tiers.  Scanderbeg  applied  to  Pope  Eugene  IV  for  Greek  singing  is  taught,  as  well  as  several  Italian  and 
permission  for  his  people  to  settle  in  Italy,  so  as  to  English  branches,  and  children  are  instructed  in  their 
escape  the  Moslem  persecutions.  From  time  to  time  chureh  duties.  There  is  quite  a  large  society  of  men, 
they  settled  in  Cidabria  and  Sicily,  and  received  among  the  "  Fratellanza  del  Santissimo  Crooefisso ' ',  a  socletv 
other  privileges  that,  of  retaimng  their  Greek  Rite  for  mutual  benefit,  religious  instruction,  and  the  build- 
wherever  their  colonies  were  established.  Since  that  ing  of  an  Italian  Greek  church.  There  are  some  ten 
time  they,  like  the  Greek  inhabitants  of  Southern  or  twelve  Italo- Albanese  societies,  having  branches  in 
Italy,  have  become  entirely  Italianised,  but,  together  various  parts  of  tilie  United  States,  but  devoted  mostly 
with  them,  have  retained  their  Greek  Rite  quite  dis-  to  secular  objects.  There  is  also  a  small  weekly  Itaf- 
tinct  from  their  Latin  nei^bours  down  to  the  present  ian  paper,  "L'Operaio",  for  the  Italo- Albanese  and  their 
day.  All  the  Italians  who  follow  the  Greek  Rite  in  Greek  Rite,  but  it  is  also  devoted  to  Socialism  and  the 
Southern  Italy  are  known  as  Albanese  (Albanians),  wildest  labour  theories,  so  that  its  usefulness  isdoubtfuL 
although  only  the  older  generations  of  that  race  retain  ^  Nothing,  except  a  few  newspaper  and  masasine  artidee.  has 

their  ^owl,ip  of  the  Albanian  ton^^^    Tie  Ma«  ^ut'Si'S'r«"k§.tS&«^Mit'^«??uftffilS 

and  all  the  offices  of  the  Church  are  of  course  said  must  be  consulted. 

in  Greek  according  to  the  Rite  of  Constantinople,  ,«ilr»fSfe?»***L  *H"*y  K<^^^r  (??^3York  and  Flttaburs* 

dthough  afew  Latinizing  practices  have  crept  in.  fb<>  \^]^\li^;;:^S^Z.tAf^SSS:S^ 

smaller  churehes  do  not  have  the  iconostans,  priests  do  Viettnik,  LXVII  (St.  PeteraburK.  1897) :  KaUndar  dlia  Anm- 

not  confer  confirmation,  but  it  is  given  by  the  bishop,  *«»»**5^^l^i''  ^5?^  Xo^^»  jS2?-"!?®>i  if'^^'l&^^JEaf* 

and  they  follow  the  Gr^rian  c*fendar  i.«tead  of  t&  JSi.^'IS^f^^^Lj'SJJISr:  SS?)^:^^"^: 

Julian  calendar  followed  by  all  the  other  Greeks.  -pmU  ofCommiuioMr  of  Immiaration  (Waahinjrton.  1890-1908); 

Whentheimmigration  to  America  from  the  south  of  iJ^  Meuenoer,  XLII  (8ept.^J>ec..  1904);  xLv  (Feb.,  w 

-i«  ^^A  t^^  flS.,W  Ko<ron  J«  Iqi-oo  nroT>/^i>f iV^tia  fK«  Ncw  York);  and  the  files  of  FMrtnU.  Ptavda.  and  Svo6oda. 


Italy  and  from  Sicily  began  in  large  proportions,  the 
Italo-Greeks  came  also.    They  are  from  Calabria, 


1906. 

a. 

ANoaBw  J.  Shifman. 


Apulia,  and  Basilicata  in  Italy,  and  from  the  Dioceses  Greek  Ohnrch. — ^This  subject  will  be  treated  under 
of  Palermo,  Monreale,  and  Messina  in  Sicily.  They  the  following  heads:  I.  Explanation  of  Terms;  II.  The 
Bxe  settled  in  the  United  States  chiefly  in  New  York,    Greek  Orth(xiox  Chureh  and  Its  Divisions;  III.  Greek 


753 

Uniat  Ghurclies;  IV.  Greek- Church  History,  subdi-  AustriarHungary,  the  Biilgarian  Church  of  Turkish 
vided  into:  (1)  The  First  Five  Centuries;  (2)  Decay  Bulgaria,  the  Melchite  Church  of  Svria,  the  Georaian 
of  the  Greek  Churches  of  the  East  and  Rise  of  the  Church,  the  Italo-Greek  Church,  and  the  Church  of  the 
Byzantine  Hegemony  (451-847);  (3)  The  Greek  Schism;  Greeks  in  Turkey  or  in  the  Hellenic  Kinsdom — all  of 
Conversion  ofthe  Slavs  (ninth  to  eleventh  century) ;  them  Catholic-^are  often  called  the  United  Greek 
(4)  Efforts  towards  Reimion;  the  Crusades  (eleventh  Churches.  Again,  the  term  is  inappropriate,  and  be- 
to  fifteenth  century) ;  (5)  From  1453  to  the  Present  longs  of  risht  only  to  the  last  two  Churches.  As  a 
Time — Rdations  with  the  Catholic  Church,  the  matter  of  fact  the  Ruthenians  and  Bulgarians  are 
Protestants,  etc.  Under  (2)  will  be  foimd:  (a)  Inter-  Slavs  who  follow  the  Byzantine  Rite,  but  use  a  Sla- 
nal  Organization  of  the  Byzantine  Churches;  (b)  The  vonic  translation;  whereas  the  Rumanians  are  Latins 
Emperor;  Relations  between  East  and  West;  Liturgy,  who  follow  the  Byzantine  Rite,  but  in  a  Rumanian 
Unaer  (4):  (a)  Internal  Organization;  (b)  Hesychasm.  translation,  etc. 

I.  Explanation  of  Terms. — In  the  East,  when  a  Instead  of  UnUed  Greek  ChurcA,  the  term  Uniat  (or 

Church  is  spoken  of,  four  things  must  be  kept  distinct:  Uniate)  Church  is  often  used;  and  in  like  manner  the 

the  race  to  which  the  adherents  of  the  Church  belong;  word  UnicUs  is  used  instead  of  UnUed  Greeks,    These 

the  speech  used  in  their  everyday  life,  and  in  their  words  are  by  no  means  synonymous.     Uniat  Church, 

Eublic  devotions;  the  ecclesiastical  rite  used  in  their  or  UniatSf  has  a  much  wider  signification  than  United 
tuTgy,  and  their  actual  belief^  Cat^oUc  or  non-Catho-  Greek  Church  or  United  Greeks,  and  embraces  all  the 
lie.  It  is  because  l^ese  distmcUons  have  not  been,  Eastern  Churches  in  communion  with  Rome,  but 
and  are  not,  even  now,  always  observed  that  a  great  following  another  than  the  Latin  rite,  whether  it  be 
confusion  has  arisen  in  the  terminology  of  those  who  Byzantine,  Armenian,  Syrian,  Chaldean,  Maronite,  or 
write  or  speak  of  the  Eastern  (OrientEd)  C^hurdies  and  Coptic.  The  Uniat  Church  is  therefore  really  synony- 
of  tiie  Greek  Church.  As  a  matter  of  Tact,  the  usual  mous  with  Eastern  Churches  united  to  Rome,  and  Uniats 
signification  attached  to  the  words  Eastern  Churches  iBspiommouBwithEaeteniChrisiiansunit^withRonie. 
extends  to  all  those  (Jhurches  wi^  a  litui^cal  rite  II.  I^e  Greek  Orthodox  Church  and  its 
differing  from  the  Latin  Rite.  Let  them  reject  the  Divisions. — The  Greek  Orthodox  (Churches  are 
authority  of  the  pope  or  accept  it,  they  are  none  the  Churches  separated  from  Rome  and  following  the 
less  Eastern  Churcnes.  Thus  the  Russian  Church,  Byzantine  Rite,  i.  e.  the  rite  developed  at  Constanti- 
separated  from  Rome,  is  an  Eastern  Churdi;  in  the  nople  between  the  fourth  and  tenth  centuries.  In  the 
same  way  tiie  Greek  Catholics  who  live  in  Italy,  and  beginning,  the  only  language  of  this  rite  was  Greek. 
are  known  as  Italo-Greeks,  make  up  an  E^astein  Later,  however  (the  exact  date  is  imoertain),  it  was 
Church  also.  The  expression  Eastern  Churches  is  introduced  among  the  Georgians,  or  Iberians,  of  the 
therefore  the  most  comprehensive  in  use;  it  includes  Caucasus  and  was  translatea  into  the  (xeorgian  vei^ 
all  believers  who  follow  any  of  the  six  Eastern  rites  now  nacular  of  the  country.  In  the  ninth  century,  through 
in  use:  the  Byzantine,  Armenian,  Syrian,  Chaldean,  the  efforts  of  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius  and  their 
Maronite,  and  Coptic.  disciples,  the  Moravians  and  the  Bulgarians  were  con- 
What,  then,  oo  we  mean  when  we  speak  of  the  verted  to  Christianity,  and  as  the  missionaries  were 
Greek  CSiurch  ?— Ordinarily  we  take  it  to  mean  all  those  Byzantines  they  introduced  their  own  rite,  but  trans- 
Churches  that  use  the  Byzantine  Rite,  whether  they  are  lated  tiie  Liturgy  into  Slav,  the  mother  tongue  of 
separated  from  Rome  or  in  communion  with  the  pope,  those  nations.  jFrom  Bul^ria  this  Byzantine-Slav 
whetiier  they  are  by  race  and  speech  Greek  or  Slavs,  Rite  spread  among  the  Servians  and  the  Russians.  In 
Rumanians,  Georgians,  etc.  Tne  term  Greek  Church  recent  times  the  Byzantine  Rite  has  been  translated 
IB,  therefore,  peculiarly  inappropriate^  though  most  into  Rumanian  for  use  by  the  faithful  of  that  nation- 
commonly  employed.  For  instance,  if  we  mean  to  ality.  Lastly,  the  Orthodox  Syrians  of  Syria,  Pales- 
designate  the  nte,  the  term  Greek  Church  is  inaccurate,  tine,  and  Egypt  have  adopted  a  hybrid  Byzantine 
since  there  is  really  no  Greek  Rite  properly  so  called,  Rite  in  which,  according^  to  the  whim  of  the  celebrant, 
but  only  the  Byzantine  Rite.  If,  on  tne  other  hand,  either  Greek  or  Arabic  is  used.  Hence  we  have  five 
we  wisli  to  designate  t^e  nationality  of  the  believers  divisions  of  the  Byzantine  Rite,  and  consequently  five 
in  the  (Churches  following  the  Byzantine  Rite,  we  divisions  of  Orthodox  Greek  Churches: — ^ 
find  that  out  of  fifteen  or  twenty  tinurches  which  use  (1)  The  Greek-Byzantine  Rite,  which  includes  the 
that  rite,  onlv  three  have  any  claim  to  be  known  as  pure  Greeks  subject  (a)  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Con- 
The  Greek  Church,  wiz.,  the  CSiurch  of  the  Hellenic  stantinople,  (b)  to  the  Holy  Synod  of  Athens,  and  (c) 
Kingdom,  the  (Church  of  Constantinople^  the  Church  of  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Cyprus. 
Qrprus.  Again,  it  must  be  borne  in  mmd  that  in  the  (2)  The  Arabic-Byzantme  Rite,  which  includes  the 
Church  of  Constantinople  there  are  included  a  number  CSiristians  under  the  Patriarchates  of  (a)  Antioch,  (b) 
of  Slavs,  Rumanians,  and  Albanians  who  rightly  refuse  Jerusalem,  and  (c)  Alexandria,  and  (d)  the  Archbish- 
to  be  Imown  as  Greeks.  opric  of  Smai. 

The  term  Orthodox  Greek  Church,  or  even  simply  the  (3)  The  Geongian-Byzantine  Rite,  which,  up  to  the 

Orthodox  Church,  designates,  witnout  distinction  of  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  included  the 

speech,  or  race,  or  nationality,  all  the  existing  Churches  Churches  of  the  Caucasus  Range  now  absorbed  by  the 

of  tlie  Byzantine  Rite,  separated  from  Rome.    Iliey  Russian  ^  CJhurch  and  obliged  to  use  the  Slavonic 

claim  to  DC  a  unit  and  to  have  the  same  body  of  doc-  Liturgy  instead  of  their  own  native  Geoi^ian. 

trine,  which  they  say  was  that  of  the  primitive  CSiurch.  (4)  xhe  Slavonic-Byzantine  Rite,  comprising  (a) 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  orthodoxy  of  these  Churches  is  the  Russian,  (b)  the  Servian,  and  (c)  the  Bulgarian 

what  we  call  heterodoxy,  since  it  rejects  the  Papal  Churches. 

Infallibility,  and  the  Papal  Supremacy,  the  dogma  of  (5)  llie  Rumanian-Byzantine  Rite  used  by  the 

the  Immaculate  Conception,  that  of  Purgatory,  etc.  Rumanian  Churches. 

However,  by  a  polite  fiction,  educated  Catholics  give  (1)  Pure  Greeks. — (a)  Patriarchate  of  Constanti- 
them  the  name  of  Orthodox  which  they  have  usurped:  nople. — ^This  Church  is  governed  by  a  patriarch,  a 
The  term  Schismatic  Greek  Church  is  synonymous  Holy  Synod  consisting  of  twelve  metropolitans,  and  a 
with  the  above ;  neiarly  everybody  uses  it,  but  it  is  at  mixed  council  of  four  metropolitans  and  eight  lay- 
times  inexpedient  to  ao  so,  if  one  would  avoid  woimd-  men.  It  numbers  in  all  101  dioceses,  of  which  86  have 
infi^e  feelinss  of  those  whose  conversion  is  aimed  at.  metropolitan  rank,  and  15  are  suffragan  sees.  Such 
The  term  United  Greek  Church  is  generally  used  to  were  the  official  figures  and  were  accurate  until  the 
designate  all  the  Churches  of  the  Byzantine  Rite  in  month  of  October,  1908.  As  we  write,  however,  this 
communion  with  the  See  of  Rome.  Thus  the  Ruthe-  is  no  longer  so.  Since  the  proclamation  of  Bulgarian 
miao  Church  of  Galicia,  tbe  Rumanian  Ghuroli  of  indepenc&ice  the  five  Greek  metropolitans  in  their 

VL-48 


754 

country  have  been  suppressed  by  the  Bulsarians.  lower  clerical  positions  only,  althoujdi  the  whole 

Bosnia-Herzegovina  had  four  metropolitans  depend-  membership  of  this  Chiux^  is  Syrian.    There  has  been 

ing  more  or  less  on  Constantinople,  but  since  Austriar  a  revolt  recently  against  this  slavery,  and  it  is  not 

Hungary  has  annexed  that  countrv  they  will  no  longer  unlikely  that  before  long  the  Greeks  will  be  expelled 

be  de[)endent.    Lastly,  the  Island  of  Crete  is  now  al-  from  Jerusalem  as  they  have  been  already  driven  from 

most  independent  of  Turkey,  and  in  consequence  its  Antioch.    The  only  extant  dioceses  are  Jerusalem, 

metropolitan  and  his  seven  suffragan  bishops  have  Nazareth,  and  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  but  a  number  of 

gone  over  to  the  Holy  Synod  of  Athens.    From  the  titular  metropolitans  and  archbiiuiops  aid  the  mitri- 

101  dioceses,  therefore,  we  may  deduct  17,  viz.,  10  arch  in  the  administration  of  his  Church.    The  litur- 

metropolitan  sees  and  7  suffragan  sees,  which  leaves  gical  language^  in  use  are  Greek  and  Arabic;  the 

a  total  of  84  dioceses,  76^  being  metropolitan  and  8  number  of  subjects  of  this  patriarchate  cannot  exceed 

suffragan.    Of  these  84  dioceses,  not  including  Con-  50,000  souls. 

stantinople.  22  are  in  Asia  Minor,  12  in  the  Archi-  (c)  Patriux^ate  of  Alexandria. — ^This  patriarchate 
pelago,  ana  50  on  European  soil.  For  want  of  re-  is  made  up  of  only  one  diocese  under  the  personal  cars 
liable  statistics,  it  is  difficult  to  form  an  estimate  of  of  the  patriarch.  According  to  decisions  arrived  at  in 
their  population.  The  Greeks  in  the  Ottoman  Empire  1867  he  ought  to  be  assisted  by  a  Holy  Synod  corn- 
claim  to  number  6,000,000,  but  thb  fi^^ure  is  exag-  posed  of  four  members  who  were  to  be  honorary 
ferated.  We  shall  be  nearer  the  truth  m  computing  Metropolitans  of  Pelusimn,  the  Thebaid,  Pentapolis, 
,000,000  Greeks  in  Asia  Minor,  400,000  in  the  Archi-  and  Lybia.  This  synod  is  being  formed.  Churcfa- 
pelago,  1,500,000  in  Turkey  in  Europe,  including  the  membership  numbers  about  80,000  persons,  made  up 
Albanians  and  Bul^rians.^  There  are,  moreover,  mostly  of  strangers  from  Syria  uid  Greece,  amoi^; 
600,000  Slavs,  either  Bulgarians  or  Servians,  who  be-  whom  far  from  narmonious  relation^  prevail.  The 
long  to  the  oecumenical  patriarchate.  All  this  gives  litiurgy  is  celebrated  in  either  Greek  or  Arabic,  but  for 
a  grand  total  of  3,500,000  souls.    In  consequence  of  the  most  part  in  Greek. 

the  independence  of  Bulgaria,  of  the  annexation  of  (d)  Anmbishopric  of  SinaL — ^The  titular  of  this 

Bosnia  by  Austria-Hungary,  and  the  secession  of  see  has  jurisdiction  over  the  convent  of  St.  Catherine 

Crete  to  Greece,  the  cecumenical  patriarchate  has  and  about  fifty  Bedouins.    Its  autonomy  was  pro- 

recently  lost  nearly  a  million  subjectis — ^namely,  700,-  claimed  in  1575  and  confirmed  in  1782.  ^  At  the  pres- 

000  in  Bosnia,  200,000  in  Crete,  and  from  70,000  to  ent  time  the  tendencv  is  to  consider  it  rather  as  a 

80,000  in  Bulgaria.  diocese  in  the  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem. 

(b)  The  Church  of  Greece. — ^This  Church  dates  (3)  Orthodox  Georgians. — ^The  various  national 
back  to  1833,  when  36  bishops  proclaimed  their  inde-  Churches  of  Iberia,  Mingrelia,  and  Imerethia  no 
pendenoe  of  Constantinople  and  established  a  Holy  longer  exist  since  Russia  has  extended  her  dominioD 
Synod ;  its  authority  was  not  recognized  until  11  July,  over  the  Caucasus  provinces.  In  the  lituigy  the 
lo50,  by  the  oecumenical  patriarch.  At  the  present  Georgian  tongue  has  been  replaced  by  the  Slavonic, 
time  this  Church  is  controlled  by  a  Holy  Synod  of  five  The  number  of  dioceses  was  formeriy  twenty,  but  is 
members:  the  Metropolitan  of  Athens  as  president  and  now  only  four,  all  in  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  It 
four  bishops  chosen  in  regular  succession.  The  Hd-  has  a  metropolitan,  with  the  title  of  Exarch  of  Georgia 
lenic  Kingdom  contains  32  dioceses,  of  which  one —  and  three  suffragan  bishops.  The  number  of  the 
that  of  Athens — is  a  metropolitan  see;  it  is  not,  how-  Orthodox  in  Georgia,  incluaing  the  Russian  colonists, 
ever,  rare  to  find  one-thira  of  the  sees  vacant  for  is  reckoned  at  about  1,600,000. 

economic  reasons.    The  Church  of  Greece  numbers  .     (4)  Orthodox  Slavs, — (a)  The  Synodal  Church  of  St. 

2,500,000  members  in  Greece  and  many  thousands  of  Petersburg. — ^This  is  but  a  continuation  since  1721  of 

believers  in  other  countries,  especially  in  the  United  the  Patriarchate  of  Moscow,  which  had  been  estab- 

States.    By   an   arrangement   arrived   at   between  lished  in  15C^  by  the  Greek  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 

Athens  and  Constantinople  in  1908,  all  the  Greek  nople,  Jeremias  il,  who  up  to  that  time  had  ruled  the 

Churches  of  the  dispersion,  save  that  of  Venice,  must  Russian  Orthodox  Church.    The  Holy  Synod  institu- 

look  to  Athens  as  tneir  head.                ^  ted  by  Peter  the  Great  and  composed  of  seven  mem- 

(c)  The  Church  of  Cyprus. — Ever  since  the  Coun-  bers,  is  the  head  of  this  Church.  The  Russian  Church 
cil  o!  Ephesus,  in  431,  recognized  its  autonomy,  which  ooimts  63  dioceses,  ruled  by  3  metropolitans,  13  arch- 
was  confirmed  in  488  by  the  Emperor  Zeno,  the  bishops,  and  47  bishops.  In  man^  of  the  dioceses, 
Church  of  Cyprus  has  remained  independent.  The  where  tne  distances  are  enormous,  it  is  customary  for 
hierarchy  consists  of  the  Archbishop  of  Uonstantia  and  the  bishop  to  take  one  or  more  auxiliary  bishops, 
his  three  suffra£»inB,  the  Bishops  of  Paphos,  C^rtion,  Imown  as  episcopal  vicars,  for  the  governing  of  parts 
and  Cyrenia.  Nearly  ten  years  ago  the  archbishop  of  the  diocese.  At  the  present  time  ^ere  are  44  of 
died,  and  so  far  his  successor  has  not  been  agreed  on.  these  episcopal  vicars.  The  number  of  members  of 
The  Church  has  about  200,000  adherents.  this  Church  must  be  about  70,000,000.  or  half  the 

(2)  Arabic  Byzantines, — (a)  Patriarchate  of  An-  population  of  the  Empire.    There  are  at  least  25,000,- 

tioch. — ^The  Orthodox  population  of  this  patriarchate  000  more  believers  who  separated  from  the  official 

is  hardly  Greek  any  longer.    They  are  a  Syrian  race  church  in  the  seventeenth  century  and  make  up  the 

whose  speech  is  Arabic,  and  as  a  rule  the  liturgical  great  Raskol  sect  (see  Russia)*    The  remainder  of 

offices  are  celebrated  in  Arabic.    Since   1899  the  tibe  population  of  Russia  is  made  up  of  about  12,000,- 

Greek  element,  which  had  up  to  then  monopolized  the  000  Catholics,  together  with  Protestants,  Armenians, 

superior  clerical  positions^  has  been  definitively  driven  Jews,  Mussulmans,  Buddhists,  and  even  pagans, 

out  of  Syria.    The  patriarch  lives  at  Damascus  and  (b)  The  Servian  Church  of  Servia. — ^It  was  not 

governs  with  the  aid  of  a  Holy  S^od  and  a  mixed  till  November;  1879,  that  this  Church  secured  its 

council.    At  the  present  time  this  Church  has  13  independence  of  the  (Ecumenical   Patriarchate  of 

dioceses,  all  of  metropolitan  rank,  and  numbers  250,000  Constantinople.    Since  then  it  has  been  ^vemed  bv 

souls.  a  Holy  S3mod  comprising  the  Metropolitan  of  Bel- 

(b)  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem. — ^This  patriarchate  grade  and  the  four  suffragan  Bishops  or  Nich,  Uchiti^, 

was  cut  off  from  that  of  Antioch  in  451.    If  it  were  Timok  and  Chabatz.    Its  members  number  about 

not  for  the  sanctuaries  of  the  Holy  Places,  which  draw  2,500,000  souls,  and  its  liturgical  language  is  the 

so  many  pilgrims  and  such  considerable  alms,  its  Slavonic. — ^The  Servian  Church  of  Montenegro. — ^It  is 

importance  would  be  nil.    All  the  superior  cler;^  are  ruled  by  the  Metropolitan  of  Cettinj^,  who  goes  to 

Greek,  and,  in  accordance  with  a  rule  made  m  the  Russia  for  consecration.    Until  1852  the  bishop,  or 

eariy  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  clergy  of  Vladika,  was  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  head  of  the 

Syrian  birth  and  Arabic  speech  are  eligible  for  the  principedity.    Since  then  the  authority  has  beeQ 


755 

divided.    The  membership  is  about  250,000. — ^The  they  are  Greek  only  in  name.    Altogether  eight  divi> 

Servian  Patriarchate  of  Carlovitz  in  Hungary. — ^This  sions  are  recogziued:  (1)  Pure  Greeks,   (2)  Italo- 

CJhurch  was  founded  in  1691  by  Servian  emigrants  from  Greeks,  (3)  Georgians,  (4)  Greeco-Arabs  (or  Melchites), 

Turkey.    It  became  a  patriarchate  in  1848.    Besides  (5)  Ruthenians,  (6)  Servians,  (7)  Bulgarians,  and  (8) 

the  patriarchal  diocese,  there  are  six  others:  Braes,  Rumanians.    The  total  membership  of  these  various 

Buda,  Carlstadt,  Pakniy,  Temescaz,  and  Versecz.  Churches  does  not  exceed  6,000,000  souls;  the  exact 

Its  membership  numbers  about  1,080,000  souls.    It  is  figure  is  computed  at  5,564,809,  of  whom  4,097,073 

governed  by  a  Holy  Synod  and  a  national  Parliament,  belong  to  the  Ruthenians  and  Servians,  8488  to  the 

or  Assembly,  of  whicn  one-third  of  the  members  are  Bulgarians,  1,271,333  to  the  Rumanians,  138,735  to 

clerics  and  the  remainder  laymen.    It  meets  every  the  Melchites,  and  49,180  to  the  Italo-Greeks  and 

three  years. — ^The  Servian  Church  of  BosnisrHerze-  Pure  Greeks.    The  number  of  Catholic  Georgians  is 

S>vina. — Theoretically  this  Church  still  belong  to  the  unknown,  but  it  is  small.  These  are  the  figures  fur- 
reek  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  but  smce  the  nished  by  the  1907  edition  of  ^'Missiones  Catiiolicee", 
annexation  of  these  provinces  by  Austria-Hungary  published  at  Rome  (p*  743). 
(6  October,  1908)  it  may  be  looked  on  as  autonomous.  (1)  Pure  Qreeka. — ^Their  Church  has  not  yet  been 
It  has  four  metropolitan  sees,  Seraiero,  Mostar,  Dolnja-  organized,  it  is  under  the  Apostolic  Delegate  at  Con- 
Touzla,  and  Bamalouka,  and  numbers  700,000  souls. —  stantinople.  Parishes  and  missions  exist  at  Constan- 
Two  other  Servian  ax)upe  have  not  yet  acquired  tinople,  Cadi-Keui,  Peramos,  Gallipoli,  MsJgara  and 
autonomy.  That  in  Dalmatia  belongs  to  the  Rumsr  Csesarea  in  Cappadocia.  The  faithful  numl^r  about 
nian  Metropolitan  of  Tchemo vitz ;  it  has  two  dioceses,  1000,  imder  the  care  of  a  dozen  priests,  of  whom  seven 
Zara  and  Cattaro,  and  nmnbers  110,000  souls.  The  are  Assumptionists.  There  are  also  Catholics  of  this 
other  group,  in  Turkey,  in  the  vilayet  of  Uskub,  rite  in  Greece.  They  are  subject  to  the  Delegation  at 
acknowledges  the  Greek  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Athens. 

It  has  two  dioceses,  Prizrend  and  Uskub,  and  numbeis  (2)  The  Italo-Greek  Church, — ^These  Catholics  are  of 

250,000  souls.  Greek  or  Albanian  origp,  and  use  the  Byzantine  Rite. 

(c)  The  Bulgarian  Exarchate. — ^After  having  con-  They  live  mainly  in  Sicily  and  Calabria,  and  have  some 

currently  two  patriarchates,  one  at  Timovo,  sup-  fixed  colonies  m  Malta,  at  Algiers,  Marseilles,  and 

firessed  m  1393,  and  another  at  Ochrida,  suppressed  m  Carghese  in  Corsica.    Their  number  is  not  more  than 

767,  the  Bulgarians  have  organized  an  independent  50,000.    Ecclesiastics   in   Calabria   and    Sicily   are 

Chiuch,  recognized  by  the  Sublime  Porte,  11  March,  ordained  by  two  Italo-Greek  bishops.    Their  litur- 

1870.    The  exarch,  head  of  all  Bulgarians  in  Turkey  gical  language  is  Greek,  but  for  the'  most  part  the 

and  Bulgaria  who  may  be  disposed  to  admit  his  author-  vemaculs^  of  the  faithful  is  Italian, 

ity,  resides  in  Constantinople.    He  has  subject  to  him  (3)  Qeorqian  Churches, — ^Russia,  unwilling  to  tol- 

in  Turkey  21  dioceses,  of  which  about  two-thirds  are  erate  withm  her  dominions  an  Orthodox  Georgian 

still  waitmg  for  the  nomination  of  their  bishojM,  and  Church  distinct  from  the  Russian,  is  idl  the  more 

in  Bulgaria  1 1  metropolitan  dioceses.    The  faithful  of  opposed  to  the  creation  of  a  Catholic  Georgian  Church, 

the  exarchate  number  about  4,000,000,  of  whom  2,-  Out  of  from  30,000  to  35,000  Georgian  Catholics,  about 

900,000  are  in  the  Kingdom  of  BulgsLria,  and  1,000,000  8000  follow  the  Armenian  Rite,  the  remainder  having 

in  Turkey  in  Europe.    The  proclamation  of  Bulgaria  adopted  the  Latin  Rite.    The  only  Catholic  Georgian 

as  an  independent  kingdom  will  hjm%  about  modifica-  organization  in  existence  is  at  Constantinople, 

lions  in  the  ecclesiastical  domain,  for  it  is  hardly  likely  (4)  QrtBco-A  rabs  (or  Melchites) . — ^All  these  are  under 

that  Turkey  will  accept  an  outsider  as  spiritual  head  a  patriarch  who  bears  the  titles  of  Antioch,  Alexandria 

of  its  Ottoman  subjects.  .and  Jerusalem,  and  who,  moreover,  has  jurisdiction 

(5)  Orthodox  Rumanians. — (a)  The  Church  of  Ru-  over  all  the  faithful  of  his  rite  in  the  Ottoman  Empire, 

mania. — ^This  church  has  existed  since  1864,  though  it  Their  number  amounts  to  about  140,000  and  they  are 

was  not  recognized  by  the  Phanar  as  independent  until  subject  to  twelve  bishops  or  metropolitans.    The 

13  May,  1885.    It  obeys  a  Holy  Synod  composed  of  liturgical  language  is  either  Ariftbic  or  Greek, 

two  metropolitans  ana  six  bisnops — its  whole  epis-  (5)  Ruthenians. — ^The  Uniat  Church  of  Russia  has 

oopate.    Its  membership  numbers  4,800,000  souls. —  disappeared.    Its  last  two  bishoprics,  those  of  Minsk 

(b)  The  Rumanian  Church  of  Sibiu. — ^This  Qiurch,  and  Chelm,  were  suppressed  in  1869  and  in  1875  re- 

formerly  under  the  Servian  Patriarchate  of  Carlovitz,  spectively.    Since  tne  disorders  of  1905  many  have 

secured  its  independence  in  1864.    It  is  governed  by  availed  themselves  of  the  liberty  of  returning  to  the 

a  national  Assembly  composed  of  90  members  (30  Catholic  Church,  but  as  a  precautionary  measure  they 

ecclesiastics  and  60  laymen)  who  meet  every  three  have  adopted  the  Latin  Rite, 

years.    The  Metropolitan  of  Sibiu  has  two  sufifragans.  (6)  Servians. — In    Austria-Hungary   the    ancient 

the  Bishops  of  Arad  and  of  Karambes.    Its  computed  Ruthenian  Church  has  survived  with  a  little  more 

membership    is     1,750,000.     (c)     Servo-Rumanian  than  4,000,000  members.    It  has  six  dioceses,  of 

Church  of  Tchemovitz. — ^This  Church  secured  inde-  which  three  are  in  Galicia  (the  Archbishopric  of  Lem- 

TOndence   in    1873.    It   comprises   three    dioceses;  berg,  and  the  Bishoprics  of  Przemysl  and  of  Stanis- 

Tchemovitz,  the  metropolitan  see,  situated  in  Buko-  lawow)  and  three  m  Hungary  (the  Bishoprics  of 

vina,  Zara  and  Cattaro  m  Dalmatia  (its  two  suffraean  Munkflcs  and  of  Eperies  under  the  Latin  Archbishop 

sees).    The  population  of  this  Church,  which  in  Bi&o-  of  Grau,  and  the  Bishopric  of  Crisium,  or  Kreutz,  in 

vina  is  mamly  Servo-Rumanian  and  in  Dalmatia  the  archiepiscopal  provmce  of  Agram,  and  of  which 

Servian,  is  about  520,000  souls.  the  Cathohc  population  is  mainly  Servian). 

To  sum  up,  there  are  seventeen  Orthodox  Churches  (7)  Bulgarians. — The  movement  for  union  with 

of  various  tongues  and  nationalities,  knit'  together  Rome,  very  strong  in  1860,  was,  owing  to  political 

more  or  less  by  a  common  Byzantine  Rite  and  a  vague  reasons,  not  a  success.    To-day  there  are  hanlly  10,- 

basis  of  doctrme  that  becomes  more  and  more  imbued  000  Catliolics  between  the  two  Apostolic  vicariates  of 

with  Flt>testant  ideas.    Their  total  membership  does  Tlirace  and  Macedonia.    The  seminary  of  Thrace  is 

not  exce^  100,000,000  souls;  the  exact  figure  is  94,-  under  the  care  of  the  Assumptionists,  that  of  Mace- 

050,000,  of  whom  about  three  quarters  (70,000,00)  are  donia  imder  the  Lazarists.            ^ 

in  the  Russian  dominions.  (8)  Rumanians. — ^The  Rumaman  Catholic  Church 

III.  Greek  Uniat  Churches. — ^Nearly  every  one  uses  the  Byzantine  Rite,  but  the  liturgical  language 

of  the  Orthodox  Churches  of  the  Byzantme  Rite  has  is  Rimaanian.    It  is  established  only  in  Hungary  and 

a  corresponding  Greek  Catholic  Church  in  communion  counts  four  dioceses,  viz.,  the  Archdiocese  of  Fogaras 

with  Rome.    As  we  saw  in  the  majority  of  the  Ortho-  with  the  suffragan  Dioceses  of  Armenopolis,  Gross- 

dox  Churches,  so  in  the  case  of  the  Uniat  Churches,  Wardein,  and  Lugos,  having  in  all  1,300,000  members. 


756 


The  UniatrRumanians  of  the  Kingdom  of  Rumania 
have  no  ecclesiastical  organization.  In  this  summary 
I  have  omitted  the  other  Oriental  Churches  in  com- 
munion with  Rome,  e.  g.  the  Armenian,  the  Coptic, 
the  Abyssinian,  ^e  Syriac,  the  Maronite,  the  Chaldean 
and  Malabrian  Churches,  because  they  do  not  use  the 
Byzantine  rite,  and  have  no  claim  to  be  considered  as 
Greek  Churches,  even  in  the  wider  meaning  of  the 
word. 

FoRTBflcuSi  The  Orthodox  Eaatem  Church  (Ix>ndon,  1907); 
Fauin,  HitUnre  de  la  rivaliU  tt  du  protectorat  dea  Sqliaea  cAr^ 
tiennes  en  Orient  (Paris,  1853);  Pibani,  A  Iravera  rOr%ent  (Paris, 
8.  d.)t  Bbth,  Die  Orientaliaehe  ChriatenheU  der  MiUdmeerUknder 
(Berlin,  1902);  Silbbrnaql,  VerfoBaung  und  ovenwArtwer 
Beetand  a&maicher  Kirchen  dea  OrienU  (Ratisbon.  1904):  Da 
Jbhat,  De  la  aituation  Ugale  dea  aujela  ottomana  non  muaatumana 
(BruxeUes,  1906);  d'Aybil,  Lea  hiirardiiea  en  Orient  in  the 
Revue  de  FOrieni  chrHien  (1899),  pp.  145-149;  KOhlbb,  Die 
katholiachen  Kirchen  dea  Morgenlandea  (Darmstadt,  1896);  Mia- 
aionea  Catholicca  (Rome,  1907).  771-800;  Janin,  Lea  groupe- 
menta  thrttiena  en  Orient  in  Edioa  d: Orient  (1906).  330-337; 
(1907),  43-49. 107-1 12.  and  136-139  (in  this  same  article  will  be 
sound  an  ample  oomplementary  bibliography  for  sections  II  and 
III  above). 

IV.  Greek-Church  Histort. — (1)  The  First  Five 
Centuries. — The  Gospel,  preached  by  the  Apostles  and 
by  their  disciples,  who  were  converts  from  Judaism, 
spread  first  of  all  anio^  the  Jewish  commimities  of 
the  Roman  Empire.  These  Jewish  settlements  were 
mainly  in  the  towns,  and  as  a  rule  spoke  the  Greek 
ton^e;  and  thus  it  came  to  pass  tnat  the  earliest 
Christian  communities  were  in  tne  towns  and  used  the 
Greek  tonmie  in  their  liturgical  services.  Gradually, 
however,  Qiristian  converts  from  among  the  Gentiles 
began  to  increase  and,  as  the  author  of  the  so-called 
Second  Epistle  of  Clement  savs,  "The  children  of  the 
barren  woman  outnumbered  those  of  the  fruitful  one". 
The  original  differences  between  the  Judseo-Christian 
and  Helleno-Christian  communities  quickly  disap- 
peared, and  soon  there  existed  only  Christiaiis,  with  a 
certain  number  of  heretical  sects  which  either  held 
aloof  of  their  own  accord  or  were  constrained  to  do  so. 
At  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  at  least  in  the  East, 
nearly  all  the  cities  were  Christian,  but  the  villages  and 
country  places,  as  in  the  West,  offered  a  more  stubborn 
resistance  to  the  new  religion.  The  government  of 
the  Church  was  monarchical ;  as  a  rule  every  city  had 
its  bishop,  and  the  priests  were  his  assistants;  the 
deacons  and  lower  mmisters  attended  to  the  ceremo- 
nial and  to  charitable  works.  Even  before  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nicsea  (325)  ecclesiastical  provinces  had  begun  to 
appear,  each  having  a  metropolitan  and  severu  suf- 
fragan bishops.  The  size  of  these  provinces  generally 
correspondea  to  the  extent  of  the  civil  provinces. 

The  fourth  canon  of  Niciea  expressly  refers  to  such 
provinces.  But  were  there  also  Churches  whose  high 
jurisdiction  was  recognized  by  a  number  of  ecclesias- 
tical provinces,  and  did  they  correspond  with  the 
future  patriarchates  and  exarchates?  We  must  reach 
the  third  century  before  we  find  conclusive  proof  of 
this.  At  that  tune  the  Bishop  of  Alexanaria  was 
looked  up  to  as  the  Primate  or  Patriarch  of  all  E^ypt. 
In  a  somewhat  similar  way,  though  in  a  lesser  de^;ree, 
the  Bishop  of  Antioch  had  authority  in  the  provmces 
of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  For  instance,  at  tne  end  of 
the  second  century  Serapion  of  Antioch  exercised  his 
authority  at  Rhossos.  a  town  of  CUicia,  and  this  same 
Serapion  appears  to  nave  ordained  Palout,  the  third 
Bishop  of  Edessa.  During  the  latter  half  of  the  third 
century  we  see  assembled  at  Antioch  the  bishops  of  all 
Syria  and  eastern  Asia  Minor,  soon  to  become  the 
civil  diocese  of  Pontus.  As  eany  as  251  we  know  of  a 
synod  that  was  to  be  held  at  Antioch  because  Fabius, 
the  bishop  of  that  town,  seemed  to  be  leaning  towards 
Novatianism.  The  promoters  of  this  meetins  were 
the  Bishops  of  Tarsus,  Csesarea  in  Palestine,  and  Cssa- 
rea  in  Cappadocia.  A  few  years  later,  in  256,  Dio- 
nysius  of  Alexandria,  treating  of  the  Eastern  Churches 
that  had  been  disturbed  by  this  auarrel.  mentions 
Antioch,  Cnsarea  in  Palestine,  ^lia  (Jerusalem),  lyre. 


Laodicea  in  Sjrria,  Tarsus  and  Csesarea  in  Cappadoda. 
Somewhat  later,  again,  from  264  to  268,  the  affair  of 
Paul  of  Samosata  was  the  occasion  of  many  meetings 
of  bishops  at  Antioch,  and  in  the  interests  of  that 
Church.  They  always  came  from  the  same  provinces, 
viz.,  those  extending  from  Polemoniac  Pontus  (Neo- 
csesarea)  and  Lycaonia  (loonium)jto  Arabia  (Bostra) 
and  Palestine  (Csesarea  and  iBlia).  "  Inmiediately 
after  the  persecution  of  Galerius  and  Maximianus  a 
oelebratea  council  was  held  at  Ancyra,  presided  over 
by  the  Bishop  of  Antioch,  at  which  some  nfteen  bishops 
from  the  same  countries^  were  a^in  present;  this 
time,  however,  the  Provmces  of  Galatia,  Bithynia, 
Phrygia,  and  Pamphylia  are  represented,  but  Asia, 
properly  so  called,  stul  remained  outside  the  aoap*' 
(Duchesne,  "Christian  Worship",  London,  1904,  p. 
20).  Gn  the  other  hand,  in  Proconsular  Ada  no 
Church  had  yet  succeeded  in  asserting  authority  over 
the  others;  Ephesus,  the  most  famous  of  them,  had 
merely  a  primacy  of  honour  over  its  rivals  in  influence 
and  wealth,  Smyrna,  Pergamus,  Sardis,  and  others. 

To  sum  up,  then,  during  the  openins  years  of  the 
fourth  oentuiy  we  find  tmee  principal  ecclesiastical 
sroups  in  the  Eastern  Empire:  (1)  that  of  Alexan- 
dria, with  authority  over  the  whole  of  E^ypt'^  (2) 
that  of  Antioch,  with  a  more  or  less  recoonized  juris- 
diction over  the  whole  Greek  world,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Asia  proper,  and  even  over  lands  beyond  the 
frontiers  of  the  Roman  Empire,  e.  g.,  Armenia  and 
Persia;  (3)  Proconsular  Asia,  forming  a  group  apart. 
The  Councils  of  Nicsea  (325),  Constantin<^le  (381). 
Ephesus  (431),  and  Chaloedon  (451)  le^Jized  the  ex- 
istins  state  of  things,  created  new  Chur&es  and  estab- 
lished the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  as  it  has  remained 
ever  since.  But  in  order  to  understand  the  situation 
properly,  we  must  first  briefly  review  the  civil  oi^gani- 
zation  ot  the  Roman  Empire,  which  had  such  an  in- 
fluence over  early  Church  oi^ganization. 

From  Diocletian  to  the  accession  of  Theodosius  the 
Great  (379)  the  Empire  of  the  East  included  the  civil 
dioceses  of  Egypt  (after  its  separation  from  Antioch), 
Asia,  Pontus,  and  the  two  Mysias,  or  Thrace.  Tlie 
remaining  dioceses  formed  part  of  the  Empire  of  the 
West.  (Tn  19  January,  379,  Gratian^  Emperor  of  the 
West,  ceded  to  his  colleague,  Theodosius  I,  the  Prefec- 
ture of  Eastern  Illyricum,  which  included  the  dioceses 
of  Dacia  and  Macedonia.  Soon  afterwards,  between 
424  and  437,  Western  Blyricum,  or  the  alooese  of 
Pannonia,  became  part  of  uie  Empire  of  the  E^ast. 

Among  the  canons  of  Nicsea  (325)  that  do  not  spe- 
cifically deal  with  the  ordinary  ecclesiastical  prov- 
inces, canons  6  and  7  confirm  the  i^ts  accorded  by 
immemorial  custom  to  certain  great  Churches,  such  as 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  the  other  epar- 
chies. It  is  not  easy  at  first  signt  to  determine  what 
rights  the  council  referred  to.  Nevertheless  it  is  a 
general  opinion  that  the  sixth  canon  aimed  at  securing 
to  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria  an  exceptional  rank,  and 
at  endowing  him  with  powers  over  the  metropolitans 
and  bishops  of  the  four  civil  provinces  of  E^pt. 
Thebaid,  Libya,  and  Pentapolis,  as  ample  as  Sose 
exercised  by  the  Bishop  of  Rome  over  the  various 
provinces  of  the  Patriarchate  of  the  West.  Thus  the 
Bishop  of  Alexandria  had  the  right  to  consecrate  all 
the  metropolitans  and  bishops  of  Eigypt,  and  from 
this  some  historians  and  canonists  womd  have  us  con- 
clude that  he  was,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  only  metro- 
politan in  Egypt,  and  that  his  entire  patriarchate  was 
a  sinde  diocese.  This  is  an  evident  exaggeration.  At 
the  (Joimcfl  of  Nicsea  there  were  four  Egyptian  metro- 
politans, one  for  each  of  the  civil  ana  ecclesiastical 
provinces;  later  their  number  rose  to  nine,  or  even 
ten,  according  as  the  emperors  increased  the  number 
of  civil  provinces.  The  number  of  suffragan  bishops 
rose  at  one  time  to  a  hundred.  The  oiganisatton  of 
the  Esyptian  Church  really  followed  the  same  lines  as 
the  owers.    But  tiie  Patriarch,  or  Bishop,  of  Alex- 


757 

andria  had  the  ri^t  of  consecrating  all  his  bishops,  from  an  ecclesiastical  point  of  view;  in  339  and  360  we 

once  their  election  had  been  confirmed  by  the  metro-  find  two  Arian  bishops,  Eusebius  and  Eudoxius,  leav- 

politan,  whereas  in  the  other  greater  Churches  the  ing  their  metroix>litan  Sees  of  Nicomedia  and  Antioch 

metropolitan  himself  discharged  this  function.  to  occupy  this  bishopric,  which  they  had  already  begun 

Althou^  the  sixth  canon,  in  as  far  as  it  refers  to  to  consider  the  first  episcopal  see  of  the  Empire.    The 

Antioch,  is  far  from  clear,  it  would  seem  that  the  Council  of  381  encouraged  this  attitude.. and  its  third 

Nicene  Council  reco^ized  and  granted  to  the  Bishop  canon  asserts  that  ''  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople 

of  Antioch  the  same  jurisdiction  over  the  provinces  of  oueht  to  have  a  pre-eminence  ot  honour  next  to  the 

the  civil  diocese  of  the  East  (DiosoesM  OrienHa)  that  it  Bi3iop  of  Rome,  for  that  city  is  the  new  Rome ''. 

had  recognized  and  granted  to  the  Bishops  of  Rome  It  would  be  hard  to  protest  too  strongly  against  the 

and  of  Alexandria  over  the  Provinces  of  the  West  and  spirit  of  this  canon,  which  attempts  to  measure  the 

of  Egypt  respectively.    Tlierefore  it  attributes  to  An-  eicdesiastical  dimity  of  a  see  by.the  civil  importance  of 

tioch  a  supremacy  over  many  provinces,  each  hav-  the  city.    But  uthou^  the  popes  refused  to  recognize 

ing  its  own  metropolitan,  in  sucn  a  way  as  to  consti-  it,  all  the  bishops  of  the  East  accepted  it,  and  Con- 

tute  them  into  a  patriarenate.    It  is  thought  that  the  stantinople  considered  itself  henceforwud  as .  the 

jurisdiction  of  the  Patriarohate  of  Anti^^  was  oo-  premier  see  of  the  Empire  of  the  East, 

extensive  wilh  the  aforesaid  civil  diocese  of  the  East,  Novella  cxxxi  of  Justinian  approved  this  decision  of 

but  it  may  very  Iflcely  have  extended  also  over  certain  the  council:    ''Ita  sancimus  ....  veteris  Rbms 

provinces  in  Pontus  and  Asia  Minor.  papam  primum  esse  omnium  sacerdotum  .  •  .  .  ar- 

The  same  canon  recjuires  that  the  ri^ts  of  the  other  chiepiscopum  Constantinopolis,  novs  Rom®,  post 
eparchies  be  maintained.  The  meaning  of  the  word  sanctissimam  apostolicam  sedem  veteris  Roms  secun- 
eparchtes  is  not  clear  and  has  been  variously  inter-  dum  locum  habere."  ^  Did  this  honorary  pre-eminence 
preted.  According  to  some,  it  refers  to  ordinary  ecde-  carry  with  it  a  wider  jurisdiction?  and  can  the  Bishop 
siastical  provinces,  but  this  is  hardly  probabld,  seeing  of  Constantinople  be  henceforward  looked  on  as  a 
that  the  council  had  already  dealt  with  them  in  its  patriarch?  We  have  no  juridical  text  in  support  of 
fourth  canon.  Others  are  of  opinion  that  the  council  such  a  thing,  but  Socrates  (Hist.  Eccl.,  V,  viii)  assures 
intended togranttheB]shopsofHeraclea,Ephesus,and  us  that  Constantinople  did  exercise  authority  over 
Csesarea  the  same  privileges  and  rights  over  the  prov-  Thrace,  while  Theodoret  of  Cyrrhus  (Hist.  Ecd.,  V, 
inoes  of  the  civil  dioceses  of  Thrace,  Asia,  and  Pontus  xxviii)  attributes  to  St.  John  Chrysostom  (398-404) 
that  the  Bishops  of  Alexandria  and  Antioch  enjoyed  a  superior's  authority  over  twenty-eight  provinces. 
over  the  provinces  of  the  civil  dioceses  of  Egypt  and  Now  the  ''Notitia  dienitatum",  a  document  dating 
the  East.  The  second  canon  of  the  Council  of  Con-  from  about  410,  recKons  six  provinces  in  Thrace, 
stantinople  (381)  seems  to  support  this  interpretation,  eleven  in  the  diocese  of  Asia,  and  eleven  in  that  of 
where  it  says:  '"Die  Bishops  of  the  Diocese  of  Asia  Pontus.  Constantinople  was  actually  at  the  head  of 
must  watdi  over  the  concerns  of  Asia  only;  those  of  these  three  dioceses,  whose  twenty-eight  provinces 
Pontus,  over  what  concerns  Pontus,  and  those  of  officially  made  up  its  patriarchate  in  451.  Xn  any 
Thrace  over  •  what  concerns  Thrace."  Perhaps  the  case,  if  a  superior  jurisdiction  over  these  twenty-eight 
councfl  simply  meant  to  enfranchise  the  provinces  of  provinces  cud  not  belong  de  jure  to  the  Bishops  of 
these  three  civil  dioceses  from  the  jurisdiction  of  An-  Constantinople  from  381  to  457,  it  is  quite  certain  that 
tioch,  Alexandria,  or  any  other  Chiuch,  without,  how-  de  facto  they  exercised  such  jurisdiction.  (For  a  num- 
ever,  raising  any  particular  see — Ephesus  for  insUmoe,  ber  of  instances  in  proof  of  this  see  the  article  ''  Con- 
or Csesarea — to  a  particular  rank  luce  that  of  Antioch  stantinople"  in  Vacant  and  Mangenot,  **  Dictionnaire 
or  Alexandria.  de  thtologie  catholique",  II,  132S-25.)  Furthermore, 

As  for  Jerusalem,  or  iEHia,  according  to  the  seventh  their  aim  at  this  time  was  to  have  only  one  Eastern 

canon,  it  remained  a  simple  bishopric  under  the  juris-  CSiuroh,  only  one  patriarohate,  of  which  they  should 

diction  of  Csesarea  Maritima,  its  metropolitan  see,  but  be  the  chiefs,  and  this  was  to  be  brou^t  about  by  the 

enjoyed  the  ri^t  to  certain  honours  on  the  occasion  of  annexation  of  the  provinces  of  Illyncum,  subject  to 

oecumenical  coimcils,  ^^^i^  i^  bishops  sat  next  to  the  pope^  and  the  suppression  of  the  rifi^ts  enjoyed  by 

those  of  the  greater  Churches  of  the  empire.  thejpatnarchs  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria.    Thus,  on 

The  Council  of  Constantinople  (381)  confirmed  and  14  Julv,  421,  the  Emperor  Theodosius  II  issued  a  law 

defined,  in  its  second  canon,  what  the  Council  of  whereDy.IUyricum  was  broueht  under  the  jurisdiction 

Nic»a  nad  attempted  to  outline.    It  was  understood  of  the  Bishop  of  Byzantium  (Cod.  Just.,  I,  ii,  vi ;  Cod. 

that  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria  should  be  the  head  of  Theod..  XVI,  ii,  xlvi),  but  in  consequence  of  the  pro- 
of Pope  Boniface  I  and  of  Honorius,  Emperor  of 


the  Church  of  Mypt,  and  the  Bishop  of  Antioch  head    tests ^ 

of  the  (Church  ofthe  East.    As  for  the  remaining  two  the  West,  this  law  never  was  enforced. 

Asiatic  dioceses,  those  of  Pontus  and  of  Asia,  the  am-  '^gf^i  according  to  Socrates    (Hist.  Ecd.,  VII, 

biguous  phrases  of  the  second  canon,  and  the  intei^  xxvui).  Bishop  Atticiis  of  Constantinople  obtained 

pretation  thereof  g^ven  by  the  historian  Socrates  from  Tlieodosius  II  a  decree  forbidding  the  consecrar 

(Hist.  Eccl.,  V,  c.  viii,  in  P.  G.,  LXVII,  580),  do  not  tion  of  a  single  bishop  in  the  East  without  the  consent 

permit  us  to  infer  the  supremacy  of  any  one  Church  of  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  but,  owing  to  the 

over  all  the  other  Churches  of  a  civil  diocese.    That  opposition  it  encountered^  this  decree  was  hardly  ever 

Epheflus  in  Asia  and  Csesarea  in  Pontus  held  privileged  ooserved,  except  in  the  civil  dioceses  of  Thrace,  Asia, 

positions  is  certain,  but  that  either  Ephesus  or  Pontus  and  Pontus.    The  struggle  undertaken  against  the 

was  at  the  head  of  the  episcopate  of  Asia  or  of  Pontus,  See  of  Alexandria  brought  nothing  but  disaster  for 

as  Antioch  was  at  the  head  of  the  Eastern  episcopate,  Constantinople.    In  less  than  fifty  years  three  of  Jts 
is  a  position  which  we  have  no  documentary  evidence 
to  support.    The  third  canon  of  this  council  of  Con- 
stantmople  brings  another  Church  on  the  scene,  that 
of  the  imperial  capital  itself,  to  which  Nicsea  had  made 

no  reference.    Toe  silence  of  the  First  CEcumenical  tine  interference  became  more  and  more  successful. 

Council  is  easily  understood  when  we  remember  that  in  as  was  proved  in  the  case  of  Ibas,  in  the  partition  of 

325  Byzantium,  or  Constantinople,  was  still  an  imdi»-  Phcenicia,  and  at  the  time  of  the  consecration  of  the 


bishops,  St.  John  Chrysostom  in  403,  Nestorius  in  431. 
St.  Flavian  in  449,  were  deposed  by  the  primates  of 
Efiypt,  Theophilus,  St.  Cyril,  and  Dioscurus.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch  the  Byzan- 


tinguished  bishopric,  with  Heraclea^  in  Thrace,  as  its  Patriarch  Maximus.    In  431,  at  the  Council  of  Ephe- 

metropolitan,  and  that  its  first  bishop,  St.  Metro-  sus,  a  fourth  Greek  C]!hurch,  that  of  (>prus,  took  its 

phanes,  had  died  as  recently  as  314.    In  consequence  place  side  by  side  with  Constantinople,  Alexandria, 

of  the  transfer  of  the  seat  of  imperial  government  to  and  Antioch.    Its  subjection  to  Antioch  never  having 

Byzantium,  the  city  increased  in  importance,  even  been  clearly  defined,  it  had  profited  by  the  Arian  di»- 


758 

putes  and  the  famous  Bchism  of  Antioch  (330-415)  to  wherebjr  the  Church  of  Jerusalem  was  to  remain  in 
proclaim  its  own  autonomy.  Once  the  schism  ended,  possession  of  the  three  provinces  of  Palestine.  In 
the  Patriarchs  of  Antioch  tried  to  reassert  their  au-  consequence  of  this  agreement,  whidi  was  ratified  by 
thority ;  Cyprus  resisted  and  even  took  advanta^  of  theoouncil,  Juvenal  became  patrisurch  of  Jerusalem, 
the  absence  of  the  Svrian  patriarch  to  have  its  mde-  ^  The  same  Council  of  Chaloedon,  by  its  twenty- 
pendence  recognized  by  the  cecumenical  council,  eighth  canon,  drawn  up  in  the  absence  of  the  papal 
Later,  this  independence  was  reafl&rmed  by  the  Em-  legates,  regularized  the  situatioi^  at  Constantinople: 
peror  Zeno  and  by  a  council  held  at  Constantinople  in  it  promulgated  anew  the  third  canon  of  the  Second 
488.  "Die  head  of  the  Cypriot  Church  has  never  had  (EcumeniSd  Council,  which  had  made  Byzantium  the 
the  title  patriarch,  but  only  that  of  Archbishop.  The  first  see  of  the  East  and  the  second  of  the  Christian 
acknowlMgment  of  an  independent  Cypriot  Chui-ch  worid,  giving  it  effective  jurisdiction  over  the  twenty- 
was  a  serious  loss  for  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch ;  fol-  eight  provinces  of  the  three  dioceses  of  Thrace,  Asia, 
lowing  on  thid  blow  came  two  others  in  quick  succeft-  and  Pontus,  whose  metropolitans  it  was  to  have  the 
sion,  the  one  beyond  the  frontiers  of  the  Roman  right  of  consecrating,  and  further  authorizing  it  to 
Empire,  the  other  within  those  boundaries,  which  ordain  bishops  for  barbarian  lands,  which  was  the 
greatly  diminished  the  influence  of  Antioch  and  the  gjerm  of  its  subsequent  policy  towards  the  Slav  na- 
extent  of  its  jurisdiction.  Beyond  the  frontier,  in  the  tions.  Moreover,  the  council  reserved  to  the  bishop 
Persian  kin^om  of  the  Sassanides,  were  many  Chri»-  of  the  capital  tne  ri^t  to  decide  on  all  appeals 
tians  of  Syrian  speech,  jgovemed  by  a  number  of  biah-  brou^t  to  his  tribunal  by  the  deigy  of  the  three 
ops.  The  Gospel  hacT  come  to  them  from  many  Eastern  patriarchates  and  of  iJie  Archdiocese  of 
points,  principallv  from  Edessa  and  other  Churches  CypruB. 

subject  to  Antiocn.    There  was,  therefore,  a  certain  Mginning  from  the  year  451,  then,  we  find  four 

bond  of  affection  and  gratitude  between  these  Syrian  Greek  patriarchates  (Constantinople,  Alexandria,  An- 

Churches  of  the  Persian  Empire  and  those  of  the  Ro-  tioch,   Jerusalem)   and   one  autooephalous  Church 

man  Empire.    In  order  to  impose  his  authority  on  all  (Cyprus)  imder  the  rule  of  an  archbishop.    Beyond 

the  bishops  of  Persia,  Papa  bar  Aggal,  Bishop  of  Seleu-  and  within  the  limits  of  the  Roman  Empire  two  other 

cia  Ctesiphon,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  had  re-  Churches  had  secured  autonomy  and  broken  with  the 

course  to  the  Syrian  bishops  of  the  Roman  Empire  Greek  Churches;    these  were  the  Persian  and  the 

during  the  eariy  years  of  tne  fourth  century.    Tney  Armenian  Churches,  offshoots  from  the  Church  of 

hastened  to  aid  him,  and  by  methods  whose  nature  is  Antioch.    LastlYi  ^   Europe  the  majority  of  the 

unknown  to  us  succeeded  in  placine  the  Bishop  of  Greek-speaking  Qiurches  looked  to  the  pope  as  their 

Seleucia  Ctesiphon  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Church,  patriarcn. 

and  in  bringing  that  Church  under  the  jurisdiction  ol  Harnack.  Die  Musion  und  AwbreUimc  dm  ChHaimUvm*  m 

Antioch.     The  bishops  of  the  other  important  sees  in  den  enten  drei  Jahrhunderten  (LeipiiK.  1902);  BuRKrrr,  Barlw 

Ppnam  Ai*npntAH  vai-v  imwillincrlv  thp  nrimAPV  nf  thn  Sattem  Chriationity  (London,  1904);  Batiffol.  L'Sgixae  na%»- 

rersia  accepiea  very  unwmmgiy  tne  primacy  oi  ine  ,^,^  ^  ^  Catholieieme  (Paris,  1909);  LObick,  Reiduanteaung 

Bishop  of  Seleucia,  and  there  were  COntmUOUS  revolts  und  kirdUiche  Hierardite  dee  OrieiUe  hie  turn  Aueoanodee  vierim 

against  it.     The  Bishop  of  Seleucia  always  fell  back  on  Jahrhunderte  (MQnster,  1901);  Duchbbnb,  HieUrire  aneiefme  de 

the  support  of  the  western  Syrian  bishops  subject  to  ''J^^."« /2oI?^v^™»  1906-08);.  Ducotsne.  Bsjiieee  f^vff^ 

vuc  Dupi^ii;  v/i   I.UC  TfwwiAi  ijjiiwii  M«*iw^o***^jcvv  w  (paHg    1896);    LABonBT,  Le  enruttanteme  dana  Vemptre  perse 

Antioch, especially  m410,  when  Marutasof  Maiphergat  Jparis.  1904);  VAiLHi,  Vh-eOion  duvatnanhat  de  JSruealem in 

in  this  way  overcame  all  opposition.     The  Bishops  of  Revue  de  VOrierU  chritienJlSW),  44-57;   VAXMiib,  L*Anei^ 

Seleucia  had  had  .recourse  to  Antioch  only  as  an  ex-  ^S^^^^^ij^^^  f  fc£.'^ffi?'?S2S;/SS2^ 

pedient  for  imposmg  their  supremacy  upon  their  Per^  DieL  de  aU6L,    eaih.;    Guldbnmnwxo.    Oeeehiehte  dee   oeM- 

sian  brethren ;   that  end  once  attained,  they,  in  their  miMalUn  Reichee  unier  den  Kaiaem  Amdive  und  Theodoeiue  II 

trn^  shook  off  the  tutela^ of  Antbch  Tfie  Counca  (HjOle. i^^^i^^^^g^^'^;;^ 
of  Seleucia,  held  in  424  laid  down  that  the  bishops  of  durth  den  Kaieer  Theodoeiue  den  Oroeeen  (Leipaig.  1902). 
Persia  "  could  bring  no  complaint  against  their  patri- 
arch before  the  patriarch  of  the  Westerns  (Antioch),  (2)  Decay  of  the  Greek  Churches  of  the  Ead  and  Riee 
and  that  every  cause  which  could  not  be  settled  by  of  the  Byzantine  Hegemony  (451-^7). — ^The  definition 
their  own  patriarch  was  to  be  reserved  for  the  tribunal  of  faiUi  of  the  Coimcil  of  Chalcedon  (451)  had  curi- 
of  Christ".  That  ended  the  matter.  By  this  council  oudy  agitated  the  Byzantine  Empire.  The  condem- 
the  Church  of  Persia  cut  itself  off  definitively  from  the  nation  of  Eutvches,  Dioscurus,  and  their  adherents 
Greek  Churches.  The  pit^  is  that  a  few  years  later,  by  amounted  in  the  eyes  of  many  to  a  condemnatbn  of 
adopting  Nestorianism  as  its  national  doctrine,  it  also  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  and  of  the  Councfl  of  Ephesus, 
cut  itself  off  from  the  Catholic  world.  if  not  to  a  victoiy  for  Nestorius.  It  happened  that 
In  451,  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  another  CSiurch  ^ese  religious  disturbances  reached  their  climax  in 
was  set  up  to  the  detriment  of  Antiochenepresti^,  the  remotest  provinces  of  the  empire,  in  those  which, 
viz.,  that  of  Jerusalem.  The  bishop  of  the  Holy  City  while  wfllingly  or  unwillingly  subject  to  the  Byzan- 
had  obtained  from  the  Council  of  Niciea  (325)  the  tines,  had  still  retained  a  lively  memory  of  their 
purely  honorary  r^hts  which  his  successors  had  en-  former  national  independence  and  glory,  together  with 
deavoured  to  turn  into  tangible  realities.  St.  Cyril  of  their  own  language,  liturgy,  art  and  literature. 
Jerusalem,  and  especially  Juvenal,  tried  to  shake  off  E^rpt,  Syria,  Armenia  became  for  the  most  part 
the  yoke  of  Csesarea  Maritima,  the  religious  capital  of  Monophysite;  Palestine  also.  Even  the  episcopate  of 
PaJ^ine,  and,  after  Csesarea,  the  yoke  of  Antioch,  the  Asia  Minor,  with  the  Metropolitan  of  Ephesus,  who 
patriarehal  see  of  the  East.  Juvenal,  elected  in  424,  resumed,  about  474,  the  title  of  Patriarch,  was  bitteriy 
acted,  indeed,  as  if  he  were  already  independent,  opposed  to  the  new  definition;  in  the  end,  however. 
Afterwards  he  sought  official  approbation  for  the  order  and  orthodoxy  prevailed  in  Asia  Minor.  Until 
usuipations  he  had  oeen  guilty  of.  He  applied  first  the  reign  of  Justinian  (527^65)  the  doctrine  for  or 
to  tne  0>uncil  of  Ephesus  (431)  and  put  forward  against  the  two  natures  in  Oirist  was  officially  tri- 
forged  documents,  which  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  re-  umphant  according  as  the  emperor  happened  to  be 
fused  to  admit.  Next  he  turned  to  the  ''Robber  Monophysite  or  Dyophysite,  and  lent  to  the  accepted 
Coimcil"of  Ephesus  (440),  and  his  demands  were  con-  doctrine  the  support  of  his  sword.  Justinian,  the 
ceded.  At  the  same  time  he  extorted  a  decree  from  Byzantine  Louis  XIV,  finally  caused  Dyophysitism  to 
Tlieodosius  II  granting  his  (Church  jurisdiction  over  tnumph,  but  the  violence  he  had  to  use  lost  him  the 
the  three  provinces  of  Palestine,  also  over  Arabia,  and  support  of  all  the  Eastern  and  African  portions  of  the 
a  part  of  Phoenicia.  Two  years  later,  at  C]!halcedon.  empire.  The  C^hureh  of  Alexandm  and  that  of  Anti- 
through  fear  of  losing  more,  Maximus,  Patriarch  oi  och  nominated  Monophysitepatriarchs,  and  thus  be- 
Antioch,  came  to  an  understanding  with  Juvenal  gan  the  Coptic  and  Jacobite  Cnurehes  which  exist  even 


I 


759 


SUEEK 


yet.  In  Egjrpt  nine  out  of  every  ten  of  the  faithful 
declared  against  the  faith  of  the  imperial  Court;  in 
S>rria  the  proportion  was  not  so  ereat.  It  ma^  be 
said  that  about  one-half  of  the  subjects  of  Justinian 
accepted  the  faith  of  Chaicedon.  Efforts  to  impose 
a  heterodox  patriarch  on  Palestine  were  in  vain; 
except  in  the  region  of  Garza,  the  monks  were 
powerful  enough  to  successfully  resist  the  Monophy- 
sites.  To  sum  up,  then,  we  find  that,  as  early  as  the 
sixth  century,  of  the  Greek  patriarchates  in  the  East, 
one  (Alexandria)  had  lost  nearly  all  its  subjects,  an- 
other (Antioch)  retained  but  one-half,  while  the  third 
(Jerusalem)  was  too  inconsiderable  ever  to  dispute 
the  primacy  with  Constantinople.  The  latter  thus 
became  the  only  real  Greek  patriarchate,  to  which 
the  other  three,  sumamed  Melchites  (Imperialists), 
looked  for  favours  and  protection  against  Monoph;y]site 
competition  and  later  i^inst  the  threatening  oominar 
tion  of  the  Arabs. 

This  leads  us  to  a  consideration  of  the  second  cause 
that  completely  ruined  the  hopes  of  the  three  Gree}c 
Churches  of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem, 
namely,  Islam.  It  came  from  Arabia  and  spread  like 
an  oil-stain  over  Palestine,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Per- 
sia, and  finally  Egypt.  It  even  made  great  efforts  to 
cross  the  Taurus  range  and  enter  the  Greek  world,  but 
in  this  was  everywhere  defeated.  For  the  moment  its 
conquests  were'limited  to  provinces  where  the  coun- 
try folk  had  remained  for  the  most  part  aloof  from 
Hellenic  speech  and  civilization.  Tiius  the  Syrian 
Jacobites  gladly  welcomed  the  Arab  conquerors  as 
their  brethren  m  race  and  in  speech,  and,  it  would 
seem,  often  aided  them  in  their  conauests.  Their 
complaisance  towards  the  new  r^ime  brought  them 
many  favours  not  shown  to  the  Melchites,  who,  be- 
cause of  their  ori^,  or  at  least  because  of  their  relar 
tions  with  foreign  Byzantium,  ^  were  everywhere 
watched,  himted  down,  and  proscribed.  Without  the 
help  of  Constantinople  and  Rome,  from  whom  they 
begged  help  and  assistance,  it  is  very  probable  that 
these  Melchite  Churches  would  have  disappeared. 
At  the  very  time  when  the  great  Arab  invasion  and 
the  spread  of  Islam  was  taking  place,  Byzantium  was 
emerging  from  a  disastrous  war  with  Persia  which  had 
almost  brought  about  the  ruin  of  the  Christian  power, 
and  its  emperor  was  occupied  in  rallying  the  various 
Monophysite  Churches  to  the  official  Church  by  means 
of  the  adcaptandum  formula  of  one  will  and  one  enemr 
in  Christ.  The  attempt  failed  owin^  to  the  splenoia 
resistance  set  afoot  by  St.  Sophronius  of  Jerusalem 
and  St.  Maximus  of  Constantinople ;  its  net  result  was 
a  fresh  loss  for  the  Melchite  Patriarchate  of  Antioch, 
from  which  the  monks  of  the  convent  of  St.  Maro  on 
the  Orontes  seceded,  to  found,  with  the  aid  of  the  vil- 
lagers of  Syria  and  the  Lebanon,  the  Maronite  Church, 
Monothelite  in  doctrine,  but  which  at  a  later  date  ac- 
cepted Catholicism. 

The  growing  weakness  of  the  three  eastern  patri- 
archates and  of  the  Archbishopric  of  Cyprus,  whose 
titular  had  for  a  while  to  take  refuge  in  Cyzicus,  soon 
forced  them  to  seek  the  moral  and  material  isupport  of 
Ck>nstantinople.  It  was  eagerly  panted,  ana  Con- 
stantinople, thus  freed  from  a  rival  in  the  East,  turned 
its  attention  towards  Rome  in  the  West.  As  we  have 
seen,  the  civil  diocese  of  Thrace  was  the  only  one  in 
Europe  subject  to  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople; 
the  provinces  of  Achaia,  Macedonia^  Thessalia,  Epirus 
^old  and  new),  which  formed  the  civil  dioceses  of  Mace- 
donia. Dacia,  and  Pannonia,  were  included  in  the  Pa- 
triarchate of  Rome.  Over  these  remote  provinces  the 
g>pe  exercised  his  spiritual  supremacy  through  the 
ishop  of  Thessalonica^  appomted  vicar  Apostolic 
about  380,  and  the  Bishop  of  Justiniana  Prima 
(Uskub),  appointed  in  535.  Until  the  eighth  century 
this  arrangement  worked  without  much  opposition  on 
the  part  of  Constantinople,  and  the  ecclesiastical 
provmoes  of  Illyricum  were  considered  as  forming 


part  of  the  Roman  Patriarchate.  The  Emperor  Leo 
ill,  the  Isaurian,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  intei^ 
fere  with  the  custom,  when^  in  733,  after  his  excom- 
munication by  the  pope,  he  increased  the  tribute  from 
Calabria  and  Sicily,  confiscated  the  patrimony  of  the 
Roman  Church  in  those  regions,  and  aimed  a  blow  at 
the  authority  of  the  pope  by  depriving  hun  of  the 
obedience  of  Illyricum  and  Southern  Italy,  which  were 
thenceforth  attached  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Constanti- 
nople. Suchj  at  least,  is  the  usual  interpretation  of  an 
obscure  text  m  the  Chronicle  of  Theopnanes  (Hubert 
in  "Revue  Historique"  (1899),  I,  21-22);  it  is  con- 
firmed by  an  observation  of  the  Armenian  ecclesiastic 
Basil,  who,  in  the  ninth  century,  speaking  of  the 
metropolitan  cities  of  Illyricum  and  Italy,  asserts  that 
they  had  been  made  subject  to  the  authority  of  Con- 
stantinople "because  the  pope  of  ancient  Rome  had 
fallen^  into  the  hands  of  the  Barbarians"  (Geoi^ii 
Cyprii  Descriptio  Orbis  Romani,  ed.  Gelzer,  p.. 27). 
The  popes  protested  against  this  high-handed  robbery, 
but  no  attention  was  paid  to  their  protests,  and  since 
about  733  Illyricum  has  been  attacned  to  the  Byzan- 
tine Patriarchate.  In  this  way  it  gauied  about  one 
hundred  bishoprics,  nor  was  this  all :  starting  with  the 
principle  that  no  bishopric  in  the  Byzantine  Em- 
pire could  be  in  any  way  dependent  on  an  outside 
patriarch,  the  Iconoclast  emperors  took  away  from 
the  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  on  the  plea  that  he  was  a 
subject  of  the  Arab  caliphs,  the  twenty-four  episcopal 
sees  of  Byzantine  Isauna,  and  from  the  pope  of  Rome 
the  fifteen  Greek  bishoprics  in  Southern  Italy.  Con- 
sequently, the  jurisdiction  of  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople became  co-extensive  with  the  limits  of  the 
Byzantine  Empjire. 

Besides  this  increase  of  jurisdiction,  the  establish- 
ment of  a  permanent  synod  (jr^wodos  Mrituwra)  and 
t^e  addition  to  his  title  of  the  adjective  CEcumenical 
rapidly  placed  the  Patriarch  of  Byzantium  in  the 
front  ramc.  The  permanent  synod  dates  most  prob- 
ably from  the  patriarchate  of  Nestorius  (381-97).  It 
was  a  sort  of  ecclesiastical  tribunal  permanently  in 
session  at  Constantinople,  made  up,  as  a  rule,  of. many 
bishops  whom  business  or  ambition  had  called  to  the 
capital;  the  patriarch  himself  presided  over  the  tri- 
bunal. It  attended  to  the  solution  of  all  ecclesiastical 
affairs  submitted  to  the  judgment  of  the  emperor,  so 
that  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  as  its  president, 
became  ex  officio  arbiter  between  the  Court  and  the 
bii^ops  of  the  empire ;  it  was  a  privileged  position  due 
to  the  very  force  of  circumstances,  and  in  the  last 
resort  it  subjected  all  the  areat  metropolitans,  and 
even  the  patriarchs,  of  the  East,  to  the  judicial  au- 
thority of  the  Byzantine  Bishop.  The  ninth  and 
seventeenth  canons  of  Chaicedon  confirmed  and  con- 
solidated thb  state  of  things,  and  the  insertion  of  those 
canons  in  the  Civil  Code  eave  them  thenceforward 
equal  authority  with  any  other  imperial  decrees.  The 
title  (Ecumemcal  wasjgranted  for  the  first  time  at  the 
Robber  Coimcil  of  Ephesus  (449)  to  the  Patriarch  ^ 
Dioscurus  of  Alexandria,^  and  at  the  time  it  looked 
like  a  daneerous  innovation,  and  was  repudiated  at 
the  Council  of  Chaicedon.  Soon  afterwards  we  find  it 
applied  to  Popes  St.  Leo  I,  Hormisdas,  and  Agapitus, 
and  to  the  Patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  John  11  (518- 
520),  Epiphanius  (520-535),  Anthimus  (536),  Menas 
(536-552).  It  was  in  588,  on  the  occasion  of  a  coun- 
cil, that  the  Patriarch  John  VI,  surnamed  the  Faster, 
seems  to  have  restricted  the  use  of  the  honorary  title 
to  his  own  see.  I^is  gave  rise  to  a  fresh  quarrel  with 
Rome,  which  saw  therein  a  new  evidence  of  ambition. 
Pope  Pelagius  II  annulled  the  acts  of  this  council  and 
his  successor,  St.  Gregory  the  Great  (590-604),  began 
a  lengthy  correspondence  on  the  matter  with  the  By- 
zantine Patrisrcns  John  IV  and  Cyriacus,  but  nothing 
ever  came  of  it.  The  popes  went  on  protesting,  but 
the  Byzantine  patriarchs,  supported  by  the  Court,  the 
bishops,  and  the  clergy,  also  oy  the  other  Greek  patri- 


760 

archs,  refused  to  forego  the  title,  which  they  have  politan  of  Dara  had  tiiiee  suffraeans,  while  the  Metio- 

bome  ever  since,  and  which  has  given  them  a  colour  of  politan  of  Seleucia  in  Isauria  had  twenty-four.    To 

honorary  suprema^  over  all  the  Churches  of  the  East,  gain  a  collective  idea  of  this  hierarchy  it  should  be  re- 

(a)    Internal    (organization    of    the    Byzantine  membered  that  in  650  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantir 

Churches. — ^The  superior  hierarchjr  of  a  Greek  Church  nople  counted  thirty-two  metropoles,  or  capitals  of 

at  the  period  we  are  treating  of,  viz.,  from  the  fourth  ecclesiastical   provinces^  one  autocephalous  metio- 

to  the  tenth  century,  was  composed  of  a  patriarch,  a  polls,  thirty-four  autocephalous  archoishoprics,  and 

catholicos,  the  greater  metroi)olitans,  the  autocepha-  three  hundred  and  fifty-two  bishoprics — a  grand  total 

lous  metropolitans,  the  archbishops  and  the  bishops,  of  four  hundred  and  nineteen  dioceses.    A  century 

Tlie  patriarch  is  at  this  period  the  highest  prelate,  at  eariier  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch  could. boast  of 

the  head  of  a  whole  Church,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  twelve  metropolitans,  five  autocephalous  metropoli- 

there  were  only  four  such:  Constantinople,  Alexan-  tans,  two  exempt  bisnoprics  (a  peculiar  institution  of 

dria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.    The  catholicos  exei^  this  Church),  and  one  hundred  and  twentv-five  bisb- 

cised  jurisdiction  over  a  portion  of  the  Church  on  an  oprics — ^a  mmd  total  of  one  hundred  and  fort3r-four 

equality  with  the  patriarch,  save  for  the  fact  that  he  dioceses.    For  want  of  accurate  information  it  is  im- 

must  originally  have  been  consecrated  b^  the  patri-  possible  to  give  similar  details  for  the  Patriarchates  of 

arch.    Such,  we  are  told,  was  the  position  of  the  Jerusalem  and  Alexandria. 

Catholicos  of  SeleuciarCtesiphon,  ana  of  the  Catho-  Below  the  bishops  came  the  other  ecclesiastical  dig- 

licos  of  Armenia,  with  reference  to  the  See  of  Antioch.  nitaries — ^priests,  deacons,  deaconesses,  subdeaoons, 

and  towards  the  same  see,  but  at  a  later  period,  of  lectors,  cantors,  and  others.    Ecclesiastical  function- 

the  Catholicoi  of  Romagyris,  of  Irenoupolis,  and  of  aries  were  very  numerous.    After  the  patriarch  in  the 

Georgia.    The  other  patriarchates,^  except  perhaps  capital,  and  in  their  dioceses  after  the  metropolitans 

Alexandria,  never  had  such  an  ecclesiastical  dignitaiy.  and  biwops,  the  chief  dignitary  ^as  the  archdeacon,  a 

The  greater  metropolitans  ruled  each  an  ecclesia^-  sort  of  vicar-general  having  direct  control  over  the 

tical  province  and  had  under  their  authority  a  certain  clergy,  if  not  over  the  faithful  of  the  diocese.    The 

number  of  suffragan  bishops.    Their  position  was  sim-  title  soon  disappeared  and  was  replaced  by  that  of 

ilar  to  that  of  the  Latin  archbishops.^  The  number  protosyncellus,  which  has  remained  to  our  own  times, 

of  these  metropolitans  varied  in  the  various  patriarch-  There  were,  moreover,  referendaries  who  carried  im- 

ates  according  to  the  actual  number  of  ecclesiastical  portant  messsjges  and  looked  after  the  business  of  the 

provinces,    ^r  a  lon^  period  Jerusalem  had  three,  in  diocese  in  the  bishop's  name ;  apocnsiarii  (in  the  Latin 

the  sixth  century  Antioch  had  twelve,  in  the  fifth  cen-  Church  responsaleSf  i.  e.  nuncios),  or  representatives 

tury  Alexandria  had  ten,  in  that  same  century  Con-  of  the  patriarchs  at  the  emperor's  Court,  of  the  metao- 

stantinople  had  twenty-eight,  which  rose  to  thirty-  politans  to  their  patriarch,  and  of  the  bishops  to  their 

two  about  650,  and  to  forty-nme  about  the  beginning  metropolitans;  aconomoif  or  bursars,  who  looked  after 

of  the  tenth  century.    The ''autocephalous"  metro-  church  property  and  who  entrusted  the  administration 

politans  had  no  suffragan  bishops,  and  depended  di-  of  such  property  in  outlying  districts  to  delegates 

rectly  on  the  patriarch.    Latin  canon  law^  knows  no  of  various  names  and  titles:  a  kimdiarchos,  in  charoeof 

such  dignitary.    These  prelates  had  each  his  own  dio-  the  church  treasury  and  also  known  as  the  skeuophy- 

cese;  they  were  not  metropolitans  in  partibua  infidel-  lax;  a  choariophylax  or  archivist;  a  chancellor,  or  mas- 

ium.    The  number  of  these  prelates,  small  at  first,  in-  ter  of  ceremonies,  etc. 

creased  in  the  East  to  such  a  degree  that  at  the  present  During  this  period  the  Greek  episcopate  was,  as  a 
time  one  rarely  meets  with  any  of  another  rank.  In  general  nde,  recruited  by  dection.  The  notables 
the  sixth  century  there  was  omy  one,  that  of  Chalce-  united  wilii  the  clersy  drew  up  a  list  of  three  candi- 
don,  in  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople;  in  the  dates  which  they  submitted  to  the  choice  of  the  pa- 
tenth  century  only  two,  those  of  Chalcedon  and  Ca-  triarch,  the  metropolitan,  or  the  bishops,  accordmg  as 
tania.  We  have  no  documentary  evidence  as  to  how  Uie  see  to  be  fillea  was  a  metropolitan  see  or  a  simple 
things  stood  in  this  respect  in  the  Patriarchates  of  bi^opric.  In  practice,  the  patriarch  and,  most  of  all, 
Alexandria  and  of  Jerusalem.  The  archbishops  do  the  emperor  interfered  in  these  elections.  The  nom- 
not  differ  from  autocephalous  metropolitans,  except  ination  of  a  patriarch  belonged  in  the  first  instance  to 
as  bein^  inferior  to  them  in  the  hierarchy.  They  de-  the  clergy  of  Constantinople^  then  to  a  committee  of 
pend  directly  on  the  patriarch,  and  have  the  real  gov-  metropolitans  and  bishops;  m  reality  the  choice  was 
emment  of  a  diocese.  This  title,  which  corresponds  always  settled  by  the  emperor. '  From  ihe  list  of  three 
to  the  exempt  archbishoprics,  was  formerly  veiy  com-  candidates  presented  by  the  bishops  he  selected  one  as 
mon  in  the  Eastern  Church.  About  650  the  Church  patriarch,  and  if  none  of  the  names  presented  was 
of  Constantinople  reckoned  thirty-four  archdioceses  agreeable  to  him  he  put  a  new  name  before  the  elec- 
of  this  sort;  in  tne  tenth  century,  we  know,  on  the  evi-  toral  college, which  the  bishops  could  only  confirm, 
dence  of  three  documents,  it  had  fifty-one :  at  the  end  llie  status  of  tihe  lower  cler^  was  much  the  same  as 
of  the  eleventh  century  the  number  stood  at  tiiirty-  now.  In  the  cities  and  popSous  centres  there  were 
nine,  and  since  then  it  has  gone  on  decreasing  in  the  many  learned  and  often  exemplary  priests^  who,  for 
East,  so  that  at  present  the  Greek  Patriarchate  of  Je-  the  most  part,  had  been  througn  the  monastic  schools; 
rusalem  alone  possesses  this  institution.  but  in  the  rural  districts  they  were  ^nerally  ignorant 

The  position  of  suffragan  bishops  is  too  well  known  and  of  evil  repute.  Because  of  their  exemptions  and 
to  require  any  explanation.  In  the  sixth  century  their  civil  privileges,  the  derey  were  numerous, 
there  were  fifty-six  of  them  in  the  three  provinces  of  Churches  and  chapels  aboundea  everywhere,  espe- 
the  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem,one  hundred  and  twenty-  cially  in  the  cities ;  every  Basileus  (emperor),  even  the 
five  in  the  twelve  provinces  of  Antioch.  About  650  least  religious-minded,  was  lavish  with  money  for 
there  were  three  hundred  and  fifty-two  in  the  thirty-  their  construction.  An  idea  of  the  personnel  em- 
two  provinces  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  ployed  at  this  time  in  serving  a  church  may  be  gath- 
and  m  the  early  part  of  the  tenth  century,  when  the  ered  from  two  churches  in  Constantinople.  ^  A  law  of 
number  of  its  provinces  rose  to  forty-nine,  Constanti-  Justinian  (535)  fixed  the  number  of  clerics  at  St. 
nople  had  five  hundred  and  twenty-two  suffragan  sees.  Sophia  and  its  three  adjacent  churches  at  425 — viz., 
As  in  the  West,  the  number  of  suffragan  sees  in  aprov-  60  priests,  100  deacons,  40  deaconesses,  90  subdea- 
ince  was  not  always  the  same  in  the  same  patriarch-  cons,  110  lectors,  25  cantors,  to  which  we  must  add 
ate.  Thus,  in  650  the  provinces  of  Asia  and  of  Lycia  100  doorkeepers.  From  Justinian's  reigxi  to  that  of 
had  each  tnirty-six  such  sees,  but  the  province  of  Heraclius  this  number  increased,  and  in  627  the  latter 
Europe,  or  Rhodope,  had  only  two.  In  the  sixth  cen-  emperor  was  obliged  to  put  a  limit  to  the  number  of 
tuiy,  again,  in  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch,  the  Metro-  clerics  serving  this  church.    Unless  subsequent  en- 


761 

dowments  authorized  otherwise,  the  regular  number  New  Laura  more  than  600.  It  is  true  that  all  of  the 
was  to  be  625,  viz.,  80  priests,  150  deacons,  40  deacon-  monasteries  were  not  so  populous,  but  if  we  place  the 
esses,  70  subdeacons,  160  lectors,  25  cantors,  bendes  average  number  of  mouKs  for  each  monastery  at  50 
75  doorkeepers,  2  syncelli,  12  chancellors,  and  40  no-  we  shall  not  be  far  from  the  truth.  Let  it  not  be  for- 
taries.  The  little  church  of  Blachenue  had  a  per-  Rotten  that  10,000  monks  of  Palestine  assembled  at 
sound  at  this  period  of  75  members,  viz.,  12  priests,  18  Jerusalem  in  516  to  demand  that  the  Council  of 
deacons,  6  deaconesses,  8  subdeacons,  20  lectors,  4  Chalcedon  be  observed.  It  is  worth  noting  that  ^ere 
cantors,  and  7  doorkeepers.  From  these  two  exam-  neverexisted  a  religious  congregation,  properly  speak- 
pies  we  may  infer  what  the  other  smaller  or  lai^ger  ing,  in  the  Oreek  world;  tnis  Western  form  of  mo- 
churches  must  have  rec]uired.  nasticism  was  unknown  to  the  East.    There  every 

Benevolent  institutions  claimed  a  projMrtionate  convent  was  independent  of  its  neighbour,  and  where 

nmnber  of  functionaries  and  titles;  in  Christian  an-  many  convents  nad  the  same  founder  their  union 

tiquitj  few  social  bodies  were  as  much  concerned  with  rarely  lasted  beyond  his  lifetime.    Again,  in  spite  of  a 

the  duninution  of  social  ills  as  was  that  of  Constanti-  still  prevalent  Western  belief,  the  Greek  monks  never 

nople.    There  were  special  charitable  institutions  to  had  a  religious  rule,  in  the  canonical  sense  of  the 

succour  every  form  of  phvsical  and  moral  suffering;  from  word.    Even  the  Rules  of  St.  Basil,  St.  Anthony,  and 

the  emperor  to  the  humblest  citizen  all  were  interested  St.  Pachomius  were  not  canonical  rules,    llie  monks 

in  their  maintenance.    Hospices  and  shelters  were  obeyedawholeseriesof  precepts,  or  monastic  regula- 

found  everywhere ;  there  were  also  xenodochia,  or  hos-  tions,  either  written  or,  more  often,  preserved  by  oral 

telries  for  strangers;  gerontocomiaf  or  homes  for  the  tradition,  which  were  the  same  everywhere.    But  if 

aged ;  ptochotropkiaf  or  asylums  for  the  i>oor ;  nosocomia,  they  had  nO  rule  properly  so  called,  thej  had  an  infin- 

orhoNq^itals  for  the  sick;  orphanotrophia,  or  foimdling  ity  of  typica  or  regulations.    In  the  liturgical  offices 

hospitiEds;  hrephotropkia,  or  creches;  and  even  lobo-  the  customs  of  St.  Sabas  at  Jerusalem,  i.  e.  the  Pales- 

trophia,  or  homes  for  lepers.    These  institutions  were  tine  customs,  were  combined  with  those  of  the  Stu- 

mostlv  conducted  by  monks>  which  fact  brings  us  to  a  dium  at  Constantinople  or  some  other  monastery,  and 

consideration  of  the  monastic  system.  thus  all  desired  variations  were  obtained.    For  the 

If  we  consider  their  rules,  the  monks  may  be  divided  monastic  life  itself  the  "  Typica ",  i.  e.  original  charters 
into  two  classes:  solitaries  and  cenobites.  The  soli-  or  constitutions  of  the  monastery,  were  the  guide.  The 
taries  had  various  names,  according  to  their  habita-  most  ancient  of  these  "Typica"  known  to  us  is  that 
tions  or  the  exercises  which  they  practised.  They  of  St.  Athanasius  the  Athonite  (or  of  Mount  Athos). 
were  known  as  hermits  or  recluses  if  they  provided  which  dates  from  969.  In  matters  of  jurisdiction  all 
their  own  necessities  of  life  or  accepted  them  from  Greek  monasteries  were  subject  to  the  bishop  or  to  the 
sla^ngers;  stylites  or  dendrUes,  if  they  chose  a  pillar  or  patriarch ;  the  latter  known  as  staiaropegiaCt  because 
a  ti«e  as  the  scene  of  their  mortifications;  lauriotes  or  the  patriarch  asserted  his  rights  over  the  monastery  bv 
k^ioies,  if  they  lived  together  in  a  lawra.  These  last  placing  a  wooden  cross  {rravpds)  behind  the  altar.  It 
belong  rather  to  the  EastBm  world  properly  so  called  was  in  the  cloister  almost  exclusively  that  the  more 
(Eg>pt,  Palestine,  Syria,  Mesopotamia)  than  to  the  eminent  ecclesiastics  of  all  ranks  were  trained,  and  to 
Greek,  or  B^antine,  world.  On  the  other  hand,  the  it  dethroned  emperors  and  disgraced  courtiers  fled  for 
Greek  Christian  worid  was  famous  for  its, cenobites,  refuge.  The  monks  were  the  historians,  the  theolo- 
who  alwa3rB  and  everywhere  followed  a  oommunity  gians,  the  poets  of  that  time ;  the  leaders  of  all  heresies 
life.  Solitary  and  cenobite  had  each  a  special  dress,  and  their  opponents  were  monks ;  councils  were  con- 
the  names  and  uses  of  which  are  well  known.  The  vened  or  prevented  as  the  monks  thought  eood.  They 
lautiE,  and  convents,  had  each  its  own  superior,  some-  assisted  the  bishops  by  their  learning  and  disturbed 
times  called  archimandrite,  and  sometimes  hegu-  the  empire  by  their  quarrels.  In  short,  they  held  the 
menOB,  terms  synonymous  in  the 'beginning,  but  soon  whole  foreground  of  the  ecclesiastical  stase,  and  ab- 
differentiated.  Gradually  archimandrite  came  to  sorbed  all  the  intellectuid  and  religious  life  of  Ihe 
mean  the  head  of  all  the  monasteries  of  a  city  or  of  a  Greek  Church.  And' while  their  extensive  posses- 
diocese.  Below  him  came  the  deutereuon  or  prior,  at  sions,  exempt  from  taxes,  drained  the  finances  of  the 
least  until  the  sixth  century;  after  that  the  place  was  empire,  the  thousands  upon  thousands  of  young  men 
taken  by  the  fiKotiomo«,  or  bursar.  In  the  ninth  cen-  who  flocked  to  their  monasteries  robbed  the  landof  its 
tuiy  eveiy  diocese  (presumably  the  cenobites  of  every  agricultural  class  and  the  army  of  its  recruits.  As  it 
diocese)  or  district  formed  a  sort  of  federation  under  existed  in  the  Greek  world,  the  monastic  life  caused 
the  presidency  of  a  hegumenos  known  as  the  exarch  or  perhaps  more  evil  than  good,  and  it  is  imdoubtedly  to 
archimandrite.  In  the  Archdiocese  of  Jerusalem  tiiis  it  we  owe  that  narrow  pietism,  that  formalism  and 
presidency  over  the  laurites  and  hermits  devolved  on  ritualism  in  devotion,  consisting  altogether  in  ttie 
the  Hegumenos  of  St.  Sabas,  and  that  of  the  cenobites  externals  of  religion,  which  is  even  now  so  character- 
on  the  Hegumenos  of  St.  Theodosius.  In  the  archdio-  istic  of  the  East. 
oese  of  Constantinople  the  superior  of  the  convent,  or 
monastery,  of  Dalmatia  exercised  thii 
soon  as  peace  was  definitively  nanted 

and  eijpwaaUy  after  the  reigni^^  n¥ohUu.    1888);    KrOoer,  MonaphusUisdie  StreUigkeUen  im 

the  religious  life  had  its  period  of  greatest  splendour.  Zuaammenhanot  mU  der  ReichipoUtik  (Jena.  1894):    Ptann- 

Emperors,  empresses,  consuls,  patricians,  senators,  ujmiAMR,  D-Ukin^iche  Oe$eij^ 

patriarehH  bifops,  private  m«ii,^duaU  vfed  in  build-  gSr>^S'in?^^JL/tS)3S:.  *»  \^l\ 

ing  conventual  homes  for  ''those  who  had  put  on  the  DucHBSNa.  ViaiU  H  Pilage  in  Rev,  dea  fueatioiu  hiBt.  (Paria. 

robe  of  the  angels"  and  who  had  become  ''citizens  of  |884);  Dobkaiip,  Die origeniatiachen  StrntiQkmim  itn  Vijahr- 

heaven".    A«  early  as  518  we  find  a  petition  to  Pope  ^^^^^j^S^iJ^' ^^m^"^ir^^^^^ 

Hormisdas  signed  by  fifty-four  superiors  of  monastic  loot,  Der  BildentreU  (Gotha,  1890);  BRfcHiM.  La  querdU  dee 

houses  for  men  in  Constantinople;    in  536  no  fewer  i^nagea  (Paris,  1904);    Lombard,  ConaUmtin  V  (Pari«,  1002); 

than  sixty^i^rsupe™^  of  monasteri^  from  the  ^|S3t.^JKSSKro^ll&^^^ 

same  city  assisted  at  the  COUncfl  which  deposed  the  thunile  (Paria,  1897);    Firradou,  Lea  hiens  dea  mmaath-ea  h 

patriarch  Anthimos,  while  the  neighbouring  Diocese  of  Byzanee  (Bordeaux,  1896);   Gblsbr,  Der  Streit  abtr  den  TUd 


And  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  number  of  their  valriaTthe  mcuminiqfus  m  Echoa  d^ Orient  (1908),  65-69;  161-171; 

inmates  was  small.    The  laura  of  St.  Sabas  had  150  Af'R^SSS.n*  i'^^^il'^^^S^A^yP^^iZ,''*''^  iBcuminiguea 

X  Ai.  A     «  cix    nxL.     J     •         Afxry      x«.  i^  KosBian  article,  ikiey,  1883);   Odspinsku,  Eaoutaaea  vour 

mmates;   the  convent  of  St.  Theodosius,  400;   the  hiaunre  de  la  dvilitatioi  hytantine  (Russian.  St.  TPetenb^ 


GREEK  762 

^^ll^"^:^^  ^^^i^  of  St.  John  ChiTBOBtom  to  the  See  of  Ckmstantinople 

'         '  (398) — 55  years;  (2)  in  connexion  with  the  oondenma- 

(b)  The  Emperor;    Relations  between  East  and  ^^^^  ^^  S^-  John  Chrjrsostom  by  the  episcopate  of  the 

West;  Litun^r. — In  the  foregoing  sketch  of  the  eccle-  East  (404-15) — 11  years;  (3)  in  regajxi  to  the  Bvxan- 

siastical  body  the  Bvzantine  emperor  has  not  ap-  ^i°o   patriarch   Acacius   and   the   Emperor   2eno's 

peared.     Yet  no  one  has  a  greater  right  to  a  place  in  "Henoticon"  edict  (484-619) — 35  vears;   (4)  arising 

that  body.    Heir  of  the  Roman  emperors,  the  B^siieus  ^^\  of  the  Monothelite  movement  of  Setgius  and  Her- 

had  inherited  aJso  the  office  of  pontifex  maximua,  and,  aclius  (640-81) — 41  years;  (5)  arising  out  of  the  first 

though  after  the  fifth  century  that  title  no  longer  ap-  Iconoclastic  conflict,  begun  by  Leo  III,  the  Isaurian 

pears  on  public  documents,  yet  every  Greek  looked  up  (726-^7) — 61  years :  (6)  arising  out  of  the  adulterous 

to  the  Basileus  as  the  head  of  the  national  religion,  marriage  contracted  by  the  Emperor  Constantine  VI 

Moreover,  the  emperor  was  the  chosen  of  God,  Who  (795-^11) — 16  years;  (7)  in  connexion  with  the  second 

had  raised  him  above  humanity  in  order  to  draw  him  Iconoclastic  persecution  (814^3) — 29  years.    This 

nearer  to  Himself.    As  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  tells  us,  &ves  a  total  of  248  years  of  schism  and  heresy  out  of  a 

''His  intelligence  is  a  reflexion  of  the  Divine  intelli-  period  of  506  years,  i.  e.  nearly  one-half  the  time, 

oenoe,  he  is  a  partaker  of  the  power  of  the  Almighty."  Again,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  divisions  vexed 

in  his  "Instruction'' to  the  "most  divine"  Justinian,  certain  individual  Churches — e.  g.,  the  Schism  of 

the  deacon  Agapetus  reproduces  under  another  form  Antioch  (330-415),  which  had  its  effect  not  only  on 

these  ideas  so  prevalent  at  Byzantium :  "  It  was  a  sign  the  Churches  of  the  East  but  also  on  those  of  the  West, 

from  God  that  pointed  out  the  Basileus  for  the  em-  It  must  also  be  confessed  that  when  circumstances 

pire ;  he  was  predestined  in  the  designs  of  God  to  rule  demanded  strength  of  will  and  determination  the 

the  world,  even  as  the  eve  is  set  within  the  head  to  Greek  bishops  were  very  often  culpable.    Of  all  these 

control  the  bod  v.    God  has  need  of  no  one ;  the  em-  heresies  and  schisms  they  might  at  least  have  lessened 

peror  needs  only  God.    Between  the  Deity  and  the  the  duration  and  importance,  if  not  alt<^ther  avoided 

emperor  there  is  no  intermediary"  (P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  ,  them,  had  they  better  understood  and  realized  their 

1177).    The  Divine  call  to  the  empire  gave  the  emperor  duty.    In  the  patriarchal  See  of  Constantinople,  the 

asacredcharacter,and  the  anointmg,tne  sign  of  priest-  premier  see  of  the  Greek  Empire,  we  find  mneteen 

hood,  became  his  by  Divine  right.    To  take  the  life  of  heretical  patriarchs,  whom  the  nrst  seven  CEcumenical 

the  Basileus  or  attack  his  aumoritv  was  to  resist  the  Councils,  all  held  in  the  East,  condenmed  by  name,  or 

will  of  heaven  and  to  commit  a  sacrilege,  unless  the  one  who  vehemently  opposed  the  decisions  of  such  coun- 

who  did  so  happened  to  be,  like  David  of  old.  dso  the  cils.    These  nineteen  were:   Eusebius  of  Nioomedia, 

chosenone  and  the  anointed  of  the  Lord.    This  anoint-  Macedonius,  Eudoxius,  Demophilos,  all  four  Arians; 

ing  and  the  priesthood  which  it  conferred  gave  the  em-  Nestorius,  Acacius,  Timotheus,  Anthimus,  of  whom 

peror  a  high  place  among  the  ministers  of  the  altar.  He  the  last  three  were  Mqnophvsites ;  Sergius,  Pjrrriius, 

became  the  IvairbaToXotf  the  equal  of  the  Apostles,  or  Paul,  Peter,  John  VI,  all  Monothelites;  Anastasius, 

even  the  thirteenth  Apostle.     Hence  he  hela  a  special  Constantine  U,  Nicetas,  Theodotus  Cassiteras,  An- 

position  between  lav  society  and  the  ecclesiastical  Dody.  thony,  John  VII  Lecanomantos,  all  Iconoclasts.   And 

He  dominated,  and  belonged  to  both,  uniting  in  him-  this  list  might  oe  increased,  if  we  were  to  include  the 

self  both  elements  of  the  social  order,  the  civil  and  patriarchs,  who,  though  not  formally  heretics,  would 

the  ecclesiastical.    Moreover,  this  special  aacerdatium  not  condemn  their  heretical  predecessors,  and  because 

reserved  for  the  emperor  secured  him  specifd  rights  and  of  this  weakness  were  unable  to  obtain  communion 

powers.     ''I  also  am  a  bishop",  said  Constantine  to  with  the  Holy  See.  ^  If  in  the  two  patriarchates  of 

the  prelates  of  his  day.    *'  You  are  the  bishops  as-  Alexandria  and  Antioch  the  number  of  exoommuni- 

signed  to  look  after  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  Church;  cated  patriarchs  is  less,  it  is  because  there  an  almost 

I  am  appointed  bv  God  to  oversee  all  that  lies  out-  immediate  rupture  took  place  between  the  Catholics 

side."    And  Leo  III,  the  Isaurian,  wrote  to  Gregory  and  the  Monophysites  or  Monothelites.     Hence  we 

II:    "Do  you  not  know  that  I  am  both  priest  and  meet  fewer  heretics  in  these  patriarchal  sees  for  the 

king?'' — Priest,  bishop,  Isaposidoa,  Apostk  himself,  very  good  reason  that  in  these  places  the  heretics 

the  Basileus  was  placed  there  to  guard  the  purity  of  quickly  set  up  their  own  separate  churches,  whereas  in 

dogma;  he  ^ve  legal  sanction  to  the  decisions  of  Byzantium,  the  seat  of  the  central  power,  both  Catho- 

councils  and  inserted  their  canons  in  the  public  code,  lies  and  heretics  either  could  not  or  did  not  dare  set  up 

He  convened  general  councils,  was  present  at  their  ecclesiastical  bodies  distinct  from  the  State  Church, 

sessions,  or  sent  his  representative  to  thein;  he  con-  but  were  constrained  to  accept  orthodox  or  heterodox 

trolled  their  discussions,  and  only  permitted  the  bish-  teaching  according  to  the  bias  of  the  emperors.     Often 

ops  to  leave  when  they  had  defined  and  legislated  were  the  Greek  bishops  constrained  to  stifle  the  voice 

accordiii^  to  the  Faith  and  the  canons,  or  even  accord-  of  conscience.    Probably  no  Church  can  furnish  so 

ing  to  his  own  wishes.     If  he  frecjuently  chose  patri-  manv  examples  of  the  land.    In  449  more  than  two 

archs  and  bishops,  he  was  not  remiss  in  deposing  them  hundred  bisnops  at  the  Robber  Synod  of  Ephesus  de- 

as  soon  as  they  stood  in  his  waj.    Orthodox  and  fined  Monophysitism  as  a  dogma,  while  two  years  later, 

virtuous  patriarchs  were  the  victims  of  wicked  em-  at  the  Council  of  Chaloedon,  six  hundred  and  thirty 

Eerors»  while  immoral  or  heretical  ones  were  cast  out  bishops  approved  the  dogma  of  the  two  natures.  In 
y  orthodox  emperors.  But  it  was  always  a  matter  476  the  Basileus  made  five  hundred  bishops  sign  a  re- 
of  politics,  and  tne  Church  was  merely  a  pawn  in  the  tractation  of  the  teaching  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
despotic  hands  of  the  State.  This  condition  has  been  while  in  458  Emperor  Leo  I  obtained  an  equal  number 
happihr  described  by  an  expressive  barbarism  as  the  of  signatures  in  favour  of  that  same  council.  The 
rule  of  Caesaropapism.  same  bishops  said  Yea  and  Nay  within  a  few  years  of 
The  relations  that  grew  up  between  Rome  and  the  each  other  with  a  facility  that,  to  say  the  least,  is  dis- 
Greek  Churches  during  the  long  period  from  the  death  concerting.  In  681  at  the  Sixth  (Ecumenical  Council 
of  Constantine  the  Great  to  the  end  of  the  Iconoclast  the  whole  Greek  episcopate  pronounced  itself  in  favour 
persecutions  (337-^43)  were  far  from  cordial.  In  of  the  two  wills  in  Jesus  Christ,  yet,  in  712,  the  same 
principle  East  and  West  were  united ;  in  fact  they  episcopate,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  bishops,  sol- 
were  separated  during  most  of  that  time.  During  emnly  approved  the  condemnation  of  the  former 
those  506  years  the  Greek  Church  was  in  open  schism  council  pronounced  by  the  Emperor  Philippious,  and 
with  Rome  during  seven  periods  aggregating  at  least  retracted  its  disapproval  one  year  afterwards.  In 
248  years.  The  sum  total  is  reckoned  thus:  (1)  The  753,  at  the  conciliaoulum  of  Hi^ria,  near  Chaloedon, 
schism  in  connexion  with  St.  Athanasius  and  Arian-  388  Greek  bishops  applauded  the  Iconoclast  edicts  of 
ism,  from  the  Council  of  Sardica  (343)  to  the  accession  Constantine  Copronymus,  and  in  787,  at  the  Seventh 


763  QBSSK 

General  Council,  iheyr  condemned  his  memory  and  doco-B3r2antine  liturey  which  is  in  the  main  a  copy  of 

restored  the  cultus  of  images.         ^  the  Syriac.    It  was  by  bishops  who  were  natives  of 

Degradation  of  wiU,  and  slavery  of  the  whole  epis-  Syria  or  Cappadocia — Eusebius,  Eudoxius,  Gregory 
cofxate  to  the  whims  of  the  emperors — such  are  the  Nazianzen,  Nectarius,  John  Chrysostom,  and  Nestor- 
main  causes  of  these  wretched  tergiversations.  No  ius — that  the  Church  of  Constantinople  was  gov- 
doubt  there  were  some  noble,  though  rare,  exceptions  emed  at  the  time  of  its  foundation  and  definite 
among  the  bishops  and  among  the-  monks.  Be  it  organization,  and  it  is  this  Bvzantine  liturgy  that 
understood,  their  knowledge  is  not  in  question.  On  has  survived  in  all  Greek  Cnurehes,  whether  Or- 
this  score  bishops  and  monks,  as  a  rule,  were  ahead  of  thodox  or  Uniat,  in  the  Patriarchates  of  Alexandria 
their  brethren  m  the  West.  This  is  one  of  the  things  and  Jerusalem,  in  the  Churches  of  Cyprus,  Servia, 
that  startle  the  student  of  the  ecclesiastical  literature  Greece,  Bulgaria,  Russia,  Rumania,  and  others, 
of  the  two  Churches  during  this  same  period.  In  the  just  as  the  Roman  Litur^  has  predominated  in 
East  there  is  no  such  suspension  of  literary  actjvity  as  all  the  Latin  Churches.  It  should  be  noted,  how- 
we  know  to  have  lasted  in  the  West  from  the  period  ever,  that  in  the  majority  of  these  Churches  Greek  is 
of  the  Germanic  invasions  to  the  magnificent  emores-  not  the  liturgical  languagei  but  Arabic,  or  Slavonic,  or 
cence  of  the  Middle  Ages.  But  the  Latin  Church  had  Rumanian,  mto  which  the  text  of  the  Greek  Liturgy 
oneincontestablesuperiority  over  its  rival:  it  had  one  has  been  literally  translated.  For  the  Byzantine 
centre  of  gravitjr,  IU>me,  and  always  recognized  the  liturgy  there  exist,  besides  the  Mass  of  the  Presancti- 
papacy  as  the  visible  head  of  the  Church.  The  ec-  fied.  Known  to  have  existed  since  the  year  615,  two 
clesiological  doctrine  of  the  Eastern  Church,  on  the  complete  litur^s:  that  of  St.  Basil,  in  almost  univer- 
contrary,  is  very  rudimentary;  they  do  not  appeal  to  sal  use  in  the  East  about  the  year  620  (P.  L.,  LXV, 
Rome,  and  reco^ize  its  imprescriptible  rights  only  449),  and  that  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  which  is  the 
very  rarely  and  m  extreme  cases.  With  the  exoep-  one  mainly  followed  at  present, 
tion  of  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  St.  Theodore  the  Of  the  Alexandrian  Liturgy,  omitting  certain  later 
Studite,  and  a  few  other  rare  examples,  the  bishops  or  doubtful  copies,  we  have  three  complete  texts:  the 
and  theologians  of  the  Greek  Churcn  never  touch  on  Greek  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark,  which  seems  to  have  been 
the  primacy  of  Rome,  except  when  they  are  imploring  drawn  up  by  St.  Cyril;  the  Coptic  Liturgy,  said  to  be 
the  pope's  help  to  bring  a  dangerous  adversary  to  rea-  by  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  and  the  Abyssinian  Lit- 
son.  The  danger  past — the  shock  avoided — they  urgy  of  the  Twelve  Apostles.  Each  of  these  repre- 
have  forgotten  everything.                                 «  sents  a  different  ^up  of  the  same  rite,  and  all  are 

The  primitive  Church,  Grseco-Syriac  in  speech,  as  fundamentally  alike. 

we  have  said,  adopted  the  liturgy  of  the  synagogue,  Bburlzbr,  Sur  Ua  vetUgea  du  euUe  impirial  h  Byzanee  in  Revue 

which  consisted  of  reading  from  tiie  Bible,  hynmns.  ^2^^  ^tSSSTrJJ^i  tiy^  i^t^Tsii)'^i^t 

homilies  on  some  subject  furnished  by  the  readmg,  zer,  Daa  Verhdltnia  wm  Stoat  und  Kxrche  in  Byzanz  in  Histor- 

and  prayers.     To  this  was  added  the  sacred  banquet  i»che  ZeiUehrift  (1901),  195-252;  Briohtman,  IMurpieaEa»tern 

of  i\Zk  <^iinnor  inaf if iifi^H  hv  PVirisf    with  nrnvprn  and  ^nd  Western  (Oxford,  1906):  Robxrtbon,  TKe  Dtvtne  LUurgtes 

Of  the  aupper  mstltUtea  Dy  tJinst,  Wlin  prajrers  SJia  .  ^^  Fathe^  among  the  iaints,  John  Chryeoetom,  BaeU  tht 

ntual  forms  borrowed  for  the  most  part  from  the  Oreat,  with  that  of  the  I^esanctified  (London,  lS94)\¥oBTtiacvK, 

synoptic  Gospels  and  from  St.  Paul.      We  first  find  The  Divine  Liturgy  of  our  Father  among  the  SainU,  John  Chrya- 

wmewhat  precise  indications  of  U.is  liturgy  in  the  ST  (^Slfet'.'^V)^5iS."S?;  ^^l^S^'lt^Z.m- 

"Teachmg  of  the  Apostles",  the  Epistle  of  Pope  St.  calia  Ecdeeia  Graca   (Paria.   1643);  GoAR,  Euchologion,  »ivt 

Clement,  and  the  First  Apology  of  St.  Justin.    ''From  Rituale  Qraeorum  (Paris,  1647);  Dbnzinoxr,  Ritue  orientalium 

■fViAOA"    aova  DiiohMnA   fOriompji  du  ciiltp  chr^tipn  •  •  •  w  odminMirtmrfM  •acram«fi<M  (WQraburg,  1863);  Daniel, 

^N  '  ,^y®  lJUCnesne   ^ungujes  au  cun«  cnreuen,  ^^^^^  liturgicua  ecdena  orientalis  et  oceidentalia  (Innsbruck, 

p.  63),  "we  must  descend  at  once  to  the  fourth  cen-  1396);  Chabon,  Lea  aaintea  a  divinea  liturgiea  de  .  .  .  Jean 

tury.     It  is  about  this  period  that  we  come  upon  Chryaoatome,BaaileleOrand,elOrigoireleOrand{VfinB,1904); 

documenta  of  a  kind  that  may  be  made  vwe  of,  be«--  "^'^rg-o^tf  o!^  t  fSSf  ilSi^'^X^s^t. 

mg  upon  the  liturgical  usages  which  were  afterwards  Chrialian  Worahip  (London,  1904);  Probot,  Ltturaie  dea  vierten 
completed  and  diversified  until  they  became  what  we  Jahrhunderta  undderen  Reform  (Manster.  1803);  Cluonbt,  Die- 
see  them."    This  same  author  adds  that  from  that  *l?:!^f XtS;^~i  sSi^ '^^^^^ 

^^.    ,   .-    .              'ui     A        1       •*        11   1     ^ I'i.     .^  grecQua  {rBrat  lovo).     Bee  also  LiBcuibcq  m  Lnct.  aarcneol. 

penod  it  IS  possible*  to  classify  all  known  hturgies  If^imne  etdeliturgie,  a.  w.  Alexandria;  Antioche. 

under  "four  principal  tjrpes:  the  Syriac,  the  Alexan- 
drian, the  Roman,  and  the  Gallican.  .  .  .  The  Syriac  (3)  The  Greek  Schism;  Conversion  of  the  Slavs  (Ninth 
had  already  given  way  to  many  sub-types,  each  hav-  U)  Eleventh  Century). — ^The  Greek  Schism,  about  which 
ing  its  distinct  characteristics.''  We  shall  here  deal  space  permits  us  to  say  very  little  (see  Photius; 
omy  with  the  Syriac  and  Alexandrian  types,  the  only  Michael  Calubariub),  was  caused  by  something 
ones  used  in  the  East.                                          ^  that  must  have  seemed  trivial  at  Constantinople. 

The  Syriac  type,  properly  so-called,  followed  in  the  On  23  November,  868,  the  Patriarch  Ignatius  was 

Patriaronates  of  Antioch  and  Jerusalem,  as  well  as  in  deposed,  and  on  25   December  in  the  same  year 

the  Churoh  of  Cyprus,  is  mainly  represented  by  the  Photius  succeeded  him.     Ignatius  was  deposed  be- 

Greek  or  Syriac  Liturgy  of  St.  James  and  other  anal-  cause  he  had  refused  Communion  to  the  Emperoi 

ogous  liturgies.    Up  to  the  Arabic  invasion  Mass  was  Bardas,  who  was  living  openly  in  sin  with  his  daugh- 

said  in  Greek,  except  in  the  country  churehes,  where  ter-in-law.    It  was  not  tne  nrst  time  at  Byzantium 

Syriac  was  used.    This  latter  speech  was  adopted  by  that  for  more  or  less  lawful  actions  an  orthodox  patri- 

the  Jacobites  as  their  liturcical  language  when  they  areh  had  been  deposed  and  another  appointed  in  his 

separated  from  the  official  Chureh.    In  our  day  these  place.    Thus,  among  other  examples,  Macedonius  II 

heretics  and  the  Uniat  S3rrians  are  the  only  ones  who  had  succeeded  Euphemius  in  496;  John  III  had  suc- 

retain  the  Syriac  rite,  with  some  modifications  especi-  ceeded  Eutychius  m  565:  Cyrus  had  succeeded  Callini- 

ally  noteworthy  in  the  Maronite  Churoh.  cus  in  706,  and  John  VI  had  replaced  Cyrus  in  712, 

A  sub-type  of  the  Syriac  rite  is  represented  by  the  without   causing   any   great   commotion.    Ignatius 

liturges  used  in  the  S3rriac  Churches  of  Mesopotamia  mi^t  then  have  let  things  take  their  course  and 

and  Persia;  the  liturgy  of  Sts.  Addeus  and  Maris,  still  waited  in  his  retreat  till  fortune  turned  his  way  once 

in  use  among  the  Nestorians  and  the  Uniat  Chaldeans,  more.    This  he  did  not  do,  and,  if  he  was  somewhat 

is  another  example.    Another  sub-type  is  represented  lacking  in  suppleness,  his  right  was  incontestable, 

by  the  Armenian  Ijiturgy,  also  derived  from  that  of  Once  he  had  refused  to  consent  to  his  deposition.  Pope 

Antioch,  but  modified  since  491,  when  the  Armenians  Nicholas  I  was  bound  to  uphold  him  and  to  condemn 

separated  from  the  Greek  Churches  and  marked  the  Photius,  who  was  an  outright  usurper.    Photius  was 

separation  by  adding  to  the  divergencies  of  their  rites,  clever  enough  to  see  that  a  rupture  with  Rome  on  this 

Lastly,  a  third  sub-type  is  represented  by  the  Cappa-  point  would  not  satisfy  even  the  Greeks,  so  he  cast 


764 


about  for  another  issue.  He  took,  one  bjr  one,  the 
many  causes  for  separation  that  had  been  in  tbd  air 
for  centuries  and  united  them  into  a  body  of  doctrine : 
then,  confident  in  his  learning  and  prestige,  he  decided 
to  give  battle.  The  insertion  of  the  "Filioaue" 
clause  in  the  Creed,  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Gnost 
a6  tUroquef  etc.,  were  so  many  reasons  which  were 
bound  to  have  their  effect  upon  the  leading  minds 
when  the  question  of  the  separation  came  up.  Then 
a^ain  the  popes'  acknowledgment  of  the  Frankish 
kmgs  as  Emperors  of  the  West  was  bound  to  cany 
weight  in  Bvsantine  political  circles.  Moreover,  it 
was  evident  by  this  time  that  between  the  Latin  and 
Greek  worlds  there  existed  a  chasm  which  must  grow 
broader  with  the  years.  However,  the  Photius  affair 
was  arramged.  lenatius  forgave  his  rival  and,  it  ap- 
pears, on  his  deatn-bed  designated  him  as  his  succes- 
sor. Pope  John  VIII  sanctioned  this  choice,  and  if 
subseouent  popes  excommunicated  Photius  it  was  for 
special  reasons  not  yet  sufficientlv  known. 

In  886,  Photius  was  deposed  by  the  Emperor  Leo 
VI,  who  disliked  him,  and,  oetween  893  and  901,  a  rec- 
onciliation of  the  two  Churches  was  effected  by  Pope 
John  IX  and  the  Patriarch  Antonius  Cauleas.  Dur- 
ing the  entire  tenth  century,  and  the  first  part  of  the 
eteventh,  relations  between  the  Roman  and  the  Greek 
Churches  were  excellent.  There  were,  no  doubt,  occa- 
sional difficulties,  alwajrs  unavoidable  in  societies  dif- 
ferent in  customs,  speech,  and  civilisation,  but  we  may 
almost  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  union  between  the 
Churches  was  as  deep  and  sincere  as  it  was  during  the 
firat  three  centuries  of  Christianity.  Michael  Csrula- 
rius,  however,  desired  a  schism  for  no  other  reason, 
apparently,  than  to  satisfy  his  pride,  and  in  1054  he 
succeeded  in  making  one  at  the  very  time  when  everyr" 
thing  seemed  to  promise  a  lasting  peace.  For  this 
purpose  he  brougnt  forward,  besides  the  theological 
reasons  stated  by  Photius,  manv  others  that  Photius 
had  neglected  or  merely  hinted  at,  and  which  were 
judged  particularly  fitted  to  catch  the  popular  fancy. 
The  use  of  azymes,  or  unleavened  bread,  in  the  liturgy, 
the  celibacy  imposed  on  all  priests  in  the  West,  the 
warlike  manners  of  Western  oishops  and  priests,  the 
shaven  face  and  the  tonsure,  the  Saturday  fast,  and 
other  such  divergencies  of  practice  were  used  to  dis- 
credit the  Latin  Church.  Thou^tful  men  may  not 
have  been  misled  by  these  specious  arguments,  but 
the  mass  of  the  people  and  the  monks  were  certainly 
influenced,  and  at  Constantinople  it  was  they  who 
made  up  public  opinion.  For  this  very  reason  the 
policy  of  Michael  Oeerularius,  petty  and  superficial  as 
it  was,  was  better  fitted  than  that  of  Photius  to  brine 
about  permanent  results.  Indeed,  so  thoroughly  did 
it  cut  off  the  Greek  pecmles  from  Rome  that  since 
then  she  has  never  won  them  back. 

Unfortunately,  this  movement  of  separation  imder 
Photius  and  Michael  Caerularius  was  on  foot  at  the  very 
time  when  the  Slavs  were  being  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, a  fact  in  the  histoi^  of  the  evangelization  of 
the  nations  second  only  in  importance  to  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Germanic  races.  The  Servians  and  Crosr 
tians,  settled  by  the  Emperor  Heraclius  (610-41)  on 
the  lands  they  still  inhabit,  had  adopted  the  Christian 
teaching  of  Roman  priests  and  bishops.  But  the 
progress  of  the  new  religion  was  so  slow  that  a  second 
conversion  was  deem^  necessary.  ^  It  took  place 
under  the  Emperor  Basil  the  Macedonian  (867-86) ;  as 
it  was  entrusted  to  Byzantine  missionaries  the  Greek 
Rite* of  Constantinople  was  adopted.  This  had  no 
small  weight  in  detacnin^  from  Rome  whole  provinces 
that  were  formerly  silbject  to  it,  and  when  these 
numerous  Servian  Churcnes  broke  away  from  Byzan- 
tium, it  was  to  organize  autonomous  ecclesiastical 
bodies  independent  of  both  Rome  and  Constantinople. 
In  this  wa^  a  whole  region  was  lost  to  Catholicism. 
The  Bulgarians,  who  hiul  crossed  the  Danube  about 
the  same  time  as  the  Servians,  formed  a  more  or  less 


homogeneous  nation  with  the  Slavs  and  became  a 
warrior  people  that  more  than  once  struck  terror  into 
the  heart  of  the  Byzantine  Basileus.  Towards  the  end 
of  864,  or  in  the  opening  months  of  865,  their  king, 
Boris,  was  baptizea  by  a  Greek  bishop  and  took  the 
name  of  Michael  after  his  godfather,  ue  Emperor  of 
Byzantium.  Photius,  who  was  patriarch  at  the  time, 
did  not  see  his  way  to  granting  all  the  demands  of  King 
Boris,  so,  like  a  cunning  politician,  the  latter  turned  to 
Rome  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  successively  several 
missionaries  to  organize  the  new-bom  Qiurcn  within 
his  territory.  His  next  step  was  to  send  away  all  the 
Germanand  Byzantine  missionaries  whom  he  found 
there,  ^is  real  ambition  was  to  have  a  patriarch  of 
his  own  who  would  anoint  him  emperor  just  as  the 
Greek  patriarch  anointed  the  Basileus  at  Constanti- 
nople, and  as  thepope  anointed  the  Germanic  emperor 
of  the  West.  Whether  he  sot  his  patriarch  from 
Rome  or  from  Constantinople  mattered  little;  the 
main  thing  was  to  have  one  at  any  cost.  Rome  did 
not  fall  in  with  his  plan,  and  Boris  turned  again  to 
Constantinople,  thereby  initiating  a  serious  misunder- 
standing between  Rome  and  Constantinople  which 
considerably  added  to  the  strain  occasioned  by  the 
affairs  of  Ignatius  and  Photius.  Rome  daimed  the 
Bulgarians  as  inhabitants  of  ancient  Qlyricum  (her 
former  ecclesiastical  territory)  and  as  having  been 
baptized  by  her  missionaries:  Constantinople  diaimed 
that  its  priests  had  converted  the  Bulgarians,  that  the 
land  was  once  imperial  territory,  and  that  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon  haa  given  Constantinople  the  right  to 
consecrate  bishops  for  all  barbarian  countries.  Be- 
tween the  two  Cnurches  the  Bulgarians  did  not  know 
which  way  to  turn.  They  retained  the  Byzantine 
Rite,  which,  with  its  elaborate  ceremonial,  made  a 
deep  impression  upon  their  child-like  imaginations, 
and,  formallv,  the^r  submitted  to  Greek  bishops,  until 
they  should  nave  bishops  and  a  patriarch  of  their  own. 
When,  in  886,  the  disciples  of  Sts.  Cyril  and  Metho- 
dius, expelled  from  Moravia  by  King  Swiatopluk,  took 
refuge  in  Bulgaria,  thev  were  received  with  open  arms, 
llie  newcomers  introduced  into  Bulgaria  the  Byzan- 
tine Liturey,  but  in  Uie  Slavonic  tongue,  whereas 
hitherto  the  Bulgarian  priests  had  usra  the  Greek 
language.  From  Bulgaria  this  Byzantino-Slavonie 
Liturgy  spread  among  the  Servians,  the  Russians,  and 
all  the  Slav  peoples. 

The  first  Bulgsirian  patriarchate  was  originally 
established  at  Pereiaslaf ,  then  was  transferred  to  van- 
ous  centres  in  Western  Bulgaria,  finally  to  Ochrida 
(see  Achrida).  In  1019  it  was  suppressed,  when  the 
town  of  Ochrula  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Byzantines, 
or  rather  it  was  converted  into  an  independent  aidi- 
bishopric.  As  such  it  lasted  until  1767,  when  it  was 
defimtively  suppressed.  However,  ind«;>endent  patri- 
archate or  autonomous  archdiocese,  the  Bul^rian 
Church  was  from  its  foundation  powerfully  influenced 
bv  Constantinople :  the  long  series  of  its  Greek  or 
Hellenistic  archDishope  shared  at  all  times  the  anti- 
Roman  feelines  of  that  city.  The  Russian  (3hurch  is 
also  a  spiritual  daughter  of  Constantinople  (see  Rus- 
sia). We  need  not  relate  here  the  conversion  of  that 
nation;  it  probably  took  place  about  853,  perhaps  a 
little  earlier,  and  both  Latins  and  Greeks  probably 
participated  in  it.  Proeress  was  very  slow,  nowever, 
and  when  the  Czarina  CNga  wished  to  become  a  Chris- 
tian she  had  to  go  to  Constantinople  for  instruction 
and  baptism,  on  which  occasion  she  took  the  name  of 
Helena  (c.  956  or  957).  Olga's  conversion  had  no 
sreat  influence;  the  czar,  Sviatoslav  (964-972),  re- 
fused to  yield  to  her  wishes  that  he  should  also  be  a 
Christian.  It  was  not  till  989  that  Prince  Vladimir 
allowed  himself  to  be  baptized,  and  ordered  that  his 
subjects  should  ever  afterwards  receive  baptism. 

llie  Russian  Church  was  probably  organized  at  this 
time^  and  a  Greek  metropolitan  sent  by  the  Byzantine 
patriarch  was  installed  at  Kiev,  the  Kussiaa  capital. 


765 

Unfortunately,  we  have  no  "NotitiaEpisoopatuum"  of  have  been  a  false  accusation,  unless  some  Latin  mis- 
the  Bvzantine  Church  contemporary  with  this  event,  sionaries  sinned  through  excess  of  seal.  The  primacy 
The  ''*Notitia"  of  dSO  naturally  miJces  no  reference  to  of  the  pope  had  always  been  recognized  by  the  patn- 
Kiev,  and  the  next  ''Notitia"  extant  goes  from  1081  to  archs  of  the  East,  and  by  Photius  himself,  as  long  as 
1118  only;  in  that  year  Uie  metropoutan  See  of  Kiev  the  pope  was  wiUing  to  condescend  to  their  wishes, 
appeals  as  number  60 ;  similarly,  m  the  "Notitla"  of  The  first  letter  of  Photius  to  Pope  Nicholas  I  does  not 
Manuel  Comnenus  which  appeared  about  1170.  In  differ  from  those  of  his  predecessors,  save  for  its  more 
this  document  Kiev  appears  as  presidine  over  eleven  submissive  tone  and  more  humble  diction.  Appeals 
suffragan  sees,  and  this  is  the  earliest  imormation  we  to  the  pope  from  the  East  between  the  secona  and 
have  concerning  the  hierarchy  of  the  Russian  Church,  ninth  centuries  are  very  numerous.  And  as  for  the 
The  head  of  Uus  Church  had  a  rather  inferior  place  in  Greek  theory  of  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  it 
the  Byzantine  hierarchy,  but  exercised  the  prero^  was  no  new  thine  in  the  ninth  century:  St.  JohnDam- 
tives  of  an  exarch  (q.  v.)  and,  once  installed,  adminis-  ascene  and  St.  Maximus  of  Chrysopolis  had  favoured 
tered  freely  his  ecclesiastical  province.  He  consecrated  this  doctrine  long  before  Photius  and  were  never  ac- 
its  bishops,  crowned  its  czars,  and  he  usually  resided  cused  of  heresy.  It  would,  therefore,  have  been  easy 
at  Kiev.  Generally,  a  Greek  was  chosen  for  the  office,  to  find  a  common  ground  or  compromise  that  would 
so  that  the  medieval  Russian  Church  was  but  an  have  humonized  the  teaching  of  both  schools.  Pass- 
extension  of  the  Byzantine  Qiurch,  sharing  the  liturgy,  ing  from  Photius  to  Michael  Cffirularius,  we  find  only 
the  dogmatic  teaching,  and  the  ecclesiastical  antip*  one  new  complaint  directed  against  the  Latins,  and 
athies  of  the  latter.  that  Uturgicsd:  the  use  of  tmleavened  bread  (see 
VABiuui,  Bywantium  and  th€  ArahaJRuaaxa,  St.  Petanburg,  AzTMBS).     On  this  point  the  dispute  was  impossible 

1900-02);  Popov.  Tfc«  Emperor  Leo  Vl  ^,  Wue,afidHuGov-      £  gettlement,  since  each  Church  had  been  using  its 

emment  from  the  Eedeaiaat^co^utortcdl  Pomt  of  View  CRvaumn,  ^*  oowmwi'o***,  «muv«  ^^^  v**«*v**  ai»i*  k^am.  uc»xa|^  .iw 

Moseow/ 1892);  Rambaud,  L* empire  ffree  au  X*  eihde.    Conr  own  particular  kmd  of  bread  from  time  immemorial. 

etantin  PorphurogHikte  (Pans,  1870);  Lbonhabdt,  KaUerNic^  Fresh  differences  in  the  meantime  arose:  the  placing 

flg^iw  Ih  Phocae,  und  i»?^«"«^»*»'^.W?  JS  ^^t  (about  the  thirteenth  centurv)  of  the  Epidesis  before 

1887);  8GHI.UMBBROBR,  NtcSphore  Phoeae  (Pans,  1890);  Idbm.  V  ^n  »»"**«««*««*  v«*v«aj/  vi  mi^  xjptw«>u>  m^wid 

L'Epopie  bymntine  aux  X'  el  XI*  eikdea  (Paris.  1896-1905);  the  Consecration;  Purgatory,  which  the  Greeks  would 

Mabdisb,   Theodmu,  Michael  stratiptikQe,  Jaaae  Conmmot  not  admit,  although  they  prayed  for  the  dead  and 

KSSTfl^'  *^S?Sr^S^*SS):^  W;SS. »  mortifed  themselves  in  their  bAalf ;  the  full  glorifi«|. 

rope  H  U  SaininSiiife  it  Vfpoirue  Carolinoien  (Paris,  1895),  1, 30-  tioo  of  the  just  pnor  to  the  general  judgment;  the 

170;,  JjtB&DMY,  story  of  the  Separation  of  the  Churchy  in  the  general  judgment  itself,  which  they  rejected,  as  did 

Ninth-EleveiUh  CeiUunee  (Russian,  Moscow,  19(X));   Pxchlbb,  ^i_^  anrnft  T^tin  TriAr^iAval  fliAnlAoinria*    fh«»  tnuina  n§ 

Geachichte  der  kircMichen  Trennung  xwiechen  den  Orient  im3  ^^^  ^ome  LAtm  nxeOieval  tneolOgians^    tne  givmg  01 

Occident  (Munich,  1864-45);  Allattob.  De  ecdeeim  oeciden'  commumonto  the  laity  under  one  species;  baptism  by 

talis  aiqu*  ^crienudia  pemetud  conam^one  (Cologne,  iftM);  infusion.    To  all  those  differences  were  to  be  added  in 

^JSSSr  tet°f:?S)f  L':i2LT^Cn5bSf?  SirSS  ^  nineteenth  oentmy  «»e  do«na  of  the  Immaculate 

btmu,  Staatakirdie  seiner  ZeU  (Berlin.  1857);  Maimbottbq.  Conception  and  that  of  Papal  Infalhbihty.    Merely 

Hiatoire  du  schisms  dee  Orees  (Pans,  1677) :  Dbuxtracopoulob,  for  the  sake  of  recording  them,  we  may  mention  Utur- 

S^^dS^^Jtil^.  ?^'S»^«SSS ^  ^differences,  as tiie  manner  of  fasting  in  Lent,  the 

on  the  Schism  of  the  Western  ChurdK  frjm  the  Orthodox  East  adoption  of  a  new  calendar,  the  manner  of  makmg  the 

(Greek,  Athens,  1896);  Will,  Acta  etseriptaqtuBdecontroversiia  gign  of  the  CrosS — causes  of  offence  which  the  Greek 

t^  ffiS^'o^^^^JSJJJSSS:  ^  ir^^«  ^  (teS:  clwgy  took  pleasure  in  keeping  alive  ,md  which  made 

Moscow,  1902);  Bb^hixb.  Le  ttAiame  oriental  du  XI*  sikcle  a  deep  unpression  on  a  people  devoted  to  trifles  and, 

(Fiuis,  1899).  generally,  very  ignorant. 

•  Papal  Efforts  at  Reunion. — ^The  breach  declared  in 
^4)  Effaria  tcwarda  Reunion;  The  Crueades  {Eleventh  1054  has  never  been  repaired.  Yet  this  has  not  been 
to  FiftemUi  Century) . — ^In  spite  of  the  emperor  and  the  the  fault  of  the  popes.  As  early  as  1072  we  find  Alex- 
Court,  who  favoured  an  unaerstanding  with  Rome  and  ander  II  eager  for  reunion.  This  attempt  failed  be- 
the  West,  Michael  Cserularius  proclaimed  his  schism  in  cause  of  the  unflinching  opposition  of  the  philosopher 
1054.  He  was  followed  by  most  of  the  clergy,  also  by  Michael  Psellos,  the  Patriarch  Xiphilinos,  and  their  f a- 
the  monks  and  the  Greek  people.  Peter,  the  Patn-  natical  friends.  Thenceforth  until  the  fall  of  Constanti- 
arch  of  Antioch.  held  aloof  from  this  violent  measure,  nople  (1453)  the  popes  multiplied  letters,  embassies, 
but  died  soon  aiterwards,  and  his  successor  went  over  and  paternal  advice  to  win  back  the  erring  Greeks  to 
to  Cserularius.  The  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  usually  the  fold  of  orthodoxy,  and  to  keep  them  there  on  their 
resident  at  Constantinople,  sided  with  the  bishop  of  return.  All  in  vain.  The  two  reconciliations  ef- 
the  capital;  the  Greek  Archbishop  of  Ochrida  was  de-  fected  by  the  Coimcils  of  Lyons  (1274)  and  of  Florence 
votcxl  to  Cserularius  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  stir  up  (1439)  were  solely  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  popes  and 
the  question  of  the  azymes  as  a  grievance  against  the  Bvsantine  emperors.  At  Lyons  Michael  VIII. 
Rome.  Lastly,  the  heatd  of  the  Russian  Church  was  PaJseofogus,  a  clever  politician,  proclaimed  himself  ana 
only  a.  metropolitan  dependent  on^  the  Bvzantine  his  peofue  (Catholics  m  order  to  save  his  crown  and  to 
Church.  Therefore,  with  the  exception  of  the  insig-  stay  the  formidable  armament  of  Charles  of  Anjou. 
nificant  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  who  at  first  tried  to  At  Florence  John  VII,  Palseologus,  came  to  beg  men 
&aee  with  both  parties,  all  the  Greek  Churches  had  and  arms  from  Europe  to  save  his  capital  from  the 
iSsen  sides  against  Catholicism  about  the  end  of  the  threatening  Turks.  It  would  be  difficult  for  an  im- 
eleventh  century.  In  the  years  that  elapsed  from  the  partial  historian  to  affirm  the  sincerity  of  their  de- 
death  of  Photius  (891)  to  the  fall  of  Constantinople  sire  for  religious  union.  One  thing  is  certain,  their 
(1453)  the  anti-Roman  doctrine  of  the  Greek  Church  clergy  followed  them  with  the  greatest  reluctance,  and 
took  definite  shape.  Photius  was  the  first  who  at-  at  Lyons  the  Greek  clergy  kept  aloof  from  any  union 
tempted  to  co-ordinate  all  possible  reasons  of  com-  with  Rome,  and  would  not  listen  to  it  at  any  price, 
plaint  against  the  Latins.  He  enumerated  seven  Michael  Paueolpgus  was  hardly  dead  (1282)  wnen  his 
chief  grievances:  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit  son  Andronicus  undid  all  that  he  had  accomplished, 
from  the  Father  and  the  Son,  the  insertion  of  the  and  even  denied  religious  burial  to  his  father;  more- 
"Filioaue"  clause  in  the  Creed,  the  primacy  of  the  over,  the  Catholic  patriarch,  John  Veccos,  was  de- 
pope,  tne  reconfirmation  of  those  connrmed  by  Greek  posed  together  with  all  his  friends, 
priests,  the  Saturday  fast,  the  use  of  milk  foods  during  John  Vll,  Palseologus,  who  had  agreed  to  the  union 
the  first  week  of  Lent,  the  obligation  of  celibacy  on  the    at  Florence,  either  could  not.  or  did  not  dare,  proclaim 

Sriests.    The  last  three  do  not  in  any  way  affect    it  in  his  capital.    He  fearea  either  the  anathemas  or 
ogma,  and  as  much  might  be  said  of  the  second.  The    the  intrigues  of  men  like  Mark  of  Ephesus,  or  Geoi^ 

reconfirmation  of  those  already  confirmed  seems  to  Scholarioe.    His  brother,  Constantme  Dragases,  the 


766 

last  of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  died  heroically  for  his  stone's  throw  of  Cotistantinople.  Before  the  Fnmk- 
oountry.  He,  also,  feared  at  the  beginning  of  his  ish  knights  Islam  retreated,  or  at  least  ceased  its  con- 
reign  to  impose  the  union  on  his  clergy  and  people,  quests,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Syria,  and  even  in  Egypt. 
He  had  to  wait  until  12  December,  1452,  hardly  six  And  if  in  the  fourteenth  centujy  it  was  enablSl  t« 
months  before  the  entry  of  the  Turks  into  the  capital,  resume  its  conc[uerin^  march  and  cross  into  Europe,  a 
when  Cardinal  Isidore  solemnly  proclaimed  the  union  menace  to  Christian  civilisation,  it  was  in  consequence 
of  Florence  in  the  church  of  Samt  Sophia.  Admiral  of  the  cessation  of  the  Crusades.  Nor  must  the 
Notaras'  cynically  observed  that  the  Greeks  preferred  foundation  of  the  many  Catholic  institutions  in  the 
the  turban  of  the  prophet  to  the  tiara  of  the  pope.  It  East,  which  long  outlasted  the  Crusades,  be  reckoned 
must,  however,  be  acknowledged  that  the  seeds  of  as  useless.  It  was  their  slow  but  continuous  efforts 
union  sown  by  the  missionaries  and  by  the  envoys  of  that  i)aved  the  way  for  the  emancipation  oi  many 
Rome  have  never  been  completely  stifled.  There  Christian  peoples  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  and  brought 
have  always  been  Greeks  who  were  sincerely  Catholics,  about  in  those  countries  that  increasing  influence  of 
even  in  the  dark&rt  days  of  their  country's  history,  the  Catholic  religion  which  we  now  behold.  "More 
Among  them  some  have  always  defended  with  theur  important  perhaps",  says  M.  Br6hier  in  "L'Eg^lise  et 
pens,  and  often  at  the  risk  of  their  lives,  the  unity  of  I'Orient  au  moyen  &ge:  les  Croisades"  (Paris,  1907), 
the  Church  and  the  primacy  of  Rome.  Demetraco-  p.  354,  "are  the  results  which  the  Crusades  never 
poulos,  it  is  true,  has  published  a  lengthy  list  of  dreamed  of  and  which  sprang  from  the  contact  of 
the  principal  anti-Roman  writers  among  the  Greeks,  Christendom  and  the  Orient.  The  very  complex 
but  it  would  be  easy  to  prepare  another  very  laroe  question  as  to  what  European  civilization  owes  to  the 
work  of  the  same  kind  exhibiting  the  pro-€athoiie  £last  cannot  be  discussed  nere;  yet  every  day  we  find 
activity  of  many  Greeks.  John  Veccos  (Beccos),  traces  of  the  charm  which  the  culture  of  the  East 
George  Acropolites,  Isidore  of  Kiev,  Bessarion,  Arcu-  exercised  on  Europe  before  and  during  the  Crusades, 
dius^  Allatius,  are  names  that  carry  weight  with  any  What  we  are  most  concerned  with  is  the  advance  thus 
unbiassed  historian,  and  they  had  many  disciples  and  made  in  geographical  knowledge  and,  in  consequence, 
imitators.  ^  in  the  spread  of  European  civilization  by  expeditions 
With  few  exceptions  the  popes  have  always  leaned  and  travels  in  the  East.  Asia  was  really  discovered  in 
to  the  religious  policy  of  recovering  the  East  by  every  the  thirteenth  century  by  those  Italian  missionaries 
means  of  pacification  and,  when  necessary,  by  theo- '  and  merchants  who  were  the  ^ests  of  the  Mon^lian 
logical  controversy.  This  last  means,  however,  was  as  Khans.  For  the  first  time  smce  the  expedition  of 
a  rule  foredoomed  to  failure.  Polemics  have  rarely  Alexander,  countries  which  until  then  had  remained  in 
converted  anyone,  and  when  carried  on,  as  in  the  the  penumbra  of  legend  appeared  as  a  reality."  Lit- 
Middle' Ages,  with  syllogisms  and,  above  all.  with  erature,  finsdly,  owes  mucn  to  the  Crusades,  which,  by 
insults  and  outrages,  then,  instead  qf  conciliating  the  literary  rdations  they  established  between  the 
and  calming  angry  souls,  they  leave  behind  them  Latin  and  Greek  worlds,  called  forth  the  magnificent 
only  bitterness,  asperity,  and  sometimes  hate.    If  movement  of  the  Renaissance. 

the   popes,    however,    were   misled   in   their  choice        For  gonenl  referenoe  worka  relating  to  the  Schism,  see  the 

of  weapons,  or  rather,  if  their  religious  representa-  foregoinff  bibliography. — Nordbn,  Das  Papsttvm  una  Bmnx 

tives  m  the  Eaat  abused  controv^y  and  polemic,  ^^^ali  k^^ik?^^!!^'^^^^  ^^it^ 

it  must  be  conceded  that  the  popes  stopped  there.  PuUie  Education  (Hussian.  St.  Peteraburg,  1867).  CXXXIII, 

The   violent    solution   of    the    Eastern    question   by  499-534;    Br^hibr,  L'EoIUb  ee  r  Orient  au  moyen  6ge:   Ua 

the  sword— the  crusade  which  was  to  profit  only  Sl^^^'^^j'SLi.^'  i?9^^  iw ***^V' £^^J!^ Jfti ^IPn^ 

♦k<*  XKT^^^^^c     »ao  «rv  ^»;»»  r^f  ♦i*^  .^^^      T,.  luiL  ChuTch  fum  the  end  of  the  Eleventh  to  the  Muidle  cf  thc  Ftfleenlk 

the  Westerns—was  no  doing  of  the  popes.     In  his  Century  (Russian,  Moscow.  1902);  Thbinbr.  Monumenta  epeo- 

Stimng  appeal  at  Clermont-Ferrand  that  set  afoot  the  tantia  ad  unionem  Eedeaiarum  oneca  et   TcmantM    (Vienna, 

first  armed  enterprise.  Urban  II  exhorted  the  Chris-  ^xvil^t"ll*87-W7?  D^Sral^ziSdi^iS^SiS' 

tians  of  the  West  to  save  their  brethren  in  the  East,  n«rfo(^  (1891).  XXjdiV.  326-65;  Omont  in  AiUiothigue  di 

even  before  undertaking  to  free  Jerusalem  and  the  Holy  VEcole  dee  Chartea  (Paris,  1892) ,  254-57 ;  Gai  ,  Le  Rape  Cument 

to    need    repeatmg    here— Innocent    III    denounced  tunachen  der  Orient  und  der  riimiachen  Kinhe  eeU  dem  Aueganife 

Vigorously  the  diversion  of  the  Fourth  Crusade  to  an  dee  XV  Jahrhunderte  Im  nan  Condi  von  Femra  (Yieona,  1858): 

attack  on  Zara  and  Constantinople  for  the  almost  X^I^Vw  fSi(?^f^'^SS&]£J?l*«2i^ 

exclusive  profit  of  Venice.    From^261  to  1282  (the  ^^^L^^iLl^^^iS^wi^X^^ 

Sicilian  Vespers)  Charles  of  Anion  was  hindered  from  <Mn.  II,  09-93;  DrAsbu,  Zum  KinheneiniQunQevenudi  dee 

making  war  on  Michael  Pabeplogua  and  recapturing  (^  j^  /S«/^Stf^C J^^^'^iriSfuSS: 

Constantmopie  solely  by  the  mtluence  of  the  Roman  i899).  See  also  for  further  bibliography  the  article  Cbusadbb. 
Curia.    It  would  therefore  be  an  injustice  to  blame 

the  popes  for  the  abortive  issue  of  the  Crusades.  Had  (a)  Internal  Organization  of  Byzantine  Churches,— 
they  been  supported  earnestly  by  East  and  West  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  Bulgarian  Fatriar 
alike,  Christendom  would  have  fared  immeasurably  chate  of  Ochrida,  which  about  1020  was  diangec 
better.  Unfortunately,  the  Catholic  States,  especially  into  an  autonomous  Grseoo-Bulearian  archbishopric 
the  Italian  Republics,  were  too  selfish  to  grasp  the  high  more  or  less  Hellenized,  and  which,  imtil  its  sup- 
moral  and  religious  significance  of  the  conduct  and  pression  in  1767,  remained  under  the  influence  of 
aims  of  the  popes.  As  a  rule,  the  only  success  of  con-  Constantinople.  Another  Bulgarian  patriarchate, 
temporary  politicians  was  in  embarrassing  the  popes,  that  of  Timovo,  was  established  in  12(M  by  le^tes 
The  East,  moreover,  it  must  be  admitted,  did  its  share  from  Innocent  III  and  remained  Catholic  for  a  long 
in  frustrating  the  work  of  the  Crusades.  Far  from  time.  Gradually,  however,  it  began  to  lean  towuxis 
assisting  the  generous  West  in  its  sublime  effort  to  the  Greeks,  till  it  finally  disappeued  in  1393,  and  its 
save  Christendom,  the  Greeks  saw  in  the  Crusades  only  bishops  all  passed  under  the  authority  of  the  oecumen- 
sources  of  profit  for  themselves  or  attempted  to  hinder  ical  patriarch.  Something  similar  happened  to  the 
their  success.  While  their  theologians  and  polemical  Servians.  Up  to  about  1204  they  were  on  the  most 
writers  showed  more  rudeness  and  spleen  in  contro-  cordial  relations  with  Rome,  although  it  is  probable 
versy  than  did  the  Latins,  their  princes  and  emperors  that  they  recomized  the  jurisdiction  of  Constant!- 
were  likewise  less  disinterested  than  the  leaders  of  the  nople.  In  1217  Sabas  the  Younger  crowned  his 
Crusades.  It  is  to  be  carefully  noted  that  the  crusad-  brother  king  in  the  pope's  name,  and  established  a 
ing  movement  was  by  no  means  a  complete  failure.  Servian  Church  which  was  at  first  composed  of  six 
At  the  time  of  the  First  Crusade,  in  the  eleventh  cen-  dioceses.  It  was  recognised  by  the  Bysantines  in 
tury.  the  Turks  were  in  possession  of  Nicsea,  within  a  1219.    In  1346  King  Stephen  Douchan  threw  off  all 


767 

ecclesiastical  dependence  on  Constantinople  and  set  up  and  servility  towards  the  State  was  the  order  of  the 

the  Servian  Patriarchate  of  Ipek,  which,  after  many  day  in  all  the  nmks  of  the  clergy.    The  patriarchs 

changes  of  fortune,  was  suppressed  in  1766  and  in-  were  obedient  tools  of  the  emperors.    Yet  uiere  were 

corporated  in  the  Byzantine  Church.    The  Russian  not  wanting  patriarchs  formeci  in  the  monastic  schools 

Church   continued    to   depend   on   Constantinople  who  had  the  courage  to  defend  their  rights  and  thr 

through  its  metropolitans  at  Kiev  and  at  Moscow  rights  of  the  Church  against  the  encroachment  of  the 

until  23  January,  1589,  when  the  Byzantine  patriarch,  civil  power. 

Jeremias  II,  pubUcly  recognized  its  autonomy,  ana  Monasticismwas  more  and  more  popular  throu^out 
consecrated  Job  the  first  patriarch  of  Moscow.  From  the  Greek  world.  In  Constantinople  there  were  hun- 
that  date  the  Russian  Church  passes  out  of  the  purview  dreds  of  monasteries,  and  every  provincial  town  tried 
of  this  article.  It  was  not  till  the  fourteenth  century  to  rival  the  capital,  so  that  the  Byzantine  empire  be- 
that  the  Church  of  Constantinople  succeeded  in  impos-  came  one  vast  Thebaid.  Outside  of  Byzantium  the 
ing  upon  the  Rumanian  people,  who  occupied  the  monasteries  formed  into  groups  which  surpassed  the 
north  bank  of  the  Danube,  a  Greek  ecclesiastical  fame  of  the  ancient  solitudes  of  Egypt  and  of  Pales- 
hierarchy  subject  to  itself.  This  was  done  through  tine.  Without  speaking  of  Southern  Italy,  rich  in 
themetropolitanseesof  AlaniaandBitzinia,  orSoter-  tireek  convents,  we  miui  not  omit  to  mention  the 
opolis,  with  the  later  sees  of  Hungaro-Wallachia,  famous  monasteries  of  Mount  Ossa,  of  the  Meteora,  of 
Maunv-Wallachia  (Moldavia),  and  Wallachia.  Phocis,  and  of  the  Peloponnesus.  On  Moimt  Olym- 
During  that  troubled  period  which  saw  the  estab-  pusinBith3mia  (theneigbbourhoodof  Broussa,Nicsa, 
lishment  of  the  Franks  in  the  East,  the  Greek  patri-  and  Ghemlek)  many  leligpous  centres  sprang  up.  On 
archates  of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem  a  little  comer  of  laiid.  with  a  maximum  lei^gth  of  63 
suffered  especially.  As  long  as  the  Latins  remained  miles  and  a  width  of  from  12  to  20  miles,  a  veritable 
undisputed  masters  of  these  regions,  their  Latin  patri-  oasis  of  monasticism  came  into  existence,  comprising 
archs  stubbornly  opposed  the  coexistence  of  Greek  at  that  time  more  than  a  hundred  convents.  These 
patriarchs,  so  that  tno  latter  had  no  choice  loft  but  to  convents,  usually  yery  well  filled,  sheltered  a  number 
take  refuge  in  Constantinople  at  the  Byzantine  Court  of  saints  and  ecclesiastical  celebrities.  Beginning 
and  to  ^vern  their  Churches  from  there  as  best  they  from  the  tenth  century,  the  peninsula  of  Athos  saw 
could.  This  method  soon  became  customary,  and  even  the  rise  of  monasteries  properly  so  called,  and  saw  the 
after  1453  the  patriarchs  continued  to  reside  at  the  cenobitic  usage  (commumty  life)  supplant  the  hap- 
Phanar.  The  Patriarch  of  Antioch  aloiie  returned  hazard  methods  of  earlier  days.  Tnen  it  was  that 
aeon  afterwards  to  his  own  territory.  In  the  seven-  vocations  aboimded,  and  the  holy  mountain  was 
teenth  century  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  ventured  transformed  into  an  earthly  paradise  of  monks.  The 
iftto  Palestine,  but  it  was  not  till  the  nineteenth  cen-  convents  known  to  have  existed  at  Mount  Athos  be- 
tury  that  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  left  the  shores  of  tween  the  tenth  century  and  the  thirteenth  numbered 
the  Bosphorus.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  more  than  a  hundred.  It  was  at  this  period,  too,  that 
Cyprus  and  Crete  (the  latter  being  directly  under  the  holy  moimtain  played  a  preponderating  pjart  in 
Constantinople)  were  unable  to  have  Greek  bishops  the  lehgious  history  of  Constantinople,  and  in  the 
during  the  long  centuries  that  those  islands  remained  fourteenth  century  the  Hesychastic  controversy, 
in  the  hands  of  the  Latins.  It  would  be  impossible  stirred  up  by  its  reli^ous,  became  the  dominating 
within  the  limits  at  our  disposal  to  give  an  exact  preoccupation  of  the  time.  There  were  many  other 
description  of  the  hierarchy  of  the  patriarchate  of  active,  though  not  so  well-known,  monastic  centres — 
Constantinople  from  the  tenth  to  the  fifteenth  cen-  e.  g.  Moimt  Latrus  near  Miletus,  Mount  Ganus,  and 
tury.  A  "Notitia  Episcopatuum''  drawn  up  soon  Mount  Galesius,  Mount  St.  Auxentius  near  Chalcedon, 
after  1453  reckons  72  metropolitan  sees,  8  autocei)hal-  the  islands  of  the  Archipela^  and  of  the  Gulf  of  Nico- 
ous  archbishoprics,  and  7S  suffragan  sees  divided  media,  the  region  of  Trebizond,  and  especially  the 
amon^  21  ecclesiastical  provinces  or  a  grand  total  of  vicinity  of  Csesarea  in  Cappadocia,  with  its  picturesque 
158  dioceses.  This  relatively  small  number  of  dio-  laurce  clinging  to  the  slopes  of  the  hills. 
oeses  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  Asia  Minor  was  then  The  constant  controversies  with  the  Latins  did  not 
but  an  immense  rum,  and  that  in  Europe,  in  the  mar  prevent  the  rise  of  other  controversies  that  sometimes 
jority  of  the  Venetian  or  Prankish  possessions,  the  divided  the  B3rzantine  Empire  into  opposing  camps 
presence  of  Greek  bishops  was  not  tolerated.  just  as  in  the  heurt  of  the  Anan  and  Monophysite  con- 
Space  forbids  us  sa3dng  more  than  a  few  words  on  nicts.  We  shall  mention  but  a  few.  In  1082  a  coun- 
the  domestic  historv  of  the  Greek  Church.  The  eleo-  cil  condemned  the  philosopher  Italos,  a  subtile  logician 
tion  of  the  patriarch  belonged  by  right  to  the  Holy  whose  errors  had  been  refuted  by  the  Emperor  Alexius 
Synod;  de  facto,  as  we  have  seen,  it  was  the  Basileus  I,  Comnenus.  Four  years  later,  Leo,  metropolitan  of 
or  emperor,  who  elected  him.  Limited  as  was  the  Chalcedon,  was  accused  of  dving  to  images  the  cultus 
authority  of  the  Holy  Sjmod,  it  could  not  alwavs  of  ItUria.  due  only  to  the  Deity.  In  reality  he  had 
exercise  what  authority  it  had,  and^  on  the  death  of  a  merely  defended  the  property  of  his  Church  and  pre- 
patriarch,  the  Basileus  often  appomted  his  succenor  vented  the  emperor  from  carrying  off  the  ornaments  of 
without  any  previous  consultation  with  the  S3mod.  beaten  gold  and  silver  from  the  statues  and  images. 
Nicephorus  Phocas  attempted  to  nullify  any  ecclesias-  After  L^  came  Nilos,  a  monk  who  had  expressed  some 
tical  nomination  not  approved  by  him,  an  abuse  of  heterodox  views  concerning  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity 
power  which  lasted  during  his  lifetime  only.  The  and  the  Divinity  of  Christ.  In  a  council  of  20  August, 
metropolitans  were  elected  by  the  Holy  Synod,  the  1143,  the  Bogomiles  were  condemned,  together  with 
bishops  by  the  metropolitan  and  his  suffragans,  if  they  many  bishops  who  favoured  them.  In  1156  and  1 157 
were  sufiiciently  numerous,  or,  if  not,  with  the  assist-  two  councils  anathematized  Sotericus  Pantengenius, 
ance  of  bishops  from  another  province.  The  clergy  Patriarch-elect  of  Antioch,  who  maintained  that  the 
had  imdergone  no  change  since  the  earlier  period, ex-  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  was  not  offered  up  to  the  Word, 
cept  that  after  the  twelfth  century  we  hear  of  no  more  but  only  to  the  Father  and  to  the  Holy  Spirit.  Two 
deaconesses,  thou^  some  religious  women  bear  that  other  councils,  held  in  1166  and  in  1170,  explained  the 
title  without  any  right  to  it.  Moreover,  with  the  text,  "The  Father  is  greater  than  I'',  apropos  of  which 
exception  of  Thebes  and  Boeotia,  leUgious  women  no  many  bishops  were  again  falling  into  the  errors  of 
longer  wore  a  lay  habit  or  dress.  "Commendation''  Arius.  The  monk  Irenicus,  suspected  of  various  dog- 
and  "  charisticanats ' '  were  as  common  as  in  the  West,  matic  errors,  was  condemned  in  11 70.  The  thirteenth 
with  their  train  of  simony  and  vices  still  more  hideous,  century  is  filled  with  the  quarrel  of  the  Arsenites  or 
The  merua  episcopalis  often  found  its  way  to  the  offi-  partisans  of  the  Patriarch  Arsenius,  who  had  been 
Oials  of  the  treasury  or  some  other  court  functionary,  deposed  for  condemning  the  assassination  of  young 


768 


Lasearis  by  Michael  VIII,  Palseolo^.  Origiiiall^  a 
personal  anair,  it  grew  eventually  into  a  tneological 
and  canonical  controversy. 

(b)  Heaychasm, — ^With  the  fourteenth  century  we 
come  upon  Hesychasm  (V^x^  ''quiet'Oy  the  greatest 
theological  conflict  of  the  Greek  Church  since  the  old 
times  of  Iconoclasm.  Gregorv  Sinaita  first  spread  this 
doctrine,  which  he  had  learned  from  Arsenius  of  Crete. 
Intrinsically,  it  offers  nothing  ver^  remarkable.  It  is 
based  upon  the  well-known  distmction  between  the 
practical  religious  life,  which  purifies  the  soul  by 
cleansing  it  from  its  passions,  and  the  contemplative 
life,  which  imites  the  soul  to  God  b^  contemplation, 
ana  is  thus  the  ideal  and  end  of  lelieious  peiiection. 
Four  or  five  successive  stages  lead  the  disciple  from 
the  practical  to  the  contemplative  mode  of  life.  But 
while  there  was  nothing  startling  in  the  theological 
principles  of  the  new  teaching,  the  method  pointed  out 
ror  arrivine  at  perfect  contemplation  recalled  the 
practices  of  Hinau  fakirs,  and  was  no  more  than  a 
crude  form  of  auto-suggestion.  The  alleged  Divine, 
splendour  which  appeared  to  the  hypnotized  subject, 
and  was  identified  with  that  which  surroimded  the 
Apostles  on  Thabor,  was  reall  v  nothing  but  a  common- 
pmoe  illusion.  Yet  this  Thaboric  bri^tness,  and  the 
omphalopsychic  method  of  inducing  it,  ^ve  a  wide- 
spread reputation  to  the  Hesychasts.  No  doubt  the 
leaders  of  the  p&Tty  held  aloof  from  these  vulgar  prac- 
tices of  the  more  ignorant  monks,  but  on  the  other 
hand  they  scattered  broadcast  perilous  theological 
theories.  Palamas  taught  that  by  asceticism  one 
could  attain  a  corporal,  i.  e.  a  sense  view,  or  percep- 
tion, of  the  Divinity.  He  also  held  that  in  God  there 
was  a  reid  distinction  between  the  Divine  Essence  and 
Its  attributes,  and  he  identified  grace  as  one  of  the 
Divine  propria  making  it  something  uncreated  and 
infiinite.  These  monstrous  errors  were  denoimced  by 
the  Calabrian  Barlaam,  by  Nioephorus  Gregoras,  and 
by  Acthyndinus.  The  conflict  began  in  1 338  and  ended 
onlv  in  1368,  with  the  solemn  canonization  of  Palamas 
and  the  official  recognition  of  his  heresies.  He  was  de- 
clared the  "holy  doctor"  and  "one  of  the  greatest  among 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church '\  and  his  writing  were 
proclaimed  ''the  infallible  guide  of  the  ChristianFaith  *\ 
Thirt]^  years  of  incessant  controversv  and  discordant 
councils  ended  with  a  resurrection  of  polytheism. 

Among  the  medievid  Greek  theologians  the  most 
famous  are  the  ninth-century  Photius,  well-known  for 
his  anti-Latinism;'  Michael  Psellos,  in  the  eleventh 
century,  an  all-round  capable  writer,  theologian,  exe- 
gete,  philologist,  historian,  scientist,  poet,  and,  above 
all,  pnilosopber;  Euthymius  Zi^benos,  who  com- 
posed, at  the  request  of  Alexius  Comnenus,  his 
"  Dogmatic  Panoply,  or  Armoury,  Against  all  Errors''; 
Nicholas  of  Metnona,  Androhicus  Cameterus,  anti- 
Latin  polemical  writers,  particularly  Nicetas  Acomi- 
natus  (Akominatos),  noted  for  his  "Treasure  of 
Orthodoxy '  \  John  Veccos  (Beccos)  and  George  Acro- 
polites  tried  to  reconcile  the  teachings  of  both  Latins 
and  Greeks  while  other  Greeks  opposed  the  Latins 
with  all  their  might.  Among  the  opponents  of  Pala- 
mas were  Barlaam,  Gregoras,  Akyiidinos^  John  the 
Cypriot,  and  Manuel  Calecas.  The  theoloeical  conflict 
went  on  both  before  and  after  the  CounciTof  Florence 
(1439);  Mark  of  Ephesus  and  Geoi^  Scholarios 
repudiated  the  Roman  theology,  which  on  the  other 
hand,  was  adopted  and  uphem  by  Bessarion,  Isidore 
of  Kiev,  Joseph  of  Methone,  and  Gregory  Mammas. 

Bom,  La  eonirovene  Hiayehaate  in  Echoa  d' Orient  (PftriB, 
1900-01),  1-11:  65-73;  353-362;  (1901)  60-60;  Holi^  En- 
thuaiasmua  undBusagewiiU  beim  qrieehiachen  MOnchtutn  (Leiprig, 
1897);  Lb  Barbxbr,  St.  Chrtatodule  et  la  riforme  dea  cou- 
venta  oreca  au  XI*  ai^cle  (PariB,  1863):  Mbthil  Die  Hauntur- 
kunden  fUr  die  Oeachichte  der  Athoa  Rlfiater  (Leipsig,  1894); 
Blachos,  La  Preaqu'Ue  de  r Athoa,  aea  moMuth-ea  et  aea  moinea 
d^atitrefoU  H  d^aujourd^hui  (Paris,  1903);  Oxjwms%wu,  Hiatory 
€f  Athoa  (Russian,  Kiev,  1877-92);  Pbtit,  Aetea  da  Xenophont 
Actea  du  Pcmtoerator;  Actea  dBaphionUnau  (3  vols.,  St.  Peters- 
burg,l 903-1905). — For  a  further  biblioKrapby  oonoerainff  Athos, 
see  VAiLRt  in  Did.  de  thiol,  eath,  (1900).  s.  v.  ConatantinopU, 


Egliae  de:  Babdbnhxwsb,  tr.  Shabak,  PiaMUtn  (Si. 
~  -  -V«a,iarf);  - 


1908) ;  Bathtol,  La  littirature  (freogue  (Psria, 

JuNGMANN.  tnatiiuHonea  Patroioqia  (Innsbruek,  1890);  Nxco> 

LAI,    Oriemia^e   Litteraiurgeadnchte:  Die  naehktaaaiaehe  Litr 


1897). 


(5)  From  1453  to  the  PreserU  Time.^Rdationa  toith 
the  Vaiholic  Church,  the  Protestants,  etc. — The  capture 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  marks  the  apogee  of 
the  oBcumenical  patriarchate  and  the  Greek  Churches 
subject  to  it.  By  establishing  Gennadius  Scholarius 
as  the  only  patriarch  of  the  Orthodox  Churches 
within  the  Ottoman  Empire,  Mohammed  II  placed  all 
the  other  people»--ServiaD8,  Bulgarians,  Rumanians, 
Albanians,  and  Anatolians — ^under  the  exclusive  domi- 
nation of  Greek  bishops.  No  doubt  the  Servian  and 
Bulgarian  Churches  of  Ipek  and  Ochrida  still  existed, 
but,  pending  their  final  suppression  in  1766  and  1767 
respectively,  thev  were  heUenifled  and  under  Greek 
control,  so  tnat  they  were  in  reality  but  an  extension 
of  the  Greek  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople.  More- 
over, the  conquest  of  Egypt  and  Syria  by  Sultan  Selim 
in  the  sixteenth  century  enabled  the  Greeks  to  control 
the  honours  and  emoluments  of  the  Patriarchates  of 
Jerusalem  and  Antioch.  In  the  seventeenth  century 
the  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem  was  hellenixed,  and  that 
of  Antioch  in  the  opening  years  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. As  for  Alexandria,  where  the  mthful  were 
very  few,  its  Greek  titular  always  resided  at  Constanti- 
nople. In  this  way  the  Greek  Church  gained  gradual 
possession  of  the  immense  Ottoman  Empire;  as  the 
Turks  extended  their  conquests  the  jurisdiction  of  th^ 
Greek  patriarchs  extended  with  them.  This  situation 
lasted  until  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  whole  Orthodox  world  was  at  that  time  Greek, 
save  in  Russia,  whose  religious  autonomy  had  been 
recognixed  in  1589,  and  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  Em- 
pire, where  Servians  and  Rumanians  constituted, 
irom  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  autonomous 
Churches,  either  Catholic  or  Orthodox.  During  the 
greater  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  principle  (rf 
nationauty — ^long  cherished  at  Constantinople,  which 
had  employjed  it  against  the  popes  when  robbing  them 
of  jurisdiction  over  Illyricum  and  at  one  time  over 
Southern  Italy — ^was  turned  against  the  Greeks  them- 
selves, especially  aoainst  the  Church  of  Constantinople. 
Every  province  or  Kingdom  that  shook  off  the  Turkish 
siuerainty  freed  itself  at  the  same  time  from  the  eocle- 
siastical  yoke  of  the  Phanar.  Curiously  enough,  it 
was  the  Greeks  of  the  Hellenic  Kingdom  who  first  set 
up,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  an  autonomous 
Cnurch.  The  Servians  and  Rumanians  were  not  slow 
to  imitate  them.  The  Bulgarians  went  farther  and, 
while  remaining  Ottoman  subjects  de  jure  until  Octo- 
ber, 1908,  they  established  about  forty  years  ago  an 
exarchate  of  their  own,  independent  of  the  Phanar, 
with  jurisdiction  not  only  over  all  Bulgarians  in  Bul- 
garia, but  also  over  Bulgarians  in  Turkey.  It  is  to  be 
expected  that  the  recent  proclamation  of  a  Bulgarian 
kingdom  will  modify  this  state  of  things.  A  Bulga- 
rian Church  may  be  established  within  the  limits  of 
that  kingdom,  and  a  second  Bulgarian  Church  within 
the  limits  of  Turkev  in  Europe.  The  creation  oi  a 
Servian  Church  for  the  Servians  in  Turkey  is  also  pro- 
jected, so  that  the  oecumenical  patriarchate  seems  on 
the  eve  of  dismemberment.  In  recent  times,  also,  the 
rivalry  of  nationalities  has  passed  over  from  Europe 
into  Asia.  In  1899  the  Greeks  were  ejected  by  tne 
Syrians  from  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch ;  in  the  same 
way  they  may  soon  lose  Jerusalem.  In  Egypt  similar 
divisions  exist  between  the  Greek-  and  Arabic-speak- 
ing elements;  the  latter,  aided  by  their  Mussulman 
feUow-oountrymen,  may  eventually  cast  off  the  eccle- 
siastical control  of  the  Greeks.  In  short,  at  no  veiy 
distant  date  the  Greeks,  who  have  so  long  ruled  the 
Orthodox  world,  will  have  to  be  content  with  the 


GREKX  769 


Church  of  Athens,  that  of  C^rus,  and  the  sadly  missionary  efforts  of  Catholics.    The^  are  more  toW 

weakened  Church  of  Constantmople.  ant  of  Protestants.  ^  With  the  exception  of  the  clergy 

If  we  look  at  the  domestic  situation  of  the  Greek  in  the  towns,  who  aim  at  the  higher  offices,  the  Greek 
Church  during  the  period  from  1453  to  1901,  the  year  priesthood  is  veiy  ignorant;  the  priests  can  hardly  ^t 
of  the  present  titular's  accession,  we  find  that,  of  a  through  the  Mass  and  the  other  services  in  a  fittmg 
total  of  one  hundred  and  two  patriarchs,  only  twenty-  manner.  Althoujgh  married,  they  retain  great  influ- 
nine  have  died  in  possession  of  their  see,  and  that  tne  ence  over  the  illiterate  but  pious  members  of  their 
seventy-three  others  either  resigned  or  were  deposed,  flocks,  who  are  attached  to  Christianity  by  tradition  or 
It  is  a  strange  phenomenon,  seldom  met  except  amone  patriotism,  and  whose  _  ill-instructed  religious  sense 
the  Greeks,  Uiat,  whereas  a  patriarch  was  nominatea  shows  itself  mainly  in  ritual  observances  and  super- 
for  life,  as  a  rule  he  was  deposed  or  forced  to  resign,  stitious  practices.  With  the  exception  of  two  or 
It  sometimes  happened  that  the  same  man  became  three  seminaries,  having  about  fifty  pupils  in  all, 
patriarch  more  than  once.  In  this  way,  while  between  there  is  no  training  school  for  the  lower  clergy. 
1453  and  1901  there  were  only  one  hundred  and  two  The  dioceses  are  cuvided,  as  with  us,  into  parishes  of 
patriarchs,  ihere  were  some  one  hundred  and  sixty  various  classes.  Preaching  is  neglected  and  in  many 
patriarchal  elections;  thirty-five  patriarchs  having  places  is  omitted  altogether.  For  this  reason,  in  1893 
Deen  elected  several  times  (twenty-one  twice,  nine  some  laymen  at  Smyrna  founded  the  Eusebia  Society 
three  times,  two  four  times,  two  five  times,  and  one  for  the  diffusion  and  explanation  of  the  Word  of  God. 
seven  tiipes).  Tlie  last  of  these  records  is  that  of  C3nil  This  example  has  been  followed  in  other  places,  espe* 
Lucaris,  the  famous  seventeenth-century  Calvinistio  dally  at  Sens,  Mamesia,  and  Constantinople,  where 
patriarch.  These  continual  changes  gave  rise  to  some  laymen  preach  in  Uie  churches  as  is  the  custom  in 
amusing  incidents.  Thus  on  19  October,  1848,  An-  some  Protestant  sects.  The  hidber  clergy,  far  from 
thimus  IV  succeeded  Anthimus  VI,  who  was  deprived  favouring  this  movement,  which  is  a  reproach  for 
of  office  the  day  before;  at  present  Joachim  III  is  them,  do  all  they  can  to  hinder  it.  Feast  days  are  the 
oecumenicsi  patriarch  for  the  second  time,  twenty-  same  as  in  the  Latin  Church ;  so  are  the  sacraments, 
three  years  uter  the  death  of  Joachim  IV,  who  had  The  latter  are  rarely  received,  and  rather  as  a  matter 
succeeded  him.  This  confusion  is  by  no  means  pecu-  of  custom  than  of  genuine  conviction.  Communion  is 
liar  to  the  Church  of  Constantinople.  In  the  hellen-  received  four  times  a  year  after  the  four  great  fasts:  at 
ized  Church  of  Ochrida,  we  find  between  the  years  Easter,  on  St.  Peter's  day,  on  the  Assumption,  and  at 
1650  and  1700  no  fewer  than  nineteen  forced  resigna-  Christmas.  Confession  ought  to  precede  this  solemn 
tions  or  depositions  of  archbishops.  The  two  main  act,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  omitted  or  treated  so  slightingly 
causes  of  these  sudden  changes  are  the  cupidity  of  the  by  priests  and  people  that  it  is  better  not  to  speak  of 
Turks  and  the  ambition  of  tne  Greek  cler^^  covetous  it.  The  priests  and  bishops  do  not  go  to  confession. 
of  the  patriarchal  throne.  The  cupidity  of  the  Turks  Mass  is  heard  on  Sundays  and  Feast-days,  or,  rather, 
might  never  have  been  a  factor,  haa  it  not  been  for  the  on  those  days  the  people  go  and  say  some  prayers  be- 
intrigues  and  cabals  of  the  Greek  clergy  themselves,  fore  the  icons,  or  holy  images,  the  services  bemg  gen- 
who  put  up  their  patriarchate  at  auction.  On  20  eridly  so  long  that  very  few  remain  to  the  end.  In 
November.  1726,  Palsios  paid  out  145,000  francs  for  any  case  there  is  no  definite  teaching  on  this  point  any 
the  office  of  patriarch,  and  m  1759  the  Sultan  Mustapha  more  than  on  others,  everything  remaining  vague  and 
III  fixed  the  tax  on  the  office  at  120,000  francs.  And  imcertain  in  the  minds  of  the  people, 
yet  in  many  instances  the  patriarchs  did  not  remain «  (For  Feasts  and  Fasts  of  the  Greek  Church,  Service 
even  a  year  in  office.  Later,  when  the  Turks  had  Books,  Vestments,  Church  Fuimiture,  etc.,  see,  under 
taken  off  the  tax,  depositions  and  resignations  went  Constantinople,  The  Rite  of,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  315  sqa.) 
on,  and  go  on  to  this  day  as  in  the  past,  so  much  so  The  music  of  the  Greek  Church  began  with  tne 
that  the  laity  now  come  forward  and  ask  that  the  ecphonetic  chant,  a  sort  of  recitative  Based  on  the 
duration  of  a  patriarch's  term  in  office  be  limited,  e.  g.  laws  of  accent  in  prosody.  Through  the  early  melo- 
to  tJiree  or  four  years.  However,  in  the  Kin^om  of  dists,  or  Syriac  liturmcal  poets,  this  musical  notation 
Greece,  where  tne  Church  depends  mainly  on  the  may  reach  back  to  tne  ancient  liturgical  chant  of  the 
State,  these  scandals  do  not  occur.  What  has  been  Jews.  The  musical  characters  or  signs  are  Greek, 
said  of  the  patriarchs  misht  be  even  more  truly  said  of  The  notation,  known  as  that  of  St.  John  Damascene,  is 
the  metropolitans  and  Bishops.  Though,  according  noesely  a  development  of  ecphonetic  notation.  It 
to  Greek  canon  law,  transfers  from  one  diocese  to  an-  increased  the  number  of  signs  from  nineteen  to  twenty- 
other  are  forbidden  or  ought  to  be  very  rare,  as  a  four.  In  medieval  times  a  monk  of  Athos,  John  Kou- 
matter  of  fact  every  bishop  has  administered  before  kouzeles,  raised  it  to  sixty  or  more;  but  in  the  early 
his  death  four  or  five  different  dioceses.  Either  the  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  Chrysanthos  modified 
bishops  did  not  find  their  dioceses  suited  to  their  dig-  or  simplified  this  excessively  complicated  notation; 
nit^  or  the  people  did  not  find  the  bishop  suited  to  his  ''Tneoretikon",  a  very  instructive  work,  has  be- 
their  taste.  Of  late  the  custom  of  lay  interference  in  come  the  basis  or  guide  for  all  liturgical  chants  and 
the  nomination  of  bishops  is  growing,  and  hardly  a  scientific  works  thereon.  Gregory  Lampadarios  and 
year  goes  by  in  which  seven  or  eight  oishops  are  not  Chourmouzios  aided  Chrysanthos  m  his  reform,  which 
removed  at  the  request  of  their  nocks.  Nor  must  it  can  hardier  be  called  successful.  It  seems  that  all 
be  forgotten  that  the  bishops  busy  themselves  mainly  three  misinterpreted  certain  old  musical  si^; 
with  anti-Bulgarian  or  anti-Servian  politics  and  other  moreover,  they  are  responsible  for  the  homble 
secular  affairs.  ^  The  Turkish  government  often  has  to  nasal  intonation  so  abhorrent  to  Europeans.  How- 
request  the  withdrawal  of  some  ovei^<x}mpromised  ever,  musical  reform  is  in  the  air;  during  the  past 
prelate.  thirty  years  it  has  been  talked  of,  and  plans  have  often 

It  may  be  noted  that  the  Greek  bishops — those  of  been  isubmitted.  but  so  far  without  results.    The  relig- 

to-day  at  least — have  received  a  fairly  good  education  ious  music  of  tne  Russians  is  the  only  one  that  ex- 

in  the  secondary  schools,  followed  by  a  very  ordinary  presses  any  true  piety.    Its  gravity,  unction,  and 

course  of  theology  in  the  seminary  of  Halki  or  that  of  sweetness  are  beyond  Cfuestion.    If  a  religious  music 

Santa  Croce,  near  Jerusalem,    some  of  them  have  trul}r  Christian  ever  existed,  the  Russians  nave  inher- 

spent  a  few  ^ears  in  the  Protestant  universities  of  ited  it.    Between  Russian  and  Byzantine  music  there 

Germany,  or  m  the  ecclesiastical  academies  of  Russia,  is  no  connexion  whatever.     (See  also  under  Constan- 

Their  theology  is  usually  limited  to  a  knowledge  of  the  tinople.  The  Rite  of.  Vol.  IV,  p.  316.) 
points  of  controversy  between  Latins  and  Greeks  from       ,^^        „.         ^..   ^,^.      .^^     ^      j-,,..^ 

Se  Venning  (rf  their  aiurchuntfln«»^^  J^SSSSTi^S^S&tRtSSt^P^Sfis^^ 

T.VSe  it  to  bias  the  nunds  of  their  people  against  the  GetchiehU  der  orUnUdiBchm  Kirchm  von  1463-180d  (Leipsis. 

VI.— 49 


OHEEK  770  OBUK 


uoY,  The  Church  of  Conatantinopie  in  *the  Ninkeenih  'century  Roman  mifisionaries  and  of  insulting  Catholics.  Then, 

(RuasUn.  St.  PetewburK,  1007);  Dblicanbs..  Three  voiumea  of  too,  the  Greek  people  do  not  distinguish  between  reli- 

tadB  on  the  relahona  of  the  Church  of  ConeUnUtnople  with  Mount  --j^'    ««/!  Tiof  :#vrkfilif «r   a  «u>nf«io;A«r^<i;nl«i>  A,^  ♦#*  *u^ 

Athoa  and  the  various  autocephaloue  Churches  (Constantinople,  &0n  and  natlOXiaUty,  a  COnfUSlon  mainly  due  tO  the 

1902-05):  LopouKHiNB.  History  cjthe  Christian  Church  in  the  teaching  of  their  clergy;  consequently,  a  Greek  will 

NintieenihCeniury  (RuwUn.  St  Petewburg.  1901),  I,  I7216;  refuse  to  become  a  Catholic  lest  he  should  cease  to  be  a 

?5JSV,r^ir^5^"^"  22J^XM6i,^X£  ««?k-    Yet  great  progre*  hM  b^nnu^  during  the 

arOMdoxen  Kirchm  in  Reime  IntemationaU  de  Thiologie  (Berae.  past  twenty  or  thirty  yeaiB.  thanks  tO  the  schools  of 

1902),  99-115;  273-286;  Zhishman.  DieS}modmunddieEm»-  the  French  congregations  which  have  been  opened  in 

eopal&mter  tn    der   morgenUindxschen  Kwche  (Vienna,   1867);  ni»arlv  <>vprv  fnwn  in  TiirlcAv       Tn  onit/k  nif  tfiA  ^nAtli. 

Ebtit,  RSolements  oin^raux  de  VEglise  orlKodaze  en  Turquie  m  "©ariy  evenr  town  m  llUTKey.     in  spite  Ot  tfte  anain- 

i2«ru«deronen(CArAien,  III.  393-424;  IV,  227-46;  SftM^NOF,  emas  of  the  Greek  cler^,  boys  and  girls  flock  to 

CoUection  of  Ecdesiastic(d  ReouUuions  in  the  Patriarehate  of  these  Catholic  schools,  and  the  consequenoe  is  a  gPOW- 

g2i^;8^iti?tSSp£;  ?890?;  '"^^^^  ^"^■^'''  ""^'^^^^  mg  spirit  of  toleration  and  sympathy  towanis  Catho^ 

On  the  domestic  arrangemente  of  the  Greek  churchee,  see  the  lics  everywhere, 

varioufl  reviews,  e.  g.  Echos  d^  Orient;  La  TerreSainte;  Revue  de  Pius  IX  and  Leo  XIII  tried  tO  reopen  official  rela- 

VOrientChritien;  Bessarione^eu,,          tions  with  the  Greeks,  but  unsuccessfully.    The  reply 


(PaH..  19()7).~A  fuller  bibliography  ^^.StiifShSnt  4Sf  ^^\^^^^  Vatican  Council  the  Patriarch  Gregory 

be  found  in  Echos  d^  Orient,  I,  366^.  vl  refused  even  to  accept.    Dunng  his  long  pontificate 

Leo  XIII  was  unceasing  in  his  efforts  to  bring  back 

Eveh  after  the  taking  of  Constantinople  b]r  the  the  Greeks  to  unity,  but  they  remained  unmoved,  and 

Turks  and  the  apostasv  of  the  Greeks,  the  one  aim  of  when,  on  20  Jime,  1894,  in  the  Encyclical  "Pneclara  ", 

the  popes  was  to  drive  back  the  Turks  into  Asia  and  to  he  invited  the  Greek  Chureh  in  all  charity  to  recognise 

save  the  B3rxantines  in  spite  of  themselves.    Nicholas  the  successor  of  Peter,  the  answering  encyclical  from 

V,  Callistus  III,  Pius  II,  Paul  II,  Sixtus  IV,  Innocent  the  Patriarch  Anthimus  VII  was  remarkable  for  its 

VIII,  and  Alexander  VI  all  followed  this  policv.   Julius  rudeness.    The  present  patriarch,  Joachim  III,  opened 

II  sought  to  convert  the  Shah  of  Persia,  and  to  draw  a  purely  theoretical  consultation  with  his  subjects  on 

him  into  an  alliance  against  the  Sultan;  the  struggle  the  matter  a  few  years  ago,  but  his  attempt  was  not 

against  the  Turks  was  the  great  concern  of  the  whole  well  received. 

pontifical  life  of  Leo  X.    If  the  plan  to  drive  back  the        The  first  Protestants  with  whom  the  Greek  Church 

Turks  into  Asia  finally  failed,  tne  fault  lay  not  with  sought  to  unite  were  the  Lutherans.    About  1560  the 

the  popes,  but  with  the  nations  of  Christendom,  jeal-  Greek  deacon  Demetrius  Mysos  visited  Wittenberg  to 

ous  of  each  other  and  attentive  to  their  own  private  learn  at  first  hand  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  but  his 

gain  rather  than  the  interests  of  Christianity.    It  must  visit  had  no  result.    In  1 573  two  professors  of  TUbin- 

not  be  forgotten  that  the  victory  of  Lepanto  (1571)  gen,  Andrese  and  Crusius,  assisted  by  the  chaplain^ 

was  the  work  of  a  pope ;  that  a  pope  worked  for  the  Uerlach,  opened  a  correspondence  with  the  Greek 

preservation  of  Candia  (1669),  ana  that,  had  it  not  patriarch  Jeremias  II,  which  lasted  until  December, 

been  for  another  pope,  John  Sobieski  would  never  1581.    The  patriarch  and  his  theologians  set  forth 

have  relieved  Vienna  (1683).  over  and  over  again  very  courteously  and   ver^ 

From  1453  until  the  French  Revolution  the  rela-  fuUy  the  many  dogmatic  differences  between  their 
tions  between  the  popes  and  the  Greek  patriarchs  were  Church  and  that  of  the  Reformers.  At  last  Jere- 
very  different  from  what  we  find  to-day.  Cordial  mias  II  refused  to  answer  further  letters,  and  wrote 
letters  passed  frequently  between  them;  priests  of  to  Pope  Gregory  XIII  in  June,  1582,  that  he  "de- 
either  nte  were  recommended  to  one  another's  care,  tested  those  men  and  their  like  as  enemies  of  Christ 
and  the  popes  often  intervened  in  the  internal  affairs  and  of  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church."  Later 
of  the  Greek  Church.  Many  Greek  Patriarchs  of  on  Cedvimst  doctrines  found  favour  with  the  pa- 
Constantinople — amons  others,  CSrril  II — and  the  triarch  himself,  Cjrril  Lucaris,  who  occupied  the 
Greek  Archoishops  of  Ochrida,  Porphyrius  about  cecumenical  throne  seven  times  between  1612  and 
1600,  Athanasius  m  1606,  Abraham  in  1629,  Melecius  1638.  The  French  and  Austrian  Embassies  sided 
in  1640,  Athanasius  about  1660,  professed  the  Catno-  with  the  Orthodox  Greeks;  Geneva  and  Holland  fa- 
hc  Faith ;  at  different  times  many  Greek  bishops  did  in  voured  the  Calvinisers.  The  conflict  lasted  throujzh 
like  manner.  It  would  be  impossible  to  say  now  far  the  greater  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Ine 
their  conversion  was  sincere.  Possibly  the  need  of  main  quarrel  was  over  Lucaris's  confession  of  faith, 
monetary  help  or  the  wish  to  make  a  stand  against  drawn  up  in  Latin,  which  appeared  at  Geneva  in 
Protestantism  was  the  motive  power.  It  must  at  March,  1629,  and  in  the  West  stirred  up  both  Catho- 
least  be  acknowledged  that  their  conduct  and  attitude  lics  and  Protestants.  Many  councils  of  the  Greek 
towards  Catholics  gave  evidence  of  genuine  good  wiU.  Church,  especially  those  of  Constantinople  in  1638  and 
Thus,  to  take  some  well-known  examples,  in  the  seven-  1642,  of  Jassy  in  1642,  and  of  Jerusalem  in  1672,  extir- 
teenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  the  Jesuits  and  Ca-  pated  the  Calvinist  heresy  from  the  Orthodox 
puchins  were  allowed  to  preach  and  hear  confessions  in  Churches.  Through  Peter  Mohila,  Metropolitan  of 
the  Greek  Churches,  bv  the  express  permission  of  the  Kiev,  the  Russian  Church  took  an  active  part  in  the 
patriarch  and  the  bisnops.  That  tney  made  use  of  controversy.  The  personalities  that  disfigured  these 
this  privilege  we  learn  from  their  correspondence.  It  disputes  embittered  the  whole  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
is  hard  to  explain  the  exact  reason  for  the  changed  tury,  and  made  it  the  most  repulsive  in  the  existence 
attitude  of  Catholic  missionaries  since  the  end  of  the  of  the  Church  of  Constantinople.  Four  patriarchs  at 
eighteenth  century.  Perhaps  the  change  came  with  least  were  strangled,  while  in  the  space  of  one  hundred 
the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  outburst  of  the  years  there  were  twenty-nine  patriarchs  and  fifty-four 
French  Revolution,^  which  led  to  the  substitution  of  patriarchal  elections,  i.  e.  an  average  of  one  election 
a  new  body  of  missionaries  in  the  East.    To-day,  as  every  twenty-two  months. 

a  matter  of  fact,  missionaries  of  all  relieious  orders  After  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  came  the  Angli- 
and  every  nationality  observe  rigidly  tne  rules  of  cans,  or  that  section  of  them  known  as  the  Non- 
Propaganda  concerning  commumcatio  in  sacris,  jurors.  Negotiations  set  on  foot  with  the  Greek  and 
They  practically  ignore  the  higher  Greek  cler^ — not  Russian  Churches  lasted  from  1716  to  1725,  but 
the  Deist  way,  perhaps,  to  break  down  prejudioe  and  nothing  ever  came  of  them.  Then  came  Zimsendorf, 
win  esteem.    It  is  no  doubt  true  that  as  a  rule  the  founder  of  the  Moravian  Brethren  Q740).    Finally,  in 


771 


OBEXK 


the  nineteenth  century  we  find  the  Protestant  Epiaco- 
palian  Church  of  England  and  of  the  United  States 
coquetting  with  the  Greeks.  In  several  Anglican 
sypod^—^.  g.f  1866,  1867,  1868 — a  desire  for  union 
with  the  Greeks  was  expressed,  and  the  Patriarch 
Gregory  VI  showed  sympatiiy,  but  did  not  hide  the 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  its  immediate  realization. 
At  the  Synod  of  Bonn  (1874)  the  Anglicans  resolved  to 
remove  the  "Filioque"  from  the  Creed,  to  insert  the 
formula  "the  Holy  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father 
through  the  Son",  to  recognize  tradition  as  a  source  of 
revelation,  to  maintain  that  the  Eucharist  was  a  sacri- 
fice, to  admit  prayers  for  the  dead,  and  other  points. 
But  the  Greeks  would  not  make  any  concessions.  In 
1897  the  36th  decision  of  the  synod  assembled  at  Lam- 
beth Palace  (London)  charged  the  chief  representa- 
tives  of  Anghcanism  to  seek  an  understanoing  with 
Constantinople.  The  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterburv,  and  the  Bishop  of  Gibraltar 
(who  pays  an  annual  visit  to  the  oecumenical  patri- 
arch) were  to  be  the  principal  negotiators.  But  the 
much-desired  union  is  not  vet  a  fact,  the  great  draw- 
back being  the  difficulty  which  both  Churches  find  in 
defining  exactly  what  they  hold  to  be  of  faith,  and 
what  is  onlv  theological  truth.  In  1902  the  Patriarch 
Joadiim  III  consulted  the  Orthodox  Churches  as  to 
the  usefulness  of  an  understanding  with  the  Protest- 
ant Churches;  nearly  all  those  who  thought  it  worth 
while  to  reply  were  opposed  to  the  suggestion .  Never- 
theless there  are  several  union  societies  in  existence — 
e.  g.,  the  Ando-Continental  Society,  foimded  in  1862, 
the  Eastern  Church  Association,  and  others  similar — 
but  so  far  they  have  effected  nothing.  On  the  other 
hand.  Evangelical  societies  of  various  countries  have 
been  very  active  in  the  East,  and  have  often  called 
forth  protests  from  the  higher  Greek  clergy.  While 
their  success  among  the  Greeks  has  not  yet  equalled 
their  success  among  the  Armenians,  their  imceasing 
propaganda  in  Asia  Minor  has  ended  by  creating 
Greek  centres  of  Protestantism,  something  hitherto 
unheard  of. 

The  Old-Catholics  from  the  beginnine  aimed  at 
union  with  the  Orthodox  Church.  Theological  con- 
ferences were  held  at  Bonn  in  1874  and  1875  with  that 
object  in  view,  and  both  parties  made  concessions,  but 
nothing  came  of  these  efforts.  Althou^  frequent 
conferences  have  since  been  held,  an  Old-Catholic 
Committee  instituted  at  Rotterdam,  and  the  ''  Revue 
Internationale  de  Thfologie,"  established  at  Berne 
(1893),  the  negotiations  for  union  have  not  made  the 
slightest  advance. 

With  all  the  Orthodox  churches,  except  the  Bulga- 
rian exarchate  and  the  Syrian  Patriarchate  of  Anti- 
och — both  of  them  considered  schismatic  for  substitut- 
ing a  native  episcopate  to  a  Greek  one — the  Greek 
Churches  are  on  terms  of  union  arising  from  a  common 
faith  and  a  common  orthodoxy.  By  the  canons  of  the 
oecumenical  councils  of  381  and  451  the  Church  of  Ck>n- 
stantinople  enjoys  a  sort  of  pre-eminence  over  the 
other  Churches.  But  this  must  not  be  understood  to 
mean  a  pontifical  primacy  so  that  the  head  of  the 
Orthodox  Church  mav  command  with  authority  the 
faithful  of  all  other  Churches.  The  Byzantine  patri- 
arch has  a  primacy  of  honour  but  not  of  jurisdiction; 
he  is  foremost  among  his  equals — primtia  inter  pares — 
and  no  more.  This  oft-repeated  declaration  was  re- 
newed at  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  in  1867,  which 
proclaimed  that  the  Orthodox  C^hurches  recognized 
onlv  an  oecumenical  council  as  their  supreme  master 
and  sovereign  judee*  When  Joachim  III,  in  1902, 
wished  to  consiut  the  other  CHiurches  on  matters  con- 
cerning the  whole  Orthodox  party — e.  g.,  union  with 
the  Catholics  or  Protestants  or  Old-Catholics,  the  re- 
form of  the  calendar,  and  other  matters — out  of  thir- 
teen Churches  five  were  not  consulted,  being  in  schism 
or  manifestly  imf avourable ;  two  did  not  reply;  six 
.replied  in  the  negative.    A^Eun  in  C3rprus,  since  1900, 


the  attempts  of  the  oecumenical  patriarch  to  put  an 
end  to  the  schism  of  that  Church  are  resented;  at 
the  present  time  (1909)  his  authority  is  being  over- 
thrown at  Jerusalem,  just  as  at  Alexandria.  Tnere  is 
therefore  no  unity  of  authority  amons  the  Orthodox 
Churches.  Nor  is  there  any  unity  of  faith  or  disci- 
pline. The  Bulgarians  and  the  Syrians  of  Antioch, 
who  are  looked  on  as  schismatics  by  the  various  Greek 
Churches,  are  not  such  in  the  eyes  of  the  other  Ortho- 
dox Churches.  The  Russians  uphold  Uie  validity  of 
baptism  administered  by  Catholics  or  Protestants ;  the 
Greeks  say  such  baptism  is  invalid.  The  Russians 
do  not  acimit  the  deuterocanonical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  but  the  Greeks,  until  quite  recently,  ac- 
cepted them.  It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  examples. 
Formerly  the  Church  of  Constantinople  claimed  the 
right  to  send  the  chrism  to  all  Orthodox  Churches  as  a 
sign  of  Orthodox  unit}[  and  of  their  dependence  on 
Constantinople.  But  since  the  seventeenth  century, 
at  least,  the  Russian  Church  blesses  its  own  chrism, 
and  sends  it  in  our  day  to  the  Churches  of  Montenegro, 
Bulgaria,  and  Antioch .  The  three  Orthodox  Qiurcnes 
within  the  Austro-Hunrarian  Empire  bless  their  own 
chrism,  as  does  also  the  Rumanian  Church  since  1882. 
So  that  the  only  Churches  now  receiving  the  chrism 
from  (Constantinople  are  those  of  Alexandria,  Jerusa- 
lem, C3rprus,  Greece,  and  Servia.  The  moral  authority 
of  the  oecumenical  patriarch  over  the  other  Churches 
is  null;  con^quently  it  stands  to  reason  he  has  no 
dogmatic  pnvilege«.  The  decrees  of  the  first  seven 
oecumenical  councils  alone  have  force  of  law.  As  a 
rule,  a  number  of  creeds  are  also  considered  as  instruc- 
tive concerning  faith,*  e.  g.,  the  confession  of  the  Patri- 
arch Gennadius,  that  of  Peter  Mohila,  the  decrees  of 
the  Council  of  Jerusalem  in  1672,  the  confession  of 
Metrophanes  Critopoulos.  At  present  these  confes- 
sions are  not  held  to  be  infallible,  but  merely  guides  in 
matters  of  faith. 

Greek  religious  literature  since  1453  is  mainly  po- 
lemical, against  Catholics  and  Protestants.  literary 
interests,  once  so  popular  at  Byzantium,  have  long 
been  quite  secondary.  Greek  theologians  re-edit  con- 
tinually the  most  fiery  controversial  treatises,  accent 
tuate  the  causes  of  separation  between  the  two 
Churches,  and  on  occasion  invent  others.  Such,  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  are  the  writings  of  Maximus  of 
Peloponnesus  and  CJeorge  Scholarius ;  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  of  Maximus  Margunius,  Bishop  of  C^hera, 
and  of  Gabriel  Severus,  Archbishop  of  Philadelphia;  in 
the  seventeenth  century  T>f  the  Calvinist,  (Cyril  Lu- 
caris,  of  Georee  Coresios,  Theophilos  Coryd^eos,  half 
pagan  and  half  Protestant,  Meletius  Syrieos,  Dori- 
theus  of  Jerusalem,  Nicholas  Kerameus  of  Janina, 
and  Paisios  Ligarides;  in  the  eighteenth  century  the 
writings  of  the  brothers  Joannikios  and  Sophronius 
Lichoudes,  who  laboured  especially  in  Russia,  Chrys- 
anthus  of  Jerusalem,  Elias  Miniates,  Eustratios  Ar- 
gentis,  etc.  Apart  from  this  truculent  school,  always 
uiirly  numerous  among  the  Greeks,  there  are  but  few 
historians  and  chroniclers,  e.  g.,  Manuel  Malaxes,  who 
wrote  a  history  of  the  Patriarchate  of  (Constantinople 
from  1458  to  1578;  Dorotheus  of  Monembasia,  who 
drew  up  a  chronological  table  from  the  creation  to 
1629,  and  Meletius  of  Janina  or  of  Athens  (d.  1714), 
their  only  historian  of  note.  The  monks  were  the 
most  conscientious  workers  and  tireless  editors:  Nico- 
demos  the  Hagiogiapher,  of  amazing  productivitv; 
Agapios  Landos,  nis  rival;  Eugenics  Bulgaris,  tne 
most  learned  Greek  of  the  eighteenth  century ;  (Eoono- 
mos,  Meletius  Typaldos,  Gregory  of  Chios,  and  many 
others. 

There  are  few  living  theological  writers  of  note  in 
the  Greek  church.  Philotheos  Bryennios,  Metropoli- 
tan of  Nicomedia,  who  rediscovered  and  edited  the 
"Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles",  is  the  only  one 
deservins  of  mention.  It  is  no  less  strange  than  true, 
that  within  nearly  a  century  only  one  manual  of  dog* 


OBUX 


772 


matic  theology  has  appeared  in  Greek,  a  volume  of 
about  450  paees  published  at  Athens  in  1907  by  a  lay- 
man, M.  Anoroutsos — an  index  of  the  esteem  that 
theology  enjo3r8  in  the  Greek  Churches.  They  have, 
however,  translations  of  Russian,  German,  or  English 
works,  and  in  this  wav  Protestant  ideas  are  creeping 
in.  The  same  might  be  said  of  other  branches  of  ec- 
clesiastical knowledge.  The  only  good  manual  of 
canon  law  is  by  a  Servian  bishop,  Mer.  Milasch ;  the 
manualB  of  church  history  by  an  Athenian  layman, 
Diomedes  Kyriakos,  and  oy  Mgr.  Philaietes,  Metro- 
politan of  Dimotika,  are  merely  translations  or  adap- 
tations of  Protestant  works.  Amon^  the  laity  there 
are  some  learned  men,  e.  g.,  Spiridion  Lambros,  C. 
Sathas,  A.  Papado]30ulo8-lferameus,  and  M.  Gedeon. 
The  cler^  take  no  interest  in  theology,  nor,  as  a  rule, 
in  anythmg  intellectual.  Politics  and  dull  personal 
intri^es  are  their  only  concern.  In  this  respect  the 
coming  generation  will  perhaps  differ  from  their  pred- 
ecessors. Two  reviews  have  been  started:  the  Nea 
Sion"  (New  Sion)  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  ''Church 
Beacon"  at  Alexandria,  but  both  are  carried  on  in  a 
spirit  of  controversy,  and  the  impartiality  and  scien- 
tific honestv  of  many  of  the  editors  are  not  above 
(question.  The  Phanar  review, "  Ecclesiastical  Truth ' ', 
is  only  a  church  weekly. 

I  have  not  touched  on  the  religious  spirit  of  the 
Greek  clergy,  for  as  a  rule  it  is  sadly  deficient ;  nor  on  its 
missions,  for  there  are  none ;  nor  its  present  monastic 
life,  connned  to  Athos  and  no  more  than  a  recitation 
of  endless  prayers  interspersed  with  local  intrigues. 
Other  religious  houses  exist  only  in  name;  they  are 
now,  for  toe  most  part,  farms  managed  by  a  so-called 
monk  and  supplying  funds  to  Athos  or  elsewhere. 
Owing  to  the  energy  of  the  lay  element,  who  take  an 
active  interest  in  education,  there  are  many  well- 
conducted  primary  schools.  We  have  only  praise  for 
the  efforts  of  both  sexes  to  create  and  support  works 
of  charity  and  of  benevolence.  On  this  score  the 
Greeks  are  inferior  to  no  people. 

ScHKLSTRATB.  Ada  oHenUilxt  ecdetia  contra  LtUheri  haretim 
(Rome,  1739);  Pichlbr,  Ge»chichle  des  Proteatantismut  in  der 
orient.  Kirche  (Berlin,  1862);  Rbnaudxn,  Luth&riens  et  Greca 
orthodoxea  (Paris,  1903);  Sbnmoz,  Lea  demitrea  anrUea  du  pa^ 
iriarche  Cyrille  Lucar  in  Echoa  d^OrKent  (Paris,  1903),  97-107; 
Manbi.  Conciliorum  collection  XXXVII.  369-624;  Atmon, 
Monumena  atUhentiquea  de  la  religion  dea  Greca  et  de  la  fauaaeU 
de  pluaieura  confesaiona  de  la  fot  dea  chritiena  orientaux  (The 
Hague.  1708);  Trivibr,  Cyrille  Lucar  (Paris,  1877);  Osviani- 
xov,  Cyril  Ltuxiria  and  hta  Strupgle  with  tfu  Roman  Catholic 
Propaganda  in  the  Eaat  (Russian,  Novotcherkostk,  1903); 
Williams,  The  Orthodox  jond  tf^  Nan-Jurora  (London,  1868); 
KiMMBL,  lAbri  aymbolici  BcdeauB  orienUUia  (Jena^  1843);  Qasb, 
Symbolik  der  grteehiaehen  Kirche  (Berlin.  1872);  Mbsolaras, 
Sv^^oAucii  Tw  ip9o66^ov  <«icAi}a-tac  (Athens,  1883);  Kattbn- 
BUSCH,  Lehrbvuh  der  vergleichenden  Confeaaionakunde  (Freiburv 
im  Br.,  1892),  I;  Michalcbscu,  Die  Bekenntniaae  und  die 
ioichtigaten  Glaubenaxeuffniaae  der  (friechiach-orientaliachen 
Kirche  (Leipsig.  1904);  Mbtbr,  Die  theolpg.  Litteratur  der 
griechiachen  Kirche  im  16.  Jahrhundert  (Leipsig,  1899);  Lb- 
oband,  Bibliogr.hdUniqueaux  XV*  et  XVI'a^clea  (Paris,  1885- 
1903);  Idbm.  Bibliogr.  hellhiique  au  XVII*  aiicle  (5  vols..  Paris, 
1894-1903);  Vrbtos,  N«o«AAii»'i«i|  ^tAoAoyia  (2  vols.,  Athens, 
1854-7);  Sathas.  N«o€AAi7i'iic»  ^xkokoyia  (Athens.  1868);  Db- 
METRACOPOULOS,  'Optf<J«ofo«  EAAac  (Leipzig.  1868);  Zarvias, 
fiia  EAAa«  (Athens,  1872);  Chassiotis,  L'Jnatruction  publique 
chez  lea  Greca  (Paris,  1881);  Montmasson,  Lea  ceuvrea  de 
bienfaiaance  grecquea  d  Constantinople  in  Echoa  d' Orient  (Janu- 
ary, 1909);  Brandi,  De  funion  dea  Egliaea  (Rome,  1896); 
Baubr,  Argumenla  contra  orientalem  ecclesiam  ejuaque  aynodi- 
cam  encyclicam  (Innsbruck,  1897);  Malatakes,  Riponae  h  la 
letlre  palriarc€Ue  el  aynodale  de  Vigliae  de  Conatantinople  aur  lea 
divergencea  qui  diviaent  lea  deux  Egliaea  (Constantinople,  1896); 
Mbbbtbb,  Lwn  XIII  e  la  Chieaa  Greca  (Rome.  1904^. 

S.  Vailh& 

Greek  Empire.    See  Byzantine  Empire. 

Greek  Orthodoz  Ohurch  in  America. — The 
name  Orthodoz  Church  is  generally  used  to  distinguish 
those  of  the  Greek  Rite  who  are  not  in  communion 
with  the  Holy  See.  It  is  a  name  common  to  the  offi- 
cial designation  of  both  Churches  of  the  Greek  Rite, 
but  the  schismatic  or  dissenting  Churches  lav  great 
stress  upon  the  word  Orthodox^  and  its  implied  mean- 
ing of  correctness  of  doctrine,  while  the  Uniat 
Churches  lay  equal  emphasis  upon  the  word  Catholic, 


Hence  these  divisions  of  the  Greek  Chuich  axe  respee* 
tively  called  the  ''Greek  Orthodox"  and  the  "Greek 
Catholic"  for  convenience  in  designation.  The  Greek 
Orthodox  CSiurch  is  now  well  established  in  Ameiiea, 
and  nearly  every  city  of  considerable  sise  has  one  or 
more  churches  of  the  various  nationalities  beloi^iiig 
to  that  communion.  There  is  no  unity  among  wem 
nor  any  obedience  to  a  central  authonty :  they  oon- 
form  to  the  general  usages  and  discipline  of  the  Byxan- 
tine  Rite,  but  look  to  their  respective  Holy  Synods  in 
their  home  countries  for  governing  auuiority  and 
direction.  Seven  nationalities  have  their  churches 
here,  using  the  Old  Slavonic^  the  Greek,  the  Arabic, 
and  the  Rumanian  as  their  hturgical  languages^  ana 
of  these  the  Russian  is  the  oldest  and  best  established. 

I.  Russian  Orthodox  Church. — The  Russian 
Church  has  been  established  upon  American  (formerly 
Russian)  territory  for  over  a  century.  In  this  con- 
nexion the  word  Russian  refers  to  rossiisky  (of  the 
Empire  of  Russia),  and  not  russky,  which  may  be 
translated  either  Russian  or  Ruthenian.  In  1793  a 
band  of  eight  missionary  monks  was  sent  out  from 
St.  Petersbui^  to  Alaska,  and  the  first  Russian  church 
was  built  on  Kodiak  Island  in  1794.  In  1798  the  first 
missionanr  bishop,  Joasaph,  was  consecrated.  In 
1804  the  fort  and  city  of  New  Archangel  (now  Sitka) 
was  founded  on  the  island  of  Sitka.  In  1812  the 
Russians  made  a  settlement  in  California;  Russian 
Hill,  in  San  Francisco,  is  still  a  reminder  of  them.  In 
Alaska  they  converted  man^r  of  the  Eskimo  and  In- 
dians, and  the  success  of  their  missions  was  such  that 
in  1840  the  monk  Ivan  Veniaminoff  was  made  the 
first  bishop  of  ''Kamchatka,  the  Kuiiles  and  Aleu- 
tians'', and  took  up  his  see  at  Sitka.  In  1867,  just 
before  Alaska  was  sold  to  the  United  States,  he  was 
made  Metropoh'tan  of  Moscow,  and  in  Russia  his  ad- 
vice was  of  great  assistance  in  the  negotiations  for  the 
transfer  of  Alaska.  After  him  the  title  of  the  see  was 
changed  to  ''Aleutia  and  Alaska''.  In  1872  the  see 
was  cnanged  from  Sitka  to  San  Francisco,  and  a  Rus- 
sian cathedral  built  there.  The  Russian  bishops  in 
America  have  been  Paul  (1867-70),  John  (1870-79), 
Nestor  (1879-82),  Vladimir  (1883-«1),  Nicholas 
(1891-97),  and  Tikhon  (1897-1907).  In  1900  the 
title  of  the  see  was  changed  to  ''Aleutia  and  North 
America",  and  an  assistant  bishop  was  appointed  for 
Alaska.  In  1905  Bishop  Tikhon  chanjged  his  see  from 
San  Francisco  to  New  York  Citv.  and  m  the  year  1906 
the  Russian  Holy  Synod  raised  nim  to  the  dignity  of 
archbishop  with  the  suffragan  Bishop  of  Alasloi  and  a 
new  Bishop  of  Brookl^.  In  1907  ne  was  succeeded 
bv  the  present  Archbishop  Platon,  a  former  membw 
of  the  Russian  Duma. 

Until  within  the  last  twelve  veais  the  Russian 
Church  was  hardly  known  in  the  United  States,  being 
wholly  confined  to  its  Pacific  shores.  In  New  York 
between  1870  and  1880  there  was  a  Russian  Orthodoz 
chapel  on  Second  Avenue,  established  by  the  Rev. 
Nicholas  Bjerring,  but  it  failed  for  lack  of  a  ooinzrea»> 
tion  and  support  by  the  Russian  authorities.  Fatner 
Bjerring  became  a  Catholic  before  his  death.  Hie 
first  great  impulse  to  the  establishment  of  the  Russian 
Church  in  the  United  States  on  a  large  scale  was  given 
in  1891,  when  the  late  Rev.  Alexis  Toth,  then  a 
Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  priest  in  Minneapolis,  dis- 
obeyed the  instructions  of  Archbishop  Ireland  and, 
when  threatened  with  a  recall  to  his  native  country, 
left  his  parish,  went  to  San  Francisco,  turned  Ortho- 
dox, and  submitted  to  Bishop  Nicholas,  and  on  re- 
turning to  Minneapolis  took  over  his  whole  parish  to 
the  Russian  Orthodox  Church.  He  afterwards  tried, 
in  1892,  to  take  over  the  entire  congregation  ana 
church  property  of  St.  Mary's  Greek  Catholic  church 
in  Scranton,  rennsylvania.  The  transfer  of  the 
church  property  was  prevented  by  the  courts,  but  over 
half  the  con^gation  seceded.  Toth  became  an  able 
and  energetic  advocate  of  the  Russian  Ortbodooc 


OBUX 


773 


OHEEK 


Church  among  the  Ruthenians  of  America,  succeeded 
in  arousing  the  Holy  Governing  Synod  of  Russia  to 
the  opportunity  to  spread  Orthodoxy  and  Panslavism 
among  the  Rutnenians  in  America,  and  became  a  most 
bitter  opponent  of  Catholicism.  He  was  made  a 
mitred  protopriest  for  his  efforts  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  cause  of  nearly  10,000  secessions  from  the 
Greek  Catholic  to  the  Russian  Orthodox  Church.  In 
1900  the  whole  Orthodox  movement  was  put  under 
the  direction  of  the  "Orthodox  Missionaiy  society  of 
All-Russia",  which,. together  with  the  Holy  Svnod, 
supplies  extensive  funds  and  numerous  priests  for  its 
development  here.  In  1902  a  fine  Russian  cathedral 
(St.  Nicholas)  was  built  in  New  York  City,  and  Rus- 
sian churches  have  begun  to  spring  up  ever3rwhere  in 
the  Atlantic  States,  particularly  in  Pennsylvania. 
Numerous  priests  and  lower  clergy  were  brought  from 
Russia,  a  theological  seminary  opened  in  Minneapolis, 
a  monastery  in  ^uth  Canaan,  Pennsvlvania,  the  rites 
of  the  Greek  Church  were  oelebratedi  with  a  magnifi- 
cence and  splendour  beforetunknown  in  America,  and 
the  Church  itself  put  on  a  solid  basis.  In  1908  the 
whole  United  States  and  Canada  were  divided  into 
five  great  blagochinniat  or  deaneries:  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Pittsburg,  the  Western  States,  and 
Canada,  each  one  having  from  ten  to  twenty  churches, 
and  there  was  besides  the  Diocese  of  Alaska.  In 
March,  1909,  the  Russian  Church  adopted  an  elabo- 
rate Constitution  (Normalny  Ustav)  of  sixty-four 
paragraphs,  defining  the  rights  of  clergy,  laity,  and 
parishes,  thus  creating  a  local  canon  Jaw  for  the 
United  States,  subject  to  the  Holy  Synod  in  Russia. 
This  is  the  more  remarkable  when  there  are  but  few 
Russians  (from  Russia)  in  the  United  States.  The 
latest  figures  (1909)  for  the  Russian  Orthodox  Church 
in  America  are:  Russians,  7974;  Galician  Ruthen- 
ians, 11,045;  Hungarian  Ruthenians,  5820;  Buko- 
vinians,  4180;  making  a  total  of  29,019.  Besides 
these  there  are  in  Alaska:  Indians,  1891;  Aleutians, 
2149;  Eskimo,  3666.  The  Orthodox  Russian  clergy 
(1909)  consist  of  one  archbishop,  one  bishop,  2  archi- 
mandrites, 2  protopriests,  2  hegumens,  15  monastic 
priests,  70  secular  priests,  2  deacons,  and  40  cantors. 
Three  of  these  are  in  Canada,  and  fifteen  in  Alaska. 
They  have  60  churches  in  the  United  States,  10  in 
Canada,  and  17  churches  and  chapels  in  Alaska. 
They  have  a  large  church  society  very  much  like  the 
Ruthenian  ones,  the  '' Pravoslavnoe  Obshchestvo 
Vzaimopomoshchi"  (Orthodox  Mutual  Aid  Society), 
with  133  brotherhoods  and  3950  members.  Two 
church  journals  are  published,  ''Amerikansky  Pra- 
voslavny  Viestnik*'  (American  Orthodox  Messenger), 
in  Great  Russian,  and  "Svif  (Light),  in  Ruthenian. 
Their  tone  is  bitter  towards  Greek  Catholics  and  in 
many  Uniat  parishes  they  excite  dissension. 

II.  Greek  Hellenic  Orthodox  CHURCH.-j-Greek 
immigration  was  confined  to  the  hundreds  until  1890; 
tiie  immigration  figures  for  1905-08  are:  Greece, 
77,607;  Turkey,  19,032.  The  first  Greek  church 
(Holy  Trinity)  was  opened  in  New  York  City  in  1891 
by  Rev.  P.  Ferentinos  from  Greece.  Subse(]uently 
the  new  church  on  East  72nd  Street  was  acquired,  in 
which  they  have  erected  one  of  the  finest  Greek  in- 
teriors— the  altar,  iconostasis  and  throne  being  of 
Pentelic  marble.  The  Greeks  have  begun  to  build 
fine  churches.  There  are  (1909)  about  130,000  Greeks 
in  the  United  States,  chiefly  in  the  Eastern  and 
Middle  States,  and  they  publish  eighteen  newspapers, 
including  two  dailies.  They  have  32  churches  in  the 
United  States  and  2  in  Canada,  some — like  Holy 
Trinity  of  Lowell,  Mass.,  and  Holy  Trinity  of  New 
York  City — of  considerable  importance.  Their  clergy 
consist  of  7  archimandrites,  3  monks,  and  25  secular 
priests,  but  the  churches  are  in  the  main  governed  by 
the  lay  trustees  and  particularly  by  the  president  of 
the  board.  Of  these  Greek  clergy,  15  are  subject  to 
the  (Ecumenical  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  20 


to  the  Holy  Synod  of  Athena.  This  circumstance  and 
the  fact  that  a  part  of  the  Greeks  come  from  the 
Turkish  Empire  and  the  other  part  from  the  Kinedom 
of  Greece  have  given  rise  to  many  dissensions  and  pre- 
vented the  nomination  of  a  (^reek  bishop  for  the 
United  States,  neither  the  patriarch  nor  tne  Synod 
wishing  to  cede  such  an  appointment  to  the  other. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  both  decline  to  admit  or 
recognize  the  authority  of  the  Russian  bishops  here. 

III.  Stro- Arabian  Orthodox  Church. — These 
are  Syrians  of  the  schismatic  Greek  Rite  who  use  the 
Arabic  langua^  in  their  litur^.  They  are  nearly  all 
from  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch,  which  just  now  is 
quasi-schismatie  towards  Constantinople  butcloseljr 
affiliated  with  Russia.  They  of  course  began  to  immi- 
grate to  the  United  States  at  the  time  that  the  other 
S3rrians,  Melchites,  and  Maronites,  came.  The  Rus- 
sians have  ^atly  assisted  them  in  building  churches 
and  establishing  missions  here,  and  their  bishop, 
Raphael  of  Brookl3m,  is  a  Syrian  educated  in  Russia. 
The  first  Syro-Anibian  church  (St.  Nicholas)  was 
built  in  Brooklyn  in  1902,  and  has  since  become  their 
cathedral  church.  Their  clergy  consist  of  the  Syro- 
Arabian  bishop  and  twelve  priests,  of  whom  three  are 
monks.  They  have  (1909)  churches  in  the  following 
localities:  -  Brooklyn  and  Glens  Falls,  New  York; 
Boston,  Worcester,  and  Lawrence,  Massachusetts; 
Pittsburg,  Johnstown,  and  Wilkesbarre,  Pennsylva- 
nia; Grand  Rapids,  Michigan;  Kearney.  Nebraska; 
Beaumont,  Texas.  ^  There  are  said  to  be  about  50,000 
Orthodox  Syrians  in  the  United  States,  but  they  are 

Suite  scattered.    They  have  frequent  dissensions  with 
leir  fellow-S3rrians,  the  Melcnites  and  Maronites, 
who  are  Uniats.    They  publish  two  Arabic  news- 

Eapers  in  the  interest  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  and 
ave  a  number  of  societies  in  New  York  and  elsewhere. 

IV.  Servian  Orthodox  Church. — This  is  com- 
posed of  immigrants  from  Servia,  Dalmatia,  Huneary, 
and  Montenegro.  They  all  speak  that  southern 
Slavic  language,  the  Servian^  which  is  identical  with 
the  Croatian,  except  that  it  is  written  in  the  Russian 
alphabet  to  which  are  added  two  or  three  letters  un- 
known to  Russian,  whilst  the  Croatian  (used  by  the 
Roman  Catholics)  is  written  with  Roman  letters. 
The  Russian,  the  Servian,  and  the  Bulgarian  Churches 
use  the  Old  Slavonic  language  m  the  Mass  and 
church  offices.  The  Servians  are  mainly  in  Pennsvl- 
vania and  the  West,  and  the  first  church  was  built  by 
the  Archimandrite  Sebastian  Dabovitch  in  Jackson, 
Cal.  (1894).  The  Servian  Orthodox  Church  is  closely 
affiliated  to  the  Russian  Church  in  this  country,  except 
tiiat  some  of  their  churches  do  not  recomize  the  j  uris- 
diction  or  authority  of  the  Russian  archbishop.  There 
are  about  70,000  or  80,000  Servians  in  the  United 
States,  from  Pennsylvania  to  California.  Wyoming, 
and  Washington.  Their  clergy  consist  of  one  archi- 
mandrite, five  monks^  and  four  secular  priests,  and 
they  have  churches  m  Chicago,  Illinois;  Pittsburg, 
McKeesport,  Wilmerdin^,  Steelton,  and  Johnstown, 
Pennsylvania;  Kansas  City,  Kansas;  Denver,  Colo- 
rado; Jackson  and  Los  Angeles,  CaJifomia;  Butte, 
Montana;  St.  Louis, '  Missouri  They  also  publish 
three  Servian  papers,  and  have  several  church  socie- 
ties, the  chief  one  "Srbobrar". 

V.  Rumanian  Orthodox  Church. — About  half  the 
Orthodox  Rumanians  in  the  United  States  come  from 
Rumania  and  half  from  Transylvania  in  Hungary. 
Their  immigration  has  been  all  within  the  past  decade, 
both  in  the  United  States  and  in  Canada.  They  are 
also  under  divided  jurisdiction,  those  from  Rumania 
being  under  the  Holy  Synod  of  Rumania  and  those 
from  Transylvania  under  the  Metropolitan  of  Her- 
mannstadt.  There  are  about  30,000  Orthodox  Ruma- 
nians at  the  present  time  (1909)  in  America,  including 
Canada.  Their  first  church  was  St.  Mar^^'s,  built  in 
1907  at  Cleveland,  Ohio.  They  have,  besides  several 
missionary  stations,  five  churches  situated  at  the 


GREEK  774 

following  places:  Indiana  Harbor,  Illinois;  Cleveland  ous  rites  cannot  be  classified  accordmg  to  their  lan- 

and  Youngstown,    Ohio;   Sawyer,    North   Dakota;  guages.    There  are  many  different  rites  in  the  same 

Reeina,  Canada.    Of  their  clergy — one  archimandrite  language ;  on  the  other  hand  the  same  rite,  remaining 

and  four  secular  priests — ^three  are  from  Transylvania  the  same  in  every  detail,  is  constantly  translateo. 

and  two  from  Rumania.     It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  Thus,  in  the  West,  the  Roman  and  Gallican  Uses  are 

these  two  branches  of  the  Greek  Rite,  Catholic  and  both  written  in  Latin,  but  they  are  completely  differ- 

Orthodox,  have  harmonious  relations  and  attend  all  ent  rites.    The  Roman  Rite  is  used  in  Dalmatia  in  an 

Rumanian  celebrations  together,  where  matters  of  Old  Slavonic  version  (written  in  Glagolitio  letters), 

their  race  and  language  are  concerned.  occasionallv  in  Greek  in  Italy;  but  in  any  language  it 

VI.  Bulgarian  Orthodox  Church. — ^Bulgarian  is  always  the  Roman  Rite.  Li  the  East  this  want  of 
immi^tion  into  the  United  States  has  only  recently  correspondence  between  rite  and  language  is  still 
b^n  m  any  considerable  numbers.  While  the  major-  more  remarkable.  Ebccept  those  of  the^  Annenians, 
ity  come  from  the  Kin^om  of  Bulgaria,  a  great  many  Nestorians,  and  Abyssinians,  all  Eastern  liturgies  were 
are  also  from  Maoedoma,  in  Turkey.  They  dislike  the  originally  written  in  Greek.  Even  the  exceptions  are 
Greeks  very  much,  and  while  the  Turkish  contingent  only  modified  derivations  from  Greek  origmals.  If, 
of  them  is  nominally  under  the  Patriarch  of  Constanti-  then,  we  take  the  language  in  which  a  rite  was  origi- 
nople,  the^  recognize  only  the  Exarch  of  Bulgaria,  nally  composed  as  our  test,  we  must  describe  all  Eastern 
Neither  will  tiiey  affiliate  with  the  Russian  Church  liturgies  as  Greek.  Indeed,  the  two  great  Western 
authorities  here.  While  there  are  considerable  num-  parent  rites  (of  Rome  and  Gaul)  represent,  as  a  matter 
bers  in  New  York  City,  yet  they  have  settled  chiefly  in  of  fact,  modified  developments  from  Greek  originals 
Illinois  and  Missouri,  and  are  scattered  also  farther  too.  So  we  should  come  V>  the  conclusion  that  every 
westwaid.  The  first  Bulgarian  Church  (Sts.  Cyril  and  rite  in  tiie  Church,  everv  historic  liturgy  in  Christen- 
Methodius)  was  built  in  1908  bv  the  Buljguian  monk  dom  is  a  Greek  Rite.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  make 
Theophylact  at  Granite  City,  Illinois.  There  is  also  our  test  present  use  in  the  Greek  language,  we  must 
another  one  near  St.  Loub,  Missouri,  and  one  is  being  separate  the  Byzantine  Litiirgy  said  in  Greek  at  Con- 
built  at  Madison,  Illinois,  while  there  are  several  mis-  stantinople  from  what  is  wora  for  word  the  sanie  ser- 
sion  stations.  There  are  about  20.000  Bulgarians  vice  saia  in  Old  Slavonic  at  St.  Petersburg.  It  is 
and  three  priests  in  this  country.  Tney  publish  two  clear  then  that  language  is  no  due  as  to  rite.  At  the 
papers  in  their  language  and  have  several  church  head  of  all  Eastern  liturgies,  foimdations  of  two  ^^^eat 
societies,  but  have  no  national  organisation.  dasses,  are  the  Liturgies  of  Alexandria  and  Antioch. 

VII.  Albanian  Orthodox  Church. — The  Alba-  They  are  not  only  different  rites,  their  difference  un- 
nians  use  the  Greek  language  in  their  liturgy,  there  derhes  the  fundamental  distinction  by  whidi  we  divide 
having  been  no  version  into  tneir  verv  difficult  tongue,  all  others  into  two  main  Rroupe;  and  both  are  Greek, 
lliey  come  from  Albania  in  the  southern  Balkans  and  And  the  same  Byzantine  Liturgy  is  used  unchanged  in 
from  Epirus  and  northern  Greece.  They  are  also  about  fourteen  different  languages.  A  secona  false 
known  as  Amauts  and  call  themselves  in  their  own  criterion  that  must  be  eliminate  is  that  of  rdigian. 
language  akipetar,  "mountaineers"  (see  Albania).  It  would  be  convenient  for  dassification  if  members 
They  are.  of  course,  the  same  race  which  formerly  of  each  Churdb  used  the  same  rite^  different  from  that 
emigrated  into  Italy,  and  whose  descendants  now  of  any  other  Churdi.  But  this  is  by  no  means  the 
form  the  majority  of  the  Italian  Greek  Catholics,  case.  The  historic  origin  and  legal  position  of  the 
Albanian  immigration  to  America  has  been  quite  various  rites  is  a  much  more  complicated  question, 
recent,  but  there  are  now  some  15,000  here,  mostly  Catholics,  joined  of  course  entird^  by  the  same  faith, 
settled  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  Citv  and  in  New  obeying  the  same  laws  (though  m  details  there  are 
England.  Although  they  use  the  Greek  language  in  different  laws  for  different  branches  of  the  Qiurch), 
their  liturgy  and  have  attended  the  Hellenic  (mhodox  united  visibly  to  the  same  gneat  hierarchy  under  the 
Church,  they  have  no  love  for  the  Greeks.  In  Febru-  supreme  rule  of  the  pope  at  Rome,  are  divided  accord- 
ary,  1908,  the  Russian  Archbishop  of  Aleutia  and  ing  to  rite,  so  that  every  Eastern  lituny  is  used  by 
North  America  ordained  the  Rev.  F.  S.  Noli,  a  youne  some  of  them.  Tlie  same  liturgies  (but  tor  a  few  modi- 
Albanian,  in  New  York  City  as  an  Orthodox  priest  ana  fications  made  by  the  Roman  authorities  in  the  inter- 
established  him  as  missionary  for  his  people  in  the  est  of  dogma)  are  shared  by  the  various  schismatical 
United  States.  The  Russian  Holy  Synod  nas  taken  Churches.  Indeed,  Catholics  and  Schismatics  often 
steps  on  his  initiative  towards  translating  the  Greek  use  the  same  books.  The  Orthodox  Church,  that  has 
Liturgv  into  Albanian.  They  have  a  small  chapel  in  for  many  centuries  aimed  at  an  ideal  of  uniformity  in 
BrooS^  and  missions  in  New  Endand,  Pennsylvania,  the  Byzantine  Rite  (in  different  langua^X  till  the 
and  Missouri.  Endelivours  have  oeen  made  by  them  thirteenth  century  used  those  of  Alexandria  and  Anti- 
to  attract  the  Italo-Greeks  from  their  Uniat  rite,  on  och  too.  Now  she  has  restored  the  Antiochene  Lituray 
the  ground  of  their  being  also  of  the  Albanian  race  in  for  certain  rare  occasions,  and  tiiere  are  signs  that  the 
America.  Alexandrine  Rite  may  soon  be  restored  too.    Other 

Pravoslavny  Kalmdar  (New  York,  1903-09):  MATBOflonr,  schismatical  bodies  have,  it  is  true,  each  its  own  rite, 

fS^^r5^i°dteSSSl.'^^A'(SeV&'k.^fJ§^  though  thiB  rite  generally  contajpa  .Iternatiye  litu.^ 

09)rEAAi|Ho-*AM<pi«avuc6«  'o«imk  (New  York.  1909);  Caiendand  gies.    It  will  be  seen  then  that  thesD  three  pomts  are 

ZianURomanul  (Cleveland,  1909);  TA*  Jfa««n(Mr.  XLII  (New  ftiree  quite  different  questions  that  must  not  be  con- 

fa  Mky^'iSlyr*"     •                      •        ^  "^        ^'  ^^«ed.    In  the  case  of  any  Christian  bishop  or  priest 

Andrew  J.  Shifman.  we  may  ask:  what  is  his  CJhurch  or  sect,  what  rite  does 

he  use  and  in  what  langua^?  And  the  answers  may 
Greek  Bites. — (1)  RiUf  Language^  Rdigian, — ^These  represent  all  kinds  of  combmations.  A  Catholic  may 
are  three  thin^  that  must  always  be  distinguished,  use  the  Roman  Rite  in  Old  Slavonic,  the  Alexandrine 
A  riie  is  a  certam  uniform  arrangement  of  formula  and  Rite  in  Coptic,  the  Byzantine  in  Geoman.  '  An  Ortho- 
ceremonies  used  for  the  Holy  Eucharist,  the  Canonical  dox  priest  may  use  the  B3rsantine  Kite  in  Arabic  or 
Hours,  the  administration  of  other  sacraments  and  Japanese. 

sacramentals.    These  offices,  as  far  as  we  know,  have  (2)  The  Essential  Note  of  a  Riie, — ^We  have  seen  then 

never  been  performed  in  the  same  way  throughout  that  neither  its  language  nor  the  sect  of  people  who 

Christendom.   There  are  now,  apparently  there  always  use  it  can  be  taken  as  essential  to  a  rite.    The  real 

have  been,  different  rites,  equally  legitimate,  used  m  note  that  defines  it  is  the  place  where  it  was  composed, 

different  places  both  by  Catholics^  and  other  Chris-  All  rites  had  their  origin  m  someone  place  or  ci^  Uiat 

tians.    Obviously  each  rite  was  originally  composed  was  an  ecdesiastical  centre  for  the  oounUy  round, 

in  some  kinj^uoge.    But  rite  is  not  language;  thevari-  After  the  service  had  been  put  together  and uf>ed  here. 


775  GREEK 

by  a  natural  process  of  imitation  chiircbes  around  (Brightznan/^  Eastern  Liturgies  ",54,90).  The  Alex- 
began  to  copy  the  order  observed  in  thjs  great  town,  andnne  Rite,  even  if  used  in  far  countries,  makes  the 
The  greater  the  Influence  of  the  city  where  the  rite  priest  pray  that  God  may  "draw  up  the  waters  of  the 
arose,  the  more  widely  the  rite  spread.  It  was  not  a  river  to  their  proper  measure"  (op.  cit.,  127,  167) — a 
question  of  inherent  advantages.  No  one  thought  of  local  allusion  to  tne  flood  of  the  Nile  on  which  fertility 
choosing  the  rite  that  seemed  most  edifying  or  beauti-  in  Egypt  depends.  And  the  Roman  Rite,  too,  used  in 
f ul  or  suitable.  People  simply  copied  tneir  chief.  The  every  continent,  still  contains  unmistakably  evidence 
rites  were  formed  at  first  in  the  patriarchal  cities:  that  it  was  composed  for  use  in  that  one  city.  The 
Rome.  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Constantinople.  Jeru-  lists  of  saints  (^Communicantes"  and  "Nobis  quo- 
salem  nad  already  civen  hers  to  Antioch.  The  bish-  que")  contain  the  Apostles  and  then  local  Roman 
ops  of  each  patriardiate  naturally  thought  that  they  saints,  or  those,  like  St.  Cyprian,  specially  honoured  at 
could  not  do  better  than  celebrate  the  holy  mysteries  Rome;  the  Calendar  with  its  Rogation  and  ember- 
in  the  same  way  as  their  patriarch.  We  know  in  the  days  supposes  the  Italian  climate;  the  special  heroes 
West  how,  long  before  there  were  any  laws  on  the  sub-  of  Rome,  as  St.  Laurence,  are  those  that  nave  the  old- 

1'ect,  every  one  began  to  copy  what  was  done  at  Rome,  est  great  feasts.    Of  course  Rome,  like  all  Chinches, 

t  seemed  safest  to  follow  Rome  in  the  matter.    The  honours  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Apostles,  the  Baptist, 

Prankish  Church  in  the  eighth  century  gave  up  the  St.  Stephen,  the  oecumenical  saints  of  Christendom. 

Gallican  Rite^  and  adoptea  that  of  the  patriardbal  After  them  she  naturally  honours  first  hei^  own  saints, 

see.    The  "  Liber  sacramentorum  Romance  Ecclesise"  whose  relics  hallow  her  basilicas.    The  stations  at  the 

Sread  throughout  Western  Europe  till  it  had  di»-  Roman  basilicas  affect  her  year  throughout;  and  on 
aoed  all  other  uses,  except  in  one  or  two  remote  the  feast  of  the  Princes  of  the  Apostles  she  remembers 
districts.  We  see  the  same  tendency  at  work  still —  soecially  "  happy  Rome  purple  with  their  glorious 
uniformity  in  accordance  with  Roman  customs,  even  mood".  From  all  this,  then,  it  is  clear  that  the  real  dis- 
in  such  details  as  the  shape  of  vestments  and  the  pro-  tinction  of  rites  is  not  by  language  nor  by  the  religion 
nunciation  of  Latin.  So  it  was  in  the  East  with  regard  of  those  who  may  use  them,  but  according  to  the 
to  their  patriarchal  sees.  Local  customs  are  gradually  places  where  they  were  composed.  The  correct  and 
suppressed  in  favour  of  the  patriarch's  way  of  doin^  scientific  way  of  describing  any  rite,  therefore,  is 
thm^.  Schisms  and  heresies  accentuate  this  um-  always  by  the  name  of  a  place.  Thus  we  have  the 
formity  amon^  Catholics.  It  was  a  sign  of  adherence  Roman  and  Gallican  Rites  in  the  West ;  in  the  East  the 
to  the  Catholic  centre — ^Alexandria,  Constantinople,  Rites  of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Constantinople,  etc. 
or  whichever  it  might  be— to  agree  entirely  with  it  in  This  is  the  really  essential  note  of  any  rite,  that  it  keeps 
rite.  Lastly  come  laws  determining  this  tendency;  even  when  translated  into  other  languages, 
and  so  we  have  the  principle  that  (with  exceptions)  (3)  What  is  a  Greek  Rile  f — An  obvious  corollary  of 
obtains  still  throughout  Qiristendom,  namely:  "Rite  what  has  been  said  is  that  we  had  much  better  never 
follows  Patriarchate".  The  Roman  Rite  is  used  speak  of  a  "Greek  Rite"  at  all.  Like  the  cognate  ex- 
throughout  the  Roman  patriarchate,  by  the  deray  pression  "Greek  Church"  it  is  a  confused  and  unscien- 
subject  to  the  pope  as  their  patriarcn,  and  only  by  tific  term,  the  use  of  which  argues  that  the  speaker  has 
them ;  the  Alexandrine  Rite  belongs  to  E^ypt — where  a  mistaken  conception  of  the  subject.  What  is  called 
the  patriarch  of  Alexandria  has  jurisdiction;  that  of  a  Greek  Rite  wiU  always  be  the  rite  of  some  city — 
Antioch  to  Syria;  that  of  Constantinople  to  the  By-  Alexandria  or  Constantinople,  and  so  on.  If  one 
santine  territory.  The  National  Nestorian  (East-  wishes  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  Greek  language 
Syrian)  and  Armenian  patriarchates  have  their  own  is  used  for  it,  that  statement  may  be  added.  At 
ntes.  Such  was  the  principle  for  many  centuries  Athens  and  Constantinople  they  use  the  Byzantine 
everywhere.  Except  for  the  two  remnants  of  other  Liturgy ;  it  may  be  worth  while  to  add  that  they  use  it 
Western  rites  at  Milan  and  Toledo,  it  may  still  be  in  Greek,  since  at  St.  Petersburg  and  Sofia  th^y  follow 
taken  as  a  fairly  safe  one  in  the  Catiiolic  Church;  and  exactly  the  same  rite  in  Old  Slavonic.  When  people 
amonjg  all  Eastern  sects,  except  the  Orthodox.  Since  further  distinguish  "pure  Greek"  and  "Graeco-Ara- 
the  thirteenth  century,  however,  the  Orthodox,  re-  bic","Gr»co-Slavonic"  Rites,  the  confusion  is  greater 
gardless  of  the  older  tradition,  use  the  Byzantine  Kite  than  ever.  By  these  last  terms  they  mean  rites  trans- 
everywhere,  even  in  their  Alexandrine,  Antiochene,  lated  into  Arabic  and  Slavonic  out  of  the  Greek.  Now, 
and  Jerusalem  patriarchates.  In  their  case,  then,  the  the  evidence  on  the  whole  tends  to  show  that  every 
principle  cannot  be  applied.  But  the  exception  is  ancient  rite  in  Christendom  was  first  used  in  the  Greek 
rather  apparent  than  real.  This  spread  of  the  use  of  language;  those  of  the  Copts,  Syrians,  and  Romans 
the  Rite  of  Constantinople  meant  an  assertion  of  that  certainly  were.  So  that  if  one  calls  the  Russian  ser- 
patriarch'^  jurisdiction  throu^out  the  Orthodox  vice  "Grseco-Slavonic",  one  may  just  as  well  describe 
Church.  In  this  case,  too,  rite  really  followed  patri-  the  pope's  Mass  as  "Grseco-Latin".  It  would  then  be 
archate;  the  disappearance  of  the  Liturgies  of  Alexan-  enormously  to  the  advantage  of  clear  ideas  if  people 
dria  and  Antioch  amone  the  OrUiodox  meant,  as  was  would  stop  using  this  expression  and  would  describe 
intended,  the  practical  disappearance  of  any  real  each  rite  by  the  name  of  its  place  of  origin.  The  pame 
authority  in  those  places  save  tnat  of  the  prelate  who  Greek  Rites,  however,  still  too  commomy  used,  applies 
nearly  succeeded  m  justifying  his  pompous  title  of  to  the  three  classical  Eastern  uses  whose  original  forms 
(Ecumenical  Patriarch.  Now  that  his  attempt  has  in  Greek  are  still  extant.  These  are  the  parent  rites  of 
failed,  and  the^  other  patriarchs  are  becommg  more  Alexandria  and  Antioch  and  the  widely  spread  By- 
and  more  conscious  of  tneir  independence  of  him,  there  zantine  Rite.  The  Alexandrine  Liturgy,  ascribed  to 
are  signs  of  a  near  restoration  ot  their  own  liturgies,  to  St.  Mark,  is  no  longer  said  in  Greek  an3rwhere.  It  is 
be  us^,  as  before,  where  their  jurisdiction  extends.  the  source  of  the  Coptic  and  Abyssinian  Rites.  The 
But  a  rite  in  spreading  out  from  the  patriarchal  city  Greek  text,  which  was  used  by  the  Orthodox  of  Egypt 
where  it  was  composed  does  not  itself  change.  Since  down  to  the  thirteenth  century,  will  be  found  m 
the  invention  of  printing,  especially,  and  the  later  Brightman's  "Eastern  Liturgies  ,  113-143;  an  En- 
tendency  to  stereotype  every  detail  of  the  sacred  funo-  glish  translation  of  the  Coptic  form  follows,  144-1,88; 
tions,  each  rite,  wherever  used,  is  made  to  conform  the  Ab3rssinian  Liturgy,  194-244.  For  a  further  ac- 
rigidly  with  its  standard  form  as  used  in  the  central  count  see  Alexandrine  Liturgy.  The  other  parent 
church .  The  Liturgy  of  Jerusalem- Antioch  contains,  rite  of  Antioch  stands  at  the  head  of  a  very  great  family 
as  the  first  member  of  its  Great  Intercession,  a  prayer  of  liturgies.  In  the  original  Greek  it  is  represented  in 
for  "the  holy  and  glorious  Sion,  mother  of  aJl  two  obviously  cognate  forms,  that  of  the  eighth  book 
Churches",  plainly  a  local  touch  intended  originally  of  the  "Apostolic  Constitutions"  (Brightman,  op.  cit., 
for  use  in  Jerusalem,  where  the  rite  was  written  3-27;  compare  the  fragments  of  the  liturgy  m  the 


776 


second  book,  ib.,  28-30),  and  the  Liturgy  of  St.  James 
(ib.,  31-68).  Its  Dlace  of  origin  was  not  Antioch  but 
Jerusalem.  Till  tne  thirteenth  century,  the  Liturgy 
of  St.  James  was  used  throughout  both  patriarchates. 
It  still  survives  in  Greek  among  the  Orthodox  for  two 
occasions  in  the  year,  on  St.  James's  feast  (23  Oct.)  at 
Zacjrnthus  (Zante)  and  on  31  Dec.  at  Jerusalem^ 
Translated  into  Syriac  it  is  used  by  the  Jacobites  *and 
Syrian  Uniats  (text  in  English  in  Brightman,  69-110) ; 
with  further  (Romanizing)  modifications  it  forms  the 
Maronite  Rite  (a  Latin  version  has  been  edited  by 
Prince  Max  of  Saxony:  "  Missa  Syro-Maronitica",  Rat- 
isbon,  1907).  The  Chaldean  Rite,  used  by  Nestorians 
and  Uniat  Chaldeea  (Brightman,  247-^305),  appears 
also  to  be  derived,  if  remotely,  from  St.  James's  Lit- 
urgy. The  Byzantine  Use  is  further  derived  from  this, 
ana  the  Armenian  Liturgy  from  that  of  the  Byzan- 
tines. So,  except  for  the  services  of  Egypt  and  her 
daughter-Church  of  Abyssinia,  the  Greek  Liturgy  of 
St.  James  stands  at  the  head  of  all  Eastern  rites  (see 
article  Antiochene  Rite). 

People  who  speak  of  the  Greek  Rite  generally  mean 
that  of  Constantinople.  The  name  is  an  unfortunate 
example  of  false  analogy.  We  have  all  learnt  in  school 
of  Greek  and  Roman  history,  Greek  and  Roman  clas- 
sics and  architecture,  and  we  know  the  Roman  Rite. 
It  is  tempting  to  balance  it  with  a  Greek  Rite,  just  as 
Homer  balances  Virgil.  How  different  the  real  situa- 
tion is  this  article  shows.  The  Byzantine  Rite,  to 
which  should  always  be  given  its  own  name,  is  the 
most  wide-spread  in  Christendom  after  that  of  Rome. 
It  was  formed  first  in  Cappadocia,  then  at  Constanti- 
nople, by  a  gradual  process  of  development  from  that 
of  Antioch.  The  names  of  St.  Basil  (d.  379)  and  St. 
John  Chrysostom  (d.  407)  are,  not  altogether  wrongly, 
attached  to  the  chief  periods  of  this  development. 
From  Constantinople  the  rite  then  spread  throughout 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  Eastern  Christendom.  As 
the  power  of  the  patriarchs  of  the  imperial  city  grew, 
so  did  they  ^nulually  succeed  in  imposing  their  use  on 
all  bishops  m  communion  with  them.  Now,  except 
for  the  two  insignificant  exceptions  noted  above,  the 
Byzantine  Rite  is  used  throughout  the  Orthodox 
Church.  It  seems  that  this  abuse  will  not  last  much 
longer.  Since  the  authorit>r  of  the  oecumenical  patri- 
arch outside  of  his  own  patriarchate  has  already  come 
to  an  end,  we  may  live  to  see  the  old  rites  restored  in 
Egypt  and  Syria,  according  to  the  traditional  principle 
that  rite  follows  patriarchate.  .The  Use  of  Constanti- 
nople is  also  followed  b>r  a  great  number  of  Catholic 
Uniats,  Melchites  in  Syria  and  Egypt  and  others  in 
the  Balkans,  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy,  Italy, 
etc.  These  people  represent  the  old  Patriarchate  of 
Constantinople  in  the  Catholic  Church;  but  that 
Church  has  never,  like  her  Orthodox  rival,  set  up  a 

Erinciple  of  uniformity  in  rite.  There  are,  besides  the 
atins,  Uniats  of  every  rite.  The  text  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Liturgy  in  Greek  will  be  found  in  Brightman,  309- 
411.  It  is  also  used,  translated  into  many  languages. 
The  older  classical  versions  are  Arabic  and  Old  Sla- 
vonic (Syriac  is  no  longer  used,  Georgian  only  by  a 
handful  of  Uniats).  Then  come  Rumanian  and  a 
number  of  modem  language  used  chiefly  bv  Russian 
missionaries  in  Siberia,  China,  Japan,  and.  America 
(list  in  Brightman,  pp.  Ixxxi-lxxxii).  Uniats  recog- 
nize as  liturgical  languages  for  this  rite  onlv  Greek, 
Arabic,  Old  Slavonic,  and  Georgian.  It  is  tnese  ver- 
sions of  the  Byzantine  Rite  that  people  mean  when  they 
speak  of  ''  mixed  Greek''  rites.  There  are  no  changes 
of  any  importance  in  them.  The  Old  Slavonic  books 
contain  some  local  feasts,  and  a  few  c^uite  insignificant 
variants  of  the  text;  the  same  applies  to  the  Arabic 
versions.  Otherwise  they  are  mere  translations. 
Tlie  student  of  this  rite  (except  in  the  case  of  very 
specialized  study)  should  always  turn  to  the  Greek 
origin^J.  For  further  description  see  Constanti- 
nople, The  Rite  op. 


For  bibliography  see  AuBXANDBiHa  Lrubot;  AimoGHKim 
Litubot;  Comstaivtinopub,  Thb  Rm  op.  See  also  Crabon, 
Le  RiU  Bymntindana  Ub  PalriaroaU  MdkUm^  extraii,  dm  Xpwvpr- 
rofiuci  (Rome,  Propaganda,  1908);  Bokolow,  DanUUung  dm 
OoUmdienatm  der  mih.-kath.  Kirche  dm  Morgerdtmdm  (Berlin, 
1893);  Enodabl,  BeitrAgetur  Kenntnia  der  BywantmiacKen  hit- 
wrgw  (Berlin,  19()8,  the  Greek  text  and  a  Latin  version  of  the 
liturgy  from  a  manuscript  in  the  Grand-ducal  Library  at 
Baden,  probably  of  the  fifteenth  century);  Princb  Max  op 
Saxont,  Ritua  Mimm  Ecclmiarum  Orienialium  8.  Rom.  Bed. 
unitarutn  (Ratisbon,  1907 — ),  i.  e.  Latin  versions  of  Uniat  lit- 
urpes. 

Adrian  Fortescus. 

Green,  Hugh,  martyr;  b.  about  1584;  martyred  19 
August,  1642.  Hjb  parents,  who  were  Protestants, 
sent  him  Co  Peterhouse,  CamDridge,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  1605,  but  was  afterwards  converted  and 
entered  Douai  College  in  1610.  He  left  again  in  1612 
to  try  his  vocation  among  the  Capuchins.  From  want 
of  health  or  some  other  cause^  he  was  unable  to  con- 
tinue, and  became  a  chaplam  at  Chideock  Castle, 
Dorsetshire,  the  home  of  LAdy  Arundell  of  Lanheme. 
On  8  March,  1641,  Charles  1.  to  placate  the  Puritan 
Parliament,  issued  a  proclamation  banishing  all 
priests  from  England,  and  Green  resolved  to  obey  this 
order.  Unfortunatelv  the  news  had  been  late  in 
reaching  him,  and  when  he  embarked  the  month  of 
grace  given  for  departure  was  just  over.  He  was 
therefore  arrested,  tried,  and  condemned  to  death  in 
August.  In  prison  his  constancy  so  affected  his 
fellow-captives  that  two  or  three  women  sentenced  to 
die  with  nim  sent  him  word  that  they  would  ask  his 
absolution  before  death.  They  did  so  after  confessing 
their  sins  to  the  peoi>le,  and  were  absolved  by  the 
martyr.  A  proviaential  reward  for  his  zeal  immedi- 
ately followed.  A  Jesuit  Father,  despite  the  dan^, 
rode  up  in  disguise  on  horseback,  and  at  a  given  sign 
absolved  the  martyr,  who  made  a  noble  confession  of 
faith  before  death.  As  the  executioner  was  quite 
unskilled,  he  could  not  find  the  martyr's  heart,  and 
the  butchery  with  appalling  cruelty  was  prolonged  for 
nearly  half  an  hour.  After  this  tne  Puritans  played 
footbiall  with  his  head,  a  barbarity  happily  not  re- 
peated in  the  history  of  the  English  msu^yrs. 

CnALXX>NBB.  Miaaumary  Primta  (1874),  11.  113;  £>■  Mabstb. 
PeraSeution  prSaenU  dm  Catholiqum  en  Angieterre  (1646),  II, 
86-93. 

J.  H.  POLLBN. 

Green,  Thomas  Louis,  priest  and  controversialist; 
b.  at  Stourbridge,  Worcestershire,  1799;  d.  at  New- 
port, Shropshire,  27  Feb.,  1883.  He  was  the  son  of 
Francis  Green  of  Solihull  Lodge,  Warwickshire,  and  as 
a  boy  was  entrusted  to  the  care  of  Bishop  Milner,  by 
whom  he  was  sent  to  Sedgley  Park  School,  and  after- 
wards in  1813  to  Oscott.  Having  completed  his  theo- 
logical studies  there,  he  was  ordained  priest  in  Feb., 
1825,  and  remained  at  the  college  as  procurator.  In 
1828  he  succeeded  the  Rev.  J.  McDonnell  at  Norwich, 
where  he  became  known  as  a  controversialist.  Chal- 
lenged to  a  public  disputation,  Green  declined  on  the 
ground  that  no  real  good  would  be  effected,  but  harm 
would  arise  owingto  the  excited  and  prejudiced  feel- 
ings prevalent.  He,  however,  undertook  to  meet  all 
charges  in  a  course  of  sermonss,  which  he  did  success- 
fully. After  two  years  he  went  to  TixaU,  Stafford- 
shire, as  chaplain  to  Sir  Clifford  Constable,  Baronet, 
and  while  there  was  engaged  in  a  controversy  with  the 
Anglican  clergyman,  in  which  he  strove,  though  fruit- 
lessly, to  have  the  Anglican  burial  service  omitted  in 
cases  of  the  interment  of  Catholics  in  the  parish 
churchyard.  In  1846  he  went  back  to  Oscott  as  pre- 
fect of  discipline,  a  post  which  he  held  for  two  3rears 
before  becoming  chaplain  to  St.  Mary's  Priory,  Pnnce- 
thorpe,  near  Coventry.  He  was  priest  at  Mawley, 
Shropshire,  in  1858,  and  at  Madelesr,  Shropshire,  m 
1859,  while  in  1860  he  became  chaplain  to  Lord  Acton 
at  Aldenham  Park,  near  Bridenorth,  Shropshire, 
where  he  remained  for  the  rest  ofhiB  active  lite.  In 
1868  Pius  IX  granted  him  the  honorary  degree  of 


777 


aBlBMLAVD 


Doctor  of  Divinity  in  reooenition  of  his  aervioes.  He 
retired  shortl)r  before  he  cued  to  Salter's  Hall,  New- 
portj  Shropshire. 

His  works  were:  "A  series  of  Discourses  on  the 
principal  controverted  {Mints  of  Catholic  Doctrine 
delivered  at  .  .  .  Norwich"  (Norwich,  1830),  re- 
printed under  the  title  ''Argumentative  Discourses" 
in  1837;  ''A  Correspondence  between  the  Protestant 
Rector  of  Tixall  and  the  Catholic  Chaplain  of  Sir 
Clifford  Constable"  (Stafford,  1834);  ''A  Letter  ad- 
dressed to  Rev.  Clement  Leigh"  (London,  1836); 
"The  Truth,  the  Whole  Truth,  and  Nothing  but  the 
Truth"  (London,  1838);  "The  Secular  Clergjr  Fund 
of  the  late  Midland  District"  (London,  1853,  privately 
printed) ;  "  Rome,  Purgaton%  Indulgences,  Idolatry, 
etc."  (Brid^orth,  1863);  "Indulgences,  Sacramen- 
tal. Absolutions  and  Tax  Tables  of  the  Roman  Chan- 
cery and  Penitentitfy  considered  in  reply  to  the  charge 
of  Venality"  (London,  1872, 1880).  He  also  contrib- 
uted to  the  "  Orthodox  Jourxial ' ', "  Catholic  Magazine ' ' 

and  "True  Tablet". 

7^  Oaeotian,  new  aeriflB,  m,  48;  Qillow,  BibL  DieL  Rng, 
C<Uh.t  s.  V. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Green  Bav,  Diocese  of  (Sinus  Viridis),  estab- 
lished 3  March,  1868,  from  the  territor]^  of  the  Diocese 
of  Milwaukee,  comprises  sixteen  counties  of  the  State 
of  Wisconsin,  U.  S.  A. :  Brown,  Calumet,  Door,  Florence, 
Forest,  Kewaunee,  Langlade,  Manitowoc,  Marinette, 
Oconto,  Outaeamie,  Portage,  Shawano,  Waupaca, 
Waushara,  and  Winnebago;  an  area  of  15,387  square 
miles. 

At  that  time  there  were  in  this  district  thirty-one 
churches  and  forty-two  stations,  with  thirty-one  priests 
and  fifty-five  ecclesiastical  students;  eleven  parish 
schools  and  seven  convents  of  the  Sisters  of  rfotre 
Dame,  the  Ursulines,  Sisters  of  St.  Agnes,  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Dominic,  and  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  with  a  Catholic  population  of  about  50,000. 
It  was  mixed  Irish-Amencan,  German,  Belgian,  and 
Dutch,  with  a  few  Indians.  Poles  and  Bohemians 
are  now  to  be  added  to  this  classification. 

Bishops. — (1)  Joseph  Melcher  was  appointed  the 
first  bishop,  and  consecrated  at  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  12 
July,  1868.  In  1855  he  had  been  appointed  Bishop  of 
the  proposed  See  of  Quincsr^  Illinois,  but  declined  the 
appointment.  The  See  or  Quincy  was  soon  after 
suppressed  and  the  title  transferred  to  Alton.  Bishop 
Melcher  was  bom  19  March,  1806,  at  Vienna,  Austria, 
and  ordained  priest  at  Modena,  Italy,  12  March,  1830. 
He  died  at  Green  Bay,  20  Dec.,  1873. 

(2)  Francis  Xavier  Krautbauer,  second  bishop, 
was  consecrated  29  June,  1875,  at  Milwaukee,  Wis- 
consin. A  native  of  Bruck,  Bavaria,  where  he  was 
bom  12  January^  1824,  he  was  ordained  priest  16 
July,  1850,  at  Ratisbon.  He  died  suddenly  17  Decem- 
ber, 1885,  at  Green  Bay. 

(3)  Frederic  Xavier  Katzer,  third  bishop,  had 
been  vicar-general  of  the  diocese.  He  was  oom  7 
February,  1844,  at  Ebensee,  Upper  Austria,  and  in 
the  last  year  of  his  collegiate  course  at  Friedberg  he 
volunteered  for  the  American  mission.  Arriving  in 
the  United  States  in  May,  1864,  he  entered  the  Sues- 
ianum  at  St.  Francis,  near  Milwaukee,  where  he  com- 

Sleted  his  theological  course  and  was  ordained  priest, 
December,  1866.  He  taught  in  the  Milwaukee  Sem- 
inary until  1875,  when  Bishop  Krautbauer  made  him 
his  secretary,  and  three  years  later  vicar-general  of 
Green  Bay.  On  30  January,  1891,  he  was  promoted 
arehbishop  and  transferred  to  Milwaukee,  where  he 
died  20  July,  1903. 

(4)  Sebastian  Gebhaiu)  Messuer,  fourth  bishop, 
was  consecrated  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  27  Marcn, 
1892.  He  was  bom  29  August,  1847,  at  St.  Gall, 
Switzerland,  and  ordained  priest  23  July.  1871,  at 
Innsbruck.  Austria.  He  was  professor  of  tneology  at 
Seton  Hall  College,  New  Jersey,  from  1871  to  1889, 


and  was  professor  of  canon  law  at  the  Catholic  Uni- 
versity, Washington,  when  chosen  bishop.  He  was 
Promoted  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Milwaukee,  28 
Fovember,  1903. 

(5)  Joseph  J.  Fox,  fifth  bishop,  was  consecrated  25 
July,  1904.  He  was  bom  in  Green  Bay,  2  August, 
1855,  and  made  his  theological  studies  at  Louvain. 
He  was  ordained  priest  7  June,  1870,  and  served  as 
secretary  to  Bishop  Krautbauer,  vicar-general  of  the 
diocese,  and  pastor  of  Mariette,  before  he  was  appointed 
bishop,  27  May,  1904. 

The  religious  communities  located  in  the  diocese  are: 
— Men:— Oapuchins,  Franciscans,  Premonstratensians, 
Fathers  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Saviour,  Oblates 
of  Mary  Immaculate,  and  the  Alexian  Brothers. 
Women: — Sisters  of  St.  Agnes,  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic, 
Felicians,  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  Sisters  of 
Charity,  Sisters  of  Christian  Charity,  Ho^ital  Sisters 
of  St.  Francis,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Sisters  of 
Meroy,  Polish  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph^  School  Sisters  of 
St.  Prancis,  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady 
of  Christ,  Sistere  of  Misericorde,  School  Sistere  of 
Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  the  Sorrowfid  Mother,  Sisters 
of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Saviour,  Sisters  of  Uie 
Third  Order  of  St.  Francis. 

Statistics: — 202  priests  (47  regulars),  25  ecclesias- 
tical students,  54  brothers,  45  churehes,  65  missions, 
3  stations,  3  chapels,  104  parish  schools  (16,482 
pupils),  1  academy  (95  pupils),  2  colleges  (109 
students),  1  Indian  school  (224  pupils),  1  orphan 
asylum  (227  inmates),  1  industrial  and  reform  school 
(66  inmates),  1  infant  home  and  asylum  (50  inmates), 
17,418  young  people  under  Catholic  care,  8  hospitals. 
Catholic  population  135,000. 

Caiholie  mreeUry  (Milwaukee,  1009);  Catholie  Home  AU 
manae  (New  York.  1892);  RauBS,  Biog.  Encyel.  Caih,  Hi^ 
rwehy  U.S.  (Milwaukee,  1898);  Catholic  Cititen  (MUwaukee), 
fileOi 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Greenland. — ^An  island  stretching  from  within  the 
Aretic  Circle  south  to  about  59  de^-ees  N.  latitude,  be- 
tween 20  degrees  and  75  degrees  WHongitude.  In  shape 
it  more  or  less  resembles  a  triangle,  its  apex  pointing 
south,  its  base  facing  north,  in  which  direction  its 
extent  has  not  been  precisely  ascertained.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean ;  on  the 
west,  by  Smith  Sound,  Baffin's  Bay,  and  Davis  Strait; 
on  the  east  by  the  Arctic  and  the  Atlantic  Oceans. 
Its  area  has  been  estimated  at  about  512,000  square 
miles.  The  interior  of  this  huge  island  is  a  plateau 
rising  gradually  towards  the  east,  above  which  a 
few  mountain  peaks  tower  to  a  height  of  more  than 
13,100  feet.  Immense  fields  of  ice,  varying  in  thick- 
ness, are  lodged  on  the  island,  and,  on  the  coast 
here  and  there,  form  steep  walls  launching  mi^ty 
glaciers  towards  the  ocean,  where,  caught  by  the  cur- 
rents, they  drift  southwards.  These  ice-nelds  and 
the  continually  moving  masses  of  ice,  which  are  dimin- 
ished only  in  the  monUi  of  July,  constitute  the  main 
difficulty  in  approaching  the  coast,  which  is  indented 
with  numerous  fiords  and  lined  with  small  islands. 
The  mineralogical  composition  of  Greenland  is  varied 
and  comprises  granite,  sandstone,  syenite,  porphyry, 
and  some  brown  coal,  tin,  and  iron.  Ivi^ut  is  the 
only  locality  outside  of  Siberia  which  is  Known  to 
produce  the  mineral  kryolite  (orkryolith)  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  aluminium.  The  valleys  in  the 
south-west,  traversed  by  rivers,  and  the  hills  facing 
towards  the  south-west,  are  the  onljr  sections  ol 
the  country  where  vegetation  finds  a  soil  to  nourish 
it.  hence,  as  well  as  by  reason  of  the  severity 
01  Uie  long  winters,  the  flora  is  comparatively 
insignificant.  In  the  north  the  only  vegetation  con- 
sists of  lichens  and  mosses,  in  the  milc^r  regions  of 
the  south  berries  and  various  dwarfed  plants  are  met 
with,  while  the  most  sheltered  localities  produce 
willow,  alder,  and  birch  trees,  which,  however,  seldom 


aREBHLAND  778  OREBHLAHD 

attain  the  hei^t  of  ^twelve  to  fift^n  feet.  Fanning  means  of  subsistence  were  practically  the  same  as  those 
is  not  to  be  thought  of;  even  the  hardy  potato  yields  of  to-day,  except  that  cattle-raiBing  was  more  eenereL 
only  here  and  there  a  small  return.  On  the  other  hand»  Greexuand  was  considered  a  possession  of  the  Nor- 
some  vegetables,  especially  lettuce  and  cabbage,  thrive  wegian  Crown  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Union  of  Kal- 
oomparatively  well.  Thedogis  the  only  domesticated  mar  (see  Styffe,  Skandinavien  under  Unionstiden,  11, 
animal.  Chickens,  sheep,  goats,  and  homed  cattle  Stockholm,  1880,  p.  355).  The  continued  distuib- 
are  bred  only  occasional!^.  For  same  there  are  the  ances  in  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms  caused  these 
reindeer,  moose,  and  arctic  hare,  besides  numberless  remote  colonies  to  be  forgotten.  Eventually,  all 
bears  and  foxes  which  are  constantly  hunted  for  their  relations  between  the  Norse  settlers  and  their  mother 
valuable  skins.  Numerous  species  of  birds  furnish  the  country  ceased,  and  Greenland  kept  only  a  shadowy 
inhabitants  with  food — the  flesh  of  the  ptarmieau  and  existence  in  the  European  geographies.  Tradition 
the  eggs  of  the  sea  gull — ^while  the  eider  duck  yields  had  it  that  the  island  was  rich  m  game  (reindeer,  polar 
its  down.  Whaling,  seal-hunting,  and  fishing  are  of  bears,  sables,  marten,  fish,  and  certain  ''monsters" — 
vital  importance.  Navijgation  on  any  considerable  perhaps  walrus),  and  that  it  abounded  in  marble, 
scale  is  possible  only  durmg  the  summer.  Communi-  crystals,  and  so  on.  Its  inhabitants  were,  unhi^ily, 
cation  between  the  different  settlements  is  maintained  lost  to  Chri8tianit3r.  The  efforts  of  Archbishop  Wal- 
by  means  of  the  umiak,  a  boat  made  of  sealskin,  kendorf  of  Trondhjem,  to  assist  the  lost  Norse  breth- 
generally  about  thirty  feet  in  length.  For  hunting  ren,  ended  in  failure.  A  general  permission  to  settle 
and  fishinff  the  Greenlander  uses  the  kajak,  a  boat  there,  granted  by  King  Christian  III,  was  also  fruit- 
propelled  by  means  of  paddles.  The  staple  exports  less;  the  perils  of  the  sea  journey  deterred  his  subjects, 
of  Greenland  are  whale-oil,  theskins  of  seals,  bears,  and  The  honour  of  having  practically  rediscovered  Green- 
foxes,  eiderdown,  and  kryolith,  all  amounting  to  about  land  belongs  to  the  English.  Commissioned  by 
500,000  kronen.  The  value  of  the  import»^-coal,  Queen  Elizabeth,  Frobisher  made  several  voyages 
foodstuffs,  and  articles  of  common  use — ^is  about  double  northwards,  between  1576  and  1578,  and  at  last  suo- 
that  of  the  exports.  ceeded  in  reaching  his  goal.    The  work  begim  by  him 

The  original  inhabitants  of  Greenland,  the  Eskimos,  was  continued  by  his  countryman,  Davis.  The  Dan- 
belong  to  the  Mon^lian  race  and  are  for  the  most  ish  Kings,  who,  as  sovereigns  of  Norway,  claimed 
part  at  least  nominal  Christians,  under  the  juris-  Greenland,  also  sent  expeditions  there,  the  meet  sue- 
diction  of  the  Bishop  of  Zealand.  A  number  of  the  cessful  of  which  was  that  of  Dannels  (1652-54).  In 
inhabitants  residing  on  the  east  coast  are  still  pagans,  the  bqrinning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  settlement 
Ilie  creed  of  the  latter  shows  pantheistic  tenaencies,  and  Christianization  of  Greenlimd  recommenced, 
and  the  exercise  of  their  religion  consists  in  certain  Factories  were  erected  in  CHiristianehaab  (1734), 
forms  of  prayer  and  curious  ceremonies.  Without  Jaoobshavn  (1741)  and  Fredrikshaab  (1742).  Com- 
any  clear  conception  of  their  responsibility  to  a  su-  merce  was  developed  partly  by  individuals  (e.  g.  the 
preme  being  they  have,  nevertheless,  rude  notions  of  merchant  Severin,  1734)  and  partly  by  commercial 
neaven  andhell.  Their  priests  are  at  the  same  time  companies  (allmindelig  HandelsKompanif  1774).  Since 
teachers,  judges,  and  doctors.  Naturally  amiable,  then  the  Government  itself  has  assumed  control  of 
thou^  somewhat  irascible  and  vindictive,  and  care-  the  Greenland  trade.  In  addition  to  the  settlements 
less  of  cleanliness,  the  Christian  Eiskimos  need  con-  established  by  the  Government,  the  Moravian  Brethren 
stant  guidance  to  prevent  their  relapsing  into  the  have  founded  several  stations.  The  eastern  coast  of 
general  disregard  for  moralitv,  which  formerly  ob-  Greenland  was  not  properly  explored  and  described 
tained  amongthem.  The  lords  of  the  land  are  some  until  the  nineteenth  century— oy  Scoresby  (1822), 
300  Danes.  Politically,  the  country  is  divided  into  Clavering  (1823),  Graah  (1829),  the  German  expedi- 
the  North  and  South  Inspectorates.  The  most  notable  tion  (1869),  and  the  Danish  expedition  (1883-^). 
settlements  are:  Godthaab,  Neuherrenhut,  Christiane-  The  church  history  of  Greenland  naturally  divides 
haab,  Jakobshavn,  Fredrikshaab,  Claushavn,  Fisker-  itself  into  two  periods:  the  Catholic  period,  from 
nfis,  Sukkertoppen,  Ritenbenk,  Sydbay,  Nosoak,  about  1000  to  1450,  and  the  Protestant  period,  since 
Holstenborg,  Egedeminde,  Upemivik.  1721.    Leif  the  Happy  (Hepni),  son  of  Efrik  the  Red, 

History. — Greenland  can  hardlv  be  said  to  possess  visited  Norway  in  990,  where  he  was  won  over  to 
any  political  history  as  the  small  number  of  its  in-  Christianity  by  King  Olaf  Trygveason,  who  sent  some 
haoitants  precluded  its  exertins  any  influence  on  the  missionaries  to  accompany  him  to  his  coimtry..  In  a 
destiny  of  other  coimtries.  Although  .many  histor-  remarkably  shoft  time  these  missionaries  succeeded 
ians  claim  that  the  Norse  colony,  which  flourished  in  converting  the  Norse  colonists,  at  least  outwardly, 
there  during  the  Middle  A^,  was  destroyed  by  the  and  in  estaolishing  an  organized  Church.  Sixteen 
Skrftlings  (EiSkimos),  proof  is  wanting,  ana,  consider-  parishes  were  founded  successively,  together  with 
ing  the  pacific  character  of  the  Eskimos,  it  is  more  churches  and  even  a  few  monasteries.  As  the  dis- 
probable  that  the  colonists,  relatively  few  in  num-  tance  to  Europe  made  communication  very  difficult, 
oer,  lost  their  identity  by  intermarriage  with  the  Greenland,  in  spite  of  the  small  number  of  souls  which  it 
aboxigines.  It  is,  however,  an  established  fact  that  contained,  was  formed  into  the  Diocese  of  Gardar,  suf- 
the  Eskimos  were  in  Greenland  (at  least  transientlv)  f ragan  first  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Hamburg-Bremen, 
at  the  time  the  Norseman  GunnbjOm  set  foot  on  the  then  to  that  of  Lund,  and  ultimately  to  that  of  Trondh- 
island  and  when  Eric  the  Red  of  Iceland  settled  there  jem.  The  succession  of  its  bishops  is  variously  listed 
(983).  Eric  gave  the  island  its  name.  In  the  "Is-  by  Gams  and  by  Eubel,  and  can  hardly  be  ascertained 
lendingabok",  written  about  a  century  later  by  Are  with  certainty  at  present.  But  this  much  seems 
Fr6thi,  it  is  stated  that  there  were  found  on  the  island  certain  that,  before  the  colony  perished,  sixteen  to 
numerous  deserted  huts,  parts  of  boats,  and  various  eighteen  bishops  of  various  nationalities  occupied  the 
stone  implements  such  as  are  in  use  even  unto  this  See  of  Gardar  or  at  least  were  nominated  to  it.  Their 
day  in  the  north-east  and  the  west  around  Disko  Bay  doings  are  unknown  to  history.  Tradition  has  it  that 
and  the  Umanak  Fiord.  Erik  named  his  first  settle-  Bishop  Erik  Gnupson  joined  an  expedition  in  1121  for 
ment  (the  site  is  unknown)  Brattahlid.  Kinsmen  and  the  purpose  of  locating  again  the  eastern  coast  of 
friends  soon  joined  him,  and  in  a  short  time  the  Nortn  America  which  had  been  discovered  100  yean 
Norse  population  grew  considerably.  With  Christian-  previously.  During  the  reign  of  Bishop  Ames  (1314- 
ity  a  higher  civilization  entered  the  island.  When  43)  Greenland  contributed  its  quota  in  natural  prod- 
Norway  took  possession  of  Greenland  there  were  more  ucts  (walrus  teeth)  toward  the  Peter's-pence  and  the 
than  three  hundred  farms,  supporting  a  population  of  expense  of  the  Crusades.  It  appears  tnat  no  bishop 
over  three  thousand,  partly  in  Ostrabygd,  partly  in  visited  Greenland  after  the  beginning  of  the  fifteentn 
Westrabygd  (both  places  on  the  western  ooast).    The  p^ntury.    The  succession  of  titular  bishops  closes  with 


OBBOORAS 


779 


aREOOBIAR 


Vineens  Kampe  (1537).  As  nQ^ntioned  above,  the  set- 
Hera  received  no  reinforoements,  and  either  perished 
or,  by  intermarriage,  were  assimilated  by  the  pagan 
Eskimos.  European  mannera  and  religion  thus  save 
way  to  pagan  barbarism.  From  the  standpoint  of  the 
hidbory  of  civilization  it  is  remarkable  that  daring 
navigatora  had  penetrated  to  the  73rd  degree  of  north 
latitude  as  early  as  1135,  and  that  the  firet  Arctic 
expedition  was  undertaken  in  1266  under  the  gtddance 
of  Catholic,  priests.  Numerous  stone  moniunents  and 
ruins  recall  this  early  Norse  Christian  period.  Of 
special  importance  are  the  ruins  of  a  Romanesque 
cnurch  at  Kakortok  which,  although  comparatively 
email,  warrant  us  in  making  inferences  as  to  the  style 
and  size  of  other  places  of  worship.  Tombstones 
with  runic  inscriptions  have  also  been  discovered. 
A  few  documents  have  been  preserved  to  which  are 
attadied  the  seals  of  the  Bishops  of  Gardar  (see 
Cronau,  ''Amerika",  I,  114). 

Christianity  havine  disappeared  from  Greenland 
for  the  space  of  two  hundred  years,  and  when  Den- 
mark haa  ceased  to  give  the  island  any  thou^t,  Hans 
Egede.  a  Lutheran  pastor  at  Vaagen,  conceived  the 
idea  of  visiting  his  forlorn  countrymen  who  had  lapsed 
into  paganism,  and  of  preaching  the  Gospel  to  them. 
After  overcoming  all  difficulties,  he  handed  in  his 
resignation  as  pastor  and,  together  with  his  wife  and 
children,  went  nrst  to  Bergen  to  establish  a  Greenland 
trading  company  and  then,  failing  in  this,  to  Copen- 
hagen. When  presented  to  the  kins  he  mans^ed  to 
interest  him  in  nis  cause  and  succeeded  in  launching 
the  trading  company.  In  his  capacity  of  supreme 
bishop,  the  king  appointed  Eeede  missionary.  After 
many  hardships  he  reached  Greenland,  but  soon  per- 
ceived that  no  descendants  of  the  ancient  colonists  re- 
mained, and  that  his  whole  duty  would  consist  in  con- 
vertingthe  savage  Eskimos.  By  diligent  application  he 
acquired  their  language  and,  supplementing  the  spoken 
word  with  pictures,  induced  these  people  to  embrace 
Christianity.  He  remained  fifteen  yeara  in  Greenland 
and  formea  a  small  con^gation.  After  Egede's  de- 
parture, his  son  Paul  contmued  hispastorate,completed 
nis  father's  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
compiled  a  catechism  in  the  Eskimo  lan^age.  The 
elder  Egede  founded  a  Greenland  seminary  in  Co-* 
penhagen  and  also  wrote  considerably.  In  1740  he 
received  the  title  of  Superintendent  of  Greenland. 
He  died,  5  November,  1758,  at  Stubbekj6ping  on 
the  island  of  Falster.  Since  that  time  a  number  of 
preachera  have  endeavoured  to  Christianise  the  ab- 
origines with  more  or  less  success.  They  were  as- 
sisted in  this  work  by  German  Moravian  brethren, 
of  whom  Stack,  David,  B6hnisch,  and  Beck  had 
already  (1733-34)  laboured  in  the  field.  Their  firet 
followera  were  a  certain  Kajamak,  his  wife  and  chil- 
dren, who  were  baptized  m  1739.  After  fourteen 
yean'  work  a  small  congregation  was  established,  and 
a  mission  house  built.  The  Lichtenfels  mission  was 
established  in  1766;  that  of  Lichtenau,  in  1774;  that 
of  Frederiksdal,  in  1824.  After  a  century  of  existence 
there  were  four  mission  stations  (twenty-seven  male 
and  female  missionaries)  with  1799  wards  (of  whom 
1715  were  baptized,  and  736  communicants),  to  which 
number  were  added  in  1861  the  Umanak  mission,  and 
in  1864  the  Idlorpait.  The  largest  membership  was 
attained  in  1857  (1965  membera;  about  900  adults). 
Since  then  decay  has  set  in,,  ascribed  variously  to  dif- 
erences  of  opinion  among  the  brethren,  millennarian. 
tendencies  amon^  the  neophvtes,  and  friction  with 
the  Lutheran  mmistera  of  the  established  Chureh. 
Without  doubt  the  action  of  the  Government  in  dis- 
persing the  Greenlanders  over  their  extensive  hunting 
territories  was  an  obstacle  to  their  conversion,  as  their 
concentration  during  the  winter  season  would  natur- 
ally make  them  more  amenable  to  spiritual  influences. 
It  IS  apparent  that,  under  these  dreumstances,  their 
oonvenion  to  Chriistianity  was  in  most  cases  rather 


superficial — a  fact  also  confirmed  by  reliable  witnesses. 
The  history  of  the  Moravian  brethren  admits  that  the 
entire  education  of  the  Eskimos  (Luthei;an)  is  limited 
to  reading,  writing,  and  the  sinking  of  songs;  that  thrift 
and  benevolence  are  almost  unknown  among  them,  and 
that  their  morality  in  ceneral  is,  to  say  the  feast,  ques- 
tionable. The  first  volume  of  the  work  describing  the 
second  German  Arotic  expedition  of  1860-70  contains 
(pp.  160  and  195)  an  account  of  the  chureh  at  Lich- 
tenau and  the  cemetery  at  Fredrikshaab,  which  throws 
much  light  on  the  religious  conditions  of  that  time 
and  also  corroborates  the  opinion  that  even  the  de- 
scendants of  Danes  and  aborigines  most  commonly 
revert  to  barbarism — a  noor  result  for  the  self-sacrifice 
of  such  men  as  Kleinscnmidt  and  Cranz,  the  former 
a  translator  of  the  Bible  and  composer  of  various 
hymns,  and  the  latter  an  historian  of  Greenland.  In 
1900  the  Moravian  mission  resigned  their  parishes  to 
the  preachera  and  instnictora  ot  the  Danisn  National 
Chureh,  which  had  nominally  about  8000  membera, 
and  left  the  scene  of  their  thankless  laboura.  Al- 
though Greenland,  like  the  adjacent  islands,  is  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Copen- 
hagen, all  missionary  activity  has  been  suspended. 

Hatbs,  The  Land  of  Desolation;  heino  a  personal  narraiive  of 
adventure  in  Greenland  (London,  1871)-— not  verv  scientific,  but 
in«tructive  in  its  illustrations;  Pbart,  Northward  over  the 
Oreat  Ice  (2  vols.,  London,  1808) ;  Lobvtlbb.  TheVineland  Exeur- 
aione  of  the  ancient  Scandinaviane  (Gopenhacen,  1884);  Hob»- 
FORD,  The  Diecovery  of  America  by  Northmen  (Cambridge. 
1888);  Qraah,  Vnderedqelfe  Reiae  til  Ostkyeten  af  Grimland 
(Copenhagen.  1832,  witn  coloured  copper  plates  and  three 
views  of  the  church  ruins  of  Kakcntok) ;  Kimk,  GHfnland  o^ogr, 
00.  statist,  beskrevet  (with  pictures,  maps,  and  contributions  of 
various  scientists  concerning  its  history  and  nature,  2  vols,  with 
index,  Ckipenhaaen,  1855-57);  Medddnser  om  Grtfniond,  vdoivne 
af  Comm%s.  fOr  Ledelsen  af  de  aeol.*og  peogr.  undersdpdser  i  Grim' 
land— with  many  maps  and  illustrations.  The  thmi  section  of 
the  seventh  part  is  of  especial  interest  (Copenhagen.  1870); 
Hblm  a,  Sydgrdnlands  Skove^  Naturen  og  Mennaket  (Copenhagen, 
1805);  Amdrup,  Exped.  tUl  Ostgr&nland  (Copenhagen,  1002); 
CoRNRUua,  Kristna  Kurkana  historia.  III  (Stockholm.  1800); 
CoRNBLiuB,  Del  nittonde  arhundratess  kurkohistoria  (2nd  ed., 
Stockholm,  1801);  Storm,  Hist.  top.  ekrifter  om  Norge  op 
Norske  Landsdde  fortattede  i  Norge  i  del  16de  Aarhundrede 
(Christiania,  1805);  Dahlman  and  ScbIfbr,  Geschiehte  der 
europ&ischen  Staaten:  Denmark  (5  vols.,  Qotha,  1840-1002): 
HBROBNRdTHBR,  Hondbuch  d.  aUgem.  KirehengesehidUe  (3rd 
ed.,  3  vols.,  Freiburg,  1884-6);  Matbb  in  Kirehenlex.^  s.  v. 
Egede;  Pbrobr  in  Kirehenlex.^  s.  v.  GrOnland;  ReaUneyk. 
(Protestant)  (Leipxlg.  1806),  s.  v.  Egede;  GamBj  Series  ep.  (Ratis- 
bon,  1873);  Eubbl,  Uierarehia  catholica  medii  avi  (Ratisbon, 
1808);  ScHULSB,  Abriss  einer  Geschiehte  der  Brudermission 
(Herrnhut,  1001):  FrntQun^  Bidrag  til  Hans  Egedes  op  den  gran' 
landske  Missions  Historic  1791-SO  (Copenhagen,  1870T;  Cronau, 
America.  1  (Leipsig,  1802);  F6r8t,  Gesehtchie  der  Bntdeckung 
Grdnlanas  (Worms,  1008).  with  bibliographical  references  in 
foot-notes;  Maurbr,  Die  sweite  deutsche  Nordpolarfahri  in  den 
Jahren  1869  u.  70  (Leipxio,  1874) :  Dbtoalbki.  GrOnUmdexpedv- 
Hon  der  GeseOsehaft  far  Erdkunde  su  Berlin,  1891-99  (Beriin, 
1807),  excellent  geographical  and  scientific  bibliography  on 
pp.  374-80;  NoRDBNSKidLD,  Grdnland  und  seine  EiswOsten  im 
Jnnem  u.  seine  OstklMe  (Leipxig,  1886);  Nanbbn,  Auf  Schnees- 
thvhen  durch  Gronland  (Hamburg^  1801);  Solbbro,  BeitrAge 
tur  Geschiehte  der  Osteskimo  (Christiania,  1007);  Bbauvoxs,  £a 
diritienti  de  GrOnland  au  moyen  6ae  in  Rev.  des  Quest.  Hist.,  I 
(Paris,  1002),  538-82. 

Pros  WimtAN. 


Qregoras  Vicephonui.    See  Hebtchasm. 

Gregorian  Ohant.-^The  name  is  often  taken  as 
synonvmous  with  plain  chant  (q.  v.),  comprising  not 
only  the  Church  music  of  the  early  Middle  Ages,  but 
also  later  compositions  (elaborate  melodies  for  the 
Ordinary  of  the  Mass,  sequences,  etc.)  written  in  a 
similar  style  down  to  the  sixteenth  century  and  even 
in  modem  times.  In  a  stricter  sense  Gregorian  chant 
means  the  Roman  form  of  early  plain  chant  as  dis- 
tinjguished  from  the  Ambrosian,  Gallican,  and  Mozar- 
abic  chants,  which  were  akin  to  it,  but  were  graduallv 
supplanted  by  it  from  the  eighth  to  the  eleventh 
century.  Of  the  Galilean  and  Mozarabic  chants  only 
a  few  remains  are  extant,  but  they  were  probably 
closely  related  to  the  Ambrosian  chant.  Of  the 
latter,  which  has  maintained  itself  in  Milan  up  to 
the  present  day,  there  are  two  complete  manu- 
scripts belonging  to  tiie  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 


ttBIOOBT  780 

■ 

oenturies  respectively,  and  a  considerable  number  According  to  this  it  was  thou^t  in  Rome,  len  than 
belonging  to  ^e  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  forty  years  after  the  death  of  St.  Gregory,  that  the 
An  incomplete  manuscript  belongs  to  the  twelfth  greatest  praise  for  a  music-loving  pope  was  to  com- 
century.  It  is  at  present  in  the  British  Museum  pare  him  to  his  predecessor  Gregory,  (b)  The  feasts 
and  has  been  published  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  known  to  have  been  introduced  after  St.  Gregory  use 
'' Paltographie  musicale".  All  these  manuscripts  in  the  main  melodies  borrowed  from  older  feasts.  See 
contain  the  chants  both  for  the  Office  and  for  the  the  detailed  proof  for  this  in  Frere's  ''Introdtiction". 
Mass.  The  Office  chants  are  anUphons  and  re-  (c)  The  texts  of  the  chants  are  taken  from  the'' Itala" 
sponses,  as  in  the  Roman  books.  Tne  Mass  chants  version,  while  as  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  seventh 
are  Ingressa  (corresponding  to  the  Introit,  but  with-  century  St.  Jerome's  correction  had  been  generally 
out  {walm),  PiolmeUua  (Gradual},  Cantua  (Tract),  adopted,  (d)  The  frequent  occurrence  in  the  plain- 
Offertory,  Transitorium  (Communion),  and,  in  addi-  chant  melodies  of  cadences  moulded  on  the  literary 
tion,  two  antiphons  having  no  counterpart  in  the  Gre-  cursua  shows  that  they  were  composed  before  tfa« 
gorian  Mass,  one  post  Evangelium,  the  other  the  Can-  middle  of  the  sevenUi  century,  when  the  cunus  went 
JractorCum,  There  are,  further,  a  few  Alleluia  verses  out  of  use. 
and  antiphons  ante  Evangelium,    Musically  it  can        Gbvabrt,  I^Oria»n«duCAaniL»<wiwM«d«rM«wItf«Mi« 

easUv  be  observed  that  the  syUabie  pie^are  often  {.^^•^^'(oge'S't:  il^'^^J,T^r^S£''$^ 

sunpler,  the  ornate  pieces  more  extended  m  their  du  Chant  Orioorien  (Maredaous,  1890);  Cagin.  Un  Ma  nr 

meliamata  than  in  the  Gr^orian  chant.     The  Gre-  VArUiphonale  Miasarum  (Soleames.  1890):  Bbambach.  Ongory- 

gorian  melodies    howeverjave  more  individuality  'S:r^Jt^^;r^^^^tSilTi\imr'?J^^^^ 

and    characteristic    expression.     Though    it    is    verv  cole,  IV:  Waonbb,  Introduction  to  the  Oregonan  Mdodia,  pt.  I 

doubtful  whether  these  Ambrosian  melodies  date  back  (1901,  Encliah ed.  by  the  PUinaong andMedieval Music Spcwty, 

to  the  time  of  St,  Ambioee,  it  u,  not  improbable  that  »°i^^tt "il  U^l^^t. "S^  t<fi!rJSSS: 

thev  represent  fairly  the  character  of  the  chant  sung  m  Mueie  (London,  1904). 

Italy  and  (jraul  at  the  time  when  the  cantilena  romana  H.  Bewkrungh. 

superseded  the  earlier  forms.    The  frequent  occurrence 

of  cadences  founded  on  the  curaus  at  all  events  points        Gregory  I  (the  Great),  Saint,  Pope,  Doctor  of 

to  a  time  before  the  latter  went  out  of  use  in  literarv  the  Church;  b.  at  Rome  about  540;  d.  12  March,  604. 

composition,  that  is  before  the  middle  of  the  seventh  Gregory  "  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  notable  figures  in 

century.     (See  Gatard  in  ''  Diet,  d'arch.  chr6t.",  s.  v.  Ecclesiastical  History.    He  has  exercised  in  many 

"Ambroslen  (chant)"  and  Mocquereau,  ''Notes  but  respects  a  momentous  influence  on  the  doctrine,  the 

rinfluence  de  I'Acoent  et  du  Cursus  toniques  Latins  organization,  and  the  discipline  of  the  Catholic  Church, 

dans  le  Chant  Ambrosien'^  in  "Ambrosiana",  Milan,  To  him  we  must  look  for  an  explanation  of  the  re- 

1897.)  ^  ligious  situation  of  the  Middle  Ages:  indeed,  if  no 

The  name  Gregorian  chant  points  to  Gregory  the  account  were  taken  of  his  work,  the  evolution  of  the 

Great  (590-604),  to  whom  a  pretty  constant  traaition  form  of  medieval  Christianity  would  be  almost  inez- 

ascribes  a  certain  final  arrangement  of  the  Roman  plicable.    And  further,  in  so  tar  as  the  modem  Catho- 

chant.    It  is  first  met  in  the  writings  of  William  of  lie  system  is  a  le^timate  development  of  medieval 

Hirschau,  though  Leo  IV  (847-855)  already  speaks  of  Catholicism,  of  this  too  Gregory  may  not  unreason- 

the  cantue  Sti.  Gregorii.    The  tradition  mentioned  ably  be  termed  the  Father.    Almost  all  the  leading 

was  questioned  first  by  Pierre  Gussanville.  in  1675,  principles  of  the  later  Catholicism  are  found,  at  any 

and  again,  in  1729,  by  George,  Baron  o'Eckhart,  rate  in  germ,  in  Gregorv  the  Great"  (F.  H.  Dudden, 

neither   ot    whom    attracted    much    attention.    In  "Gregory  the  Great  ,  I,  p.  v).    This  eulogy  by  a 

modem  times  Gevaert,  president  of  the  Brussels  music  learned  non-Catholic  writer  will  justify  the  length 

school,  has  tried  to  show,  with  a  ereat  amount  of  leam-  and  elaboration  of  the  following  article, 
ing,  that  the  compilation  of  the  Mass  music  belongs  to        I.  From  birth  to  574.— Gregory's  father  was  Gor- 

the  end  of  the  seventh  or  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  dianus,  a  wealthy  patrician,  probably  of  the  famous 

centurv.    His  ar^ments  led  to  a  close  investiga^  gens  Anicia,  who  owned  lai^  estates  in  Sicily  and  a 

tion  of  the  question,  and  at  present  practically  all  mansion  on  the  Cselian  HiU  in  Rome,  the  ruins  of 

authorities,  including,  besides  the  Benedictines,  such  which,  apparently  in  a  wonderful  state  of  preservation, 

men  as  Wa^er,  Gastou^,  and  Frere,  hold  that  the  still  await  excavation  beneath  the  Church  of  St. 

large  majoritv  of  plain-chant  melodies  were  com-  Andrew  and  St.  Gregory.    His  mother  Silvia  appears 

posed  before  the  year  600.  ^  also  to  have  been  of  good  family,  but  very  httle  is 

The  principal  proofs  for  the  Gregorian  tradition  known  of  her  life.  She  is  honour^  as  a  saint,  her  feast 
may  be  summarized  thus:  (a)  The  testimony  of  John  being  kept  on  3  November  (see  Silvia,  Saint).  For- 
the  Deacon,  Gregory's  biographer  (c.  872),  is  quite  traits  of  Gordianus  and  Silvia  were  painted,  by  Greg- 
trustworthy.  Amongst  other  considerations  the  very  ory's  order,  in  the  atrium  of  St.  Andrew's  monastery, 
modest  claim  he  makes  for  the  saint,  "  ant iphonarium  and  a  pleasing  description  of  these  may  be  found  in  John 

centonem compilavit"  (he  compiled  a  patch-  the  Deacon  (Vita,  IV,  Ixxxiii).    Besides  his  mother, 

work  antiphonary),  shows  that  he  was  not  carried  two  of  Gregory's  aunts  have  been  canonised,  Gordian- 

away  by  a  desire  to  eulogize  his  hero.    There  are  us's  two  sisters,  Tarsilla  and  ^miliana,  so  that  John 

several  other  testimonies  in  the  ninth  century.    In  the  the  Deacon  speaks  of  his  education  as  being  that  of  a 

eighth  centurv  we  have  Egbert  and  Bede  (see  Gastou^,  saint  among  saints.    Of  his  early  years  we  Imow  noth- 

*'LesOrigines",etc.,878qq.).    The  latter,  in  particular,  ing  beyond  what  the  history  of  the  period  tells  us. 

speaks  of  one  Putta,  who  died  as  bishop  in  688,  "ma-  Between  the  years  546  and  552  Rome  was  first  cap- 

xime  modulandi  in  ecclesia  more  Romanorum  peritus,  tured  by  the  Goths  under  Totila,  and  then  abandoned 

?uem  a  discipulis  beati  papse  Gregorii  didicerat".  by  them;  next  it  was  garrisoned  by  Belisarius,  and 

n  the  seventh  century  we  nave  the  epitaph  of  Hono-  besieged  in  vain  by  the  Goths,  who  took  it  again,  how- 

rius,  who  died  in  638  (Gastou^j  op.  cit.,  93): —  ever,  after  the  recall  of  Belisarius,  only  to  loiBe  it  once 

....  divino  in   carmme  pollens  more  to  Narses.    Gregory's  mind  and  memory  were 

Ad  vitam  pastor  ducere  novit  ovis  both  exceptionally  receptive,  and  it  is  to  the  effect 

produced  on  him  by  these  disasters  that  we  must 

Namque  Gregorii  tan ti  vestigia  iusti  attribute  the  tinge  of  sadness  which  pervades  his 

Dum  sequeris  cupiens  merit umque  geris  writings  and  especiallv  his  clear  expectation  of  a 

— ^that  is:  "Gifted  with  divine  harmony  the  shepherd  speedy  end  to  the  world.     Of  his  education %e  have 

leads  his  sheep  to  life  .  .  .  for  while  following  the  no  details.     Gregor]^  of  Tours  tells  us  that  in  grammar, 

footsteps  of  holy  Gregory  you  have  won  your  reward."  rhetoric,  and  dialectic  he  was  so  skilful  as  to  be  thought 


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second  to  none  in  all  Rome,  and  it  seems  certain  also 
that  he  must  have  gone  through  a  course  of  legal 
studies.  Not  least  among  the  educating  influences 
was  ^e  religious  atmosphere  of  his  home.  He  loved 
to  meditate  on  the  Scriptures  and  to  listen  attentively 
to  the  conversation  of  nis  elders,  so  that  he  was  "de- 
moted to  God  from  his  youth  up".  His  rank  and 
pixwpects  pointed  him  out  naturally  for  a  public  career, 
and  he  doubtless  held  some  of  the  suboniinate  offices 
wherein  a  youne  i)atrician  embarked  on  public  life. 
That  he  acquitt^  himself  well  in  these  appears  certain, 
since  we  find  him,  about  the  year  573,  when  little  more 
than  thirty  years  old,  filling  the  important  office  of 
prefect  of  the  city  of  Rome.  At  that  date  the  brilliant 
post  was  shorn  of  much  of  its  old  magnificence,  and 
its  responsibilities  were  reduced;  still  it  remained  the 
highest  civil  dignity  in  the  city,  and  it  was  onlv  after 
long  prayer  and  inward  struggle  that  Gregory  decided 
to  abandon  everything  andbecome  a  monk.  This 
event  took  place  most  probably  in  574.  His  decision 
once  taken,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  work  and  aus- 
terities of  his  new  life  with  all  the  natural  energy  of  his 
character.  His  Sicilian  estates  were  given  up  to  found 
six  monasteries  there,  and  his  home  on  the  Cielian 
Hill  was  converted  into  another  under  the  patronage 
of  St.  Andrew.  Here  he  himself  took  the  cowl,  so 
that  ''he  who  had  been  wont  to  go  about  the  city 
clad  in  the  trabea  and  aglow  with  sOk  and  jewels,  now 
clad  in  a  worthless  garment  served  the  altar  of  the 
Lord"  (Greg.  Tur.,  X,  i). 

II.  As  Monk  and  Abbot,  c.  574-590. — ^There  has 
been  much  discussion  as  to  whether  Gregory  and  his 
fellow-monks  at  St.  Andrew's  followed  the  Rule  of 
St.  Benedict.  Baronius  and  others  on  his  authority 
have  denied  this,  while  it  has  been  asserted  as  strongly 
by  Mabillon  and  the  BoUandists,  who,  in  the  preface  to 
the  life  of  St.  Augustine  (26  May),  retract  the  opinion 
expressed  earlier  in  the  preface  to  St.  Gregory's  life 
(Iz  March).  The  controversy  is  important  only  in 
view  of  the  question  as  to  the  form  of  monasticism 
introduced  by  St.  Augustine  into  England,  and  it  may 
be  said  that  Baronius's  view  is  now  practically  aban- 
doned. For  about  three  'jrears  Uregory  lived  in 
retirement  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew,  a  period 
to  which  he  often  refers  as  the  happiest  portion  of  his 
life.  His  great  austerities  during  this  time  are  re- 
corded by  the  biographers,  and  probably  caused  the 
weak  health  from  which  he  constantly  suftered  in  later 
life.  However,  he  was  soon  drawn  out  of  his  seclusion, 
when,  in  578,  the  pope  ordained  him,  much  against  his 
will,  as  one  of  the  seven  deacons  {regionarii)  of  Rome. 
The  period  was  one  of  acute  crisis.  The  Lombards 
were  advancing  rapidly  towards  the  city,  and  the  only 
chance  of  safety  seemed  to  be  in  obtaining  help  from 
the  Emperor  Tiberius  at  Byzantium.  Pope  Pelagius 
II  acconiingly  dispatched  a  special  embassy  to  Tiber- 
ius, and  sent  Uregory  along  with  it  as  his  apocnsiarius, 
or  permanent  ambassador  to  the  Gourt  of  Byzantium. 
The  date  of  this  new  appointment  seems  to  have  been 
the  spring  of  579,  and  it  lasted  apparently  for  about 
six  years.    Nothing  could  have  oeen  more  uncon- 

genial  to  Gregory  than  the  worldly  atmosphere  of  the 
rilliant  Byzantine  Court,  and  to  counteract  its  dan- 
gerous inmience  he  followed  the  monastic  life  so  far 
as  circumstances  permitted.  This  was  made  easier 
by  the  fact  that  several  of  his  brethren  from  St.  An- 
drew's accompanied  him  to  Constantinople.  With 
them  he  prayed  and  studied  the  Scriptures,  one  result 
of  which  remains  in  his  "  Morals",  or  series  of  lectures 
on  the  Book  of  Job,  composed  durine  this  period  at  the 
request  of  St.  Leander  of  Seville,  whose  acquaintance 
Gregory  made  during  his  stay  in  Constantinople. 
Much  attention  was  attracted  to  Gregory  by  his  con- 
troversy with  Eutychius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
concerning  the  Resurrection.  Eutychius  had  pub- 
lished a  treatise  on  this  subject  maintaining  that  the 
risen  bodies  of  the  elect  would  be  "impalpable,  more 


light  than  air''.  To  this  view  Gregory  objected  the 
palpability  of  Christ's  risen  body.  The  dispute  be- 
came prolonged  and  bitter,  till  at  length  the  empeior 
intervened,  both  combatants  being  summoned  to  a 
private  audience,  where  they  stated  their  views.  The 
emperor  decided  that  Gregory  was  in  the  right,  and 
ordered  Eutychius's  book  to  be  burned.  The  strain 
of  the  struggle  had  been  so  great  that  both  fell  ill. 
Gregory  recovered,  but  the  patriarch  succumbed, 
recanting  his  error  on  his  death-bed.  Mention  should 
be  made  of  the  curious  fact  that,  idthough  Gregory's 
sojourn  at  Constantinople  lasted  for  six  years,  ne 
seems  never  to  have  mastered  even  the  rudiments  of 
Greek.  Possibly  he  found  that  the  use  of  an  inter- 
preter has  its  advantages,  but  he  often  complains  of 
the  incapacity  of  those  employed  for  this  purpose. 
It  must  be  owned  that,  so  far  as  obtaining  help  for 
Rome  was  concerned,  Gregory's  stay  at  Constantinople 
was  a  failure.  However,  his  penod  as  ambassador 
taught  him  very  plainly  a  lesson  which  was  to  bear 
great  fruit  later  on  when  he  ruled  in  Rome  as  pope. 
This  was  the  important  fact  that  no  help  was  any 
longer  to  be  looked  for  from  Byzantium,  with  the 
corollary  that,  if  Rome  and  Italy  were  to  be  saved  at 
all,  it  could  only  be  by  vigorous  independent  action  of 
the  powers  on  the  spot.  Humanly  speaking,  it  is  to 
the  Tact  that  Gregory  had  acquired  this  conviction 
that  his  later  line  of  action  with  all  its  momentous 
conseauences  is  due. 

In  tne  year  586,  or  possibly  585,  he  was  recalled  to 
Rome,  and  with  the  greatest  joy  returned  to  St. 
Andrew's,  of  which  he  became  abbot  soon  afterwards. 
The  monastery  grew  famous  under  his  energetic  rule, 
producing  many  monks  who  won  renown  later,  and 
many  vivid  pictures  of  this  period  may  be  found  in 
the  "  Dialogues".  Gregory  gave  much  of  his  time  to 
lecturing  on  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  is  recorded  to 
have  expounded  t6  his  monies  the  Heptateuch,  Books 
of  Kings,  the  Prophets,  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  and  the 
Canticle  of  Canticles.  Notes  of  these  lectures  were 
taken  at  the  time  by  a  young  student  named  Claudius, 
but  when  transcribed  were  found  by  Gregory  to  con- 
tain so  many  errors  that  he  insisted  on  their  being 
given  to  him  for  correction  and  revision.  Apparently 
this  was  never  done,  for  the  existing  fragments  of  sucn 
works  attributed  to  Gregory  are  almost  certainly 
spurious.  At  this  period,  however,  one  important 
hterary  enterprise  was  certainly  completedl.  This 
was  the  revision  and  publication  of  the  "Magna  Mor- 
alia",  or  lectures  on  the  Book  of  Job,  undertaken  in 
Constantinople  at  the  request  of  St.  Leander.  In  one 
of  his  letters  (Ep.,  V,  liii)  Gre^ry  gives  an  interesting 
account  of  the  origin  of  this  work.  To  this  period 
most  probably  should  be  assigned  the  famous  incident 
of  Gregory's  meeting  with  the  English  youths  in  the 
Forum.  The  first  mention  of  the  event  is  in  the  Whit- 
by life  (c.  ix),  and  the  whole  story  seems  to  be  an 
English  tradition.  It  is  worth  notice,  therefore,  that 
in  the  St.  Gall  manuscript  the  Angles  do  not  appear  as 
slave  boys  exposed  for  sale,  but  as  men  visiting  Rome 
of  their  own  free  will,  whom  Gregory  expressed  a 
desire  to  see.  It  is  Venerable  Bede  (Hist.  EccL,  II,  i) 
who  first  makes  them  slaves.  In  consequence  of  this 
meeting  Gregory  was  so  fired  with  desire  to  convert 
the  Angles  that  ne  obtained  permission  from  Pelagius 
II  to  go  in  person  to  Britain  with  some  of  his  fellow- 
monks  as  missionaries.  The  Romans,  however,  were 
greatly  incensed  at  the  pope's  act.  With  angry  words 
they  demanded  Gregory's  recall,  and  messengers  were 
at  once  dispatched  to  bring  him  back  to  Kome,  if 
necessary  by  force.  These  men  caudit  up  with  the 
little  band  of  missionaries  on  the  third  day  after  their 
departure,  and  at  once  returned  with  them,  Gregory 
oftering  no  opposition,  since  he  had  received  what 
appeared  to  him  as  a  sign  from  heaven  that  his  enter- 
prise should  be  abandoned.  The  strong  feeling  of  the 
Roman  populace  that  Gregory  must  not  be  allowed  to 


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782 


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leave  Rome  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  the  podtion  he  now 
held  there.  He  was  in  fact  the  chief  adviser  and 
assistant  of  Pelagius  II,  towaxxis  whom  he  seems  to 
have  acted  very  much  in  the  capacity  of  secretary  (see 
the  letter  of  the  Bishop  of  Ravenna  to  Gregory,  Epp., 
Hit  Ixvi,  "Sedem  apostolicam,  quam  antea  morions 
nunc  etiam  honore  debito  gul>ematis")<  In  this 
capacity,  probably  in  586,  Gregory  wrote  his  impor- 
tant letter  to  the  schismatical  oishops  of  Istria  who 
had  separated  from  communion  with  the  Chureh  on 
the  (juestion  of  the  Three  Chapters  (Epp.,  Appendix, 
III,  lii).  This  document,  which  is  almost  a  treatise 
in  le^h,  is  an  admirable  example  of  Gregory's 
skilly  but  it  failed  to  produce  any  more  effect  than 
Pelsfjus's  two  previous  letters  had,  and  the  schism 
oontmued. 

The  year  589  was  one  of  widespread  disaster  through- 
out all  the  emi>ire.  In  Italy  there  was  an  unprece- 
dented inundation.  Farms  and  houses  were  carried 
away  by  the  floods.  The  Tiber  overflowed  its  banks, 
destroymg  numerous  buildings,  among  them  the 
granaries  of  the  Chureh  with  all  the  store  of  com. 
Pestilence  followed  on  the  floods,  and  Rome  became 
a  very  city  of  the  dead.  Business  was  at  a  standstill, 
and  tne  streets  were  deserted  save  for  the  wagons  which 
bore  forth  countless  corpses  for  burial  in  common  pits 
beyond  the  city  walls.  Then,  in  February,  590,  as 
if  to  fill  the  cup  of  misery  to  the  brim,  Pelagius  II 
died.  The  choice  of  a  successor  lay  with  the  clergy 
and  people  of  Rome,  and  without  any  hesitation  they 
elected  Gregory,  Abbot  of  St.  Andrew's.  In  spite  of 
their  unanimity  Gregory  shrank  from  the  dignity  thus 
offered  him.  He  knew,  no  doubt,  that  its  acceptance 
meant  a  final  good-bve  to  the  cloister  life  he  loved, 
and  so  he  not  only  renised  to  accede  to  the  prayers  of 
his  fellow-citizens  but  also  wrote  personally  to  the 
Emperor  Maurice,  beeging  him  with  all  earnestness 
not  to  confirm  the  election.  Germanus,  prefect  of 
tiie  city,  suporessed  this  letter,  however,  and  sent 
instead  of  it  tne  formal  schedule  of  the  election.  In 
the  interval  while  awaiting  the  emperor's  reply  the 
business  of  the  vacant  see  was  transacted  by  Gregory, 
in  commission  with  two  or  three  other  hign  officials. 
As  the  plague  still  continued  unabated,  Gregory  csJled 
upon  the  people  to  join  in  a  vast  sevenfold  procession 
wnich  was  to  start  from  each  of  the  seven  regions  of 
the  city  and  meet  at  the  basilica  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
all  praying  the  while  for  pardon  and  the  withdrawal 
of  the  pestilence.  This  was  accordingly  done,  and 
the  memory  of  the  event  is  still  preserved  by  the  name 
^Sant'  Angelo"  given  to  the  mausoleum  of  Hadrian 
from  the  legend  that  the  Arehangel  St.  Michael  was  seen 
upon  its  summit  in  the  act  of  sheathing  his  sword  as  a 
sign  that  the  plague  was  over.  At  length,  after  six 
months  of  waiting,  came  the  emperor's  confirmation 
of  Gregory's  election.  The  saint  was  terrified  at  the 
news  and  even  meditated  flight.  He  was  seised,  how- 
ever, carried  to  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter,  and  there 
consecrated  pope  on  3  September,  590.  Tlie  story 
that  Gregory  actually  fled  the  city  and  remained 
hidden  in  a  forest  for  tnree  days,  when  his  whereabouts 
was  revealed  by  a  supernatural  light,  seems  to  be  pure 
invention.  It  appears  for  the  first  time  in  the  Whitby 
life  (c.  vii),  and  is  directly  contrary  to  the  words  of 
his  oontemporary,  Gregory  of  Tours  (Hist.  Franc,  X. 
i).  Still  he  never  ceased  to  reeret  his  elevation,  ana 
his  later  writings  contain  numberless  expressions  of 
strong  feeling  on  this  point. 

IIlT  As  Pope,  590-604.— Fourteen  years  of  life 
remained  to  Gregory,  and  into  these  he  crowded  work 
enough  to  have  exhausted  the  energies  of  a  lifetime. 
What  makes  his  achievement  more  wonderful  is  his 
constant  ill-health.  He  suffered  almost  continually 
from  indigestion  and,  at  intervals,  from  attacks  of  slow 
fever,  whue  for  the  last  half  of  his  pontificate  he  was  a 
martyr  to  gout.  In  spite  of  these  infirmities,  which 
tnoreiifled  steadily,  his  biographer,  Paul  the  Deacon, 


tells  us  "he  never  rested"  (Vita,  xv).  His  work  at 
pope  is  of  so  varied  a  nature  that  it  will  be  best  to  take 
it  in  sections,  although  this  destroys  any  exact  chrono- 
logical sequence.  At  the  very  outset  of  his  pontificate 
Gregory  published  his  "  Ldber  pastoralis  cune",  or  book 
on  the  omce  of  a  bishop,  in  which  he  lays  down  clearly 
the  lines  he  considers  it  his  duty  to  follow.  The 
work,  which  regards  the  bishop  pre-eminently  as  the 
physician  of  souls,  is  divided  into  four  parts.  He 
pomts  out  in  the  first  that  only  one  skilled  already  as  a 
physician  of  the  soul  is  fitted  to  imdertake  the  ''su- 
preme rule"  of  the  episcopate.  In  the  second  he 
describes  how  the  bishop's  life  should  be  ordered  from 
a  spiritual  point  of  view;  in  the  third,  how  he  ought  to 
teach  and  admonish  those  under  him,  and  in  the 
fourth  how,  in  spite  of  his  good  works,  he  ought  to 
bear  in  mind  his  own  weakness,  since  the  better  his 
work  the  @]fater  the  daneer  of  f aUing  through  self-con- 
fidence. This  little  worx  is  the  key  to  Gregory's  life 
as  pope,  for  what  he  preached  he  practised.  More- 
over, it  remained  for  centuries  the  textbook  of  the 
Catholic  episcopate,  so  that  by  its  influence  tiie  ideal 
of  the  great  pope  has  moulded  the  character  of  the 
Chureh,  and  nis  spirit  has  spread  into  all  Umds. 

(1)  Life  and  Work  in  Rome, — As  pope  Gregory  still 
Uved  with  monastic  simplicity.  One  of  his  nrst  acts 
was  to  banish  all  the  lay  attendants,  pages,  ete.,  from 
the  Lateran  palace,  and  substitute  clencs  in  their  place. 
There  was  now  no  ma^iifter  militum  living  in  Rome,  so 
the  control  even  of  military  matters  fell  to  the  pope. 
The  inroads  of  the  Lombaros  had  filled  the  city  wito  a 
multitude  of  indigent  refugees,  for  whose  support 
Gregory  made  provision,  usmg  for  this  purpose  the 
existing  machinery  of  the  ecclesiastical  districts,  each 
of  whicn  had  its  deaconry  or  "office  of  alms".  The 
corn  thus  distributed  came  chiefly  from  Sicily  and  was 
supplied  by  the  estates  of  the  Church.  The  temporal 
needs  of  his  people  being  thus  provided  for,  Gr^ory 
did  not  neglect  their  spiritual  wants,  and  a  large 
number  of  his  sermons  nave  come  down  to  us.  It 
was  he  who  instituted  the  "stations"  still  observed 
and  noted  in  the  Roman  Missal  (see  Stations).  He 
met  the  clergy  and  people  at  some  chureh  previously 
agreed  upon,  and  all  together  went  in  procession  to  me 
church  of  the  station,  where  Mass  was  celebrated  and 
the  pope  preached.  These  sermons,  which  drew  im- 
mense crowds,  are  mostly  simple,  popular  expositions 
of  Scripture.  Chiefly  remarkable,  is  the  preacher's 
mastery  of  the  Bible,  which  he  quotes  imceasing^y, 
and  his  regular  use  of  anecdote  to  illustrate  the  point  • 
in  hand,  in  which  respect  he  paves  the  way  for  the 
popular  preachers  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  July,  595, 
Gregory  neld  his  first  synod  in  St.  Peter's,  which  oon- 
sist^  almost  wholly  of  the  bishops  of  the  suburbicar 
ian  sees  and  the  priests  of  the  Roman  titular  churches. 
Six  decrees  dealmg  with  ecclesiastical  discipline  were 
passed,  some  of  them  merely  confirming  changes 
already  made  by  the  pope  on  his  own  authority. 

Much  controversy  still  exists  as  to  the  exact  extent 
of  Gregory's  reforms  of  the  Roman  Liturgy.  All  ad« 
mit  that  ne  did  make  the  following  moomcations  in 
the  pre-existing  practice:  (a)  In  the  Canon  of  the  Mass 
he  inserted  the  words  "diesque  nostros  in  tuA  pace 
disponas,  atque  ab  setemA  damnatione  nos  eripi,  et  in 
electorum  tuorum  jubeas  grege  numerari";  (b)  he 
ordered  the  Pater  Noster  to  be  recited  in  the  Canon 
before  the  breaking  of  the  Host;  (c)  he  provided  that 
the  Alleluia  should  be  chanted  after  the  Gradual  out 
of  paschal  time,  to  which  period,  apparently,  the 
Roman  use  had  previously  confined  it;  (d)  he  pro- 
hibited the  use  of  the  chasuble  by  subdeacons  assisting 
at  Mass;  (e)  he  forbade  deacons  to  perform  any  or 
the  musical  portions  of  the  Mass  other  than  sin^ng 
the  Gospel.  Beyond  tiiese  and  some  few  minor  pomts 
it  seems  impossible  to  conclude  with  certainty  what 
chan^  Gregory  did  make.  As  to  the  much-disputed 
question  of  the  Gregorian  Saoramentaiy  and  the 


soDg  or  chant  of  the  Church,  for  Gr^^ry' 
with  which  matters  the  earliest  authority  seems  to  be 
John  the  Deacon  (Vita,  II.  vi,  xvii),  see  Gregorian 
Chant;  Sacraubntart.    There  is  no  lack  of  evidence, 
however,  to  illustrate  Qr^ory's  activity  as  manager 
of  l^e  patrimony  of  St.  Peter,    fiy  hia  da^  the  eetatea 
of  the  Church  had  reached  vast  dimensioDS.     Vary- 
ing eatimates  place  their  total  area  at  from  1300  to 
1^0  square  miles,  and  there  seems  no  reason  for 
Buppoeii^  this  to  be  an  exaggeration,  while  the  income 
arising  therefrom  was  probably  not  leaa  than  SI, 500,- 
000  a  year.    The  land  fay  in  many  places — Campania, 
Africa,  Sicily,  and  elsewhere — and,  as  their  landlord, 
Gregory  db played  a  skill  in  finance  and  estate  manage- 
ment which  excites  our  admiration  no  less  than  it  did 
tjie  surprise  of  his  tenants  and  agents,  who  suddenly 
tound  that  they  had  a  new 
master  who  was  not  to   be 
decrived    or    cheated.    Tlie 
management   of  each  patri- 
mony was  carried  out  by  a 
number  of  agents  of  varying 
grades   and  duties  under  an 
official   called  the   rector  or 
deftnaoT    of    the    patrimony. 
Previouslv    the   rectors    had 
usually    been    laymen,    but 
Gregon'  established  the  cus- 
tom of  appointing  ecclesias- 
tics to  t^e   post.      Id   doing 
ttiifl  he  probably  had  in  view 
the  many  extra  duties  of  an 
ecclesiastical  nature  which  he 
called   upon  them  to  under- 
take.    ThuB  examples   may 
be  found  of  such  rectors  being 
oommissioned    to    undertake 
the  filling  up  of  vacant  sees, 
holding  of  local  gynods,  tak- 
ing action   against   heretics, 
providing  for  the  maintenance 
of  churches  and  monasteries, 
rectifying    abuses    in    the 
churches  of  their  district,  with 
the  enforcing  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline   and   even  the  re- 

Erool  and  correction  of  local 
ishops.     Still  Gr^ory  never 
allowed  the  rectors  to  inter- 
fere in  such  matters  on  their        Porm  aaaooBi  the  Ohi 
own   responsibility.     In    the  a    1  .S    ™  ^'' 

minutiffi   of   estate    manage-        ™"  "lury  prwwviS  iS' 
ment  nothing  was  too  small 

for  Gregory's  personal  notice,  from  the  exact  number 
of  textariiia  arnodtusof  com,  or  how  many  soiuJi  went 
toone  golden  pound,  to  the  use  of  false  wei^te  by  cer- 
tain minor  agents.  He  finds  time  to  write  instructions 
on  every  deUll  and  leaves  no  complaint  unattended  to, 
even  from  the  humblest  of  his  multitude  of  tenants. 
litroughout  the  lai^  number  of  letters  which  deal 
with  the  management  of  the  patrimony,  the  pope's 
determination  to  secure  a  scrupulously  righteous  ad- 
ministration b  evident.  As  bishop,  he  is  the  trustee 
of  God  and  St.  Peter,  and  his  agents  must  show  that 
they  realize  this  by  their  conduct.  Consequently, 
under  his  able  management  the  estates  of  the  Churdi 
increased  steadily  in  value,  the  tenants  were  con- 
t«nted,  and  the  revenues  paid  in  with  unprecedented 
regularity.  The  only  fault  ever  laid  at  his  door  in 
this  matter  is  that,  by  his  boundless  charities,  he 
emptied  his  treasury.  But  this,  if  a  fault  at  all, 
was  a  natural  consequence  of  his  view  that  he  was 
the  administrator  of  the  property  of  the  poor,  for 
whom  he  could  never  do  enough. 

(2)  RelatioM  with  the  Suburhicarian  Chvrdiea. — As 
patriarchs  of  tJhe  West  the  popes  exercise  a  special 


83  OBEaOBT 

jurisdiction  over  and  above  their  universal  ^imaey 
as  BuecesBOrs  of  St.  Peter;  and,  among  Western 
churches,  this  jurisdiction  extends  in  a  most  intimate 
manner  over  the  churches  of  Italy  and  the  isles 
adjacent.  On  the  mainland  much  of  this  territory 
was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Lombards,  with  whose 
Arian  cleivy  Gregory  i 


Whenever  opportunity  offered,  however,  bo 

etuI  to  provide  for  the  needs  of 

D  these  parts,  Irequently  uniting  them  U 


the  needs  of  the  faithful 
niting  them  to  some  nei^- 
bouring  diocese,  when  they  were  too  few  to  occupy 
the  enet^es  of  a  bishop.     On  the  islands,  of  whidi 


r,  usually  the  metropohtan  of  the  province,  who 
exercised  a  general  supervision  over  the  whole  church. 
He  also  insisted  strongly  on  the  holding  of  local  synods 
as  ordered  by  the  Council  of 
Nicea,  and  letters  of  hia  ex- 
ist addressed  to  bishops  in 
Siciljr,  Sardinia,  and  Gaul, 
reminding  them  of  their 
duties  in  t£is  respect.  The 
supreme  instance  of  Gr^ 
oi^'s  intervention  in  the  u- 
fairs  of  these  dioceses  occurs 
in  the.cBse  of  Sardinia,  where 
the  behaviour  of  Januarius, 
the  half-witted,  a^  Metro- 

Solitan   of  Cagliari,   had   re- 
uced  the  church  to  a  state  of 
semi-chaOB.     A  lar«e  number 
of  letters  relate  to  the  reforms 
Instituted  by  the  pope  (Epp., 
II,  xlvii;  in,  XJMVI;  IV,  k, 
xxiii-xxvii,  xxix;   V,  ii;  IX, 
i,  xi,  ccii-cciv;XIV,ii).    Hia 
care  over  the  election  of  a  new 
bishop  whenever  a  vacancy 
oceuTB   is   s  h  ow  n   in    many 
cases,  and  if,  after  his  exami- 
nation of  the  elect,  which  is 
always  a  searching  one,  he 
finds    him    unfitted   for   the 
post,  he  has  no  hesitation 
m  rejecting  him    and  com- 
manding   another    to    be 
chosen     (Epp.,     I,    Iv,    Ivi: 
VII,  xxxvui;  X,  vii).     With 
regard  to   discipline    the 
pope    was  specially  strict 
m  enforcing  the  Church's 
""■     laws   as  to  the  celibacy  of 
the  clergy   (Epp.,    I,  xiii,l: 
IV,  v,  xxvi,  xxxiv;  Vll,  i;  IX,  ex,  ccxvm;  X,  xix;  XI, 
Ivi  a;  XIII,  xxxviii,  xxxix);  the  exemption  of  clerios 
from  lay  tribunals  (Epp.,  I,  xxxbt  a;  VI,  xi;  IX,  liii, 
Ixxvi,  bwix;X,iv;Xl,xxxii;  XIII,  I);  and  the  dep- 
rivation of  all  ecclesiastics  g"'     "'  --'--'-   '    -    - 
dalous  offences  (F 


B  UUSIOHAHI] 


tritlah  HuMum 


ecclesiastics  guilty  of  criminal 
8  (Epp., I,  xvui,  xUi;  III,  xlix;  I 
nil;  VII,  xxxix;  VIII,  xxiv;  I 


IX,  XXV ; 
XII,  iii,  X,  xi;  XIV,  ii).  He  was  also  inflexible  with 
regard  to  the  proper  application  of  church  revenues, 
insisting  that  others  should  be  as  strict  as  be  was  in 
disposing  of  these  funds  for  their  proper  ends  (Epp., 
I,  X,  briv;  II,  xi-xxii;  III, xxii;  IV,  xi;  V.xii,  xlvui: 
VIII,  vii;  XI,  xxii,  Ivi  a;  XIII,  xlvi;  XIV,  ii). 

(3)  Relatumi  with  Other  CAurdie*.— With  regard  to 
the  other  Western  Churches  limits  of  space  prohibit 
any  detailed  account  of  Gregory's  dealmgs,  out  the 
following  quotation,  oil  the  more  valuable  as  coining 
from  a  Protestant  authority,  indicates  very  clearly  the 
line  he  followed  herein:  "la  his  dealings  with  the 
Churches  of  the  West,  Gregory  acted  invariably  on 
the  assumption  that  all  were  subject  to  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Roman  See.  Of  the  righla  claimed 
or  exercised  by  his  predecessors  he  would  not  abate 


OBIO0B7                             784    '  OREOOBT 

one  tittle;  on  the  contrary,  he  did  eversrthing  in  his  manlike,  but,  at  the  same  time,  undoubtedly  tdtra 
power  to  maintain,  strengthen,  and  extend  what  he  vtres,  bdns  quite  beyond  any  le^  competency  then 
regarded  as  the  just  prerogatives  of  the  papacy.  It  is  possessed  by  the  pope,  who  tnus  "  made  a  memorable 
true  that  he  respected  the  privileges  of  tne  Western  stride  towiuxls  complete  independence".  Gregory's 
metropolitans,  and  disapproved  of  unnececfctiry  inter-  independent  action  nad  the  effect  of  rousing  up  Ko- 
ference  within  the  sphere  of  their  jurisdiction  canon-  manus  the  exarch.  Wholly  ignoring  ^e  papal  peace, 
ically  exercised.  .  .  .  But  of  his  general  principle  he  gathered  all  his  troops,  attacked  and  regained 
there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever"  (Dudden,  I,  475).  Perugia,  and  then  marched  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
In  view  of  later  developments  Gregory's  dealmgs  with  received  with  imperial  honours.  The  next  spring, 
the  Oriental  Churches,  and  with  Constantinople  in  however,  he  quitted  the  city  and  took  away  its  gam- 
particular,  have  a  special  importance.  There  cannot  son  with  him,  so  that  both  pope  and  citizens  were  now 
be  the  smallest  doubt  that  Gregory  claimed  for  the  more  exasperated  against  him  than  before.  More- 
Apostolic  See,  and  for  himself  as  pope,  a  primacy  over,  the  exarch's  campaien  had  roused  tiie  Northern 
not  of  honour,  but  of  supreme  authority  over  the  Lombards,  and  King  AgUuIf  marched  on  Rome,  ar- 
Church  Universal.  In  Epp.,  XIII,  1,  he  speaks  of ''  the  riving  there  probably  some  time  in  June,  593.  The 
Apostolic  See,  which  is  the  head  of  all  Churches",  and  terror  aroused  b^  his  advance  is  still  mirrored  for  us  in 
in  Epp.,  V,  xliv,  he  savs:  ''I,  albeit  unworthy,  have  Gregory's  homihes  on  the  Prophet  Ezechiel,  which  were 
been  set  up  in  command  of  the  Church.  * '  As  successor  delivered  at  this  time.  The  siege  of  the  city  was  soon 
of  St.  Peter,  the  pope  had  received  from  God  a  primacy  abandoned,  however,  and  Agilulf  retired.  The  con- 
over  all  Churches  (Epp.,  II,  xlvi;  III,  xxx;  V,  xxxvii;  tinuator  of  Prosper  (Mon.  Germ.  SS.  Antiq.,  IX,  389) 
VII,  xxxvii).  His  approval  it  was  which  gave  force  relates  that  Agilulf  met  the  pope  in  person  on  the  steps 
to  the  decrees  of  councils  or  synods  (Epp.,  IX,  dvi),  of  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter,  which  was  then  outside  tne 
and  his  authority  could  annul  them  (Epp.,  V,  xxxix,  city  walls,  and  "being  melted  by  Gregory's  prayers 
xli,  xliv).    To  him  appeals  might  be   made  even  and  greatly  moved  by  the  wisdom  and  religious  grav- 


and  greatly  moved  by  the  wisdom  and  reli^ous  mii 
ity  of  this  great  man,  he  broke  up  the  siege  m  it 


against  other  patriarcns,  and  by  him  bishops  were  ity  of  this  great  man,  he  broke  up  the  siege  c»  the 
judged  and  corrected  if  need  were  (Epp.,  II,  1:  III,  lii,  city";  but.  in  view  of  the  silence  both  of  Gregory 
Ixiii ;  IX,  xxvi,  xxvii).  •  This  position  naturally  made  himself  and  of  Paul  the  Deacon  on  the  point,  the  story 
it  impossible  for  him  to  permit  the  use  of  the  title  seems  scarcely  probable.  In  Epp.,  V,  xxxix,  Gregory 
(Ecumenical  Bishop  assumed  by  the  Patriarch  of  Ck)n-  refers  to  himself  as  **  the  pajrmaster  of  the  Lombaras'', 
stantinople,  John  the  Faster,  at  a  synod  held  in  588.  and  most  likely  a  large  payment  from  the  papal  treas- 
Gregory  protested,  and  a  long  controversy  foUowed,  ury  was  the  chief  inducement  to  raise  the  siege.  The 
the  question  bein^  still  at  issue  when  the  pope  died,  pope's  great  desire  now  was  to  secure  a  lasting  peace 
A  discussion  of  this  controversy  is  needless  here,  but  with  the  Lombards,  which  could  only  be  achievea  by  a 
it  is  important  as  showing  how  completely  Gregory  proper  arrangement  between  the  imperial  authorities 
regarded  the  Eastern  patnarchs  as  being  subject  to  and  the  Lombard  chiefs.  On  Queen  Theodelinde,  a 
himself;  "As  regards  the  Church  of  Constantinople,"  Catholic  and  a  personal  friend,  Gregory  placed  all  his 
he  writes  in  Epp.,  IX,  xxvi,  "who  can  doubt  that  it  is  hopes.  The  exarch,  however,  looked  at  the  whole 
subject  to  the  Apostolic  See?  Why,  both  our  most  affair  in  another  lignt,  and,  when  a  whole  3rear  was 
religious  lord  the  emperor,  and  our  brother  the  Bishop  passed  in  fruitless  negotiations,  Gregory  b^an  once 
of  Constantinople  continually  acknowledge  it. "  At  a^ain  to  meditate  a  private  treaty.  Acconungiy,  in 
the  same  time  the  pope  was  most  careful  not  to  inter-  May,  595,  the  pope  wrote  to  a  friend  at  Ravenna  a 
fere  with  the  canonical  rights  of  the  other  patriarchs  letter  (Epp.,  V,  xxxiv)  threatening  to  make  peace  with 
and  bishops.  With  the  other  Oriental  patriarchs  his  Agilulf  even  without  the  consent  of  the  Ejcarch  Ro- 
relations  were  most  cordial,  as  appears  from  his  letters  manus.  This  threat  was  speedily  reported  to  Con- 
to  the  patriarchs  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria.  stantinople,  where  the  exarch  was  in  hijgh  favour,  and 
(4)  Kelations  with  the  Lombards  and  the  Franks. —  the  Emperor  Maurice  at  once  sent  oQ  to  Gresory  a 
Gregory's  consecration  as  pope  preceded  by  a  few  days  violent  letter,  now  lost,  acciising  him  of  being  both  a 
only  the  death  of  Authari,  King  of  the  Lombaras,  traitor  and  a  fool.  This  letter  Gregory  received  in 
whose  queen,  the  famous  Theodelinde,  then  married  June,  595.  Luckily  the  pope's  answer  has  been  pre- 
Agilulf,Duke  of  Turin,  a  warlike  and  energetic  prince,  served  to  us  (Epp.,  V,  xxxvi).  It  must  be  read  in  its 
mth  Agilulf  and  the  Dukes  Ariulf  of  opoleto  and  entirety  to  be  appreciated  fully;  probably  very  few 
Arichis  of  Benevento,  Gregory  soon  had  to  deal,  emperors,  if  any,  have  ever  received  such  a  letter  from 
as,  when  difficulties  arose,  Romanus,  the  exarch,  or  a  subject.  Still,  in  spite  of  his  scathing  reply,  Gregory 
representative,  of  the  emperor,  preferred  to  remain  seems  to  have  realised  that  independent  action  could 
in  sulky  inactivity  at  Ravenna.  It  soon  became  not  secure  what  he  wished,  and  we  hear  no  more  about 
clear  that,  if  any  successful  resistance  was  to  be  made  a  separate  peace.  Gre^ry's  relations  with  the  Exarch 
against  the  Lombards,  it  must  be  by  the  pope's  own  Romanus  became  continually  more  and  more  strained 
exertions.  How  keenly  he  felt  the  difficulty  and  until  the  latter's  death  in  the  year  596  or  early  in  597. 
danger  of  his  position  appears  in  some  of  the  earliest  The  new  exarch,  Callinicus,  was  a  man  of  far  greater 
letters  (Epp.,  t,  iii,  viii,  xxx);  but  no  actual  hostilities  ability  and  well  disposed  towards  the  pope,  whose 
began  till  tne  summer  of  592,  when  the  pope  received  a  hopes  now  revived.  The  official  peace  negotiationB 
threatening  letter  from  Ariulf  of  Spoleto,  which  was  were  pushed  on,  and,  in  spite  of  aelays,  the  articles 
followedalmostimmediatelyby  the  appearance  of  that  were  at  length  signed  in  599,  to  Gregory's  great  joy. 
chief  before  the  walls  of  Rome.  At  the  same  time  This  peace  lasted  two  years,  but  in  601  the  war  broke 
Arichis  of  Benevento  advanced  on  Naples,  which  out  a^n  through  an  aggressive  act  on  the  part  of 
happened  at  the  moment  to  have  no  bishop  nor  any  Callimcus,  who  was  recalled  two  years  later,  when  his 
officer  of  hi^  rank  in  command  of  the  garrison,  successor,  Smaragdus,  again  made  a  peace  with  the 
Gregory  at  once  took  the  surprising  step  of  appointing  Lombards  which  endured  until  after  Gre^ry's  death, 
a  tribune  on  his  own  authority  to  take  command  of  the  Two  points  stand  out  for  special  notice  m  Gregorys 
city  (Epp.,  II,  xxxiv),  and,  when  no  notice  of  this  dealings  with  the  Lombards:  first,  his  determination 
strong  action  was  taken  by  the  imperial  authorities,  the  that,  in  spite  of  the  apathy  of  the  imperial  authorities, 
pope  conceived  the  idea  of  himself  arranging  a  separate  Rome  should  not  pass  into  the  hands  of  some  half- 
peace  with  the  Lombards  (Epp.,  II,  xly).  No  details  civilized  Lombard  duke  and  so  sink  into  insignificance 
of  this  peace  have  come  down  to  us,  but  it  seems  certain  and  decay ;  second,  his  independent  action  in  appoint- 
that  it  was  actually  concluded  (Epp.,  V,  xxxvi).  Dr.  ing  governors  to  cities,  providing  munitions  oi  war, 
Hodgkin  (Italy  and  her  Invaders,  v,  366)  pronounces  giving  instructions  to  generals,  sending  ambassadora 
Gregory's  action  herein  to  have  been  wise  and  states-  to  the  Lombard  king,  and  even  negotiating  a  peace 


785 


aBIGOBT 


without  Qie  exarch's  ud.    Whatever  the  theoiy  may  refer  to  the  famous  letters  to  the  Emperor  Phocas  on 

have  been,  there  is  no  doubt  about  the  fact  that,  be-  his  usurpation,  and  the  allusions  in  tnem  to  the  mur- 

aides  his  spiritual  jurisdictioQ,  Gregory  s«tually  exer-  dered  Emperor  Maurice  (Epp.,  XIII,  zxziv,  xli,  xlii). 

cised  no  small  amount  of  temporal  power.  Every  Idnd  of  judgment  has  been    passed   upon 

Of  Qr^ory's  relations  with  the  Franks  there  is  no  Gregory  for  writing  these  letters,  but  the  question 

-teed  to  write  at  length,  as  the  intercoutse  he  estab-  remains  a  difficult  one.     Probably  the  pope's  conduct 

lished  with  the  Framdsh  kings  practically  lapsed  at  hereinwasdueto  two  things:  first, his  is '''~~ 

his  death,  and  was  not  renewed  for  about  a,  hundred  way  in  which  P"" '     •---••   'f^ 


1  Fbocas  had  reached  t 


!  throne;  and 


1,  which  be  did  much  seotative  on  earth,   and  therefore  deserving  c 

to  strengtheo  and  reshape,  so  that  the  worh  done  by  possible  respect  in  his  official  capacity,  his  personal 

the  monasteries  in  civilizing  the  wild  FraniiB  may  be  character  not  coming  into  the  question  at  all.     It 

attributed  ultimately  to  the  first  monk-pope.  should  be  noted,  also,  that  he  avoids  any  direct  flattery 

(6)  RelatwM  with  the  Imperial  Qovenanmt. — ^Tho  towards  the  new  emperor,  merely  u  ~  -  -^  


reign  of  Gregory  the  Great 
marks  an  epoch  m  papal  his- 
tory, and  tnis  is  specisJly  the 
case  in  respect  of  bis  attitude 
towards  the  imperial  Govern- 
ment centred  at  Constanti- 
nople. Gregory  seems  to  have 
looKed  upon  Church  and  State 
as  co-operating  to  form  a 
miited  whole,  which  acted  in 
two  distinct  spheres,  ecclesias- 
tical and  secular.  Over  this 
commonwealth  wete  the  pope 
and  the  emperor,  each  su- 
preme in  his  own  department, 
caro  being  taken  to  keep  these 
as  far  as  possible  distinct 
and  independent.  This  latter 
point  was  the  difficulty.  Greg- 
ory definitely  held  that  it  was 
a  duty  of  the  secular  ruler  to 
protect  the  Chuich  and  pre- 
serve the  "peace  of  the  faith" 
(Mor.,XXXl,viii),andsohe 
is  often  found  to  call  in  the  aid 
of  the  secular  arm,  not  merely 
to  suppress  schism,  heresy,  or 
idolali^,  but  even  to  enrorce 
disciplme  among  monks  and 
eler^  ( Epp . ,  I ,  Indi ;  1 1 ,  xxiz ; 
III,^;IV,vii,xxxii;V,xxxu; 
VIII,iv;XI,xii,xxivii;Xni, 
Kotvi).  If  the  emperor  inter- 
fered in  church  matters  the 
pope's  policy  was  to  acquiesce 
if  possible,  imleas  obedience 
was  sinful,  according  to 
the   principle   laid   down   i 


ated  phrases  oT  respect  tAen 
customary,  and  expressing 
the  high  hopes  he  entertains 
of  the  new  regime.  More- 
over, his  allusions  to  Maurice 
refer  to  the  suffering  of  the 
people  under  his  government, 
and  do  not  reflect  on  the  dead 
emperor  himself.  Had  the 
empire  been  sound  instead  of 
in  a  hopelessly  rotten  state 
when  Gregory  became  pope, 
it  is  hard  U>  say  how  his  views 
might  have  worked  out  in 
practice.  As  it  was,  his  Une 
of  strong  independence,  his 
efficiency,  and  his  courage 
carried  all  before  them,  and 
when  he  died  there  was  no 
longer  aiw  question  as  to  who 
was  the  first  power  in  Italy. 

(6)  Mittionary  Work. — 
Gre^ry's  seal  for  the  coO' 
version  of  the  heathen,  and  in 
particular  of  the  Angles,  has 
been  mentioned  already,  and 
there  is  no  need  to  dwell  at 


wider  AuousTiNB  oVCanteb- 

BUBT,  Saint.  In  justice  to 
the  great  pope,  however,  it 
must  be  added  that  he  lost  no 
opportunity  for  the  exercise 
of  his  missionary  seal,  mak- 
ing every  effort  to  root  out 
paganism  in  Gaul,  Donatism 
m  Africa,  and  the  Schism  of 


Epp.  XI,  xxiz;  "Quod  ipse  [sc.  iroperator]  fecerit,  si  the  Three  Chapters  in  North  Italy  and  Istria.     In 

canonicum  est,  sequimur ;  si  vera  cananicum  non  est,  in  his  treatment  of  heretics,  schismatics,  and  pagans  his 

auantum  sine  peccato  nostro,  portamus."    In  taking  method  was  to  tryevery  means— persuBsions,exhorta- 

lia  line  Gregory  was   undoubtedly   influenced   by  tions.threats — beforeresorting  to  force;  but,if  gentler 

his  deep  reverence  for  the  emperor,  whom  he  regarded  treatment  failed,  be  had  no  hesitation,  in  accordance 

as  the  representative  of  God  m  all  things  secular,  and  with  the  ideas  of  his  age,  in  resorting  to  compulsion, 

who  must  Btm  be  treated  with  all  possible  respect,  and  invoking  the  aid  of  the  seculsr  arm  therein.    It  is 

even  when  he  encroached  on  the  borders  of  the  papal  curious,  therefore,  to  find  him  acting  as  a  champion 

authority.    On  his  side,  although  he  certainly  re-  and  protector  of  the  Jews.    In  Epp.,  I,  xlv,  he  ex- 

garded  himsdf  as  "superior  in  place  and  rank"  to  the  pressly  deprecates  the  compulsory  baptism  of  Jews, 

exarch  (Epp.,  11,  xlv),  Gregorv  objected  strongly  to  and  many  instances  appear  m  which  he  insists  on  their 


right  to  Uberty  of  action,  so  far  as  the  law  permitted, 
both  in  civil  affairs  and  in  the  worship  of^the  syns' 
ogue  (Epp.,  I,  xxxiv;  11,  vi;  Vlll,  xxv;  IX,  xxxviii, 
itcv;  XIIl,  iv).  He  was  equally  strong,  however, 
_  I  preventing  the  Jews  from  exceeding  the  rights 
granted  to  them  by  the  imperial  law,  especially  with 
regard  to  the  ownership  by  them  of  Chnstisn  slaves 

..     .         .  (Epp.,  II,  vi;III,  xxxvii;IV,  ix,  xxi;  VI,  xxix;  VII, 

n  agent  the  precise  attitude  to  be  adopted  in  such  xxl ;  VIII,  xxi ;  IX,  civ,  ccxiii,  ccxv).  We  shall  pro- 
matters.  Still,  in  conjunction  with  all  this  deference,  bably  be  right,  therefore,  in  attributing  Gregory's 
GrcKory  retained  a  spirit  of  independence  which  protection  of  the  Jews  to  his  respect  for  law  and 
enaBleo  him,  when  he  considered  it  necessary,  to  luattce,  rather  than  to  any  ideas  of  toleration  difiering 
address  even  the  emperor  in  terms  of  startling  direct-  from  those  current  at  the  thne. 
neai.  Space  makes  it  impossible  to  do  more  than  (7)  Oregorg  arid  Monatticivm. — Although  the  first 
VL— «      ...  ~  ■ 


the  interference 'of  ecclesiastical  authorities  in  matters 
secular.  As  supreme  guardian  of  Christian  justice, 
the  pope  was  always  ready  to  intercede  for,  or  proti 
anyone  who  suffered  unjtut  treatment  (Epp.,  I,  xx 
xxxvi,xlvii,lix:IlI,v;V,xxxviii;IX,iv,xfvi,Iv,c)  . 
clxxxii;  XI,  iv),  but  at  the  same  time  he  used  the 
Utmost  tact  in  approaching  the  imperial  officials.  In 
Epp.,  I,  xxxix  a,  be  explains  for  the  benefit  of  his  Si- 


OBIOOBT 


786 


OBIOOBT 


monk  to  become  pope,  Gregor]^  was  in  no  sense  an 
original  contributor  to  monastic  ideals  or  practice. 
He  took  monasticism  as  he  found  it  established  by  St. 
Benedict,  and  his  efforts  and  influence  were  given  to 
strengthening  and  enforcing  the  prescriptions  of  that 

Greatest  of  monastic  legislators.  His  position  did  in- 
eed  tend  to  modify  St.  Benedict's  worK  by  drawing  it 
into  a  closer  connexion  with  the  organization  of  the 
Church,  and  with  the  papacy  in  particular,  but  this 
was  not  deliberately  aimed  at  bv  Gregory.  Rather 
he  was  himself  convinced  that  the  monastic  system 
had  a  very  special  value  for  the  Church,  and  so  he  did 
everything  in  his  power  to  diffuse  and  propagate  it. 
His  own  property  was  consecrated  to  this  end,  he 
urged  many  wealthy  people  to  establish  or  support 
monasteries,  and  he  useci  the  revenues  of  the  patri- 
mony for  the  same  purpose.  He  was  relentless  in 
correcting  abuses  and  enforcing  discipline,  the  letters 
on  such  matters  being  far  too  numerous  for  mention 
here,  and  Uie  points  on  which  he  insists  most  are 
precisely  those,  such  as  stability  and  poverty,  on 
which  St.  Benedict's  recent  legislation  haa  laid  special 
stress.  Twice  only  do  we  find  anything  like  direct 
legislation  by  the  pope.  The  first  point  is  that  of  the 
age  at  which  a  nun  might  be  made  abbess,  which  he 
fixes  at  "not  less  than  sixty  years"  (Epp.,  IV,  xi). 
Hie  second  is  his  lengtliening  of  the  penoaoi  novitiate. 
St.  Benedict  had  prescribed  at  least  one  year  (Reg. 
Ben.,  Iviii);  Gregory  (Epp.,  X,  ix)  orders  two  years, 
with  special  precautions  in  the  case  of  slaves  who 
wished  to  become  monks.  More  important  was  his 
line  of  action  in  the  difficult  question  of  the  relation 
between  monks  and  their  bishop.  There  is  plenty  of 
evidence  to  show  that  many  bishops  took  aavantage 
of  their  position  to  oppress  and  burcfen  the  monasteries 
in  their  diocese,  with  the  result  that  the  monks  ap^ 
pealed  to  the  pope  for  protection.  Gre^ry,  whue 
always  upholdm^  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishop,  was  firm  m  support  of  the  monks  against  any 
illegal  aggression.  All  attempts  on  the  part  of  a 
bishop  to  assume  new  powers  over  the  monks  in  his 
diocese  were  condemned,  while  at  times  the  pope 
issued  documents,  called  Privilegia,  in  which  ne 
definitely  set  forth  certain  points  on  which  the  monks 
were  exempt  from  episcopal  control  (Epp.,  V,  xlix; 
VII,  xii;  VIII,  xvii-  All,  xi,  xii,  xiii).  Tnis  action  on 
Gregory's  part  unaoubtedly  began  the  long  progress 
by  which  the  monastic  bodies  have  come  to  be  under 
the  direct  control  of  the  Holy  See.  It  should  be  men- 
tioned that  in  Gregory's  day  the  current  view  was  that 
ecclesiastical  work,  such  as  the  cure  of  souls,  preach- 
ing, administering  the  sacraments,  etc.,  was  not  com- 
patible with  the  monastic  state,  and  in  this  view  the 
pope  concurred.  On  the  other  hand  a  passage  in  Epp., 
AH,  i  V,  where  he  dii^cts  that  a  certain  layman  *'  shoiud 
be  tonsured  either  as  a  monk  or  a  subdeacon",  would 
suggest  that  the  pope  held  the  monastic  state  as  in 
some  wa^  equivalent  to  the  ecclesiastical;  for  his 
ultimate  intention  in  this  case  was  to  promote  the  lay- 
man in  question  to  the  episcopate. 

(8)  Deathf  Canonization,  Relics.  Emblem. — ^The  last 
years  of  Gr^eory's  life  were  fillea  with  eveiy  kind  of 
suffering.  His  fnind.  naturally  serious,  was  filled  with 
despondent  foreLodinfQs.  and  his  continual  bodily 
pains  were  increased  ana  intensified.  His  "sole  con- 
solation was  the  hope  that  death  would  come  quickly" 
(Epp.,  XIII,  XX vi).  The  end  came  on  12  March,  604, 
ana  on  the  same  day  his  body  was  laid  to  rest  in  front 
of  the  sacristy  in  the  portico  of  St.  Peter's  Basilica. 
Since  then  the  relics  have  been  moved  several  times, 
the  most  recent  translation  being  that  by  Paul  V  in 
1606,  when  they  were  placed  in  the  chapel  of  Clement 
V  near  the  entrance  ot  the  modem  sacnsty.  There  is 
."tome  evidence  that  the  body  was  taken  to  Soissons  in 
France  in  the  year  826,  but  probably  only  some  lam 
relic  is  really  meant.  Venerable  Bede  (Hist.  Eccl.,  II, 
i)  gives  the  epitaph  placed  on  his  tomb,  which  contains 


the  famous  phrase  referring  to  Gregor^r  as  eonnd  DeL 
His  canonisation  by  popular  acclamation  followed  at 
once  on  his  death,  and  survived  a  reaction  against  his 
memory  which  seems  to  have  occurred  soon  afterwards. 
In  art  the  great  pope  is  usually  shown  in  full  pontifical 
robes  with  the  tiara  and  douole  cross.  A  dove  is  his 
special  emblem,  in  allusion  to  the  well-known  stoir 
recorded  by  Peter  the  Deacon  (Vita,  xxviii),  who  tells 
that  when  the  pope  was  dictating  his  homilies  on 
Ezechiel  a  veil  was  drawn  between  his  secretary  and 
himself.  As,  however,  the  pope  remained  silent  for 
long  periods  at  a  time,  the  servant  made  a  hole  in  the 
curtam  and,  looking  through,  beheld  a  dove  seated 
upon  Gregory's  head  with  its  beak  between  his  lips, 
when  the  dove  withdrew  its  beak  the  holy  pontiff 
spoke  and  the  secretary  took  down  his  words;  but 
when  he  became  silent  the  servant  again  applied  his 
eye  to  the  hole  and  saw  that  the  dove  had  replaced  its 
beak  between  his  lips.  The  miracles  attributed  to 
Gregory  are  very  many,  but  iipace  forbids  even  the 
barest  catalog;ue  of  them. 

(9)  Conclusion, — ^It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  notice 
to  attempt  any  elaborate  estimate  of  the  work,  influ- 
ence, ana  character  of  Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  but 
some  short  focusing  of  the  features  given  above  is 
only  just.  First  of  all,  perhaps,  it  will  be  best  to  clear 
the  ground  by  admitting  fnmkly  what  Gregory  was 
not.  He  was  not  a  man  of  profound  learning,  not  a 
philosopher,  not  a  controversialist,  hardly  even  a 
theologian  in  the  constructive  sense  of  the  term.  He 
was  a  trained  Roman  lawyer  and  administrator,  a 
monk,  a  missionary,  a  preacher,  above  all  a  physician 
of  souls  and  a  leader  of  men.  His  great  claim  to 
remembrance  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  is  the  real  father 
of  the  medieval  papacy  (Milman).  With  r^ard  to 
things  spiritual,  he  impressed  upon  men's  minds  to  a 
degree  unprecedented  the  fact  that  the  See  of  Peter 
was  the  one  supreme,  decisive  authority  in  the  Catho- 
lic Church.  During  his  pontificate  he  established 
close  relations  between  the  Church  of  Rome  and  those 
of  Spain,  Gaul,  Africa,  and  Iliyricum,  while  his  in- 
fluence in  Britain  was  such  that  he  is  justly  called  the 
Apostle  of  the  En^h.  In  the  Eastern  Churches,  too, 
the  papal  authority  was  exercised  with  a  frequency 
unususkl  before  his  time,  and  we  find  no  less  an  author- 
ity than  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  submitting  him- 
self humbly  to  the  pope's  "  commands".  The  system 
of  appeals  to  Rome  was  firmly  established,  and  the 
pope  IS  found  to  veto  or  confirm  the  decrees  of  synods, 
to  annul  the  decisions  of  patriarchs,  and  inflict 
punishment  on  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  precisely  as  he 
thinks  right.  Nor  is  his  work  less  noteworthy  in  its 
effect  on  the  temporal  position  of  the  papacy.  Seising 
the  opportunity  which  circumstances  offered,  he  made 
himself  in  Italy  a  power  stron^r  than  emperor  oi 
exarch,  and  established  a  political  influence  which 
dominated  the  peninsula  for  centuries.  From  this 
time  forth  the  varied  populations  of  Italy  looked  to  the 
pope  for  guidance,  and  Rome  as  the  papal  capital  con- 
tinued to  be  t^e  centre  of  the  Christian  world.  Greg- 
ory's work  as  a  theologian  and  Doctor  of  the  Church 
is  less  notable.  In  the  history  of  dogmatic  develop- 
ment he  is  important  as  summing  up  the  teaching  of 
the  earlier  Fathers  and  consolidating  it  into  a  har- 
monious whole,  rather  than  as  introducing  new 
developments,  new  methods,  new  solutions  of  diffi- 
cult questions.  It  was  precisely  because  of  this  that 
his  writings  became  to  a  great  extent  the  compendium 
OieoloaicB  or  textbook  of  the  Middle  Ages,  a  position 
for  which  his  work  in  popularizing  his  greater  prede- 
cessors fitted  him  well.  Achievemento  so  varied 
have  won  for  Gregory  the  title  of  ''the  Great",  but 
perhaps,  among  our  English-speaking  races,  he  is 
nonoured  most  of  all  as  the  pope  who  loved  the 
bright-faced  Angles,  and  tau^t  them  first  to  sing 
the  Anflsis'  song. 

HiB  WBITENG8. — Oenuine,    Doubtfulf   Spuriotu, — 


OBIOOBT 


787 


OREOOBT 


Of  the  writingB  commonly  attributed  to  Gregory 
the  following  are  now  admitted  as  genuine  on  aL 
hands:  " Moralium  Libri  XXXV"; " Reeulie  Pastoralis 
Liber";  "Dialogorum  Libri  IV";  ''Homiliarum  in 
Esechielem  Prophetam  Libri  II";  ''Homiliarum  in 
Evan^lia  Libri  II" ; "  EpiBtohurum  Libri  XIV".  The 
followmg  are  almost  certaii^  spurious:  '^In  Librum 
Primum  Regum  Variarum  Ebcpositionum  Libri  VI"; 
'^Expositio  super  Cantica  Cantioorum";  ''fbtpositio 
in  Vil  Psalmos  Poenitentiales";  "Concordia  Quorun- 
dam  Testimoniorum  S.  Scriptune".  Besides  the 
above  there  are  attributed  to  Gregory  certain  litur- 
gical hymns,  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary,  and  the 
AnUphonary.  (See  Antiphonabt;  Sacramentart.) 
Works  of  Qrepory;  compUte  or  partial  editions;  tran&' 
kUiona,  recenaiona,  etc, — ''Opera  S.  Gregorii  Magni" 
(Editio  princeps,  Paris,  1518);  ed.  P.  Tossianensis 
(6  vols.,  Rome,  1588-93) ;  ed.  P.  Goussainville  (3  vols., 
Paris,  1675);  ed.  Cong.  S.  Mauri  (Sainte-Marthe)  (4 
vols.,  Paris,  1705);  the  last-named  re-edited  with 
additions  by  J.  B.  Gallicioli  (17  vols.,  Venice,  1768- 
76)  and  reprinted  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXV-LXXIX. 
"Epistols  ,  ed.  P.  Ewald  and  L.  M.  Hartmann  in 
"Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Epist.",  I,  II  (Berlin,  1891^99); 
this  is  the  authoritative  edition  of  the  text  of  Uie 
Epistles  (all  references  given  above  are  to  this  edition) ; 
Jafif4, ''  Regestaf  Pontif.^(2nd  ed.,  Rome,  1885),  1, 143- 
219;  II,  738;  Turehi,  "S.  Gree.  M.  Epp.  Selects" 
(Rome,  1907);  P.'Ewald,  ''Studien  zur  Ausgabe  des 
RegisteiB  Gregors  I."  in  "  Neues  Arohiv",  III,  433-625 ; 
L.  M.  Hartmann  in  "Neues  Arohiv",  XV,  411,  529; 
XVII,  193;  Th.  Mommsen  in  "Neues  Arohiv",  XVII. 
189;  English  translation:  J.  Barmby,  "Selected 
Epistles"  in  "Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers",  2nd 
Series,  XII,  XIII  (Oxford  and  New  York,  1895, 1898). 
"Regula  Pastoralis  Curse",  ed.  E.  W.  Westhoff  (Mon- 
ster, I860):  ed.  H.  Hurter,  S.  J.,  in  "SS.  Patr.  Opusc. 
Select."  XX;  ed.  A.  M.  Micheletti  (Toumai,  1904); 
ed.  B.  Sauter  (Freiburg,  1904);  En^h  translations: 
"King  Alfred's  West  Saxon  Version  of  Gregory's 
Pastoral  Care",  ed.  H.  Sweet  (London,  1871);  "The 
Book  of  Pastoral  Care"  (tr.  J.  Barmby)  in  "Nicene 
and  Post-Nicene  Fathers",  2nd  Series,  XII  (Oxford  and 
New  York,  1895).  "Dialogorum  Libri  IV":  very 
many  editions  of  the  whole  work  have  appeared,  and 
also  of  Bk.  II,  "Of  the  Life  and  Miracles  of  St.  Bene- 
dict", separately;  an  old  English  translation  has  been 
reprintea  by  H.  Coleridge,  5.  J.  (London,  1874);  L. 
Wese,  "Die  Sprache  der  Dialoge"  (Halle,  1900);  H. 
Delehaye,  "S.  Gr^goire  le  Grand  dans  I'hagiographie 
Grecque"  in  "Analecta  Bolland."  (1904),  449-54; 
B.  Sauter,  "Der  heilige  Vater  Benediktus  nach  St. 
Greeor  dem  Grossen"  (Freiburg,  1904).  "Hom.  XL 
in  Evangelia",  ed.  H.  Hurter  in  "SS.  Patrum  Opusc. 
Select.",  series  II,  Tom.  VI  (Innsbruck,  1892).  G. 
Pfeilschifter,  "Die  authentische  Ausgabe  der  Evange- 
lienhomilien  Gregors  der  Gr. "  (Munich,  1900) .  "  Magna 
Moralia",  Eng.  tr.  in  "Library  of  the  Fathers"  f 4 
vols.^  Oxford,  1844);  Prunner,  "Gnade  und  Silnde 
nach  Gregors  expositio  in  Job"  (Eichstfttt,  1855). 

Chiet  Sources. — ^Fint  of  all  come  the  writings  of  Gregory 
himself,  of  which  a  full  account  is  ^ven  above,  the  most  impor- 
tant from  a  biographical  point  of  view  being  the  fourteen  books 
of  his  Lettera  and  tne  four  books  of  Dialoouea.  The  other  early 
authorities  are  St.  Qrsgort  of  Tours  (d.  594  or  595),  HiaUma 
Franeorum^  Bk.  X,  and  the  Libtr  Pontificalia^  both  practically 
contemporary.  To  the  seventh  century  belong  St.  Isidoex  or 
8BVILLB,  Da  Viria  lUiutribua,  XL,  and  St.  Ildbphonsus  of 
ToLBDo,  Da  Viria  lUtutribua,  I.  Next  come  the  Vita  Antxquia- 
aima^  bv  an  anonsrmous  monk  of  Whitby,  written  probably 
^out  713,  and  of  special  interest  as  representing  an  essentially 
English  tradition  in  regard  to  the  saint;  thb  Vbn.  Bbdb,  HiaL 
EeeUa.,  II,  whose  work  was  finished  in  731 ;  Paul  the  Dbacon, 
who  compiled  a  short  Vita  Oragorii  MoQni  between  770  and  780, 
which  mav  be  supplemented  from  the  same  writer's  more  fa- 
mous worK  Hiataria  Lonoobardarum:  lastly  John  thb  Dbacon, 
who,  at  the  request  of  John  VIII  (872-882).  produced  his  Vita 
Oreporii  in  answer  to  the  complaint  that  no  history  of  the  saint 
bad  yet  been  produced  in  Rome.  Besides  these  direct  authori- 
ties considerable  lij^t  on  the  period  of  St.  Gregory's  life  may  be 
gathcfed  from  the  works  of  various  contemporary  chroniclers 
and  historians. 


Works  on  Gbbgobt. — (1)  General. — Gbbgobt  of  Tqurs, 
Hiaioria  Franconjon^  X,  i,  in  P.  L.,  liXXI;  the  best  edition  ot 
this  is  by  Arndt  and  Krubch  in  Man,  Oerm.  Uiat,:  Scri^. 
Rervan  Merovino.,  I;  Liber  Pontifiealiaj  ed.  Ducbbbnb  (Paris, 
1884),  1, 312:  Ibidorb  of  Sbvillb,  De  Vir,  IUuatr.,JLh  In  P.  L., 
LXXXIII:  Ildbfonsub  of  Tolbdo,  Da  Vir.  lUtatr.,  I.  ibid., 
XCVII;  Vita  B.  Papa  Gregorii  M.  (MS.  Gallen..  567),  written 
by  a  monk  of  Whitby,  ed.  Gabqubt  (Westminster,  1904J:  fee 
also  on  same  work  Ewald,  Dia  Altaala  Bicmphia  Greoora  I  in 
Hiatoriache  AufaAtta  dam  Andanken  an  O,  Waita  oewidmei  (Han- 
over, 1886),  17-54:  Vbn.  Bbdb,  Hiat.  Ecdea,,  L  xxiU-zxxiiii 
II(  S-iiij  V,  xxv;  m  P.  L.,  XCV;  Paul  thb  Dbacon,  Vita 
Orafforit  M,  in  P.  L.,  LXXV;  Idem,  Da  Oaatia  Longobard.,  Ill, 
^;  ^^t5:  in  P.  L.,  XCV;  John  tub  Dbacon,  Vita  Gragorti  M., 
ibtd.,  LXXV;  Ada  SS.,  12  March;  Van  dbn  Ztpb,  ;S.  Gragoriua 
Magnua  (Ypres,  1610):  Sainte-Marthe,  Hiatoira  da  S.  GrSg- 
oira  (Rouen,  1677);  Maimboubo.  //utotrs  dujpontiivDat  da  S, 
OrigoiraCPKiB,  1687);  Bonuccx,  latoria  dd  B,  Qragorio  (Rome, 
1711);  WiETRowsKY,  Hiat.  de  geatia  jmecipuia  in  pontificatu  S. 
Gregorii  M.  (Prague,  1726-30);  Poszo,  latoria  deUa  vita  di  S. 
Oregorio  M.  (Rome,  1758);  Marograf,  De  Gregorii  I.  M.  Vita 
(Berlin,  1844);  Bianchi-Giovini,  Pont^icato  di  8.  Gregorio 
(Milan,  1844):  Lau,  Gregor  I.  der  Groaae  (Leipsig,  1845);  Pfah- 
LBR,  Gregor  der  Groaae  (Frankfort,  18529 ;  Luzarchb,  Vie  du 
Pope  Grigoire  le  Grand  (Tours,  1857);  Romaivtb,  Vie  de  S. 
Gregoire  (Limoges,  1862);  Paonon,  Grigoire  le  Grand  et  eon 
ippque  (Rouen,  1869);  Bblmonte,  Gregorio  M.  eil  auo  tempo 
(Florence,  1871);  Bohrxngbr,  Die  VAler  dea  Papattuma,  Leo  I 
und  Gregor  I  (Stuttgart,  1879);  Maogio,  ProUgomeni  aUa 
atoria  di  Grepono  il  Grande  (Prato,  1879) ;  Barmby,  Gregory  the 
Great  (London,  1879;  reissue,  1892);  Claubzer,  S.  Grigoire 
(Paris,  1886);  Boubmann,  Gregor  I.  der  Groaae  (Ftederbom, 
1890);  Wolfboruber,  Gregor  der  Groaae  (Saulgau,  1890); 
Snow,  SL  Gregory,  hia  Work  and  hie  Spirit  (London,  1892); 
Gribar,  Roma  alia  fine  dd  mondo  antico  (Rome,  1899),  Pt.  Ill; 
Idem,  San  Gregorio  Magno  (Rome,  1904);  Dudden,  Gregory  tKe 
Great,  hia  Place  in  Hiatory  and  in  Thouj^  (2  vols.,  London, 
1905);  CAFmuLOj  Gregorio  leil  auo  pontifieato  (Saluuo,  1904) ; 
C^iLUER,  Hiatotre  general  dea  auteura  ecdiaiaatiquea,  XJ,  429- 
587;  MiLMAN.  Hiatory  cf  LcUin  Chriatianity,  Bk.  Ill,  vii;  Mon- 
talbmbbrt,  Monka  of  the  Weat,  tr.  Bk.  v;  Grbgoroviub.  Rome 
m  the  Middle  Agea,  tr..  II,  16-103:  Hodqkin.  Italy  €mdherlnva~ 
dera,  V,  vii-ix;  Gatta,  UnparaUdo  atorieo  (Marco  Aurdio,  Gre- 
gorio  Magno)  (Milan,  1901);  Mann,  Livea  of  the  Popea  m  the 
EaHy  MtddU  Agea  (Ix>ndon,  1902),  I,  1-250. 

(2)  Special. — (a)  The  Patrimony. — Orbi,  Delia  orioine  dd  do- 
minto  temporale  e  adla  aovranith  dd  Rom.  Pontif.  (2nd  ed.,  Rome, 
1754);  Borgia,  Idoria  dd  dominio  temporale  ddla  Sede  Apoa- 
tolica  ndle  due  Sidtie  (Rome,  1789) ;  Muzsarblli,  Dominio  tem- 
poraleddPapa  (Rome,  1789);  Sugenreim, Geaeh.  der Entatdiung 
und  Aud>ildung  dea  Kirehenataatea  (Leipzig,  1854);  Scharpff, 
Die  Entdehung  dea  Kirehenataatea  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1860); 
Gribar,  Bin  Rundaang  durch  die  PeUrunonien  dea  hi.  Stuhla  i.  J. 
eoo.  in  Zeitachr.  Kath.  Thed.,  1, 321;  Scrwarzlobe,  Die  Patri- 
monien  d.  rUm.  K,  (Berlin,  1887);  Mommbbn,  Die  Beunriachaf- 
tuna  der  KirehengHter  unter  Papat  Gregor  I.  in  Zeitadi.  f.  Sodal- 
una  Wirtacfuiflageadi.tl,  43;  Doize,  Deux  itudea  aur  Vadminia- 
tration  tempordle  du  Pape  Grigoire  le  Grand  (Paris,  1904).  (b) 
Priniacy  and  Relations  with  other  Churches. — Pfaff,  Diaaerta- 
tio  de  tUulo  Patriarcha  (Ecumenici  (Tabingen,  1735);  Ortueb, 
Eaaai  aur  le  ayathne  eccUa.  de  Grigoire  le  Grand  (Strasburg, 
1872);  PlNGAUD.  La  pditifue  de  B.  Grigoire  (Paris,  1872); 
LoRENS,  Papetwahl  und  Kataerium  (Berlin,  1874),  23;  Crivbl- 
Lucci,  Storta  ddla  rdaaioni  tra  to  Stato  e  la  Chieaa  (Bologna, 
1885),  II,  301;  GOrrbb,  Papat  Gregor  der  Groaae  und  Kaiaer 
Phoeaa  in  Zeitachr.  jUr  wiaaenachafaiehe  Thed.,  XLIV,  692-602. 
(c)  Relations  with  Lombards  and  Franks. — Bernardi,  ILongo- 
bardi  e  S.  Greaorio  M.  (Milan,  1843);  Troya,  Storia  d^ Italia  dd 
medio  eoo,  IV:  Codiee  diplomatieo  Umgcbardo  dal  668  al  774 
(Naples,  1852);  Diehl,  Btudea  aur  Vadminidration  bytantine 
dana  Vaxardiat  de  Ravenne  (Paris,  1888);  Hartmann,  Untera. 
«.  Geach.  d.  bytanL  VencaUung  m  Italien  (Leipzig,  1889); 
Lamfb,  Qui  fuerint  Gregorii  M.  p.  temnoribua  in  imperii  bytan- 
tini  parte  Occident,  exarchi  (Berkn,  1892);  Perry,  The  Franka 
(London,  1857);  Kbllbtt,  Pops  Gregory  the  Great  and  hia  Re- 
latuma  with  Gam  (Cambridge,  1889);  Gribar,  Rom.  u.  d.  frAnk- 
iadie  Kirche  vommmlidi  im  6.  Jahr.  in  Zeitachr.  kath.  Thtid.,  IJ^. 

S)  Monastidsra  and  Missionary  Work. — Mabillon,  Diaaertatto 
monaalicA  vitA  Gregorii  Papa  (Paris,  1676);  Butler.  Waa 
St.  Auguatine  of  Canterbury  a  Benedidinet  in  Downaide  Review, 
III,  45-61.  223-240;  Grutzmachbr,  Die  Bedeutung  BenedikU 
von  Nuraia  und  aeiner  Regd  in  der  Geach.  dea  MOnchtuma  (Berlin, 
1892);  Cuttb,  Augudine  of  Canterbury  (London.  1895);  Gray, 
The  Origin  and  Early  Hiatory  of  Chriatumity  in  Britain  (London, 
1897);  Bright.  Chaptera  on  Early  Enqliah  Church  Hiatory  (Ox- 
ford, 1897);  Benedbtti.  S.  Gregono  Magno  e  la  acniavitii 
(Rome,  1904).  (e)  Writinn.— Alsoo,  L^rb.  der  Patrdogie 
(Freiburg  im  Br.,  1876):  Uarnacx,  Ld^rb.  der  Dogmenqea' 
aiidUe,  III  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1890);  Loofb,  Leita.  tumStudtum 
der  DogmengeachidUe  (Halle,  1893);  Sbbberg,  Ldtrb.  der  Dog- 
mengeadiiehU,  II  (Leipzig,  1898):  Bardbnhbwbr,  Patrology, 
tr.  Shahan  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1908). 

G.  Roger  Hudlbbton. 

Oregory  n*  Saint,  Pope  (715-731),  perhaps  the 
mateBt  of  the  great  popes  who  occupied  the  chair  of 
reter  during  the  eigntn  century,  a  Roman,  son  of 
Maroellus  and  Honesta.  To  his  contemporaries  in  the 
West  he  was  known  as  Gregory  Junior  or  the  Younger ; 


OBIGOBY                              788  OBIOOBY 

to  those  in  the  East,  who  confounded  him  with  Greg-  peror,  Lee  III,  known  as  the  Isaurian  or  the  Iconoclast 

ory  I  (author  of  the  *'  Dialbgues")  he  was  "  Dialogus'^.  (727).    The  Italians  had  been  previously  enraged  by 

The  year  of  his  birth  is  not  known,  but  while  very  his  attempt  to  levy  an  extraordinary  tax  on  them, 

youne  he  showed  a  desire  for  the  diurch  and  was  Despite  the  attempts  of  Greek  officials  to  take  his  life, 

placed  by  the  pope  in  the  "Schola  cantorum".    He  Gregory  opposed  both  the  emperor's  illegal  taxes  and 

was  made  a  subdeacon  and  sacellarius  (paymaster  and  his  unwarrantable  interference  in  Uie  domain  of  eccle- 

almoner)  of  the  Roman  Ghurch  by  Sergius  I.    Then  siastical  authority.    Now  was  the  opportunity  of  the 

the  care  of  the  papal  library  was  entrusted  to  him,  and  Lombards.    When  the  exarch  attempted  to  compel 

he  has  the  honour  of  being  the  first  papal  almoner  or  the  pope  to  obey  the  imperial  decrees,  they  became  nis 

librarian  known  to  us  bv  name.    By  the  time  he  had  defenders.    Nearly  all  tne  Byzantine  districts  of  Italy 

become  a  deacon,  he  had  given  such  signs  of  character  also  turned  against  the  emperor,  and  but  for  the  pope 

and  superior  intelligence  that  he  was  chosen  by  Pope  would  have  elected  anoUier  emperor  to  oppose  nim. 

Constantine  to  accompany  him  when  he  had  to  ^  to  When  all  seemed  lost  to  the  Byzantine  cause  in  Italy, 

Constantinople  to  discuss  the  canons  of  the  Quinisext  Eutychius,  the  last  of  the  exarchs,  contrived  to  wean 

Coimcil  with  the  truculent  tyrant,  Justinian  ll.    The  the  Lombards  from  the  pope  and  to  make  them  turn 

pope's  trust  was  not  misplaced.   The  deacon  Gregory,  against  him.    The  exarcn  was  to  help  liutprand,  the 

by  his  admirable  answers",  solved  ever^r  difficultv  Lombard  king,  to  bring  the  almost  independent  Lom- 

raised  by  the  emperor.    One  of  the  first  thines  whicn  bard  Dukes  of  Benevento  and  Spoleto  mto  complete 

Gregory  took  in  hand  when  he  became  pope  (19  May,  subjection  to  his  authority,  and  Liutprand  was  to 


had  shown  itself .   The  Mediterranean  was  fast  becom-  exarch's  treatment  of  him  by  fumishin^  him  with 

ing  a  Saracen  lake,  and  there  was  fear  that  the  Mos-  troops  to  put  down  a  rebellion  against  tne  imperial 

lems  might  make  a  descent  upon  the  Eternal  Citv  authority. 

itself.  Greeory  had  made  good  progjress  with  his  work  In  connexion  with  Gr^ory's  struggle  against  the 
of  repair,  when  various  causes  combined  with  a  devas-  Iconoclast  emperor  and  his  Italian  representatives, 
tating  flood  of  the  Tiber  to  prevent  him  from  complet-  certain  doubtful  points  have  been  hitherto  passed 
ins  it.  But  throughout  all  his  pontificate,  Greeory  over.  For  instance,  it  is  certain  that  about  the  vear 
faued  not  to  scan  with  anxiety  the  movements  of  the  730  Ravenna  fell  for  a  brief  space  into  the  hands  of  the 
Saracens,  and  he  is  credited  with  having  sent  tokens  of  Lombards^  and  that  by  the  exertions  of  the  pope  and 
encouragement  to  the  Prankish  leaders  who  were  the  Venetians,  it  was  recovered  and  continued  to  re- 
stemming  their  advance  in  Gaul.  znain  for  a  year  or  two  longer  a  portion  of  the  B^zan- 
In  the  first  year  of  his  pontificate,  he  received  a  tine  empire.  It  is  not,  however,  certain  whether  it  was 
letter  from  John,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Ad-  Gregory  II  or  Gregory  III  who  rendered  this  impor* 
dressed  "to  the  sacred  head  of  the  Church^ \  it  was^  tant  service  to  Leo  III.  Probably,  however,  it  was 
really  an  apology  for  his  having  shown  himself  subser-'  done  by  Gregory  II  about  the  year  727 ;  though  per- 
vient  to  Pnilippicus  Bardanes  in  the  matter  of  Mono-  haps  it  is  not  quite  equally  probable  that  the  two 
thelism.  Gregory  also  received  several  distinguished  famous  condemnatory  letters  whidi  Gregory  II  is  said 
pilgrims  during,  nis  pontificate.  Among  the  many  to  have  sent  to  Leo  III  are  genuine.  If  they  are 
Anglo-Saxon  pilgrims  who  came  to  Rome  durins  his  authentic,  then  it  is  certain  not  only  that  Ravenna 
reign,  the  most  mmous  were  Abbot  Geolfrid  and  King  was  captured  by  the  Lombards  about  727,  but  that 
Ina,  of  whom  the  one  took  to  the  pope  the  famous  the  independent  temporal  authority  of  the  popes 
Codex  Amiatinus.  and  the  other  foi^ided  the  "Schola  which  in  fact  began  with  Gr^ry  II  was  oonscioiuly 
Anglorum  ".  Duke  Theodo  I  of  Bavaria  also  came  to  felt  by  him.  But  when  later  Greek  historians  asserted 
Rome  to  pray,  and  no  doubt  to  obtain  from  the  pope  that  Gregory  "separated  Rome  and  Italy  and  the 
more  preachers  of  the  Gospel  for  his  country.  Amone  whole  West  from  political  and  ecclesiastical  subjeo- 
those  whom  Gregory  despatched  for  the  conversion  of  tion"  to  the  Byzantine  Empire,  they  are  simply  exag- 
Bavaria  was  St.  C)orbinian,  who  became  one  of  its  gerating  his  opposition  to  tne  emperor's  illegal  taxes, 
apostles.  But  the  great  apostle  of  Bavaria,  as  of  Ger-  and  Iconoclastic  edicts.  Despite  all  provocation, 
many  generally,  was  St.  Winfrid,  or  Boniface,  as  he  Gregory  never  for  a  moment  swerved  in  his  loyalty  to 
was  afterwaros  called.  Anxious  to  preach  to  the  the  Iconoclast  emperor:  but,  as  in  duty  bound,  he 
heathens,  he  went  to  Rome,  and  Goa  "moved  the  opposed  his  efforts  to  destroy  an  article  of  Catholic 
pontiff  of  the  glorious  See"  to  grant  his  wishes.  He  Faith.  By  his  letters  sent  in  all  directions  he  warned 
sent  Boniface  to  the  wild  nations  of  Germany  ",  bid-  the  people  af»inst  the  teachings  of  the  emperor,  and  in 
ding  him,  by  the  irrefragable  authority  of  Blessed  a  coimcil  at  Rome  (727)  prodaimed  the  true  doctrine 
Peter,  "go  forth  and  preach  the  truths  of  both  Testa-  on  the  question  of  the  worship  of  images.  To  the  best 
ments".  Gregory  watched  and  ehcouraged  the  work  of  his  power,  also,  he  supported  St.  Germanus,  the 
of  Boniface  imremittingly.  In  722  he  consecrated  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  in  the  resistance  he  was 
him  bishop  and  interestea  the  famous  Charles  Martel  making  to  the  "gospel  of  Leo",  and  threatened  to 
in  his  labours.  Gregory  was  a  great  supporter  of  the  depose  Anastasius,  who  had  replaced  the  saint  in  the 
monastic  order.  On  the  death  of  his  mother,  he  con-  See  of  Constantinople,  if  he  did  not  renounce  his 
verted  his  parental  mansion  into  a  monastery,  and  heresy.  Gregory  recognized  both  the  Patriardi  of 
founded  or  restored  many  others.  Among  those  he  Forum  Julii  (Cividale)  and  the  Patriarch  of  Grado  as 
helped  to  restore  was  the  famous  Abbey  of  Monte  joint  heirs  of  the  original  metropolitan  See  of  Aouileia, 
Cassino.  During  the  early  portion  of  his  pontificate,  and  for  a  time  caused  these  rival  prelates  to  live  in 
Gregory  was  on  good  terms  with  the  Lombards.  Their  peace. 

king  drew  up  his  laws  under  his  influence ;  but  their  Gregory  died  in  February,  and  was  buried  in  St. 

dukes,  with  or  without  the  consent  of  their  king,  em-  Peter's  (11  Feb.,  731).    He  is  honoured  as  a  saint  in 

broiled  the  peninsula  by  seizing  portions  of  the  posses-  the  Roman  and  other  martyrologies. 

sions  of  the  Greek  empire.     The  Greek  exarch  at  Liber  PontificaliM  (Paris.  1886).  I,  396  Bqg„  ed.  Ducbbbmb; 

Ravenna  was  quite  unable  to  stem  the  advance  of  Paul  tbb  Deacon,  in  Mm.  Germ.  Hiet.:  Scriptoree  Lenffob.; 

the  Lombards,  so  that  Gregory  appealed  for  help  to  g!J>»j  I? "«jri?.i1^'  -^""IS  ™5  ^''^^s^'^H'^jji  ^iS'jJ^ 

Charles  Martel  and  the  Franks.    Charles  could  not  or  History  of  the  CoundU  (Edinburgh.  1896).  V.  tr. ;  Hodokik.  Italy 

would  not  eome,  but  greater  commotion  in  Italy  than  and  her  Invadera  (Oxford,  1896),  VI;  Burt.  History  of  the  Later 

could  have  been  caused  by  his  advent  was  aroused  by  57!*f?«£'"?*''*''   P'R«<^"u^'  f'w^^o  ^^  Benevmto.  It^  u.; 

the  publication  there  of  the  decrees  of  the  Greek  em-  fuiUrl^rdk^Rn:^^^ 


OBIOOBY 


789 


OREOOBY 


Tmnponl  8o»er§imiy  of  iK9  PopM,  tr.;  Paxooibb»  L*4gl%»0 
Byzaniiney  527-^7;  Mabin«  L^  Moinea  de  ConUaniinopU ; 
BCann,  Lives  of  the  Popea  in  the  Early  Middle  Agee  (London, 


1902),  I,  Pi.  II. 


rty  Muuue  Ages  iU 

Horace  K.  Ma 


NN. 


OreffOfy  m,  Saikt,  Pope  (731-741),  was  the 
son  of  a  Svrian  named  John.  The  date  of  his 
birth  is  not  known.  His  reputation  for  learning  and 
virtue  was  so  great  that  the  Romans  elected  him 
pope  by  acclamation,  when  he  was  accompanying  the 
funeral  procession  of  his  predecessor,  11  Feb.,  731. 
As  he  was  not  consecrated  for  more  than  a  month 
after  his  election,  it  is  presumed  that  he  waited  for  the 
confirmation  of  his  election  by  the  exarch  at  Ravenna. 
In  the  matter  of  Iconoclasm,  he  followed  the  policy  of 
his  predecessor.  He  sent  legates  and  letters  to  re- 
monstrate with  the  persecuting  emperor,  Leo  III,  and 
held  two  synods  in  Rome  (731)  in  which  the  image- 
bjTeaking  heresy  was  condemned.  By  way  of  a  prac- 
tical protest  against  the  emperor's  action  he  made  it  a 
point  of  paying  special  honour  to  images  and  relics, 

f'lving  particmar  attention  to  the  subject  in  St. 
eters.  Fraonents  of  inscriptions,  to  be  seen  in  the 
crypts  of  the  Vatican  basilica,  Dear  witness  to  this  day 
of  an  oratory  he  built  therein,  and  of  the  special 
prayers  he  ordered  to  be  there  recited. 

Leo,  whose  sole  answer  to  the  arguments  and 
apologies  for  image  worship  which  were  addressed  to 
hun  from  both  E^st  and  West,  was  force,  seized  the 

Eapal  patrimonies  in  Calabria  and  SicUy.  or  wherever 
e  had  any  power  in  Italv,  and  transterred  to  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  the  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction which  the  popes  had  previously  exercised  both 
there,  and  throu^out  the  ancient  Prefecture  of  lUyri- 
cum.  Gregory  III  confirmed  the  decision  of  his 
predecessors  as  to  the  respective  rights  of  the  Patriarchs 
of  Aquileia  and  Grado,  and  sent  the  pallium  to  An- 
toninus of  Grado.  In  granting  it  also  to  Egbert  of 
York,  he  was  only  following!  out  the  arransements  of 
St.  Gregory  I  who  had  laid  it  down  that  York  was  to 
have  metropolitical  rights  in  the  North  of  England,  as 
Canterbury  had  to  have  them  in  the  South.  Both 
Tatwine  and  Nothelm  of  Canterbunr  received  the 
pallium  in  succession  from  Gregory  III  (731  and  736). 
At  his  request  Gregory  III  extended  to  St.  Boniface 
the  same  support  and  encouragement  which  had  been 
afforded  him  oy  Gregorv  II.  "'Strengthened  exceed- 
inglv  bv  the  help  of  the  affection  of  the  Apostolic 
See  ,  the  saint  joyfully  continued  his  dorious  work 
for  the  conversion  of  Germany.  About  737  Boniface 
came  to  Rome  for  the  third  tune  to  give  an  account 


cousin  St.  Boniface  in  his  labours. 

The  close  of  Gre^ry's  reign  was  troubled  by  the 
Lombards.  Realizmg  the  ambition  which  animated 
Liutprand,  Gregory  completed  the  restoration  of  the 
walls  of  Rome  which  had  been  begun  by  his  predeces- 
sors, and  bought  back  Gallese,  a  stronghold  on  the 
Flaminian  Way,  from  Transamund,  Duke  of  Spoleto, 
which  helped  to  keep  open  the  communications  be- 
tween Rome  and  Ravenna.  In  739,  Jiutprand  was 
again  in  arms.  His  troops  ravaged  the  exarchate,  and 
he  himself  marched  south,  to  brine  to  subjection  his 
vassals,  the  Dukes  of  Spoleto  and  Benevento,  and  the 
Duchy  of  Rome.  Transamund  fled  to  Rome,  and 
Gregory  implored  the  aid  of  the  great  Prankish  chief, 
Charles  Martel.  At  length  amoassadors  from  the 
viceroy  (subregulua)  of  the  Franks  appeared  in  Rome 
(739).  Their  arrival,  or  the  summer  heats,  broueht  a 
momentary  peace.  But  in  the  following  year,  Liut- 
prand agam  took  the  field.  This  time  the  Romans 
left  their  walls,  and  helped  Transamund  to  recover 
Spoleto.  When,  however,  he  had  recovered  his  duchy, 
he  would  not  or  could  not  complv  with  Gregory's 
request,  and  endeavour  to  recover  for  the  pope  ''the 
four  cities  of  the  Roman  duchy  which  had  been  lost 


for  his  sake."  In  the  midst  of  all  these  wars  and 
rumours  of  war,  Gregory  died,  and  was  buried  in  the 
oratory  of  our  Lady  which  he  had  himself  built  in 
St .  Peter's.  He  diea  in  74 1 ,  but  whether  in  November 
or  December  is  not  certain.  It  is,  however,  on  28 
November  that  he  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman 
martvrology. 

Codex  Carolinue  in  Jait£,  Afonumerito  Carolina  (Berlin,  1867), 
ot  in  Mon,  Germ.  Hiat.:  Bpp.,  Ill  (Berlin,  1892).  See  alao 
bibliosraphy  of  article  Gbxgobt  II. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Gregory  IV,  Pope,  elected  near  the  end  of  827:  d. 
Jan.,  844.  When  Gregory  was  bom  is  not  known,  but 
he  was  a  Roman  and  the  son  of  John.  Before  his  elec- 
tion to  the  papacv  he  was  the  Cardinal-Priest  of  the 
Basilica  of  St.  Mark,  which  he  adorned  with  mosaics  yet 
visible.  For  hid  piety  and  learning  he  was  ordained 
priest  by  Paschal  I.  This  man,  of  distinguished  ap- 
pearance and  high  birth,  was  raised  to  the  chair  of  Peter, 
despite  his  protestations  of  unfitness,  mainly  by  the 
instrumentality  of  the  secular  nobility  of  Rome  who 
were  then  securing  a  preponderating  influence  in  papal 
elections.  But  the  representatives  in  Rome  of  the 
Emperor  Louis  the  Pious  would  not  allow  him  to  be 
consecrated  until  his  election  had  been  approved  by 
their  master.  This  interference  caused  such  delay 
that  it  was  not,  seemingly,  till  about  March,  828,  that 
he  began  to  govern  the  Church. 

Throu^out  the  g:reater  part  of  his  pontificate  Greg- 
ory was  mvolved  m  the  quarrels  between  Louis  and 
his  sons  which  were  to  prove  fatal  to  the  domination 
of  the  Franks.  Owing  perhaps  to  a  want  of  political 
insight  or  to  an  over-erympathetic  or  sanfi;uine  tem- 
perament, or,  it  may  oe,  to  a  want  of  firmness  of 
character,  his  efforts  to  promote  domestic  peace  in 
the  imperial  family  were  not  attended  either  with  suc- 
cess or  with  glorv.  By  a  solemn  deed,  confirmed  by 
Paschal  I,  Louis  had  made  a  division  of  the  empire  in 
favour  of  the  three  sons  of  his  first  wife,  Lotnair  I, 
Pepin,  and  Louis  the  German  (817).  But  on  her 
death,  he  married  the  young  and  ambitious  Judith, 
and  was  soon  induced  by  her  to  devote  himself  wholly 
to  furthering  the  interests  of  their  son,  afterwards 
known  as  Charles  the  Bald.  Charles's  half-brothers 
combined  in  arms  against  their  father  (830),  seized  and 
imprisoned  him,  and  compelled  him  to  confirm  the 
Constitution  of  817.  The  brothers,  however,  soon  dis- 
agreed among  themselves  and  Louis  was  restored  to 
power  by  a  diet  at  Nimwegen.  and,  by  a  decision  of  the 
pope,  to  his  wife  from  whom  ne  had  been  separated  by 
force  (Oct.,  830) .  Untaugh  t  bv  experience,  Louis  con- 
tinued his  policy  of  favouring  his  youngest  son.  The 
brothers  again  flew  to  arms,  and  the  eldest,  Lothair 
(who  was  ruling  Italv),  by  argument,  by  deception, 
and  perhaps  by  gentle  pressure,  induced  Gregory  to 
a<^company  him  across  the  Alps.  The  appearance  of 
the  pope  in  the  camp  of  the  rebels  made  it  appear  tiiat 
he  was  in  their  favour.  Hence  the  bishops  who  re- 
mained faithful  to  the  emperor,  suspicious  ot  the  pope's 
good  faith,  would  not  come  to  nim  when  he  summoned 
tnem  to  his  presence.  It  was  to  no  purpose  that 
Gregory  reeled  their  accusations.  When  at  length 
he  met  Louis  himself,  he  found  that  Louis  idso  did  not 
trust  him.  While  these  negotiations  were  in  progress, 
Lothair,  who  was  false  to  everyone,  was  suborning  the 
allegiance  of  his  father's  soldiers.  Betrayed  in  con- 
sequence, Louis  once  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  his 
sons.  Lothair  seized  the  empire,  idlowed  Gregory  to 
return  to  Rome  a  sadder  and  a  wiser  man,  and  de- 
graded his  father  (833).  But  next  year  witnessed  a 
second  fraternal  quarrel,  and  a  second  restoration  of 
Louis,  who  wais  weak  enough  to  allow  Lothair  to  retain 
the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  The  result  of  his  mistaken  acts 
of  clemency  was  not  only  that  he  had  to  protect  the 
pope  against  Lothair's  aggressions  but  that  he  had  to 
face  another  rebellion  of  one  of  his  sons.  In  marching 
to  put  it  down,  he  died  (June,  840). 


aSiaOBT  790  OBEOOBT 

His  death  put  LoUiair  in  pcMseasbn  of  the  imperial    the  court  of  the  Ottoe  and  now  took  the  title  ot  Jdm 
n&me.    To  be  emperoT  in  fact,  he  resolved  to  crush  his    XVI  (997). 

brothers  by  force  of  anns.    Detaining  the  legate        At  a,  synod  which  Qreeory  had  ordered  to  meet  at 
whom  Gregory  deapatchod  to  try  and  make  peace,     Pavia,  not  only  were  Crescentius  and  his  antipope 
Lothair  crosaed  the  Alps.    The  terrible  battle  of  Fon-    anathematised,   but   King  Robert  c^  Fnwce  was 
tenay  (now  Fontenoy-en-Puisaye)  near  Auxerre  (841),     threatened  witji  excommunicatioa  if  he  did  not  put 
resulted  not  only  in  the  defeat  of  Lothair,  but  in  the     away  Bertha  whom  he  had  married  thou^  she  was 
practical  annihilation  of  the  Frankish  people,  and  in     related  to  him  not  only  by  spiritual  relationahip  but  bv 
the  end  of  their  empire.     While  the  empire  was  col-     blood.     After  some  opposition,  Robert  finally  yieldea. 
lapsing,  the  Saracens  were  pushing  forward  their  cod-     and,  repenting  of  hia  miadeeds,  repudiated  Bertha  and 
queata.    During  Gregory's  pontificate  they  posaeased    espoused  Constance.    Gerbert,  too,  after  having  been 
tnemselvesofSicQy,  and  had  been  invited  into  ItaJy  to     condemned  by  this  synod  also,- abandoned  the  See  o( 
take  part  in  the  wars  of  the  petty  princes  of  South     Reims,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  See  of  Ravenna. 
Italy.    To  do  what  he  could  for  the  safety  of  Rome,    Furious  that  his  authority  had  been  so  flouted,  Otto 
the  pope  fortified  the  ancient  Ostia  by  the  erection  of  a     marched  upon  Rome.     Philagathua  fled  from  the  city 
strongoold  t^led  after  himself  Gregoriopolia.  Equally    and  Crescentius  shut  himself  up  in  the  Castle  of  Sant' 
for  the  benefit  of  Rome  and  the  "  Patrimony  of  St.    Angela.    The  emperor's  troope  pursued  the  antipope. 
^ter",  Grc^ry  repaired  aqueducts  and  churuies  and     captured  him,  deprived  him  of  his  noae,  ears,  eyes,  a!iMl 
founded    "^rm    colonies"    in   the   Campagna.     He 
seconded  the  heroic  efforts  which  St.  Anschar,  the 
AposUe  of  tlie  North,  was  making  for  the  conversion  of 
Sweden,  authorizing  his  consecration  aa  the  first  Arch- 
bishop of  Hamburg,  sending  him  the  pallium,  and 
"before  the  body  and  confessioD  of  Blessed  Peter", 
givii^  him  "  full  authority  to  preach  the  Gospel ' '  and 
oiaking  him  his  legate  ''among  the  Swedes,  Danee 
and  Slavs." 

Gregory  save  the  pallium  to  the  Archbishops  of 
Saliburg,  (janterbury,  and  Grado,  and  favoured  the 
latter  against  the  encroachments  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Aquileia.  He  also  supported  Aldric.  Bishop  of  Le 
Uans,  who  got  into  difficulties  through  his  loyal  sup- 
port of  Louis  against  his  rebellious  sons.  To  oblm 
Louis,  Gregory  caused  some  of  his  ecclesiastics  to  be 
trained  in  music  in  Rome,  and  he  instructed  himto 
proclaim  the  observance  of  the  feast  of  Alt  Saints 
throughout  the  empire.  Gregory  was  buried  IB 
St.  Peter's. 

Liber  Ponlifltalu.Bd.  I>DcBa*NB,  II.  73  sqa:  tho  Liua  of 
Louii  tbe  Rou»  by  Tbio*nu»  in  Mon.  Qfrm.  Hut.:  Scriplam, 
II.  «nd  P.  L..  CVr.  ud  by  Ihe  Abtbonomib  in  Uon.  Gmn, 
Hit.:  Seriaora.  Tl.  and  P.  L..  CIV;  Urn  Annalt  of  EixnAHU, 
etc:  the  Hiitaria  of  Nithahd  In  P.  L.,  CXV;  tbe  work*  ot 
AnOBUD  in  P.  L.,  CIV;  ud  the  Lift  ^Wala  by  PABCHiBins 
RtDBIRT  in  P.  L..  CXX;  we  Htult,  Waia  M  Lmit  It  Dibim- 
nairt;  C^bvallard,  Si.  Agobard:  Mamn.  lAva  al  llu  Popm  n 
tiu  Early  MidiUe  Aga,  II. 

Hoa&cE  K.  Mann. 

toi^ue,  and  brought  him  back  to  Rome.    Th«e  he 

teamwT  V,PoPi:,b.  0.  970;d.4  Fob.,999.  Onthe  was  brought  before  Otto  and  the  pope,  and  publicly 

death  of  John  XV  the  Romans  sent  a  depuUtion  to  degraded  (998).    Then,  after  being  driven  ignomini- 

Otto  III  and  asked  him  to  name  the  one  be  would  wish  o"*'?  through  the  streets  of  Rome  on  an  ass,  he  was 

them  to  elect  in  the  place  of  the  deceased  pontiff.     He  transported  to  Gennany,  where  he  seems  to  have  died 

at  once  mentioned  his  chaplain  and  relation,  Bruno,  m  the  monastery  of  Fu^da  (1013).     The  castle  of  Saat' 

the  son  of  Duke  Otto  of  Carinthia  and  of  Judith,     He  Angelo  was  next  besieged,  and,  when  it  was  tfUcen, 

was  already  (996)  distinguished  for  learning,  especi-  Crescentius  was  hanged  upon  its  walls  (998).     About 

ally  for  his  knowledge  of  the  dialects  which  were  to  the  year  997,  Archbishop  *ltnc  came  to  Rome  m 

develop  into  the  languaeee  of  modem  Europe.     U  o™*^""  ^  P">9>«^  his  paUium,  and  to  consult  thepone 

poeseaaed  of  a  somewhat  hasty  disposition,  he  waa  about  replacing  the  secular  canons,  who  then  held  tl» 

nevertheless  a  worthy  candidate  for  the  papacy,  and  i»thedral  of  Canterbury,  by  monks,  in  accordance  with 

his  election  did  honour  to  the  Romans  who  elected  t^e  commission  he  had  received  from  King  Ethelred 

him.     This  first  German  pope  was  consecrated  3  May,  and  the  Witan      As  a  mark  of  special  honour,  Grep.ry 

996,  and  his  accession  was  generally  haUed  with  sati&-  P^t  "^  "W"  paUium  on  jElfnc,  and  bade  him  put  into 

faction.     One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  crown  Otto  em-  1^.  monastery  at  Canterbury      men   of  that  order 

peror  (21  May,  996).    Throuriiout  the  whole  of  his  which  the  Blessed  Gregory  commanded  Augustine 

pontificate  he  acted  in  full  harmony  with  his  imperial  therem  to  place   .     At  tlie  request  of  Otto,  Gn^oiy 

TOUsin.     Together  they  held  a  synod  a  few  days  after  granted  exceptional  privileges  to  many  German  mon- 

Otto's  coronation,  in  which  Amulf  was  ordered  to  be  sftenes,  and  m  his  company  held  various  synoda  for 

restored  to  the  See  of  Reims,  and  Gerbert,  the  future  tfe  regulation  of  ecclesiMtical  affaire.     He  had  to 

Sylvester  II,  waa  condemned  as  an  intruder.     Unfoi-  threaten  with  anathema  Ardoin,  Marquess  of  IvrM, 

tunately  tor  himself  and  the  peace  of  the  Church,  he  "^  ^^  ^'^  ""^  make  amends  tor  his  ill-treatment  at  the 

prevailed  upon  the  emperor  not  to  banish  frbm  Rome  property  of  St.  Mary's  of_  Ivrea^  its  serfs,  and  ita 

the  turbulent  noble  Crescentius  Numenlanus,  "of  the  bishop.     Gregory  V  was  buried  m  St,  Peter  s    m  front 

Marble  Horse".     No  sooner  did  Otto  leave  Rome  than  "f  %  SMnsty,  i.  e.  on  the  Gospel  side,  near  P<^ 

Crescentius  roused  his  adherents  to  arms  and  Gregory  Pelagius   . 

had  to  fly  to  the  north.     Crescentius  did  not  atop  here,  Huchisms,  ed.,  Libtr  Pimti/iralu,  11,  201  k).:  tmnty-tira 

but  caused  an  antipope  to  be  proclaimed  in  the  pereon  T„,,™Iii''L^"'Jr,  OmA^eu^  toS  ui.ta'rf'^lUdiShliiS' 

of  the  crafty  Italo-Greek  John  Philagathua  of  Ros-  Qusdiinburf.  eto.;  ihelivaof  BAnmAoALBBn.ABBo.  Niuni 

1M0,  who  had  artfully  made  a  positioq  for  binuelf  at  etc.;  Ui«//i*ivrvrof  R*dolfiiusGi.*bi».   Cf,  XxHoaiuHT.la 


OBEGOBT 


791 


OREGOBY 


Gnmd» Qrkct^  1, 341  >qq.;  ScHi.uMBBiiOBa,  VEpopie  Bytanline, 
II;  Mann,  Lives  of  the  Popea  in  the  Early  Middle  Aoee,  IV. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Gregory  VI,  Pope  (John  Gratian),  date  of  birth 
unknown;  elected  1  May,  1045;  abdicated  at  Sutri,  20 
Dec.i  1046 ;  d.  probably  at  Cologne,  in  the  beginning  of 
1048.  In  1045  the  youthful  libertine  Benedict  IX 
occupied  the  chair  of  Peter.  Anxious,  in  order,  so  it 
is  said,  that  he  might  marry,  to  vacate  a  position  into 
which,  though  wholly  imfit,  he  had  been  thrust  by  his 
family,  he  consulted  his  godfather,  John  Gratian,  the 
Archpriest  of  St.  John  "ad  portam  Latinam",  a  man 
of  great  reputation  for  uprightness  of  character,  as  to 
whether  he  could  resign  the  supreme  pontificate. 
When  he  was  convinced  that  he  might  do  so,  he 
offered  to  give  up  the  papacy  into  the  hands  of  his  gpd- 
f ather  for  a  large  sum  or  money.  Desirous  of  ridding 
the  See  of  Rome  of  such  an  unworthy  pontiff,  John 
Gratian  in  all  good  faith  and  simplicity  paid  him  the 
money  and  was  recognized  as  pope  in  his  stead.  Un- 
fortimately  the  accession  of  Gratian,  who  to6k  the 
name  of  Gregory  VI,  thoufi;h  it  was  nailed  with  joy 
even  by  such  a  strict  upholder  of  the  right  as  St.  Peter 
Damian,  did  not  bring  peace  to  the  Cnurch.  When 
Benedict  left  the  city  after  selling  the  papacy,  there 
was  already  another  aspirant  to  the  See  of  Peter  in  the 
field.  John,  Bishop  of  Sabina,  had  been  saluted  as 
Pope  Sylvester  III  by  that  faction  of  the  nobility 
which  had  driven  Benedict  IX  from  Rome  in  1044, 
and  had  then  installed  him  in  his  stead.  Though 
the  expelled  pontiff  (Benedict  IX)  jsoon  retumea, 
and  forced  Jonn  to  retire  to  his  See  of  Sabina,  that 
pretender  never  gave  up  his  claims,  and  through  his 
party  contrived  apparently  to  keep  some  hold  on  a 
portion  of  Rome.  Benedict,  also  unable,  it  seems,  to 
obtain  the  bride  on  whom  he  had  set  his  heart,  soon 
repented  of  his  resignation,  again  claimed  the  papacy, 
and  in  his  turn  is  thought  to  have  succeeded  in  ac- 
quirine  dominion  over  a  part  of  the  city. 

With  an  empty  exchequer  and  a  clenry  that  had 
largely  lost  the  savour  of  righteousness,  Gregory  was 
confronted  by  an  almost  hopeless  task.  Nevertheless, 
with  the  aid  of  his  ''capellanus"  or  chaplain,  Hilde- 
brand,  destined  to  be  the  ^preat  Pope  Gregory  VII,  he 
essayed  to  brine  about  civil  and  religious  onier.  He 
strove  to  effect  uxe  latter  by  letters  ana  bv  councils,  and 
the  former  by  force  of  arms.  But  the  factions  of  the 
antipopes  were  too  strong  to  be  put  down  by  him,  and 
the  confusion  only  increased.  Convinced  that  nothing 
would  meet  the  case  but  German  intervention,  a  num- 
ber of  influential  clergy  and  laity  separated  them- 
selves from  commimion  with  Gregory  or  either  of  the 
two  would-be  popes  and  implored  the  warlike  King 
Henry  III  to  cross  the  Alps  and  restore  order.  Noth- 
ing loath,  Heniy  descended  into  Italy  in  the  autumn 
of  1046.  Strong  in  the  conviction  of  his  innocence, 
Gresory  went  north  to  meet  him.  He  was  received  by 
the  king  with  all  the  honour  due  to  a  pope,  and  in 
accordance  with  the  royal  request,  summoned  a  coun- 
cil to  meet  at  Sutri.  Of  the  antipopes,  Sylvester  alone 
S resented  himself  at  the  synod,  wnich  was  opened  20 
^ec.,  1046.  Both  his  claim  to  the  papacy  and  that  of 
Benedict  were  soon  disposed  of.  Deprived  of  all 
clerical  rank  and  considered  a  usurper  from  the  be^- 
ning,  Sylvester  was  condemned  to  be  confined  m  a 
monasterjy  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Benedict's  case  also 
presented  no  difliculty.    He  had  now  no  claim  to  the 

Sapacy,  as  he  had  voluntarily  resigned  it.  But  it  was 
inerent  with  Gregorjr.  However,  when  the  bishops 
of  the  synod  had  convinced  him  that,  the  act  by  which 
he  had  become  supreme  pontiff  was  in  itself  simon- 
iacal,  and  had  called  upon  him  to  resign,  Gregory, 
seeins  that  little  choice  was  left  him,  of  nis  own  ac- 
cord laid  down  his  office.  A  German,  Suidger,  Bishop 
of  Bamberg  (Clement  II),  was  then  elected  to  re- 
place him.    Accompanied   by  Hildebrand,  Gregory 


was  taken  by  Heniy  to  Germany  (May,  1047),  where 
he  soon  died. 

Liber  PenHfioalia,  ed.  Ducbbsnb,  II,  270  soq. ;  a  few  Bulls  of 
Grego^  in  P.  L.,  CXLII;  Dbsidbuub,  Dtalooi  in  P.  L., 
CXLIX;  BoNiso,  Ad  amicum;  Gla.bbr,  Hietoria:  Hbbmannus 
Contractus  and  other  chxoniolera  and  annalbta.  See  Mitt- 
LBB,  Deeehiemate  in  eedee.  Rom.  »iU>  Bened.  IX  (1835);  jApri, 
De  Oreg.  VI  abdicatione  in  his  Bibliotheoa  ret.  Germ.  (1865),  II, 
594-600;  Mann.  Lives  of  the  Popes  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages 
(London  and  St.  Louia,  1909),  V. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Gregort  VI,  Antipope. — On  the  death  of  Sergius 
IV  in  June,  1012^  ''a  certain  Gresory'',  opposed  the 
election  of  Benedict  VIII.  and  got  nimself  made  pope, 
seemingly  bv  a  small  faction.  Promptly  expeUea 
from  Rome,  he  made  his  way  to  Germany,  and  craved 
the  support  of  King  Henry  II  (25  Dec.,  1012).  That 
monarch,  however,  after  promising  him.  that  his  case 
should  be  carefully  examined  in  accordance  with  canon 
law  and  Roman  custom,  took  away  from  him  the  papal 
insignia  which  he  was  wearing,  and  bade  him  cease  to 
act  as  pope  in  the  meanwhile.  After  this,  history 
knows  tne  "certain  Gregory"  no  more. 

Chronicle  of  Thietmar,  IV.Txi.  in  P.  L.,  CXXXIX. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Oregory  VII  (Hildebrand),  Saint,  Pope,  one  of 
the  greatest  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  and  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  men  of  all  times ;  b.  between  the 
years  1020  and  1025,  at  Soana,  or  Ravacum,  in  Tus- 
cany; d.  25  May,  1085,  at  Salerno.  The  early  years 
of  his  life  are  involved  in  considerable  obscurity.  His 
name,  Hildebrand  (Hellebrand) — signifying  to  those 
of  his  contemporaries  that  loved  him  ''a  bright 
flame",  to  those  that  hated  him  "a  brand  of  hell'^— 
would  indicate  some  Lombard  connexion  of  his 
family,  though  at  a  later  time,  it  probably  also  sug- 
gested the  fabled  descent  from  the  noble  family  of  the 
Aldobrandini.  That  he  was  of  humble  origin — vir  de 
plebCf  as  he  is  styled  in  the  letter  of  a  contemporary 
abbot — can  scarcely  be  doubted.  His  father  Bonizo 
is  said  by  some  chroniclers  to  have  been  a  carpenter, 
by  others  a  peasant,  the  evidence  in  either  case  being 
very  slender;  the  name  of  his  mother  is  unrecorded. 
At  a  tender  age  he  came  to  Rome  to  be  educated  in  the 
monastery  ofSanta  Maria  on  thcAventine  Hill,  over 
which  his  maternal  uncle  Laurentius  presided  as 
abbot.  The  austere  spirit  of  Cluny  pervaded  this 
Roman  cloister,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  here  the 
youthful  Hildebrand  first  imbibed  those  lofty  princi- 
ples of  Church  reform  of  which  he  was  afterwards  to 
become  the  most  fearless  exponent.  Early  in  life  he 
made  his  relip;ious  profession  as  a  Benedictine  monk  at 
Rome  (not  m  Cluny);  the  house  of  his  profession, 
however,  and  the  year  of  his  entrance  into  the  order, 
both  remain  undetermined.  As  a  cleric  in  minor 
orders  he  entered  the  service  of  John  Gratian,  Arch- 

Sriest  of  San  Giovanni  by  the  Latin  Gate,  and  on 
rratian's  elevatiou  to  the  papacy  as  Gregorv  VI,  be- 
came his  chaplain.  In  1046  he  follow^  his  papal 
patron  across  the  Alps  into  exile,  remaining  with 
Gregory  at  Cologne  until  the  death  of  the  deposed 
pontiff  in  1047,  imen  he  withdrew  to  Cluny.  Here  he 
resided  for  more  than  a  year. 

At  Besan9on,  in  Januanr,  1049,  he  met  Bruno, 
Bishop  of  Toul.  the  pontiff-elect  recently  chosen  at 
Worms  under  tne  title  of  Leo  IX,  and  returned  with 
him  to  Rome,  though  not  before  Bruno,  who  had  been 
nominated  merely  b}[  the  emperor,  had  expressed  the 
intention  of  submitting  to  tne  formal  choice  of  the 
Roman  clergy  and  people.  Created  a  cardinal-sub-  * 
deacon,  shortly  after  Leo's  accession,  and  appointed 
administrator  of  the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter,  Hilde- 
brand at  once  ^ve  evidence  of  that  extraordinary 
faculty  for  administration  which  later  characterized 
his  government  of  the  Church  Universal.  Under  his 
energetic  and  capable  direction  the  property  of  the 
(%urch,  which  latterly  h^  h^n  diverted  mU>  the 


OBIOOBT 


792 


OBIOOBY 


hands  of  the  Roman  nobility  and  the  Normans,  was 
largely  recovered,  and  the  revenues  of  the  Holy  See, 
whose  treasuryhad  been  depleted,  speedily  augmented. 
B^  Leo  IX  he  was  also  appointed  prcBposUus  or  pra- 
vi8or  (not  abbot)  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Paul  extra 
Muros.  The  unchecked  violence  of  the  lawless  bands 
of  the  Campagna  had  brought  great  destitution  upon 
this  venerable  establishment.  Monastic  discipline 
was  so  impaired  that  the  monks  were  attended  in  their 
refectory  bv  women;  and  the  sacred  edifices  were  so 
neglected  that  the  sheep  and  cattle  freely  roamed  in 
and  out  through  the  broken  doors.  By  rigorous  re- 
forms and  a  wise  administration  Hildebrand  succeeded 
in  restoring  the  ancient  rule  of  the  abbey  with  the 
austere  observance  of  earlier  times;  and  he  continued 
throughout  life  to  nianifest  the  deepest  attachment  for 
the  famous  house  which  his  energy  had  reclaimed 
from  ruin  and  decay.  In  1054  he  was  sent  to  France 
as  papal  le^te  to  examine  the  cause  of  Berengarius. 
While  still  m  Tours  he  learned  of  the  death  of  I>eo  IX, 
and  on  hastening  back  to  Rome  found  that  the 
clergy  and  people  were  eager  to  elect  him,  the  meet 
trusted  friend  and  counsellor  of  Leo,  as  the  successor. 
This  proposal  of  the  Romans  was,  however,  resisted  by 
Hildebrand,  who  set  out  for  Germanv  at  the  head  of  an 
embassy  to  implore  a  nomination  iToia  the  emperor. 
The  negotiations,  which  lasted  eleven  months,  ulti- 
mately resulted  in  the  selection  of  Hildebrand's 
candiaate,  Gebhard,  Bishop  of  Eichstftdt,  who  was 
consecrated  at  Rome,  13  April,  1055,  under  the  name 
of  Victor  II.  During  the  reign  of  this  pontiff,  the 
cardinal-subdeacon  steadily  maintained,  and  even 
increased  the  ascendancv  which  by  his  commanding 

fenius  he  had  acquired  dluring  the  pontificate  of  Leo 
X.  Near  the  close  of  the  year  1057  he  went  once 
more  to  Germany  to  reconcile  the  Empress-regent 
Agnes  and  her  court  to  the  (merely)  canonical  election 
of  Pope  Stephen  X  (1057-1058).  His  mission  was  not 
yet  accomplished  when  Stephen  died  at  Florence,  and 
although  tne  d3ring  pope  had  forbidden  the  people  to 
appoint  a  successor  before  Hildebrand  retumea,  the 
Tusculan  faction  seized  the  opportunitv  to  set  up  a 
member  of  the  Grescentian  family,  John  Mincius, 
Bishop  of  Velletri,  under  the  title  of  Benedict  X.  With 
masterly  skill  Hildebrand  succeeded  in  defeating  the 
schemes  of  the  hostile  party,  and  secured  the  election 
of  Gerard,  Bishop  of  Florence,  a  Burgundian  by  birth, 
who  assumed  the  name  of  Nicholas  II  (1059-1061). 

The  two  most  important  transactions  of  this  ponti- 
ficate— the  celebrated  decree  of  election,  by  which  the 
power  of  choosing  the  pope  was  vested  in  the  college 
of  cardinals,  and  the  alliance  with  the  Normans,  se- 
cured by  the  Treaty  of  Melfi,  1059 — were  in  large 
measure  the  achievement  of  Hildebrand,  whose  power 
and  influence  had  now  become  supreme  in  Rome.  It 
was  perhaps  inevitable  that  the  issues  raised  by  the 
new  decree  of  election  should  not  be  decided  without 
a  conflict,  and  with  the  passing  away  of  Nicholas  II  in 
1061,  that  conflict  came.  But  when  it  was  ended, 
after  a  schism  enduring  for  some  years,  the  imperial 

garty  with  its  Antipope  Cadalous  had  been  discom- 
ted,  and  Anselm  of  Baggio,  the  candidate  of  Hilde- 
brand and  the  reform  party,  successfullv  enthroned  in 
the  Lateran  Palace  as  Alexander  II.  By  Nicholas  II. 
in  1059,  Hildebrand  had  been  raised  to  the  dignity  ana 
office  of  Archdeacon  of  the  Holv  Roman  Church,  and 
Alexander  II  now  made  him  Chancellor  of  the  Apos- 
tolic See.  On  21  April,  1073,  Alexander  II  died.  The 
time  at  length  had  come  when  Hildebrand,  who  for 
more  than  twenty  years  had  been  the  most  prominent 
figure  in  the  Church,  who  had  been  chieflv  instru- 
mental in  the  selection  of  her  rulers,  who  had  inspired 
and  given  purpose  to  her  policy,  and  who  had  oeen 
steadily  developing  and  realizing,  by  successive  acts, 
her  sovereignty  and  purity,  should  assume  in  his  own 
person  the  majesty  and  responsibility  of  that  exalted 
power  which  his  genius  had  so  long  directed. 


On  the  day  following  the  death  of  Alexander  II,  as 
the  obsequies  of  the  deceased  pontiff  were  being  per- 
formed in  the  Lateran  basilica,  there  arose,  of  a  sud- 
den, a  loud  outcry  from  the  whole  multitude  of  clergy 
and  people:  ''Let  Hildebrand  be  pope!''  '^ Blessed 
Peter  has  .chosen  Hildebrand  the  Archdeacon!"  AH 
remonstrances  on  the  part  of  the  archdeacon  were 
vain,  his  protestations  truitless.  Later,  on  the  same 
day,  Hildebrand  was  conducted  to  the  churdi  of  San 
Pietro'in  Vincoli,  and  there  elected  in  legal  form 
by  the  assembled  cardinals,  with  the  due  consent  of 
the  Roman  clergy  and  amid  the  repeated  acclama- 
tions of  the  people.  That  this  extraordinary  out- 
burst on  the  part  of  the  clergy  and  people  in  favour  of 
Hildebrand  could  have  been  the  result  of  some  pre- 
concerted arrangement,  as  is  sometimes  idleged,  aoes 
not  appear  likely.  Hildebrand  was  clearly  the  man  of 
the  hour,  his  austere  virtue  comnumded  respect,  hia 
^nius  admiration;  and  the  promptitude  and  unanim- 
ity with  which  he  was  chosen  would  indicate,  rather, 
a  general  recognition  of  his  fitness  for  the  hi^  office. 
In  the  decree  of  election  those  who  had  chosen  him  as 
pontiff  proclaimed  him  "a  devout  man,  a  man  mighty 
m  human  and  divine  knowledge,  a  distinguished  lover 
of  equity  and  justice,  a  man  firm  in  adversity  and 
temperate  in  prosperity,  a  man,  according  to  ^e  say- 
ing of  the  Apostle,  of  good  behaviour,  blameless, 
modest,  sober,  chaste,  ^ven  to  hospitality,  and  one 
that  ruleth  well  his  own  nouse;  a  man  from  his  child- 
hood generously  brought  up  in  the  bosom  of  this 
Mother  Church,  and  for  the  merit  of  his  life'  already 
raised  to  the  archidiaconal  dignity".  ''We  choose 
then",  they  said  to  the  people,  ''our  Archdeacon 
Hildebrand  to  be  pope  and  successor  to  the  Apostle, 
and  to  bear  henceforward  and  forever  tJie  name  of 
Gregory"  (22  April,  1073),  Mansi,  "Conciliorum  Col- 
lecUo",  XX,  60. 

The  decree  of  Nicholas  II  having  expresdy,  if 
vaguely  acknowledged  the  right  of  the  emperor  to 
have  some  voice  in  papal  elections,  Hildebrand  de- 
ferred the  ceremony  of  nis  consecration  until  he  had 
received  the  royal  sanction.  In  sending  the  formal 
announcement  of  his  devation  to  Henry  IV  of  Ger- 
many, he  took  occasion  to  indicate  frankly  the  atti- 
tude, which,  as  sovereien  pontiff,  he  was  i>repared  to 
assume  in  dealing  with  tne  Christian  orinces.  and, 
with  a  note  of  grave  personal  warning  besougpt  the 
king  not  to  bestow  his  approval.  The  German  bish- 
ops, apprehensive  of  the  severity  with  which  such  a 
man  as  Hildebrand  would  carry  out  the  decrees  of 
reform,  endeavoured  to  prevent  the  king  from  assent- 
ing to  the  election;  but  upon  the  favourable  report  of 
Count  Eberhard  of  Nellenburg,  who  had  b^n  de- 

S latched  to  Rome  to  assert  the  rights  of  the  crown, 
enry  gave  his  approval  (it  pro^ml  to  be  the  last 
instance  in  history  of  a  papal  election  being  ratified 
by  an  emperor),  and  the  new  pope,  in  the  meanwhfle 
ordained  to  the  priesthood,  was  solemnly  consecrated 
on  the  Feast  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  29  June,  1073. 
In  assuming  the  name  of  Gregory  VII,  Hildebrand  not 
only  honoured  the  memory  and  character  of  his 
earliest  patron,  Gregory  VI,  but  also  proclaimed  to  the 
world  the  legitimacy  of  that  pontiff  s  title. 

From  the  letters  which  Gregoiy  addressed  to  his 
friends  shortly  after  his  election,  miploring  their  in- 
tercession with  heaven  in  his  behalf,  and  baring  their 
sympathy  and  support,  it  is  abundantly  e^ent  that 
he  assumed  the  burden  of  the  pontificate,  which  had 
been  thrust  on  him,  only  with  the  strongest  reluctance, 
and  not  without  a  great  struggle  of  mind.  To  Desid- 
erius.  Abbot  of  Monte  Cassino,  he  speaks  of  his  eleva- 
tion in  terms  of  terror,  giving  utterance  to  the  words 
of  the  Psalmist:  "  I  am  come  into  deep  waters,  so  that 
the  floods  run  over  me";  "Fearfulness  and  trembling 
are  come  upon  me,  and  darkness  hath  covered  me. 
And  in  view  of  the  appalling  nature  of  the  task  that 
lay  before  him  (of  its  difficulties  no  one  indeed  had  a 


ele&KT  peroeptJoD  th&n  he),  it  cannot  appear  strange  oim  poaition  In  Rome.  For  Hub  purpose  he  made  a 
that  even  bis  intrepid  spirit  was  for  the  moment  over-  joumey  into  Southern  Italy,  ft  few  months  after  his 
vhdmed.    Forat  the  lime  of  Gregory's  elevation  ^      -*    '^  -^  .j-j   ...!-_  —,.,-    .__j.,f     ,, 


„  election,  and  concluded  treaties  with  Landolfo .  of 

the  papacy  the  Christian  world  was  in  &  deplorable     Benevento,  Richard  of  Capua,  and  Gisoifo  of  Salerno, 
ConcutiOD.     Dunne  the  desolating  era  of  transition- —     by  which  these  princes  engaged  themselve 


3  to  defend 


thatt«rribleperiodof  warfare  and  rapine,  violence,  and  the  p>etson  of  the  pope  and  tne  pmperty  of  the  Holy 
comiptlon  in  hirii  places,  which  followed  immediately  See.  and  never  to  invest  an^ne  with  a  church  benefice 
upon  iiie  dissouition  of  the  Carlovingian  Empire,  a  without  the  papal  sanction.  The  Norman  leader, 
period  when  society  in  Europe  and  all  existing  institu-  Robert  Guiscani,  however,  maintained  a  suspicious 
tions  seemed  doomed  to  utter  destruction  and  ruin —  attitude 'towards  the  pope,  and  at  the  Lenten  Synod 
the  Church  had  not  been  able  to  escape  from  the  (1075)  Gregory  solemnly  excommunicated  him  for  his 
general  debasement.  The  tenth  century,  the  saddest  sacrilegious  invasion  of  the  territory  of  t^e  Holy  See 
perhaps,  in  Christian  annals,  is  characterized  by  Oie  (Capua  and  Benevento).  During  the  year  1074  the 
vivid  remark  of  Baronius  that  Christ  wai  as  if  asleep  in  pope's  mind  was  also  greatly  occupied  by  the  project  ' 
the  vessel  of  the  Church.  At  the  time  of  Leo  IK'b  of  an  Expedition  to  the  East  for  the  deliverance  of  the 
election  in  1049,  according  to  the  testimony  of  St.  Oriental  Christians  from  the  oppression  of  the  Scljuk 
Bruno,  Bishop  of  Segni,  °'the  whole  world  lay  in  Turks.  To  promote  the  cause  of  a  crusade,  and  to 
wickedness,  holiness  had  dis-  effect,  if  possible,  a  reunion  be- 

tween tiie  Eastern  and  the 
Western  Church— hopes  of 
which  had  been  held  out  by 
the  Emperor  Michael  VIII  in 
his  letter  to  Gregory  in  1073 
^the  pontiff  sent  the  Patriarch 
of  Venice  to  Constantinople  as 
his  envoy.  He  wrote  to  the 
Christian  princes,  urging  them 
t«  rally  the  hosts  of  Western 
Christendom  for  the  defence  of 
the   Christian   East;    and    in 


the  Church,  whose  bi 
priests  were  given  to  luxury 
and  fornication"  (Vita  S. 
Leonis  PP.  IX  in  Watterich, 
Pont.  Roman.  Vitce,  I,  9Q). 
St.  Peter  Damian,  the  fiercest 
censor  of  his  ase,  unrolls  a 
fri^tful  picture  of  the  decayof 
clerical  morally  in  the  lurid 
paces  of  his  "Liber  Gomor- 
rhianus"  (Bookof  Gomorriia). 
Thou^  allowance  must  no 
doubt  be  made  for  the  writer's 
exa^ented  and  rhetorical 
style— a  style  common  to  all 
moral  censors — yet  the  evi- 
dence derived  from  other 
sources  justifies  us  in  believing 
that  the  corruption  was  wide- 
spread. In  writing  to  his  ven- 
erated friend,  AbMit  Hugh  of 
Ouny  (Jan.,  1075),  Gregory 
himaetf  laments  the  unhappy 
state  of  Uie  Church  in  the  fol- 
lowing terms:    '"He  Eastern 

Church  has  fallen  away  from  eii™iio«  Uinrt  IV  Khibuho  BEvoas  Cou 
the  Faith  and  is  now  assailed  Kitildi  iit  Cahoh* 

on  every  side  by  infidels.  "RajtniaBtAbbBUinlHalhildinimppliaat  nt 
Wherever  I  turn  my  eyes— to  F™ii»M8.  "Liteof  Mitild."  (lliObyDoi 
the  west  to  the  north,  or  to  '  ""■-''  '*  «•■"«*  ^.t,™  lL.br«,,  Rob 

tiie  south — I  find  everywhere  bishops  who  have  ob-     deference,  ackn 
tained  their  office  in  an  irregular  way,  whose  lives  and     expressing   regret  for 
oonversatkmarestrsnKelvatvariancewiththeirsacred     ■        '        '  -' 
callmg-whogo  through  their  duties  not  for  the  love  of 
Christ  but  from  motivesofworidly  gain.    TliereBreno 
longer  princes  who  set  God's  honour  before  their  own 
selfish  ends,  or  who  allow  justice  to  stand  in  the  way  of 
their  ambition  ....  And  those  among  whom  1  live 
— Romans,  Lombards,  and  Normans — are,  as  I  have 
often  told  them,  worse  than  Jews  or  Pagans"  (Greg. 
VII,  Bedstr.,  I.  II,  ep.xlix). 


exhorting  them  to  come  to  the 
rescue  of  their  Eastern  breth- 
ren. But  the  project  met  with 
much  indifference  and  even  op- 
position ;  and  as  Gregory  him- 
self soon  became  involved  in 
complications  elsewhere,  which 
demanded  all  his  energies,  he 
was  prevented  from  giving  efr- 
feet  to  hie  intentions,  and  the 
expedition  came  to  naught. 
With  the  youthful  monarch  of 
Germany  Gregory's  relations 
in  the  beginning  of  his  pontifi- 
cate were  of  a  pacific  nature. 
Henry,  who  was  at  the  time 


hard  pressed  by  the  Saxons, 
had  written  to  tne  pope  (Sept., 
1073)  in  a  tone    ot  humble 


of  the  property  ot  th^Church,  his  simoniacal 
promotions  of  unworthy  persons,   his    negligence  in 

Runishing  offenders;  he  promised  amendment  for  the 
iture,  profess^]  submission  to  the  Roman  See  in 
language  more  gentle  and  lowly  than  had  ever  been 
used  by  any  of  bis  predecessors  to  the  pontiffs  of 
Rome,  and  expressed  the  hope  that  the  royal  power 
and  the  sacerdotal,  bound  together  by  the  necessity 

, ,  ..  ..,  _r ,.  of  mutual  assistance,  might  henceforth  remain  indis- 

But  whatever  the  personal  feelings  and  anxieties  of  solubly  united.  But  the  passionate  and  headstrong 
Gregory  may  have  been  in  taking  up  the  burden  of  the  king  aid  not  long  abide  by  these  sentiments. 
papacy  at  a  time  when  scandals  and  abuses  were  With  admirable  discernment,  Gregory  began  his 
everywhere  pressing  into  view,  the  fearless  pontiff  great  work  of  purifying  the  Church  by  a  reformation 
felt  not  a  moment's  hesitation  as  to  the  performance  of  the  clergy.  At  his  First  Lenten  Synod  (March, 
of  his  duty  in  carrying  out  the  work  of  reform  already  1074)  he  enacted  the  following  decrees; 
begun  by  nis  predecessors.  Once  securely  established  (1)  That  clerics  who  had  obtained  any  grade  or 
on  the  Apostolic  throne,  Gregory  made  every  effort  to  office  of  sacred  orders  by  payment  should  cease  to 
stamp  out  of  the  Church  the  two  consuming  evils  of  minister  in  the  Church.  (2)  That  no  one  who  had 
the  age,  simony  and  clerical  incontinency,  and,  with  purchased  any  church  should  retain  it,  and  that  no 
characteristic  energy  and  vigour,  laboured  unceas-  one  for  the  future  should  be  permitted  to  buy  or  sell 
in^y  for  the  assertion  of  those  lofty  principles  with  ecclesiastical  rights.  (3)  That  all  who  were  guilty  of 
which  he  firmly  believed  the  welfare  of  Christ  B  Church  incontinence  should  cease  to  exercise  their  sacred 
ftnd  the  regeneration  of  society  itself  to  be  inseparably  ministry.  (4)  That  the  people  should  reject  the 
bound  up.    His  first  care,  natur^ly,  was  to  secure  his    ministrations  of  clerics  who  failed  to  obey  these  in- 


O&XOOftT 


794 


OftEOOftt 


itmotioiiB.  Simflar  decrees  had  indeed  been  passed 
by  previous  popes  and  councils.  Clement  II,  lieo  IX, 
Nicholas  II,  and  Alexander  II  had  renewed  the  an- 
cient laws  of  discipline,  and  made  determined  efforts 
to  have  them  enforced.  But  thev  met  with  vigorous 
resistance,  and  were  but  partially  successful.  The 
promulgation  of  Gregory's  measures  now,  however, 
called  forth  a  most  violent  storm  of  opposition  through- 
out Italy,  Germany,  and  France.  And  the  reason  for 
this  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  vast  throng  of  im- 
moral and  simoniacal  clerics  is  not  far  to  seek.  Much 
of  the  reform  thus  far  accomplished  had  been  brought 
about  mainlv  throudi  the  efforts  of  Gregory ;  all  coun- 
tries had  felt  the  force  of  his  will,  the  power  of  his 
dominant  personality.  His  character,  therefore,  was 
a  sufficient  guarantee  that  his  legislation  would  not  be 
suffered  to  remain  a  dead  letter.  "^  In  Germany,  partic- 
ularly, the  enactments  of  Gregoiv  aroused  a  feeling 
of  intense  indignation.  The  wnole  body  of  the  mar- 
ried clergv  offered  the  most  resolute  resistance,  and 
declared  tnat  the  canon  enjoining  celibacy  was  wholly 
unwarranted  in  Scripture.  In  support  of  their  jposi* 
tion  they  appealed  to  the  words  of  the  Apostle  Paul, 
I  Cor.,  vii^  2,  and  9:  "It  is  better  to  marry  than  to 
be  burnt";  and  I  Tim.,  iii,  2:  "It  behoveth  therefore 
a  bishop  to  be  blameless,  the  husband  of  one  wife." 
They  cited  the  words  of  Christ,  Matt.,  xix,  11 : "  All  men 
take  not  this  word,  but  they  to  whom  it  is  ^ven" '  and 
recurred  to  the  address  of  the  Egyptian  Bishop  Paph- 
nutius  at  the  Council  of  Nice.  At  Nuremberg  they 
informed  the  papal  legate  that  they  would  rather 
renounce  their  priesthood  than  their  wives,  and  that 
he  for  whom  men  were  not  good  enough  might  go  seek 
angels  to  preside  over  the  Oaurches.  Siegmed,  Arch- 
bishop of  Mainz  and  Primate  of  Germany,  when  forced 
to  promulgate  the  decrees,  attempted  to  temporize, 
ana  allowed  his  clergy  six  months  of  dela^  for  con- 
sideration. The  order,  of  course,  remained  meffectual 
after  the  lapse  of  that  period,  and  at  a  synod  held  at 
JBHurt  in  October,  1074,  he  could  accomplish  nothing. 
Altmann,  the  energetic  Bishop  of  Passau.  nearly  lost 
his  life  in  publishing  the  measures,  but  adnered  firmly 
to  the  instructions  of  the  pontiff.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  bishops  received  their  instructions  with  mani- 
fest indifference,  and  some  openly  defied  the  pope. 
Otto  of  Constance,  who  had  before  tolerated  the 
marriage  of  his  clergy,  now  formally  sanctioned  it. 
In  France  the  excitement  was  scarcely  less  vehement 
than  in  Germany.  A  coimcil  at  Pans,  in  1074,  con- 
demned the  Roman  decrees,  as  implying  that  the 
validity  of  the  sacraments  depended  on  the  sanctity 
of  the  minister,  and  declared  them  intolerable  and 
irrational.  John,  Arghbiahop  of  Rouen,  while  en- 
deavouring to  enforce  the  canon  of  celibacy  at  a 
provincial  synod,  was  stoned  and  had  to  flee  for  his 
life*,  Walter,  Abbot  of  Pontoise,  who  attempted  to 
defend  the  papal  enactments,  was  imprisoned  and 
threatened  witn  death.  At  the  Coimcil  of  Burgos, 
in  Spain,  the  papal  legate  was  insulted  and  his  dignity 
outraged.  But  the  zeal  of  Gregory  knew  no  abaten 
ment.  He  followed  up  his  decrees  by  sending  legates 
into  all  quarters,  fully  empowered  to  depose  immoral 
and  simoniacal  ecclesiastics. 

It  was  clear  that  the  causes  of  the  simony  and  of  the 
incontinence  amongst  the  clergy  were  closely  allied, 
and  that  the  spread  of  the  latter  could  be  effectually 
checked  only  by  the  eradication  of  the  former.  Henry 
IV  had  failed  to  translate  into  action  the  promises 
made  in  his  penitent  letter  to  the  new  pontiff.  On 
the  subjugation  of  the  Saxons  and  Thuringians,  he 
deposed  the  Saxon  bishops,  and  replaced  them  by  his 
own  creatures.  In  1075  a  synod  held  at  Rome  ex- 
communicated "any  person,  even  if  he  were  emperor 
or  king^  who  should  confer  an  investiture  in  connec- 
tion with  any  ecclesiastical  office",  and  Gregory, 
recognizing  the  futility  of  milder  measures,  deposed 
the  simoniacal  prelates  appointed  by  Henry,  anathe- 


matized several  of  the  imperial  counsellors,  and  died 
the  emperor  himself  to  appear  at  Rome  in  1076  to  an- 
swer for  his  conduct  before  a  council.  To  this  Henry 
retorted  by  convening  a  meeting  of  his  supporters  at 
Worms  on  23  January,  1076.  Tnis  diet  naturally  de- 
fended Henry  against  all  the  papal  chaiges,  accused 
the  pontiff  of  most  heinous  crimes,  and  declared  him 
deposed.  These  decisions  were  approved  a  few  weeks 
later  by  two  synods  of  Lombard  bishops  at  Piaoenza 
and  Pavia  respectively,  and  a  messenger,  bearing  a 
most  offensive  personal  letter  from  Henry,  was  dis- 
patched with  this  reply  to  the  pope.  Gre^ry  hesi- 
tated no  longer:  recognizing  that  tne  Christian  Faith 
must  be  preserved  and  tne  flood  of  immorality 
stemmed  at  all  costs,  and  seeing  that  the  conffict  was 
forced  on  him  by  the  emperor's  schism  and  the  viola- 
tion of  his  solemn  promises,  he  excommunicated 
Henry  and  all  his  ecclesiastical  supporters,  and  re- 
leased his  subjects  from  their  oath  of  allegiance  in  a&- 
cordance  with  the  usual  political  procedure  of  the  ase. 

Henry's  position  was  now  precarious.  At  first  ne 
was  encouraged  by  his  creatures  to  resist,  but  his 
friends,  including  his  abettors  among  the  episcopate, 
began  to  abandon  him,  and  the  Saxons  revolted  once 
more,  demanding  a  new  king.  At  a  meeting  of  the 
German  lords,  spiritual  and  temporal,  held  at  Tribur 
in  October,  1076.  the  election  ot  a  new  emperor  was 
canvassed.  On  learning  through  the  papal  legate  ol 
Gregory's  desire  that  the  crown  should  oe  reserved  for 
Henry  if  possible,  the  assembly  contented  itself  with 
calling  on  the  emperor  to  abstain  for  the  time  being 
from  all  administration  of  public  affairs  and  avoid  the 
company  of  those  who  had  oeen  excommunicated,  but 
declared  his  crown  forfeited  if  he  were  not  reconciled 
with  the  pope  within  a  year.  It  was  further  agreed  to 
invite  Gregory  to  a  coimcil  at  Augsburg  in  the  follow- 
ing February,  at  which  Henry  was  summoned  to  pre- 
sent himself.  Abandoned  by  his  own  partisans  and 
fearing  for  his  throne,  Henry  fled  secretly  with  his 
wife  and  child  and  a  single  servant  to  Gr^orv  to  ten- 
der his  submission.  He  crossed  the  Alps  in  tne  depth 
of  one  of  the  severest  winters  on  record.  On  reaching 
Italy,  the  Italians  flocked  around  him  promising  aid 
and  assistance  in  his  quarrel  with  the  pope,  but  Heniy 
spumed  their  offers.  Gregory  was  already  on  his  way 
to  Augsburg,  and,  fearing  treachery,  retired  to  the 
castle  of  Canossa.  Thither  Henry  followed  him,  but 
the  pontiff,  mindful  of  his  former  faithlessness,  treated 
him  with  extreme  severity.  Stript  of  his  royal  robes, 
and  clad  as  a  penitent,  Henry  had  to  come  barefooted 
mid  ice  and  snow,  and  crave  for  admission  to  the  pres- 
ence of  the  pope.  All  day  he  remained  at  the  door  of 
the  citadel,  fasting  and  exposed  to  the  inclemency  of 
the  wintry  weather,  but  was  refused  admission.  A 
second  and  a  third  day  he  thus  humiliated  and  disci- 
plined himself,  and  finafly  on  28  January,  1077,  he 
was  received  by  the  pontiff  and  absolved  from  censure, 
but  only  on  condition  that  he  would  appear  at  the 
proposed  council  and  submit  himself  to  its  decision. 

Henry  then. returned  to  Germany,  but  his  severe 
lesson  failed  to  effect  any  radical  improvement  in  hit 
conduct.  Disgusted  by  his  inconsistencies  and  dis- 
honesty, the  German  princes  on  15  March,  1077, 
elected  Rudolph  of  Swabia  to  succeed  him.  Gregory 
wished  to  remain  neutral,  and  even  strove  to  effect  a 
compromise  between  the  opposing  parties.  Both, 
however,  were  dissatisfied,  and  prevented  the  pro- 
posed council  from  being  held.  Hemy's  conduct 
towards  the  pope  was  meanwhile  characterized  by  the 
greatest  duplicity,  and,  when  he  went  so  far  as  to 
threaten  to  set  up  an  antipope,  Gregory  renewed  in 
1080  the  sentence  of  excommunication  against  him. 
At  Brixen  in  June.  1080,  the  king  and  his  feudatory 
bishops^  supported  by  the  Lombards,  carried  their 
threat  into  effect,  and  selected  Guibert,  the  excom- 
municated simoniacal  Archbishop  of  Ravenna,  at 
pope  under  the  title  of  Clement  III.  Rudolph  of  Swa- 


0REG0B7 


795 


GBEGOBT 


bia  having  fallen  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Merseburg  in  1080,  Henry  could  concentrate  all  his 
forces  against  Gregory.  In  1081  he  marched  on 
Rome,  but  failed  to  force  his  way  into  the  city,  which 
he  finally  accomplished  only  in  1084.  Gregory  there- 
upon retired  into  the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  and  re- 
fused to  entertain  Henry's  overtures,  although  the 
latter  promised  to  hand  over  Guibert  as  a  prisoner,  if 
the  sovereign  pontiff  would  only  consent  to  crown  mm 
emperor.  Gregoiy,  however,  msisted  as  a  necessary 
preliminary  that  Henry  should  appear  before  a  coun- 
cil and  do  penance.  The  emperor,  while  pretending 
to  submit  to  these  terms,  tried  hard  to  prevent  the 
meeting  of  the  bishops.  A  small  number  however  as- 
sembled, and,  in  accordance  with  their  wishes,  Greg- 
Ary^  again  excommunicated  Henry.  The  latter  on  re- 
««npt  of  this  news  again  entered  Rome  on  21  March, 
'''0&4.  Guibert  was  consecrated  pope,  and  then 
crowned  Henry  emperor.  However,  Robert  Guis- 
card,  Duke  of  Normandy,  with  whom  Gregory  had 
formed  an  alliance,  was  already  marching  on  t|^e  city, 
and  Henry,  learning  of  his  advance,  fled  towards  Citt& 
Castellana.  The  pontiff  was  liberated,  but,  the  peo- 
ple becoming  incensed  by  the  excesses  of  his  Noxrnan 
allies,  he  was  compell^  to  leave  Rome.  Disap- 
pointed and  sorrowing  he  withdrew  to  Monte  Cassino, 
and  later  to  the  castle  of  Salerno  by  the  sea.  where  he 
died  in  the  following  year.  Three  days  before  his 
death  he  withdrew  all  the  censures  of  excommunica- 
tion that  he  had  pronounced,  except  those  against  the 
two  chief  offenders — ^Henry  and  Guibert.  His  last 
words  were:  "  I  have  loved  justice  and  hated  iniquity, 
therefore  I  die  in  exile."  His  body  was  interred  m 
the  church  of  Saint  Matthew  at  Salerno.  He  was 
beatified  by  Gregory  XIII  in  1584,  and  canonized  in 
1728  by  Benedict  XIII.  His  writings  treat  mainly  of 
the  prmciples  and  practice  of  Church  government. 
They  may  be  found  under  the  title  ''Gregorii  VII 
registri  sive  epistolarum  libri"  in  Mansi,  ''Sacrorum 
Conciliorum  nova  et  amplissima  collectio  *'  (Florence, 
1769)  and  "S.  Gregorii  VII  epistols  et  diplomata  "  by 
Horoy  (Paris,  1877). 

AhsoQjUniveraal  Church  History,  tr.»  II  (Dublin.  1900).  321. 
343*^7;  Hass,  HtBtory  of  the  Popes  (Tabingen.  1860).  279-423; 
Gabb,  Apology  of  Gregory  VII  (TabingGn,  1792);  Idbm.  Vindi- 
caiion  of  Oreoory  VII  (Preasburg.  1786);  Barrt,  The  Papal 
Monarchy  (New  York.  1902).  190-232;  Bowdkn,  Life  and 
PonHfieate  of  QregoryVII  (London.  1840);  Voiot.  Hiidebrand, 
aU  Papat  Oregorius  VI L,  und  aein  ZeUaUer,  aus  den  Qttdlen  bear- 
beitet  (Weimar.  1846).Firanch  tr.  (Paris.  1854);  Lilly.  Work  of 
Gregory  VII,  the  ttaming-point  of  the  Middle  Agee  in  Contempor^ 
ary  l{m«ttr(1882),XLII.  46,  237;  Montalbmbbrt.  St.  Grigoire 
VII,  maine  et  pope  in  Le  Correepondant  (1874).  B.  LXIII.  641. 
861. 1081.  tr.  in  The  Month  (1875),  C,  V,  370,  502  sqq..  VI,  104, 
235.  379  sqq.;  Rocx)uain.  La  puieaance  ponlifieale  aoua  Grigoire 
VII  in  Cpte,  rendu  acad.  acien.  tnor.^U.  (1881).  F,  XV.  315-50; 
DB  ViDAiLLON,  Vie  de  Grigoire  VII  (Paris,  1837)*  Davin.  St, 
Grigoire  VII  (Toumai.  1861);  Dulakc.  Grigoire  VII  et  la  ri-' 
forme  de  VEgltee  au  XI*  eihcU  (Paris,  1889);  Opr5bbb,  Papal 
Gregoriua  VII,  und  aein  Zeitalter  (Schaffhausen.  1859-61):  Acta 
SS.,  Mav.  VI,  102-13,  VII.  850;  Mabillon.  Acta  SS.  0,S.B, 
(1701),  VI,  ii,  403-6:  Mansi,  Sacrorum  conciliorum  nova  et  am- 
^iaaima  coUectio  (Florence.  1759-1798).  XX,  60-391;  Brischar 
m  Kirchenlexicon,  s.  v.  Qregor  VII, ;  Casoli,  La  vita  di  papa  S» 
Oregorio  VII  (Bologna,  1885);  Anal.  BoU.  (1892),  XI,  324-6: 
Wattbrich,  Pontificum  Roman,  vita  ab  exeunte  aoBcxdo  IX  aa 
^Mm  acBculi  XIII,  ab  aqualibua  eonacripta  (Braunsberg,  1864) ; 
Hetbub.  Qregor  VII.  und  Heinrich  IV,  zu  Canoaaa  in  Theolog, 
Quarialachr.  (Tabineen,  1861).,  XUII,  3-36;  Idem.  Hiat.  coned., 
V.1-166;  JATFfi,  Bibl.  rer.  German..  II  (1865)4-9, 520;  Idem,  Reo. 
pont.  Roman.  (1851).  379.  384.  389,  402-43,  9A9iCentenariodi 
papa  S.  Gregorio  VII  in  Civilth  cattolica  (1873),  H,  X,  428-45; 
Centenary  of  Gregory  VII  at  Canoaea  in  DiHin  Revieu ,  LXXXIII 
(London,  1878),  107;  Qiraud.  Grigoire  VII  et  aon  tempa  in  Revue 
deadeuxmondea,  CIV,  437-67, 613-45;  CJV,  141-74;  Gregory  VII 
itnd  Sylveater  II  in  Dublin  Review,  VI  (London,  1839).  289.  See 
also  HbrobnrOthbr-Kirscb.  Kirehengeachichte;  and  Gorini, 
Difenae  de  Vigliae  contre  lea  erreura  hiHoriquea  de  MM.  Guiaot, 
Aug.  et_Am,  Thierry,  Michdet,  Amph-e,  etc..  Ill  (Lyons,  1872), 


177-307. 


Thomas  Oestrbich. 


OreffOiy  Viii,  Pope  (Alberto  di  Morra);  b. 
about  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  at  Bene- 
vento;  elected  at  f^rrara,  21  Oct.,  1187;  d.  at  Pisa, 
17  Dec,  1187,  after  a  pontificate  of  one  month  and 


twenty-seven  days.  The  year  1187  witnessed  the 
almost  complete  obliteration  of  Christianity  in  Pales- 
tine. On  4  July,  Saladin  won  the  decisive  victory  of 
Hittin,  near  LaKe  Tiberias;  on  3  October,  the  terrible 
sultan  was  master  of  Jerusalem.  The  news  of  the  fall 
of  the  Holy  City  struck  Europe  like  a  thunderbolt. 
Urban  III  is  said  to  have  died  of  a  broken  heart  (20 
Oct.).  The  following  day  the  cardinals  elected  the 
chancellor,  Cardinal  /Jberto.  He  was  a  Beneventan  of 
noble  family;  had  received  a  good  education;  at  an 
early  age  became  a  monk,  some  saya  Cistercian,  some 
a  Benedictine  of  Monte  Cassino.  He  was  created  car- 
dinal-deacon  in  1155,  by  Adrian  IV,  and  in  1158 
cardinal-priest  with  the  title  of  San  Lorenzo  i^  Lucina. 
Alexander  III,  in  1 172,  made  him  his  chancellor.  It  is 
interesting  to  notice  that  he  was  the  last  cardinal  who 
used  that  title  until  it  was  revived  in  our  own  day  by 
Pius  X,  succeeding  chancellors  of  the  Holy  See,  for 
some  reason  not  satisfactorily  explained,  calling  liiem- 
selves  vice-chancellors.  Cardinal  Alberto  was  one  of 
the  two  legates  despatched  to  England  by  Alexander 
III  to  investigate  the  murder  of  St.  Thomas  k  Becket. 
He  also,  in  the  pope's  name,  placed  the  royal  crown  on 
Alfonso  II  of  Portugal.  He  was  universally  beloved 
for  the  mildness  ana  gentleness  of  his  disposition ;  and 
was  no  sooner  seated  on  the  pontifical  throne  than  he 
confirmed  the  popular  estimate  of  his  character  by 
making  overtures  to  Barbarossa  for  a  reconciliation 
with  the  C!hurch.    Since  the  dominant  policy  of  his 

Smtificate  must  be  a  crusade  for  the  recovery  of  the 
oly  Sepulchre,  he  issued  circular  letters  to  all  the 
faithful,  enjoining  prayers  and  fasts;  and  as  peace  be- 
tween the  rival  seaports  of  Pisa  and  Genoa  was  an 
essential  condition  to  the  transportation  of  troops  and 
supplies,  he  repaired  to  the  former  city,  where  he  was 
overtaken  by  death.  He  was  buried  m  the  cathedral 
of  Pisa  with  all  possible  honours,  and  was  succeeded 

by  Clement  III. 

Liber  Pontificalia,  ed.  Ducbbbnb,  IL  451 ;  Wattbrich,  Vita 
Pont.  Rom.,  II,  683-92;  Bibl.  de  FEcoU  dea  Chartea  (1881), 
XLII,  166;  Nadig,  Gregora  VIII  67  t&gigea  PontifUuU  (Basle, 
1890). 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Greoort  VIII,  Anttpope,  was  Mauritius  Bur- 
dinuB  (Bordinho,  Bourdin),  who  was  placed  upon 
the  papal  chair  by  Eznperor  Henry  V,  8  March, 
1118.  Bourdin  was  a  Frenchman,  bom  probably 
at  Limoges.  He  received  a  good  education  at 
Cluny,  and  followed  his  fellow-Benedictine.  Bemaxtl, 
Archbishop  of  Toledo  and  Primate  of  Spain,  be- 
yond the  Pjrrenees.  At  a  time  when  Cluny  stood  for 
learning  and  reform,  his  advancement  was  assured. 
In  1098,  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Coimbra  (Gams) ;  in 
1111,  he  was  raised  to  the  Metropolitan  See  of  Braga. 
Three  years  later,  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  the 

Erimate,  he  was  suspended  by  Paschal  II.  Coming 
iter  to  Rome,  he  so  mgratiated  himself  with  the  pon- 
tiff, who  was  also  a  Cluniac,  that  he  was  retained  at 
court  and  employed  on  weighty  affairs.  In  1117, 
when  Henry  came  to  Rome  to  force  his  terms  upon  the 
pope.  Paschal,  safe  in  Benevento,  sent  Bouroin  with 
some  cardinals  to  negotiate  with  the  emperor.  This 
mission  proved  to  be  the  downfall  of  Bourdin.  Se- 
duced from  his  Gregorian  principles,  he  openly  es- 
pouse the  cause  of  Henry,  and,  to  -emphasize  his 
apostasy,  placed  the  crown  upon  the  emperor  on 
Easter  Day.  He  was  promptly  excommunicated; 
but  was  marked  out  for  the  supreme  dimity  by  his 
new  associates.  A  few  months  later,  "mien  Henry, 
learning  of  Paschars  death,  hastened  to  Rome,  sur- 
rounded by  jurists,  only  to  find  that  he  had  been 
outwitted  by  the  vigilance  of  the  cardinals,  failing  to 
capture  (jelasius,  he  declared  the  latter's  election  null, 
and,  after  a  discourse  by  the  learned  Imerius  of  Bo- 
logna on  imperial  rights,  induced  a  bribed  assembly  of 
Romans  to  proclaim  Bourdin  pope,  who  with  uncon- 
scious irony  took  the  name  of  Gregory.    The  hoaours 


OBEGOBY 


796 


OBEGOBY 


of  the  papacy  turned  to  ashes  in  his  hands.  Re- 
peatedly excommunicated  and  finally  delivered  as  a 
Srisoner  into  the  hands  of  Callistus  II,  he  was 
etained  in  several  monasteries  until  his  death  about 
1137.  Thus  ended  the  career  of  a  prelate  ''whom", 
says  William  of  Malmesbury  (Gesta  Regum  Angl.,  V, 
434),  "everyone  would  have  been  obliged  to  venerate 
and  all  but  adore  on  account  of  bis  prodigious  indtUH 
try,  had  he  not  preferred  to  seek  glory  by  so  notorious 
a  crime".  One  of  the  canons  of  the  Ninth  General 
Council,  1123,  declares  all  ordinations  made  by  Mm 
after  his  condemnation,  oi>by  any  bishop  by  him  con- 
secrated, to  be  irrita, 

JavfA.  Regeata  BR,  PP,,  2d  ed.,  I,  821-22;  n,  715. 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

.Gregory  DC  ^Ugolino,  Count  of  Segni),  Pope;  b. 
about  1145,  at  Anagni  in  the  Campa^a;  d.  22  Au- 
gust, 1241,  at  Rome.  He  received  his  education  at 
the  Universities  of  Paris  and  Bologna.  After  the 
accession  of  Innocent  III  to  the  papal  throne,  Ugo- 
lino,  who  was  a  nephew  of  Innocent  III,  was  succes- 
sively appointed  papal  chaplain,  Archpriest  of  St. 
Peter's,  and  Cardinal-Deacon  of  Sant'  Eustachio  in 
1198.  In  May,  1206,*  he  succeeded  Octavian  as  Car- 
dinal-Bi^op  of  Ostia  and  Velletri.  A  year  later  he  and 
Cardinal  Brancaleone  were  sent  as  papal  legates  to  Ger- 
many to  mediate  between  Philip  of  Swabia  and  Otto 
of  Brunswick,  both  of  whom  laid  claim  to  the  Grcrman 
throne  subsequent  to  the  death  of  Henry  VI.  By 
order  of  the  pope  the  legates  freed  Philip  from  the  ban 
which  he  had  incurred  under  Pope  Celestine  III  on 
account  of  invading  the  Pontifical  States.  Though 
the  legates  were  unable  to  induce  Otto  of  Bninswick' 
to  give  up  his  claims  to  the  throne,  they  succeeded  in 
effecting  a  truce  between  the  two  claimants  and  re- 
turned to  Rome  in  1208  to  treat  with  the  pope  con- 
cerning their  future  procedure.  On  their  way  back  to 
Germany  early  in  June,  1208,  they  were  apprised  at 
Verona  that  Philip  had  been  murdered,  and  again 
returned  to  Rome.  Early  in  January,  1209,  tney 
again  proceeded  to  Germany  with  instructions  to  in- 
duce tne  princes  to  acknowled^  Otto  of  Brunswick  as 
king.  They  were  successful  m  their  missiov  and  re- 
turned to  Home  in  June  of  the  same  year.  After  the 
death  of  Pope  Innocent  III,  16  July,  1216,  Ugolino 
was  instrumental  in  the  election  of  Pope  Honorius  III 
on  18  July.  In  order  to  hasten  the  choice  the  College 
of  Cardinals  had  agreed  to  an  election  by  compromise 
and  empowered  Cardinals  Ugolino  and  Guido  of  Pre- 
neste  to  appoint  the  new  pope. 

In  Januaiy,  1217,  Honorius  III  made  IJ^olino  pleni- 
potentiary legate  for  Lombardy  and  Tuscia,  and 
entrusted  him  with  preaching  the  crusade  in  those  ter- 
ritories. In  this  capacity  he  became  a  successful  media- 
tor between  Pisa  and  Genoa,  in  1217,  between  Milan 
and  Cremona  in  1218,  and  between  Bologna  and  Pis- 
toia  in  1219.  At  the  coronation  of  Frederick  II  in 
Rome,  22  November,  1220,  the  emperor  took  the  cross 
from  Ugolino  and  made  the  vow  to  embark  for  the 
Holy  Land  in  August,  1221.  On  14  March,  1221, 
Pope  Honorius  commissioned  Ugolino  to  preach  the 
crusade  also  in  Central  and  Upper  Italy.  After  the 
death  of  Pope  Honorius  III  (18  March,  1227),  the 
cardinals  agam  agreed  upon  an  election  by  compromise 
and  empowered  three  of  their  number,  among  whom 
were  Ugolino  and  Conrad  of  Urach,  to  elect  the  new 
pope.  At  first  Conrad  of  Urach  was  elected,  but  he 
refused  the  tiara  lest  it  might  appear  that  he  had 
elected  himself.  Hereupon  the  cardinals  unani- 
mously elected  Ugolino  on  19  March,  1227,  and  he  re- 
luctantly accepted  the  high  honour,  taking  the  name  of 
Gregory  IX.    Though  he  was  alreadv  far  advanced  in 

Sp  (bemg  more  than  eighty  years  old),  he  was  still  full 
;  energy. 
The  important  diplomatic  positions  which  Gregory 


IX  had  held  bef ofe  he  became  pope  had  aemiainted 
him  thoroushly  with  the  political  situation  of  Europe, 
and  especiaUy  with  the  jzuileful  and  dishonest  tactics 
of  Elmperor  Frederick  n.  Three  days  after  his  in- 
stallation he  sternly  ordered  the  emperor  at  last  to 
fidfil  his  long  4elayed  vow  to  embark  for  the  Holy 
Land.  Apparently  obedient  to  the  papal  mandate, 
Frederick  It  set  sail  from  Brindisi  on  8  September, 

1227.  but  returned  three  days  later  under  the  plea  that 
the  Landgrave  of  Thuringia,  who  was  aocompanyins 
him,  was  on  the  point  of  death,  and  that  he  himseu 
was  seriously  ill.  Gregory  IX,  knowing  that  Fred- 
erick II  had  on  eight  or  nme  previous  occasions  post- 
poned his  departure  for  the  East,  distrusted  the  em- 
peror's sincerity,  and  on  29  September,  1227,  placed 
him  under  the  ban  of  the  Churcn.  He  tried  to  justify 
his  severe  measures  towards  the  emperor  in  a  Brief  to 
the  Christian  princes,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
emperor  addressed  a  manifesto  to  the  princes  in  which 
he  condemns  the  action  of  the  pope  in  very  bitter 
terms;  The  imperial  manifesto  was  read  publicly  on 
the  st^pe  of  the  Capitol  in  Rome,  whereupon  the  im- 
perial party  in  Rome,  imder  the  leadership  of  the 
Frangipani,  stirred  up  an  insurrection,  so  that  when 
the  pope  published  the  emperor's  excommunication  in 
the  oasilica  of  St.  Peter,  23  Mut^.  1228,  he  was  openly 
insulted  and  threatened  by  a  Ghioelline  mob,  and  fled 
first  to  Viterbo,  and  then  to  Perugia. 

In  order  to  prove  to  the  Christian  world  that  the 
pope  was  too  hasty  in  placing  him  under  the  ban,  the 
emperor  resolved  to  proceed  to  the  Holy  Land  and 
embarked  from  Brindisi  with  a  small  army  on  28  June, 

1228,  having  previously  asked  the  blessing  of  Gregory 
IX  upon  his  enterprise.  The  pope,  however,  denying 
that  an  excommunicated  emperor  had  a  rig^t  to  un- 
dertake a  holy  war.  not  only  refused  his  blessing,  but 
put  him  under  the  oan  a  second  time  and  released  the 
crusaders  from  their  oath  of  allegiance  to  him.  While 
in  the  Holy  Land  the  emperor,  seeing  that  he  could 
accomplish  nothing  as  long  as  he  was  under  the  ban, 
chanced  his  tactics  towaras  the  pope.  He  now  ac- 
knowledged the  justice  of -his  excommunication  and 
began  to  take  steps  towards  a  reconciliation.  Greg- 
ory IX  distrusted  the  advances  of  the  emperor,  espe- 
cially since  Rainald,  the  imperial  Governor  of  Spoleto, 
had  invaded  the  Pontifical  States  during  the  emper- 
or's absence.  But  the  paj^l  anathema  did  not  luive 
the  effect  which  Gregory  DC  had  hoped  for.  In  Ger- 
many only  one  bishop,  Berthold  of  Strasburg,  pub- 
lished the  Bull  of  excommunication,  and  nearly  all  the 

grinces  and  bishops  remained  faithful  to  the  emperor, 
ardinal  Otto  of  San  Nicol6,  whom  Gregory  IX  had 
sent  to  Germany  to  publish  the  emperor's  excommuni- 
cation, was  entirely  unsuccessful,  because  Frederick's 
son  Henry,  his  representative  in  Germany,  forbade  the 
bishops  and  abbots  to  appear  at  the  synods  which  the 
cardinal  attempted  to  convene.  Equally  futile  were 
Gregory's  efforts  to  put  Duke  Otto  of  Brunswick  on 
the  German  throne.  In  June,  1229.  Frederick  II  re- 
turned from  the  Holy  Land,  routed  the  papal  army 
which  Gregory  IX  had  sent  to  invade  Sicily,  and  made 
new  overtures  of  peace  to  the  pope.  Gregory  IX, 
who  had  been  a  fumtive  at  Perugia  since  122S,  re- 
turned to  Rome  in  February,  1230,  upon  the  urgent 
request  of  the  Romans,  who  connected  an  overwhelm- 
ing flood  of  the  Tiber  with  their  harsh  treatmoit  of 
the  pontiff.  He  now  opened  nesotiations  with  Her- 
mann of  Salsa  (q.  v.),  the  Grana  Master  of  the  Teu- 
tonic Order,  whom  the  emperor  had  sent  as  his  repre- 
sentative. On  20  July,  1230,  a  treaty  was  concluded 
at  San  Germane  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor, 
by  force  of  which  that  part  of  the  Pontifical  States 
which  was  occupied  by  imperial  troops  and  the  psipal 
possessions  in  Sicily  were  restored  to  the  pope.  After 
the  ban  was  removed  from  the  emperor  Dv  Cardinals 
John  of  Sabina  and  Thomas  of  Capua  in  the  imperial 
camp  near  Ceperano  on  28  August,  1230,  pope  and 


OBEOOBY 


797 


OBEOOBY 


emperor  met  at  Anagni  and  completed  their  reconcili- 
ation during  the  first  three  days  of  September. 

The  peace  concluded  between  the  pope  and  the  em- 
peror was,  however,  to  be  only  temporary.  The  pa- 
pacy as  conceived  hyf  Gregory  IX  and  the  empire  as 
conceived  by  Frederick  II  could  not  exist  together  in 
peace.  The  emperor  aimed  at  supreme  temporal  power 
with  which  the  pope  should  have  no  right  to  interfere. 
At  least  in  Italy  ne  attempted  to  establish  a  rule  of 
absolutism  by  suppressing  all  mimicipal  liberty  and 
holding  the  cities  m  subjection  by  a  revived  sort  of 
feudalism.  The  pope,  on  the  other  hand,  citing  the 
example  of  Gonstantme,  who  exchanged  Rome  for  Con- 
stantmople  in  deference  to  the  pope,  thought  that  the 
pope  should  be  the  supreme  i:uler  in  Italy  and  by 
force  of  his  spiritual  authority  over  the  whole  Chris- 
tian world  the  papacy  should  m  all  things  hold  the  su- 
premacv  over  tne  empire.  For  a  time  the  emperor  as- 
sisted the  pope  in  suppressing  a  few  minor  revolts  in 
the  Pontincai  States,  as  was  stipulated  in  the  condi- 
tions of  peace.  Soon,  however,  ne  began  again  to  dis- 
turb the  peace  by  impeding  the  liberty  of  tne  Church 
in  Sicily  and  by  making  war  upon  Lombardy.  The 
freedom  of  the  Lombaracities  was  a  strong  and  neces- 
sary bulwark  for  the  saf etv  of  tUe  Pontifical  States  and 
it  was  only  natural  that  the  pope  should  use  all  his  in- 
fluence to  protect  these  cities  against  the  imperial  de- 
signs. As  arbiter  between  the  emperor  and  the  Lom- 
bard cities  the  pope  had  a  few  times  decided  in  favour 
of  the  latter.  The  emperor,  therefore,  no  longer  de- 
sired the  services  Of  the  pope  as  mediator  and  be^n 
open  hostilities  against  the  Lombard  League.  He 
gained  a  signal  victory  at  Cortenuova  on  2/ Novem- 
ber, 1237.  To  save  Ix>mbuxiy.from  the  despotic  rule 
of  the  emperor  and  to  protect  the  Pontifical  States, 
the  pope  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Tuscans,  IJm- 
brians,  and  Lombards  to  impede  the  imperial  prog- 
ress. The  continuous  victories  of  the  emperor 
spurred  his  pride  to  further  action.  He  declared  his 
intention  to  unite  with  the  empire  not  only'Lombardy 
and  Tuscany,  but  also  the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter  and 
practically  the  whole  of  Italy.  On  20  March,  1239, 
the  pope  again  excommunicated  the  emperor  and  an- 
other oisastrous  struggle  between  the  papacy  and  the 
empire  ensued.  Henceforth  the  pope  was  convinced 
that  as  long  as  Frederick  was  emperor  there  was  no 
possibility  of  peace  between  the  papacy  and  the  em- 
pire, and  he  left  nothing  undone  to  bring  about  his  de- 
position. He  ordered  a  crusade  to  be  preached  against 
nim  in  Germany,  instructed  his  German  legate  Albert 
of  Behaim,  the  Archdeacon  of  Passau,  to  urge  liie 
election  of  a  new  king  upon  the  princes,  and  to  place 
under  the  ban  all  those  tnat  continued  to  side  witn  the 
excommunicated  emperor.  Despite  papal  anathemas 
many.bishops  and  princes  remamed  loyal  to  the  em- 
peror who,  encouraged  by  his  large  following,  decided 
to  humiliate  the  pope  by  making  himself  master  of  the 
Pontifical  States.  In  this  seat  distress  the  pope 
ordered  all  bishops  to  assemme  in  Rome  for  a  general 
council  at  Easter  (31  March).  1241.     But  the  em* 

Seror  prevented  the  meeting  ot  the  council  by  f orbid- 
ing  the  bishops  to  travel  to  Rome  and  b]r  capturing 
all  those  that  undertook  the  journey  despite  his  pro- 
hibition. He  himself  marched  towards  Rome  with  an 
army  and  lay  encamped  near  the  city,  when  Gregory 
IX  suddenly  died  at  the  age  of  almost  one  hundred 
years. 

The  mendicant  orders  which  began  to  shed  great 
lustre  over  the  Christian  Church  in  the  first  half  m  the 
thirteenth  century  found  a  devoted  friend  and  liberal 
patron  in  Gregory  IX.  In  them  he  saw  an  excellent 
means  for  counteracting  by  voluntary  poverty  the 
love  of  luxury  and  splendour  which  was  possessing 
many  ecclesiastics;  a  powerful  weapon  for  suppressing 
heresy  within  the  Church;  and  an  army  of  brave  sol- 
diers of  Christ  who  were  ready  to  preach  His  Gospel  to 
the  pagans  even  at  the  risk  of  their  life.    When  still 


Cardinal-Bishop  of  Ostia,  Gregory  IX  would  often  don 
the  drc«s  of  St.  Francis,  walk  about  barefoot  with  the 
saint  and  his  disciples,  and  talk  of  holy  things.  Saint 
Francis  loved  him  as  his  father  and  in  a  prophetic 
spirit  addressed  him  at  times  as  "the  bishop  of  the 
whole  world  and  the  father  of  all  nations  ".  Upon  the 
special  request  of  Saint  Francis,  Pope  Honorius  III 
appointed  him  protector  of  the  order  in  1220.  He 
was  also  a  devoted  friend  of  St.  Dominic  and  pro- 
moted the  interests  of  his  order  in  many  ways.  At 
the  death  of  St.  Dominic  he  held  the  funeral  services 
and  buried  the  saint  at  Bologna  in  1221 .  St.  Clare  and 
her  order  stood  likewise  under  the  protection  of  Greg- 
ory IX,  as  is  attested  bv  the  convents  he  founded  for 
the  order  in  Rome,  Lombardy,  and  Tuscia.  However, 
despite  his  great  liberality  towards  the  rising  men- 
dicant orders  he  did  not  neglect  the  older  ones.  On  28 
June,  1227,  he  approved  tne  old  privileges  of  the  Ca- 
maldolese,  in  the  same  year  he  mtroduced  the  Pre- 
monstratensians  into  Livonia  and  Courland.  and  on  6 
April,  1229,  he  gave  new  statutes  to  the  Cfarmelites. 
He  financially  and  otherwise  assisted  the  Cistercians 
and  the  Teutonic  Order  in  the  Christianization  of 
Prussia  and  the  neighbouring  countries  of  the  North. 
On  17  January,  1235,  he  approved  the  Order  of  Our 
Ladv  of  Mercy  for  the  redemption  of  captives.  With 
the  help  of  the  religious  orders  he  planned  the  conver- 
sion of  Asia  and  Africa  and  sent  missionaries  out  of 
their  ranks  to  Tunis,  Morocco,  and  other  places, 
where  not  a  few  suffered  martyrdom.  He  also  dia 
much  to  alleviate  the  hard  lot  of  the  Christians  in  the 
Holy  Land,  and  would  have  done  still  more,  if  his 
plans  to  recover  the  Holy  Land  for  the  Christians  had 
not  been  frustrated  by  tne  indifference  of  Frederick  II. 
The  calendar  of  saints  was  enriched  with  some  of  the 
most  popular  names  by  Gre|;ory  IX.  On  16  July, 
1228,  he  canonized  St.  Francis  at  Assisi,  and  on  the 
next  day  he  laid  the  cornerstone  of  the  church  and 
monastery  which  were  erected  in  honour  of  the  saint. 
He  took  part  in  the  composition  of  the  Office  of  St. 
Francis  and  also  wrote  some  hymns  in  his  honour.  It 
was  also  at  his  command  that  Thomas  of  Celano  wrote 
a  biography  of  the  saint  (latest  and  best  edition  by 
d'Alengon,  Rome,  1906).  On  30  May,  1232,  he  can- 
onized St.  Anthony  of  Padua,  at  Spoleto;  on  10  June. 
1233,  St.  Virgil,  Bishop  of  SaLsbur^  and  Apostle  ot 
Carinthia;  on  8  July,  1234,  St.  Dominic,  at  Rieti;  and 
on  27  May,  1235,  St.  Elizabeth  of  Thunngia,  at  Peru- 
gia. 

Gregory  IX  was  very  severe  towards  heretics,  who 
in  those  times  were'universally  looked  upon  as  traitors 
and  punished  accordingly.  Upon  the  reouest  of  King 
Louis  IX  of  France  he  sent  Cardinal  Romanus  as 
legate  to  assist  the  king  in  his  crusade  against  the  Al- 
bigenses.  At  the  synod  which  the  papal  legate  con- 
vened at  Toulouse  m  November,  122^,  it  was  decreed 
that  all  heretics  and  their  abettors  should  be  delivered 
to  the  nobles  and  magistrates  for  their  due  punish- 
ment, which,  in  case  of  obstinacy,  was  usually  death. 
When  in  1224  Frederick  II  ordered  that  heretics  in 
Lombardy  should  be  burnt  at  the  stake,  Gregory  IX. 
who  was  then  papal  legate  for  Lombardv,  approved 
and  published  the  imperial  law.  During  nis  enforced 
absence  from  Rome  (1228-1231)  the  heretics  re- 
mained unmolested  and  became  very  numerous  in  the 
city.  In  February,  1231,  therefore,  the  pope  enacted 
a  law  for  Rome  that  heretics  condemned  by  an  eccle- 
siastical court  should  be  delivered  to  the  secular  power 
to  receive  their  "  due  punishment ' '.  This  "  due  pim- 
ishment"  was  death  by  fire  for  the  obstinate  ana  im- 
prisonment for  life  for  the  penitent.  In  pursuance  of 
this  law  a  number  of  Patarini  were  arrested  in  Rome  in 
1231,  the  obstinate  were  burnt  at  the  stake,  the  others 
were  iinprisoned  in  the  Benedictine  monasteries  of 
Monte  Uassino  and  Cava  (Ryccardus  de  S.  Germano, 
ad  annum  1231.  in  Mon.  Germ.  SS.,  XIX,  363).  It 
must  not.  be  tnought,  however,  that  Gregory  IX 


OBEOOBY                            798  OBEGOBY 

dealt  more  severely  with  heretics  than  other  miens  did.  Gregory  IX,  selected  by  Pertz  from  the  papal  legisten 

Death  by  fire  was  the  common  punishment  for  here-  of  tne  thirteenth  century,  and  published  them  in 

tics  and  traitors  in  those  times.    Up  to  the  time  of  "Mon.  Germ.  Epist.  Rom.  Pontif.''  (Berlin,  1883),  I, 

Gregory  IX  the  duty  of  searching  out  heretics  be-  261-728.    Lucian  Auvray  began  (Paris,  1890)  to  edit 

longed  to  the  bishops  in  iheir  respective  dioceses.  ''LesRegistresdeGregoirelA,  recueildesbullesdeoe 

The  so-called  Monastic  Inquisition  was  established  bv  pape,  public  ou  analys(6es  d'apr^  lea  manuserits 

Gregory  IX,  who  in  his  Bulls  of  13,  20,  and  22  April,  onginaux  du  Vatican",  of  which  the  eleventh  fascicle 

1233,  appointed  the  Dominicans  as  the  official  inquisi-  appeared,  in  1908. 

tors  for  all  dioceses  of  France  (RipoU  and  Bremond,  A  Life  of  Gmory  IX.  Vita  Oreoorii  IX,  was  written  by  •  ood- 

*'Bullarium  Ordinis  Fratrum  PraeScatorum",  Rome,  i?°P^'*Ti°KriTP*'Z  ^'  p»»;»ps  Joanjm  db  Fnnmico. 

1729,  I,  47).  (Milan,  1728),  III.  i,  577-588.    Concerning  it  see  Mabx,  Dm 

For  a  time  Gregory  IX  lived  in  hope  that  he  might  vita  Oreoorii  IX  quelUnkritiaeh  untemidU  (Berlin,  1889).    The 

efifect  a  reunion  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  Churches,  two  beet  modern  references  are:  BAi^K^SUria  MGregarioIX 

ciAcvv  »  M.%fKAA*Ax,KA^  y,^   vu^^  •i^***'^  «"«  v-»*;^«.  xy»*vi*^»*««.  ^  ^^  ^^^^  tempt,  3  vols.  (Modena.  1872-3);    Fmvrms.  Popai 

Germanos,  Patriarch  of  Constantmople,  after  a  con-  Orepor  IX.  (FreiburB,  1886);  see  also  Kobhubr.  FarUltein 

versation   on   the   religious   differences   between   the  FrMdric^ //ni  den  JVliMten  ««iner  Zeil  (Breslau.  1888);  Hutl- 

Greeks  and  the  Latins,  which  he  had  with  some  J^S^'^gM^^i)'  ^iSSS^ymY^^  R^SS!  di  ^K^ 

Franciscans  at  Nice,  in  1232,  addressed  a  letter  to  reickei  (Innsbruck.  1879-81):    WiNMLiSSwr  Ada  imperii 

Gregory  IX,   in  which  he   acknowledged  the  papal  medito  scse.  X///eeX/K,  2  yols.  (Innsbruck,  1880-^5);  Paoi, 

grimacy,  but  complained  of  the  persecution  of  the  i'»wa«ttwO«torumPcm<./iom.  (Venice.  1730).  HI.  214-2^ 

[reeks  by  the  Latins.    Gregory  IX  sent  him  a  cordial  Michael  l>rr. 
answer  and  commissioned  tour  learned  monks  (two 

Franciscans  and  two  Dominicans)  to  treat  with  the  Oregoiy  X,  Pope;  b.  1210;  d.  10  January,  1276. 
patriareh  concerning  the  reunion.  The  papal  mes-  The  death  of  Pope  Clement  IV  (29  November,  1268) 
sengers  were  kindly  received  both  by  the  Emperor  left  the  Holy  See  vacant  for  almost  three  years.  The 
Vatatzes  and  by  Germanos,  but  the  patriareh  said  that  cardinals  assembled  at  Viterbo  were  divided  into  two 
he  could  make  no  concessions  on  matters  of  faith  camps,  the  one  French  and  the  other  Italian.  Neither 
without  the  consent  of  the  Patriarchs  of  Jerusalem,  of.  these  parties  could  poll  the  two-thirds  majority 
Antioch,  and  Alexandria.  A  synod  of  the  patriarehs  vote,  nor  iiras  either  willing  to  give  way  to  the  other 
was  held  at  Nympha  in  Bithynia,  to  which  the  papal  for  the  election  of  a  candidate  to  the  papacy.  In  the 
messengere  were  mvited.  But  the  Greeks  stubbornly  summer  of  1270  the  head  and  burgesses  of  the  town 
adhered  to  their  doctrine  concerning  the  procession  of  of  Viterbo,  hoping  to  force  a  vote,  resorted  to  the  ex- 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  asserted  that  the  Latins  could  not  pedient  of  confimng  the  cardinals  within  the  ejnscopal 
validly  consecrate  unleavened  bread.  Thus  Gregory  palace,  where  even  their  daily  allowance  of  food  was 
IX  failed,  like  many  other  popes  before  and  after  him,  later  on  curtailed.  A  compromise  was  finally  arrived 
in  his  efforts  to  reunite  the  two  Churches.  In  1237  at  throu^  the  combined  efforts  of  the  French  and 
the  Patriarch  of  the  Syrian  Monophysites  and  many  of  Sicilian  kings.  The  Sacred  College,  which  then  oon- 
his  bishops  and  monks  renounced  their  heresy  and  sisted  of  fifteen  cardinals,  desi^ated  six  of  their  body 
submitted  to  the  pope  ^(Raynaldus  ad  annum  1237,  n.  to  agree  upon  and  to  cast  a  final  vote  in  the  matter. 
87  sq.),  but  their  conversion  was  only  temporary.  These  six  delegates  met,  and  on  1  September,  1271, 
During  the  thirteen  vears  and  four  months  of  his  united  their  ballots  in  choice  of  Teobaldo  Visoonti, 
pontificate  he  created  about  fourteen  cardinals,  many  archdeacon  of  Lidge,  who,  however,  was  not  a  cardinal 
of  whom  were  members  of  religious  orders.  The  best  himself,  nor  even  a  priest.  The  new  pontiff  was  a 
known  among  them  are  Sinibald  of  Fiesco,  a  learned  native  of  Piacenza  and  had  been  at  one  time  in  the 
canonist,  who  afterwards  ascended  the  papal  throne  service  of  Cardinal  Jacopo  of  Palestrina,  had  become 
as  Innocent  IV ;  Raynald  of  Segni,  a  nepnew  of  Greg-  archdeacon  of  Lidge,  and  accompanied  Cardinal  Otto- 
ory  IX,  who  succeeded  Innocent  IV  as  Alexander  IV;  boni  on  his  mission  to  England,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
Otto  of  Montferrat,  who  spent  over  three  years  (1237-  election  happened  to  be  in  Ftolemais  (Acre),  with 
1240)  as  papal  legate  in  England ;  Jacob  of  Vitry,  an  Prince  Edward  of  England,  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
author,  confessor  of  Bl.  Maiy  of  Oignies,  whose  life  he  Holy  Land.  Receiving  a  summons  trom  the  cardinals 
wrote  (Acta  SS.,  June,  IV,  636-66);  St.  Francis  Non-  to  return  immediately,  he  began  his  homeward  jour- 
natus ;  and  the  learned  and  pious  Englishman,  Robert  ney  on  10  November,  1271,  and  arrived  at  Viterbo  on 
of  Somercote,  who,  it  is  said,  would  have  succeeded  12  February,  1272.  He  declared  his  acceptance  of 
Gregory  IX  on  the  papal  throne  had  he  not  died  dur-  the  dignity  and  took  the  name  of  Gregory  A.  On  13 
ing  the  conclave  (26  Sept.,  1241).  Gregory  IX  was  March  he  made  his  entry  into  Rome,  where  on  the 
also  a  man  of  learning,  wnich  he  encouraged  m  various  nineteenth  of  the  same  month  he  was  ordained  to  the 
ways.  He  bestowed  many  privileges  upon  the  Uni-  priesthood.  His  consecration  as  pope  took  place  on 
versity  of  Paris,  his  Alma  Mater,  but  also  watched  27  March.  He  plunged  at  once  witn  all  his  enei^^ 
carefully  over  its  professors,  whom  he  warned  repeat-  into  the  task  of  solvmg  the  weighty  problems  which 
edly  against  the  growing  tendency  of  subjecting  tneol-  then  required  his  attention:  the  recrtoration  of  peace 
ogy  to  philosophy  by  m&ing  the  truth  of  the  mysteries  between  Christian  nations  and  princes,  the  settlement 
orfaitb  dependent  on  philosophical  proofs.  He  also  of  affairs  in  the  German  empire,  the  amendment  of  the 
possesses  the  great  merit  of  having 'again  made  modeof  life  among  clergy  and  people,  the  union  of  the 
Aristotelianism  the  basis  of  scholastic  philosophy,  Greek  Church  with  Rome,  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem 
after  the  Physics  of  Aristotle  had  been  prohibited  m  and  of  the  Holy  Land.  As  early  as  the  fourUi  day 
1210,  and  his  Metaph3rsics  in  1215.  The  prohibition  after  his  coronation  he  summoned  a  eeneral  council, 
of  Aristotle  was  meant  only  for  the  perverted  Latin  which  was  to  open  at  Lyons  on  1  May,  1274  (see 
translation  of  his  works  and  their  Averroistic  com-  LioNS,  Councils  of).  In  Italy  the  pope  souriit  to 
mentaries.  Gregory  IX  commissioned  William  of  make  peace  between  the  Guelphs  and  GhibeUines. 
Auvergne  and  other  learned  men  to  purge  the  works  of  whose  factional  war  raged  chiefly  in  Tuscany  ana 
Aristotle  of  their  errors  and  thus  made  them  again  Lombardy.  Against  the  city  of  Florence,  the  bur- 
accessible  to  students.  Among  the  greatest  achieve-  gesses  of  which  resisted  these  efforts  to  bring  about  a 
ments  of  Gregory  IX  must  be  countea  the  collection  of  reconciliation,  he  issued  a  decree  of  exoommunicatioii. 
papal  decretals,  a  work  with  which  he  entrusted  Ray-  After  the  death  of  Richard  of  Cornwall  (1272) 
mond  of  Pennaforte  and  which  was  completed  in  1234  Gregory  advised  the  German  princes  to  select  a  new 
(see  Decretals).  The  numerous  letters  of  Gregory  sovereign  and  refused  the  demand  of  Alfonso  of  Gas- 
IX  were  first  collected  and  published  by  Pamelius  tile,  rival  of  Richard,  for  recognition  as  emperor. 
(Antwerp,  1572).    Rodenburg  edited  485  letters  of  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  having  been  elected  on  29  Sep-